Things Hidden Since the
Foundation of the World PDF
René Girard
Things Hidden Since the Foundation
of the World
Exploring Desire, Violence, and the Origins of
Culture.
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About the book
In "Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World," René
Girard unveils a profound exploration of human desire and
societal dynamics, positing that our desires are shaped not in
isolation but through the imitation of others, leading to an
inevitable cycle of rivalry and violence. This insightful work
bridges philosophy, anthropology, and theology, challenging
readers to reconsider the foundational myths that govern
human behavior and culture. By examining the intricacies of
scapegoating and the mechanisms of violence that lurk
beneath our social structures, Girard invites us to confront the
hidden forces that shape our lives and to reflect on the
transformative potential of understanding these dynamics.
Engaging with Girard’s compelling arguments not only
illuminates the shadows of human history but also offers
pathways to a more empathetic and reconciliatory future,
beckoning readers to delve into a narrative that is as unsettling
as it is enlightening.
About the author
René Girard was a renowned French philosopher,
anthropologist, and literary critic known for his
groundbreaking theories on human behavior and cultural
dynamics, particularly his concepts of mimetic desire and
scapegoating. Born in 1923 in Avignon, France, Girard's
academic career spanned several decades during which he held
positions at prestigious institutions, including Stanford
University. His interdisciplinary approach bridged literature,
psychology, and theology, challenging conventional
understandings of violence, desire, and the role of myths in
human society. Girard's influential works, such as "Things
Hidden Since the Foundation of the World," explore the
complexities of human relationships and societal structures,
asserting that mimetic rivalry often leads to violence and the
need for a scapegoat—ideas that have left a lasting mark on
contemporary thought and sparked debates across various
fields.
Summary Content List
Chapter 1 : The Victimage Mechanism as the Basis of
Religion
Chapter 2 : The Development of Culture and Institutions
Chapter 3 : The Process of
Hominization
Chapter 4 : Myth:The Invisibility of
the Founding Murder
Chapter 5 : Texts of Persecution
Chapter 6 : Things Hidden Since the
Foundation ofthe World
Chapter 7 : A Non-Sacrificial Reading
of the Gospel Text
Chapter 8 : The Sacrificial Reading
andHistorical Christianity
Chapter 9 : The Logos of Heraclitus and the Logos of john
Chapter 10 : Mimetic Desire
Chapter 11 : Desire without Object
Chapter 12 : Mimesis and Sexuality
Chapter 13 : Psychoanalytic Mythology
Chapter 14 : Beyond Scandal
Chapter 1 Summary : The Victimage
Mechanism as the Basis of Religion
Section
Summary
Anthropological
Foundations of Religion
Religion should be approached anthropologically, questioning its mystery through scientific
inquiry and understanding the societal engagement with the sacred.
Ethnology and Science of
Religion
Conflicting theories in ethnological research reveal disillusionment with understanding
religion; Girard argues for a coherent study despite skepticism.
Acquisitive Mimesis and Its
Implications
Mimesis influences human behavior and learning; fear of mimesis leads to issues in social
sciences, emphasizing its dual role in cohesion and conflict.
Function of Prohibitions and
Mimetic Rivalry
Societal prohibitions against violence are rooted in mimetic rivalry, revealing deeper insights
into human violence and desire.
Rituals and the Mimetic
Crisis
Rituals are responses to mimetic crises, reenacting conflict to restore order, often culminating
in sacrifice to unify the community.
The Role of Sacrifice
Sacrifice concludes mimetic crises by designating the victim as responsible for disorder, while
also becoming a unifying force.
Interrelation of Myths and
Victimage Mechanisms
Myths reflect mimetic violence and sacrificial victimization, providing narrative foundations
for understanding religious systems.
Conclusion
Girard emphasizes the sacred's relevance in establishing social order and highlights the
dynamics of mimetic rivalry and sacrifice as key to cultural development.
Chapter 1 Summary: The Victimage Mechanism as
the Basis of Religion
Anthropological Foundations of Religion
- The discussion begins with a premise regarding the
relationship between desire and religion, asserting the need to
approach religion through an anthropological lens rather than
solely psychological.
- Girard emphasizes the transformation of religion from a
complex mystery into a solvable problem through scientific
inquiry, questioning why societies have consistently engaged
with the sacred.
