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CBC1501/1/2023–2024
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND ATTRIBUTIONS
Updated version
Ms Ashiya Abdool Satar
A special thanks to the providers of Open Educational Resources (OERs) that were free to use and adapt
under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License :
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Open Library: Pressbooks: Ontario, Canada
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(Full references and attributions appear in the list of sources consulted at the end of this resource)
CBC1501
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE ..................................................................................................................... 12
A WORD OF WELCOME .............................................................................................. 12
PURPOSE OF THE MODULE ...................................................................................... 12
LEARNING ASSUMPTIONS ........................................................................................ 13
RANGE STATEMENT FOR THE MODULE ................................................................. 13
SPECIFIC OUTCOMES AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA ............................................ 13
Specific Outcome 1 .......................................................................................... 13
Specific Outcome 2 .......................................................................................... 14
Specific Outcome 3 .......................................................................................... 14
Specific Outcome 4 .......................................................................................... 14
HOW THIS STUDY GUIDE IS ORGANISED FOR LEARNING .................................... 15
LEARNING UNIT 1 ....................................................................................................... 16
INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION ..................................................................... 16
Learning outcomes for this unit ...................................................................... 17
Key questions ................................................................................................... 17
Key concepts .................................................................................................... 17
1.1
1.2
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 17
DEFINING COMMUNICATION .......................................................................... 20
ACTIVITY 1 ........................................................................................................ 22
1.3
MODELS OF COMMUNICATION ...................................................................... 22
ACTIVITY 2 ........................................................................................................ 28
1.4
ELEMENTS IN THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS ......................................... 29
1.4.1 The communicator (or sender) ........................................................................ 29
ACTIVITY 3 ........................................................................................................ 30
1.4.2 The recipient (or receiver) ................................................................................ 30
ACTIVITY 4 ........................................................................................................ 31
1.4.3 The message ..................................................................................................... 32
1.4.4 The channel (or medium) ................................................................................. 32
1.4.5 Noise (or communication barriers) ................................................................. 33
1.4.5.1
1.4.5.2
1.4.5.3
1.4.5.4
1.4.5.5
Psychological ............................................................................................. 34
Semantic ..................................................................................................... 36
Physical (environmental) ........................................................................... 36
Physiological .............................................................................................. 37
Context ........................................................................................................ 38
ACTIVITY 5 ........................................................................................................ 39
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ACTIVITY 6 ........................................................................................................ 39
1.4.6 Feedback ........................................................................................................... 40
ACTIVITY 7 ........................................................................................................ 40
1.4.7 Outcome of communication ............................................................................ 41
ACTIVITY 8 ........................................................................................................ 42
1.5
ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION ........................................................... 42
1.5.1 Organisational communication in context ..................................................... 43
1.5.1.1
1.5.1.2
1.5.1.3
1.5.1.4
1.5.1.5
1.5.1.6
Intrapersonal communication ................................................................... 43
Interpersonal communication ................................................................... 43
Small-group communication ..................................................................... 43
Public communication ............................................................................... 44
Mass communication ................................................................................. 44
Digital communication ............................................................................... 45
1.5.2 Internal and external communication ............................................................. 45
ACTIVITY 9 ........................................................................................................ 46
1.5.3 Hierarchies ........................................................................................................ 47
ACTIVITY 10 ...................................................................................................... 48
1.5.4 Channels of information .................................................................................. 48
ACTIVITY 11 ...................................................................................................... 50
1.5.4 Flow of communication .................................................................................... 51
ACTIVITY 12 ...................................................................................................... 53
1.5.5 Virtual teams and networks ............................................................................. 53
1.5.6 Communication climate in the organisation .................................................. 55
ACTIVITY 13 ...................................................................................................... 56
1.5.7 Ethical communication and ethical challenges in the workplace ................ 56
ACTIVITY 14 ...................................................................................................... 58
ACTIVITY 15 ...................................................................................................... 58
1.6
STRENGTHENING YOUR COMMUNICATION SKILLS ................................... 59
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Be an ethical communicator ...................................................................... 60
Be trustworthy ............................................................................................ 60
Preparation ................................................................................................. 60
Organisation ............................................................................................... 61
Clarity .......................................................................................................... 61
Punctuality .................................................................................................. 61
Be an active listener ................................................................................... 61
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ACTIVITY 16 ...................................................................................................... 62
1.7
SUMMARY ......................................................................................................... 62
LEARNING UNIT 2 ....................................................................................................... 63
THE READING AND WRITING PROCESS ........................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Learning outcomes for this unit ...................................................................... 64
Key questions ................................................................................................... 64
Key concepts .................................................................................................... 64
2.1
LISTENING AND READING FOR UNDERSTANDING ..................................... 65
2.1.1 Active listening and reading ............................................................................ 65
2.1.2 Effective reading and writing strategies ......................................................... 67
2.1.2.1
2.1.2.2
2.1.2.3
2.1.2.4
2.1.2.5
2.1.2.6
2.1.2.7
2.1.2.8
2.2
Signposts .................................................................................................... 68
Clearly definition of terms ......................................................................... 69
Choose precise words ............................................................................... 69
Consider your audience............................................................................. 71
Take control of your tone .......................................................................... 71
Check for understanding ........................................................................... 72
Be results oriented ..................................................................................... 72
Highlight important sections, ideas and terms ........................................ 72
READING AT WORD LEVEL............................................................................. 73
2.2.1 Word recognition .............................................................................................. 74
ACTIVITY 1 ........................................................................................................ 74
ACTIVITY 2 ........................................................................................................ 75
ACTIVITY 3 ........................................................................................................ 76
2.2.3 Distinguishing between homophones ............................................................ 77
ACTIVITY 4 ........................................................................................................ 78
ACTIVITY 5 ........................................................................................................ 78
2.2.4 Connotation, implication, and denotation ...................................................... 79
ACTIVITY 6 ........................................................................................................ 80
2.3
READING AT SENTENCE LEVEL .................................................................... 81
2.3.1 Sentence types ................................................................................................. 81
2.3.2 Linking words ................................................................................................... 82
ACTIVITY 7 ........................................................................................................ 85
2.4
INCREASING READING SPEED AND EFFICIENCY ........................................ 86
ACTIVITY 8 ........................................................................................................ 86
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LEARNING UNIT 3 ....................................................................................................... 88
ENGLISH GRAMMAR TOOLKIT ................................................................................. 88
Learning outcomes for this unit ...................................................................... 89
Key questions ................................................................................................... 89
Key concepts .................................................................................................... 89
3.1
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 89
ACTIVITY 1 ........................................................................................................ 90
3.2
THE BASE WORD AND ITS INFLECTIONS ..................................................... 90
ACTIVITY 2 ........................................................................................................ 90
3.2.1 Plural.................................................................................................................. 90
ACTIVITY 3 ........................................................................................................ 91
3.2.2 Possessive ........................................................................................................ 91
ACTIVITY 4 ........................................................................................................ 91
3.2.3 Third person singular ....................................................................................... 92
3.2.4 Past participle ................................................................................................... 93
ACTIVITY 5 ........................................................................................................ 93
ACTIVITY 6 ........................................................................................................ 94
3.2.6 Objective pronoun ............................................................................................ 94
ACTIVITY 7 ........................................................................................................ 95
3.2.7 -ing and -ed form .............................................................................................. 95
ACTIVITY 8 ........................................................................................................ 95
ACTIVITY 9 ........................................................................................................ 96
3.2.8 -er and -est comparison ................................................................................... 96
ACTIVITY 10 ...................................................................................................... 97
3.3
COMPOUND WORDS ........................................................................................ 97
ACTIVITY 11 ...................................................................................................... 98
ACTIVITY 12 ...................................................................................................... 98
3.4.1 How dictionaries help ....................................................................................... 99
ACTIVITY 13 ...................................................................................................... 99
3.4.2 Noun and verb pairs ....................................................................................... 100
ACTIVITY 14 .................................................................................................... 100
3.4.3 Adverbs that cause trouble ........................................................................... 101
3.4.4 Adjectives that cause trouble ........................................................................ 101
ACTIVITY 15 .................................................................................................... 101
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3.5
SENTENCES .................................................................................................... 102
ACTIVITY 16 .................................................................................................... 103
3.7
SUMMARY ....................................................................................................... 104
LEARNING UNIT 4 ..................................................................................................... 106
FORMAT ..................................................................................................................... 106
Learning outcomes for this unit .................................................................... 106
Key questions ................................................................................................. 106
Key concepts .................................................................................................. 106
4.1
4.2
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 107
LETTER ............................................................................................................ 107
ACTIVITY 1 ...................................................................................................... 107
4.3
MEMO .............................................................................................................. 109
ACTIVITY 2 ...................................................................................................... 109
4.4
INSTRUCTIONS AND PROCEDURES ............................................................ 110
ACTIVITY 3 ...................................................................................................... 110
4.5
REPORTS ........................................................................................................ 111
4.5.1
4.5.2
4.5.3
4.5.4
Terms of reference ......................................................................................... 111
Methodology; procedure ................................................................................ 112
Findings and conclusions.............................................................................. 112
Recommendations.......................................................................................... 112
LEARNING UNIT 5 ..................................................................................................... 114
THE WRITING PROCESS .......................................................................................... 114
Learning outcomes for this unit .................................................................... 115
Key questions ................................................................................................. 115
Key concepts .................................................................................................. 115
5.1
5.2
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 115
STARTING TO WRITE ..................................................................................... 115
5.2.1 Task analysis .................................................................................................. 115
ACTIVITY 1 ...................................................................................................... 116
5.2.2 The planning stage ......................................................................................... 117
ACTIVITY 2 ...................................................................................................... 117
5.3
WRITING THE BODY....................................................................................... 118
ACTIVITY 3 ...................................................................................................... 118
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5.4
FINAL DRAFT .................................................................................................. 120
5.4.1 Correcting poor grammar .............................................................................. 121
5.4.2 Examples of unnecessary repetition ............................................................ 121
5.4.3 Revising for clarity ......................................................................................... 121
5.5
SUMMARY ....................................................................................................... 122
LEARNING UNIT 6 ..................................................................................................... 123
PERSUASIVE WRITING ............................................................................................. 123
Learning outcomes for this unit .................................................................... 124
Key questions ................................................................................................. 124
Key concepts .................................................................................................. 124
6.1
6.2
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 124
MILLICENT’S ESSAY ...................................................................................... 125
ACTIVITY 1 ...................................................................................................... 125
6.3
MILLICENT’S OPENING SENTENCE ............................................................. 126
ACTIVITY 2 ...................................................................................................... 126
6.4
MILLICENT’S CHAIN OF CAUSE AND EFFECT ............................................ 127
ACTIVITY 3 ...................................................................................................... 128
ACTIVITY 4 ...................................................................................................... 129
6.6
MILLICENT’S CONCLUSION .......................................................................... 130
ACTIVITY 5 ...................................................................................................... 130
6.7
SUMMARY ....................................................................................................... 132
LEARNING UNIT 7 ..................................................................................................... 133
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION AND LISTENING ............................................... 133
Learning outcomes for this unit .................................................................... 134
Key questions ................................................................................................. 134
Key concepts .................................................................................................. 134
7.1
7.2
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 134
WHY WE NEED NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS ......................... 135
ACTIVITY 1 ...................................................................................................... 135
7.2.1 Problems with the interpretation of non-verbal communication ................ 136
ACTIVITY 2 ...................................................................................................... 137
7.2.2 Functions of non-verbal communication...................................................... 138
ACTIVITY 3 ...................................................................................................... 138
7.2.3 Categories of non-verbal communication .................................................... 140
ACTIVITY 4 ...................................................................................................... 141
7.2.4 Improving non-verbal communication .......................................................... 142
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ACTIVITY 5 ...................................................................................................... 143
ACTIVITY 6 ...................................................................................................... 144
7.4
LISTENING....................................................................................................... 145
ACTIVITY 7 ...................................................................................................... 145
7.4.1 Types of listening ........................................................................................... 146
ACTIVITY 8 ...................................................................................................... 146
7.4.2 Barriers to efficient listening ......................................................................... 147
ACTIVITY 9 ...................................................................................................... 147
7.4.3 Developing efficient listening skills .............................................................. 148
ACTIVITY 10 .................................................................................................... 148
7.5
SUMMARY ....................................................................................................... 149
LEARNING UNIT 8 ..................................................................................................... 151
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE ................................ 151
Learning outcomes for this unit .................................................................... 152
Key questions ................................................................................................. 152
Key concepts .................................................................................................. 152
8.1
8.2
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 152
SELF-IMAGE.................................................................................................... 153
ACTIVITY 1 ...................................................................................................... 153
8.2.1 Self-fulfilling prophecies ................................................................................ 155
ACTIVITY 2 ...................................................................................................... 155
8.2.2 Cultural and gender differences .................................................................... 156
ACTIVITY 3 ...................................................................................................... 156
8.2.3 Improving self-image ...................................................................................... 157
8.3
SELF-DISCLOSURE ........................................................................................ 158
ACTIVITY 4 ...................................................................................................... 158
8.4
ASSERTIVENESS............................................................................................ 159
ACTIVITY 5 ...................................................................................................... 159
8.5
EMPATHY ........................................................................................................ 160
ACTIVITY 6 ...................................................................................................... 161
8.6
THE INTERVIEW SITUATION ......................................................................... 161
ACTIVITY 7 ...................................................................................................... 161
ACTIVITY 8 ...................................................................................................... 162
8.7
SUMMARY ....................................................................................................... 163
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LEARNING UNIT 9 ..................................................................................................... 164
COMMUNICATION IN GROUPS AND TEAMS .......................................................... 164
Learning outcomes for this unit .................................................................... 165
Key questions ................................................................................................. 165
Key concepts .................................................................................................. 165
9.1
9.2
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 165
DEFINING TEAMS ........................................................................................... 166
ACTIVITY 1 ...................................................................................................... 166
9.2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of small groups ......................................... 167
9.2.2 Leadership in groups ..................................................................................... 167
9.3
MEETINGS ....................................................................................................... 168
ACTIVITY 2 ...................................................................................................... 168
9.3.1 Problem-solving and decision-making ......................................................... 170
ACTIVITY 3 ...................................................................................................... 170
9.4
GROUP CONFLICT ......................................................................................... 172
ACTIVITY 4 ...................................................................................................... 172
9.4.1 Strategies for conflict resolution................................................................... 173
ACTIVITY 5 ...................................................................................................... 173
9.5
SUMMARY ....................................................................................................... 174
LEARNING UNIT 10 ................................................................................................... 175
ORAL PRESENTATIONS ........................................................................................... 175
Learning outcomes for this unit .................................................................... 176
Key questions ................................................................................................. 176
Key concepts .................................................................................................. 176
10.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 177
10.2 WHAT AUDIENCES LIKE ................................................................................ 177
ACTIVITY 1 ...................................................................................................... 178
10.3 CAPTURING YOUR AUDIENCE ..................................................................... 178
ACTIVITY 2 ...................................................................................................... 179
10.4 ORGANISING YOUR PRESENTATION .......................................................... 180
ACTIVITY 3 ...................................................................................................... 180
10.5 GIVING SPEECHES ABOUT COMPLEX MATERIAL ..................................... 181
ACTIVITY 4 ...................................................................................................... 182
10.6 REHEARSING AND DELIVERING THE SPEECH .......................................... 183
ACTIVITY 5 ...................................................................................................... 183
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10.7 MONROE’S MOTIVATED SEQUENCE ........................................................... 184
ACTIVITY 6 ...................................................................................................... 185
10.8 SUMMARY ....................................................................................................... 189
LIST OF SOURCES CONSULTED............................................................................. 190
LEARNING UNIT 11 ................................................................................................... 191
COMMUNICATION IN THE DIGITAL AGE ................................................................ 191
11.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 192
11.2 DEFINITION OF CULTURE ............................................................................. 193
11.2.1
11.2.2
11.2.3
Beliefs, attitudes, values, and traditions ................................................ 193
Ethnocentrism .......................................................................................... 194
Stereotypes ............................................................................................... 194
11.3 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION ........................................................... 197
11.3.1
11.3.2
Six imperatives of intercultural communication studies ...................... 200
How to understand intercultural communication .................................. 204
11.4 CULTURE IN BUSINESS ................................................................................ 204
11.4.1
11.4.2
11.4.3
11.4.4
Ways to deal with cultural communications in the workplace ......... 205
Effects on communication ...................................................................... 206
Communication breakdown .................................................................... 206
Overcoming communication challenges................................................ 207
11.5. DIGITAL COMMUNICATION AND ETHICS .................................................... 209
11.5.1
11.5.2
11.5.3
11.5.4
11.5.5
Ethics......................................................................................................... 210
Morals ........................................................................................................ 210
Integrity ..................................................................................................... 211
Honesty ..................................................................................................... 211
Character................................................................................................... 211
11.6 BUSINESS ETHICS ......................................................................................... 211
11.6.1
11.6.2
11.6.3
11.6.4
11.6.5
Recent ethical investigations .................................................................. 213
Benefits of a professional code of ethics............................................... 214
Successful implementation of a code of ethics ..................................... 214
Example of ethical behaviours within a business environment ........... 215
Ethical issues at the organisational level ............................................... 215
11.7 PRIVATE PERSONA AND PUBLIC PERSONA .............................................. 217
11.8 YOUR DIGITAL FOOTPRINT .......................................................................... 218
11.8.1
Five ways to improve your digital footprint ........................................... 219
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11.9 NETIQUETTE ................................................................................................... 220
11.9.1
Rules of netiquette ................................................................................... 220
11.9.2
Elements of netiquette in different business contexts ......................... 220
11.10 WORDS AND YOUR LEGAL RESPONSIBILITY ............................................ 223
LIST OF SOURCES CONSULTED............................................................................. 225
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PREFACE
A WORD OF WELCOME
Welcome to this course on communication skills for accounting students! We hope that
the knowledge and techniques that you will learn in this module will continue to inspire
and guide you for many years to come.
This course covers all aspects of communication. We start with the basic theory of how
we send and receive messages, and then proceed to the specific communication skills of
reading, writing, speaking and interacting with people. Most important of all, we do this
from the point of view of you, the accounting student.
This course came into being because your professional body, the South African
Institute of Chartered Accountants (SAICA), was deeply concerned about the poor
communication skills of accounting students. Many accounting students are tested only
through multiple choice questions in their early years of study. Their reading and writing
skills are thus not tested until it is too late to intervene. This module steps in at the earliest
stage to help you identify and work on your language and people skills, in order to make
you the kind of person that other people will like, understand, confide in and be prepared
to follow.
The profession is crying out for accountants who can speak persuasively; relate well to
others; argue for or against decisions and recommendations; produce concise and
elegant written documents; and show the world that accountants are brilliant, fun,
charming, articulate people.
PURPOSE OF THE MODULE
Students credited with this module will be aware that communication forms an integral
part of the role of the accounting practitioner within a business context. Students are
sensitised to the variables influencing communication situations in the accounting
environment and know how to respond appropriately.
As mentioned above, this module serves as a response to a recent initiative of SAICA
that expressed the need for communication training of prospective accounting
professionals. Successful completion of the module does not qualify students to be
communication professionals or perfect English language users, but will provide a basis
for further self-development of these competencies by creating an awareness of the need
for it.
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LEARNING ASSUMPTIONS
The following levels of learning ought to be in place to ensure the successful completion
of this module:
 Students should have the ability to engage meaningfully with learning materials in an
Open Distance and e-Learning (ODeL) context, and particularly in the medium of
instruction.
 Students should have the ability to communicate what they have learned
comprehensibly through a variety of different types of written and other media formats.
 Students should have the ability to take a degree of responsibility for their own
progress with guided support.
RANGE STATEMENT FOR THE MODULE
The following scope and context apply to the whole module:
In this module the students will be introduced to the authentic communication world of
accountants. Contextualisation of the study material will be through examples and case
studies. Students will furthermore be exposed to authentic texts from the accounting
environment and will be guided closely by means of a structured learning process through
the study materials.
SPECIFIC OUTCOMES AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
Specific Outcome 1
Students are sensitive to the importance of communication in accounting practice.
Range
With guidance, students are exposed to a variety of real-world issues that enable them to
understand, and create an awareness of, why communication as a phenomenon needs
to be conscious of in the accounting professions.
Assessment Criteria
 Barriers in communication are identified and discounted in accounting communication
situations.
 Sensitivity is shown for differences in the frames of reference in accounting
environments.
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Specific Outcome 2
Students can analyse a communication situation in a business context in terms of target
audience, purpose and content.
Range
With guidance, students will be able to link self-image and listening to interpersonal
communication. They will also be able to analyse communication situations and
leadership in the context of meetings, problem-solving, conflict resolution and decisionmaking.
Assessment Criteria
 Audience analyses are done based on simulated communication situations.
 Purpose of communication is expressed clearly in well formulated proposals.
 Messages are analysed in relevant texts in terms of the concepts, principles, theories
and rules of the relevant discipline.
Specific Outcome 3
Students can respond appropriately when considering specific characteristics of the
target audience, purpose and content.
Range
With guidance, students will be able to demonstrate that they can properly plan and
execute communication strategies as appropriate to NQF level 5.
Assessment Criteria
 Reports are written showing information gathering skills and competence for analysis
and synthesis.
 Written proposals for public presentations are compiled using relevant subject related
material.
 Reactions on simulated accounting communication scenarios are evaluated following
known procedures.
Specific Outcome 4
Students can apply language appropriately in their communication activities.
Range
With guidance, students will be able to apply fundamental English language skills in
reading and writing activities as contextualised in the accounting profession.
Assessment Criteria
 Analysis of texts demonstrating implied relevant reading and listening skills.
 Use of proper English and unique accounting jargon in written texts.
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HOW THIS STUDY GUIDE IS ORGANISED FOR LEARNING
This is a wrap-around study guide. This means that there are various resources within
the different learning units that you will have to work through progressively. We will also
refer you to various other resources online and on myUnisa. Each learning unit of the
study guide offers explanations, support, guidance and additional activities. The activities
within the guide will help you to work through these resources. It is also important to
engage with all the instructional materials that we provide for you, particularly those on
myUnisa as these resources will assist you in mastering the contents of the course and
the application thereof.
Photo by John Schnobrich on Unsplash
Free to use image under the Unsplash License
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LEARNING UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
Image by Free-Photos from Pixabay
Pixabay License: Free for commercial use: No attribution required
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Learning outcomes for this unit
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Recognise the importance of communication.
Define communication and the communication process.
Identify and describe the essential components of communication.
Explore the different contexts affecting communication.
Discuss the varying facets of organisational communication
Discuss the responsibilities of a business communicator
Key questions
1. Why should you study communication?
2. Why is communication important for accounting students?
3. What is communication?
4. How does communication work in organisations?
Key concepts
Shared frame of reference; models of communication; sender; message; recipient;
feedback; channel; noise; verbal and non-verbal communication; encode; decode;
context; culture; organisational communication; communication climate; and ethical
communication.
1.1
INTRODUCTION
“Communication leads to community, that is, to understanding, intimacy and mutual
valuing.”
Rollo May
“I know that you believe that you understood what you think I said, but I am not sure you
realise that what you heard is not what I meant.”
Robert J. McCloskey
In this learning unit, we introduce you to the concept of communication, and explain the
relevance of communication in business contexts. You might wonder why you need to
study communication. Therefore, we begin by providing a general overview of
communication.
Communication is an activity, a skill, and an art that incorporates lessons learned across
a wide spectrum of human knowledge. Perhaps the most time-honoured form of
communication is storytelling. We have told each other stories for ages to help make
sense of our world, anticipate the future, and certainly to entertain ourselves. The art of
storytelling draws on your understanding of yourself, your message, and how you
communicate it to an audience that is simultaneously communicating back to you. Think
about how you felt the first time that you met someone who really, truly understood you.
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Think about the people in your life who know you so well they can guess what you are
thinking; people who surprisingly phone you when you are down or who can send you
into fits of laughter with just one look across the room. True communication brings people
together in ways that make life worth living. But consider, too, how often in your personal
relationships you find yourself saying, “You’ve completely misunderstood me” or “You’ve
taken it the wrong way” or “I did not mean …”. Miscommunication, thus, alienates people
from one another and causes indescribable unhappiness and strife. Your aim, therefore,
is true communication, not miscommunication. In other words, it is not enough to merely
communicate. You need to communicate well, or you will end up with conflict,
disagreement and disorganisation.
Effective communication takes preparation, practice, and persistence. Your anticipation,
reaction, and adaptation to the process will determine how successfully you are able to
communicate. You were not born knowing how to write or even how to talk—but in the
process of growing up, you have undoubtedly learned how to tell, and how not to tell, a
story out loud and in writing. You did not learn to text in a day and did not learn all the
codes — from LOL (laugh out loud) to BRB (be right back) — right away. In the same
way, learning to communicate well requires you to read and study how others have
expressed themselves, then adapt what you have learned to your present task —whether
it is texting a brief message to a friend, presenting your qualifications in a job interview,
or writing a business report.
There are many ways to learn communication skills - the school of experience, or “hard
knocks,” is one of them. But in the business environment, a “knock” (or lesson learned)
may come at the expense of your credibility, through an unsatisfactory presentation to a
client, for instance. The classroom environment, with a compilation of information and
resources, can offer you a trial-run where you get to try out new ideas and skills before
you have to use them to communicate effectively in the workplace. Listening to yourself,
or perhaps the comments of others, may help you reflect on new ways to present and/or
perceive, thoughts, ideas and concepts that will ultimately enhance your ability to
communicate in business contexts.
For our purposes, communication is essentially the practice of interacting with others in
the workplace and other professional contexts. Absolutely every job — from accountant
to mechanic — involves dealing with a variety of people all day long. You may deal with
various stakeholders, such as clients, managers, co-workers, suppliers, professional
organisations, a union perhaps, investors, the public, media, students, and so on,
depending on the nature of the job. When dealing with each of those audiences, we adjust
the way we communicate according to well-known conventions. You would not talk to a
customer or client the same way you would to a long-time friendly co-worker. Also,
depending on what kind of relationship you have with your manager, you probably would
not speak or write to them in the same way you would to either of the others. Learning
those communication conventions is certainly easier and more useful than learning how
to interpret a four-hundred-year-old play. If we communicate effectively —that is, clearly,
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concisely, coherently, correctly, and convincingly — by following those conventions, we
can do a better job of applying our core technical skills, whether they be in sales, the
skilled trades, the service industry, health care, office management, the government, the
arts, and so on. Moreover, as an accounting student your chosen career will involve
translating numbers and balance sheets into words and explanations for clients and
colleagues. You will need to speak and listen at meetings and interviews; write reports
and memos; and negotiate key decisions.
A course in Business Communications brings your existing communication skills up to a
professional level by focusing on how to follow conventions for interacting with those
various audiences in a variety of channels — whether they be speaking in person, by
phone, email, text, or emojis, for instance. That we do not generally communicate by
emojis with clients or managers (unless they tell us that they prefer it), for instance, is a
convention that does not occur naturally to some. Indeed, it may come as a surprise to
some that you would risk embarrassing yourself and permanently undermining your
credibility if you added emojis to a message sent to a manager or a client. As we are not
born with an instinct for staying within the bounds of respectable communication, the
conventions of professional business communications must be learned and practiced.
We know that distance education is difficult, so we will take you through each learning
unit step-by-step. Try to imagine that we are in a traditional (face-to-face) classroom
situation, working together as a team in a focused way for a limited time period. Keep
your career in mind as you work through this course. Keep thinking: “I am reading about
this now, but one day I will actually be doing it”. As you learn the material in this text, each
part will contribute to the whole. The degree to which you attend to each part will ultimately
help give you the skills, confidence, and preparation to use communication in furthering
your career.
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1.2
DEFINING COMMUNICATION
Do you need to be able to speak
and hear to communicate? Do
people need to be in the same
room or the same country? Do
you need a shared language?
Do you need language at all?
What is communication?
Communication is the process
of understanding and sharing
meaning. It is an activity, a skill,
and an art that incorporates
lessons learned across a wide
spectrum of human knowledge.
You communicate every day
without thinking about that
process: from the conversation
with your family in the morning,
reading a news article on your
phone,
ordering
coffee,
participating in class, thinking
about your missed deadline at
work, texting your friends —
communication is a primary skill
you have been practising since
birth!
(Free image by StartupStockPhotos from Pixabay)
It is interesting that most people will tell us they know what communication is, but they do
not have a clear understanding of what it is that communication scholars study and teach
in our academic discipline. In fact, many professors in other departments on our campus
also ask us what it is we study and teach. We provide a very simple explanation of
communications study below:
Communications is an academic field whose primary focus is who says what,
through what channels (media) of communication, to whom, [and] what will be
the results.
Although this explanation is very generic and dated, to this day it succinctly describes the
general focus of communication scholars and professionals.
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Now that you know how to define communication study, are you able to develop a
simple definition of communication? Try to write a one-sentence definition of
communication!
Did you find it difficult to define communication?
Do not be discouraged. For decades communication professionals have had difficulty
coming to any consensus about how to define the term communication. Even today, there
is no single agreed-upon definition of communication. What is interesting, though, is that
when we think of communication we become self-serving and are concentrate on
ourselves as the source of communication, about our message, and even the channel
we are going to use. In most cases, in our pursuit to foreground our own communication
efforts, we fail to consider the listener, viewer, and/or reader, thereby only placing
emphasis on the “transmission” of our message. However, communication is about more
than simply passing on information. Life would be very boring if that were true, and we
would not get much done. The term requires an element of success in transmitting or
imparting a message, whether information, ideas, and/or emotions.
In other words, communication is an active thing: we do something or achieve something
by communicating. We complain, instruct, express, inspire, plot, transact, etcetera. We
promise to marry, or we ask for divorce. We swear to tell the truth, or we lie. Also, think
about how a good teacher teaches. A good teacher is lively, asks questions, listens and
interacts with the class. The learners give feedback and respond to the material. In a
successful classroom, communication goes back and forth. The same is true for
successful meetings and conversations. We will explain the communication process to
you when we discuss the models of communication in the next section (Section 1.3
below).
Nonetheless, although we acknowledge that there are many definitions of
communication, we feel it is important to provide you with our definition so that you
understand how we approach each learning unit in this course. We are not arguing that
this definition of communication is the only one you should consider viable, but you will
understand the content of this text better if you understand how we have come to define
communication. Therefore, for the purpose of this text we define communication as:
the dissemination or interchange of information by speaking, writing, or using
some other medium to facilitate the successful conveying or sharing of
information, ideas and/or feelings.
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ACTIVITY 1





Let us assume that you telephoned a student counsellor at the university in
order to set up a meeting. What does this example tell us about
communication?
Communication usually (though this is not always the case) involves more
than one person (in this case, you and the counsellor) even if the people
are not present in the same physical space.
Communication has a purpose (you phoned in order to arrange a meeting).
Communication requires a medium (you used the telephone).
Now that you have a basic understanding of communication, how would you
define business communication?
The purpose of this activity was to help you understand the definition of communication
that we provided above. Let us examine the basic models of communication to help you
further grasp this definition.
1.3
MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
When we think of communication, we often think of two people or two groups of people
sitting down to talk. But if you are sitting alone listening to the radio, or reading this study
guide, or waving to a friend across the street, or texting your brother, you are also involved
in an act of communication. Therefore, because there are so many different possibilities,
we need a model of communication that can help us to understand the communication
process. We discuss three basic models of communication in this section, whereafter we
will explain the different elements of the communication process.
COMMUNICATOR
(SENDER)
Who?
MESSAGE
MEDIUM
RECIPIENT
EFFECT
(NOISE)
Says
what?
In what
channel?
To whom?
With what
effect?
A linear (transmission) model of communication
Shannon and Weaver (1949) proposed a mathematical model of communication (often
called the linear or transmission model) that serves as a basic model of communication.
This model suggests that communication is simply the transmission of a message from
one source to another. The linear model of communication is a model that suggests
communication moves only in one direction. The sender encodes a message, then uses
a certain channel to send it to a receiver who decodes (interprets) the message.
Essentially, this model focuses on the sender and message within a communication
encounter. Although the receiver is included in the model, this role is viewed as more of
a target or end point rather than part of an ongoing process.
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You are left to presume that the receiver either successfully receives and understands
the message or does not. Since this model is sender and message focused, responsibility
is put on the sender to help ensure the message is successfully conveyed. This model
emphasises clarity and effectiveness, but it also acknowledges that there are barriers to
effective communication (noise). Noise, which could be semantic or environmental, is
anything that interferes with, or changes the original encoded message in a
communication encounter. Even if a speaker sends a clear message, noise may interfere
with a message being accurately received and decoded.
Think of how a radio message is sent from a person in the radio studio to you listening in
your car. The sender is the radio announcer who encodes a verbal message that is
transmitted by a radio tower through electromagnetic waves (the channel) and eventually
reaches your (the receiver’s) ears via an antenna and speakers in order to be decoded.
The radio announcer does not really know if you have received their message or not, but
if the equipment is working and the channel is free of static, then there is a good chance
that the message was successfully received. Watching YouTube videos serves as
another example of this model. You act as the receiver when you watch videos, receiving
messages from the source (the YouTube video). Television (this includes online
streaming services, such as Netflix) serves as another good example of the linear model.
Have you ever talked back to your television screen while you were watching it? Maybe
you were watching a sporting event, or a dramatic show and you talked at the people on
your screen. Did they respond to you? We are sure they did not! Television (or any form
of broadcasting service) generally works in one direction. No matter how much you talk
to your screen or your digital device it will not respond to you. Now apply this idea to the
communication in your workplace.
It seems ridiculous to think that this is how we would communicate with each other on a
regular basis, considering that organisational success depends on effective
communication. Thus, these examples show the limits of the linear model for
understanding communication, particularly human to human communication. Basically,
the major criticism of the linear model of communication is that it suggests communication
only occurs in one direction. It also does not show how context, or our personal
experiences, impact communication. Theorists have long noted some of the following
limitations of the linear model:




the assumptions that listeners are passive;
that only one message is transmitted at a time;
the context of a communication situation is not taken into account;
that communication has a beginning and an end. In fact, a source could transmit a
confusing or nonsensical message, rather than a meaningful one, and the linear model
would work just as well; there is no provision for gauging whether a message has been
understood by its receivers.
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Nevertheless, although the transmission model may seem simple or even
underdeveloped to us today, the creation of this model allowed scholars to examine the
communication process in new ways, which eventually led to more complex models and
theories of communication. The linear model is not quite rich enough to capture dynamic
face-to-face interactions, but there are instances in which communication is one-way and
linear, such as computer-mediated communication (CMC) and mass media
communication for example. The linear model, thus, introduces helpful concepts and
terms that are the basis for understanding the more complex models of communication.
Thus, given the limitations of the linear model, Wilbur Schramm (1954) built upon the
linear model and developed the interactive (or interaction) model of communication.
An interactive (or interaction) model of communication
While the linear model focused on how a message was transmitted and whether or not it
was received, the interactive (or interaction) model is more concerned with the
communication process itself. In fact, this model acknowledges that there are so many
messages being sent at one time that many of them may not even be received. Some
messages are also unintentionally sent. Therefore, communication is not judged effective
or ineffective in this model based on whether or not a single message was successfully
transmitted and received. Hence, the interaction model of communication describes
communication as a process in which participants alternate positions as sender and
receiver and generate meaning by sending messages and receiving feedback within
physical and psychological contexts in order to keep a communication encounter going.
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Although this seems like a perceptible and deliberate process, you alternate between the
roles of sender and receiver very quickly and often without conscious thought. The
interactive model is also less message-focused and more interaction-focused. Rather
than illustrating communication as a linear, one-way process, the interaction model
incorporates feedback, which makes communication a more interactive, two-way
process. Feedback includes messages sent in response to other messages. For
example, the chairperson at a business meeting may respond to a point you raise during
a staff meeting or you may point to the vacant seat next to you when a colleague from a
different department asks you where your teammate is.
The inclusion of a feedback loop also leads to a more complex understanding of the roles
of participants in a communication encounter. Rather than having one sender, one
message, and one receiver, this model has two sender-receivers who exchange various
messages. Thus, with Schramm’s model, communication moves from a linear to a circular
process in which participants are both senders and receivers of messages. Yet the model
portrays communication like a tennis match where one participant serves up a message
and the other participant then makes a return. Each waits in turn, rather passively, for the
other. Hence, communication goes back and forth as one person initiates a message and
waits until the other responds.
However, if you think about times when you have engaged in conversation, you will
recognise how the other person is simultaneously sending messages — often nonverbally — while you are talking. Unlike a tennis match, you do not wait passively until
the “ball is in your court” before acting communicatively. The interaction model captures
the interactive aspects of communication but still does not account for how
communication constructs our realities and is influenced by social and cultural contexts.
To demonstrate the simultaneity of communication and the complexity of contextual
influences, we move next to a transactional model. The transactional model views
communication as integrated into our social realities in such a way that it helps us not
only understand them but also create and change them.
A transactional model of communication
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Thus, as the study of communication progressed, models expanded to account for more
of the communication process in order to comprehensively represent what occurs in most
human communication exchanges. One such model is the transactional model of
communication. The transactional model of communication describes communication as
a process in which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and
cultural contexts. In this model, we do not just communicate to exchange messages; we
communicate to create relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our selfconcepts, and engage with others in dialogue to create communities. The transactional
model of communication has senders and receivers of messages in an interchangeable
role. To keep the communication alive, you need both the communicators of the
transaction model interdependent of each other.
In short, we not only communicate about our realities; communication helps us to
construct our realities. The roles of sender and receiver in the transaction model of
communication differ significantly from the other models. Instead of labeling participants
as senders and receivers, the people in a communication encounter are preferably
referred to as communicators. This is the case because, unlike the interactional model,
which suggests that participants alternate positions as sender and receiver, the
transaction model suggests that we are simultaneously senders and receivers, or
communicators, and that noise and personal filters always influence the outcomes of
every communication exchange. Thus, participants in the communication process create
reality through their interactions. For example, in a job interview, as you send verbal
messages about your interests and background, your interviewer reacts non-verbally.
You do not wait until you are done sending your verbal message to start receiving and
decoding the non-verbal messages of your interviewer. Instead, you are simultaneously
sending your verbal message and receiving your interviewer’s non-verbal messages. This
is an important addition to the model because it allows us to understand how we are able
to adapt our communication — for example, a verbal message — in the middle of sending
it based on the communication we are simultaneously receiving from our communication
partner.
The transactional model also includes a more complex understanding of context. The
interaction model portrays context as physical and psychological influences that enhance
or impede communication. While these contexts are important, they focus on message
transmission and reception. Since the transactional model of communication views
communication as a force that shapes our realities before and after specific interactions
occur, it must account for contextual influences outside of a single interaction. To do this,
the transactional model considers how social, relational, and cultural contexts frame and
influence our communication encounters. The ability for both parties to provide a
response or return in the process is known as feedback (or verbal or non-verbal
messages sent during the communication process of decoding). Additionally, it suggests
that meaning is co-constructed between all parties involved in any given communication
interaction.
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This notion of co-constructed meaning is drawn from the relational, social, and cultural
contexts that make up our communication environments. Personal and professional
relationships, for example, have a history of prior interaction that informs present and
future interactions. Social norms, or rules for behavior and interaction, greatly influence
how we relate to one another. For example, if your professor taught the class while sitting
down rather than standing up, you and your colleagues would feel awkward because that
is not an expected norm for behaviour in a classroom setting. How we negotiate cultural
values, beliefs, attitudes, and traditions also impact our communication interactions. We
may both be from Johannesburg, South Africa, but our attitudes may differ greatly
depending upon the neighborhood we grew up in.
Can you think of some of your own communication experiences that were influenced by
your background and traditions?
There are also criticisms levelled against the transactional model of communication:




Firstly, because communication is simultaneous in the transactional model of
communication, this results in a lot of unnecessary noise.
Secondly, there is a huge possibility of misunderstandings in the communication
process. Feedback is a vital element in the interpersonal communication models as it
provides an opportunity to clear any misconception or misunderstandings. Without a
clear verbal response between a sender and receiver in the communication models,
it will not be possible to determine whether the receiver of the information has received
the message as intended, as their non-verbal cues might be misinterpreted,
depending on the frames of reference of the participants in the communication
encounter
In the transactional models of communication, reliability and efficiency of messages
is dependent on the medium used. For example, in face-to-face communication, the
message is perceived by a person differently compared to the message received over
a phone call. In face-to-face interaction, the receiver can gain more information
through non-verbal cues but that does not necessarily happen during a phone call.
The transactional model of communication includes the role of environment and
contexts and also talks about simultaneous feedback and encoding and decoding nonverbal communication. People living within similar environments or sharing similar
social systems are bound to communicate more easily with each other compared to
the people belonging to a different background.
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ACTIVITY 2
Identify the sender, message, recipient, feedback, channel and noise in
each of the following examples (note: you will not necessarily find ‘noise’ in
each example):




A man whispers in a woman’s ear, asking her to marry him. She cannot
hear him because his voice is too soft. “What?” she asks.
A daughter sends her mother an SMS, asking for a lift home. The mother
replies with an SMS saying, “On my way”.
A pregnant woman gets onto a crowded bus. A man vacates his seat and
indicates with his hand that she should sit down. She smiles at him as she
sits down.
A motorist sees a political poster on an electricity pole. The poster has the
picture of a politician and the words “Vote for me”. The motorist thinks, “I
don’t like that politician’s face.”
The purpose of this activity was to fix the terms sender, channel, recipient, message,
feedback and noise in your mind. Let us see how you fared:




A man (sender) whispers (channel) in a woman’s (recipient) ear, asking her to
marry him (message). She cannot hear him because his voice is too soft (noise).
“What?” she asks (feedback).
A daughter (sender) sends her mother (recipient) an SMS (channel), asking for a
lift home (message). The mother replies with an SMS saying, “On my way”
(feedback).
A pregnant woman (recipient) gets onto a crowded bus. A man (sender) vacates
his seat and indicates with his hand (channel: hand gesture) that she should sit
down (message). She smiles at him (feedback) as she sits down.
A motorist (recipient) sees a political poster (channel) on a telephone pole. The
poster has the picture of a politician (sender) and the words “Vote for me”
(message). The motorist thinks, “I don’t like that politician’s face” (feedback).
We have discussed three of the basic communication models in this section. However,
you should take note that communication models are not complex enough to truly capture
all that takes place in a communication encounter, but they can help us examine the
various steps in the process in order to better understand our communication and the
communication of others. Moreover, while these models are overly simplistic
representations of communication, they illustrate some of the complexities of defining and
studying communication.
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As communication scholars we may choose to focus on one, all, or a combination of the
following elements in the communication process: senders of communication, receivers
of communication, channels of communication, messages, noise, context, and/or the
outcome of communication. Hopefully, you recognise that studying communication is
simultaneously detail-oriented (looking at small parts of human communication), and farreaching (examining a broad range of communication exchanges).
1.4
ELEMENTS IN THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
The discussion of the different models of communication made us aware that there are
various elements in the communication process. In this section, we discuss each of these
elements.
1.4.1 The communicator (or sender)
A sender (or the communicator) is someone who encodes and sends a message to a
receiver (recipient) through a particular channel. The sender is the initiator or the source
of communication. For example, when you text a friend, ask a teacher a question, or wave
to someone you are the sender of a message.
In other words, we begin the communication encounter through a process of encoding.
Encoding is, thus, the process of turning thoughts into communication. This means that
when you communicate a message, you have to encode it and as the developer and
sender of the message, you become the encoder. Let us say that your message is “I love
you”. You could encode it in those words, using the English language. You could also
encode it in French, by saying: “Je t’aime”. You could encode it in a look or through a
gesture (for example, a kiss). You could draw a picture of a heart on a card.
Encoding is an active process and involves various actions (whether conscious or
subconscious). As such, the encoder must determine how the message will be received
by the audience and make adjustments, so the message is received the way they want it
to be received. As such, the level of conscious thought that goes into encoding messages
may vary. Moreover, the encoder uses a ‘medium’ to send the message — a phone call,
email, text message, face-to-face meeting, or other communication tool. ‘Noise’, that
might interfere with their message, is also a factor that the encoder should take into
account This may include any distractions such as other messages or influences. When
encoding a message, the communicator also needs to take note of the purpose of the
communication encounter. Communication serves various purposes, such as:
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







to inform,
to express feelings,
to imagine,
to advise,
to instruct,
to influence (or persuade),
to implement, and/or
to meet social expectations.
Each of these purposes is reflected in a particular form of communication. Moreover, in
order to communicate effectively, we need to know our recipient and try to look at the
situation from the recipient’s perspective to determine how they might interpret the
message. To do this, you should ask yourself these questions:
 For whom is this message intended?
 Why am I sending this message?
 What do I want the recipient to know?
 What do I expect the recipient to do?
ACTIVITY 3

Try to provide an example of each communication purpose as listed above.
Did you manage to find an example for each of the purposes outlined in the
text above? Perhaps the examples below will help you to find examples for
all the purposes outlined above:
 An example of conveying or obtaining information would be the question
‘When is the exam?’
 When you tell someone how to change a tyre, you are instructing your
recipient in the correct procedure.
The purpose of this activity was to make sure that you could visualise a variety of
communication purposes. The activity also checked your understanding of what you had
read about how communication is transmitted.
1.4.2 The recipient (or receiver)
A receiver is the recipient of a message. The recipient receives the message from the
source and analyses and interprets the message in ways both intended and unintended
by the source. Receivers must decode (interpret) messages in ways that are meaningful
for them. For example, if you see your friend make eye contact, smile, wave, and say
“hello” as you pass, you are receiving a message intended for you. When this happens,
you must decode the verbal and non-verbal communication in ways that are meaningful
to you.
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The audience then ‘decodes’, or interprets, the message for themselves. Decoding is the
process of turning communication into thoughts. For example, you may realise you are
hungry and encode the following message to send to your roommate: “I’m hungry. Do
you want to get pizza tonight?” As your roommate receives the message, they decode
your communication and turn it back into thoughts to make meaning. Of course, you do
not just communicate verbally—you have various options, or channels, for
communication. Encoded messages are sent through a channel, or a sensory route, on
which a message travels to the receiver for decoding. While communication can be sent
and received using any sensory route (sight, smell, touch, taste, or sound), most
communication occurs through visual (sight) and/or auditory (sound) channels. If your
roommate has headphones on and is engrossed in a video game, you may need to get
their attention by waving your hands before you can ask them about dinner.
Think of a baby lying in its pram. The baby’s mother leans over the pram and greets the
baby with a warm tone of voice, a smile and simple words. The baby does not yet
understand the words, but gurgles, kicks its little legs with pleasure and maybe even
reaches up with its arms asking to be held. Is the baby a recipient – that is, has the baby
received a message? Yes! The receiver is active. The receiver – even our baby in its
pram – intentionally and consciously decodes the message. The receiver also gives
feedback.
ACTIVITY 4
 Find the words ‘encode’, ‘decode’, and underline them. These are important
concepts and thus you need to pause until you understand them.
 Envisage a railway boom that comes down at a railway crossing to indicate
that a train is about to pass. Who is the recipient of this message?
 Imagine you are driving to work and you see a banner hanging from a
pedestrian bridge overhead saying, “I love you”. Are you still the recipient
of the message even though you are alone in your car?
 Think of some additional examples from your own experience to help you
remember what the receiver does in different communication encounters
The purpose of this activity was to fix the concept of the receiver or recipient in your mind.
At a railway boom, the recipient of the message is the pedestrian or motorist who wishes
to cross the railway line. In the banner example, you are still the recipient (even if
unintended). In each of these instances, the recipient responds to the message. You may
laugh at the banner or wonder who it is for. You stop at the railway boom and wait for the
train. You react. Your reaction is called feedback.
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1.4.3 The message
A message is the particular meaning or content the sender wishes the receiver to
understand. We can define a message as information conveyed by words (in speech or
writing), and/or other signs and symbols. It is essentially the meaning that you want to
convey with the aim of getting the recipient to understand the message as you intended
it to be understood. The message can be intentional or unintentional, written or spoken,
verbal (such as face-to-face communication, telephone calls, voicemails, email etcetera)
or non-verbal (such as body language, pictures, tone of voice, typography, and so), or
any combination of these. For example, as you walk across campus you may see a friend
walking towards you. When you make eye contact, wave, smile, and say “hello,” you are
offering a message that is intentional, spoken, verbal and non-verbal. Other examples of
messages include the content of a broadcast, an interactive exchange of messages that
forms a conversation, or a press release (which may vary from a brief report or statement
released by a public agency to commercial publicity material). Can you think of examples
of different messages in your day-to-day interactions?
1.4.4 The channel (or medium)
A channel is the method or the route a sender uses to send a message to a receiver. The
channel or medium used to communicate a message affects how the audience will
receive the message. Communication channels can refer to the methods we use to
communicate as well as the specific tools we use in the communication process. The
most common channels humans used are verbal and non-verbal communication.
Verbal communication relies on language and includes speaking, writing, and sign
language. Spoken channels include face-to-face conversations, speeches, phone
conversations and voicemail messages, radio, public address systems, and Skype, for
example. Written channels include letters, memoranda, purchase orders, invoices,
newspaper and magazine articles, blogs, email, text messages, tweets, and so forth.
Non-verbal communication includes elements such as gestures, facial expressions,
paralanguage and touch when referring to spoken language; and elements such as
typography, style, layout, colour and appearance of text and documents when referring
to written communication.
We also use communication channels that are mediated (such as your television,
computer, tablet and/or smartphone) which may utilise both verbal and non-verbal
communication. We often refer to them as digital channels of communication. Digital
channels extend from face-to-face to video conferencing, from written memos to emails,
and from speaking in person to using telephones. The digital channels retain many of the
characteristics of the principal channels but influence different aspects of each channel
in new ways. Additionally, the choice between analog and digital can also affect the
environment, context, and interference factors in the communication process.
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Time, distance, circumstances, purpose and the needs of the recipient are important
factors to consider when choosing the most appropriate channel for your message. The
key to effective communication is to match the communication channel with the goal of
the message. For example, written media is a better choice when the sender:





wants a record of the content;
has less urgency for a response;
is physically separated from the receiver;
does not require much feedback from the receiver; or
when the message is complicated and may take some time to understand.
Spoken communication makes more sense when the sender:
 is conveying a sensitive or emotional message;
 needs feedback immediately; and
 does not need a permanent record of the conversation.
When do you think that digital communication would be a more appropriate channel to
convey a message in your workplace? Why?
Write down a few examples of communication channels to remind yourself of how big the
range is: Radio, television, Skype, hieroglyphics, a wink, a pat on the back, a handshake,
a postcard, an email, an art piece, a poem.
1.4.5 Noise (or communication barriers)
Noise is anything that interferes with the sending or receiving of a message and blocks
or changes the source’s intended meaning of the message Noise could be external (a
jack hammer outside your apartment window or loud music in a nightclub), or internal
(physical pain, psychological stress, or nervousness about an upcoming test). External
and internal noise make encoding and decoding messages more difficult. For example, if
you are on your way to lunch and listening to music on your phone when your friend
greets you, you may not hear your friend say “hello,” and you may not wish to chat
because you are hungry. In this case, both internal and external noise influenced the
communication exchange. Noise is in every communication context, and therefore, NO
message is received exactly as it is transmitted by a sender because noise distorts it in
one way or another.
You are starting to realise that communication is not plain sailing. Recipients do not
always get the messages we send and many times they do not interpret them as we
intended. Have you experienced the following, for example?
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Listening to someone speak over a distorted microphone.
Trying to speak with a very sore throat.
Listening to the explanation of someone whom you no longer trust.
Trying to take notes when your lecturer keeps using difficult, unfamiliar terms.
Not agreeing with your boss, but being too afraid to contradict him / her.
Hearing the words “fat” or “diet” from someone who has never had a weight problem
when all your life people have teased you about your weight.
There are various barriers or common sources of noise, which can affect communication
accuracy and effectiveness. Clearly, some degree of noise in communication is
unavoidable. The objective for effective communication is to be aware of possible sources
of noise and so to seek to reduce this to a minimum. This includes psychological
(including perceptual biases), semantic, physical (environmental), physiological, and
contextual barriers.
1.4.5.1
Psychological
Psychological barriers to communication are related with factors that affect the human
mind (such as memory, attention, and perception). These barriers refer to opinions,
attitudes, status consciousness, emotions, etcetera, of a person that deeply affect the
ability to communicate. Psychological barriers could also include perceptual biases, such
as stereotypes that can impact on how we interpret a particular person’s message. As a
result, we see that people respond to stimuli in the environment in very different ways.
Think of when a person is angry, he/she might say things they regret later. Even when
listening to someone else speak, an angry person might easily misinterpret the message.
Various other emotions like fear, nervousness, confusion, mistrust and jealousy affect the
communication process.
Now think back to the first day of classes. Did you plan ahead for what you were going to
wear? Did you get the typical school supplies together? Did you try to find your
classrooms ahead of time or look for the syllabus online? Did you look up your professors
on an online professor evaluation site? Based on your answers to these questions, I could
form an impression of who you are as a student. But would that perception be accurate?
Would it match up with how you see yourself as a student?
Perception, of course, is a two-way street. You also formed impressions about your
professors based on their appearance, dress, organisation, intelligence, and
approachability. As a professor who teaches others how to teach, I instruct my studentteachers to really take the first day of class seriously. The impressions that both teacher
and student make on the first day help set the tone for the rest of the semester.
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We each have shortcuts that we use to organise information. Invariably, these shortcuts
introduce some biases and prejudice into communication. Stereotyping is an example
of such a shortcut. Stereotyping is when we assume that the other person has certain
characteristics based on the group to which they belong, without checking out to see that
they do in fact have these characteristics.
Think about a student who misinterprets an educator’s positive message as negative. It
may be that this student tends to view authority figures as critical people who are likely to
put him/her down. Bear in mind though, we do not have enough information at this stage
to make this conclusion and this is merely an example of a possible perceptual bias.
Therefore, we need to be aware that our perceptions do not always provide accurate
information as they are based on our personal frame of reference.
Your frame of reference is the context, viewpoint, or set of assumptions or evaluative
criteria within which a person's perception and thinking seem always to occur. Your
personal frame of reference forms through factors such as your life experiences, culture,
interactions, assumptions, etcetera, that shape your view of the world and the people that
you interact with – in fact, your frame of reference also affects the way that you
communicate with yourself. Hence, these perceptions selectively constrain the course
and outcome of your communication activities. We commonly refer to these inaccuracies
as perceptual flaws in reasoning, as they are NOT based on sound knowledge that is
verified.
Perceptions of status or position also affect our communication. This includes how we
perceive people in higher or lower ranks in the organisation, family structure or
community, for example.
Think of how you would address an elder in your community? Would you address this
person in the same way if he/she was working as a junior employee in your company?
Your behaviour towards the same person in different situations depends on your
perceptions of status (which can be flawed).
Can you provide more examples of perceptual flaws in reasoning that are based on your
personal frame of reference?
As we go through our daily lives we perceive all sorts of people and objects, and we often
make sense of these perceptions by using our previous experiences to help filter and
organise the information we take in. Sometimes we encounter new or contradictory
information that changes the way we think about a person, group, or object. The
perceptions that we make of others and that others make of us affect how we
communicate and act. As you we progress with this course, we will learn about the
perception process, how we perceive others, how we perceive and present ourselves,
and how we can improve our perceptions.
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1.4.5.2
Semantic
Semantic barriers refer to the misunderstanding between the sender and receiver arising
due to the different meanings of words, and other symbols used in the communication
encounter. Essentially, this term is used to describe situations where differences in
language distort or interfere with the meaning of the message. Differences in dialect,
cultural differences, professional and/or other affiliations, body language, and the choice
of word, technical jargon (such as medical terms used by doctors), pronunciation
differences and spelling errors are the main causes of a semantic barrier.
Have you ever listened to your doctor explain your medical condition in pure medical
terms? Did you understand everything that he/she said?
Also, we have all experienced problems with our computers and digital devices at some
point in our lives that needed to be sorted out by technical experts. You may have
experienced semantic noise when your technician explained, in technical jargon, why
your computer keeps crashing and which applications needed to be reloaded or updated.
The choice of words or language in which a sender encodes a message will also influence
the quality of communication. Because language is a symbolic representation of thoughts,
motivations or intentions, room for misinterpretation and distortion of the meaning exists.
For example, an educator, intending to motivate a student, comments ‘I have high
standards and when I ask you to do a piece of work, I would like to see it done’. The
student works late into the evening to produce a report not due for another week,
misunderstanding the educator and believing that s/he wants it straight away. In other
words, different people may interpret the same words differently. That is to say that
meaning has to be given to words and many factors affect how an individual will interpret
and attribute meaning to the words used in a communication encounter.
1.4.5.3
Physical (environmental)
Physical barriers are described as obstacles in the environment that either positively or
negatively affect effective communication. Some examples of physical barriers are noise,
technological problems, the weather, the organisational environment, etcetera. The size
of a room, layout of furniture, intrusive noise, heating and lighting, etcetera. Each of these
can either encourage or inhibit interaction.
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Imagine that you are standing outside while the cold wind blows on you, your conversation
would be hampered because you would not be able to pay full attention to what the other
person is saying as you are feeling extremely cold. Your attention could be divided as you
try to protect yourself from the extreme weather conditions.
Also think of your concentration during a meeting when the boardroom is hot and stuffy.
Would you pay attention to what the chairperson at the meeting is saying when your
physical environment is causing discomfort? Now think of the opposite scene where your
meeting environment is spacious and well-ventilated. How would this affect your
interactions at the meeting?
Think of various other physical barriers that could influence effective communication,
either positively or negatively.
1.4.5.4
Physiological
Physiological barriers to communication are related with factors that affect the human
body (for example, headaches, poor eye sight, or hearing difficulties) that interfere with
effective message dissemination and interpretation. Effective communication presumably
requires the sound functioning of the senses in both the sender and the receiver.
Physiological barriers may result from individuals' personal discomfort, caused by factors
such as ill-health or stressful circumstances for example. Disabilities such as physical or
neurological impairment as well as psychiatric illness also cause barriers to
communication and call for alternative means to the usual patterns of communication to
be adopted. Some examples include sight or hearing loss, and conditions such as
Parkinson’s disease or severe depression. We should be aware of these barriers in our
communication encounters and adapt our communication in order to reduce
misinterpretation of the message.
A receiver with hearing impairment or hearing loss cannot receive an audio message.
The person also cannot talk with people face to face easily. If the hearing problem is not
very severe, he/she might only hear some words and is unable to get the intended
meaning out of the message.
Also think of how you feel when you have the flu. You will most likely not be very keen to
talk to anyone nor will you be as receptive to communication from other people as your
attention would be focussed on your aching body.
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1.4.5.5
Context
The context of the communication interaction involves the setting, scene, and
expectations of the individuals involved, all of which influence the meaning of a message.
Effective communication requires deciphering and understanding the basic values,
motives, and assumptions of the other person. Given that many differences exist across
cultures in terms of approaches to time, space, and privacy; the chances for
misinterpretation increase when we are in cross-cultural situations. Additionally,
demographic factors such as gender and age can impact on the way in which a message
is interpreted.
For example, a male listener may nod his head to indicate to the speaker ‘I agree’,
whereas a female listener may nod her head to communicate ‘I am listening’ (but not
necessarily agreeing); so, sending the same visible feedback but with different actual
meanings.
Imagine that you have met someone you like very much, and you would like to introduce
this person to your family, including your grandparents. How would this communication
change if your new partner came from a different South African culture (race, ethnicity,
language or religion)? And what if this person came from another world culture
(Japanese, Australian or Indian)? How would the differences affect the level of relaxation,
the telling of jokes, the types of food or drink offered, and the ease of conversation?
We can also experience barriers to communication in the organisational context. These
barriers to effective communication can be located within the organisation or agency itself.
A professional communication context may involve business suits (environmental cues)
that directly or indirectly influence expectations of language and behaviour among the
participants. Difficulties with established lines and means of communication, different
relative physical location of staff, lack of team or supervision meetings, and underresourced supervisors are factors that can impact negatively on effective communication.
As you read these discussion questions, you may have thought of a similar or related
example from your own experience. You probably know many funny, sad, or heartwarming stories about the way communication is affected by context and culture.
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ACTIVITY 5
 How would you define ‘context’?
 What do you understand by the term ‘cultural context’?
 Add some examples of ‘context’ and ‘cultural context’ in order to fix these
terms in your mind.
Did you manage to find examples? If not, here are some suggestions:




You are a single person and you meet another single person at a party held by
mutual friends. You are attracted to each other and start communicating. How does
this context affect your communication? Compare, for example, how differently you
might communicate if you were introduced to this person first at a work meeting.
Would this approach to “dating” be the same in other cultures?
If you have access to the Internet, Google the search query, ‘Business
communication with Japanese / Scandinavians / Russians’. (Fill in the cultural
group of your choice). Why do you think your search turns up so many hits?
Check that you can spell the words physiological and psychological correctly.
(Cover up your book and try writing them on a piece of paper). Can you discuss
the differences between the two terms?
Check that you can tell the difference between communication problems that arise
because of a perceptual barrier and problems that arise because of cultural
context. (Remember that a perceptual barrier relates to your unique experience as
an individual, whereas cultural problems arise because of the way you fit into a
broader cultural group.)
ACTIVITY 6


Find the definition for ‘noise’ and underline it.
Identify the barrier to communication in each of the following scenarios:
A. A teacher says to a learner who hates books: “We have organised a
fantastic visit to the National Library!”
B. At work your department is having problems with Human Resources
(HR). The problems are made worse by the fact that HR is housed in
another building.
C. You ask your 10-year-old daughter why she is looking so lugubrious.
D. Someone you know to be a love cheat is chatting to you flirtatiously.
E. Someone is talking to you, but you cannot understand him because he
is drunk and slurring his words.
F. You finally meet your idol, but you are completely tongue-tied by
feelings of awe.
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How did you manage this activity which aimed to fix the new terms in your mind by
applying them to real examples? Check your answers:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
Psychological – more specifically, it is a perceptual barrier.
Physical.
Semantic.
Psychological.
Physiological.
Psychological – more specifically a perceptual flaw related to status.
Before you leave this section make sure you have distinguished between physical and
physiological barriers. (Remember that ‘physiological’ relates to the human body.)
1.4.6 Feedback
When you respond to the source, intentionally or unintentionally, you are giving feedback.
Feedback is composed of messages the receiver sends back to the source. Verbal or
non-verbal, all these feedback signals allow the source to see how well, how accurately
(or how poorly and inaccurately) the message was received. However, although you
receive feedback from the receiver, you cannot be sure if the message has been
interpreted as you intended unless the communication encounter is clear and
unambiguous.
Let’s start with the easier idea of verbal vs. non-verbal feedback. If you want to tell a group
of children to be quiet, you can either say “Be quiet!” (verbal communication) or you can
put your finger to your lips to indicate that they must be silent (non-verbal communication).
Verbal communication uses language; either written or spoken. Non-verbal
communication may use body language. Non-verbal communication could also use
numbers, symbols or pictures. Think of an aeroplane that has just landed. It is being
guided into its parking bay on the tarmac by a signalman using hand gestures. Who is
the recipient? Yes, it is the pilot of the plane. How would this recipient give feedback? He
will follow the signalled instructions, and perhaps also respond verbally through a
microphone. In these ways – through his feedback – the pilot lets the signalman know
that he has received the message.
ACTIVITY 7
 Use the description of ‘feedback’ to write your own definition. Begin your
definition with “Feedback is…”
 Add some examples of feedback in order to fix this term in your mind.
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Your definition may be something like this: “Feedback is any sign or indication from the
recipient that he or she has understood your message”. Did you manage to find
examples? If not, here are two suggestions:


You are in a crowded supermarket. You send your child to find an item in the aisles.
Later you spot your child and realise that he or she is lost and cannot find you in the
crowd. You lift up your arms and wave frantically. What is your channel? Who is your
recipient? What kind of feedback would your recipient give?
You have a famous client with whom you get on well in a formal way. However,
whenever your famous client is in your office, one of your star-struck colleagues insists
on coming in, greeting and praising the client. What kind of feedback might occur in a
situation like this?
1.4.7 Outcome of communication
There are three overarching outcomes to conscious communication that we should strive
for: sharing, understanding, and meaning.
Sharing means doing something together with one or more person(s). In communication,
sharing occurs when you convey thoughts, feelings, ideas, or insights to others. You also
share with yourself when you bring ideas to consciousness, ponder how you feel about
something, figure out the solution to a problem, or have a classic “Aha!” moment when
something becomes clear.
The second outcome is understanding. To understand is to perceive, to interpret, and
to relate our perception and interpretation to what we already know. Understanding the
words and the concepts or objects that the message refers to is an important part of the
communication process.
Finally, meaning is what you share through communication. For example, by looking at
the context of a word, and by asking questions, you can discover the shared meaning of
the word and better understand the message.
Communication with others becomes much easier when we have a shared frame of
reference. We discussed the concept of a personal frame of reference earlier. Now we
move on to the concept of a shared frame of reference. No two people can have the same
frame of reference. However, many people share some similarities in their ideas, or
thoughts or experiences. The phrase ‘shared frame of reference’ has a similar meaning
to the phrases ‘common ground’ and ‘mutual understanding’.
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Do you find that when you meet a new person, you really enjoy the moment when the two
of you discover something in common: you both have two-year-olds, you both love
soccer, you were both born in Kroonstad, your parents came from the same village, or
you both love the same movie? This shows you are a good communicator already. The
moments of connection you regularly try to establish are one of the most important
aspects of successful communication, namely a shared frame of reference. Jot down any
examples that will help you to remember what the term means.
ACTIVITY 8
 Find the phrase ‘shared frame of reference’ in this learning unit and
underline it. This is another important communication term in this course.
 Find the definition of ‘shared frame of reference’ and underline that too.
 Spend a minute or two thinking about the term ‘shared frame of reference’
and how it applies to your life.
 For example: Have you ever tried to explain your university studies to
someone who has never attended university? Compare that experience to
the experience of chatting to a fellow student enrolled for the same modules
as you.
 For example: Have you ever tried to explain the rules of a particular sport or
hobby to someone with no knowledge of that sport or hobby? Compare that
experience to the experience of chatting to a friend who shares your love of
that particular sport or hobby.
The point of Activity 8 is to illustrate that it is very difficult to communicate when you do
not have a shared frame of reference. Communication is easier – and often more
pleasurable – when you have a shared frame of reference.
1.5
ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION
So far you have been considering communication in general. But the type of
communication that most concerns you as an accounting student is organisational
communication. How do people communicate in a work situation?
When walking through any large office, you will find people working quietly on their own;
people pairing up in consultation; people reading and typing; groups of people in
conference; and senior people rushing to engagements with folders under their arms. All
of these scenarios represent organisational communication. We participate in
organisations in almost every aspect of our lives. In fact, you will spend the bulk of your
waking life in the context of organisations. Communication is at the centre of every
organisation. Organisational communication is a broad and ever-growing specialisation
in the field of communication and refers to all communication that occurs in the context of
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an organisation, internally and externally.
All managers and employees need to be aware of how people behave in order to provide
the best working environment. Organisational behaviour is about how people may be
motivated to work together in more effective ways. The interaction required to direct a
group toward a set of common goals is called organisational communication. The basic
functions of organisational communication are to inform, persuade, and to promote
goodwill.
1.5.1 Organisational communication in context
Organisational communication encompasses the following broad communication
contexts:
1.5.1.1
Intrapersonal communication
Intrapersonal communication involves one person. It is often called “self-talk” or “thinking
to oneself”. As you use language to reflect on your own experiences, you talk yourself
through situations. Your intrapersonal communication can be positive or negative, and
directly influences how you perceive and react to situations and communication with
others. For example, before a big presentation, you may give yourself a pep talk to calm
feelings of anxiety and give yourself a boost of confidence.
What you perceive in communication with others is also influenced by your culture, native
language, and your world view. As the German philosopher Jürgen Habermas said,
“Every process of reaching understanding takes place against the background of a
culturally ingrained pre-understanding” (Habermas, 1984).
1.5.1.2
Interpersonal communication
The second major context within the field of communication is interpersonal or dyadic
communication. This type of communication normally involves two people and can range
from intimate and very personal to formal and impersonal. A conversation over coffee
with a colleague about a project you are working on or discussing what you will prepare
for dinner with your colleague would be forms of interpersonal communication.
1.5.1.3 Small-group communication
Group communication is a dynamic process where a small number of people engage in
a conversation, such as a staff meeting. Small-group communication is generally defined
as involving three to eight people. The larger the group, the more likely it is to break down
into smaller groups.
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When engaging with groups, you can observe factors like age, education, sex, and
location to learn more about general preferences as well as dislikes. You may find several
groups within the larger audience, such as specific areas of education, and use this
knowledge to increase your effectiveness as a business communicator.
1.5.1.4 Public communication
In public communication, one person speaks to a group of people, such as a public
address by your company’s Chief Financial Officer (CFO), which is usually done for a
specific purpose. The purpose of public communication is to deliver a message, news, a
piece of information that people/audience could learn from. Public communication is used
to inform and persuade, build relationships, form connections, and/or create a network.
The same is true of public written communication, where one person writes a message
to be read by a small or large audience. The speaker or writer may ask questions and
engage the audience in a discussion (in writing, examples are an email discussion or a
point-counter-point series of letters to the editor), but the dynamics of the conversation
are distinct from group communication, where different rules apply. Public communication
could occur through public speaking events, conferences, seminars, press conferences
and so on. Newspaper editorials and billboard advertisements are other forms of public
communication. Mass media (newspapers, magazines, radio, TV) are a powerful tool of
public communication. Public communication can be physical and virtual. Be it Facebook,
Instagram, YouTube, and such social media platforms help a person speak with ease.
Videoconferencing has become part and parcel of speakers to reach a wider group of
people. Public communication is usually targeted at a particular audience or group of
people.
1.5.1.5
Mass communication
Through mass communication, you send a message to as many people as possible. Mass
communication involves sending a single message to a very large audience. Billboards,
advertisements, press releases and new product announcements are some examples of
mass media communication. Mass media allows you to communicate your message to a
large number of people. Something to consider, however, is that you may be limited in
your ability to tailor your message to specific audiences, groups, or individuals when using
mass communication as the audience that you reach can be quite diverse. As a business
communicator, you can use multimedia as a visual aid or reference common programs,
films, or other images that your audience finds familiar yet engaging. By choosing
messages or references that many audience members will recognise or can identify with,
you can develop common ground and increase the appeal of your message.
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1.5.1.6
Digital communication
Digital communication is any type of communication that relies on the use of technology.
There are many types of digital communication, commonly referred to as digital
communication channels. These include email messages, videoconferencing, instant
messaging, electronic newsletters and blogs on the staff Internet (called the Intranet),
etcetera. Communication taking place through digital channels will be inherently different
from in-person communication. In the workplace, these differences present themselves
as both advantages and disadvantages. Digital communication is fast, efficient, and
convenient. An employee can have a conversation in real time with a colleague or client
from the opposite side of the world without having to leave their desk. Company leaders
can use digital channels to communicate with their entire global workforce at once and
use corresponding channels to effectively collect feedback from those employees.
As the business world embraces digital communication, there are also disadvantages that
have emerged from its use. For one, having constant access to communication tools can
make it hard for employees to disconnect at the end of the work day. Email notifications
and pings from work apps follow them home through their smartphone, blurring the line
between work life and personal life. Without having a chance to unplug, employees are
more likely to experience burnout and other signs of overworking themselves. Digital
communication has also presented security challenges for many companies. Hackers can
make their way into virtual meetings and hijack the call; email phishing opens a door for
the entire organisation’s online systems to be compromised. Every time company data is
transmitted over the internet, there is a risk that this information will not remain private.
Each of these ways of communicating discussed above takes place internally or
externally. We explain what these terms mean next.
1.5.2 Internal and external communication
Internal communication is the function responsible for effective communications among
participants within an organisation, namely superiors, subordinates and co-workers.
Internal communication’s purpose is to provide an effective flow of information between
an organisation’s departments and colleagues. This applies both up and down the
management/employee chain. It also includes communication that occurs when
employees interact with each other in the company. It involves producing and delivering
messages within the organisation, as well as facilitating a dialogue with the people who
make up the organisation. This can mean anything from announcing a new policy or
informing people of an upcoming event, to conducting an organisation-wide engagement
or culture audit.
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There are various different types of internal communication: from top-down memos to
peer-to-peer acknowledgment, from crisis communication to information campaigns, and
more. A major internal communication channel is email, which is convenient but needs to
be handled carefully.
Sound internal communication nurtures company culture and builds employee
engagement. There are various sources of internal communication, for example:





Management – who dispense information such as strategies, company results,
internal and external information, and other important general information.
Team – between colleagues who work together to achieve the same end goal.
Face-to-face – briefing individuals on tasks and situations.
Peer – informal chats between colleagues to share information.
Resources – the intranet, email, social media, messaging, video calls, telephone, and
so on.
External communication on the other hand, refers to messages to individuals, groups
and/or other organisations outside of your organisation. Organisations may announce
changes in staff, strategy, or earnings to shareholders; or they might be service
announcements or advertisements for the general public, for example. The goal of
external communication is to share information about the organisation and its goals in
order to form a positive image of the organisation and its products and/or services.
Examples of external communications include press releases, advertisements, company
websites, annual reports, stakeholder meetings, and so.
Compare the way an organisation communicates with the way your family communicates.
When you are alone together, your family communicates internally. You fight, laugh, tease
each other, use pet names, finish one another’s sentences, put your feet up on the sofa,
and eat food casually. However, when your family deals with the public, you communicate
differently. You adopt a different tone of voice when speaking on the phone to strangers.
You may be more polite, or more distant. You also have to explain a lot more because
you cannot take things for granted. Use the example of your family to help you understand
organisational communication.
ACTIVITY 9
Complete the diagram below by adding some examples. You can use
examples from your own experience.
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Many companies have a department called Marketing and a department called Public
Relations. Which of the three basic functions of organisational communication (informing,
persuading and promoting goodwill) do you think these two departments would perform?
The purpose of this activity was to help you understand the complex information in this
learning unit by placing it into a simple diagram. Internal communication would include
examples such as communicating with a colleague, holding a team meeting or sending
an internal memo. Examples of external communication would include addressing
investors or potential clients, meeting the press or sending out an advertisement. The
Marketing department would certainly be primarily involved in persuasive communication,
whereas the Public Relations department would promote goodwill through their
communications. Both would use information to do so.
1.5.3 Hierarchies
Hierarchy refers to the organisation of people within a corporation according to power,
status, and job function. Hierarchy may also be referred to as the chain of command within
a business because it outlines where decision-makers reside. It also defines who must
adhere to those orders and who may supersede and make changes to the plans of their
subordinates. The hierarchy of authority provides a clear career path for each employee
in the organisation. The outline of executive, managerial and supervisory positions within
the company. The organisational hierarchy ultimately affects the ability of employees of
a company to advance within the company and can also impact corporate culture.
Organisations are organised in a hierarchical structure, so management can run the
company in a managed way. A hierarchy helps to establish efficient communication paths
between employees, departments and divisions of the company. The manager of each
department becomes the departmental administrator, and any information that is relevant
to the department is given to the manager.
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The manager of each department becomes the departmental administrator, and any
information that is relevant to the department is given to the manager. The manager can
either act on the information or delegate it to someone within his/her staff. Information
can be effectively distributed through company managers rather than trying to contact
each individual employee. The manager's understanding of his/her staff and the structure
of the department makes him/her the ideal person to improve communication in the
department. Hierarchies affect interpersonal relations (remember that status can be a
barrier to communication). Hierarchies determine who controls the channels of
communication (remember that bosses tend to send memos to their staff and not vice
versa). Hierarchies affect the quality and frequency of communication (for example, your
boss decides how frequently meetings are held).
In your life, you are a member of several hierarchies. You may be top of the pile amongst
your friends, but quite near the bottom at your work. You may be important in your church,
but quite low down at the local sports club. Hierarchies are a fact of life.
ACTIVITY 10
Go through the subsection on hierarchies and find three ways in which
hierarchy influences the way an organisation communicates. Also provide
some examples of each of these factors that you outline
1. ……...……………………………...............................................................
2. ……....………………………………..........................................................
3. …....…………………………………...........................................................
1.5.4 Channels of information
In your family, it is probably normal to send an SMS; shout to another room; or chat on
the sofa; as you are used to informal channels. But have you ever communicated formally
with your family?
Formal channels of communication are rare in a family, but they do exist. Discussing
marriage proposals, giving speeches at funerals, signing legal documents, reading wills,
or meeting to resolve conflicts are all examples of formal channels within the family
sphere.
Formal communication is associated with the formal organisation structure and the
official status or the position of the communicator and the receiver. It travels through the
formal channels officially recognised positions in the organisational chart. Formal
communication is” official communication” that is vital for the functioning of the
organisation. Thus, it is a deliberate attempt to regulate the flow of communication so as
to ensure that information flows smoothly, accurately and timely.
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Formal communication is a deliberate attempt to regulate the flow of communication so
as to ensure that information flows smoothly, accurately and timely.
We frequently come across the phrase ‘through the proper channel’. It emphasises the
essence of formal channel of communication. For example, when the manager issues
instructions because of his senior position in the organisation, it is formal communication.
The forms of formal communication could be:
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departmental meetings,
conferences,
telephone calls,
company news bulletins, and
special interviews and special purpose publications and messages, amongst others.
The main advantage of the formal communication is that the official channels enable the
routine and standardised information to pass without claiming much of managerial
attention. Essentially, executives and managers may devote most of their precious time
on matters of utmost significance. But at the same time, the weakness of formal
communication should not go unaccounted. Communication through a formal channel of
command greatly obstructs free and uninterrupted flow of information.
Informal communication on the other hand is also known as the ‘grapevine’. It is free from
all sorts of formalities because it is used on informal relationships between the parties,
such as friendship, membership in the same club or association. People at the executive
levels also use informal communication when they find it difficult to collect information
from the workers. Such communication includes comments and suggestions for example
and may also be conveyed by a simple glance, gesture, smile or mere silence. This
process, in fact, serves a very useful purpose in disseminating certain information which,
in the general interest of the organisation, cannot be transmitted through the official
channels. Apart from that, it can also offer management with a clearer insight into what
the subordinates think and feel. But at the same time, the weaknesses of the informal
communication are also worth noting. It may be mentioned that this process very often
tends to pass distorted, misinterpreted, and inaccurate and half- truth information and
facts, depending on the circumstances and the message. It serves as a channel for
rumours due to the speed at which communication travels. Therefore, managers and
executives generally do not favour the growth and development of the informal network
of communication. But still, executives and managers cannot do away with informal
communication.
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ACTIVITY 11
Complete the following two diagrams based on the description of Channels of
Communication. You can use examples from your own experience.
Once again, the purpose of this activity was to help you summarise and understand what
you have been reading. Formal channels of communication include memos, meetings
with agendas and minutes, interviews, questionnaires, reports, etc. Informal channels of
communication include gossip, rumour, the grapevine and social interaction. The flow of
communication is downward when the boss tells a clerk what to do. The flow is upward
when the clerk tells the boss that his / her report is not ready. The flow of communication
is lateral when two colleagues working together on a team meet to discuss an issue.
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1.5.4 Flow of communication
Information can move sideways, from a sender to a receiver—for example, from you to
your colleague in the same department. It can also move upward, such as to a superior;
or downward, such as from management to subordinates. Hence, organisational
communication takes place upward, downward and horizontally.
Downward communication flows from the managerial and executive levels to the staff
through formal channels such as policy manuals, rules and regulations and organisational
charts. In an organisational structure, the executives must exercise their powers to
achieve the desired objectives which imply that they may be engaged in issuing orders,
instructions and policy directives to the persons at the lower levels. This may be called
downward communication. Downward communication consists of messages that start at
the top of the hierarchy and are transmitted down the hierarchy to the lowest rungs of the
hierarchy. Downward communication can be considered a top-to-bottom approach for
organisational communication. Under downward communication, immediate performance
of a job is expected. Communication from superior to subordinate can be face-to-face as
well as through written memos, orders, job descriptions etcetera.
Downward communication includes information such as:
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specific task directives or job instructions,
information designed to produce understanding of the task and its relation to other
organisational tasks - or job rationale,
information about organisational procedures and practices,
feedback to the subordinate about his/her performance,
information of an ideological character to inculcate a sense of mission, instructions,
and fulfilment of organisational goals.
Upward communication, on the other hand, is initiated by staff and directed at
executives. It frequently takes the form of a complaint or a request. Upward
communication consists of messages that start at the bottom of the hierarchy and are
transmitted up the hierarchy to the highest rungs of the hierarchy. Upward communication
can be considered a bottom-up approach to organisational communication. In an upward
communication encounter, employees from the lower level are expected to have
communication with those who are above them. It is just the reverse of downward
communication. This sort of communication includes reactions and suggestions from
workers, their grievances etcetera. Upward communication could be in the form of
reports, reactions, suggestion statements and proposals prepared for the submission to
superiors. It generally flows through the hierarchical chain of command through various
media such as, suggestion boxes, face-to-face meetings, personal contacts, attitude and
morale surveys, grievance procedures, labour unions and so on.
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However, upward communication may get distorted owing to the nature of superiorsubordinate relationships. An employee is not likely to give any information which may
affect him adversely. Moreover, subordinates may transmit wrong information to impress
their superiors. Therefore, management needs to create opportunities for open, honest
and accurate upward communication to improve organisational effectiveness.
Upward communication generally:
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
is shortened and summarised as it passes through various levels in the hierarchy,
gives feedback on the extent of effectiveness of downward communication -his
feedback is used for improving communication effectiveness,
provides the management about the viewpoints, reactions, attitudes, feelings and
morale of employees.
provides information about the employee, his/her performance and problems, and
provides information about organisational policies and practices.
When the communication takes place between two or more persons who are
subordinates of the same person or those who are working on the same level of
organisation, the communication is known as horizontal (lateral) communication.
Horizontal or lateral communication consists of messages that are transmitted to other
individuals on the same rung of the organisational hierarchy. In essence, horizontal or
lateral communication occurs when individuals who have roughly the same status interact
with one another in an organisation. Occasionally, these lines of communication are firmly
established within the organisational hierarchy chart, but typically these lines of
communication are not part of the traditional hierarchical chart.
Horizontal communication may be oral as well as written. The communication between
functional managers or among subordinates working under one boss or the
communication between managers of various factories are examples of such
communication. This type of peer-to-peer communication is necessary for coordination of
similar or related tasks in the organisation. This type of communication occurs when
colleagues meet to discuss issues of common interest, resolve problems and conflicts,
and share information.
Horizontal communication satisfies peoples’ needs to know from their own peers without
taking into account other levels in the organisation. It is really difficult for an organisation
to function efficiently without such horizontal communication flows. Although the formal
organisation design does not provide for such communication flows, it is needed for the
coordination and integration of diverse organisational functions. Since horizontal
communication ordinarily does not exist in the organisational design, it is left to individual
managers.
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You have been studying the way information flows within an organisation. Pause here to
reflect on your own experience and opinions:
 Which do you personally prefer: Getting information in a typed memo, or hearing about
it from a colleague over a cup of coffee?
 Should we dismiss office grapevines as mere gossip?
ACTIVITY 12