Ethnology and Science of Religion
- Ethnological research shows conflicting theories regarding
the origins and nature of religion, with a general
disillusionment over the ability to resolve these questions.
- Girard argues against the dismissal of religion as
unscientific and contends that a coherent study of religious
phenomena is possible, despite contemporary skepticism.
Acquisitive Mimesis and Its Implications
- Girard introduces the concept of mimesis, where human
behavior and learning are significantly influenced by
imitation.
- He contends that the fear of mimesis has led to issues in
modern social sciences and argues for recognizing the dual
nature of mimesis—its role in both societal cohesion and
conflict.
Function of Prohibitions and Mimetic Rivalry
- The chapter explores how societies impose prohibitions
against violent behaviors and imitation to prevent conflict,
which is rooted in mimetic rivalry.
- Girard suggests that these prohibitions reveal deeper
insights into human violence and desire.
Rituals and the Mimetic Crisis
- Rituals are addressed as a response to mimetic crises, where
societies reenact conflict to restore order.
- Girard posits that rituals often culminate in sacrifice, which
serves to unify the community against a scapegoat, thus
resolving the mimetic crisis.
The Role of Sacrifice
- Sacrifice is portrayed as a mechanism to conclude mimetic
crises, where the victim is perceived as responsible for the
disorder but paradoxically becomes a unifying force
post-mortem.
- This leads to the establishment of prohibitions and the
continued significance of ritual within religious contexts.
Interrelation of Myths and Victimage Mechanisms
- Girard argues that myths also reflect the dynamics of
mimetic violence and sacrificial victimization, suggesting a
narrative foundation for understanding religious systems.
- The discussion culminates in the assertion that recognizing
the victimage mechanism provides clarity on the role of the
sacred in society.
Conclusion
- Girard emphasizes that while the sacred has been
misinterpreted, its relevance in establishing social order and
cohesive community behavior arises from the profound
dynamics of mimetic rivalry and sacrifice.
- This chapter lays the groundwork for a comprehensive
exploration of the intertwining of religion, violence, and
human relationships, inviting further inquiry into these
processes as integral to cultural development.
Example
Key Point:The transformative role of sacrifice in
unifying communities amidst mimetic crises.
Example:Imagine you are part of a community facing
increasing tensions as everyone desires the same
resources or recognition. In this fragile environment,
you witness how conflicts arise, fueled by imitation of
one another’s ambitions. Suddenly, a ritual is
introduced, centered around a communal sacrifice—a
figure is chosen and, through their loss, the weight of
collective tensions is lifted. You observe how the
community, once fragmented, begins to unite in grief
and purpose, channeling their rivalry against the shared
memory of the sacrifice rather than against one another.
This experience vividly illustrates Girard’s point that
sacrifice serves as a vital mechanism through which
social order is restored, revealing the depths of human
desire and the power of communal rituals.
Critical Thinking
Key Point:The role of sacrifice as a unifying force
despite its inherent violence.
Critical Interpretation:Girard's argument presents a
complex view of sacrifice, suggesting that it is both a
mechanism of societal cohesion and a means of conflict
resolution. This notion raises questions about the
morality and implications of such practices in human
culture. While his interpretation offers a provocative
lens on the nature of religion, it remains crucial to
scrutinize the assumptions underpinning this theory, as
well as its applicability across different cultures and
times. A critical examination could draw on works like
'Violence and the Sacred' by Girard himself or relevant
critiques in 'Violence: A Human Perspective' by James
Gilligan. These sources can help highlight the potential
risks in overgeneralizing Girard's victimage mechanism
across diverse religious traditions.
Chapter 2 Summary : The Development
of Culture and Institutions
Section
Summary
Variants in Ritual
Rituals stem from a common mechanism of victimage, often misattributing community
changes to the victim. Victims gain sacred qualities, shaping community transformation.
Sacred Kingship and Central
Power
Monarchy emerges as a response to victimization, where kings embody both power and
sacrificial roles, revealing links between political and sacred authority.
The Polyvalence of Ritual
and the Specificity of
Institutions
Different institutions often share ritual origins, challenging ethnological classifications.
Recognizing intersections within rituals reveals broader sociocultural dynamics.
Domestication and Ritual
Hunting
Animal domestication may arise from sacrificial practices, illustrating how community ties
influence socio-economic evolution through ritual connections.