Read the information about downward communication in this learning
unit. Find and underline one disadvantage of this type of communication.
Now come up with one advantage of downward communication on your
own.
Now, read the information about upward communication in this
learning unit. Find and underline one advantage and one disadvantage
of this type of communication.
Finally, read the information about horizontal or lateral communication
in this learning unit. Find and underline two advantages of this type of
communication.
The purpose of this activity was to help you to read for main ideas and understand them.
How did you do?
A disadvantage of downward communication is that it is one-sided. There is “often too
much downward communication and not enough upward communication”. An advantage
might be that downward communication gives a strong sense of direction/ leadership.
An advantage of upward communication is that it “keeps management aware of
employees’ ideas and feelings”. A disadvantage is that “employees often communicate
what they think management would like to hear, instead of what is actually the case”.
Advantages of horizontal or lateral communication are that it “enables teams in an
organisation to co-ordinate their activities in order to achieve the objectives of the
organisation, to share information, solve problems, and resolve conflicts.”
1.5.5 Virtual teams and networks
If you do Internet banking, email your CV, own a cell phone or surf the Internet, you are
already aware of the possibilities of ‘virtual’ relationships. Just as it is possible to socialise
with someone you’ve never met – for example, when you initiate Internet dating – so it is
possible to do business with colleagues you have never met.
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The word used to describe these relationships is ‘virtual’, because in almost every respect
(except for physical touching) these relationships are like the real thing. Virtual
communication is how people interact with others without being in the same room. It is
used by remote teams in an office environment and practically every industry. This may
be those working in different parts of a single building or site, but more commonly
involves: those who work from home for some or all of their working hours; mobile workers
operating in the field; those working in outsourced teams; or those working at a different
site, either within the same country or abroad.
For most employees, business communication takes place over many different channels.
The key differentiating factor between traditional and digital media is the ability to interact,
or engage with the communicator, and others in a community. Think back to the basic
process of communication: the messenger (encoder) sends a message through a
medium, which is received and decoded by an audience. In traditional media, the process
was primarily one-way. In digital media, users have the ability to interact and respond to
the message — in other words, they can ‘engage’ with the message and messenger.
Digital media in the 21st century is more personal and more social than traditional media.
A small device that fits in your pocket has the ability to connect you with the world, from
anywhere and at any time. It has changed the way you communicate, and in particular
the way you approach communication in business. Consider how people engage with
digital media and how you can begin to use digital media as a business professional.
A virtual team is a group of people working across time and space and organisational
boundaries using technology to communicate and collaborate. We also refer to this as
“netcentricity” as digital media has given us the ability to connect with a wealth of
information and people across the globe in real-time (as it mimics elements of face-ti-face
communication). Virtual teams can consist of professionals who work from home full-time
or part-time, others who take part in mobile work (coming to a fixed office but working
outside this space for part of the week), or people who work at a remote location. As such,
virtual teams allow organisations to bring together people with the best expertise,
regardless of where they live.
Working in a virtual team presents many challenges. When you cannot see your
colleagues face-to-face, and you don't have the social interactions that build relationships
and rapport, it can be difficult to establish trust. If it is not managed correctly, this lack of
trust can undermine everything that the team is trying to achieve. Another major challenge
is communication, especially when a remote team includes members from different
countries and cultures. It can also be harder to pick up the visual cues (such as body
language and facial expressions) that make communication flow, even when you are
using video. Finally, it can be more difficult to voice your opinion in a virtual team, and it
can be harder to resolve team conflict.
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Effective communication is important within a virtual team. Open, honest communication
not only helps you to avoid misunderstandings, but it will also increase your effectiveness.
If you work in a global team, learn good cross-cultural communication skills. Try to listen
actively when someone else is speaking, and never attempt to multitask. Give the other
person your full attention – this is a sign of respect, and you'll understand them better,
too. make sure that your video calls, emails, presentations, and instant messages are as
clear, courteous and timely as possible. You owe it to yourself and your team to be honest
about any issues that arise. Often, it's best to voice concerns as and when they happen.
Be assertive and learn how to manage your emotions so that you stay cool, calm, and
collected. Finally, learn good conflict resolution skills, so that you can manage conflict
within your team objectively and fairly.
As we move on to discuss the communication climate in an organisation, you might like
to think about why more and more businesses are being run by people who do not share
a real office or stand chatting around the coffee machine.
1.5.6 Communication climate in the organisation
Have you noticed how some shops, homes, government offices and businesses you enter
are cheerful, casual places, while others make you feel uncomfortable? Where does this
distinct mood or climate come from?
Organisational climate is a general expression of what the organisation is. It is the
summary perception which people have about the organisation. It conveys the
impressions people have of the organisational internal environment within which they
work. To a degree, the organisation’s climate represents your employee’s motivation to
work for your company and reflects how healthy your organisation is. Employee
motivation is related to the quality of the work environment and the support that
employees feel they receive from the organisation. The climate of an organisation is open
to change frequently and can be shaped by the upper management of an organisation.
There are various factors that influence organisational climate, such as:
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The structure of the organisation including rules, regulations and constraints
Perception of the relative risk in the work situation
The level of conflict and tolerance in the work environment
Working with cooperative and responsible individuals
Opportunities that have an impact on personal initiative
Working with a competent, trustworthy, and approachable superior
Functions objectives, goals and mission in the organisational context
Degree of centralisation
Leadership styles and decision-making processes
Physical space characteristics and employee safety
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ACTIVITY 13
Study the subsection on communication climate in the organisation and
complete the following diagram:
The purpose of this activity was to help you summarise the subsection on
communication climate in the organisation. A positive climate is created by honest,
supportive, tactful and open-minded communication where decision-making and
problem-solving are participative rather than blaming or controlling. A negative climate is
caused by an excess of formal, downward messages which make employees feel like
little more than personnel numbers.
1.5.7 Ethical communication and ethical challenges in the workplace
You know from your own experience that this marvellous human tool of ours –
communication – can be used in unethical ways. We are capable of using communication
to lie, defame, defraud, mislead, victimise, bribe, corrupt, manipulate and discriminate.
Ethics refers to a set of rules that describes acceptable conduct in society. Questions of
morality and ethics can be found at all levels of society. Ethical behaviour is equally
important in the workplace as it is in our personal lives. Everywhere business is
conducted, ethics matters. Our actions affect not only ourselves, but also those around
us. Many of our professional decisions involve ethics. If we tell a lie, we can lose
someone’s trust and undermine our own integrity. If we use shoddy materials or
workmanship on the job, we can jeopardize the safety of others.
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A successful business depends on the trust of various parties—employees, managers,
executives, customers, suppliers, and even competitors.
Six ethical terms form the foundation of trust upon which ethical business practice is built:
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
Ethics - refer to a set of rules that describes acceptable conduct in society. Ethics
serve as a guide to moral daily living and helps us judge whether our behaviour can
be justified.
Values - are defined as the acts, customs, and institutions that a group of people
regard in a favourable way. Statements of value typically contain words of approval,
disapproval, and obligation. Some of these words might be good, bad, should, and
should not. However, value judgments do not have to contain specific value words.
“That is a lie” does not contain a particular word of disapproval, but the implication that
a lie is wrong is understood.
Morals - Morals are a set of rules or mode of conduct on which society is based.
Certain moral elements are universal, such as the laws forbidding homicide and the
basic duties of doing good and furthering the well-being of others.
Integrity - To have integrity is to be honest and sincere. Integrity is defined as
adhering to a moral code in daily decision making. When people and businesses
possess integrity, it means they can be trusted. On the other hand, companies that
lack this quality and mislead customers with inferior products or false advertising will
suffer the consequences.
Character - Ethics is not just how we think and act. It is also about character.
Character drives what we do when no one is looking. Each person has the ability to
build, change, or even destroy his or her own character. We can build our character
through the way we live—by thinking good thoughts and performing good acts.
Similarly, bad thoughts and behaviour can destroy our character. A person with
character has high morals and will act morally in all situations by choice, not force. A
person with character will honour his or her commitments. Character pertains to
organisations, as well. A company with high character is worthy of trust and respect,
acts honestly, and stands by its promises.
Laws - The law is a series of rules and regulations designed to express the needs of
the people. Laws protect people from the most blatant and despicable affront to
morality, such as murder, rape, and theft. Laws frequently provide us with a sense of
right and wrong and guide our behaviour, but not always. While murder is against the
law, the law does not always stop someone from killing another out of hatred, anger,
or in defence of a personal philosophy. Laws are instituted as notions of justice and
tend to be specific, yet diverse within different societies. Laws have always had a
strong connection to morality, ethics, and values. But, not all laws are ethical.
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Ethics are the principles and values an individual uses to govern his activities and
decisions. In an organisation, a code of ethics is a set of principles that guide the
organisation in its programs, policies and decisions for the business. The ethical
philosophy an organisation uses to conduct business can affect the reputation,
productivity and bottom line of the business.
In business organisations, communicating concisely, ethically, and appropriately are all
necessary so a business can operate effectively and efficiently. There are a myriad of
core principles associated with ethical communication, starting with the core value of
honesty that all other values are connected to. However, it can be said that there is a
value underlying honesty (with regard to ethical communication) and that is emotional
intelligence/empathy as the precursor of all soft skills, which allows all personnel to be
understood, and to effectively communicate with others. Emotional intelligence, within the
framework of ethical communication, allows one to understand the needs of others, and
meet those needs in the most efficient manner possible as if you were in their shoes. The
five keys principles of ethical behaviour are truthfulness, honesty, sincerity, fairness and
responsibility. As a set of principles, ethical communication understands that one’s
thoughts must be conveyed and expressed effectively and concisely, and that the
resulting actions or consequences will [potentially] be based solely on how the message
was communicated.
ACTIVITY 14


Find five characteristics of ethical communication and underline them.
Now do an online search for unethical workplace practices in well-known
companies in South Africa or your country of residence. What did you find?
What types of unethical workplace practices have you noted in these
companies?
The purpose of this activity was to help you to summarise and visualise ethical
communication. How did you manage with this task?
The five keys to ethical communication which you should have found are: truthfulness,
honesty, sincerity, fairness and responsibility.
ACTIVITY 15
 Find the definition of ‘organisational communication’ and underline it.
 Check your understanding of each aspect of organisational communication
by labelling each of the following as intrapersonal, dyadic, small-group,
digital, mass, public or oral presentation:
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Jeff is sitting at his desk, worrying about the downward economic trend and how it
will affect his company. (……………………….. communication)
Khosi comes into Jeff’s office and he tells her that he needs to call a staff meeting.
(……………………….. communication) Khosi sends an email to all staff notifying
them of the meeting. (……………………….. communication)
At the meeting, it is decided by all present that staff need to be trained in new
technology that will save money. (……………………….. communication)
Staff will learn about new technology from an expert flown in from the United
Kingdom. He makes use of a PowerPoint presentation. (………………………..
communication)
Khosi prepares a press release to explain that the company has upgraded its
technology. (……………………….. communication)
News of the upgrade causes the company’s share price to rise, which the CEO
proudly announces at an afternoon press conference. (………………………..
communication)
Once again, the purpose of this activity was to clarify and fix new terminology in your mind
by applying it to real-life examples. Let’s see how well you did. The correct sequence of
answers was as follows: intrapersonal, dyadic, digital, small-group, oral presentation,
mass, public.
1.6
STRENGTHENING YOUR COMMUNICATION SKILLS
As you reach the end of this first learning unit, you are probably reflecting seriously on
the way you yourself communicate. You are aware that you have learnt a great deal about
communication, and you would like a simple set of guidelines to take away with you. Let
us do that now.
Whenever you speak or write in a business environment, you have certain responsibilities
to your audience, your employer, and your profession. Your audience comes to you with
an inherent set of expectations that is your responsibility to fulfil. The specific expectations
may change given the context or environment, but two central ideas will remain: be
prepared, and be ethical. People share a fundamental drive to communicate. You share
meaning in what you say and how you say it, both in oral and written forms. Your
communication skills help you to understand others — not just their words, but also their
tone of voice, and their non-verbal gestures. The format of their written documents
provides you with clues about who they are and what their values and priorities may be.
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
Be an ethical communicator
To communicate in an egalitarian manner, speak and write in a way that is
comprehensible and relevant to all your listeners or readers, not just those who are ‘like
you’ in terms of age, gender, race or ethnicity, or other characteristics. In business, an
effective communicator seeks to unify the audience by using ideas and language that are
appropriate for all the message’s readers or listeners. People are influenced by emotions
as well as logic. The ethical communicator will be passionate and enthusiastic without
being disrespectful. Losing one’s temper and being abusive are generally regarded as
showing a lack of professionalism (and could even involve legal consequences for you or
your employer). When you disagree strongly with a co-worker, feel deeply annoyed with
a difficult customer, or find serious fault with a competitor’s product, it is important to
express such sentiments respectfully.

Be trustworthy
Trust is a key component in communication, and this is especially true in business. Your
goal as a communicator is to build a healthy relationship with your audience, and to do
that you must show them how they can trust you and why the information you are about
to share with them is believable. Your audience will expect that what you say is the truth
as you understand it. This means that you have not intentionally omitted, deleted, or taken
information out of context simply to prove your points. They will listen to what you say and
how you say it, but also to what you don’t say or do. Being worthy of trust is something
you earn with an audience. Many wise people have observed that trust is hard to build
but easy to lose. When in doubt, remember the “golden rule,” which is to treat others the
way you would like to be treated. In all its many forms, the golden rule incorporates human
kindness, cooperation, and reciprocity across cultures, languages, backgrounds, and
interests. Regardless of where you travel, with whom you communicate or what your
audience is like, remember how you would feel if you were on the receiving end of your
communication and act accordingly.

Preparation
Being prepared means that you have selected a topic appropriate to your audience,
gathered enough information to cover the topic well, put your information into a logical
sequence, and considered how best to present it. This will also involve ensuring that you
do not provide too much information or “information overload” for your audience. Your
message can also be reinforced using repetition through verbal and non-verbal methods.
This technique is called redundancy. However, one should try to avoid excessive
redundancy as this would alienate your recipients.
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
Organisation
Being organised involves the steps or points that lead your communication to a
conclusion. Once you’ve invested time in researching your topic, you will want to narrow
your focus to a few key points and consider how you’ll present them. You also need to
consider how to link your main points together for your audience, so they can follow your
message from point to point.

Clarity
You need to have a clear idea in your mind of what you want to say before you can say it
clearly to someone else. It involves considering your audience, as you will want to choose
words and phrases they understand and avoid jargon or slang that may be unfamiliar to
them. Clarity also involves presentation, appropriate use of technology, reducing noise
(internal and external), and mindful use of verbal and non-verbal communication.
Ensuring clarity in your communication prevents misunderstandings between participants
in the communication process.

Punctuality
Concise means to be brief and to the point. In most business communications you are
expected to ‘get down to business’ right away. Being prepared includes being able to
state your points clearly and support them with trustworthy evidence in a relatively
straightforward, linear way. Be concise in your choice of words, organisation, and even
visual aids. Being concise also involves being sensitive to time constraints. Be prepared
to be punctual and adhere to deadlines or time limits. Some cultures also have a less
strict interpretation of time schedules and punctuality. While it is important to recognize
that different cultures have different expectations, the general rule holds true that good
business communication does not waste words or time.

Be an active listener
Active listening and reading are also part of being a successful communicator. Listening
is the learned process of receiving, interpreting, recalling, evaluating, and responding to
verbal and non-verbal messages. We begin to engage with the listening process long
before we engage in any recognisable verbal or non-verbal communication. It is only after
listening for months as infants that we begin to consciously practice our own forms of
expression. Improving our listening skills can benefit us in academic, professional,
personal, and civic contexts.
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ACTIVITY 16
 Read the list of communication tasks that accountants regularly perform.
Were you surprised by the range of activities that all fall under the umbrella
term ‘communication’?
 Read the bulleted list of guidelines for improving your communication skills
and match each bullet to one or more of the following summary points:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
Listen well.
Keep it short and simple.
Be sensitive to non-verbal communication.
Reinforce your message.
Give and receive feedback.
Be aware of your audience or recipient.
Be sensitive to personal and cultural difference.
Limit or eliminate noise.
In the above eight simple ways, you can now start to become a better communicator.
Since better communicators are always first in line for promotion, you have already moved
your career one step ahead.
1.7
SUMMARY
Communication is interactive. When it is successful, the recipient gives the sender
feedback to show that the message has been understood. In businesses and
organisations too, communication is interactive. However, differences in hierarchy, status
and ethical norms can cause communication problems.
Formal, downward
communication is efficient, but it can leave staff feeling alienated and unhappy. These
problems can be ironed out with greater transparency and cooperation and a return to
the fundamental principle of communication, namely interaction.
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LEARNING UNIT 2
THE READING AND WRITING PROCESS
Photo by Shahbaz Ali on Unsplash
Free to use under the Unsplash License
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Learning outcomes for this unit
• Recognise the importance of reading.
• Identify your reading speed.
• Improve your reading and interpretation skills
 Discuss various language and grammar conventions
Key questions
How fast can you read?
How many words can you recognise on sight?
Can you work out the meaning of new words?
Can you predict what a text will be about?
How quickly do you pick up the main ideas of a text?
Do you understand the deeper meaning of what you read?
Key concepts
Reading speed; word recognition; sight words; university word list; context; homophones;
connotation; implication; sentence types; directive; question; statement; exclamation;
linking words; punctuation; commas; dashes; and colon.
2.1
INTRODUCTION
In this learning unit we will go through the reading process, together and make sure that
you understand its key points. More importantly, we want you to be able to put this
learning unit into practice.
Learning Unit 2 is not a theoretical chapter, but a practical chapter. The way you will be
tested on this chapter in assignments and exams will involve a demonstration of your
reading skills. We know that it is always more difficult to learn a practical skill through
distance learning. Imagine someone trying to teach you how to drive a car or bake a loaf
of bread by distance! You will need to make a conscious effort to practise your reading,
not just as you work through this learning unit, but on a daily basis.
The introduction to Learning Unit 2 tempts you by pointing out that if you improve your
reading skills, you are more likely to achieve success and even wealth. You can improve
your reading ability by becoming more conscious of your reading.
What does it mean to be ‘conscious’ of what you do when you read? Reading is a physical
act in which:

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Your eyes move rapidly over the page; and
Every now and then, your eyes stop and ‘fix’ on the page.
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To be conscious of what you do when you read is to be aware of both your rapid eye
movement and the split seconds in which your eyes ‘fix’. Once you are aware of yourself
reading you can:


Try to force your eyes more rapidly over the page; and
Try to take in a big chunk of text when your eyes ‘fix’.
Try not to be a nervous, hesitant reader who keeps going back to the previous sentence,
or who plods through the text word-by-word. If you read too slowly and laboriously, you
will get bored and give up sooner.
2.2
LISTENING AND READING FOR UNDERSTANDING
Learning to listen to your conversational partner, customer, supplier, or supervisor is an
important part of business communication. Often, instead of listening you mentally
rehearse what you want to say. Similarly, when you read, you are often trying to multitask
and therefore cannot read with full attention. Inattentive listening or reading can cause
you to miss much of what the speaker (or writer) is sharing with you.
Communication involves the sharing and understanding of meaning. To fully share and
understand, practice active listening and reading so that you are fully attentive, fully
present in the moment of interaction. Pay attention to both the actual words and for other
clues to meaning, such as tone of voice or writing style. Look for opportunities for
clarification and feedback when the time comes for you to respond, not before.
2.2.1 Active listening and reading
You have probably experienced the odd sensation of driving somewhere and, having
arrived, realized you don’t remember driving. Your mind may have been filled with other
issues and you drove on autopilot. It is dangerous when you drive like that, and it is
dangerous in communication. Choosing to listen or read attentively takes effort. People
communicate with words, expressions, and even in silence, and your attention to them
will make you a better communicator. From discussions on improving customer service
to retaining customers in challenging economic times, the importance of listening comes
up frequently as a success strategy.
Here are some tips to facilitate active listening and reading:





Maintain eye contact with the speaker; if reading, keep your eyes on the page.
Do not interrupt; if reading, do not multitask.
Focus your attention on the message, not your internal monologue.
Restate the message in your own words and ask if you understood correctly.
Ask clarifying questions to communicate interest and gain insight.
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Tips in this chapter will serve you well in daily interactions, but suppose you have an
especially difficult subject to discuss, or you receive a written document delivering bad
news. In a difficult situation like this, it is worth taking extra effort to create an environment
and context that will facilitate positive communication.
Here are some strategies that may be helpful:









Set aside a special time.
To have a difficult conversation or read bad news, set aside a special time when you
will not be disturbed. Close the door and turn off the TV, music player, and instant
messaging client. Put away your smartphone!
Do not interrupt.
Keep silent while you let the other person “speak his or her piece.” If you are reading,
make an effort to understand and digest the news without mental interruptions.
Be non-judgmental.
Receive the message without judgment or criticism. Set aside your opinions, attitudes,
and beliefs in order to understand the message from the sender’s point of view.
Be accepting.
Be open to the message being communicated, realszing that acceptance does not
necessarily mean you agree with what is being said.
Take turns.
Wait until it is your turn to respond, and then measure your response in proportion to
the message that was delivered to you. Reciprocal turn-taking allows each person to
have her of his say.
Acknowledge.
Let the other person know that you have listened to the message or read it attentively.
Understand.
Be certain that you understand what your partner is saying. If you don’t understand,
ask for clarification. Restate the message in your own words.
Keep your cool.
Speak your truth without blaming. A calm tone will help prevent the conflict from
escalating. Use “I” statements (e.g., “I felt concerned when I learned that my
department is going to have a layoff”) rather than “you” statements (e.g., “you want to
get rid of some of our best people”).
Finally, recognise that mutual respect and understanding are built one conversation
at a time. Trust is difficult to gain and easy to lose. Be patient and keep the channels
of communication open, as a solution may develop slowly over the course of many
small interactions. Recognise that it is more valuable to maintain the relationship over
the long term than to “win” in an individual transaction.
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2.2.2 Effective reading and writing strategies
When you read, do you read each and every word? Do you skim over the document and
try to identify key terms and themes? Do you focus on numbers and statistics, or ignore
the text and go straight to the pictures or embedded video? Since people read in many
diverse ways, you as a writer will want to consider how your audience may read and
analyse your document.
Analysing is distinct from reading. When you read, you attempt to grasp the author’s
meaning via words and symbols, and you may come away with a general emotional
feeling about what the writer has written instead of an arsenal of facts. When you analyse
a document, you pay more attention to how the author assembled the information to
present a coherent message. Business writing often involves communication via words
and symbols in ways that meet audience expectations; in many cases, the audience
needs to be able to analyse the content, and reading is secondary. For this reason, a
solid organisational pattern will greatly enhance your document’s effectiveness.
Ever since Benjamin Franklin said that “time is money,” (Franklin, 1748) business
managers have placed a high value on getting work done quickly. Many times, as a result,
a document will be skimmed rather than read in detail. This is true whether the
communication is a one-paragraph e-mail or a twenty-page proposal. If you anticipate
that your document will be skimmed, it behoves you to make your main points stand out
for the reader.
In an e-mail, use a “subject” line that tells the reader the gist of your message before he
or she opens it. For example, the subject line “3 p.m. meeting postponed to 4 p.m.”
conveys the most important piece of information; in the body of the e-mail you may explain
that Wednesday’s status meeting for the XYZ project needs to be postponed to 4 p.m.
because of a conflict with an offsite luncheon meeting involving several XYZ project team
members. If you used the subject line “Wednesday meeting” instead, recipients might
glance at their in-box, think, “Oh, I already know I’m supposed to attend that meeting,”
and not read the body of the message. As a result, they will not find out that the meeting
is postponed.
For a longer piece of writing such as a report or proposal, here are some techniques you
can use to help the reader grasp key points.




Present a quick overview, or “executive summary,” at the beginning of the document.
Use boldface headings as signposts for the main sections and their subsections.
Where possible, make your headings informative; for example, a heading like
“Problem Began in 1992” is more informative than one that says “Background.”
Within each section, begin each paragraph with a topic sentence that indicates what
the paragraph discusses.
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


When you have a list of points, questions, or considerations, format them with bullets
rather than listing them in sentences.
The “bottom line,” generally understood to mean the total cost of a given expenditure
or project, can also refer to the conclusions that the information in the report leads to.
As the expression indicates, these conclusions should be clearly presented at the end
of the document, which is the place where the time-pressed reader will often turn
immediately after reading the first page.
Imagine how unhappy you would be if you submitted a report and your audience came
away with a message completely different from what you had intended. For example,
suppose your manager is considering adopting a specific new billing system in your office
and has asked you to report on the pros and cons of this system. You worked hard,
gathered plenty of information, and wrote a detailed report which, in your opinion, gave
strong support for adopting the new system.
However, the first few pages of your report described systems other than the one under
consideration. Next, you presented the reasons not to implement the new system.
Throughout the report, embedded in the body of several different paragraphs, you
mentioned the advantages offered by the new system; but they were not grouped together
so that you could emphasise them with a heading or other signpost for the reader. At the
end of the report, you reviewed the current billing system and stated that few problems
were encountered with it.
When you delivered your report, the manager and colleagues who received it missed your
most important information and decided not to consider the new system any further.
Worse, your manager later criticised you for spending too much time on the report, saying
it was not very informative. Situations like this can be avoided if you provide a clear
organisational framework to draw your reader’s attention to your main points.
2.2.2.1
Signposts
Signposts (or indicators), are key words that alert the audience to a change in topic, a
tangential explanation, an example, or a conclusion. Readers and listeners can
sometimes be lulled into “losing their place”—forgetting what point is being made or how
far along in the discussion the writer or speaker has gotten. You can help your audience
avoid this by signalling to them when a change is coming. Common signposts include “on
the one hand,” “on the other hand,” “the solution to this problem is,” “the reason for this
is,” “for example,” “to illustrate,” and “in conclusion” or “in summary.”
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2.2.2.2
Clearly definition of terms
Even when you are careful to craft your message clearly and concisely, not everyone will
understand every word you say or write. As an effective business communicator, you
know it is your responsibility to give your audience every advantage in understanding your
meaning.
Yet your presentation would fall flat if you tried to define each and every term — you
would end up sounding like a dictionary. The solution is to be aware of any words you are
using that may be unfamiliar to your audience. When you identify an unfamiliar word, your
first decision is whether to use it or to substitute a more common, easily understood word.
If you choose to use the unfamiliar word, then you need to decide how to convey its
meaning to those in your audience who are not familiar with it. You may do this in a variety
of ways. The most obvious, of course, is to state the meaning directly or to rephrase the
term in different words. But you may also convey the meaning in the process of making
and supporting your points. Another way is to give examples to illustrate each concept or
use parallels from everyday life. Overall, keep your audience in mind and imagine yourself
in their place. This will help you to adjust your writing level and style to their needs,
maximizing the likelihood that your message will be understood.
2.2.2.3
Choose precise words
To increase understanding, choose precise words that paint as vivid and accurate a
mental picture as possible for your audience. If you use language that is vague or
abstract, your meaning may be lost or misinterpreted. Your document or presentation will
also be less dynamic and interesting than it could be. Table 2.1 “Precisely What Are You
Saying?” lists some examples of phrases that are imprecise and precise. Which one
evokes a more dynamic image in your imagination?
Table 2.2 Precisely What Are You Saying?
The famous writer
William Safire died in
2009; he was over
seventy.
The former Nixon speech writer, language authority, and New
York Times columnist William Safire died of pancreatic cancer
in 2009; he was seventy-nine.
Clumber spaniels are
large dogs.
The Clumber Spaniel Club of America describes the breed as
a “long, low, substantial dog,” standing 17 to 20 inches high
and weighing 55 to 80 pounds.
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It is important to eat
a healthy diet during
pregnancy.
Eating a diet rich in whole grains, fruits and vegetables, lean
meats, low-fat dairy products can improve your health during
pregnancy and boost your chances of having a healthy baby.
We are making good
progress on the
project.
In the two weeks since inception, our four-member team has
achieved three of the six objectives we identified for project
completion; we are on track to complete the project in another
three to four weeks.
For the same amount We have examined several proposals in the $10,000 range,
spent, we expected
and they all offer more features than what we see in the
more value added.
$12,500 system ABC Corp. is offering.
Officers were called
to the scene.
Responding to a 911 call, State Police Officers Arellano and
Chavez sped to the intersection of County Route 53 and State
Highway 21.
The victim went
down the street.
The victim ran screaming to the home of a neighbor, Mary
Lee of 31 Orchard Street.
Several different
colorways are
available.
The silk jacquard fabric is available in ivory, moss, cinnamon,
and topaz colorways.
This smartphone has
more applications
than customers can
imagine.
At last count, the BlackBerry Tempest has more than 500
applications, many costing 99 cents or less; users can get
real-time sports scores, upload videos to TwitVid, browse
commuter train schedules, edit e-mails before forwarding, and
find recipes—but so far, it doesn’t do the cooking for you.
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A woman was
heckled when she
spoke at a health
care event.
On August 25, 2009, Rep. Frank Pallone (Democrat of New
Jersey’s 6th congressional district) hosted a “town hall”
meeting on health care reform where many audience
members heckled and booed a woman in a wheelchair as she
spoke about the need for affordable health insurance and her
fears that she might lose her home.
2.2.2.4 Consider your audience
In addition to precise words and clear definitions, contextual clues are important to guide
your audience as they read. If you are speaking to a general audience and choose to use
a word in professional jargon that may be understood by many — but not all — of the
people in your audience, follow it by a common reference that clearly relates its essential
meaning. With this positive strategy you will be able to forge relationships with audience
members from diverse backgrounds. Internal summaries tell us what we’ve heard and
forecast what is to come. It’s not just the words, but also how people hear them that
counts.
If you say the magic words “in conclusion,” you set in motion a set of expectations that
you are about to wrap it up. If, however, you introduce a new point and continue to speak,
the audience will perceive an expectancy violation and hold you accountable. You said
the magic words but did not honour them. One of the best ways to display respect for
your audience is to not exceed the expected time in a presentation or length in a
document. Your careful attention to contextual clues will demonstrate that you are clearly
considering your audience.
2.2.2.5 Take control of your tone
Does your writing or speech sound pleasant and agreeable? Simple or sophisticated? Or
does it come across as stuffy, formal, bloated, ironic, sarcastic, flowery, rude, or
inconsiderate? Recognising our own tone is not always easy, as we tend to read or listen
from our own viewpoint and make allowances accordingly.
Once we have characterised our tone, we need to decide whether and how it can be
improved. Getting a handle on how to influence tone and to make your voice match your
intentions takes time and skill. One useful tip is to read your document out loud before
you deliver it, just as you would practice a speech before you present it to an audience.
Sometimes hearing your own words can reveal their tone, helping you decide whether it
is correct or appropriate for the situation. Another way is to listen or watch others’
presentations that have been described with terms associated with tone. What kind of
tone is best for your intended audience?
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Finally, seek out and be receptive to feedback from teachers, classmates, and coworkers. Do not just take the word of one critic, but if several critics point to a speech as
an example of pompous eloquence, and you don’t want to come across in your
presentation as pompous, you may learn from that example speech what to avoid.
2.2.2.6
Check for understanding
When we talk to each other face-to-face, seeing if someone understood you is not all that
difficult. Even if they really did not get it, you can see, ask questions, and clarify right
away. That gives oral communication, particularly live interaction, a distinct advantage.
Use this immediacy for feedback to your advantage. Make time for feedback and plan for
it. Ask clarifying questions. Share your presentation with more than one person and
choose people that have similar characteristics to your anticipated audience.
If you were going to present to a group that you knew in advance was of a certain age,
sex, or professional background, it would only make sense to connect with someone from
that group prior to your actual performance to check and see if what you have created
and what they expect are similar. In oral communication, feedback is core component of
the communication model and we can often see it, hear it, and it takes less effort to assess
it.
2.2.2.7
Be results oriented
At the end of the day, the assignment has to be complete. It can be a challenge to balance
the need for attention to detail with the need to arrive at the end product—and its due
date. Stephen Covey suggests beginning with the end in mind as one strategy for
success. If you have done your preparation, know your assignment goals, desired results,
have learned about your audience and tailored the message to their expectations, then
you are well on your way to completing the task. No document or presentation is perfect,
but the goal itself is worthy of your continued effort for improvement.
Here the key is to know when further revision will not benefit the presentation and to shift
the focus to test marketing, asking for feedback, or simply sharing it with a mentor or coworker for a quick review. Finding balance while engaging in an activity that requires a
high level of attention to detail can be challenge for any business communicator, but it is
helpful to keep the end in mind.
2.2.2.8
Highlight important sections, ideas and terms
Using headings and subheadings to predict what the text will be about (reading is easier
when you have some knowledge of the content). Also, find the main idea of each
paragraph by identifying the topic sentence. This will make it easier to grasp the main
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ides in the content of the text. Finally, ask questions and give feedback (such as
summaries) as you read in order to gain understanding of the text.
Speed alone will not make you a successful reader. You also need to read with
comprehension. Spend a minute or two thinking about how you are going to fit reading
practice into your everyday life:



2.3
For example, start to notice all the texts around you. Make a point of reading
billboards, taxis, adverts, food packaging and community newspapers. Read all
the time.
Make a point of reading a newspaper every day.
If you do not have a public library card, acquire one immediately. Libraries are free.
Keep trying until you find the kind of books you like to read.
READING AT WORD LEVEL
By increasing the reading that you do, you will increase your vocabulary. This is important
because university study demands an extensive vocabulary. In fact, if you Google
‘university word list’ or ‘academic word list’ you will discover lists of words commonly used
in prescribed books and reading material at university level.
If you tripped over the same stone in your path every morning, wouldn’t you move it out
of the way? What the university word lists show is that you are being slowed down by the
same 200-300 words. Make a rule for yourself that the second time you come across an
unfamiliar word, you will look it up in a dictionary. It makes no sense to attempt to
memorise academic word lists. Instead, read more so that the words start to become
familiar to you and gain meaning from the context in which you read them.
Do not believe that your vocabulary has to stay at its current level. Most people are
capable of adding hundreds of new words to their vocabulary every year. By the time you
graduate, you should have a vocabulary of 20,000 word-families. (To understand what a
word family is, think about why the words ‘create’, ‘creative’, ‘creativity’, ‘recreate’,
‘creating’, ‘creates’ and ‘creation’ are all related.)
In addition to the methods suggested for building up your vocabulary, can you think of
anything else you could do to increase the number of words you recognise on sight?



For example, you could use the many vocabulary puzzles and tests on the Internet
– try doing a word puzzle a day instead of playing Solitaire or communicating on
Facebook.
You could do a daily crossword in the newspaper.
You could pencil in the meanings of new words as you come across them.
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2.3.1 Word recognition
Word recognition refers to your ability to identify many words on sight. For example, you
recognised and understood every single word in the previous sentence as well as this
one. The joy of word recognition is the way it increases your reading speed. You only
have to read a few letters of a familiar word to recognise it. The letters ‘obt…’ rapidly
become ‘obtain’ in your mind, just as the letters ‘mat…’, ‘simu…’, ‘struct…’ and ‘inhi…’
become ‘mature’, ‘simultaneous’, ‘structure’ and ‘inhibit’.
Let’s test your recognition of the most commonly used words used at university level:
ACTIVITY 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
There is an alarming tr….. among teenagers to text rude messages and
nude pictures.
The development is massive: the total construction ar… is 72,900 square
metres.
When you study Phil…., you are studying the meaning of life.
As an accountant, you have to learn how to interp… financial statements.
Although certain uniform accounting practices have been established,
especially under the influence of tax regulations, depreciation rates and
book keeping methods are often arb…….
Accountants usually read the finance sec… of the newspaper first.
The cli…. offers family planning advice and immunisation.
The acceptances are shown on each side of the balance sheet, and va….
considerably from 1% to 38% against the total amount of deposits.
There are several misprints on each page of this te….
What was his mot…. to commit murder?
Quality controllers insp……. all products at the factory.
He accum…. his wealth over a long period of time.
The equity method is a method of accounting by which an equity
investment is init……. recorded at cost and subsequently adjusted to
reflect the investor’s share.
It’s impossible to eva…… these results without knowing about the
research methods that were used.
He finally att….. a position of power in the company.
The story tells about a crime and subs…… punishment.
Positive accounting returns are heavily rewarded, while neg…..
accounting returns are not penalised at all.
This reliance on transactions is both the greatest strength of traditional
accounting, and the source of its inh……. limitations.
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Let’s see how you did in this activity which was designed to test your word recognition.
The completed words were as follows: trend, area, Philosophy, interpret, arbitrary,
section, clinic, vary, text, motive, inspect, accumulate, initially, evaluate, attained,
subsequent, negative, inherent.
Words that you recognise instantly are called ‘sight words’. You may remember that when
you were learning to read, your teacher held up flash cards with words like “cat” and “mat”
on them for you to call out as quickly as you could. Now that you are at university, you
need a much more sophisticated sight vocabulary.
2.3.2 Adjusting to words in context
One of the words that will come up time and again in your university career and beyond
is ‘context’. We discussed context in Learning Unit 1 and described context the
environment, place or conditions in which the communication encounter takes place.
Think of context then as similar in meaning to ‘place’, ‘situation’ or ‘environment’.
Key points to remember about context:



In the case of individual words, context refers to the words that come immediately
before or after. In this sense, context helps us to work out the meaning of unfamiliar
words. For example, if you read the sentence: The proprietor of the hotel said he had
no wish to sell, you should know instantly that the underlined word means ‘owner’. If
you read the sentence: From the lugubrious look on my accountant’s face, I could tell
that the news was bad, you should be able to tell from the context that the underlined
word means ‘sad’ or ‘mournful’. If you read the sentence: I was nearly late for the
exam, which left me feeling completely discombobulated, you might be able to guess
from the context that the underlined word means ‘confused’ or ‘discomposed’.
Context also helps us to identify the specific meaning intended by the author. You
know instantly which meaning of ‘stable’ is referred to in sentences such as: The horse
is in its stable, or The property market is stable.
Context refers to the broader social situation in which communication takes place. For
example, if you give a close friend a terrible fright by coming up behind her and
touching her, and she responds with a laugh and says, “I’m going to kill you”, you
know that she does not mean that she wants you dead.
ACTIVITY 2
Start by finding the definition of ‘context’ and underline it.
 Fix the meaning of ‘context’ in your mind by thinking about the way this
word is used in newspapers. Why do people so often complain that “My
words were quoted out of context?”
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
Read the following story and then answer the questions that follow:
Action film star Jackie Chan caused a huge uproar when he told a business
forum that it might not be good for China to become a free society.
“I’m not sure if it’s good to have freedom or not,” Chan was quoted as
saying. He added that freedom in his native Hong Kong and Taiwan made
those societies “chaotic”. Chan went on to say: “I'm gradually beginning
to feel that we Chinese need to be controlled. If we’re not being controlled,
we’ll just do what we want.”
Many people who read these comments lashed out at Chan, saying that
he did not understand how precious freedom was. Chan’s spokesman
responded by saying that Chan had been quoted out of context.




What is your opinion of this particular example? Are you on Chan’s side,
and, if so, why?
Do an online search for the phrase ‘quoted out of context’. Why do you
think you get so many hits?
Have you ever been quoted out of context?
From now on, try to identify newspaper articles that refer to this problem
of being ‘quoted out of context’.
From this activity, you realise how important context is to communication. Our words gain
their meaning from the context provided by surrounding words and the general
environment or situation in which we utter them. Let’s see how aware you are of context
as you read.
ACTIVITY 3
Use context to help you define the meaning of the underlined words:
 If your website transmits private information like credit card or social
security numbers, an SSL certificate is a must.
 The fund’s managers will then disperse these funds to black-owned
companies.
 The chairperson must convene a meeting of the board.
 How credible are the National Treasury’s revenue projections?
 Inadequate employee benefit schemes expose employees to risk.
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How well did you do? The underlined words had the following meanings: sends, distribute,
arrange, believable, and put into a vulnerable position. Even though you may not know
all these words by sight, context should have helped you to work out what they mean.
2.3.3 Distinguishing between homophones
We learn to speak before we learn to read and write. We hear ‘enuff’, rather than ‘enough’
but our primary education usually sorts that problem out. However, the way we hear words
continues to affect and influence us years later. A homophone is a word that is
pronounced the same (to varying extent) as another word but differs in meaning. A
homophone may also differ in spelling. In other words, homophones are pairs of words
that sound the same, but have distinctly different meanings and different spellings.
Understanding homophones is an essential part of mastering the English language, both
for vocabulary building and spelling.
Some common examples of homophones, including the words used in a sentence, are:










brake/break: When teaching my daughter how to drive, I told her if she didn't hit the
brake in time she would break the car's side mirror.
cell/sell: If you sell drugs, you will get arrested and end up in a prison cell.
cent/scent: I won't spend one cent on a bottle of perfume until I know that I love the
scent.
die/dye: If you accidentally drank a bottle of fabric dye, you might die.
flour/flower: To bake a flower-shaped cake, you’ll need some flour.
for/four: I purchased four new pairs of shoes for my upcoming vacation.
heal/heel: If the heel breaks on your shoe, you might fall. However, your injuries will
heal over time.
hear/here: I wanted to sit here so I could hear the singer performing without any
distractions.
hour/our: We have one hour before our appointment with the real estate agent.
idle/idol: Being idle makes me unhappy, but listening to my idol Taylor Swift makes
me happy.
Some frequently confused homophones include:



accept/except: Accept is a verb that means to take or receive. Except is used as a
preposition or conjunction to mean but or exclude.
affect/effect: Affect is a verb (in most cases) and indicates influence. Effect is a noun
(in most cases) and is the result of an action or change.
compliment/complement: Compliment means to say something nice about someone
or something. Complement means something that enhances or completes.
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


then/than: Then is a versatile word used as an adverb, noun or adjective to show the
order of how things happened. Than is a subordinating conjunction you can use to
make comparisons.
to/too: To can be a preposition or infinitive when used with a verb. Too is an adverb
or a synonym for also.
you're/your: You're is a contraction for you are. Your is a pronoun.
Homophones are primarily a problem in your writing rather than in your reading. However,
the reason why students often confuse the pairs affect / effect and its / it’s does in fact
relate to a reading problem. You should be reading in a way that supports and enhances
your knowledge of spelling and grammar. If you glide over the differences between ‘no’
and ‘know’ or ‘flower’ and ‘flour’, then you are not reading as effectively as you should be.
ACTIVITY 4
Let’s take the example of ‘its’. In only ONE of the following instances, an
apostrophe needs to be inserted to show that the phrase ‘it is’ has been
contracted. Identify the SINGLE error:
 Total South Africa was the first petroleum company in Africa to introduce
Euro 4 trucks into its fleet.
 A Chinese official has confirmed the belief that the country has been
quietly building up its gold reserves.
 An efficient transport system is an essential requirement for the healthy
working of an urban economy, and for the well being of its citizens.
 Armed with R5,6bn in the kitty, the conglomerate is continuing with its
quest to conquer developing markets in Asia, Central and Eastern Europe,
Brazil and India.
 Even though the 2020 model has a slightly sportier look to its
predecessors, I know that its the sort of car a mature man would choose.
How did you do? Congratulations if you managed to spot that I know that it’s the sort of
car a mature man would choose was the only instance where an apostrophe was
required. All the other instances used ‘its’ in its possessive form, when it takes no
apostrophe (think of ‘its’ in the same way you think of ‘his’ and ‘hers’).
ACTIVITY 5
Now test yourself again. In the following activity, you need to find the ONE
instance where the word should be ‘effect’ rather than ‘affect’:
 How does stress affect health?
 Yes, the economic depression looming in the US will affect us all.
 Unfortunately, the reality is that laws and amendments which strive to
create a simpler tax environment have the opposite affect.
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

It can cause delayed ripening which can affect the export of the fruit.
The new Acts will dramatically affect the way financial institutions and
advisors do business.
Congratulations if you spotted that the only instance where the word ‘effect’ was required
was: Unfortunately, the reality is that laws and amendments which strive to create a
simpler tax environment have the opposite effect. Remember that ‘effect’ is the noun
whereas ‘affect’ is the verb. If you are confused about what this means, go back over the
bulleted examples above and note how ‘affect’ is often accompanied by ‘can’ and ‘may’.
This is a sure sign of a verb or action word.
2.3.4 Connotation, implication, and denotation
Connotation, implication, and denotation take you to a deeper level of reading. This
type of reading will become more important to you as your career advances and you need
to ‘read between the lines’. Connotation and denotation, particularly, are two principal
methods of describing the meanings of words. A connotation often means a feeling
connected to the meaning of words. It is like a meaning that you do not find in the
dictionary, but you feel it when you hear the words. In other words, connotations refer to
the emotional suggestions of a word, that are not literal and refer to the wide array of
positive and negative associations that most words naturally carry with them. For
example, “the word ‘ambitious’ can have connotations of selfishness and greed”, or “the
politician’s words had connotations of nationalism.”
An implication is when someone says or does something, but there is another related
thing that follows as a direct result. For example, “when he said he hadn’t talked to her in
a while, the implication was that they broke up”, or “one of the implications of losing his
job is that he’ll probably have to move.”
A denotation, on the other hand, is the direct definition of the word that you find in the
dictionary. A word’s denotation is completely absent of emotion. For example, “the
blueberry is very blue.” We understand this sentence by its denotative meaning—it
describes the literal colour of the fruit.
Think about the statement “Susie is very blue.”
If we understand this second sentence by its denotative meaning, it would mean that
Susie is literally the colour blue. However, we understand this sentence by its connotative
meaning, which is that Susie is sad.
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Try to fix the difference between connotation and denotation in your mind by thinking
about two examples:


A student complained that she did not like it when her grandmother described her as
looking ‘fresh’. This was puzzling to her lecturer, who knew that the word ‘fresh’, when
applied to a person, has the denotation ‘healthy’. The student explained that to her
grandmother, ‘healthy’ meant ‘plump’. The student did not like this connotation of the
word ‘fresh’. She knew that her grandmother was implying that she was fat.
The word ‘sexy’ has become quite overused. Its original dictionary meaning
(denotation) was ‘arousing desire’, but it has acquired connotations of ‘new’ and
‘trendy’.
You are probably much better at identifying connotation than you think. In each of the
following pairs, quickly underline the word with the more positive connotation:


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


Inquisitive – Nosy.
Miserly – Thrifty.
Vain – Proud.
Vintage – Old.
Relaxed – Lazy.
Cowardly – Prudent.
Do you recognise this conversation?
A:
B:
“You’re very voluptuous.
“Do you mean I’m fat?”
Take note of these types of conversation from now on because they will help you to
understand connotation and implication. When people do not exactly state what they
mean, you have to work out what they are implying. If you hear or read a statement such
as “This company is facing tough times ahead”, you need to be alert to its possible
implications. Is the speaker referring to possible retrenchments, a share price drop, or a
takeover?
ACTIVITY 6
What are the implications of the following text?
“In many developing countries, people are moving from rural areas to megacities, where they continue to practice subsistence agriculture.” “These large
concentrations of people, domestic animals, and poor sanitation and water
supply create many opportunities for disease transmission.”
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Choose the correct answer:
a) There is not enough housing for the poor.
b) Subsistence agriculture will soon be replaced by modern methods.
c) Global conditions are ripe for the spread of epidemics.
In answering this question, you needed to remember that an implication is something that
is not stated directly in a text. Instead, the details in the text point in the direction of a
certain implication. In this case, the text described global demographic trends which point
in the direction of the threat of epidemics.
2.4
READING AT SENTENCE LEVEL
In the previous section we introduce you to reding at word level, which required that you
attend to the individual words or groups of words such as nouns/ noun groups. Reading
at sentence level, discussed in this section requires examination of the ways in which
clauses are combined or how clauses relate to each other.)
Spend a minute or two thinking about the difference between these sentence types and
how they affect the way we communicate.





A directive can be rude or polite: “Shut up!” “Please be quiet.” Have you ever been
offended by a directive?
How do you feel about the way shop assistants or service personnel tell you to
“Enjoy your day”? Do you pass on messages such as “Tell Lynda I say ‘Hi’”?
How do you feel when a politician or businessman says: “I will not be taking
questions, but I will be making a statement”?
What makes one question ‘good’ and another one ‘prying’ or ‘invasive’?
Do you have a favourite or habitual exclamation: “Amazing!” “Lovely!” “Great!”?
Do you ever feel annoyed by these types of exclamation?
2.4.1 Sentence types
There are four types of English sentence, classified by their purpose




Declarative sentence (statement) - declarative sentences make a statement. They tell
us something. They give us information, and they normally end with a full-stop/period.
“I like coffee”, is an example of a declarative statement.
Interrogative sentence (question) - interrogative sentences ask a question. They ask
us something. They want information, and they always end with a question mark.
imperative sentence (command) - imperative sentences give a command. They tell us
to do something, and they end with a full-stop/period (.) or exclamation mark/point (!).
Exclamative Sentence (exclamation) - exclamative sentences express strong
emotion/surprise — an exclamation! They always end with an exclamation mark/point
(!).
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This section introduced you to a very simple grammatical distinction. Later, we will
introduce you to more complex grammatical features. Try to stay ahead by applying each
new bit of grammatical knowledge immediately to the world around you. Become alert to
language, and you will find these chapters easier to follow.
2.4.2 Linking words
You have undoubtedly at least once in your life felt a deep sense of relief when a speaker
uses the phrase “in conclusion”. This is just one of the many words and phrases which
signal an author or speaker’s intention. A transition or linking word (also referred to as a
signpost word) is a word or phrase that shows the relationship between paragraphs or
sections of a text or speech. Transitions provide greater cohesion by making it more
explicit or signalling how ideas relate to one another. Transitions are "bridges" that "carry
a reader from section to section." Linking words help you to connect ideas and sentences
when you speak or write English. We can use linking words to give examples, add
information, summarise, sequence information, give a reason or result, or to contrast
ideas. Some examples of linking words are:


















And
In addition
As well as
Also
Too
Furthermore
Moreover
In summary
To summarise
In a nutshell
To conclude
In conclusion
Therefore
So
Consequently
This means that
Because
Since
Signpost words, as we discussed earlier on as well. are well-named because they indicate
which direction the writer is going in. To take just one example - the word ‘however’
generally introduces a complete switch in direction as a writer shows a different
perspective of a situation.
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2.4.2 How punctuation affects meaning
Punctuation primarily helps to indicate the pauses and the emphasis on certain ideas or
thoughts that are discussed in the text. Particularly, in academic writing, it is essential to
accurately use punctuation as it helps to strengthen arguments that are made in the text.
Even the smallest detail on a printed page contributes somehow to the meaning an author
creates. Perhaps the smallest of these details is punctuation. Punctuation marks may
look small, but they have a big impact on our ability to read well. Without them, we would
be at sea. Writing formally in English is more than just choosing the right words in the
right order. Using punctuation in your writing helps the reader to clearly understand the
message that is being conveyed. A wrongly used punctuation or a missing punctuation
can change the entire meaning of a sentence. Punctuation primarily helps to indicate the
pauses and the emphasis on certain ideas or thoughts that are discussed in the text.
Particularly, in academic writing, it is essential to accurately use punctuation as it helps
to strengthen arguments that are made in the text. Punctuation is essential and is used
to convey and clarify the meaning of written language. It is such simple marks as the full
stop or the comma, and the more complex ones of semicolons and hyphens. Getting
punctuation wrong can change the entire meaning of a sentence.
 Commas
A comma (,) tells the reader when to pause in a sentence. Most importantly, commas help
make things clear in a sentence. They can separate ideas or events. Perhaps more than
any other punctuation mark, the omission or improper use of commas can have
confusing, hilarious, or even life-threatening consequences for your writing in English.
Look at this sentence, with and without its comma:
Let’s eat Bob.
Let’s eat, Bob.
If you don’t see why the comma is so important here, glance at your friend Bob as you
read the first sentence. He should look extremely worried. In the first sentence, the
implication is that everyone wants to “eat” Bob, as he is the item on the menu. While the
second since indicates that the speaker wants Bob to join him for “lunch” (or some meal).
 Quotation marks
Quotations (“”) are used for lots of things, but probably the most important way we use
quotations is to “quote” someone’s exact words. Aside from their use in speech and
quotations from books, quotation marks are often used by writers to put distance between
them and the words. It’s the same as when we use air quotes to say we disapprove or
disagree with something.
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So, if I write that this study guide was written by a “professional” writer, that’s quite an
insult to me. Unfortunately, these quotation marks are overused in English and you will
see them in lots of places they shouldn’t be. Would you buy a sandwich that was made
“fresh”? Or perhaps you would like to have a deep and meaningful conversation with a
“real” person? No, me neither.
 Hyphens
Hyphen is used to join two or more words together into a compound term and is not
separated by spaces. Like quotation marks above, hyphens are often misused in English,
even by native speakers. Their importance is also underestimated, but they too can
change the whole meaning of a sentence. Would you be able to tell the difference if your
boss offered you these alternatives: ‘twenty-four hour shifts’ or ‘twenty four-hour shifts’?
In the former, your hours would be long. In the latter, you’d be doing a lot of short shifts.
It’s certainly worth checking the difference.
Look at these two signs and decide which would make you be more cautious:
Caution! Man eating crocodiles.
Caution! Man-eating crocodiles.
If you’re human, which I presume you are, then you should be more scared of the second
one. (If you’re a crocodile, then it’s the first.).
 Question mark
The question mark simply indicates that a sentence is asking a question. It always comes
at the end of a sentence: For e.g. What is your name?
 Exclamation mark
An exclamation mark (!) adds strong feelings like joy or fear to a sentence. “To exclaim”
is to say something with excitement, and that’s just what an exclamation mark does—it
exclaims! Since they add excitement, it’s also important not to overuse them. For
example:
Don't pick that!
I just heard the news – congratulations!
 Period (or full stop)
The period (.) is placed at the end of statements thought to be complete and after many
abbreviations. For example:
Jane and Jack went to the market.
Mr. Sharma is back.
There are various set rules about how punctuation must be used, but in other respects,
English grammar is full of exceptions and irregularities. Punctuation, on the other hand,
is logical and predictable. Can you think of other punctuation marks?
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ACTIVITY 7
What does the punctuation in the following numbered list tell you as the
reader?
 Go to your myUnisa site and find the online resource related to clauses.
Study this resource and then complete this activity.
 Find one example where a person’s job title is placed inside commas.
 Find two examples where a comma and a conjunction introduce another
independent clause (a clause that could stand alone as a sentence in its
own right).
 Find two examples where the punctuation indicates a list.
 Find an example where non-essential information is placed between
dashes.
1. Revenue growth is down significantly from the double-digit figures we saw
over the last couple of years at only 5.7%, and that’s before the effects of
the credit crunch are taken into account.
2. Alan Greenspan, former chairman of the United States Federal Reserve
Board, claimed that you could tell if an economy was in recession by
tracking the sales of men’s underpants.
3. Oxford University compiled a list of the most irritating phrases in the
English language: (1) At the end of the day; (2) Fairly unique;
(3) I personally; (4) At this moment in time; (5) With all due respect; (6)
Absolutely; (7) It’s a nightmare; (8) Shouldn’t of; (9) 24/7; (10) It’s not
rocket science.
4. You can work through an unprofitable period with well-managed cash flow,
but even profitable businesses don’t last long without cash.
5. Three reports are typically generated in financial accounting: the balance
sheet, which summarises the firm’s assets and liabilities; the income
statement, which reports the firm’s gross proceeds, expenses, and profit
or loss; and the statement of cash flow, which analyses the flow of cash
into and out of the firm.
6. The earth and all its creatures and plants -- all things, in fact, that the earth
produces -- belong to all men.
This activity alerted you to the importance of keeping your eyes open to punctuation.


One example where a person’s job title is placed inside commas:
Alan Greenspan, former chairman of the United States Federal Reserve Board,
Two examples where a comma and a conjunction introduce another independent
clause
1.
… only 5.7%, and that’s before…
2.
… well-managed cash flow, but…
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

2.5
Two examples where the punctuation indicates a list:
Three reports are typically generated in financial accounting: the balance sheet,
which summarizes the firm’s assets and liabilities; the income statement, ...
An example where non-essential information is placed between dashes:
The earth and all its creatures and plants -- all things, in fact, that the earth
produces -- belong to all men.
INCREASING READING SPEED AND EFFICIENCY
Think about your own study methods and look at yourself from the outside, is very
important. Self-reflexive students, who monitor their own habits, have a better chance of
breaking bad habits and adopting good ones. The tips for faster reading reveal an
interesting problem that may be phrased something like this: The slower you read, the
slower you’ll read. Reading slowly makes you feel bored. Boredom makes you reluctant
to read. The tips suggest a number of practical ways in which you can force yourself to
read faster. As with all difficult things in life (losing weight, giving up smoking, getting fit,
etc.) the main incentive is the wonderful end result. Imagine how much more free time
you’ll have if you read faster. You will be happier, more confident and more optimistic.
The rest of the chapter goes on to show you more practical tips for becoming a better
reader:
ACTIVITY 8
While the ideas of this chapter are still fresh in your mind, pick up any text (a
newspaper, a magazine, or a textbook that you have to read) and try to
implement the following basic reading principles:
 Skim the text first to predict what it will be about.
 Try to read faster than you normally read.
 Use context to work out the meaning of unfamiliar words.
 Ask questions and interact with the text.
 Spot the main idea or keywords in each paragraph and underline them.
We hope that this activity proved to you that by becoming conscious of your reading
technique, you will gradually start to read faster and with greater comprehension.
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2.6
SUMMARY
Reading well and with enthusiasm is crucial to your personal and academic success.
People who read slowly tend to dislike reading. They do poorly in their studies and
careers. To increase your reading speed, try to move your eyes more quickly over the
page, taking in chunks at a time rather than reading word-for-word. The more words you
recognise, the faster you’ll read, so you need to work on increasing your vocabulary. Use
context to help you understand what you are reading – you may not understand the word
you are staring at, but let the surrounding words give you a clue. Always think about what
it is that you are reading. Ask questions and consider implications. Remember that
communication is interactive: try to see books as people you can have a conversation
with, disagree with, love, or hate.
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LEARNING UNIT 3
ENGLISH GRAMMAR TOOLKIT
Photo by Brett Jordan on Unsplash
Free to use under the Unsplash License
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Learning outcomes for this unit
 Recognise the importance of English grammar
 Apply the different grammar rules in texts
Key questions
How does your use of grammar affect the way people judge you?
What are your particular problems when it comes to English grammar?
How well do you know the inflections we add to the base word in English?
Do you know how to use a dictionary to help you with grammar?
Can you learn to fix the errors you make?
Key concepts
Base word; inflections; plural; possessive; apostrophe; third person singular; subject-verb
agreement; past participle; contracted negative; objective pronoun; object; subject; verb;
present participle; comparative; superlative; compound words; word classes; dictionaries;
nouns; noun pairs; adverbs; adjectives; sentences; clauses; simple sentences; complex
sentences; and sentence elements.
3.1
INTRODUCTION
We have provided some important resources related to English grammar on myUnisa.
You need to access these resources and study them carefully before completing the
activities in this learning unit. We introduce you to some basic terminology for
understanding English grammar and provide you with a handy reference to the most
common errors we make in English and how to fix them. Do not be put off by the word
‘grammar’. As we work through the chapter together, you will realise that grammar need
not be dry and boring, and that it is possible to understand it without pain!
The way you personally use grammar affects the way important people (employers and
clients) see you. However, there is no need to ‘study’ grammar as a whole. All you need
to do is to use the chapter to identify your personal weak points and commit yourself to
working on the errors you know you make regularly.
It is very important to develop an awareness of how language is used in the world around
you. How will you do this? Read, listen and notice. Look at public signs and headlines,
think about the way people around you use language, and get actively involved in the
business of language.
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ACTIVITY 1
Let’s start off your study of grammar by seeing whether you can correct your
grammar in your latest assignment. Work on your grammar with a pencil in
your book or write out a clean version in your notebook.
How well did you do? Did you find errors in your grammar and language?
In this activity, you focussed on fixing your own grammar, which is our real focus in this
learning unit - getting you to recognise and repair your own sentence errors.
3.2
THE BASE WORD AND ITS INFLECTIONS
Your study of grammar begins with a look at the structure of individual words. Do not be
frightened by the terms ‘base words’ and ‘inflections’: you already know what base words
and inflections are. Inflections are the affixes (prefixes and suffixes) we add to the
beginning and end of words (base words). We also make you aware of plurals. What do
you understand by these terms? How can they be used in your writing?
ACTIVITY 2
Now fill in your own examples in order to show that you understand each of
the following:
 How a prefix changes a base word (try adding a prefix to the word ‘connect’
or to the word ‘use’).
 How a suffix or inflection at the end of a base word changes it (try adding
a suffix or inflection to the end of ‘peace’, ‘home’, ‘run’, ‘cope’ or ‘head’).
 How adding one word to another can create a completely new word (try
adding words to ‘peace’, ‘home’ and ‘head’).
How did you do? With prefixes you may have created misuse, abuse, disuse, disconnect
and reconnect. With suffixes and inflections, you may have created peaceful,
peacefulness, peaceable, homely, runs, headed, coping, coped, and copes. By adding
words together, you could have created peacetime, peacemaker, homework, homeward,
homesick, homeland, homeless, homebody, runner, running, runaway, runabout, runway,
headstrong, headphone, headquarters, headstone, header, headache, headboard,
headline, headmaster and headway.
3.2.1 Plural
English plurals can be tricky. Why is the plural of house ‘houses’, but the plural of mouse
‘mice’? Why do we refer to chiefs, but then turn leaf into leaves?
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Think of any plural forms that are unfamiliar to you. Do an online search to populate a list
of plurals to help you with this task.
ACTIVITY 3
Check that you have grasped the plural by correcting the underlined words:
 Journalists had their knifes out for the CEO of the disgraced company.
 Before you eat salmons, tunas and other fishes, you should check to see
whether they are on an endangered list.
 I seldom cook a meal without using potato’s and tomato’s.
 The staff wanted to know about bonusses.
 I would love to add a few zero’s to my salary cheque.
 You might hesitate to employ someone who had tattoes on his face.
 When I got to London I found that I could buy nothing for ten pennies.
 Woman are very difficult.
 Saturday and Sunday are oasises in my week.
 I need some informations about flight times.
How did you do? Your corrections should have included: knives, salmon, tuna, fish,
potatoes, tomatoes, bonuses, zeros, tattoos, pence, women, oases, and information. If
you got full marks, move on fast. If not, spend a moment making notes here.
3.2.2 Possessive
Just as humans are possessive, so words can show possession too. If I refer to “My
uncle’s hat” then I am referring to his possession. We show possession using the
punctuation mark known as the apostrophe. This section teaches you the correct use of
the apostrophe in English. Read the resource related to possessive forms, on myUnisa,
and highlight the following rules as you come to them:



The apostrophe s (-’s) shows that someone or something possesses something
else.
The word ‘it’s’, however, does NOT show possession. It means ‘it is’. Like ‘hers’
and ‘his’, the possessive ‘its’ is written without an apostrophe.
When a plural word ending in -s takes the possessive, a bare apostrophe is used,
for example, ‘the workers’ demands’.
ACTIVITY 4
Check your grasp of the apostrophe by correcting the following:
South Africas demand for credit went up in April, but economists say its unlikely
to be a big factor at the Reserve Banks Repo meeting, when the bank makes
its interest rate decision.
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How did you manage? Your answer should look as follows:
South Africa’s demand for credit went up in April, but economists say it’s unlikely to be a
big factor at the Reserve Bank’s Repo meeting, when the bank makes its interest rate
decision.
3.2.3 Third person singular
You probably recognise the following sentences as wrong:



Snow melt very fast.
René Mulder investigate crimes.
In this podcast, Wayne McCurrie tell Chris Gibbons that a 100bps rate cut is more
than likely.
You are correct if you noticed that in each case, the verb requires an ‘-s’ ending.
Again, read the information related to third person singular words on myUnisa to
understand what this means. Now go back to the bulleted examples above. You will notice
that the words ‘snow’, ‘René’, and ‘Wayne’ could all be replaced by a third person singular
pronoun:
snow = it.
René = she.
Wayne = he.
Verbs belonging to the third person singular require an -s ending: snow melts; René
investigates; Wayne tells.
Why is subject verb such a common error if these examples seem so simple? There are
some tricky rules to remember. Revise the following rules:





If the subject is singular, then the verb remains singular even if there is an
intervening plural: One of the numbers which is currently being investigated is
possibly Unisa’s switchboard number.
If the alternatives offered in an ‘either … or’ sentence are singular, the verb must
be singular: Either the Dean of Arts or the Dean of Students is going to contact
you.
The word ‘each’ must be followed by a singular verb: Each of the five winners
receives a voucher.
Two singular nouns joined by ‘and’ take a plural verb, unless they are considered
by custom to be a single thing: Renault and Peugeot are French car
manufacturers; BUT Eggs and bacon is my favourite breakfast.
Use a singular verb when two singular nouns are separated by ‘or’: An orange or
an apple is a good snack.
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
Amounts of money take a singular verb: R13million is the total I get.
Experienced users of the English language battle with these particular constructions.
Study the following example particularly carefully, as the most common error is to become
confused by intervening plural words:
 The detective said that one of the telephone numbers that are being investigated
is the University of Stellenbosch switchboard.
The verb should be singular in order to agree with the subject ‘one’:
 The detective said that one of the telephone numbers that is being investigated is the
University of Stellenbosch switchboard.
3.2.4 Past participle
The term ‘past participle’ refers to the inflection that shows the past tense: the grass
burned, the children laughed, the car hooted. Even when the past is formed in an irregular
way (without the -ed ending) we still call it the past participle: the match has begun,
studies have shown, a boy was hurt, the lesson you have learnt. Continue perusing your
online resources, available on myUnisa, in order to understand these grammar rules.
In addition to acting as a past tense verb, the past participle functions as an adjective:
This restaurant really is off the beaten track!
Have you submitted the required documents?
Do you like baked apples?
He’s staying in a rented room.
She bought frozen fish.
ACTIVITY 5
Check your understanding of the past participle by filling in the correct form of
the verb in brackets:
 After the fire, assessors examined the (burn) warehouse.
 Calculate how much money we have (lose).
 The book that he had (write) became a best seller.
 The (choose) few were invited to dinner.
 He was (swear) to secrecy.
 The interest rate has (creep) up.
How did you do? The correct answers were: burnt, lost, written, chosen, sworn, and crept.
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3.2.5 Contracted negative
When you say, “I can’t”, “I won’t”, “I shouldn’t”, “I mustn’t”, then you are using the
contracted negative. Once again, continue perusing your online resources, available on
myUnisa, in order to understand these grammar rules.
Contracted negatives are easy enough to understand, but not always so easy to spell.
The contracted negative refers to words like ‘doesn’t’ and ‘couldn’t’, where two words (for
example, could + not) are drawn together and shortened.
ACTIVITY 6
Check your use of contracted negatives by turning all of the following
sentences into negatives. The first one has been done for you:
 They were asking questions.
They weren’t asking questions.
 He opened the door.
 She is answering the phone.
 She does invest in unit trusts.
 They are happy.
How did you do? Your verbs should have looked as follows: didn’t open, isn’t answering,
doesn’t invest, aren’t happy.
3.2.6 Objective pronoun
Why can’t we say: “I don’t understand he?” or “I went to visit they”?
The problem with these sentences is that the second pronoun needs to be changed into
its object case (him or them).
Once again, continue perusing your online resources, available on myUnisa, in order to
understand these grammar rules.
Objective pronouns are not that difficult to understand. Pronouns change according to
whether they are subjects (performing the action) or objects (receiving the action):
I (subject) don’t understand him (object).
We (subject) visited them (object).
Most people make a mistake in their choice of ‘I’ or ‘me’:
 Jane and me were talking in the passageway.
 Jane and I (subject) were talking in the passageway.
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 Our colleagues complained about Jane and I.
 Our colleagues complained about Jane and me (object).
You can correct your own writing by thinking about which form of the pronoun you would
choose if the ‘Jane and...’ element were not there. Instinctively, you will know that the
following are wrong:
 Me was talking in the passageway.
 Colleagues complained about I.
ACTIVITY 7
Apply the simple rule above as you choose between ‘I’ and ‘me’ in the following
examples:
 Thabo and (me / I) are going over the records right now.
 When you’re finished, please report back to Thabo and (me / I).
 Who will be doing the audit? Thabo or (me / I)?
How did you do in these three examples? The correct answers were: I, me, I. You
probably noticed that ‘I’ tends to occur at the beginning of sentences, whereas ‘me’ fits at
the end. This is because in English, the subject (in this case, ‘I’) tends to go at the
beginning of sentences, whereas the object (in this case, ‘me’) tends to go at the end of
sentences.
3.2.7 -ing and -ed form
Do you remember learning about the past participle? When you answer the following
questions in full sentences, you will be supplying a present participle:



Where are you studying?
Where are you sitting right now?
What are you thinking about at this moment?
If your answers were something like: I am studying at Unisa; I am sitting in my room; and
I am thinking about my finances; then you have supplied good examples of the correct
use of the present participle.
ACTIVITY 8
Now answer the following questions in full sentences:
 What time do you wake up in the morning?
 Where do you live?
 How do you get to work every day?
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

What did you most like to do as a child?
How did you get to school as a child?
If your answers were something like: I wake up at 6 a.m.; I live in Mamelodi; I travel to
work by taxi; I liked to play soccer as a child; and I walked to school; then you have
correctly used tense to describe a present or past habit.
South Africans tend to use the present participle incorrectly to describe a habit.
ACTIVITY 9
Test yourself by choosing the correct option in each of the following cases:
 I (am catching / catch) the train to town every morning.
 The player (was catching / caught) the ball in a great save.
 The player (was catching / caught) the ball when a spectator ran onto the
field.
 I (was playing / played) in the veld as a child.
 I (am finishing / finish) some work right now, but I can speak to you later.
How did you do? The correct answers were: catch, caught, was catching, played, and
am finishing. As you can see from this activity, the present participle is only used to
describe an action that someone is engaged in right at that very moment.
3.2.8 -er and -est comparison
Are you the same height as your mother or father? Are you as happy now as when you
were a child? Have your study methods improved since school?
Think about the answers you gave to these questions. If you answered with sentences
such as the following, then you used the -er inflection to create a comparison:
I am taller than my mother.
I am happier now than I was when I was at school.
I am better at studying now.
Once again, continue perusing your online resources, available on myUnisa, in order to
understand these grammar rules. The comparative and the superlative (best, happiest,
richest) are only a problem when one of the following rules is broken:


Long adjectives do not take -er or -est: they are made into comparatives or
superlatives through the use of the words ‘more’ and ‘most’ (more beautiful; most
successful).
Adjectives which already end in -er or -est cannot be preceded by ‘more’ or ‘most’
( more lovelier;  most best).
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

Unique adjectives do not take ‘more’ or ‘most’ ( more unique;  more perfect).
Some adjectives form the comparative and the superlative in an irregular way
(little, less, least; good, better, best; bad, worse, worst; many, more, most).
ACTIVITY 10
Check your understanding of the -er and -est inflections by correcting each of
the following sentences:
 Philip’s essay was more better than mine.
 The acting was bad, but the singing was even more bad.
 It was the most uniquest sight.
 I always thought my sister was more clever than I was.
 Jonas’ artwork is definitely originaler than Redi’s.
How did you do? Your answers should have been as follows:





Philip’s essay was better than mine.
The acting was bad, but the singing was even worse.
It was a unique sight.
I always thought my sister was cleverer than I was.
Jonas’ artwork is definitely more original than Redi’s.
As with all the grammatical rules in that you have been acquainted to up to know,
remember that your primary concern is to spot the errors you make and put in an effort to
correct them. If you do not make an error, do not worry about the rule.
3.3
COMPOUND WORDS
What do the following words have in common: fishwife, lame-brain, point-blank, game
plan, free will, heavyweight, puppy-fat?
Well done if you saw that all of these words are formed out of two separate words which
come together to form a new concept. These are called compound words.
Once again, continue perusing your online resources, available on myUnisa, in order to
understand these grammar rules. Compound words are tricky to spell and sometimes
tricky to look up in the dictionary because they may be formed in three ways:
1. Two words are joined together to form one (rainwater; yearend).
2. Two words are separated by a hyphen (money-spinner; shake-up).
3. Two words stand next to each other (question mark; exercise book).
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ACTIVITY 11
Test your vocabulary by seeing how many compound words you can form with
‘book’. Use your dictionary to decide whether the words should be written as
one, or with a hyphen, or separately.
How did you do? You may have come up with some of the following: book club, bookend, book in, book up, book value, bookbinder, bookcase, bookkeeper, bookmaker,
bookseller and bookworm.
Look out for new words entering the English language in this way. As we write this, the
Oxford dictionary has listed the following compounds as new entries in the English
language:
Shoulder-surfing: The practice of spying on the user of a cash-dispensing machine, or
other electronic device, in order to obtain their personal identification number, password,
etc.
Blowback: The unintended adverse results of a political action or situation.
3.4
WORD CLASSES
Once again, continue perusing your online resources, available on myUnisa, in order to
understand these grammar rules. You will learn that there are various word classes as
found. This section merely wants to check that you still remember the terminology you
learnt at school. The terminology is not important in itself, but it does help us to talk about
certain aspects of language.
ACTIVITY 12
Check your understanding of the word classes by indicating whether the
underlined word is a noun, adjective, pronoun, verb, adverb, preposition,
conjunction or interjection:
 Standard Bank is South Africa’s biggest lender.
 Crucially, Mboweni is arguing that banks should lower the margin at which
they lend to customers at a time when their lending businesses are losing
cash.
 But bank registrar Errol Kruger says bank profits aren’t falling off a
precipice.
How did you do? The answers were as follows: verb, adjective, adverb, verb, pronoun,
noun, pronoun, conjunction, verb, preposition, and noun.
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As you check your answers, remember that a word can change its word class depending
on context. So, in the example above, ‘lower’ is a verb (referring to the action of bringing
down), but in another context it might be an adjective (referring to the state of being low).
3.4.1 How dictionaries help
This section provides a quick reminder about the importance of dictionaries. Dictionaries
help by:


Providing grammatical information (correct spelling, plurals, inflections, word classes,
etc.); and
Extending your vocabulary.
ACTIVITY 13
Look up the word ‘pay’ \ If you look up the word ‘pay’, you will discover the
following phrases. Run through them now to see how many you can define on
your own. Use a dictionary to check the meaning of the rest:
 in the pay of
 paid holidays
 paid-up member
 pay-day
 pay dearly
 pay dirt
 pay for
 pay in
 paying guest
 pay one’s way
 pay one’s last respects
 pay back
 pay the piper and call the tune
 pay through the nose
 put paid to
How did you do? Compare your definitions to the ones below:





in the pay of – employed by
paid holidays – an agreed holiday period during which wages are paid as normal (in
contrast with ‘unpaid leave’)
paid-up member – a person, especially a trade union member, who has paid his / her
membership
pay-day – the day salaries are paid
pay dearly – obtain at great cost or effort; suffer for
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









pay dirt – a financially promising situation
pay for – bear the cost of
pay in – pay money into an account
paying guest – boarder
pay one’s way – cover one’s own costs
pay one’s last respects – attend a funeral
pay back – revenge; punishment
pay the piper and call the tune – have control over something by paying for it
pay through the nose – pay much more than a fair price
put paid to – terminate
Try to extend your vocabulary every day by looking up unfamiliar words and by being
curious about new words and phrases that you hear.
3.4.2 Noun and verb pairs
One of the top 10 grammatical complaints is the confusion of noun and verb pairs. These
are words which sound similar or the same but are spelt differently according to whether
they are functioning as a noun or a verb.
The troublesome pairs are: affect/effect; advise/advice; devise/device; believe/belief; and
prove/proof. Do you know the difference between the words in each pair?
These pairs may seem unimportant to you, but educated people regularly use them as a
way of judging you and your level of education.
ACTIVITY 14
Check your language competence by choosing the correct option in the
sentences that follow:
 In economics and business, a network affect/effect (also called network
externality) is the affect/effect that one user of a product or service has
on the value of that product or service to other people.
 How will the recession affect/effect business travel?
 Debt collection agencies advice/advise businesses about collecting bad
debt.
 Here is some streetwise advice/advise on how to handle the tax issues
that arise from owning your own business.
 Your credit card statement might not proof/prove a tax deduction.
 What information does the proof/prove of registration contain?
How did you do? Your answers should have been: effect, effect, affect, advise, advice,
prove, and proof. If your answers were all correct, then you have nothing to worry about.
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If you struggled with this exercise, then you will need to develop a habit of self-checking
and self-correction. Make a mental note of the pairs that confuse you, and always pause
before you make a choice between them in written documents.
3.4.3 Adverbs that cause trouble
Once again, continue perusing your online resources, available on myUnisa, in order to
understand these grammar rules. This section is for reading through and quickly noting.
Apart from the pair formerly/formally, which have very different meanings you will
frequently hear people using the adverb ‘literally’ incorrectly. Listen to the people around
you as they say things such as:
My children are literally tearing my heart out.
My head literally exploded when I read my bank statement.
Full marks if you spotted that the word ‘literally’ is used incorrectly in these sentences:
‘literally’ means “it really happened – this is not a metaphor or a figure of speech”. Go
back to the two examples above. Of course the children did not literally tear anyone’s
heart out. It would also be impossible for your head to literally explode because your
bank statement was so shocking.
‘Literally’ is, however, an interesting example of language change. Because so many
people use the word to add intensity to their sentences, ‘literally’ may end up meaning
something more like ‘completely’ or ‘absolutely’.
The best advice we can give you, is to listen to the world around you. Be curious about
the expressions people use. Become an observer of language, and one day you will be
an expert.
3.4.4 Adjectives that cause trouble
Once again, continue perusing your online resources, available on myUnisa, in order to
understand these grammar rules. Also conduct an online search for frequently confused
pairs of adjectives, such as disinterested (neutral) and uninterested (not interested). Go
through the examples that you have found online and make notes of the pairs that you
know you personally confuse.
ACTIVITY 15
Test yourself by choosing the correct option in each of the following sentences:
 The ombudsman should conduct himself in a disinterested/ uninterested
way.
 Are you eligible/illegible for election?
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


Your statement that the robber left with the customers is
ambiguous/ambivalent.
I am averse/adverse to the idea of a merger.
We all want to know what will happen in the event of an imminent/eminent
takeover.
How did you do? The first word in each of the above pairs was the correct one
(disinterested, eligible, ambiguous, averse, and imminent). In these cases, our ears and
eyes are occasionally confused because the words sound or look similar. Wherever
possible, ask a third party to help you proofread your documents so that errors like these
do not creep in inadvertently.
3.5
SENTENCES
In this section, you will learn the difference between three types of sentence, namely:
simple, compound and complex. A simple sentence has one main clause, a compound
sentence has two, and a complex sentence has several.
Do not be dismayed by the term ‘clause’. A clause is simply a part of a sentence that
could stand on its own. For example, take the following complex sentence:
Economic theory attempts to explain how people behave, and economists can use
utility to analyse consumer choice although no consumer has ever seen or
measured a unit of utility.
This sentence can be broken up into the following clauses: (1) Economic theory attempts
to explain how people behave + (2) economists can use utility to analyse consumer choice
+ (3) no consumer has ever seen a unit of utility + (4) no consumer has ever measured a
unit of utility.
Thus, when you are out spotting clauses, all you need to ask is: “Could this part of the
sentence stand on its own as a sentence?”
How is this information about simple, compound and complex sentences important from
your point of view? Obviously, the simpler (and shorter) your sentences, the less likely
you are to make an error. However, we make the mistake of thinking that simple
sentences are babyish. This is far from being the case:
When I think about what you are doing, I wonder if you realise the effect you are
having on me. It hurts.
As you can see from this example, a short sentence following a long one has great impact.
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ACTIVITY 16
The most common error is to form a complex sentence by simply inserting a
comma between clauses. Consider the following weak student sentence:
He passed away in August 2001, in a terrible car accident, he was the only
one who died, he was with colleagues in that accident.
How would you fix this sentence? (Tip: try using words such as ‘while’, ‘which’
or ‘when’ to help you tighten the meaning of the sentence.)
How did you do? Here are some ways you could have rearranged the sentence:



In August 2001, while travelling with colleagues, he was involved in a terrible car
accident which claimed him as its only victim.
He was the only one who died in a terrible car accident which occurred in August
2001, when he was with colleagues.
He was in a car with colleagues when a terrible accident claimed his life in August
2001.
When you work with longer sentences, be prepared to put in a little more effort in order
to make your meaning clear.
3.6
SENTENCE ELEMENTS
The main elements of a sentence, comprise of the subject, verb, object, adverbial and
complement. Read this section in your online resource on myUnisa now.
As your reading shows, each sentence element may consist of several words:


More cars (S) will be repossessed (V) as a result of the economic downturn (A).
University grants (S) may not be used to pay for (V) food, clothing or entertainment
(O).
Are you comfortable with deciding whether a group of words is a subject (S), verb (V),
object (O) or adverbial (A)? Analysing sentences is not that hard once you have learnt to
spot the verb element. Let’s start with the first example above:
More cars will be repossessed as a result of the economic downturn.
Start by asking: “What action takes place in this sentence?” You are right, the action
concerns repossession.
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Once you have identified the verb, ask: “Who or what will be repossessed?” Correct – the
answer is ‘more cars’. The answer to this who or what question is always the subject of
the sentence.
How will you decide whether the remainder of the sentence is a complement or an
adverbial? It’s simple: a complement is an absolutely essential part of a sentence.
Without it, a sentence looks unfinished (for example, ‘Love is …’). In your example above,
the phrase ‘as a result of the economic downturn’ is not absolutely essential. If it were
left out, the sentence would still make sense (‘More cars will be repossessed’). Therefore,
this clause is not a complement. An adverbial, in turn, answers questions about the verb.
This adverbial answers the question: “Why will more cars be repossessed?”
Let’s see whether you are starting to get the hang of how sentences are put together. We
will do it step-by-step.
Find the action (the verb element) in the following sentence:
Stimulus measures in Japan and China revived world markets.
Did you see that the action was ‘revived’?
Now find the subject of the sentence by answering the question: “Who or what performed
the action of reviving?” The subject of the sentence is thus ‘Stimulus measures in Japan
and China.’
Now find the object of the sentence by answering the question: “Who or what was affected
by the act of reviving?” The object of the sentence is ‘world markets’.
Find the subject, verb and object in the following sentence:
Telkom may poach Cell C’s chief executive Jeffery Hedberg.
How did you do? Did you see that the sentence structure is as follows?
Telkom (S) may poach (V) Cell C’s chief executive Jeffery Hedberg (O).
As you become more aware of the way words are grouped according to their function in
sentences, so you will become better at constructing those sentences yourself.
3.7
SUMMARY
People tend to judge you according to your use of English grammar. However, don’t worry
about the theory of grammar: rather concentrate on fixing the particular errors you make.
You can start by increasing your awareness of how individual words change as inflections
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are added to them to show grammatical features such as tense (-ed), possession (-’s),
plural (-s), or comparison (-er). Then you can identify which inflections are problematic
for you and work on those (for example, do you try to form the plural with an apostrophe?).
Use a dictionary to help you build your vocabulary and grammatical knowledge. The
dictionary will help you to identify the different classes (noun, verb, adjective, adverb,
preposition, pronoun, conjunction and interjection). Knowing your word classes will help
you to distinguish between tricky pairs such as ‘effect/affect’ and ‘advice/advise’.
Sentences are constructed: learn how they are put together so that your sentences are
strong, clear and occasionally even memorable.
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LEARNING UNIT 4
FORMAT
Learning outcomes for this unit
•
•
Apply the different formatting rules to professional documents
Design professional business documents and texts
Key questions
Have you written many formal letters in your life?
Do you feel confident about writing and sending letters?
Do you know what a memo is and why we write them?
Have you ever come across the abbreviation SOP?
Have you ever written a set of instructions?
Do you know what a ‘report’ is in the context of business?
Are you ready to format documents in a business environment?
Key concepts
Letter; covering letter; address; salutation; subject line; block format; memo; instructions
and procedures; SOPs; report; terms of reference; methodology; findings; conclusion;
and recommendations.
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4.1
INTRODUCTION
We all feel nervous about performing unfamiliar tasks. “But what exactly do you want from
me?”, we ask. At the start of your business career in particular, you may feel nervous
about the various different types of documents that you will have to produce: a report, a
memo, a letter, and a set of standard operating procedures (SOP), amongst others.
Perusing your online resources, available on myUnisa, in order to understand the
formatting guidelines for various professional, business texts and documents. You will
feel much more at ease if you are familiar with the format of these documents – then you
will only need to concentrate on the content. Therefore, in this learning unit, we will give
you more practice in the document formats.
4.2
LETTER
How do you respond when you receive a letter? Many people study the outside of the
envelope in their eagerness to know who is writing to them and why. Letters command
attention because they tend to be used for important legal correspondence as well as
letters of application, resignation, complaint and apology.
The most important letter you will write in your life will almost certainly be the covering
letter that you send with your CV when applying for a job.
ACTIVITY 1
Let’s see how easy you find it to work within the letter format.
Imagine that you have recently graduated. Last Thursday you saw the
following job advertised in a widely circulated newspaper:
ACCOUNTANT
Salary: $$$$$$$ per annum
REQUIREMENTS

Grade 12 and recognised three-year degree / diploma.

Valid driver’s licence.

Good interpersonal and communication skills.

Computer literacy.
RESPONSIBILITIES

Manage cash flow and bank reconciliation.

Manage PMG account.

Manage ledger account.
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Send your CV, a certified copy of your degree, and a covering letter to
Mr Xoli Ntuli, HR Manager, Masai Imports and Exports: PO BOX 336, Menlyn,
0053.
Write the covering letter now, using the block format. Your letter should consist
of no more than two paragraphs. In your letter, it should be clear:

Why you are writing.

Why you are qualified for the position.
How did you manage with your covering letter? Give yourself a mark out of 20. Calculate
your mark as follows:















3 marks for your address.
1 mark for your telephone number and / or email address.
1 mark for the date.
2 marks for the HR manager’s name and job title.
3 marks for the remainder of the address, all left aligned.
1 mark for the salutation (‘Dear Mr Ntuli’).
1 mark for the subject line (Application: Accountant).
1 mark for saying why you are writing (‘I am writing to apply for the post of
accountant as advertised in City Press of Thursday …’).
1 mark for saying why you are fit for the job (‘I have a BCom from Unisa and
performed exceptionally well in my Communication for Accountants exam’).
1 mark for mentioning that your CV and a copy of your degree are enclosed (you
could do this in a sentence, or by using the abbreviation ‘Encl.’).
1 mark for ending your letter with ‘Yours sincerely’.
1 mark for your signature.
1 mark for your name printed beneath your signature.
1 mark for all address lines free of punctuation (you were asked for the block
format).
1 mark for line breaks.
This activity gave you some idea of how using the correct format scores points – real
marks in the exam, and figurative points in the rest of your life.
Now let’s move on to another extremely common form of business communication, the
memo.
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4.3
MEMO
A successful letter of application leads to a letter of appointment. Once you’ve got the job,
it is likely that a great deal of your business communication will take the form of memos.
Memoranda are used to circulate information within an organisation. They frequently
address specific problems in the workplace.
Study the examples given in your online resources so that the ‘look’ or layout of a memo
is fixed in your brain.
ACTIVITY 2
Imagine that you are an accountant in a large state department. One of your
jobs is to process claims for expenses. Senior state officials are allowed to
claim for certain expenses such as business travel, accommodation at fourstar hotels, meals while on business, and gifts given to foreign dignitaries.
However, you have noticed several irregularities in the claims submitted to you.
Claims for such things as five-star hotels, expensive hire cars, leisure trips,
and meals with alcohol have been submitted to you. Claims are frequently not
backed up with supporting documentation (receipts and chits). Weeding out
invalid claims is time-consuming, plus you are unhappy about your colleagues’
lack of ethics.