Sexual Prohibitions and the
Principle of Exchange
Sexual rules parallel alimentary prohibitions, driven by mimetic rivalry's fear, cultivating
cultural responses to maintain community cohesion.
Death and Funeral Rites
Attitudes toward death arise from the victimage process, enriching cultural interpretations that
imbue death with reconciling power, intertwining life and death through funerary practices.
Overall Summary
The dynamics of sacrifice and victimage underpin cultural institutions, showcasing how
rituals foster communal connections and shape social structures historically.
Chapter Two: The Development of Culture and
Institutions
Variants in Ritual
Ritual practices can originate from a common mechanism of
victimage, despite appearing contradictory, such as
unanimous participation in a sacrifice versus isolation of the
victim. The death of the victim leads to changes within the
community, often misattributed to the victim rather than the
underlying violent mimesis. Religious thought tends to
attribute sacred qualities to victims, creating a polarized
sacred presence that is transformative for the community.
Sacred Kingship and Central Power
Monarchy begins as a reconciliatory response to a victim,
striving to reproduce the unifying mechanism linked to
sacrifice. Kings are seen as both figures of power and
sacrificial victims, embodying tensions of responsibility and
authority. The analysis of kingship's connection to the
sacrificial process reveals the overlapping origins of political
power and sacred authority.
The Polyvalence of Ritual and the Specificity of
Institutions
Understanding the structure of different institutions is vital,
as many originate from shared practices grounded in ritual.
The continuity of these practices across various cultures
underscores a common origin, challenging the rigid
classifications often imposed by ethnology. It’s crucial to
recognize the intersections of contrasting cultural elements
within rituals, as both reflect and influence broader
sociocultural dynamics.
Domestication and Ritual Hunting
Domestication of animals may stem from sacrificial practices
rather than purely economic motives. The act of treating
potential domestic animals as sacrificial victims illustrates
how community ties to ritual can lead to unintended cultural
evolution. Consequently, the sacrificial framework
encapsulates communal relationships and illustrates the
origins of socio-economic practices similarly connected to
the complexities of sacrifice.
Sexual Prohibitions and the Principle of Exchange
Rules governing sexual conduct share similarities with
alimentary prohibitions, both of which stem from a fear of
mimetic rivalry. This rivalry necessitates a distancing of
community members from accessible resources to maintain
cohesion. Human culture emerges as a response to these
prohibitions, rooted in the dynamics of sacrificial rituals that
regulate both personal and communal relationships.
Death and Funeral Rites
Human attitudes toward death arise from a blend of the
victimage process and the significance ascribed to sacred
victims. Rather than seeing death as merely a natural end, the
cultural interpretation, shaped by ritual beliefs, imbues death
with reconciling power within society, reinforcing cultural
continuity. Funerary practices symbolize a birth of culture
from death, merging life and death into a framework that
acknowledges the transformative power of the sacrificial
victim.
In summary, the mechanisms of sacrifice and victimage
elucidate the foundation of cultural institutions,
demonstrating how they intertwine in human practice
throughout history. The communal connections formed
through rituals derive from the dynamics of violence and
reconciliation, leading to a rich tapestry of social structures.
Example
Key Point:Rituals and Victimage
Example:Rituals manifest from the collective
experience of victimization, establishing a shared
identity within cultural communities.
Key Point:Monarchs as Sacrificial Figures
Example:Kings embody the dual role of authority and
victim, reflecting the underlying tensions inherent in
societal power.
Key Point:Cultural Evolution through Sacrifice
Example:Cultural evolution often arises from the
communal ties established through sacrificial practices,
impacting social dynamics profoundly.
Key Point:Regulating Personal Relationships
Example:Sexual and alimentary prohibitions shape
social relations, rooted in the dynamics of mimetic
rivalry and sacrifice.
Key Point:Cultural Interpretation of Death
Example:Funeral rites reflect the cultural lens through
which the community interprets death, intertwining life
and sacrifice.
Key Point:Intersections of Rituals and Institutions
Example:Understanding the origins of varied
institutions reveals a unified foundation rooted in shared
ritual practices.
Chapter 3 Summary : The Process of
Hominization
Section
Summary
Introduction to the
Problem
The origins of the victimage mechanism and its role in human development are explored, highlighting
complexities in understanding this transition from animal to human.