Write a memo in which you set out your concerns and establish guidelines
for future claims.
Try to write the memo without looking back at the format examples in your
online resources, available on myUnisa.
Did you manage to format your memo correctly without having your template open in front
of you? Give yourself a mark out of 20. Award marks as follows:








1 mark for the heading ‘Memo’ (you may also have included the state department’s
name).
1 mark for your ‘From’ line.
1 mark for your ‘To’ line.
1 mark for the date.
1 mark for your ‘Subject’ line (for example, ‘Expense claims’).
1 mark if all of these are in the right order (Memo – From – To – Date – Subject).
5 marks for stating the problem (invalid claims, claims over budget, lack of receipts,
lack of ethics, causing extra work for you).
1 mark for leaving a line open between paragraphs.
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

5 marks for laying out the solution (you could use point form or bullets to insist on
documentation, standard operating procedures, budget regulations, etc.).
3 marks for proofreading your memo (no spelling errors!).
This is the second activity which you have marked yourself. As you can see, in exercises
like these, your correct use of format will earn high marks.
As you saw from the above exercises, problems occur in a business environment when
people do not follow the rules. In the next section, you will have an opportunity to set
down those rules yourself.
4.4
INSTRUCTIONS AND PROCEDURES
Once again, continue perusing your online resources, available on myUnisa, in order to
understand the formatting conventions for the various business documents that we
discuss. Standard operating procedures (SOPs) are a fact of business life. Employees
need to know HOW to do their jobs – how to process documents, how to maintain quality,
how to deal with clients, what records to keep, and who to pass them on to – and SOPs
provide this valuable training.
ACTIVITY 3
Imagine you have joined a small boutique hotel called The Pink House as their
accountant. Management has asked you to help develop an SOP for checking
guests into the hotel. They are particularly worried about the method of
payment (what can they do to avoid guests walking off without paying?). Some
guests will have pre-booked; others will be walk-ins.
 Write the SOP for the reception staff, giving step-by-step instructions on
how to check guests in and out, paying particular attention to financial
aspects.
 Write at least 5 instructions.
You may have felt strange completing this activity because SOPs are written as directives
or commands, and it can feel strange ordering people around. However, that is what
business is all about!
Give yourself a mark out of 20 for your SOP. Award marks as follows:




1 mark for the heading ‘The Pink House Hotel’.
1 mark for the subheading ‘How to check in guests’ (or similar).
2 marks for the heading ‘Purpose’ and a clearly stated purpose such as: ‘The
purpose of this SOP is to describe how to check guests into the hotel.’
2 marks for the heading ‘Scope’ and an outline such as: ‘This SOP applies to all
reception staff.’
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1 mark for the heading ‘Definition’ and at least one definition such as: ‘Walk-in: a
guest who walks in off the street without a booking.’
2 marks for the heading ‘Affected departments’ and a relevant outline such as:
‘Guest relations.’
1 mark for the subheading ‘Procedure’.
10 marks for your instructions, which should be numbered directives following a
logical sequence of action. For example: ‘1. Greet guest and make small talk. 2.
Establish whether this is a pre-booking or walk-in. 3. Request credit card with
which booking was originally made. 4. In the case of a walk-in, request credit card
or cash.’
In this activity you checked your working knowledge of the SOP format. As you completed
the task, it should have dawned on you how necessary SOPs are to the running of any
organisation.
Once you have risen high enough in an organisation to contribute to the writing of an
SOP, the next step will be the task of writing a report. In the last part of this learning unit,
we will help you to check your basic understanding of how a report is put together.
4.5
REPORTS
Long written documents such as the report can be confusing to read and daunting to
write. Instead of feeling overwhelmed by its density, treat the report you have to read as
you would a large fold-out map – it may look tricky at first, but you will soon find your way
around it. Once again, continue perusing your online resources, available on myUnisa, in
order to understand the formatting conventions for the various business documents that
we discuss. You will learn that reports are made up of many sections. There are different
types of report, but they all report findings.
4.5.1 Terms of reference
This first section of a report must state:
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Background to the report (for example: South Africa’s low level of financial literacy;
efforts to improve the level of financial literacy, etc.).
Information about who asked whom to write the report (For example: ABC Financial
Trust appointed BCD Accounting).
Purpose of the report (to study financial literacy needs and activities with particular
reference to the Financial Charter).
Now let’s move further into the report with another activity.
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4.5.2 Methodology; procedure
The ‘Methodology’ or ‘Procedure’ section of a report tells the reader what methods were
used to find information, for example:
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Consultation with a broad range of suppliers of financial literacy programmes.
Consultation with major signatories to the Charter, including industry bodies and
individual institutions.
Desk research, consultation and referral to identify major financial literacy
programmes.
A thorough analysis of global best practices.
Development of a logical framework against which to assess financial education
programmes.
Let’s move on to another section of the report.
4.5.3 Findings and conclusions
A report’s findings sets out what the researchers discovered as they carried out their
methodology.
How do we differentiate between a conclusion and a finding? Let’s relate this to a murder
investigation: You could find that a suspect had blood on his / her hands; that he /she was
in possession of the murder weapon; that he /she had a motive to murder; and that he /
she had an opportunity to murder. But you cannot find that he / she was the murderer.
This would be your (logical) conclusion.
To return to our example above, the report writers found that there were many so-called
‘financial education programmes’. They found that many of these did not actually teach
financial education but rather marketed products (you can imagine a consultant
‘educating’ a client about a life policy when in fact he wants to sell the policy in order to
earn a commission). Based on these findings, the report writers concluded that there is
poor financial education in South Africa.
As you can tell from the complexity of our discussion, we are deep inside the report. The
good news is that we are about to come out on the other side.
4.5.4 Recommendations
Recommendations make suggestions about a course of action to solve a problem, which
are usually written in a future tense. Words such as, ‘should’, ‘encourage, ’assess’,
‘recommend’ are usually used to present the statements in this section of the report.
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You have now worked through the main sections of the report, familiarising yourself with
them. All reports use these sections in one way or another. It may seem difficult now, but
soon reading and writing reports will be like folding out a well-known map.
4.6
SUMMARY
In this learning unit you have put in some serious practice with business writing formats,
from the relatively easy letter and memo to the demanding SOP and report. We also
introduce you other business documents in your online resources on myUnisa. Make sure
that you peruse all these resources and learning aids.
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LEARNING UNIT 5
THE WRITING PROCESS
Photo by hannah grace on Unsplash
Free to use under the Unsplash License
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Learning outcomes for this unit
•
•
Engage with the different steps of the writing process
Apply the writing conventions to various texts
Key questions
Do you put off writing tasks until the last minute?
Do you do badly in written exams?
Do you struggle with exam rubrics?
Can you get down and plan a piece of writing?
Once you’ve finished planning, can you take your writing through to completion?
Key concepts
Task analysis; rubric; writing purpose; task words; collecting ideas; paragraph plan; topic
sentences; introduction; conclusion; paragraph development; connections; final draft;
edit; succinctness; clarity; and proofread.
5.1
INTRODUCTION
In this learning unit we are going to help you work through The Writing Process. Peruse
your online resources, available on myUnisa, in order to understand the writing process.
One of the problems with a chapter like this is that students think it is unimportant because
it does not give them a chunk of information to study. Instead, it teaches a method – how
to approach a writing task. To get the most out of this chapter you need to apply the
techniques. You need to get your hands dirty (well, at least inky!) and do some writing.
What is the reward for you? Examiners of advanced accounting exams complain bitterly
about the poor writing skills of candidates. Rather than trying to fix your bad habits when
it is too late, start now with a fresh, focussed attitude towards writing.
5.2
STARTING TO WRITE
Every piece of writing, no matter how long or how clever, starts somewhere. It probably
doesn’t start with beautiful, long, full sentences, but rather with a few jottings on a page.
5.2.1 Task analysis
Writing well starts with a strong sense of purpose and audience. If you know WHY you
are writing and WHO you are writing for, you will be filled with energy and direction.
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Unfortunately, our fear of strangers and superiors, as well as exam nerves and work
stress, can make sitting down to write an unpleasant chore. Distance education makes
writing even harder because most times you do not know who will be reading or assessing
your work. Try to picture someone who wants you to do well. Picture this person with a
large pile of marking: kind, but busy.
You have your audience in mind. Now you need to produce an answer that this basically
kind, but very busy person will appreciate: an answer that goes straight to the point in
good, clear English.
Sit down and break your writing task (rubric) into little bits. Do not just read the rubric,
attack it with your pen. Underline the task words (Explain… Identify… Advise…). Circle
the key words. Number the different things you are being instructed to do ... and feel good
about yourself! Very few students adequately examine the rubric and follow it to the letter.
By concentrating on exactly what the task is, you are setting yourself apart from – and
above – the herd. Well done!
ACTIVITY 1
Find the information about task analysis, in your online resources and find the
task words which this section alerts you to. In each case, highlight the bulleted
list which tells you how these task words should be approached.
Now respond briefly to each of the following questions, making sure that your
answer corresponds to the task word:
 My neighbour’s son is very noisy and his shouting and swearing disturb
me when I work. As he has just come back from reform school, I am afraid
to approach him directly. Advise me.
 What is the difference between a debit card and a credit card? Explain.
 Think about the different jobs your family and friends have. Identify one
who could be classed as running a small business.
 Read over today’s business news headlines in a newspaper. Analyse the
information in one of the articles, giving your own interpretation of the news
report.
 What do accountants do? Define your chosen career.
 List three typical small business opportunities.
 Summarise what you have done so far today.
Reflect on what you have just done. For each question, you subtly adjusted your response
according to whether you were asked to advise, explain, identify, analyse, define, list or
summarise. Congratulations on flexing your intellectual muscle in this way and remember
to use this well-developed muscle in every test or examination situation.
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5.2.2 The planning stage
Writing something is easier once you’ve planned it. Continue perusing your online
resources, available on myUnisa, in order to understand the planning stage of the writing
process. Identify the three aspects of the planning stage.
In the following activity, you will begin to plan a memo. As mentioned at the beginning of
this learning unit, writing is a practical skill which will only improve through practise.
ACTIVITY 2
You work for a Johannesburg-based investor who likes to make snap
decisions. Today he has an opportunity to invest in a tanzanite mining
enterprise. He wants a 500-word memo from you, telling him what tanzanite is
and what the advantages and disadvantages of investing in it would be. He
wants to hear your opinion, but he will ultimately make his own decision.
You have collected the following rough notes from four sources. Read through your
rough notes now and draw up a paragraph plan, with topic sentences, for your
memo. Hurry – it’s urgent!
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These are your rough notes:
The United Republic of Tanzania formed in 1964.
Multi-party democracy.
Politically stable.
Mining attracts a number of foreign investors.
Third largest gold producer in Africa.
Poor transport infrastructure, limited labour skills and excessive bureaucracy.
Steadily growing economy.
Tanzanite outsells diamonds in some parts of the world.
TanzaniteOne owns the rights to mine most rough tanzanite.
TanzaniteOne does extensive marketing of the gem.
Very difficult to predict what the price of Tanzanite will be in future – possible
from $10,000 to $15,000 per carat during the next decade.
Supply is finite.
Demand for the stone continues to rise.
Developing markets such as India and China continue to drive demand
upwards.
Very popular in Johannesburg.
Most popular coloured gem after the sapphire.
Largest flawless tanzanite ever polished is a 52 carat oval stone set in a
platinum ring and surrounded by blue-white diamonds, valued at over R1
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million. It is currently on display at the Clock Tower Precinct at the Victoria and
Albert Waterfront.
How did you manage with this practical planning task? You will have noticed that although
the notes contained necessary information, the information was jumbled, and thus it
needed your organising skills. Bearing in mind the task you were asked to perform; your
paragraph plan might have looked as follows:
Paragraph 1:
Topic sentence:
Tanzanite: what it is, where it comes from, highlights about it.
Tanzanite is a blue gemstone found only in one location in Tanzania,
ranking after the ‘big four’ (diamonds, rubies, sapphires and
emeralds) in popularity.
Paragraph 2:
Topic sentence:
Advantages to investment.
The tanzanite industry has become much better regulated and the
gem fetches high prices.
Paragraph 3:
Topic sentence:
Disadvantages to investment.
Investing in Tanzania carries certain risks.
Paragraph 4:
Topic sentence:
Recommendation.
Tanzanite is a good investment.
Do you see how the paragraph plan takes into account all the reading you have done and
sorts it into an ordered document? Now you are ready to start writing the body.
5.3
WRITING THE BODY
Now we will focus on writing the body of your text. Continue perusing your online
resources, available on myUnisa, in order to understand this stage of the writing process.
You will notice that the emphasis is on thinking about your reader at every stage. You
cannot afford to lose your reader’s attention: it may cost you marks in an examination;
and one day it might even cost you your job.
ACTIVITY 3
Write the body of your memo about tanzanite. You can use the paragraph plan
from the previous activity (your own or the one supplied). Remember that you
have a 500-word limit. Also remember that you are writing this memo for a
busy man who needs the information urgently.
How did you find this activity? Writing can be frustrating – difficult to know where to begin
and how to link ideas. Judging your own writing can also be very tricky. Check your work
against the following criteria.
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Start with your introduction. Your introduction should ideally start with the word ‘Tanzanite’
itself. It should also answer the following questions:
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What is tanzanite?
Where is it mined?
Who is the main buyer/s of Tanzanite?
What are the top prices being paid?
By answering these questions, you will be orientating your reader immediately. Your boss
needs to know a few essential facts about tanzanite, facts that will whet his appetite for
more information.
Your second paragraph should be more focussed. In the suggested paragraph outline,
paragraph 2 was about advantages of investing in tanzanite mining. You could have
taken a different angle. At this stage, with your introduction completed, you need to give
more detail. For example:
The tanzanite industry has become much better regulated and the gem fetches
high prices. This is partly due to TanzaniteOne’s successful advertising campaign,
‘Be born to Tanzanite’. The rareness of the gem and its attractive colour have also
secured its popularity in America and South Africa.
If you used linking words (such as those underlined above) to add extra unity to your
paragraph – well done! If your third paragraph gave the disadvantages of investing in
tanzanite, then you could have indicated the link between them by beginning with ‘On the
other hand...’ or ‘From a less optimistic perspective...’.
Finally, check your conclusion. Now the time for giving both sides of the story is over. You
needed to come out with a strong recommendation for or against. You will need to make
decisions like this in your final exams and throughout your career. Be prepared to stick
your neck out. Base your decision on your reading and research, as well as on your
instincts. And use logic and reasoning to support your point of view. Be bold! For example:
I would recommend the investment based on the current stability of the industry
and the high current and projected prices of the gem.
Or, if you think the opposite:
I would warn against investing in tanzanite. The gem has a limited market that is
not durable; it is mined in a country with bureaucratic challenges; and it is traded
in a monopolistic fashion.
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Your memo is written: time to give it a final polish.
5.4
FINAL DRAFT
The final stage of the writing process involves the polishing of the final draft. Continue
perusing your online resources, available on myUnisa, in order to understand this stage
of the writing process. You will notice that you are aiming for:
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Succinctness (brevity).
Clarity (clearness).
Coherence (unity).
Perfection (all silly errors removed).
You may think that this stage is a waste of time. To the contrary, a few extra minutes
spent producing a clean final draft will set you far apart from other students and
employees. You will gain a reputation for precision, clarity and perfectionism.
ACTIVITY 4
Read through the following text that is 157 words in length. Reduce it to 80
words. The text is also poorly written, with unnecessary repetition. Correct the
grammatical errors and try to give it greater clarity. Try to group its ideas so
that it does not jump around so much:
The rare and unusual conditions the earth has provided to create these stones
makes it highly unlikely that it will ever be found in any other location ever
again.
Tanzanite gemstones get their name from the only location it is found,
Tanzania.
As of right now it is estimated that the tanzanite mines will be closed in as little
as 20 to 30 years. A very short time period considering it was discovered in
1964 by a farmer on accident.
Less tanzanite gemstones are mined every year, which means the supply is
having a harder time meeting the growing demand.
As of right now it is possible to purchase tanzanite gemstones at a reasonable
price, but keep in mind that the value of tanzanite stones has more than tripled
since 2003.
These precious stones are in such demand that you wont have a hard time
finding someone to take it off your hands, for a decent profit.
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Did you find it easy to spot the errors in the text? Let’s see which ones you noticed.
5.4.1 Correcting poor grammar
Here you could bring everything you have learnt about correct grammar into play.
Examples of poor grammar
The rare and unusual conditions the earth
has provided to create these stones makes
it highly unlikely that it will ever be found in
any other location ever again.
Tanzanite gemstones get their name from
the only location it is found, Tanzania.
Correction
The noun is ‘these stones’,
therefore the pronoun needs to
be plural too (‘they’).
The noun is ‘gemstones’,
therefore the pronoun needs to
be plural too (‘they’).
A very short time period considering it was This sentence is a fragment. It
discovered in 1964 by a farmer on accident. needs a main verb. In addition,
the preposition ‘on’ needs to be
replaced with ‘by’.
Less tanzanite gemstones are mined every We use the word ‘less’ with nonyear.
count nouns (‘This room needs
less furniture’). With count nouns
(for example, ‘gemstones’) we
use ‘fewer’.
These precious stones are in such demand The word ‘won’t’ lacks an
that you wont have a hard time finding apostrophe in this text. Once
someone to take it off your hands, for a again, ‘it’ should be replaced with
decent profit.
a plural pronoun, ‘them’. The
comma needs to be deleted.
5.4.2 Examples of unnecessary repetition
The text repeats the phrase ‘as of right now…’. This is irritating. Your reader assumes
that you are writing about the present unless you indicate otherwise. The writer also
repeats the word ‘rare’ and the phrases ‘only location’ and ‘30 years’. Notice how the word
‘ever’ is repeated in the second sentence: this type of carelessness can really put your
reader off. In short texts, state each idea only once.
5.4.3 Revising for clarity
When authors do not reread their texts, they frequently leave us in confusion about their
meaning.
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Examples of lack of clarity
As of right now it is possible to
purchase tanzanite gemstones at a
reasonable price, but keep in mind that
the value of tanzanite stones has more
than tripled since 2003.
So if you’re in the market for tanzanite
gemstones now is the time to start
investing, whether you just want to
collect, make a quick profit, or hold
over time for a huge profit, the
important thing is that you get your
hands on some loose tanzanite
gemstones now.
Correction
This sentence needs to be rephrased
so that the reason for the warning is
clear. Try rephrasing the sentence by
beginning with: ‘Although it is
possible…’
Repetition and sentence length have
combined to make this a jumbled
sentence. Try to rewrite it, taking care
not to repeat the word ‘now’. The idea
of ‘being in the market’ is repeated in
the idea of collecting, etc.: use either
one or the other.
When you’ve finished editing in this careful, self-critical way, print or write out a clean
copy of your text. And that’s all there is to it.
5.5
SUMMARY
Good writing skills are called for in all senior management jobs. Don’t think, “But I’m not
a good writer”. Anyone can improve their writing. Approach your writing tasks in a stepby-step manner. Spend time analysing your task and really focussing on WHY you’re
writing and WHO you’re writing for. Plan your text. Research it, brainstorm it and then
bash out a paragraph plan. The rest is simply a matter of developing your ideas into clear,
grammatical sentences. Never hand in any text without giving it a final edit. Aim to set
yourself apart from the rest through your writing. Now that you have grasped the writing
process, you are ready for the challenge of persuasive writing.
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LEARNING UNIT 6
PERSUASIVE WRITING
Photo by Glenn Carstens-Peters on Unsplash
Free to use under the Unsplash License
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Learning outcomes for this unit
•
Apply the writing conventions to related to argumentative writing by writing essays
and other short persuasive texts
Key questions
Are you confident about expressing an opinion?
How do you feel about offering your opinion in an exam answer?
Do you worry that your opinion might conflict with your examiner’s opinion?
Can you justify your opinion with strong reasons?
Do you know how to use logic to build up an argument?
How can you win over your reader – or examiner – to your point of view?
Can you fix the common errors that make your writing unconvincing?
Key concepts
Argumentative writing; task analysis; reasoning; support; thesis statement; premises;
bias; prejudice; assumptions; over-generalisations; illogical links; cause and effect;
persuasive writing; appeal to reason; appeal to emotion; appeal to ethos; fixing common
errors; ambiguity; word choice; awkward phrasing; fragments; article errors; apostrophe
errors; wordiness; tense shifts; and illogical statements.
6.1
INTRODUCTION
Throughout this course you have been urged to put yourself in the shoes of the person
that you are communicating with. What does that person see and hear when they look at
you? Your marker in the examination – how does that important person assess your
value? Later, in the boardroom, how do your colleagues see you? Do you make sense to
them? Do they respect you?
In this learning unit, we will discuss persuasive writing. Continue perusing your online
resources, available on myUnisa, in order to understand the persuasive writing process.
We will be looking at ways in which you can become a more persuasive communicator.
We will put you in the role of listener / reader as we assess students’ exam essays. Your
responses will help you to understand what we mean when stressing the importance of
logical argument and reasoning.
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6.2
MILLICENT’S ESSAY
Millicent1 is hoping to enrol for a BA at a university, but first she has to complete an Access
Course. Part of this course involves essay writing. Millicent is looking at her first topic right
now:
South Africa is a violent society. Do you agree or disagree? Write an essay in
support of your opinion.
Millicent is worried that she might lose marks if she supports an opinion which her lecturer
does not share. She hits on a plan. She will write in support of both sides of the argument.
This is what she writes:
South Africa is not a violent society. It is a peaceful society with a constitution
based on democratic principles. It is a society with a Bill of Rights which protects
individuals from abuse.
South Africa is a violent society because of crime. There is a strongly developed
culture of gangsterism. There is also a high level of domestic violence and child
abuse. Many of these crimes are committed with violence.
She looks over her work with satisfaction. She is sure that she has covered all her bases.
ACTIVITY 1
What would you say to Millicent if you were her peer counsellor?
 Write Millicent a note making a polite suggestion about the approach she
is taking.
 Remember that as a peer counsellor, you may not actually write Millicent’s
essay for her. You may only provide guidance.
How did you find this activity? Did you manage to stay calm and helpful? Let’s hope so!
Here is one possible way of providing guidance:
Dear Millicent
I can see that you are battling with this question. I am guessing that you are afraid
of taking sides and that is why you have argued both for and against the
proposition.
1 Millicent is a fictional character.
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I do not think this is a very good idea. Your lecturer has asked you directly: ‘Do you
agree or disagree?’ If you do not come out clearly with an opinion, you will not
have answered the question. That makes lecturers mad.
I suggest you sit down and think about violence in South Africa. Think about your
own experiences, plus what you have read in the newspaper and seen on TV.
Then write down your point of view. Your lecturer genuinely wants to know what
you think, I promise you that. Try to make him / her happy!
Kind regards
Your counsellor
If your note contained something like the above, then you have grasped the key learning
outcomes for these sections (Argumentative Writing Tasks) and (Analyse the Task).
If not, you need to revise these sections now.
6.3
MILLICENT’S OPENING SENTENCE
Millicent has read your note to her and she agrees that she should change her approach.
She has decided that she wants to argue that South Africa is indeed a violent society.
This is how her second attempt begins:
I personally firmly agree with the topic above. South Africans are thugs and
criminals.
Millicent is sure you will approve of her new approach and she mails you her opening.
ACTIVITY 2
As Millicent’s peer counsellor, what will you say to her about her opening
sentences?
 Write Millicent a note making a polite suggestion about how she could
improve her opening gambit.
 Try to help her form a logical argument with logical premises (revise related
sections of your online resources if you are confused).
How did you respond to Millicent’s essay opening? As you know from your study of
previous chapters, an opening sentence needs to be strong and refer directly to the rubric.
Your mail to Millicent may have read as follows:
Dear Millicent
You are on the right track now. However, you need to be more direct and precise.
‘The topic above’ could apply to anything. Remember that your lecturer may be
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marking essays on other topics as well. He / she will wonder: Which topic does this
student agree with?
In addition to stating your view directly, you might like to develop it into what we
call a ‘thesis statement’ – a statement of strong belief, backed up by logical building
blocks which we call ‘premises’. Let’s imagine that the topic you are arguing is:
Many South Africans are financially illiterate.
This is your belief. You can see evidence all around you that your thesis statement
is true. But you still need to prove your thesis by building up to it logically. For
example:
Premise 1: The financial literacy of a society may be determined by the number
of its citizens who understand money well enough to manage a
personal bank account.
Premise 2: In South Africa, only 60% of adults have a bank account.
Thesis:
Therefore, a large proportion of South Africans are financially
illiterate.
Before I sign off, I would like to point out that your statement, ‘South Africans are
thugs and criminals’ is an over-generalisation. Good gracious, Millicent: just
because we do have a crime problem does not make EVERYONE in South Africa
a criminal!
Kind regards
Your counsellor
If your note contained something like the above, then you have grasped the key learning
outcomes for these sections (Establish a Thesis Statement),(Establish Premises) and
(Avoid Flaws in Reasoning). If not, you need to revise these sections now.
6.4
MILLICENT’S CHAIN OF CAUSE AND EFFECT
Millicent writes to thank you for all your help so far. She is making progress with her
essay. She’s moved into the body now and is putting forward some of her reasons for
believing that South Africa is a violent society. Here are two of the paragraphs that she
sends you:
The police are even involved in crime, helping criminals to escape from jail and
illegally selling the firearms they receive from convicted criminals. The killing of
innocent people by taxis involved in taxi wars, and the poor condition of the
vehicles they use to carry people, is another shocking example of our violent
society.
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South Africa’s poor standard of infrastructure is also a major concern. Everywhere
there are poor roads, poor playing fields, inadequate sanitation and electricity, and
a lack of community facilities. Clearly, South Africa is a violent society.
Millicent is keen to hear what you think of the way her argument is developing.
ACTIVITY 3
Reply to Millicent’s mail. In particular, comment on:
 The relevance of what she is saying to the topic under discussion.
 The links between her ideas.
How did you respond to Millicent’s paragraphs? I hope you remained calm! You may have
noticed certain problems with logic in Millicent’s writing. Perhaps you replied with a
message such as:
Dear Millicent
Gosh, your mind is really working overtime! You have got a lot of ideas here, but
you need to help your reader (your lecturer – the one who is going to give you a
mark!) to see how your ideas are linked to each other. You also need to deal with
separate ideas separately.
If the police help criminals escape, is that in itself a violent act? No, it usually simply
involves standing back and letting the criminals go past. You need to show how
prison breaks actually contribute to violence (remember: your essay is about
violence). For example, you might want to point out that South Africa is a violent
society because violent individuals are illegally released from safe custody.
You raise the issue of illegal firearms, which is good. Maybe you could say more
about how firearms contribute to violence (armed robberies, gang murders, etc.)?
I am, however, a bit puzzled about how South Africa’s poor infrastructure relates
to crime. Could you elaborate and make the logical link clear? Maybe you want
to argue that because there are no community centres, youths turn to crime? Or,
because citizens feel undervalued by society (its poor infrastructure) they, in turn,
undervalue human life?
I hope this helps!
Your counsellor
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Millicent’s problem, as you identified in your mail, lies in the logical skill of linking cause
and effect. You can revise this skill in the relevant subsections of your online resources,
by looking at the given examples.
6.5
MILLICENT’S APPEAL TO REASON AND EMOTION
You have been reading (in your online resources) how Aristotle said that we can persuade
others by appealing to reason, emotion and reputation. You are concerned about
Millicent’s failure, in her opinion essay, to appeal to these three qualities.
ACTIVITY 4
Write to Millicent, giving her some tips and suggestions on how she could use
the following in her essay on violence:
 Appeal to reason.
 Appeal to emotion.
 Appeal to reputation.
Did you find it difficult to give Millicent tips on how to be more persuasive? Here you had
to stand back and think: “What could she say that would convince me?” or “What is
missing from this essay?” You may have come up with very different approaches for
Millicent to try:
Dear Millicent
I have been lying awake thinking about…your essay! For your essay to be more
convincing, I think it needs to appeal more to reason. Put simply, your essay needs
some hard facts. Unfortunately, crime statistics in South Africa have been hard to
come by in recent years. Nevertheless, I still feel that you could find some
impressive numbers to quote. If you are able to quote reputable sources, then you
will be appealing not only to reason but also to reputation.
I have found a few examples for you to use in your essay. Did you know that in a
1998-2000 United Nations survey, South Africa ranked number two in the world
for assault and murder? Did you know that in 2006, 55,000 women reported that
they were raped – and that www.rape.co.za estimates a further 450,000 women
simply did not report their rapes? Over a thousand women are raped in this country
every day. In Gauteng, one in every six women who dies has been killed by an
intimate partner. Maybe your essay could focus on violence against women?
These numbers will definitely help to make your essay more persuasive. You can
also study the numbers and draw your own conclusions – for example, you could
conclude that women are the main victims of violence in South Africa.
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Apart from reason and reputation, your essay needs to appeal to emotion. I am
going to ask you a very sensitive question now, Millicent. Have you ever been the
victim of violence? Has anyone ever hurt you or hijacked you or robbed you? Have
you seen it happen to anyone else? I believe that your essay could be even more
convincing if you included a real-life scenario. For example: ‘One night I was lying
asleep in my bed. I’d had a hard day looking after my baby and doing the
housework. At about midnight, I was shaken awake rudely by my partner, who
started to accuse me…’.
You do not have to do this if you feel uncomfortable – I just want to point out that
it is sometimes possible to forge a very strong bond with your reader by sharing
something personal.
Kind regards
Your counsellor
6.6
MILLICENT’S CONCLUSION
You have done very well in helping poor Millicent complete her essay. She is ready to
submit, but needs a last little bit of help from you. This is her conclusion, which she has
sent you:
The violence in South Africa has become endemic – it is everywhere and growing
every day exponentially, completely dominating our lives. Irregardless of whether
you were rich or poor, you cannot avoid becoming a victim of violence. Particularly
if you are a woman. They say that the hand that rocks the cradle rules the world,
but at the rate women and children are being killed in this country, there will be no
one left to rock.
ACTIVITY 5
Help Millicent to fix up a few things in her conclusion. These are the things that
worry you:
1. You are not happy about her use of the article in her opening sentence.
2. You also feel that this opening sentence suffers from wordiness – it needs
to be cut down.
3. You are not happy about ‘irregardless’.
4. You are not happy about the switch in tense in that sentence, either.
5. The sentence beginning with ‘Particularly’ seems wrong to you.
6. You are not happy about the ambiguity of the last sentence.
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

Try to correct Millicent’s errors (you can correct them directly onto the
page).
You may need to first revise the relevant sections in your online resources
related to fixing common errors.
How did you manage in this final language activity? Well done if you managed to fix up
Millicent’s conclusion as follows:
Millicent’s original version
The violence in South Africa has become
endemic – it is everywhere and growing
every day exponentially, completely
dominating our lives.
Irregardless of whether you were rich or
poor, you cannot avoid becoming a
victim of violence.
Particularly if you are a woman.
Your corrected version
Violence in South Africa has become
endemic.
Regardless of whether you are rich or
poor, you cannot avoid becoming a
victim of violence.
You are even more likely to suffer
violence if you are a woman.
They say that the hand that rocks the Sadly, it is not the hand that rocks the
cradle rules the world, but at the rate cradle rules our world, but the hand that
women and children are being killed in smashes, grabs and mutilates.
this country, there will be no one left to
rock.
Do not worry if some of your suggestions were different. For example, you may have cut
less of Millicent’s opening sentence, or altered her closing sentence differently. What
does matter is that you engaged closely with the text, pushing it towards logical
expression and convincing argument. Congratulations on your achievement!
From the next learning unit onwards, we will be moving away from a close study of
language and back to the theory of communication. However, you should carry an
awareness of language with you wherever you go. The study of language does not end
when you turn this page: it is a lifetime’s endeavour.
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6.7
SUMMARY
In this learning unit, you practised one of the oldest and most important techniques in
education: logic. You learnt how to develop a strong argument backed by excellent
reasons and expressed in a convincing, appealing voice. Take the lessons learnt in this
learning unit with you into every exam and every debate you encounter.
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LEARNING UNIT 7
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION AND LISTENING
Photo by Diego PH on Unsplash
Free to use under the Unsplash License
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Learning outcomes for this unit
•
Recognise the importance of non-verbal communication and listening skills.
•
Define non-verbal communication and the listening.
•
Identify and describe the essential components of non-verbal communication and
listening.
•
Apply your knowledge of non-verbal communication and listening skills to practical
examples in the workplace
Key questions
Do you find that you judge people before they have even opened their mouths to speak?
What do you do with your hands when you are nervous?
How do you feel when someone smiles at you with their mouth only – no crinkling of the
eyes?
Have you noticed how many different styles of physical greeting there are?
Has anyone ever said to you: “I can tell that you’re not happy” before you’ve said a word?
Can you sometimes tell from a distance that two people are angry with each other or
attracted to each other?
Do you sometimes have to admit: “I can’t remember what he / she said?”
Have you ever had to say to someone: “But I told you…”?
Do you sometimes wish that the people around you would listen to you more attentively?
Are you ready to develop this sensitivity to non-verbal communication into a powerful
tool?
Key concepts
Non-verbal communication; intentional messages; unintentional messages; body
language; silent messages; non-verbal cues; functions of non-verbal communication;
reinforcing; complementing; contradicting; replacing; regulating; facial expression; eye
contact; gestures and posture; touching behaviour; use of space and time; vocal
characteristics; personal appearance; reading between the lines; brand imaging; layout;
typeface; tone; active listening vs. hearing; listening for content; critical listening;
empathetic listening; external noises; internal noises; cultural barriers; and efficient
listening skills.
7.1
INTRODUCTION
Peruse your online resources, available on myUnisa, in order to understand the contents
of this learning unit. When you think of the word ‘communication’, you may think of certain
words and how we use them. The amazing fact you will discover in this learning unit (Nonverbal Communication and Listening) is that, in fact, up to 70% of our communication
takes place non-verbally – that is without words. Think about this for a moment. You
receive hundreds of signals from the way people dress, make eye contact, and make
gestures. You do not just listen to a person’s words, you watch them as they speak,
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deciding whether you like them, believe them, fear them, trust them or reject them.
Similarly, even before you have begun to read the text on a page you have formed an
impression from the layout and typeface. All of these messages come to you non-verbally.
In this learning unit, we will make sure you understand how non-verbal cues – and the
way in which we listen – contribute so substantially to the messages we send and receive
each day.
7.2
WHY WE NEED NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Clearly, if 70% of the messages we send out and receive are non-verbal, it is incredibly
important that we develop skills in this area. In your chosen career, you might use nonverbal communication skills to:





Arrange your office so that it is friendly to visitors rather than dominated by an
imposing (and distancing) desk.
Adjust your body language according to the cultural background of your clients.
Use facial expressions to show that you are interested in and listening to colleagues.
Pick up signals about your clients’ and colleagues’ mood from their gestures and
expressions.
Use your tone of voice and posture to control situations and increase your own power.
All of this will be possible once you have attuned yourself to non-verbal communication.
Let’s revise what you have learnt so far. First of all, did you find the definition of nonverbal communication? Go back to your online resource on myUnisa and jot it down now.
Now reflect on the meaning of what you have read. What do you think is the difference
between an intentional message and an unintentional message?
ACTIVITY 1
Find one example of an intentional message and one example of an
unintentional message.
The purpose of this activity was not just to help you remember the distinction between
intentional and unintentional messages. Once you have clarified these two types of
message in your mind, you will be able to control (at least in some measure) both the
messages you send out intentionally (for example, a friendly, welcoming smile) and the
messages you send out unintentionally (for example, a habit like putting your hand over
your mouth while you listen).
Did you manage to find any intentional messages? At a local rugby match, the Afrikaners,
wearing Blue Bulls T-Shirts and bandannas threw a bottle at the black commentators.
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Throwing a bottle of water at the black commentators sent an intentional message of
aggression and contempt. Wearing Blue Bulls paraphernalia sent out an intentional
message of support for one of the teams. It also unfortunately sent out an unintentional
message of being a ‘typical’ rugby supporter who supports old-style South African
prejudices and insensitivities. This unintentional meaning was, however, proved wrong.
Can you see how our perceptual flaws in reasoning can create misunderstandings as we
also interpret unintentional messages from our personal frames of reference that can
contain biases. What was your response to this activity?
Conversely, there are plenty of occasions where we send out unintentional messages
that are a true reflection of our feelings. You may exhibit some of the following non-verbal
behaviours:










When you don’t believe someone, you raise your eyebrows and sigh.
When you feel weak and powerless, your eyes grow wider and you keep very still.
When you like someone, you unintentionally ‘mirror’ their gestures, folding your arms
in the same way or adopting a similar posture.
When you’re in a lift, you keep your arms close to your body as if protecting yourself.
When you’re bored, your eyes drift away and find something else to focus on.
When you’re attracted to someone, you find playful excuses to touch them.
When you’re anxious about how you appear, you fiddle with your clothing.
When you’re very angry, you refuse to sit down even when invited to do so.
When you don’t like someone, you smile at them, but your smile doesn’t reach your
eyes.
When you want to comfort a child, you bring yourself down to his / her level.
These are just a few examples of non-verbal behaviour.
7.2.1 Problems with the interpretation of non-verbal communication
Now that you are getting the hang of what non-verbal communication is, try to notice it all
around you. Watch how skilled communicators use body language to appear confident,
relaxed and approachable. Watch how skilled public speakers use hand gestures. Start
to be more observant of yourself too and consider:




Is your shyness coming across as a lack of interest?
When you sit far away from the CEO at the meeting table, do you know that you are
signalling that you don’t want to participate in the discussion?
When you keep standing while someone else is sitting, do you know that you might
be making them feel uncomfortable?
When you speak too softly do you realise that you are coming across as someone
who lacks confidence?
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
When you touch your face and nose while speaking, are you aware that your listener
may find this disconcerting?
Looking at the previous bulleted list, you may realise that your non-verbal behaviour is
sending out a message that you did not intend. Similarly, you may be misinterpreting the
non-verbal behaviour of others. Let’s see if you can help the recipient of the following
non-verbal behaviours.
ACTIVITY 2
In the table below, various acts of non-verbal communication are interpreted
negatively. In each case, suggest another, more positive interpretation of the
behaviour.
Negative
Positive
interpretation
interpretation
Debbie is shopping at the mall when Debbie
thinks
she spots her old school friend, Yolande
is
Yolande, whom she hasn’t seen for snubbing her.
ages. Debbie waves at Yolande, but
Yolande merely glances in her
direction and carries on walking
through the mall.
Thabo greets Thuli, who was born in Thuli thinks that
South Africa but grew up in America. Thabo is trying to
Thabo continues to hold Thuli’s hand make a sexual
for much longer than a normal advance.
Western handshake would last.
Thuli says something funny, which Thuli wonders if he
Thabo thinks really hits the nail on the wants to hold her
head. He stretches out his open palm hand again.
to Thuli.
Debbie is sitting at her desk in her Debbie thinks the
office. A woman she does not know young woman is
knocks on her open door. Debbie rude.
indicates that the young woman
should come inside. The young
woman does so, and immediately sits
down on a visitor’s chair without being
invited to do so.
Non-verbal communication
Did you find it easy to see where the problems lie? In each of the instances in the previous
table, it would be possible to offer a positive interpretation of the non-verbal
communication. Perhaps Yolande did not see Debbie, or perhaps she did not recognise
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her after all these years. Maybe Thabo wanted to maintain hand contact with Thuli in the
affectionate African tradition. Later, Thabo probably wants Thuli to slap his open palm to
indicate their mutual agreement. Maybe the young woman visiting Debbie’s office wants
to sit down immediately because she does not want to seem to be standing up in a
position of superiority.
Each of these misinterpretations can be explained in terms of three reasons:



Non-verbal messages do not always mean what we think they mean.
Non-verbal behaviour needs to be understood in context.
Non-verbal messages differ from culture to culture.
7.2.2 Functions of non-verbal communication
Now that you know how widespread non-verbal communication is, it is time to think in
more detail about how non-verbal communication operates in a very similar way to
language. Whereas in verbal communication sounds or letter combinations have
meanings, in non-verbal communication, gestures and facial expressions have meaning.
Think about the following:



Have you ever watched or participated in a mime? Mime is a type of acting without
words. A mime artist can depict an entire story simply through gestures. How is
that possible?
Do you ever mock your family, friends or enemies by adopting their typical
mannerisms and gestures? Again, no words are necessary to conjure up the
person you are referring to.
Have you ever communicated with someone in a place where you had to keep
quiet – for example, a room in which a baby has just fallen asleep, a church in
which silent prayer is taking place? How did you manage to convey your message?
In your online resources on myUnisa, read through the relevant subsections related to,
functions of non-verbal communication, which lists the different functions of nonverbal communication.
ACTIVITY 3
Now try to identify the function of the non-verbal communication in each of the
following instances:
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Non-verbal communication
Function
(I.e.
complementing,
replacing, regulating)
reinforcing,
contradicting,
1. A CEO looks at his watch and
starts to gather his papers together
towards the end of a discussion
with a visitor.
2. A teacher is hearing English orals
from her class. A nervous boy is
about to begin. He looks at her.
She gestures slightly with her hand
that he should begin.
3. “Don’t!”, shouts a young mother as
she grabs a precious object out of
the hands of her toddler.
4. A woman drops a dish of hot food.
“Oh no!”, she shouts, and stamps
her foot at the same time.
5. Instead of saying: “I can’t hear
you”, the recipient of a message
cups his hand behind his ear.
6. A woman who is crying says: “I’m
fine”, in response to a query.
7. You arrive at a crowded restaurant
and a friend beckons to you from
across the room to indicate that
there is a seat available for you at
that table.
How easy did you find it to identify the function of these examples of non-verbal
communication? We mentioned mime at the beginning of this section. In examples 5 and
7, the communicator uses a kind of mime to convey meaning. In these examples, the
function of the non-verbal communication is to replace verbal communication.
In examples 1 and 2, gestures are used to regulate the flow of verbal interaction: to
tell the boy he must start speaking, or to indicate to the visitor that no further discussion
is possible. If the CEO said: “I’m sorry – I must rush off now”, while gathering his papers
at the same time, then his gesture would be complementing his message (he is in a
hurry). If the teacher added: “Please begin”, as she gestured, then she too would be
complementing her message. This is the function of the mother’s gesture of grabbing the
object from her toddler in example 3.
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In example 4, the woman’s gesture of stamping her foot reinforces her message of
dismay and anger.
Finally, in example 6 we find that non-verbal communication (crying) contradicts the
verbal communication (“I’m fine”). We tend to believe the message that comes to us nonverbally in such cases.
7.2.3 Categories of non-verbal communication
At the beginning of this learning unit, you learnt that up to 70% of communication takes
place non-verbally. Do we produce all this non-verbal communication with our faces and
hands alone?
Let us take an average day in your life and consider the role of non-verbal communication:
Early in the morning, you greet your child with a warm hug and a kiss. You whisper a
sweet nothing into your child’s ear and then make long and loving eye contact. You dress
in a dark business suit with a crisp white shirt.
At a traffic light, you stick your hand out of the window of your car to gesture to a vendor
that you would like to buy a newspaper.
You arrive at work to find that someone has sent you flowers – your face at first registers
surprise, and then happiness. Unfortunately, rushing across the road to fetch a takeaway
coffee, you step in a dog turd. You look down at the mess with an expression of disgust.
A client from England arrives exactly on time for a meeting. You greet the client with a
quick, firm handshake. The client looks like he might be ready to buy a product from you,
so you start to talk faster in order to seal the deal.
Before work ends for the day, you have to attend another meeting. You notice that a new
employee is slumped in his chair, looking very bored. You try to make eye contact with
the new employee to indicate that his posture is offensive, but he carries on texting.
Across the boardroom, another colleague catches your eye and you give each other a
knowing glance.
The CEO enters and takes the seat at the head of the table. The CEO raises his voice
when he addresses the new, badly behaved employee. As you leave the boardroom later,
the CEO puts his arm around you, touching your rear as you leave the room. You feel
uncomfortable about this and walk ahead to establish more distance.
After work, a friend from Italy meets you for a drink and greets you by kissing both cheeks.
Your Italian friend speaks English with an accent which everybody finds very cute – much
to the surprise of your Italian friend herself. In the same bar, you meet an African friend
who shakes your hand, grabs your thumb and then continues the handshake. He is late,
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but he doesn’t make a big fuss about apologising, nor do you expect him to. The mood
is casual and relaxed. You and your friends sit close together, with shoulders touching.
You discuss among yourselves whether your waiter is an art student because he has
dreadlocks and is wearing an unusual shirt. You signal to the waiter for the bill by making
a signing gesture.
All of these messages were received or sent non-verbally. Not all of them were simply
hand gestures or facial expressions, though. In your online resource on myUnisa, read
the relevant subsection related to categories of non-verbal communication, before
doing the next activity.
ACTIVITY 4
Go through the description above of a day’s non-verbal communication and
identify examples of the 6 categories of non-verbal communication. In each
case, add another example from your own recent experience. You can work in
the table provided or directly onto the text.
Category
of
communication
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
non-verbal Examples
from
and your own experience