Human Infancy and
Vulnerability
Human infants, with their large brains, require extensive parental care, impacting social dynamics and
gender interactions necessary for survival.
War and Violence in
Early Societies
This section discusses the prevalence of violence in primitive societies, arguing against the instinctual
nature of violence by showing it occurs within familiar groups.
Control of Violence
and Social
Organization
The chapter analyzes how uncontrolled rage typically targets close individuals and emphasizes the
need for early humans to suppress such aggression for cooperative living.
Cultural Evolution
and the Role of
Mimesis
Human culture evolves from learned behaviors, with mimetic rivalry and the surrogate victim
mechanism playing essential roles in forming social structures.
Ethology vs.
Ethnology
The distinction between ethologists and ethnologists is made, criticizing both approaches for their
limits in understanding the mimetic processes behind human development.
The Victimage
Mechanism
The chapter posits that human societies arise from intra-group rivalries resolved by scapegoating, with
the victimage mechanism being vital for cultural evolution.
The Emerging Role
of Signs and
Symbols
Explores the connection between violence, the surrogate victim, and meaning-making through signs;
proposes that hominization leads to ritual and language development.
Conclusion
The chapter reflects on the interplay of violence, social organization, and cultural evolution, asserting
that the transition from animal to human culture is mediated by mimesis and the victimage
mechanism.
Chapter Three: The Process of Hominization
Introduction to the Problem
- The chapter begins by posing a critical question regarding
the origins of the victimage mechanism and its role in human
development, specifically regarding the transition from
animal to human.
- Contemporary discussions of this process often fall into
verbal traps or contradictions that complicate understanding.
Human Infancy and Vulnerability
- Human infants are born with disproportionately large
brains, necessitating adaptations in parental behavior. This
prolonged helplessness influences social dynamics among
early humans, impacting male-female interactions and infant
survival.
- Differences in infant dependency across species highlight
unique adaptations in humans.
War and Violence in Early Societies
- The discussion shifts to the nature of warfare and
cannibalism in primitive societies, emphasizing that violence
and conflict often occur within proximate social groups.
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- The
chapter
refutes the
ideatothat
violenceFull
is instinctual,
noting instances of violenceAudio
within familial structures as
evidence of its socially constructed nature.
Chapter 4 Summary : Myth:The
Invisibility of
the Founding Murder
Chapter 4 Summary: Myth: The Invisibility of the
Founding Murder
Overview
In Chapter 4 of "Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the
World," René Girard discusses the concept of founding
murder through myth, arguing that the idea is pervasive
despite apparent silence in contemporary discourse. He
illustrates this through structural analyses of myths from
Lévi-Strauss, showcasing a fundamental mechanism of
mythology linked to collective violence and scapegoating.
Structural Analysis of Myths
Girard examines two myths presented by Lévi-Strauss—one
from the Ojibwa Indians and another from the Tikopia. Both
myths depict divine beings interacting with humans that
culminates in violence and the question of responsibility. In
the Ojibwa myth, one of the divine beings inadvertently
causes an Indian's death by looking at him, while in the
Tikopia myth, a god attempts theft, leading to a violent
pursuit.
Mimetic Crisis and Violence
In both myths, Girard identifies a "mimetic crisis," where
confusion between divine and human leads to violence, often
directed at a victim who is subsequently seen as responsible
for the chaos. This aligns with a broader theme in mythology
where violence against one individual can restore communal
order, leading to the victim's deification—a paradox where
the accused becomes a necessary benefactor.
Theoretical Perspectives
Girard critiques Lévi-Strauss's structuralism for overlooking
the real violence behind mythic representations, positing that
these myths serve as transfigured accounts of collective
murder rather than mere linguistic structures. He argues that
while Lévi-Strauss sees myths as addressing the birth of
thought, they instead reveal historical acts of violence and
their role in the emergence of cultural systems.
Physical Signs and Infirmities in Myth
Girard discusses how infirmities and physical peculiarities in
mythological characters symbolize social exclusion and
mimesis. He suggests that these traits often attract collective
violence, mirroring social behavior observed in children,
where those who stand out become targets for ridicule or
persecution.
Concluding Thoughts
The chapter concludes by reinforcing that the thematic
elements of violence, exclusion, and the resultant societal
order are key to understanding mythology's significance.