Facial expression and eye contact


Gestures and posture


Touching behaviour


Use of time and space


Vocal
characteristics
/
paralanguage


Personal appearance

text
In this activity, you were able to categorise non-verbal communication. Your table may
have contained details such as the following:
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Category
of
communication
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
non-verbal Examples
from
text
and your own experience
Looking at child, at colleague. Winking;
Facial expression and eye contact
staring; glaring; raised eyebrows.
New employee slumped in chair.
Signalling newspaper vendor. Pointing;
Gestures and posture
thumbs up; thumbs down; waving;
holding nose with fingers.
Handshakes; arm on back; hugging;
Touching behaviour
kissing.
Being punctual; being late; standing or
Use of time and space
sitting close; keeping distance.
Whispering; shouting; speaking with an
Vocal
characteristics
/
accent; adding emphasis to certain
paralanguage
words.
Personal appearance
Business suit; dreadlocks.
Were you amazed by the many examples you were able to find? Now that you know how
important and pervasive non-verbal communication is, it is time to reflect on how to
improve your personal command of non-verbal communication.
7.2.4 Improving non-verbal communication
Some friends in their forties were reminiscing about the past. They laughed and teased
each other as they remembered really silly things they used to do. Richard remembered
how he always used to walk ahead of the girl he was taking out on a date: “I thought she
would feel more confident if I was leading the way!” Sipho laughed and said that because
he was brought up in a strictly hierarchical society, he thought it was rude to make eye
contact with his superiors: “My first bosses thought I was being rude by not looking them
in the eye”. Then Cara confessed that she thought her boyfriends would leave her if she
complained about their behaviour. “So I always said I was happy when inside I was
miserable about how they were treating me!” Sipho replied: “Those guys should have
seen from your body language that you weren’t really happy!”
If you were having this type of conversation with your friends, what would you all say? Do
you think it’s true that we can modify our non-verbal behaviour so that we are more
successful in business and personal encounters?
In your online resource on myUnisa, read the section outlining tips on how you can
improve your non-verbal communication before doing the next activity.
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ACTIVITY 5
Reflect on the non-verbal messages you send. Answer the questions in the
table that follows:
Category
of
communication
non-verbal
Questions to ask yourself


1. Facial expression and eye contact



2. Gestures and posture



3. Touching behaviour


4. Use of time and space

Do you make good eye contact
without staring rudely?
Do you know how to disguise your
extreme contempt or disgust in
order to appear more polite?
Do you remember to smile
pleasantly so that you seem
approachable and confident?
Do you avoid slouching, slumping
and other offensive postures?
Are you aware of ways with which
you can liven up presentations with
appropriate gestures?
Do you try to keep irritating habits
(finger drumming, ear cleaning) to a
minimum?
Can you adjust your handshake
according to the preference of the
other person?
Are you immediately aware when
your recipient dislikes a particular
form of touching (for example,
ushering someone through a door
by slightly prodding them on the
back)?
Can you adjust your touching
behaviour so that you seem warm
and friendly rather than invasive?
Are you aware of how different
people view time, and can you
adjust your punctuality to match
their expectations?
Are you intuitive enough to know
how much physical space your
recipient prefers to have between
you when you chat?
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

5. Vocal characteristics /
paralanguage




6. Personal appearance
Have you tried to bring your voice
slightly lower so that you are taken
more seriously?
Have you tried to use a calm voice
when you are angry?
Do you know how to relax your
breathing so that you do not burst
into tears at a bad time?
Can you project your voice so that
everybody in a crowded room can
hear you?
Do you know how to emphasise
important words when you speak?
Are you observant of places and
occasions to the extent that you can
select exactly the right outfit (neither
too formal nor too informal) for the
occasion?
Improving your non-verbal communication is something that can only be done with
practice. Be observant of others. Pay attention to the non-verbal behaviour of people you
admire – are there any habits you could try to adopt yourself?
7.3
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION IN WRITTEN TEXTS
How is it possible for written texts – which are, after all, full of words – to have a nonverbal component? As you learnt earlier in this course, your eyes are so well-trained that
you can tell from a glance at a page whether the text in front of you is a letter, a funny
birthday card, a child’s book, an academic text or a page of business news. That’s before
you have even read a single word. Yes, written texts do have a strong non-verbal
component.
In your online resource on myUnisa, study the relevant subsections related to non-verbal
communication in written texts, before you do the next activity.
ACTIVITY 6
From your reading, identify the non-verbal signals that a text gives out. For
example, how does a text indicate to you that something is a list? Or that a
particular word is important? How does a text indicate to you non-verbally that
a new section is about to begin? How does the lettering on a wedding or
bereavement card differ from the lettering on a child’s birthday card or the
lettering in the Yellow Pages?
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Your list of non-verbal signals sent out by written texts may contain some of the following
features:








7.4
Layout.
Headings.
White space.
Bullets.
Typeface.
Graphics (pictures, graphs, etc.).
Size of typeface.
Text features (case, bold, italics, underline).
LISTENING
We have so far concentrated on specific ways to make you a better communicator. You
can do this by becoming a better reader and writer. This learning unit has shown you that
by becoming more aware of non-verbal communication, you are learning to ‘read’ other
people better. There is another important form of communication in which you do not use
words, namely listening.
First of all, it is important to acknowledge that listening is a skill. Study the relevant
sections related to listening and types of listening in your online resource. Note
particularly the distinction between ‘listening’ and ‘hearing’. Now do the following activity.
ACTIVITY 7
Describe the listening habits of someone who is what you would call a bad
listener. Now contrast that person’s habits with the habits of someone you
would consider a good listener (for example, your mother, a friend or partner).
In your descriptions, you may have highlighted some of the following features of the bad
listener and the good listener:
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Qualities of a bad listener
Interrupts
Does not check understanding by asking
questions
Does not take in main message
Ignores tone of voice
Qualities of a good listener
Listens
Asks questions to clarify meaning
Gets the gist
Listens to tone of voice and asks
questions about your mood and feelings
Does not read between the lines
Reads between the lines and urges you
to say aloud what you have been too
scared or embarrassed to say
Stares blankly or fidgets, waiting for you Makes eye contact, and uses gestures
to finish
(nodding), posture (leaning forward), and
facial expressions (smiling, reacting) to
encourage you
Thinks about something else while Gives you full attention
listening to you (attention wanders)
Think about the above lists for a moment. Wouldn’t you like the person described under
‘good listener’ to be your employer or your employee, your partner or your friend? In
short, everyone loves a good listener. It doesn’t diminish your status or represent a waste
of time to be a good listener.
7.4.1 Types of listening
Have you noticed how you listen differently in different situations? If someone is
explaining to you how to work a tricky electrical appliance or how to fix your faulty
computer, you listen as if your life depended on it. When you listen to someone you don’t
like, your mind keeps fixing on errors in his / her logic. When a friend or child comes to
you in distress, you listen in yet another way.
Study the relevant subsection in your online resource on myUnisa now and then do the
following activity.
ACTIVITY 8
Identify what type of listening is required in each of the following situations:
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Listening situation
Type
of
listening
required
(listening
for
content,
critical
listening, empathetic listening)
You are a manager and one of your
employees has been accused of theft.
The employee comes to you to argue
that he is not guilty.
Your company has been late in
delivering a large consignment of goods
to a customer. The customer phones in
fury.
A client phones with a detailed order
worth millions of rands.
How did you do in this activity? In these examples, the types of listening were critical
listening, empathetic listening and listening for content. The purpose of this activity was
not only to test your understanding of the three types of listening, but also to raise your
awareness of how you listen, and how your listening changes according to the situation
that you are in.
7.4.2 Barriers to efficient listening
Imagine if someone sent you an email or letter and you did not receive it. It is a worrying
thought. Yet every day someone sends you a message which you fail to pick up because
of one or other barrier to efficient listening.
In your online resource, study the relevant subsection related to barriers to efficient
listening, before doing the following activity.
ACTIVITY 9
Identify the barrier to efficient listening in each of the following cases:
Listening situation
Barrier
(external noise,
cultural barrier)
internal
noise,
You are the CEO of a company. A junior
employee comes to you with an idea she
has for improving the efficiency of the
company. Afterwards your secretary
asks you what the employee wanted to
see you about. “I don’t know”, you reply.
“She was wittering on about some
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harebrained scheme.”
A Chinese businessman comes to see
you about an idea he has for developing
game farm holidays. You don’t really
catch his message because he speaks
English with an accent. You also wonder
what a Chinese person could possibly
know about game farms.
You are in the kitchen cooking. Your
partner calls out to you from another
room but you cannot hear the message
because the pan is sizzling and the kettle
is boiling.
How did you do in this activity which tested your ability to identify barriers to effective
listening? In these examples, the barriers were internal noise (believing yourself
superior), cultural (accent and stereotyping), and external noise (kitchen sounds muffling
the message).
Once you are aware of the barriers that you identified in the above table, you can set
about eliminating or minimising them. As with all acts of communication, self-awareness
and self-knowledge are the keys to success.
7.4.3 Developing efficient listening skills
It is not easy being a good listener. Some people are garrulous – they talk so much there
seems no point in listening to them. Other people talk nonsense or say offensive things.
Some people are bad listeners, which makes you wonder why you should bother to listen
to them.
Furthermore, it is not always convenient to listen: we are often busy or in a hurry. You
therefore need to believe in the benefits of being a good listener. In your online resource,
study the relevant subsection related to developing efficient listening skills, before
attempting the final activity.
ACTIVITY 10
Joe is a good listener. Identify the good listening strategy that Joe employs in
each of the following situations:
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Situation
Strategy
(appropriate non-verbal behaviour,
paraphrasing, active listening, asking
questions, showing empathy)
A female colleague has lost her job. She
complains bitterly about how this will
affect her family income. Joe looks sad
and says he thinks it is terrible that she
has lost her job and that he will try to help
her.
A secretary tells Joe that she thinks the
cafeteria is selling poor quality food.
“Could you give a specific example of
what you’re talking about?”, Joe asks.
Joe’s boss says: “I think we should look
for markets in SADEC countries and
abroad.” Joe says: “So you think we
should expand our horizons?”
A colleague tells Joe that he has
something highly confidential to disclose.
Joe closes the office door and sits close
to the colleague on the sofa in his office.
He looks at him with a concerned facial
expression.
A junior colleague comes to tell Joe
about a problem in her section. While
she speaks, Joe nods his head, makes
eye contact, and occasionally breaks in
to encourage her to speak more.
How did you manage? Joe’s strategies were: empathy, questions, paraphrase,
appropriate non-verbal behaviour, and active listening. All of these are strategies that
you too can employ. Start practising now!
7.5
SUMMARY
When you embrace someone or raise your eyebrows in surprise, or wrinkle your nose in
disgust, you may be silent, but you are communicating. Non-verbal communication
happens even when you do not intend it – if you fail to catch someone’s eye, or you fold
your arms or turn away from them, that person may feel that you are sending a message
of dislike or worse. Yet you may have been feeling shy, or perhaps you did not recognise
an old friend across a crowded room. You have learnt many non-verbal signals from your
culturally specific upbringing and the place and time of your birth. Whether you think it is
normal to kiss both cheeks in greeting, or to give a high five, or a soft handshake, or keep
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your eyes on the floor, may thus be culturally determined. A massive 70% of our
communication happens in this non-verbal manner, so it is important to be sensitive to its
pervasive power as we interact with others. Even when we are reading a text, part of
what we ‘read’ is non-verbal – the layout of a text, for example, and its illustrations, even
the quality of the paper it is written on – all of these supply information which we decode.
It is as important to read people as it is to read texts. You can do this by listening actively:
asking questions, showing empathy, and giving people enough time to express their
meaning.
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LEARNING UNIT 8
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE
Photo by kabita Darlami on Unsplash
Free to use under the Unsplash License
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Learning outcomes for this unit
•
•
•
•
Recognise the importance of interpersonal communication in the workplace.
Define interpersonal communication.
Identify and describe the essential components of interpersonal communication in
the workplace.
Apply your knowledge of interpersonal communication to practical examples in the
workplace
Key questions
Are you comfortable talking to another person in a face-to-face situation?
Are you happy with the way you are – your looks, achievements, intellect and sexuality?
When you are worried or sad, do you give yourself a ‘pep talk’?
Do you feel that other people criticise you – either to your face or in secret?
Do you generally believe that your interviews and encounters with others will go well, or
do you expect failure?
Do you readily share your thoughts with others, or are you unwilling to open up?
Are you willing to discuss problems, or do you believe that you are right?
Are you willing to face difficult situations, or do you try to avoid them?
Do you empathise with people in distress, or do you tend to give them advice first?
How many interview situations have you experienced in your life?
Have you considered ways to improve your interview skills?
Key concepts
Interpersonal communication; self-image; intrapersonal communication; self-fulfilling
prophecies; cultural differences; gender differences; self-concept; interpersonal
competence skills; self-disclosure; open communicators; blind communicators; hidden
communicators; closed communicators; assertiveness; empathy; and the interview
situation.
8.1
INTRODUCTION
Peruse your online resources, available on myUnisa, in order to understand the contents
of this learning unit. If you have a job or if anyone you know works in an office
environment, then you will be familiar with the issues as discussed in this learning unit.
Interpersonal communication in the workplace can be a major source of stress to both
employers and employees. The knowledge and skills you will gain by studying
interpersonal communication will help to protect you from negative personality types and
turn you into the kind of positive person everyone likes to have around.
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8.2
SELF-IMAGE
Which of the following actions do you regularly perform?





You check your physical appearance in the mirror.
You love it when people find you sexually attractive.
You wonder what kind of good things people will say about you at your funeral.
You love it when people compliment you or pass on compliments.
You love it when people seem to need you or seek out your advice.
There is nothing vain or boastful about these activities. They are all signs that you have
a healthy self-image or self concept. When you look good and feel good, you
communicate better and people respond to you more positively.
In your online learning resources on myUnisa, read the relevant section related to selfimage. You will notice that there are various dimensions to describe your self-image.
The following activity will help you to do this.
ACTIVITY 1
Tick as many statements as you feel apply to you:
When I look at my physical appearance...
□ I always wish I looked like someone else.
□ I am generally satisfied, with the usual niggles like wishing I were an inch
taller or 5 kilograms lighter.
□ I usually feel grateful.
□ I see my face and body as old friends.
□ I think it’s a pity I look this way but I will make the best of it.
□ I see several things I like.
If I had to choose a set of words to describe my personality, I would choose...
□ Considerate, kind.
□ Shy, hardworking.
□ Fun, dynamic.
□ Punctual, reliable.
□ Confident, charming.
□ Introverted, quiet.
□ Extroverted, sociable.
□ Depressed, overburdened.
□ Victimised, oppressed.
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My experience of school, university and life suggests that I am...
□ Good at debating and using logic.
□ Good at writing exams and essays.
□ Quick to learn new words and concepts.
□ Quick to learn new methods and techniques.
□ Quick to identify the cause of a problem.
□ Inventive when it comes to finding solutions.
□ Average at learning new things.
□ Average at writing exams and essays.
□ Average at debating and using logic.
□ In the dark about logic and reasoning.
□ Not very good at learning new things.
□ Far behind when it comes to writing exams and essays.
When I consider the range of things I know how to do (for example, drive, cook,
repair, negotiate, argue, calculate, diagnose, etc.) I think it would be true to say
that...
□ I am a specialist – I know how to do a few things, but I do them
exceptionally well.
□ A generalist – I can do a wide range of things competently.
□ A beginner – There are loads of things I’d love to learn, but I’m only starting
out.
□ An expert in some things.
□ An expert in everything.
□ Wise enough to leave certain tasks to others.
□ A failure at most practical tasks.
□ A jack of all trades and a master of none.
People who know me very well would probably say that I...
□ Have high principles and ethics.
□ Am a bit of a wheeler-dealer.
□ Seem easygoing but really adhere to high ethical standards.
□ Tell the truth and do the right thing when it matters.
□ Have done some rough things in my time but have turned over a new leaf.
□ Had to do the things I did.
When it comes to sexual relationships...
□ I usually have to fight them off.
□ I don’t seem to attract people to me.
□ I think I’m a catch.
□ I feel confident about my attractiveness.
□ I’ll never attract the kind of person I like.
□ It’s easier to stay home alone.
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In this activity, you thought about your self-image. The answers probably came easily to
you, because, after all, you know who you are. But do you? Look over any negative
answers you gave to the questions above. Some communication researchers suggest
that if you feel negative about yourself, you will not attract success. Can you do an online
search for communication researchers who say this? What did you find? What about
communication researchers who say the opposite? Did you get any results for this online
search? What is your opinion on this issue, now that you have read some scientific
research about negative self-image and success?
Go back over the activity now and label each subsection of questions with the names of
the different dimensions of self-image that they represent: physical, psychological,
intellectual, skills, moral and sexual.
8.2.1 Self-fulfilling prophecies
Have you noticed how when you believe that you cannot do something – for example,
finish an essay on time or pass an exam – then your negative belief comes true? This is
what is called a self-fulfilling prophecy. By the very act of making a prophecy, you are
enhancing the chances of that prophecy coming true. To clarify this concept in your mind,
notice the pattern in the following incidents:



A man sees a woman for the first time and thinks: “There’s the woman I am going
to marry.” Later, he does, indeed, marry her.
You drive to town on a busy day and visualise a parking spot close to the place
you need to visit. There is, indeed, an open parking bay when you arrive.
You think that you have no chance of getting a particular job, so you do not put
much effort into the interview. You do not get the job.
When your self-image leads you to believe that you are capable of high achievements,
those high achievements are more likely to come true.
In your online learning resources on myUnisa, study the relevant section related to selffulfilling prophecies, before attempting the next activity.
ACTIVITY 2
Jan was brilliant at his job. His private life, however, was a mess. His wife
had left him, taking the children. Jan’s confidence was at an all time low. When
a promotion position came up, Jan decided not to make himself available for it
because he felt that he would not be able to compete with the other candidate,
one of his colleagues. He also felt that he could not deal with the responsibility
and stress of such a high position when he was such a mess inside. His wife
had told him he was a loser, and she was probably right, thought Jan. The
colleague got the post. Jan was miserable working under the management of
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this colleague, and his stress increased.

In what way does this story illustrate a self-fulfilling prophecy?
As you probably noted, Jan failed because he thought he would fail. He believed his
wife’s criticism when his attitude should have been, ‘I’ll show you!’
But how can we learn to believe in ourselves more, and to reject the negative images that
others try to force onto us?
8.2.2 Cultural and gender differences
In response to the last question, you might quite rightly have replied: “A lot depends on
your upbringing”. If your parents praised you for your attributes, you may have developed
a natural pride in yourself. If your mother, father or siblings called you “fat” or “clumsy”,
these criticisms may still haunt you. If you were constantly told, “Boys don’t cry” or “Girls
can’t do Maths”, these stereotypes may still be lurking inside you, holding you back.
In your online learning resources on myUnisa, study the relevant section related to
cultural and gender differences. Now, complete the following sentences:






The best thing anyone ever said to me was...
I was always brought up to believe something different, but now I think that...
The worst thing my parents ever said to me was...
The most hurtful thing anyone has ever said to me was...
I wish I had never said...
It came as a complete revelation when I left home and discovered that...
The activity above encourages you to reflect on how your self-image is affected by the
people around you right now, as well as by the people who nurtured you when you were
young. You have the right to reject negative messages and to shape your own self-image.
As the final bullet in the activity above suggests, your self-image is directly related to your
current and future job applications. Which ten adjectives would you choose to describe
yourself? The following activity will help you choose.
ACTIVITY 3
Employers look for people with qualities in the following categories:
communication skills; honesty and integrity; teamwork; interpersonal skills;
strong work ethic; motivation and initiative; flexibility and adaptability; analytical
skills; computer skills; and organisational skills. Let’s see whether adjectives
related to any of these categories apply to you:
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Category of skills that employers Adjectives related to these categories
look for
(tick those that most apply to you)
Articulate, communicative, open, outgoing,
1. Communication skills
sociable.
Honest, reliable, loyal, sincere, frank, direct,
2. Honesty and integrity
truthful, dependable, trustworthy.
Cooperative, supportive, helpful, unselfish,
3. Teamwork
friendly.
Accommodating,
understanding,
4. Interpersonal skills
compassionate, sympathetic, empathetic.
Hardworking,
diligent,
thorough,
5. Strong work ethic
conscientious.
Motivated, inspired, creative, energetic,
6. Motivation and initiative
committed,
enthusiastic,
enterprising,
innovative.
Flexible, adaptable, versatile, multi-talented,
7. Flexibility and adaptability
resourceful.
Analytical, logical, questioning, rational,
8. Analytical skills
common-sensical.
9. Computer skills
Computer-literate, technologically savvy.
Well-organised,
orderly,
systematic,
10. Organisational skills
disciplined, well-ordered, methodical.
Do not despair if these qualities do not all apply to you. It is far better to be honest about
yourself than to lie. For example, you might say in an interview: “I think my natural
inclination is to be shy or even introverted, but recently I have really started to enjoy
working in a team”. The purpose of this activity was to help you set goals for the selfimage work you will do in years to come.
8.2.3 Improving self-image
You may still be developing a more positive self-image. As your instructional materials
tell you, self-image is not a settled thing: it is a dynamic process. In your online learning
resources on myUnisa, study the relevant section related to improving self-image. Now,
complete the following sentences in order to help you focus on this section:






I hate it when people say to me, “You always…”
Something I think people misunderstand about me is…
I would like people to see me as more…
Someone I think I can help with his / her self-image is…
I would do this by…
I think [insert name] hates it when I call him / her…
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These sentences should help you to see areas where people may be contributing to a
negative self-image. They will also help you to reach out to others who may suffer from
low self-esteem. Reaching out is an interpersonal competence skill – a way of getting on
better with other people. This is then also the topic of the next section that we are
covering.
8.3
SELF-DISCLOSURE
Have you noticed how when some people enter a room, they are immediately welcomed,
eyes turn towards them, and friends and colleagues move closer? We often call these
people ‘approachable’ or even ‘charismatic’. They draw other people towards them. They
are never side-lined. Charismatic, approachable people are not frightening, cold or
mysterious. We feel that we know them. This is because we do: they have let us know
who they are through the way they communicate.
In many of the activities in this learning unit you have opened up about yourself. Letting
other people know about the kind of person you are is called self-disclosure. The
responses people give to your disclosure is called feedback.
Obviously, you would not tell everyone everything about yourself. But some degree of
self-disclosure is important for others to feel that they can trust you. The truth is that we
do not always get the balance right between revealing and hiding ourselves.
In your online learning resources on myUnisa, study the relevant section related to selfdisclosure before attempting the following activity.
ACTIVITY 4
Complete the information in the following table:
Four
communication styles
1.
2.
3.
4.
interpersonal Example from your own life
(complete the sentence)
An example of an occasion when I am a
Open communicator
trusting and friendly communicator is
…...............................................................
I think I was a bit overconfident and threw
Blind communicator
my
weight
around
when
…...............................................................
I
was
a
bit
two-faced
when
Hidden communicator
…...............................................................
Poor self-image caused me to be nonClosed communicator
communicative
when
I
…...............................................................
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This activity helped you to fix the four different interpersonal communication styles in your
mind by applying them to instances in your own life. It also showed you that while open
communication is your goal, there have been times when you may have adopted less
successful interpersonal communication styles.
8.4
ASSERTIVENESS
So far, we have dealt with self-disclosure – how open or closed you are as a
communicator. The next interpersonal competence skill that we will discuss is the skill of
assertiveness.
Do you admire confident people who stand up for themselves? How would you rate
yourself when it comes to assertiveness? Do you sometimes let people ‘walk all over
you’ and then suddenly erupt in anger and indignation at the way they have treated you?
Wouldn’t it be better if right from the start you had established the boundaries?
Assertiveness is NOT the same as aggressiveness. Standing up for your rights is not the
same as infringing on the rights of others. However, assertiveness can feel
uncomfortable, especially the first time you practise it. Many of us were brought up to
‘turn the other cheek’ and to be meek and mild.
In your online learning resources on myUnisa, study the relevant section related to
assertiveness, and then complete the following sentences:


When [insert name] said that to me, I wish I had…
When [insert name] did that to me, I wish I had…
As you can see from completing these sentences, practising assertiveness will help you
to avoid regrets. Use the next activity to fix the different levels of assertiveness in your
mind.
ACTIVITY 5
Complete the following table, after reading the relevant section in your online
resource on myUnisa:
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Level of assertiveness
1
Passive
2
Aggressive
3
Assertive
Example
from
your
own
life
(complete the sentence)
Someone I know who matches the qualities of a passive
person
is
……….......
because
…….................................................................................
Someone I know who matches the qualities of an
aggressive
person
is
……….......
because
…….................................................................................
Someone I know who matches the qualities of an
assertive
person
is
……….......
because
…….................................................................................
Here you had a chance to compare different levels of assertiveness. You probably know
careworn people who take the blame for everything. They are usually deeply unhappy
because they know that they are being exploited. You also know aggressive people who
crush others and who try to talk louder and longer than anyone else. Finally, your ideal
is to be an assertive person. You want to be firm but communicative. You want to speak
up for yourself but also be fair to others.
8.5
EMPATHY
Don’t you hate it when you are upset about something and the person you are talking to
says something like:
 “Don’t be upset.”
 “I wish you wouldn’t be so sensitive.”
 “Just don’t worry about it.”
 “Ignore it and it will go away.”
You wish they would just allow you to have the feelings that you are having.
The interpersonal skills you have learnt about so far are self-disclosure and
assertiveness. The third and last competence skill is empathy: the ability to put yourself
in another person’s shoes and feel their pain and their joy. You are empathetic when you
encourage a friend to cry or rage as a way of working through their feelings. You are
sympathetic when you say something comforting but keep your distance. Empathy takes
patience.
In your online learning resources on myUnisa, study the relevant section related to
empathy. The following activity will help you to tell the difference between sympathy and
empathy.
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ACTIVITY 6
\
The table below gives a situation and a sympathetic response.
empathetic response.
Add an
Situation
A colleague has made a
huge error at work and
will probably lose her job.
Sympathetic response
Empathetic response
“I am so sorry to hear about
what happened to you.
What caused you to make
that mistake?”
Your partner comes back “You poor thing. What are
from a doctor’s visit with you going to do about it?”
bad news.
This was a rather tricky exercise. True empathy is only possible when you have been
through the same experience as the person in distress. Sympathetic responses can
make the other person feel isolated and alone (note the pronoun ‘you’). An empathetic
response might be: “I did exactly the same thing – I know how you feel” or “We’ll get
through this together”.
Throughout this learning unit, you have been working on developing your interpersonal
skills. Perhaps one of the most important uses for your interpersonal communication
skills is the interview situation. Let’s look at it now.
8.6
THE INTERVIEW SITUATION
Have you ever been interviewed or conducted an interview? How was it different from
meeting a new person by chance at a party or in a public place?
Your answer to this question leads us to the first aspect of interviews, namely the fact that
an interview is “an intentional face-to-face communication” with “preconceived
objectives”. In other words, unlike a chance meeting, the participants in an interview
know WHY they are meeting and WHAT GOAL the meeting hopes to achieve.
In your online learning resources on myUnisa, study the relevant section related to the
interview situation. The following activity will help you to understand the different types
of interviews.
ACTIVITY 7
In the left column, identify the type of interview where the supplied questions
are most likely to be asked.
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Type
of
interview
(employment,
counselling,
Typical questions
performance appraisal, disciplinary,
exit, orientation, research)
“What do you know about our company
and why would you like to work here?”
“Your colleagues rated your punctuality
as 5 out of 10. How would you rate
yourself?”
“Have you been given a copy of our
standard operating procedures for this
task?”
“Was there a bad relationship with a
particular colleague that caused you to
resign?”
“How long have you been experiencing
this level of stress?”
“Could you give us your side of the
story?”
“Is there a correlation between risk
aversion and the size and reputation of
the auditing firm concerned?”
How did you do in this categorising activity? The correct answers were: employment,
performance appraisal, orientation, exit, counselling, disciplinary and research.
Interviews are not natural communicative encounters, so you should not feel bad about
your nerves, or about being an unsuccessful candidate. However, you can prepare for
interviews. Your online learning resources describe the usual sequence of events in an
interview. Let’s end this learning unit by preparing you for an employment interview.
ACTIVITY 8
Consider how you would respond to each of the following questions or
approaches:
 The interviewer greets you with a handshake and introduces you to the
committee, mentioning each member’s name and job title.
[Consider your response]
 The chairperson begins with an open-ended question: “Tell us about
yourself.”
[Consider your response]
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




Member A of the committee asks: “What would you say your strengths and
weaknesses are?”
[Consider your response]
Member B of the committee asks: “Where do you see yourself in 5 years’
time?”
[Consider your response]
Member C asks: “How do you deal with conflict and criticism?”
[Consider your response]
The chairperson asks a closed-ended question: “Would you be prepared
to accept a lower salary than the one you have indicated here?”
[Consider your response]
Member A of the committee asks: “Do you have any questions?”
[Consider your response]
Yes, interviews really are this gruelling! The good thing is that by preparing for your
interview, you can come across as an open communicator. It may seem strange, but it
is possible to rehearse something so that it appears natural.
8.7
SUMMARY
The way you feel about yourself – your self-image – affects the way you communicate
with others and the way they see you. A positive self-image leads to open communication
characterised by appropriate self-disclosure, assertiveness and empathy. By working on
your self-image, you will gradually develop the type of interpersonal competence that
causes other people to respond to you positively and with warmth.
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LEARNING UNIT 9
COMMUNICATION IN GROUPS AND TEAMS
Photo by Dylan Gillis on Unsplash
Free to use under the Unsplash License
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Learning outcomes for this unit
•
•
•
•
Recognise the importance of communication in groups and teams
Define groups and teams.
Identify and describe the essential elements of groups and teams
Apply your knowledge of groups and teams to practical examples in the workplace
Key questions
Why do we say: “Two heads are better than one” and “a problem shared is a problem
halved?”
How would you define a ‘team’?
What do you like about being part of a team?
What do you dislike about being part of a team?
Do you think all members of a team should have similar qualities?
Have you ever left a meeting thinking: “What a waste of time”?
How can we make meetings more efficient?
How can we stop dominant personalities from hijacking meetings?
How can you steer a discussion away from irrelevant personal agendas and back to the
official agenda?
How will you manage and resolve conflict in group situations?
Key concepts
Face-to-face communication in a group; small groups; advantages and disadvantages of
groups; leadership of groups; authoritarian leadership; democratic leadership; meetings;
agenda; evaluation; resolution minutes; formal minutes; problem-solving; decisionmaking; group conflict; and conflict resolution.
9.1
INTRODUCTION
One day you will have a job with excellent financial rewards. The downside of this is that
your job will probably entail managing groups of people. You will have to attend and run
meetings, resolve conflicts and lead teams. How will you cope?
You are a member of several groups and teams already. Any group of three or more
members with a common goal is a team – it could be your family, your child’s school
committee, a neighbourhood watch, a political party, a book club, a charity or a community
organisation. You already know that while teamwork often solves problems, every team
has to deal with badly-behaved members or conflict between members. Bear this in mind
as we take you through this learning unit, which deals with the basic principles of
communicating in small groups and teams. Peruse your online resources, available on
myUnisa, in order to understand the contents of this learning unit.
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9.2
DEFINING TEAMS
Eleven players wearing identical uniforms – except for the names on the back of their
shirts – run onto a rectangular field. Some of them are called ‘strikers’. Strikers aim to
manoeuvre a ball into the net belonging to the eleven opposing players. These attempts
are frequently thwarted by ‘defendants’ of the opposing team. The team may be
organised so that it has more forwards and fewer defendants, or the other way around,
depending on whether the game is to be played aggressively or defensively.
Why do we call these two groups of players ‘teams’? In what way is a soccer team similar
to a team in a work situation? What are the main characteristics of a small group? How
would you define a team? In your online learning resources on myUnisa, read the
relevant section related to teams. before attempting the following activity.
ACTIVITY 1
Some businesses on a stretch of road have been affected by crime. The
business owners meet to discuss ways to counteract crime in their high street.
They form a neighbourhood business watch. Each subscriber to the
neighbourhood watch agrees to pay a certain amount of money towards
security every month. They appoint a committee of five representatives to
meet and make decisions about what form this security will take, and to monitor
it and report back. What makes this odd assortment of business people a
team? Complete the table below, matching the characteristics of a team (as
described in your online resources on myUnisa) with this specific case of a
neighbourhood business watch.
Characteristics of teams
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Example
as
found
in
neighbourhood business watch
the
Definite goals
Three to five people
Communicate
Interdependent
Specific roles
Were you able to apply the definition of a team, as provided in online resources on
myUnisa, to the specific example of a neighbourhood business watch committee? You
probably saw that the committee has a common goal, which is to protect their business
precinct. The committee is a small group consisting of 5 members. They communicate
at meetings. The final two characteristics required your imagination. In the committee
meetings, it is likely that interdependence would emerge. For example, if one member
strongly believes in CCTV cameras, he / she might canvas support for his / her scheme.
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Each member would also be assigned a specific role, such as treasurer, chairperson or
police liaison.
9.2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of small groups
The neighbourhood business watch committee immediately uses some of the
subscribers’ money entrusted to them to employ 24-hour security guards to patrol their
section of the high street. Immediately crime levels drop, and the wider business
community praises the committee for its work. But the committee also has problems. The
richest member is a restaurant owner and he wants subscriptions to be raised so that
they can afford CCTV cameras. The restaurant owner is in everyone’s good books
because he supplied the uniforms and bicycles for the security patrol. He has a particular
interest in the CCTV camera project because one night a gang raided his restaurant and
tied up all his guests before robbing them.
The smallest shop, an antique book store, cannot afford to pay more for cameras to be
installed and knows of several other businesses in the area who would feel the same.
The owner does not see why he should pay for a service that he does not need. The
committee has another problem too: when to schedule meetings. The restaurant owner
wants meetings in the morning, when the restaurant is quiet, whereas many of the other
businesses would prefer evening meetings.
Clearly, there are advantages and disadvantages to working in teams. By working in a
team, the neighbourhood business watch committee brought crime down: it achieved its
main goal. But the committee has experienced practical difficulty (when to meet) and
conflicts of interest.
In your online learning resources on myUnisa, read the relevant section related to the
advantages and disadvantages of small groups. Now think about your family as a
team:




Is your family effective as a team?
Do you achieve common goals?
Do personal goals sometimes interfere with group goals? Is there a forceful member
in your family – is it you?
Are there people in your family who sit back while others do the work – are you one
of these people?
9.2.2 Leadership in groups
Many families are based on old-fashioned principles and thus led by the father. In these
families, the father makes all the decisions and directs the other members, sometimes
including the mother. Clearly there are advantages and disadvantages to this
authoritarian leadership style. On the plus side, the family follows a single set of values,
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and has clearly marked boundaries of behaviour. Children – especially teenagers – can
develop some pretty wild ideas and destructive patterns of behaviour; they are also often
lazy. For these reasons a strict disciplinarian in charge can be a good idea. But on the
down side, an authoritarian family head can lead to long and lasting unhappiness, with
some children breaking away forever.
In your online learning resources on myUnisa, read the relevant section related to ,
leadership in groups and think about whether an authoritarian or democratic style of
leadership is called for in the following situations:

There is a fire in your building and you have recently completed a fire safety course –
you have been issued with the necessary helmet, whistle and megaphone to deal with
a fire-related emergency.
You are in charge of a very experienced team who all know their jobs very well.
You are in charge of a brand-new employee.
Your team is working on a new marketing strategy that needs to be as creative and
full of surprises as possible.



9.3
MEETINGS
The neighbourhood business watch that we discussed earlier in this learning unit would
never have enjoyed success without holding a meeting. The soccer team we described
would never have won a match if they had not met beforehand. The family groups we
have talked about would fall apart without regular formal and informal meetings.
Given their power and success rate, why do we so often dread meetings and feel that
they accomplish nothing? In your online learning resources on myUnisa, study the
relevant section related to meetings, before completing the next activity.
ACTIVITY 2
In the table below, you will find the basic sequence and primary elements of a
business meeting. In the right-hand column, jot down why each step or
element is necessary in order to avoid the conclusion that a meeting has been
‘a waste of time’.
Sequence / primary elements of Reason why element is important
meeting elements
from a communication point of view
 Decide whether a meeting is
necessary
 Select participants for the meeting
 Send out a notice of the meeting
 Distribute the agenda
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












Research the agenda items
Agree on the duration of the
meeting and monitor time
Prevent loud and dominant
members from hogging the floor
Encourage shy and retiring
members to express their views
Clarify the meaning of difficult
terms or acronyms
Prevent the meeting from being
sidetracked into irrelevant areas
Seek feedback from members
Listen actively
Treat all members as equals,
including junior staff
Summarise the main points of the
discussion and decisions taken
Thank participants
Conduct an evaluation
Publish the minutes of the meeting
The purpose of this activity was to give you an overview of meetings, as well as to
encourage you to reflect on the communicative purpose of meetings, which is to share
ideas, opinions and knowledge in order to arrive at decisions.
If you take care to adhere to the guidelines in the table above, you will avoid the usual
criticisms about meetings being ‘a boring waste of time’. Instead, you will be known for
running meetings which are:











Necessary.
Relevant.
Focussed.
Goal-orientated.
Informative.
Coherent.
Fair.
Democratic.
Productive.
Polite.
Time-conscious.
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9.3.1 Problem-solving and decision-making
A large supermarket chain decides to offer home deliveries for a reasonable
fee – probably equivalent to the amount the shopper would spend on petrol driving to the
supermarket anyway. The service immediately becomes very popular, especially with
career women. However, the supermarket chain is soon deluged with complaints about
late deliveries. Deliveries promised for the late morning slot only arrive in the afternoon,
and deliveries scheduled for the afternoon frequently arrive as the family is sitting down
to dinner. Customers are irate, and the delivery staff is angry at working overtime and
dealing with furious customers in their homes.
The above scenario gives you a typical example where a business has to solve a problem
and make decisions. Bear this scenario in mind as you read the relevant related to
problem-solving and decision-making, in your online resource on myUnisa.
ACTIVITY 3
The supermarket chain is very concerned about its reputation and a team of
its employees sit down to talk about the problem. This is what they say:
Driver:
Packer:
Runner:
Manager:
Supervisor:
“I know everyone is looking at me pointing fingers. These
deliveries are not late because of me. In the morning when
I fetch the first batch for delivery, the packers are often late.
Then I get into the morning rush hour traffic. Sometimes I
get delayed by road works and traffic jams. I think you are
expecting too many deliveries from me in each slot.”
“It’s true that we cannot always find all the items a customer
has asked for. Either we’re out of stock, or we do not have
it in the requested size, or we have a different brand. Why
can’t we substitute a requested item with another similar
item?”
“Some people live in upstairs flats and we have to wait for
the lift. Or else they take so long to open the door and when
they do I nearly get eaten by the dog! Those bags are
heavy, man! If I walk any faster I’ll put my back out.”
“Well, we clearly have a problem. Basically, you are all
admitting that deliveries are late.”
“I think we are all taking too much blame. It is not as if ALL
deliveries are ALWAYS late. We have a problem of some
deliveries being late. Also, some customers have a
genuine complaint if their groceries arrive two hours late.
But if it’s fifteen minutes late, then I would say that the
customer is just being fussy!”
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Manager:







“Late is late. If our deliveries are late, we have a problem
we need to fix. I’m appointing a task team to look into this.”
What stage of the problem-solving sequence is the group at?
Have they been discussing questions of fact, value or policy?
In your opinion, what should the solution to this problem accomplish?
What could the supermarket’s task team do to research this problem
further?
Brainstorm (list randomly) possible solutions.
What policy decisions would you suggest in the light of this problem?
Once the policy decisions have been implemented, how could the
supermarket chain evaluate their success?
Congratulations! You have just taken yourself through the problem-solving sequence.
The meeting transcript above showed the early stage of attempting to define the problem.
What is interesting about this stage is how the apparent problem (deliveries are late) leads
to the discovery of underlying problems (workload, supply, orders, and traffic).
At this early stage, the group is mainly concerned with a question of fact: are deliveries
late or not? Questions of value are never far away though. The question of substituting
products may relate to the quality of the service. Similarly, the supervisor’s query about
the degree of lateness is also a question of value. If most deliveries are getting through
in reasonable time, should the company worry about the occasional very late delivery?
The solution to the problem could aim for complete punctuality. But you might also have
suggested something like: “No more than 5% of deliveries should be late”. Or: “No
delivery should be later than 15 minutes”.
The supermarket’s task team could research the problem by spending a day on the road
tracking deliveries and seeing where the delays crop up. They could follow up on the
traffic problem by researching traffic flows at particular times of the day on particular
routes. They could follow up on the supply issue by calling for a list of out-of-stock
products and finding out whether availability will always be a problem.
A random list of brainstormed solutions might include: allow substitutions of similar
products; change delivery routes to avoid heavy traffic; schedule fewer deliveries per slot;
phone customers when delays are expected in order to reschedule delivery; allow
incomplete orders to be delivered and missing items to be delivered later; source
deliveries from shops closest to the clients; and take on more packers and runners.
Policy decisions should be made in respect of substituted items. A policy decision needs
to be made on what ‘late’ is. Other policy decisions would derive from the brainstormed
list and the results of the task team’s research.
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The supermarket could evaluate the success of its policy decisions by conducting
customer questionnaires or simply monitoring customer feedback. Drivers’ log books and
order receipt books could also be used for evaluating whether or not the problem of late
deliveries has been solved.
9.4
GROUP CONFLICT
There is a crisis at work. One of your senior employees, Mervyn, has an authoritarian
leadership style. He is a loud, aggressive person who shouts others down. His secondin-command, whom we will call Theresa, is a gentle-natured woman who is easy to talk
to and who carefully nurtures young members of staff.
As a result, members of staff tend to take their problems and complaints to Theresa
instead of confronting Mervyn. They cannot bear Mervyn’s bullying managerial style and
they are terrified of the way he shouts. Theresa does not pass on their complaints to
Mervyn, but bottles them up. Poor Theresa is now at her wit’s end and close to a nervous
breakdown. Not only does she have to hear all the complaints, she also has to deal with
Mervyn’s bad temper which is often directed at her. Theresa breaks down. She hands
in her resignation. Mervyn hears about his colleague’s resignation and says: “Good!
That woman was way too soft and prone to tears anyway.” However, you do not want
Theresa to resign as she is a valuable member of staff. You do not want to risk losing
Mervyn either, because despite his aggression, he gets things done and has brought in
millions of rands’ worth of business.
How did this problem get so bad and is there any solution to the conflict?
Bear this scenario in mind as you read the relevant related to group conflict, in your
online resource on myUnisa.
ACTIVITY 4
Consider the situation between Mervyn the bully and Theresa the nurturer in
the light of the following questions:
 How could pro-action have prevented the conflict?
 How could communication have prevented the conflict?
 What research could you do as you look for solutions?
 How do Mervyn and Theresa respectively see the solution to the conflict?
 Are there alternative solutions, and, if so, what are they?
Did you recognise the scenario? Group conflict often comes from strong personality
differences that are allowed to fester for too long. As your answers to the questions
suggested, early pro-action would have prevented the escalation of the crisis. You should
have picked up Theresa’s meekness and Mervyn’s bullying methods earlier, perhaps
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through interviews or simply by dint of casually chatting to them. Communication was
definitely a problem. Younger members of staff should also have participated in solving
problems rather than simply reporting them. Theresa should have spoken to you earlier.
Clearly, there has been a lack of openness. People have been speaking behind one
another’s backs. Here is a tip for you if you are ever in a situation like this: Everyone
hates to be accused (“You always …” or “You never …”). However, most people respond
very favourably to expressions of genuine emotion. For example: “When you speak to
me in that tone of voice, I feel terrified”. Or: “When you did x, I felt so inadequate”.
This is not a problem you can research on the Internet. You need to interview the staff
members concerned. You also need to bring in a professional conflict resolution firm.
You need to involve your human resources department.
Mervyn and Theresa’s solution is not realistic. In fact, it is not a solution at all. If Theresa
resigns, Mervyn will continue to be a bully. Theresa will be unemployed. Alternative
solutions include: establishing a proper chain of command with procedures for complaints
– Theresa must not be the buffer between Mervyn and the rest of the staff. Both Mervyn
and Theresa may need training courses in self-image and conflict resolution (for very
different reasons). Since there is such a personality difference, you may need to
introduce a third senior member of staff who is able to stand up to Mervyn but who also
appreciates Theresa’s more tender approach.
9.4.1 Strategies for conflict resolution
Let’s return to the analogy of the family as a team in order to understand strategies for
conflict resolution.
Mr and Mrs Dube have a gorgeous 15-year old daughter, Sindi, with perfect skin and
braided hair. She attends a private school where she has achieved excellent grades so
far in most subjects, except for Mathematics which she hates. But trouble is brewing in
the Dube family. Sindi wants to wear short skirts, use Facebook and go to late-night
parties like all her friends. Mr Dube says: “Over my dead body”.
Where is this conflict headed?
ACTIVITY 5
Consider the conflict in the Dube home and then answer the following
questions:
 Give two ways in which this conflict could end in a win-lose outcome.
 Explain how this conflict might end in a lose-lose outcome.
 How could skilled negotiation result in a win-win outcome?
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The purpose of this activity was to fix in your mind the three different strategies for conflict
resolution. It should also have made you reflect on the delicate process of negotiation
that leads up to the ideal of a win-win outcome.
In a win-lose outcome, either Sindi or her father could have gained the upper hand.
Imagine the bitter resentment that would have followed: probably estrangement and a
cooling of the father-daughter bond. The daughter would have gained her freedom at her
father’s expense. Or the father would have maintained his authority to his daughter’s
detriment.
In a lose-lose outcome, Mr Dube might grudgingly allow Sindi to use Facebook. Sindi
might grudgingly agree to put in more hours on her Maths homework. There would be a
grumpy mood at home.
In a win-win situation, the two could negotiate a system of gradual freedoms. If Sindi
passes Maths with a B symbol at the end of the term, she can use Facebook. If her father
agrees that she has been using Facebook responsibly, she can buy a short skirt. If he
has met the parents concerned, she can attend a late-night party. They would learn to
respect one another’s point of view. The compromises each one makes are more
meaningful when they are negotiated with an emphasis on common interests.
9.5
SUMMARY
Communicating in groups – a group of colleagues or a family group – is never easy.
Personal goals may conflict with group goals, or there may be factions. Leaders may
have a bullying or authoritarian style. Groups need to meet, which can lead to a frustrating
waste of time. But it does not have to be this way. Through skilled communication, you
can place the emphasis on achieving common goals, hearing all sides of the story, solving
problems, and resolving conflicts.
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LEARNING UNIT 10
ORAL PRESENTATIONS
Photo by Teemu Paananen on Unsplash
Free to use under the Unsplash License
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Learning outcomes for this unit
•
•
•
Recognise the importance of oral presentations for business communicators
Identify and describe the essential components of oral presentations and meetings
Apply your knowledge of oral presentations and meetings to practical examples in the
workplace
Key questions
Do you break out into a sweat at the thought of having to speak in public?
Do you secretly hope that you will be able to get through your career without public
speaking?
Do oral presentations have to be boring?
What makes someone a good public speaker?
What can you do to make public speaking less stressful?
Do you know how to capture and keep your audience’s attention?
Do you feel confident about explaining new information?
Do you feel competent enough to tell a group of people how to do something?
Are you brave enough to try to persuade a group of people to adopt a certain course of
action?
Key concepts
Oral presentations; speeches; business talks; informative talks; instructional talks;
persuasive talks; audience; time; venue; preparing an outline; time limit; introduction;
body; conclusion; preparing notes; rehearsing; non-verbal behaviour; voice; Monroe’s
motivated sequence; and evaluating talks.
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10.1
INTRODUCTION
If you dread public speaking, you are not alone. A roomful of people – some or all of
them strangers – staring at you, is daunting enough. Add to that the problem of how to
speak without notes, or with only note cards; how to capture and keep the audience’s
attention; how to get your message across; and how to respond to the questions at the
end. No wonder that most people say that they fear public speaking more than they fear
death! Again, we encourage you to peruse your online resources, available on myUnisa,
in order to understand the contents of this learning unit.
10.2
WHAT AUDIENCES LIKE
Successful public speakers command thousands of Rands in fees. Let’s start by hearing
what audience members have said about professional speakers whom they liked:











“He held a very mixed audience spellbound throughout his talk.”
“Her humour appealed to all.”
“He conveyed very important life lessons.”
“She opened a lot of eyes and ears to new knowledge.”
“It changed my way of thinking.”
“I loved his dramatic contrasts from loud to soft voice; from large, rapid gestures
to an outstretched hand steeped in pathos; from rapid fire delivery to a quiet
moment of reflection.”
“Her storytelling is like a trip on an emotional roller coaster.”
“Time flies by as she brings her story to a conclusion.”
“You are left wishing it would never end.”
“We were spellbound and drank up every word.”
“There were a good number of light bulb moments.”
This ideal of the gifted public speaker may seem a long way off, but it is possible to train
yourself so that you too make an impact on your audience. In this final learning unit, we
will take you through the key aspects of oral communication and meetings with the aim
of making you a better than average public speaker and business communicator.
In your online learning resources on myUnisa, read the relevant section related to oral
presentations and then do the following activity.
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ACTIVITY 1
Summarise how you feel about public speaking by completing the following
sentences:
 When I listen to public speakers (for example at a wedding) I always
enjoy…
 When I attend speeches or presentations, I always wish that the speaker
would be more…
 I wish public speakers would be less…
Almost certainly your responses to this activity were to wish that speakers would be more
interesting and funny and less boring. You may have mentioned that you enjoy jokes or
stories – both of these are good ways of capturing an audience’s attention.
10.3
CAPTURING YOUR AUDIENCE
Think about what you have written and realise that there are hundreds and thousands of
people out there who wish exactly the same thing. There are hungry audiences out there
longing for a speaker who can:







Tell stories.
Say something different.
Speak audibly.
Make the audience laugh.
Provide insight.
Stick to a time limit.
Make time fly.
Why not become this desirable speaker? Your experience of school speeches, university
lectures, wedding speeches, political speeches and radio commentary has already taught
you a lot even if you were not conscious of it. However, do not imitate the bad speakers.
Choose a role model who captivates the audience.
Think about that word, ‘captivate’. Similar words that are used to describe good public
speakers are ‘spellbinding’ and ‘enthralling’. What all these words have in common is
magic. A good speaker casts a spell on the audience, making us forget the passing of
time. When you have to stand in front of a lectern one day, think of yourself as a magician,
a performer, or a person with special powers. You can capture your audience by:




Looking directly at them, without fear.
Smiling and being at ease.
Saying something striking or surprising.
Telling them something personal about yourself – an anecdote.
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



Saying something funny about the room or the occasion.
Asking them a direct question.
Reading their thoughts.
Reading their emotional mood.
You can start working on these strategies secretly right now. As you speak to friends,
family and colleagues, actively try out ways of drawing people towards you. The main tip
we can give you here is that people are most interested in themselves. Use the pronoun
‘you’, and speak directly to concerns and interests you know that your audience has.
However, before you can begin to decide how you will captivate a public audience, you
have to know why you are speaking: what is the purpose of your oral presentation.
ACTIVITY 2
Read through the following list of oral presentation titles and answer the
questions that follow:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Examining the China business landscape.
Why we should do business with China.
Sony vs. Samsung: Battle for global supremacy.
Savvy young entrepreneurs.
International business issues.
What comes after quality management?
Productivity: What we know about it, what we must - and can - do about
it.
8.
The organisation in transition – Are the traditional functions obsolete?
9.
Middle managers and professionals – Can business regain their trust?
10. Why we should choose Samsung over Sony.
11. The argument for moving HQ to Tshwane.
12. How to design a web page.





Find one example of an informative talk.
Find one example of an instructive talk.
Find one example of a persuasive talk.
Which of these talks would most interest you and why?
Do you think the title or titles that attract you have used any particular
technique or word/s that grabbed your attention?
The purpose of this activity was to fix in your mind the three different types of talks, namely
informative, instructive and persuasive. Examples of informative talks include ‘Examining
the China business landscape’ and ‘International business issues’. An example of an
instructive talk is ‘How to design a web page’. Persuasive talks include ‘Why we should
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do business with China’, ‘Why we should choose Samsung over Sony’ and ‘The argument
for moving HQ to Tshwane’.
This activity also drew your attention to the importance of giving your talk or presentation
a title. Titles are often referred to as ‘sexy’ when they attract an audience and grab our
attention. Notice how the titles with questions in them are particularly appealing. Certain
words in the above titles are of very specific interest to business people: ‘China’,
‘productivity’, ‘middle managers’, etc. Titles that suggest a conflict or change will also
attract an audience because of their controversial value.
10.4
ORGANISING YOUR PRESENTATION
The more relaxed and chattier a public speaker appears, the more preparation he or she
has done. When you know that your preparation is adequate, when you know what you
want to say, and how you are going to say it, you will be able to concentrate on simply
charming and engaging your audience.
In your online learning resources on myUnisa, read the relevant section related to
organising your presentation.
Now, think back to your schooldays. The worst orals were those in which a child either
read his or her oral from the page, without looking up or really noticing that the rest of you
were there. Children who learnt their orals off by heart like parrots were not much better.
You do not want to be locked into your notes or sound as though you are reciting. Your
aim is to reach out, to convince, to win over, to arrest.
This is where preparation is very important. You need to be able to speak directly to your
audience, using only a few key points written on cards or a single sheet of paper to guide
you.
ACTIVITY 3
Let’s imagine that you have been invited back to your school to give a prizegiving address. You have decided to give your talk the title ‘Lessons I’ve
learned’.
 Draw up a basic outline for your talk.
 Think about your introduction – how will you draw your audience in? Write
down two or three key words that will remind you of what you want to say.
 Come up with three or four ‘life lessons’ that you would like to pass on: what
are they? Write down two or three key words that will remind you of what
you want to say.
 Support each lesson with an anecdote. Write down two or three key words
that will remind you of what you want to say.
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
How will you conclude? Write down two or three key words that will remind
you of what you want to say.
The purpose of this activity was to show you how simple it is to plan a speech that
everyone will enjoy. Moreover, you have planned a speech that you can deliver from a
piece of paper with only a few words jotted down, perhaps in the form of a numbered or
bulleted list.
Your task was made easier because you were able to visualise your school and the exact
place where you would make your presentation. You had a really good idea of your
audience’s needs and wants. It was almost like preparing a pep talk for a younger version
of you.
You may have begun your talk with a light-hearted joke, for example: “I can assure you
that every lesson I’ve learned in life was learnt outside the walls of this school”.
After that opener, you may have turned more serious. Your notes might have looked like
this:
1. Intro – About me – I was a rebel, learnt nothing at school.
2. The importance of teamwork – Matric dance example.
3. Value of friendship – Thabo story.
4. Failure actually helps – Things I got wrong and how failure helped guide me.
5. Love lessons – The prettiest girl isn’t the one – How I met my wife.
6. Conclusion – Teamwork, friendship, failure and love.
Yes, that’s all you need! Speakers who stand up with pages and pages of typed notes
do not have the gift of public speaking.
10.5
GIVING SPEECHES ABOUT COMPLEX MATERIAL
But what if you have to deliver a long report or comment on a company’s annual results?
A technique you can use in this situation is called ‘speaking to’ your report or paper. Using
this technique:
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Distribute a copy of the report or main document to each participant or attendee.
Do not read it word-for-word!
Draw your listener’s attention to certain key points and highlight only those key
points.
Put across these salient points in a chatty, explanatory, lively manner.
Add humour, examples, anecdotes and a personal touch in order to make a dry
subject interesting.
Do the hard work for your audience – in other words: be prepared and know
your material back to front.
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Help your audience to read and understand difficult results, tables or graphs
(say: “What you can see here is…” or “What you are looking at here is…”).
In the last point above, we mention graphs and tables. In your online learning resources
on myUnisa, read the relevant section related to preparing visuals for presentations
before giving a bit more thought to how you would manage this aspect of oral
presentations.
ACTIVITY 4
Imagine that you are the chairperson of your child’s PTA (Parents-Teachers
Association). The PTA committee needs presentations on the following topics.
Choose one topic and explain how a visual aid (or several visual aids) will help
your presentation:
 An address to prospective parents, pointing out good things about the
school including the teacher-learner ratio, the pass rate, the number of
distinctions, teacher qualifications, participation in sport, range of facilities,
and subject options.
 A report to the PTA committee showing the school’s annual income and
how it was spent.
 A persuasive speech to the PTA committee arguing either for or against
maintaining the expensive Art and Drama departments of the school.
 A report back from the fund-raising committee, showing funds raised from
a variety of projects.
The purpose of this activity was to force you to think visually. A great deal of information
can be packed into graphs (line graph, bar graph, etc.), tables and charts (pie chart,
pyramid chart, flow chart, etc.). These could be projected onto a screen as part of a
PowerPoint presentation or by using an overhead projector. They could also be drawn
onto a flip chart or handed out on sheets of paper. When it comes to showing off the
school’s facilities or its happy multiracial and co-educational nature, photographs would
work best.
Visual aids are an excellent way of bolstering your confidence during oral presentations.
They help you capture the audience’s attention; they are proof to the audience of how
well-prepared you are; and they give the audience something to stare at other than your
tie or shoes!
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10.6
REHEARSING AND DELIVERING THE SPEECH
The last sentence of the previous section reminded you of the physical problem of
delivering your oral presentation. No matter how expert a speaker is, you can be sure
that he or she experiences nerves. In fact, it is only because of that ‘fight or flight’ instinct
that speakers are able to stand up before an audience and shine. They need the blood
rush and the adrenalin to help them succeed.
In your online learning resources on myUnisa, read the relevant sections related to
delivering speeches and do the activity that follows.
ACTIVITY 5
Read the following Oscar acceptance speech by actress Gwyneth Paltrow.
Why do you think it was criticised?
“And the winner is … Gwyneth Paltrow for Shakespeare in Love!”
(Camera focuses on Gwyneth Paltrow in her seat, covering her face in a state
of amazement before kissing her parents and getting onto the stage. She is
wearing a pink ball gown that is too loose around the bodice. She accepts the
Oscar and starts to speak.)
“I would like to thank the Academy from the bottom of my heart! (voice
breaking up with emotion) I would like to thank Emily Watson, Fernanda
Montenegro, and my friend Cate Blanchett and the greatest one who ever was,
Meryl Streep. I don’t feel very deserving of this in your presence, but…I would
like to thank Harvey Weinstein and everybody at Miramax Films for their
undying support of me.
I would like to…I wouldn’t be in this auditorium, let alone up here, if it wasn’t
for two incredibly talented men: our director John Madden, thank you so much
for all that you gave me, you are so inspiring; and to my soulful partner, Joseph
Fiennes who I share this with. (crying) I would like to thank you.
Um, I would like to thank the rest of our miraculous cast and crew. Our
producers Donna Gigliotti and David Parfitt…I didn’t forget you this time!
(starts to laugh and sob) Especially, Jim McGill and Sophie Shant and my
friend Ben Affleck and, um, I would like to thank my wonderful agent Rick
Kurtzman, who is a beautiful man and a wonderful agent. And in his case that
is not an oxymoron! And I would like to thank Harold Brown, Stuart Gelwarg
and Steven Huvane.
Um, I would not have been able to play this role had I not understood love with
a tremendous magnitude, and for that I thank my family (crying so that her
words are inaudible); my mother Blythe Danner, who I love more than anything,
and my brother Jake Paltrow who is just the dearest person in the whole world.
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My earthly guardian angel, Mary Wigmore. (crying loudly now) Um, and
especially to my father Bruce Paltrow (sobbing) who has surmounted any
surmountable obstacles this year. I love you more than anything in the world.
And to my grandpa Buster who almost made it here tonight, but couldn’t quite
get here. (half laughing, half crying) Grandpa, I want you to know that you
have created a beautiful family who loves you and loves each other more than
anything and we thank you for that. I would like to dedicate this to two young
men who lost their lives very early: Harrison Kravis and my cousin Keith
Paltrow. We miss you very much and I thank you. Thank you so much
everybody!”
You might like to consider the following in your assessment:
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Length.
Relevance.
Rehearsal.
Voice quality.
Gwyneth Paltrow’s speech was criticised mainly because she sobbed throughout. This
level of emotion embarrassed her audience and made her words occasionally inaudible.
Secondly, her speech was far too long. Oscar acceptance speeches are supposed to be
about 45 seconds long – hers was over 5 minutes. In addition, the audience was
concerned about her loose dress – it made her look too thin and not smart enough for the
occasion. The content of her speech was repetitious (thanking one person after the next,
most of them unknown to the audience) and not well-rehearsed (notice the “ums”).
The speech you have just studied and critiqued was a thank-you or acceptance speech.
The final chapter of this course ends with a much more exciting kind of speech: the
motivational or persuasive speech. Read the relevant sections from your online
resources on myUnisa related to preparing oral talks (speeches), before continuing with
the remainder of this learning unit.
10.7
MONROE’S MOTIVATED SEQUENCE
Have you ever watched a TV commercial that goes something like this: a mother is
depicted trapped in a cubicle, unable to reach her child who is desperate for her attention?
A voice informs us that the mother cannot spend time with her child because she has to
spend all her time scrubbing the shower cubicle.
Suddenly on our screens we see a solution: a container of super-efficient household
cleaner. If the housewife uses this cleaner, imagine the wonderful times she can spend
with her child! The advert ends with a call to go and buy this household cleaner
immediately.
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As you may have realised, this advert perfectly follows Monroe’s motivational sequence:
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Grab attention (Why is the poor mother in a prison away from her child?).
Describe need (Mother cannot spend time with her child because of timeconsuming cleaning duties).
Satisfaction (There is a product to solve this problem).
Visualisation (Think of all the fun things mother and child could do together).
Action (Buy this product now).
From now on, watch TV adverts with this sequence in mind. Advertisers know more than
most public speakers on the topic of persuasiveness.
Let’s see if you can apply Monroe’s motivational sequence to a political speech.
ACTIVITY 6
Read Barack Obama’s 2009 election rally speech and answer the questions
that follow:
“A few weeks ago, no one imagined that we’d have accomplished what we did
here tonight. For most of this campaign, we were far behind, and we always
knew our climb would be steep. But in record numbers, you came out and
spoke up for change. And with your voices and your votes, you made it clear
that at this moment – in this election – there is something happening in
America.
There is something happening when men and women in Des Moines and
Davenport; in Lebanon and Concord come out in the snows of January to wait
in lines that stretch block after block because they believe in what this country
can be.
There is something happening when Americans who are young in age and in
spirit – who have never before participated in politics – turn out in numbers
we’ve never seen because they know in their hearts that this time must be
different.
There is something happening when people vote not just for the party they
belong to but the hopes they hold in common – that whether we are rich or
poor; black or white; Latino or Asian; whether we hail from Iowa or New
Hampshire, Nevada or South Carolina, we are ready to take this country in a
fundamentally new direction. That is what’s happening in America right now.
Change is what’s happening in America.
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You can be the new majority who can lead this nation out of a long political
darkness – Democrats, Independents and Republicans who are tired of the
division and distraction that has clouded Washington; who know that we can
disagree without being disagreeable; who understand that if we mobilize our
voices to challenge the money and influence that’s stood in our way and
challenge ourselves to reach for something better, there’s no problem we can’t
solve – no destiny we cannot fulfil.
Our new American majority can end the outrage of unaffordable, unavailable
health care in our time. We can bring doctors and patients; workers and
businesses; Democrats and Republicans together; and we can tell the drug
and insurance industry that while they’ll get a seat at the table, they don’t get
to buy every chair. Not this time. Not now.
Our new majority can end the tax breaks for corporations that ship our jobs
overseas and put a middle-class tax cut into the pockets of the working
Americans who deserve it. We can stop sending our children to schools with
corridors of shame and start putting them on a pathway to success. We can
stop talking about how great teachers are and start rewarding them for their
greatness. We can do this with our new majority. We can harness the
ingenuity of farmers and scientists; citizens and entrepreneurs; to free this
nation from the tyranny of oil and save our planet from a point of no return.
And when I am President, we will end this war in Iraq and bring our troops
home; we will finish the job against Al-Qaeda in Afghanistan; we will care for
our veterans; we will restore our moral standing in the world; and we will never
use 9/11 as a way to scare up votes, because it is not a tactic to win an election,
it is a challenge that should unite America and the world against the common
threats of the twenty-first century: terrorism and nuclear weapons; climate
change and poverty; genocide and disease.
All of the candidates in this race share these goals. All have good ideas. And
all are patriots who serve this country honourably. But the reason our
campaign has always been different is because it’s not just about what I will
do as President, it’s also about what you, the people who love this country, can
do to change it.
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… We’ve been warned against offering the people of this nation false hope.
But in the unlikely story that is America, there has never been anything false
about hope. For when we have faced down impossible odds; when we’ve been
told that we’re not ready, or that we shouldn’t try, or that we can’t, generations
of Americans have responded with a simple creed that sums up the spirit of a
people.
Yes we can.
It was a creed written into the founding documents that declared the destiny of
a nation.
Yes we can.
It was whispered by slaves and abolitionists as they blazed a trail toward
freedom through the darkest of nights.
Yes we can.
It was sung by immigrants as they struck out from distant shores and pioneers
who pushed westward against an unforgiving wilderness.
Yes we can.
It was the call of workers who organised; women who reached for the ballot; a
President who chose the moon as our new frontier; and a King who took us to
the mountaintop and pointed the way to the Promised Land.
Yes we can to justice and equality. Yes we can to opportunity and prosperity.
Yes we can heal this nation. Yes we can repair this world. Yes we can.
And so tomorrow, as we take this campaign South and West; as we learn that
the struggles of the textile worker in Spartanburg are not so different than the
plight of the dishwasher in Las Vegas; that the hopes of the little girl who goes
to a crumbling school in Dillon are the same as the dreams of the boy who
learns on the streets of LA; we will remember that there is something
happening in America; that we are not as divided as our politics suggests; that
we are one people; we are one nation; and together, we will begin the next
great chapter in America’s story with three words that will ring from coast to
coast; from sea to shining sea – Yes. We. Can.”

How do the first four paragraphs of Obama’s speech manage to capture
his audience’s attention?
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The paragraphs beginning with “You can be the new majority…”, “Our new
American majority…”, and “Our new majority...” express the needs facing
America at the time of his speech. Underline some of these needs.
Which aspect of Monroe’s motivated sequence is represented by the
phrase “And when I am President...”?
What does Obama visualise will happen if he is elected?
What kind of action does he want his audience to take?
In your opinion, what makes this a successful public speech?
Barack Obama was too busy to write this speech himself, so it was written for him by
someone who happened to be only 26 years old at the time. Jon Favreau chatted with
Obama, took notes, and shaped the politician’s ideas into the speech you have just read.
How did you manage the questions?

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Obama’s speech captures his audience’s attention by stating that something
historic has happened – in fact, the impossible has been made possible. He
praises the crowd by saying “You … you … you”. He makes them feel that his
victory is their victory. They were the underdog but now they are the victors. He
emphasises the difficulties – including the snow – which they have overcome. He
uses dramatic contrasts: “rich or poor; black or white; Latino or Asian; whether we
hail from Iowa or New Hampshire, Nevada or South Carolina”. He uses the key
words “new” and “change”.
The needs which Obama identifies are many: a long political darkness; division
and distraction clouding Washington; disagreements, money and influence has
been against the will of the people; health care has been unaffordable and
unavailable. Big corporations have enjoyed tax breaks and shipped jobs overseas.
Children have attended schools with corridors of shame. Government has praised
teachers but not paid them. The planet itself is on the point of no return.
The moment Obama says, “And when I am President...” he is offering satisfaction:
he is the solution.
Obama visualises justice, equality, opportunity, and prosperity. He visualises the
realisation of the dreams of humble people.
Although he does not state it directly, Obama wants them to vote for him. His
speech also implies that he wants them to stand together despite political and other
divisions. Finally, he wants them to adopt a “Yes we can” attitude.
The speech works for a number of reasons. It compliments and praises the
audience. It keeps repeating the motivational phrase “Yes we can”. It keeps
uniting rich and poor, black and white. It paints a miserable picture of an isolated,
hated America suddenly being welcomed back as the world’s saviour.
You have now reached the end of your course and this study guide. We hope that you
too now have the feeling that “You can”.
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10.8
SUMMARY
Oral presentations need not be cause for terror. If you know the purpose of your talk
(informative, instructive or persuasive), and if you prepare yourself thoroughly, your
nerves will only serve to add energy to your performance. Start by arousing your
audience’s interest and make sure that you use repetition, summary, clear explanations
and visual aids to help them grasp your key points. Stick to your time limit and speak
clearly. Breathe.
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LIST OF SOURCES CONSULTED
Ashman, M. 2018. Introduction to Professional Communications. (licensed under a
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License). Open Library: Pressbooks:
Ontario, Canada.
Business Communication for Success. 2015. (licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International License). University of Minnesota.
Communication for Business Professionals. 2018. (licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International License). Open Library: Pressbooks: Ontario, Canada.
Communication in the Real World: An Introduction to Communication Studies. 2013.
(licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License). University of
Minnesota.
Dingwall, AR, Labrie, C, McLennon, T & Underwood, L. 2018. Professional
Communications. (licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License). Open Library: Pressbooks: Ontario, Canada.
Favreau, J. 2008. Transcript of Barack Obama's Victory Speech. Available at:
https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=96624326
Paltrow, G. 1999. Transcript of Gwyneth Paltrow’s Academy Awards Acceptance Speech.
Available at: http://aaspeechesdb.oscars.org/link/071-3/
Smith, J. 2019. Communication at Work. A College-to-Career Guide to Success.
(licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License). Open
Library: Pressbooks: Ontario, Canada.
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LEARNING UNIT 11
COMMUNICATION IN THE DIGITAL AGE
Images 1 and 3 by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay – Image 2 (Binary - Background) - Image by Gordon
Johnson from Pixabay - Pixabay License- Free for commercial use- No attribution required
AUTHORS:
Dzunisani Ntimbani
Carol Moncho
Ashiya Abdool Satar
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11.1
INTRODUCTION
We live in a world that is rapidly changing, particularly with the move towards the fifth
industrial revolution (5IR). Even though many countries are still lagging and catching up
with the fourth industrial revolution (4IR), technology influences how we interact and
communicate with each other in our working, living, and educational spaces. As such, we
need to follow, learn, and adapt the rules and guidelines of communication when we
interact in this virtual realm. Although no one can foresee the future, we believe that these
changes are increasing the importance of communication in the digital age.
We are different people, from different cultures with different schools of thought. Hence,
we respond to intercultural contexts with amusement, curiosity, or interest. When one
hears the term “intercultural communication” what comes up is a picture of people from
different cultures communicating with one another. Some people may respond with
hostility, anger, or fear in intercultural situations because of the lack of knowledge of
different cultures. Therefore, intercultural learning allows us to reflect on different people’s
experiences and to identify how we respond to interactions effectively. We also need to
understand what varying reactions mean. It is helpful to recognise that in many instances
people do not want to communicate interculturally due to the discomfort associated with
misunderstanding each other.
In this chapter, you will focus on two themes, namely, intercultural communication and
business ethics.
Within the intercultural communication section, you will learn about:

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definitions of culture and intercultural communication
history of intercultural communication
different cultures in organisations
the importance of multicultural communication in an organisation
the important elements of multicultural communication
overcoming cultural communication challenges in an organisation
Within the business ethics section, you will learn about:

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

ethics
the importance of business ethics
ethical principles and ethical behaviours
the public and private persona
your digital footprint and how to improve your digital footprint
rules and guidelines for netiquette
words and legal responsibility
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11.2
DEFINITION OF CULTURE
Culture is a complicated word to define, as there are several ways that culture is used in
business contexts. Culture should not be conceptualised as a stable and unchanging
term. Culture is “negotiated”, and as you will learn later in this chapter, culture is dynamic.
Moreover, culture is patterned in that there are recognisable widespread similarities
among people within a cultural group; while there is also a deviation from and resistance
to those patterns by individuals and subgroups within a culture, which is why cultural
patterns change over time. Because there are many acceptable definitions of culture, and
because it is a complex concept, it is important to reflect on the centrality of culture in our
own interactions. The late British writer Raymond Williams (1983:89) wrote that culture
“is one of the two or three most complicated words in the English language”.
For the purposes of this chapter, culture is defined as the ongoing negotiation of learned
and patterned beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviours, and traditions that are shared by a
group of people. Cultural changes can be traced and analysed to better understand why
our society is the way it is. Unpacking the definition:
11.2.1 Beliefs, attitudes, values, and traditions

A belief is something one accepts as true or real. It is a firmly held opinion. For
example, core beliefs are the assumptions that we can make about ourselves that do
not really have any weight to them, but we strongly believe them, nonetheless. “I’m
ugly”. “I’m not as good as them”. “I’ll never amount to anything”. “People do not like
me”. “I can’t do anything right”. “I’ll never get better at this”.

Attitudes, on the other hand, are settled ways of thinking or feeling about something.
For example, the attitude object can be a person, place, thing, ideology, or event.
Attitudes can be positive or negative. For example, “I hate men with long hair”.

Values are ideas about what is good, right, fair, and just. For example, accountability
is being responsible and answerable to our behaviours, and in doing so, we create a
sense of trust from others.

Traditions are the transmission of customs or beliefs from generation to generation
or the fact of being passed on in this way. Thus, you must consider more than the
clothes you wear, the movies you watch, or the video games you play, all as
representations of the environment, as culture. Common examples include holidays
or impractical but socially meaningful clothes (like lawyers' wigs or military officers'
spurs), but the idea has also been applied to social norms such as greetings.
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Culture also involves the psychological aspects of your expectations of the
communication context. From the choice of words (message), to how you communicate
(in person, or by email), to how you acknowledge understanding with a nod or a glance
(nonverbal feedback), to internal and external interference, all aspects of communication
are influenced by culture.
11.2.2 Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is the evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions originating
in the standards and customs of one's own culture. Ethnocentrism is universal human
behaviour. It can be a problem for many reasons. Firstly, it causes us to believe that
cultures differing from our own, are divergent. Divergent means tending to be different or
develop in different directions. It prevents us from learning about other cultures, which
also prevents us from wanting to communicate with people of different ethnicities.
Your thought process regarding culture is often “other” focused, which means that the
culture of the other person or group is what stands out in your perception. However, the
old adage “know thyself” is appropriate, as you become more aware of your own culture
by better understanding other cultures and perspectives. Intercultural communication can
allow you to step outside of your comfortable, usual frame of reference and see your
culture through a different lens. Additionally, as you become more self-aware, you may
also become a more ethical communicator as you challenge your “ethnocentrism”, or
your tendency to view your own culture as superior to other cultures.
If you are ethnocentric in the sense of being fearful, intolerant, or even just avoidant
towards those other cultures—be they on the other side of the planet, country, province,
city, building, counter, or desk—you limit your opportunities for success in the globalised
market. Even engaging other cultures with simplistic, preconceived notions informed by
media stereotypes and reducing everyone in a culture to a one-dimensional character or
prop will similarly lead you into serious error. Intercultural communication requires
openness to difference, patience in overcoming cultural and language barriers, and the
desire to learn about other cultures and points of view.
11.2.3 Stereotypes
If your work brings you into contact with cultures that you know little about, forget the
stereotypes and learn about their culture by both researching it and talking to them
respectfully. Stereotypes can be defined as a generalisation about a group of people that
oversimplifies their culture (Rogers & Steinfatt, 1999).
In other words, a “stereotype” is a set of generalisations about a group of people or a
social category, which may be correct or incorrect. Mostly, these statements are
exaggerated. For example, all accountants do not know how to write a memo.
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The definition also points out that culture is learned, which accounts for the importance
of socialising institutions like family, school, peers, and the media.
Lastly, the above definition of culture acknowledges the influence that your beliefs about
what is true and false, your attitudes including your likes and dislikes, your values
regarding what is right and wrong, and your behaviours have on your perception of other
cultures. It is from these cultural influences that your identity is formed.
11.2.3.1 The problems with stereotypes
As defined above, a stereotype is a set of generalisations about a group of people. Let
us look at different problems that are associated with stereotypes.
There are various perceptual flaws of reasoning associated with stereotypes. Perceptual
flaws in reasoning relate to the influence of the context, our expectations, biases, desires,
self-interest, and overall frame of reference on our perception of reality, which are usually
inaccurate. We also refer to these errors as perceptual inaccuracies. As such, since
perception is susceptible to various sorts of errors, we need critical reasoning to evaluate
claims about what we perceive. Go back to Learning Unit 1, Section 1.4.5, for an in-depth
discussion of perceptual inaccuracies.
Thus, when we refer to stereotypes, the most common problems associated with
stereotypical viewpoints are that they are socially constructed, arbitrary, biased,
prejudicial and discriminatory.
11.2.3.1.1 Stereotypes are socially constructed
Some stereotypes are informed generalisations about a group of people. It is generally
true, for example, that younger people have better hearing than older people. Yet, many
of our stereotypes are invalid—particularly when they are based on race, religion, or
gender. Because of this, stereotypes can be problematic and counter-productive when
working with diverse others.
11.2.3.1.2 Stereotypes are arbitrary
Stereotypes are arbitrary ways of categorising individuals. This means that they are
based on random choice or personal whim, rather than any reason or system.
No social group is homogenous. Stereotypes might not accurately represent the
characteristics of a particular member of that group.
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11.2.3.1.3 Stereotypes are biased
Research shows that we believe individuals from the same social group to be more similar
than they really are. We also tend to exaggerate the differences between social groups.
An American is likely to believe that all German people are very similar across a broad
range of characteristics and that Germans are very different from Italians.
Researchers also report bias in our categorisations of out-groups and in-groups. Outgroups are social groups to which we do not perceive ourselves as belonging. In-groups
are the social groups with which we most identify. We perceive members of out-group
members as sharing similar characteristics, but we think of in-group members as having
unique characteristics and attributes.
11.2.3.1.4 Prejudice and discrimination
As well as shaping our beliefs about people, stereotypes drive social judgements.
Prejudice and discrimination refer to our feelings or attitudes about a group and its
members based on the group, class, or category they belong to, rather than basing any
action on individual merit. Prejudice is commonly associated with stereotypes; our
evaluations of others reflect what we believe to be true about them. A simple distinction
between prejudice and discrimination is that prejudice is to do with attitudes and is based
on perceptual inaccuracies, while discrimination has to do with actions or behaviours
towards other people based on prejudiced views.

Prejudice involves a negative preconceived judgment or opinion that guides conduct
or social behaviour and stems from stereotypes. As an example, imagine two people
walking into a room for a job interview. You are tasked to interview both, and having
read the previous section, we rely on stereotypes when encountering people or
cultures with which we have had little contact. In order to become aware of your own
stereotypical perceptions, ask yourself the following questions when you meet other
people:
o Will the candidates’ dress, age, or gender influence your opinion of them?
o Will their race or ethnicity be a conscious or subconscious factor in your thinking
process?
These factors will likely make you use stereotypes to guide your expectations of other
people and your subsequent interactions with them.

Discrimination refers to the differential (usually unfair or negative) treatment of
individuals perceived to be belonging to a particular social group; for example, being
overlooked in promotion or hiring, or being treated with hostility. Discrimination is
linked to stereotypes and prejudice. Strong egalitarian social norms, however, might
deter a prejudiced person from acting in a discriminatory manner.
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People who treat others with prejudice often make assumptions or take preconceived
ideas for granted without question, about the group or communities. You often assume
characteristics about groups with whom you have little contact. Sometimes you also
assume similarity, thinking that people are all basically similar. This denies cultural, racial,
ethnic, socioeconomic, and many other valuable, insightful differences.
11.3
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Intercultural communication is defined in many ways based on different experiences, from
a pattern of perception that influences communication to a site of contestation and
conflict. Intercultural communication is communication between people with differing
cultural identities.
Intercultural communication is a fascinating area of study within business communication,
and it is essential to your success. One idea to keep in mind as you examine this topic is
the importance of considering multiple points of view. If you tend to dismiss ideas or views
that are “unalike culturally”, you will find it challenging to learn about diverse cultures. If
you cannot learn, how can you grow and be successful?
Read the following resource on intercultural communication to gain some background
knowledge of intercultural communication:
https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/communicationatwork/chapter/10-4intercultural-communication/
Culture is often considered the core concept in intercultural communication. Therefore,
we first begin with a definition of culture before we define intercultural communication.

Culture is part of the very fabric of our thought, and you cannot separate yourself from
it, even as you leave home, defining yourself anew in work and achievements. Every
business or organisation has a culture, and within what may be considered a global
culture, there are many subcultures or co-cultures.
For example, consider the difference between the sales and accounting departments
in a corporation. You can quickly see two distinct groups with their own symbols,
vocabulary, and values. Within each group, there may also be smaller groups, and
each member of each department comes from a distinct background that in itself
influences behaviour and interaction. Culture and communication are closely related.
The more people have in common, the easier their connections are.

Intercultural communication studies often focus on how cultural groups differ from
one another and how we can communicate effectively in these situations. In simple
terms, intercultural communication describes communication between at least two
people who are different in significant ways culturally.
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For instance, a conversation between a man who grew up in Nepal and a woman who
grew up in Micronesia would probably be an intercultural conversation because we
could study how the different cultural backgrounds of the two people affect their
communication strategies toward each other. Also, Muslims differ from Christians;
Japanese differ from Americans; men differ from women; environmentalists differ from
conservationists; pro-lifers differ from pro-choicers, and so on and so on.
Intracultural communication, which we discuss in the next section, is an important
part of understanding intercultural communication.

Intracultural communication is a meaningful exchange between members of the
same social group or of groups with similar cultural properties. Intracultural
communication commonly describes communication between at least two people who
are from the same culture or have culturally similar backgrounds. So, a conversation
between two American citizens who both grew up on the farms of Georgia would be
intracultural because they will essentially have the same background and cultural
orientations.
Such groups may be distinguishable from the mainstream society based on race,
ethnicity, tradition, values, religious faith, economic level, gender, age, or other traits
and abilities. These intracultural interactions affect your intrapersonal communication
as it shapes your frame of reference and perceptions about the world. Go back to
learning unit 1, section 1.4, for an in-depth discussion of frames of reference.
You may only represent one culture. But most people belong to multiple groups, each
with its own culture. Cultural diversity makes communication difficult as the mindsets
of people of different cultures are different, and their language, signs, and symbols
are also different. Different cultures have different meanings for words, behaviours,
and gestures. Culture also gives rise to prejudices, ethnocentrism, manners, and
opinions. Does a conversation with yourself ever involve competing goals,
objectives, needs, wants, or values? How did you learn of those goals or values?
These are all new terms that we briefly discuss below, before continuing with the next
set of definitions:
o
A goal is an object of a person's ambition or effort, an aim or a desired result. An
objective, however, is something that our efforts or actions are intended to attain
or accomplish.
o
Objectives are measurable and tangible, while goals usually are not. Goals
generally look at the long term while objectives are either mid-term or short-term.
o
A need is something that a person must have or something that is necessary in
order to live or succeed or be happy.
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o
A want is having a desire or wish to possess or do (something).
o
Values are individual beliefs that motivate people to act in one way or another.
They serve as a guide for human behaviour.
Now that we understand culture, intercultural and intracultural communication, we
need to know the difference between intercultural communication and crosscultural communication.