Girard urges a reconsideration of these narratives, asserting
that they reveal the hidden truths about human society's
reliance on scapegoating and collective violence as a means
of achieving unity and coherence.
Final Note
Girard's exploration emphasizes that the representation of
violence in mythology, while abstracted through narratives,
is deeply rooted in real societal dynamics and historic acts of
violence that shape human communities. This insight
challenges detached interpretations of myth and unveils a
continuous thread linking past violence with present cultural
constructs.
Example
Key Point:The pervasive presence of founding
violence hidden within myth reveals humanity's
collective denial of its violent origins.
Example:Imagine hearing a story from your childhood
where a hero's struggle led to harmony in your
community, but as you reflect, you start to see that the
story obscures the blame for wrongdoings on a
scapegoat. You realize that the calm you enjoy was born
from a horrific event, yet society has transformed that
violence into a revered myth. In this way, the quiet
undercurrent of violence embedded in myths remains
unnoticed, showcasing how culture often sanitizes the
darker aspects of our shared history to maintain order
and unity, thereby perpetuating denial.
Critical Thinking
Key Point:The role of founding murder in mythology
indicates deep-seated societal violence.
Critical Interpretation:Girard's analysis of myth reveals
that these narratives often reflect historical instances of
collective violence disguised as sacred stories,
prompting a critical examination of how societies
construct order through scapegoating. However, while
Girard's perspective is compelling, it is essential for
readers to approach his views with skepticism, as there
are critiques of his theories, such as those posited by
cultural critics like Mikhail Bakhtin, who argue that
individual agency and cultural factors can significantly
shape myth beyond mere historical violence (Bakhtin,
Mikhail. 'Rabelais and His World'). Additionally,
readers might explore narratives that emphasize healing
and reconciliation, suggesting an alternative
interpretation of myth beyond violence.
Chapter 5 Summary : Texts of
Persecution
CHAPTER FIVE: Texts of Persecution
Persecution Demystified: The Achievement of the
Modern and Western World
Modern research represents a pivotal shift in understanding
collective violence, moving from mythological explanations
to deciphering the arbitrary violence that underpins human
existence. This transition marks a society capable of
recognizing the causal dynamics of persecution, which
reflects the growing awareness of such mechanisms in
modern Western society.
The Visibility of the Victimage Mechanism
In contrast to ancient societies where violence was obscured
by myth, modern society increasingly makes visible the
mechanics of victimization. This shift in perception alters
cultural institutions' approach to concepts like violence and
persecution, allowing for a more critical understanding of
these phenomena and leading to a decline in myth and ritual.
The Nature of Interpretive Discovery
Discovering the victimization mechanism involves an
unsettling process, often accompanied by an initial rise in
violence as societies confront and reveal violent tendencies.
This newfound awareness does not imply an instantaneous or
peaceful transition but reflects a complex cultural evolution
towards understanding.
Scapegoats in Cultural Discourse
The term "scapegoat" reflects a dual semantic significance,
representing both a ritual institution and a deeper
sociological mechanism recognizing the transference of
conflict onto arbitrary victims. This complexity highlights a
disconnect in ethnological discourse, which often neglects
the psycho-sociological implications of a concept long
inscribed in Western languages.
Historical Emergence of the Victimage Mechanism
The emergence of the victimage mechanism describes a
broader historical movement towards the awareness of
collective violence, revealing a growing societal
understanding of these dynamics. As this awareness
progresses, it encounters resistance, suggesting an ongoing
struggle to confront and reconcile with these realities.
The Influence of Judaeo-Christian Scriptures
The development of cultural deciphering methods may be
rooted in the influences of Judaeo-Christian religious texts,
which highlight collective violence and its innocent victims.
This revelation, rather than representing a novel perspective,
reiterates insights already present within religious traditions,
emphasizing the pre-existing understanding of the victimage
mechanism.
Overall, the chapter argues for a critical reevaluation of
violence within cultural frameworks, encouraging a deeper
examination of historical and religious narratives within the
context of societal evolution.
Critical Thinking
Key Point:The complexities of understanding
persecution and its historical roots demand rigorous
scrutiny beyond Girard's interpretations.