Cross-cultural communication IS NOT the same as intercultural communication.
While intercultural communication deals with the interaction between at least two
people from different cultures, cross-cultural communication describes the
comparison of communication styles across cultures. For instance, a paper about
what happens when a Moroccan man speaks to a Hawaiian woman would be
intercultural, but a paper comparing the communication patterns of people from
Morocco with the communication patterns of people from Hawaii would be crosscultural.
How
does
cross-cultural
communication?

communication
differ
from
multicultural
Multicultural refers to a society that contains several cultural or ethnic groups. People
live alongside one another, but each cultural group does not necessarily have
engaging interactions with each other. For example, in a multicultural neighbourhood
people may frequent ethnic grocery stores and restaurants without really interacting
with their neighbours from other countries.
The multicultural communication concentration focuses on the dynamics of
communication across cultures. It explores not only what happens when people of
two different cultures meet, but also what happens when people from a variety of
cultures and ethnicities come together in one organisation, community, or country.
Many people consider multicultural communications to be solely about race when, in
fact, multiculturalism means many cultures. This term includes, inter alia, people of
diverse age groups, people of different races, and even people with different political
views.
Here are some examples of multiculturalism:
o
In most European countries, you will find multiculturalism because
migrations lead to societies where multiple cultural identities coexist.
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o
o
At the Olympic Games, you can talk about multiculturalism because many
countries and cultures are represented. It doesn’t mean that they interact
with each other.
In some neighbourhoods, you might find ethnic grocery stores and
restaurants from various countries without people interacting with their
neighbours.
What then is international communication?
 International communication, on the other hand, is similar to intercultural
communication because it also describes communication between at least two people
who are from different cultures. However, topics concerning international
communication do not really look at how cultural differences affect specific interactions
between two people because they are often focused on a larger picture. For instance,
international communication might describe how government offices from the U.S.
communicate with government offices from Turkey. Furthermore, they may describe
communication between individuals who live in different cultures, but have similar
experiences (e.g., email communication between friends who both studied together in
the U.S. as exchange students but then went back to their own respective countries).
Ethnocentric tendencies, stereotyping, and assumptions of similarity can make it difficult
to learn about cultural differences. Along these lines, this section provides a guide for how
to approach intercultural communication in the modern workplace by considering what
you have in common with the people you interact with, what to look for in terms of cultural
differences, and how to act in either case.
Though we do not have room for a thorough guide on specific cultural differences
pertaining to every unique culture you might encounter, we will focus on basic principles
for conducting intercultural communication. Through communication within and between
individuals, many cultures are represented. You may struggle with the demands of each group and
their expectations and could consider this internal struggle intercultural conflict.
11.3.1 Six imperatives of intercultural communication studies
There are six important reasons to study intercultural communication in the fast-paced
era of digital interactions, which we discuss below.
11.3.1.1 The Technological Imperative
We live in a global village due to the explosion of computers and other communication
technologies. The global village is a term coined by Marshall McLuhan in the 1960s that
refers to a world in which communication technology unites people from across the world.
The way in which people use technology to communicate daily is amazing.
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The advent of the internet and other communication technologies have tremendous
implications for intercultural communications, such as:
o
Increased information about people and cultures
The internet provides access to information about different cultures and other
people. The internet has made it easy for us to search and learn about different
cultures; all we need to do is simply search on the internet. This should give us a
better understanding of our global neighbours and perhaps some motivation to
coexist peacefully in our global village. Through communication technologies like
the world wide web, people also have access to increasing amounts of information
about what is happening in their own and other countries. This is especially
important where media are government controlled.
o
Increased contact with people who are different from us
Communication technology brings us closer to people we do not even know or with
whom we might never be in physical contact. For example, when you meet with
someone from a different country and culture on Facebook, then you start
communicating with them via Facebook Messenger. When we are talking to
individuals face to face, we use nonverbal information to help us interpret what they
are saying – tone of voice, facial expressions, gestures, and so on. The absence of
these cues in mediated contexts (e.g., chatrooms and emails) makes
communication more difficult and can lead to misunderstandings. And these
misunderstandings can be compounded when communicating across cultures.
o
Increased contact with people who are similar to us and who can provide
communities of support
Communication technology also allows us to have more contact with people who
are very similar to us. This is seen when you are chatting to people, and you find
out that you share the same interests and opinions. The internet can also be used
to strengthen a sense of identity, as is the case for some diasporic groups – ethnic
or national groups that are geographically dispersed throughout the world,
sometimes as refugees fleeing from war, sometimes as voluntary emigrants.
o
Identity, culture, and technology
As we are all aware, advances in communication technology lead us to think
differently about ourselves and our identity management. Identity management is
the way individuals make sense of their multiple images concerning the sense of
self in different social contexts. Identity on the internet not only is potentially
fragmented but also involves more choice and management issues than in face-toface interactions. Some of the identity cues individuals use to figure out how to
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communicate with others are age, gender, and ethnicity – which are filtered out of
the internet. For instance, when you send an email, you can choose whether to
reveal certain aspects of your identity. The recipients won’t know if you are male or
female, young or old unless you tell them. The same is true for chatroom
participation. You can choose which aspects, if any, of your identity you want to
reveal. In fact, you can even give false information about your identity.
o
Differential access to communication technology
Advances in communication technology make us think differently about ourselves
and our identity management. The technological imperative gives us increasing
information, and increased contact with people who are similar to and different from
us. Increased use of communication technology also raises questions about identify
and access to these technologies.
11.3.1.2
The Demographic Imperative
In our own observations, we can all agree that the world is increasingly diverse.
Demographic analysis is the study of a population based on factors such as age, race,
and sex. Demographic data refers to socioeconomic information expressed statistically,
including employment, education, income, marriage rates, birth and death rates, and
more. Therefore, the study of intercultural communications allows us the opportunity to
understand people from diverse backgrounds.
You have classes with students who differ from you in ethnicity, race, religion, and/or
nationality. College and university student bodies are becoming increasingly more
diverse. Diversity is the quality of being different and it can expand our conceptions of
what is possible linguistically, politically, and socially as various lifestyles and ways of
thinking converge.
11.3.1.3
The Economic Imperative
The economic imperative highlights issues of globalisation and the challenges for
increased cultural understanding needed to reach the global market. Globalisation is the
process by which businesses or other organisations develop international influence or
start operating on an international scale. Globalisation changes the way nations,
businesses and people interact. Specifically, it changes the nature of economic activity
among nations, expanding trade, opening global supply chains and providing access to
natural resources and labour markets. Cultural differences in business practices have
implications not only in terms of how people from different companies do business with
each other but also when people from different cultures work on the same team.
One effect of globalisation is increasing numbers of international teams working as virtual
teams and rarely meeting face to face. A simple email exchange frazzles nerves because
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of cultural misunderstandings. Even when employees have good language skills, they
naturally interpret written and verbal communication through the filter of their own culture.
Domestic diversity also requires businesses to be attentive to cultural differences. As the
workforce becomes more diverse, many businesses are interested in capitalising on
these differences for economic gain. Understanding cultural differences involves not only
working with diverse employees but also recognising new business markets, developing
new products, and so on. From this perspective, diversity is a potentially powerful
economic resource if organisations view the challenge as an opportunity. In this sense,
then, a business can capitalise on diversity.
11.3.1.4
The Peace Imperative
The bottom line in intercultural communication, is whether individuals of different genders,
ages, ethnicities, races, languages, socioeconomic statuses, and cultural backgrounds
can co-exist on this planet.
Both the history of humankind and recent world events lead us not to be very optimistic
on this point. Some of these conflicts are tied to histories of colonialism around the world.
Colonialism is the system by which groups with diverse languages, cultures, religions,
and identities were united to form one state, usually by a European power. Another may
say colonialism is the system by which a country maintains power over other countries or
groups of people to exploit them economically, politically, and culturally. It would be naïve
to assume that simply understanding the issues of intercultural communication would end
war and intercultural conflict, but these problems do underscore the need for individuals
to learn more about social groups other than their own.
11.3.1.5
The Self-Awareness Imperative
One of the most important reasons for studying intercultural communication is the
awareness it raises of our own cultural identity and background. One reason you should
study intercultural communication is to foster greater self-awareness. Self-awareness
through intercultural contact for someone from a racial or minority group may mean
learning to be wary and not surprised at subtle slights by members of the dominant
majority and reminders of their place in society. It is through intercultural communication
that you come to create, understand, and transform culture and identity.
We can all agree that the study of intercultural communication begins as a journey into
another culture and reality and ends as a journey into one’s own culture. It is important to
recognise that intercultural learning is not always easy or comfortable. And what you learn
depends on your social and economic position in society.
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11.3.1.6
The Ethical Imperative
Living in an intercultural world represents ethical challenges as well. Ethics may be
thought of as principles of conduct that help govern the behaviour of individuals and
groups. These principles often arise from communities’ consensus on what is good and
bad behaviour. Cultural values tell us what is “good” and what “ought” to be good. Ethical
judgments focus more on the degrees of rightness and wrongness in human behaviour
than do cultural values.
11.3.2 How to understand intercultural communication
Always approach intercultural communication as an opportunity to overcome cultural
differences and achieve the cross-cultural understanding you need to be a better person
and do your job effectively in a multicultural environment. When you enter a profession,
you begin to internalise a new workplace culture and therefore a new set of values. You
represent that culture (and even subculture within a company) to the various audiences
you deal with, namely, customers or clients outside, management above, and colleagues
in adjacent departments. In all such interactions, your goal is to find a common language
that helps get the job done. Intercultural communication is thus vital to your success.
By focusing on interactions rather than cultures as separate from individuals, we can
evaluate the many cultures we belong to or are influenced by, as well as those with whom
we have interacted. While this view makes the study of intercultural communication far
more complex, it also brings a healthy dose of reality to the discussion.
To summarise, intercultural communication is an aspect of all communicative interactions,
and attention to your perspective is key to your effectiveness. We are learning beings and
we adapt. Every person we encounter, be it from a different country or culture leaves a
mark on us with a set of perspectives and values that shape our worldview and behaviour.
Still, you are a cohesive self rather than a fractured and divided one, which suggests we
can all get along with one another despite our cultural differences.
11.4
CULTURE IN BUSINESS
Culture affects the way people think about business in their own society. An awareness
of cultural attitudes toward business will help you communicate efficiently and effectively
when working with people from other cultures. For example, Asian cultures, including
Japan and China, promote teamwork and cooperation in business environments while
Western businesses promote individual action and responsibility. Understanding these
values will help you to create an effective communication strategy with partners from
these regions.
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Ethnocentrism makes you far less likely to be able to bridge the gap with others and often
increases intolerance of difference in the business world, which hampers organisational
success. Business and industry are no longer regional, and in your career, you will
necessarily cross borders, languages, and cultures. You will need tolerance,
understanding, patience, and openness to difference. A skilled business communicator
knows that the process of learning is never complete and being open to new ideas is a
key strategy for success.
11.4.1 Ways to deal with cultural communications in the workplace
Differences in race, sex, religious and political beliefs, and lifestyle are among many
cultural differences that may affect how people communicate in the workplace.
Resolving communications problems caused by cultural differences requires patience,
understanding, and respect. A major mistake is forming opinions before even engaging
in communications. Opinions reached before an opportunity to discuss the matter
makes resolving conflict difficult. In this light, experience has value. If you do not know
a culture, you should consider learning more about it first-hand if possible.
The people you interact with may not be representative of the culture as a whole, but that
is not to say that what you learn lacks validity. Quite the contrary; Hall asserts that you
can, in fact, learn something without understanding everything, and given the dynamic
nature of communication and culture, who is to say that your lessons will not serve you
well? Consider a study abroad experience if that is an option for you or learn from a
classmate who comes from a foreign country or an unfamiliar culture. Be open to new
ideas and experiences and start investigating. Many have gone before you, and today,
unlike in generations past, much of the information is accessible. Your experiences will
allow you to learn about another culture and yourself and help you to avoid prejudice.
Members of a community teach one another these learned cultural cues so that it
becomes an ingrained, accepted part of their society. Common cultural elements
include social structure, language, religion, and communication. Beliefs about the role
of business and how business activities should be carried out, fall into this
understanding of culture since business partners interact within their own cultural
context. Examples of cultural preferences in business might include the pacing of
negotiations, level of formality between business partners, and subtle versus direct
conversation about money.
Culture affects the way people think about business in their own society. An awareness
of cultural attitudes toward business will help you communicate efficiently and effectively
when working with people from other cultures.
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11.4.2 Effects on communication
Culture directly affects business communication, both verbal and nonverbal. Some
cultures, including Australia, the United Kingdom and Germany, place a high
significance on the words actually spoken. Other cultures, including Japan and Arab
cultures, still place significance on the spoken word, but also place great significance
on the context of the conversation.
Silence, too, carries significance in all cultures, and this might be interpreted in different
ways during cross-cultural business meetings.
11.4.3 Communication breakdown
Ignoring culture in business communication can lead to problems and communication
disruptions. Internal business communication can be disrupted or misinterpreted if
workers do not share the same understanding of goals, expectations, and processes.
Understanding culture can help businesses anticipate potential challenges or barriers
in the adoption of new policies or processes before efforts break down. For example,
some business cultures may thrive in an exchange and dialogue-based communication
system while other cultures (for example, Japanese and Arab cultures) rely more heavily
on subtext. If new information or ideas are suddenly imposed on employees accustomed
to a more collaborative work culture, there may be a lack of buy-in and the project will
fail. Therefore, it is important to focus on the following elements to avoid communication
breakdowns:
i.
Respect
Treating people as individuals regardless of culture is sometimes a key to resolving
communication issues. For example, it is improper to assume that a woman takes a
certain position on a subject because she is a woman. Such generalisations can cause
conflict in communication. Not all people who are members of the same culture will react
to communication in the same way or offer the same opinion on a subject. However,
cultural backgrounds may indeed affect how people act, behave, and communicate. But
that does not mean people of a certain culture will all communicate or react to events in
the same way.
ii.
Knowledge
Learning more about other lifestyles and cultures helps people avoid conflict in
communication, particularly in multicultural settings. Information on cultural awareness
is widely available in books at public libraries. Open and honest discussions about
cultural differences with friends and colleagues are helpful as well. Learning more about
cultural differences helps avoid jumping to unfair or wrong assumptions about a
person’s statements or other communication efforts.
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iii.
Avoiding assigning blame
Conflict in communications between cultures also is avoidable when all parties resist
assigning blame. Two companies merging staffs in a business transaction may have
different styles of managing and working. Putting the teams together can cause an
immediate clash of cultures, with problems intensified if both sides always blame the
other for problems and communication breakdowns. Simply placing the blame on others
is not constructive and can make communication problems worse.
iv.
Listening skills
Focusing on listening well with an open mind also helps resolve cultural communication
problems. Paying close attention to words used in a conversation or other forms of
communication can help resolve these problems. It’s also important to pay attention to
the context of the discussion and the tone of the communication.
11.4.4
Overcoming communication challenges
In this section, we will discuss the three Rs on how we can overcome challenges in crosscultural communication and five ways to improve communication in a cultural context.
Over the years, I have incorporated various approaches, tips, and tricks to strengthen
relationships among team members across the globe. These approaches have helped
me overcome communication challenges with global colleagues.
Three Rs on how we can overcome challenges in cross-cultural communication:
i.
Recognise the differences in cultural context
The first step toward effective cross-cultural communication is to recognise that there are
differences. Start by increasing your awareness of other cultures.
ii.
Respect the differences in cultural context
Once you become aware that differences in cultural context can affect cross-cultural
communication, the next step is to respect these differences. When you notice a different
style of communication, learn to embrace the difference, and actively listen to the other
person’s point of view.
iii.
Reconcile the differences in cultural context
Merely recognising and respecting cultural differences is not enough; you must also learn
how to reconcile cultural differences. Understanding and being empathetic towards the
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other culture will help you reconcile the differences and learn how to use them to better
advance productivity.
Five ways to improve communications in a multi-cultural context:
i.
Use video conferencing when communicating with global teammates
Studies show that about 55% of communication is non-verbal. Body language offers many
subtle cues that can help you decipher messages, and video conferencing enables
geographically dispersed team members to see each other. Videoconferencing is my
default choice when conducting remote meetings.
ii.
Ensure that every team member gets an opportunity to share their thoughts and
ideas
Although I prefer to conduct meetings using video conferencing, this is not always
possible. If video conferencing is not a common practice at your workplace, it might take
some effort to get everyone comfortable with the concept. Start by encouraging everyone
to participate in audio meetings.
One of our remote team members, who frequently met with us in audio conferences,
mentioned that she often wanted to share ideas and contribute to the meeting but since
we could not see her and she could not see us, she had no idea when to start speaking.
If you are using audio conferencing, one way to mitigate this is to ensure that every team
member gets an opportunity to share their ideas.
iii. Learn from one another
Leverage your international friends to learn about their cultural contexts. This will help
you interact more effectively with colleagues from these countries. I have friends from
South Asia and South America who have helped me better understand their cultures, and
this knowledge has helped me professionally.
Conducting reviews and brainstorming sessions with your global peers help you
understand how those from different cultures give and receive feedback, persuade others,
and make technical decisions.
iv.
Be empathetic
Empathy is the key to strong relationships. The more you can put yourself in someone
else's shoes, the better able you will be to gain trust and build long-lasting connections.
Encourage “water-cooler” conversations among your global colleagues by allocating the
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first few minutes of each meeting for small talk. This offers the additional benefit of putting
everyone in a more relaxed mindset. If you manage a global team, make sure every
member feels included in the discussion.
v.
Meet your global colleagues in person
The best way to build long-lasting relationships is to meet your team members in person.
If your company can afford it, arrange for this to happen. Meeting colleagues with whom
you have been working will likely strengthen your relationship with them.
Another way to bring teams together is to attend conferences. This not only creates
educational and training opportunities, but you can also carve out some in-person team
time.
In today's increasingly global economy, it is becoming more important for companies to
maintain a geographically diverse workforce to remain competitive. Although global
teams can face communication challenges, it is possible to maintain a high-performing
development team despite geographical and cultural differences. Share some of the
techniques you use in the comments.
As we have mentioned earlier, we are quickly moving towards the fifth industrial revolution
(5IR). This means that technology and the digital space will dominate our lives more than
ever as we move forward. This also has an impact on our working lives in various ways.
How we interact and behave in the virtual sphere is also evolving as such, and we need
to be aware of these elements in our working lives too. Therefore, we now discuss digital
communication in the workplace and the associated ethical aspects thereof.
11.5
DIGITAL COMMUNICATION AND ETHICS
Digital communication is the process of exchanging information with the help of digital
technology. In the workplace, digital employee communications speed up the flow of
information and enhance team collaboration with members dispersed across different
geographical locations.
Various digital communication channels can be used in the workplace, such as emails,
text messages, social media platforms, video conferencing tools, collaborative
applications, etc. However, with the ease that digital tools and applications create for
collaboration across spatial boundaries, comes various ethical concerns that need to be
considered. Therefore, the following sections deal with digital communication and ethics
in the workplace.
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11.5.1 Ethics
Ethics is defined as the rules that determine what is acceptable behaviour in society and
these rules guide people’s morals every day. In addition, ethics refers to society’s sense
of the right way of living our lives. It does this by establishing rules, principles, and values
on which we can base our conduct. The concepts most directly associated with ethics are
truth, honesty, fairness, and equity (Zink, 2020).
Ethics is defined as moral principles that govern a person’s behaviour or the conducting
of an activity that regulates how an individual acts in certain situations. Ethical behaviour
requires you to be worried about what is right or wrong in a certain situation. The right
thing to do may not always be obvious, and sometimes you have an ethical dilemma when
there’s no clear answer. Many companies have policies to help employees behave
ethically. For example, these guidelines are used to help in situations where employees
must behave and communicate ethically. They further assist people to act in the right
way.
While ethics is a societal concern, it is of critical importance to the professions that serve
society. Since professionals such as physicians, attorneys, engineers, and property and
facility managers provide services that affect people’s welfare, there are developed
professional codes of ethics that establish professional standards for behaviour (Zink,
2020).
Values are defined as the acts, customs, and institutions that a group of people regard
favourably. Statements of value typically contain words of approval, disapproval, and
obligation. Some of these words might be words such as good, bad, should, and should
not. However, value judgments do not have to contain specific value words. “That is a lie”
does not contain a particular word of disapproval, but the implication that a lie is wrong is
understood. Values are what really matter to us the most—what we care about. For
instance, family devotion, respect for the environment, and working hard for a day’s pay
are three values that can evoke a response in many people (Granite State College, 2019).
11.5.2 Morals
Morals are a set of rules or codes of conduct on which society is based. Certain moral
elements are universal, such as the laws forbidding homicide and the basic duties of
doing good and furthering the well-being of others (Granite State College, 2019). With
morals serving as the underpinning of society, there are four points we should remember:


Moral rules are important: In general, moral rules are rules that help society function
in a civilised way.
Morality consists of universal rules: They apply to everyone, everywhere, and are
recognised by everyone as being necessary.
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

Morals are objective: They do not consider personal preferences. There are clear
guidelines as to what is right and what is wrong according to the particular culture of
the individual, group, or business.
Morality affects other people: Morality involves considering the well-being of others as
reflected by the Golden Rule: Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.
11.5.3 Integrity
To have integrity is to be honest and sincere. Integrity is defined as adhering to a moral
code in daily decision-making. When people and businesses possess integrity, it means
they can be trusted. On the other hand, companies that lack this quality and mislead
customers with inferior products or false advertising will suffer the consequences (Granite
State College, 2019).
11.5.4 Honesty
Honesty has an important function in the accounting profession because it allows
investors to trust the content that they receive regarding the organisation in which they
invest. Business managers depend on honest accounting to run their companies without
fear of biased reporting from their subordinates or other staff members. Honesty in
accounting is the primary characteristic of the profession that allows financial decisionmakers to make appropriate judgments regarding any given situation (Ray, 2022).
11.5.5 Character
Ethics is not just how we think and act. It is also about character. Character drives what
we do when no one is looking. Each person can build, change, or even destroy his or her
character. We can build our character through the way we live—by thinking good thoughts
and performing good acts. Similarly, bad thoughts and behaviour can destroy our
character. A person with character has high morals and will act morally in all situations
by choice, not force. A person with character will honour his or her commitments.
Character pertains to organisations as well. A company with high character is worthy of
trust and respect, acts honestly, and stands by its promises (Granite State College, 2019).
11.6
BUSINESS ETHICS
Business ethics (also called corporate ethics) is a form of applied ethics or professional
ethics that examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that arise in a
business environment. It applies to all aspects of business conduct and is relevant to the
conduct of individuals and entire organisations.
In addition, many employers have a corporate code of ethics; even if your employer does
not, it goes without saying that there are laws governing how the company can and cannot
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conduct business. Some of these laws apply to business writing. For example, it would
not only be unethical but also illegal to send out a promotional letter announcing a special
sale on an item that ordinarily costs R500, offering it for R100, if in fact, you have only
one of these items in your store. When a retailer does this, the unannounced purpose of
the letter is to draw customers into the store, apologise for running out of the sale item,
and urge them to buy a similar item for R400. Known as “bait and switch,” this is a form
of fraud and is punishable by law (Zink, 2020).
Examples of the types of standards found in professional codes of ethics include:
•
•
An attorney or physician maintaining client-patient confidentiality
An accountant not using client information for personal gain
Let us return to our previous newsletter scenario to examine some less clear-cut issues
of business ethics. Suppose that, as you confer with your president and continue your
research on newsletter vendors, you remember that you have a cousin who recently
graduated from college with a journalism degree. You decide to talk to her about your
project. During the conversation, you learn that she now has a job working for a newsletter
vendor. She is very excited to hear about your firm’s plans and asks you to make her
company “look good” in your report (Zink, 2020).
You are now in a situation that involves at least two ethical questions:
Did you breach your firm’s confidentiality by telling your cousin about the plan to start
sending a monthly newsletter?
ii. Is there any ethical way you can comply with your cousin’s request to show her
company in an especially favourable light?
i.
On the question of confidentiality, the answer may depend on whether you signed a
confidentiality agreement as a condition of your employment at the accounting firm, or
whether your president specifically told you to keep the newsletter plan confidential. If
neither of these safeguards exists, then your conversation with your cousin would be an
innocent, unintentional and coincidental sharing of information in which she turned out to
have a vested interest. As for representing her company in an especially favourable
light—you are ethically obligated to describe all the candidate vendors according to
whatever criteria your president asked to see. The fact that your cousin works for a certain
vendor may be an asset or a liability in your firm’s view, but it would be best to inform
them of it and let them make that judgment (Zink, 2020).
Let us refer to a practical example of ethics in presenting marketing material for a
skydiving course Assume that you are writing a promotional letter whose goal is to
increase enrolment in your skydiving instruction. You may be tempted to avoid mentioning
information that could be perceived as negative. If issues of personal health conditions or
accident rates in skydiving appear to discourage rather than encourage your audience to
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consider skydiving, you may be tempted to omit them. But in so doing, you are not
presenting an accurate picture and may mislead your audience.
Even if your purpose is to persuade, deleting the opposing points presents a one-sided
presentation. The audience will naturally consider not only what you tell them but also
what you are not telling them and will raise questions. Instead, consider your responsibility
as a writer to present the information you understand to be complete, honest, and ethical.
Lying by omission can also expose your organisation to liability. Instead of claiming that
skydiving is completely safe, you may want to state that your school complies with the
legal safety guidelines of sports associations. You might also state how many jumps your
school has completed in the past year without an accident (Zink, 2020).
11.6.1 Recent ethical investigations
Ethical violations and investigations are ever present in today’s world. Unfortunately, not
everyone learns from the mistakes of others which can cause history to repeat itself. In
this section, we will explore some business ethics scandals and what happened to the
companies and people who caused them (Granite State College, 2019).
Scandal 1: Bill O’Reilly & 21st Century Fox—2017
In early 2017, it was reported that Bill O’Reilly had paid off multiple women to keep them
quiet about sexual harassment accusations. Five women were said to have been paid
millions to keep quiet about any interaction with O’Reilly. Advertisers for the Bill O’Reilly
show quickly pulled their ads from his show and 21st Century Fox removed O’Reilly from
his position in April. Although O’Reilly and his show were canned, neither O’Reilly nor
21st Century Fox admit to any wrongdoing.
Scandal 2: Equifax’s Data Breaches—2017
In 2017, Equifax, a credit rating firm revealed that it had been hacked and roughly 145
million people’s information had been compromised. To make matters worse, it was
revealed that Equifax was aware of a system flaw that allowed the hackers to gain access
to their systems. Even worse, they knew about the breach but waited two months before
making it public knowledge. In addition, right before the breach was made public,
executives sold around $1.8 billion in company shares. Since the scandal, many high
level executives stepped down and there is still a pending investigation into insider
trading.
Scandal 3: Elon Musk, Tesla—2018
Elon Musk, Tesla’s CEO, got himself into trouble with a tweet in 2018 claiming that Tesla
had secured funding to take the company private. The tweet explained that Musk was
considering it and that the stock price would be $420 a share. This tweet was not
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accurate, and the SEC began investigations with the idea that Musk’s tweets had the
potential to sway the market. Both Musk and Tesla were each fined $20 million and it
greatly damaged both Musk’s personal and Tesla’s company reputations. After the
scandal, Musk was removed from his chairmanship (Granite State College,2019).
11.6.2 Benefits of a professional code of ethics
Codes of ethics help employees strike a balance between the ends and the means used
to obtain them. This balance may be one of the most challenging aspects of being an
ethical organisation. In addition, sometimes organisations provide an additional incentive
for having corporate codes of ethics and ethics training. Companies that have made a
strong effort to prevent unethical and illegal behaviour are likely to receive less severe
punishment should an employee be found guilty of breaking the law. The unethical
conduct of just a few employees can affect an entire corporation (Zink, 2020).
According to Zink (2020), a professional code of ethics sets a standard which each
member of the profession can be expected to meet. It is a promise to act in a manner that
protects the public’s well-being. A professional code of ethics informs the public what to
expect of a doctor, lawyer, accountant, or property manager. If professionals adhere to
these standards of ethical behaviour, the public is willing to have their professional
associations create and enforce their ethical codes.
In situations where these codes are repeatedly and grossly violated, the public’s likely
response is to demand protective legislation. Various policies have been enacted in
response to such violations and the ensuing public outcry. Most professionals would
prefer to police themselves, rather than have an externally imposed set of regulations.
That is a major reason why they create codes of ethics in the first place (Zink, 2020).
11.6.3 Successful implementation of a code of ethics
Within a corporation, top-down support is critical. If senior management does not act
ethically and support others who do, an organisation’s ethical code will have little
meaning. It is critical for managers and executives to:


act consistently with the company’s ethical standards
apply those standards in dealing with employees
Acknowledging and rewarding those whose behaviours are consistent with a company’s
code of ethics proclaims to all that ethical behaviour is truly valued. On the other hand,
promoting and providing bonuses to employees whose successes are due in part to
unethical behaviour sends an unwanted message. Remaining ethical is not a static issue.
It requires review and evaluation. Companies need to review their priorities periodically
and make the necessary adjustments. Otherwise, their standards and training become
outdated.
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Ethics are the principles and values an individual uses to govern his activities and
decisions. In an organisation, a code of ethics is a set of principles that guide the
organisation in its programmes, policies and decisions for the business. The ethical
philosophy an organisation uses to conduct business can affect the reputation,
productivity, and bottom line of the business (Zink, 2020).
11.6.4 Example of ethical behaviours within a business environment
There are four schools of thought that are useful for framing future strategic decisions to
ensure ethical behaviour. Perhaps the cleanest and simplest perspective on ethical
behaviour, is the following question that a utilitarian will always ask: what is the ideal
outcome for the highest number of people?
Moral maxims of respect for one another and appropriate behaviour serve as the
groundwork for all ethical reasoning. Popularised by Greek philosophers such as
Aristotle, this point of view assumes that virtue is a central benchmark for all ethical
behaviour.
11.6.5 Ethical issues at the organisational level
When organisations go above and beyond mandated behaviours, they can be thought of
as acting ethically. Organisational ethics is how an organisation ethically responds to an
internal or external stimulus. There are at least some key elements that make ethical
behaviour conducive within an organisation, which we discuss hereunder:
11.6.5.1 Organisational Ethics
Lastly, an organisation’s ethics are established and then implemented company wide.
Organisational values are external indicators used to ensure a company is behaving
ethically. However, the foundation of organisational values is grounded within the internal
culture of the company. Organisational values can positively or negatively impact
productivity, morale, the community; the list goes on and on.
So, what are some examples of ethical issues? There is a wide range of company
policies, behaviours, and practices that can fall into an ethical category. Let’s explore a
few of them:

Fraud
Fraud is a big ethical no-no for companies. Fraud is participating in any type of
bribery, insider trading, misrepresentation of a product, etc.
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Sustainability
Sustainability is another ethical idea many companies are participating in today.
Helping to minimise a company’s carbon footprint is an important ethical decision for
organisations.

Diversity
Diversity is another example of business ethics. Think back to the diversity lawsuits
we discussed in the last module. Each of those examples violated business ethics.

Exploitation
Exploitation can include the environment, the population, the government, etc. Taking
advantage of questionable situations can lead to ethical dilemmas. Finding a tax
loophole for example may be legal, but it does not mean it is ethical.
If not handled ethically, each of these categories can harm the community and the
organisation. It is also important to consider how each individual within the organisation
can have an impact on a company’s reputation. Establishing a code of ethics and training
employees to fully understand the importance of making ethical decisions is essential to
a successful company (Granite State College,2019).
11.6.5.2 Corporate Policies
Companies often have corporate ethics statements or codes that identify ethical
expectations and offer guidance. The 2012 Barclays LIBOR price-fixing scandal is an
example of grossly unethical behaviour that occurred after Barclays admitted that its
traders sought to intentionally manipulate LIBOR rates for financial gain. These policies
can be simple exhortations in broad, highly generalised language (typically called a
corporate ethics statement), or they can be more detailed policies, containing specific
behavioural requirements (typically called corporate ethics codes). A competitive
business environment may call for unethical behaviour. For instance, the US Department
of Commerce ethics programme treats business ethics as a set of instructions and
procedures that must be followed by 'ethics officers' (Dingwall, Labrie, McLennon, &
Underwood, online).
11.6.5.3 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
People—their behaviour and the products of their work and intellect—are judged ethically
and legally based chiefly on their intentions. Ethical analysis of the behaviour of natural
persons begins with considerations of what a person meant by what he or she did, said,
or produced. When we talk about the ethical criteria for judging the behaviour of
corporations we speak not of intent, but responsibility: quite literally, the capacity to
respond. Corporate ethics is the ethics of corporate social responsibility (CSR), not
corporate personal responsibility. Sarbanes Oxley is particularly interesting given Payne's
compliance/integrity construct, in that it requires both integrity structures (such as a
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corporate board of ethics, and internal protections for whistle-blowers) and increased
fines for violation of anti-trust and other federal statutes regulating interstate corporate
behaviour.
11.7
PRIVATE PERSONA AND PUBLIC PERSONA
The term persona comes from the Latin meaning for “mask” and was originally used to
describe its function in drama productions. In laymen’s language, the word persona
means an identity that is derived from the collective experience of the individual as they
respond to their world and the people with whom they are interacting daily. In this way,
persona expresses something close to symbolic interactionism in terms of Goffman’s
notion of the presentation of the self and that much of what is developed in the
construction of a persona is impression management (Marshall, Moore & Barbour, 2016).
According to Marshall, Moore and Barbour (2016), the concept is socially constructed;
the public identity presented to people differs from the original self or identity of someone
in real life or in their private space since it is based on the way the self is presented to the
public, subsequently known to others and it depends on the existence of other people.
Since how the identity is perceived by others affects the way the person is treated in real
life, individuals see it fit to try to control how they are perceived by other people.
Goffman calls this process of managing the public self, impression management.
Impression management is defined as the attempts to display certain characteristics to
influence the perception of others about one’s identity. Therefore, the individual identity
is divided into two, private and public; the original identity is the private self; individuals
adjust their public identity according to the situation by playing conditional characters so
that they appear attractive to people surrounding them, and they use their private identity
as a preparation phase for their public performance (Köse, Veijalainen & Semenov,
2016). For Goffman, individuals navigate and frame their spaces into fronts and those
elements that are hidden from view and visibility by others.
This construction of a presentation of the self is consistent only in terms of its variation in
what is foregrounded and what is recessed. It is a way of thinking of how different
“boundary markers” are now deployed in the constitution of an online version of the self
that pushes the researcher to revisit our uses of public spaces. These ideas of new
generations of forms of public exposure and expression can be seen in social media
spaces and online game cultures and they identify a pathway for understanding how
celebrities negotiate their own public presentations in similar ways (Marshall, Moore &
Barbour, 2016).
Most importantly, digital platforms provide various options for self-presentation through
assertions and displays about the person. Social networks allow users to present different
types of personal identities. For example, people display various features of their identity
without presenting their genuine identities. Yet, the ubiquitous nature of the internet and
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the relative lack of control of the audience necessitate that online identities are kept under
control. And it is even more important for celebrities to do so because of the commercial
value of their identity and the constant public scrutiny of them.
The online identities of famous people are a continuum of their branded selves to attract
attention and acquire cultural and monetary value. Another example is politicians who
use their online identities to influence and communicate with voters and make political
statements without presenting their original identities. Their characters displayed on
social media convey their values, and eventually, this influences how their policies are
perceived by citizens, and whether the public vote for them (Köse, Veijalainen &
Semenov, 2016). As an individual in the accounting profession, after reading about the
persona, think about how you can use the knowledge gained to present a better version
of yourself to clients or stakeholders of the company for which you are currently working.
11.8
YOUR DIGITAL FOOTPRINT
A digital footprint is sometimes called a digital shadow, or an electronic footprint and it is
the trail of data you leave when using the internet. It includes websites you visit, emails
you send, and information you submit online. A digital footprint can be used to track a
person’s online activities and devices. Internet users create their digital footprint either
actively or passively (Kaspersky,2022).
According to the University of Minnesota (2018), when a person uses the internet, they
leave behind a trail of information known as a digital footprint. A digital footprint grows in
many ways – for example, posting on social media, subscribing to a newsletter, leaving
an online review, or shopping online. It used to be simple to apply for the job, the
applicants were expected to send in a résumé, write a cover letter, and call a few
references to make sure they will say positive things. However, there is a new step that
is now a common part of this application process—hiding (or at least cleaning up) your
virtual self, or your “digital footprint”.
The ubiquity of digital media allows anyone to easily start developing an online persona
from as early as birth. Although this footprint may not accurately reflect the individual, it
may be one of the first things a stranger sees. Those online photos may not look bad to
friends and family, but your online digital footprint may be a hiring manager’s first
impression of you as a prospective employee. Someone in charge of hiring could search
the internet for information on you even before calling references (University of
Minnesota, 2018).
Furthermore, people create personal pages, post messages, and interact via mediated
technologies as a normal part of their careers, but how we conduct ourselves can leave
a lasting image, literally. The photograph you posted on your MySpace page may have
been seen by your potential employer, or that nasty remark in a post may come back to
haunt you later. Some fifteen years ago, when the internet was a new phenomenon,
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Virginia Shea laid out a series of ground rules for communication online that continues to
serve us today.
Most importantly, first impressions are an important aspect to keep in mind when making
an online persona professionally acceptable. Your presence online can be the equivalent
of your first words to a brand-new acquaintance. While it’s possible to deactivate your
social media accounts, once something is online, it is impossible to delete it completely.
Photos, videos, and posts will likely outlive you. As a business professional, you will need
to begin to carefully curate what you post online, and what has already been posted. This
doesn’t mean you should delete everything; in fact, employers and clients want to see
that you have interests and connections outside of work. However, be aware that their
first impression of you may be digital – you’ll want to put your best “foot” forward!
(University of Minnesota, 2018).
11.8.1 Five ways to improve your digital footprint

Google yourself
This is the best way to see what a potential employer or contact will see first if they
decide to search for you.

Edit your posts, including photos, videos, and multimedia
Content that involves drugs, alcohol, illegal activities, strong political views, or any
other controversial activity should be removed.

Monitor and control sharing of controversial content
Ask friends and family who have posted controversial content to take it down.

Set up professional accounts on one or more platforms, such as LinkedIn
This will increase the chances of employers/clients seeing your professional side first
and is an inexpensive way to build your professional network.

Keep it positive with future posts and contributions
This will greatly reduce the chances that you will post something that could get you
into trouble down the road (University of Minnesota, 2018).
Fun Activity
Think about your organisation’s digital footprint and how you can improve it.
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11.9
NETIQUETTE
Netiquette refers to etiquette, or protocols and norms for communication, on the internet
(University of Minnesota, 2018). Furthermore, netiquette is defined as “a set of rules for
courteous and respectful online behaviour. The rules of netiquette apply in both
professional and personal contexts. By adhering to internet etiquette at work, you’ll
establish and maintain healthy business relationships. On the personal front, be mindful
of what you say and how you say it (Harappa,2021).
11.9.1 Rules of netiquette
The following rules speak for themselves and remind us that the golden rule (treat others
as you would like to be treated) is relevant wherever there is human interaction.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
11.9.2
Remember the human on the other side of electronic communication.
Adhere to the same standards of behaviour online that you follow in real life.
Know where you are in cyberspace.
Respect other people’s time and bandwidth.
Make yourself look good online.
Share expert knowledge.
Keep flame wars under control.
Respect other people’s privacy.
Don’t abuse your power.
Be forgiving of other people’s mistakes.
Elements of netiquette in different business contexts
The following section unpacks the various elements of netiquette in different business
communications contexts. This section is going to focus on discussing the role of text
messaging in business communication, how to write effective emails for both internal and
external communication and demonstrates the appropriate use of netiquette. Text
messages and emails are part of the communication landscape, and skilled business
communicators consider them a valuable tool with which to connect.
11.9.2.1 Texting
Texting is defined as “the process of sending and receiving brief written messages using
a cellular (mobile) phone. Also called text messaging, mobile messaging, short mail,
point-to-point short-message service, and Short Message Service” (Noidquist,2018). Any
digital device you use, written communication in the form of brief messages, or texting,
has become a common way to connect. It is useful for short exchanges and is a
convenient way to stay connected with others when talking on the phone would be
cumbersome. Texting is not useful for long or complicated messages, and careful
consideration should be given to the audience (University of Minnesota, 2018).
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Furthermore, texting can be a great tool for connecting while on the go, but consider your
audience and your company, and choose words, terms, or abbreviations that will deliver
your message (University of Minnesota, 2018). You need to think about how texting and
netiquette apply to you as an employee in your organisation.
11.9.2.1.1 Tips for effective business texting
You must know your target audience. For example, it may be an understandable way to
ask a close associate what the proper discount is to offer a certain customer (“? % dsct”),
but if you are writing a text to your boss, it might be wiser to write, “what % discount does
Murray get on R1K order?” Anticipate unintentional misinterpretation. Texting often uses
symbols and codes to represent thoughts, ideas, and emotions. Given the complexity of
communication, and the useful but limited tool of texting, be aware of its limitation and
prevent misinterpretation with brief messages (University of Minnesota, 2018):

Contacting someone too frequently can border on harassment.
Texting is a tool. Use it when appropriate but don’t abuse it.

Unplug yourself occasionally.
Do you feel constantly connected? Do you feel lost or “out of it” if you don’t have your
cellphone and cannot connect to people, even for fifteen minutes? Sometimes being
unavailable for a time can be healthy—everything in moderation, including texting.

Do not text and drive.
Research shows that the likelihood of an accident increases dramatically if the driver
is texting behind the wheel. Being in an accident while conducting company business
would reflect poorly on your judgment as well as on your employer.
11.9.2.2
Email
Electronic mail, usually called email, is quite familiar to most students and workers. It may
be used as a text or synchronous chat, and it can be delivered to a cellphone. In business,
it has largely replaced print hard copy letters for external (outside the company)
correspondence, as well as taking the place of memos for internal (within the company)
communication. Email can be very useful for messages that have slightly more content
than text messages, but it is still best used for brief messages.
In addition, many businesses use automated emails to acknowledge communications
from the public or to remind associates that periodic reports or payments are due. You
may also be assigned to “populate” a form email in which standard paragraphs are used
but you choose from a menu of sentences to make the wording suitable for a particular
transaction.
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Emails may be informal in personal contexts, but business communication requires
attention to detail, awareness that your email reflects you and your company, and a
professional tone so that it may be forwarded to any third party if needed. Email often
serves to exchange information within organisations. Although email may have an
informal feel, remember that when used for business, it needs to convey professionalism
and respect. Never write or send anything that you would not want to be read in public or
in front of your company president (University of Minnesota, 2018).
11.9.2.2.1 Tips for effective business emails
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Proper salutations should demonstrate respect and avoid mix-ups in case a message
is accidentally sent to the wrong recipient. For example, use a salutation like “Dear
Ms X” (external) or “Hi Barry” (internal).
Subject lines should be clear, brief, and specific. This helps the recipient understand
the essence of the message. For example, “Proposal attached” or “Your question of
10/25.”
Close with a signature. Identify yourself by creating a signature block that
automatically contains your name and business contact information.
Avoid abbreviations. An email is not a text message, and the audience may not find
your wit cause to ROTFLOL (roll on the floor laughing out loud).
Be brief. Omit unnecessary words.
Use a good format. Include line breaks between sentences or divide your message
into brief paragraphs for ease of reading. A good email should get to the point and
conclude in three short paragraphs or less.
Reread, revise, and review. Catch and correct spelling and grammar mistakes before
you press “send”. It will take more time and effort to undo the problems caused by a
hasty, poorly written email than to get it right the first time.
Reply promptly. Watch out for an emotional response—never reply in anger—but
make a habit of replying to all emails within twenty-four hours, even if only to say that
you will provide the requested information in forty-eight or seventy-two hours.
Use “Reply All” sparingly. Do not send your reply to everyone who received the initial
email unless your message absolutely needs to be read by the entire group.
Avoid using all caps. Capital letters are used on the internet to communicate emphatic
emotion or yelling and are considered rude.
Test links. If you include a link, test it to make sure it is complete.
Email ahead of time if you are going to attach large files (audio and visual files are
often quite large) to prevent exceeding the recipient’s mailbox limit or triggering the
spam filter.
Give feedback or follow up. If you do not get a response in twenty-four hours, email
or call. Spam filters may have intercepted your message, so your recipient may never
have received it.
A text message is a brief written message sent and received using a digital device. It
is useful for informal, brief, time-sensitive communication.
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
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Email is useful for both internal and external business communications. The content
and formatting of an email message should reflect professionalism and follow the
rules of netiquette.
Social customs that exist in traditional, live, human interaction also influence the rules
and customs by which we interact with each other in the online environment
(University of Minnesota, 2018).
11.10 WORDS AND YOUR LEGAL RESPONSIBILITY
Your writing in a business context means that you represent yourself and your company.
What you write and how you write it can be part of your company’s success but can also
expose it to unintended consequences and legal responsibility. When you write, keep in
mind that your words will keep on existing long after you have moved on to other projects.
They can become an issue if they exaggerate, state false claims, or defame a person or
legal entity such as a competing company. Another issue is plagiarism, using someone
else’s writing without giving credit to the source. Whether the “cribbed” material is taken
from a printed book, a web site, or a blog, plagiarism is a violation of copyright law and
may also violate your company policies. Industry standards often have legal aspects that
must be respected and cannot be ignored. For the writer, this can be a challenge, but it
can be a fun challenge with rewarding results (University of Minnesota, 2018).
The rapid pace of technology means that the law cannot always stay current with the
realities of business communication. Computers had been in use for more than twenty
years before Congress passed the Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998, the first
federal legislation to “move the nation’s copyright law into the digital age” (United States
Copyright Office, 1998). Think for a moment about the changes in computer use that have
taken place since 1998, and you will realise how many new laws are needed to clarify
what is fair and ethical, what should be prohibited, and who owns the rights to what
(University of Minnesota, 2018). Which act is applicable in your country to monitor your
digital communication?
For example, suppose your supervisor asks you to use your Facebook page or Twitter
account to give an occasional “plug” to your company’s products. Are you obligated to
comply? If you later change jobs, who owns your posts or tweets—are they yours, or does
your now former employer have a right to them? And what about your network of
“friends”? Can your employer use their contact information to send marketing messages?
These and many other questions remain to be answered as technology, industry
practices, and legislation evolves.
Our product is better than X company’s product. Their product is dangerous, and you
would be a wise customer to choose us for your product solutions.
What is wrong with these two sentences above?
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They may land you and your company in court. You made a generalised claim of one
product being better than another, and you stated it as if it were a fact. The next sentence
claims that your competitor’s product is dangerous. Even if this is true, your ability to
prove your claim beyond a reasonable doubt may be limited. Your claim is stated as fact
again, and from the other company’s perspective, your sentences may be considered
libel or defamation (University of Minnesota, 2018).
Libel is the written form of defamation or a false statement that damages a reputation. If
a false statement of fact that concerns and harms the person defamed is published—
including publication in a digital or online environment—the author of that statement may
be sued for libel. If the person defamed is a public figure, they must prove malice or the
intention to do harm, but if the victim is a private person, libel applies even if the offence
cannot be proven to be malicious. Under the First Amendment you have a right to express
your opinion, but the words you use and how you use them, including the context, are
relevant to their interpretation as opinion versus fact. Always be careful to qualify what
you write and to do no harm (University of Minnesota, 2018).
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LIST OF SOURCES CONSULTED
Business Communication for Success. 2015. Minneapolis, MN. Available at
https://open.lib.umn.edu/businesscommunication/ (Accessed on 13 September 2022).
Dingwall, J.R., Labrie, C, McLennon, T. & Underwood, L. [O]. Professional
Communication. Canadian Edition. Available at https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/
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