Critical Interpretation:Girard's analysis hinges on the
premise that modern awareness has outstripped
mythological explanations of violence, but this view
could be contested. Scholars like Michel Foucault and
Edward Said have argued that the narratives we
construct around violence are not exclusively products
of rational understanding but rather shaped by power
dynamics and cultural biases that persist across epochs.
Foucault's work on power relations (as seen in
'Discipline and Punish') and Said's critique of Western
discourse on the East ('Orientalism') demonstrate that
even modern interpretations may fall prey to their own
mythologies, suggesting a continual cycle of violence
and scapegoating that Girard may oversimplify.
Chapter 6 Summary : Things Hidden
Since the
Foundation ofthe World
Chapter 6 Summary: Things Hidden Since the
Foundation of the World
Overview of Victimage Mechanisms
René Girard presents the idea that the mechanisms of
scapegoating as foundational to religion, culture, and
humanity are widely recognized. He aims to expand the
implications of this idea by exploring its manifestations
throughout Judeo-Christian texts and contemporary
psychopathology.
Biblical Myths and Their Similarities
Girard identifies parallels between the earliest narratives in
the Old Testament and universal mythologies, emphasizing
themes such as collective violence and the founding murder.
Key stories include those of Cain and Abel, Jacob and Esau,
and the Flood, all revolving around violence, crisis
resolution, and social structures.
The Distinctiveness of Biblical Myths
While recognizing the similarities between biblical myths
and other world mythologies, Girard contends that the Bible's
unique contribution is its moral perspective, favoring victims
and condemning violence. He analyzes the story of Cain as a
foundational myth that illustrates the consequences of
violence and the establishment of community systems
through scapegoating.
The Role of Scapegoats in Scripture
Through characters such as Joseph and their narratives,
Girard argues that the Old Testament intentionally overturns
the usual mythological perspective, shedding light on the
innocence of victims rather than glorifying the victors. This
shift signifies a critical moral viewpoint reflecting on the
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Examination of Prophetic Texts
Chapter 7 Summary : A Non-Sacrificial
Reading
of the Gospel Text
Summary of Chapter 7: A Non-Sacrificial Reading
of the Gospel Text
Core Argument
The chapter argues that the Gospels fundamentally reject the
notion of sacrifice, emphasizing instead a message rooted in
non-violence, love, and reconciliation. This perspective
positions Jesus not as a sacrificial victim but as a liberator
who reveals the true nature of violence and exposes the
mythologies surrounding it.
Jesus and Sacrifice
- The Gospels consistently devalue sacrifices, quoting the
prophet Hosea to emphasize mercy over ritualistic offerings
(Matthew 9:13).
- The Crucifixion is presented as a pivotal moment that
brings salvation rather than a conventional sacrifice,
contradicting traditional interpretations that view it as
fulfilling sacrificial roles.
- The misunderstanding surrounding the sacrificial
interpretation serves more to reflect humanity's incapacity to
confront its own violence than to faithfully interpret Jesus’
message.
Divine Nature and Human Violence
- The Gospels portray God as devoid of violence, advocating
for unconditional love and reconciliation among humanity.
- Noteworthy passages call for love towards enemies and the
renunciation of vengeance, presenting a radical departure
from earlier religious concepts that associate divinity with
violent retribution.
- The idea that God could require a sacrificial death for
humans is criticized as a projection of human violence onto
the divine.
The Role of the Kingdom of God
- Jesus' preaching of the Kingdom of God signifies the
establishment of a community based not on violence but on
love and mutual respect.
- The call to avoid retaliation and to love unconditionally
stands as the heart of Jesus' message, emphasizing that true
kinship with God arises from this non-violent ethic.
Apocalyptic Themes
- The chapter reflects on apocalyptic elements within the
Gospels, noting that any prophesied violence is ultimately
attributed to human actions rather than divine mandate.
- The failure to accept the Kingdom of God leads to a
trajectory of violence and societal disintegration, echoing the
historical context of Jesus’ time.
Conclusion
- The Gospels, when read from a non-sacrificial viewpoint,
reveal profound insights about human nature and the realities
of violence, presenting Jesus as the embodiment of love and
truth.
- This understanding challenges the entrenched sacrificial
frameworks within historical Christianity and calls for a
transformation of thought, reflecting the life and teachings of
Jesus as a pathway out of the cycle of violence.
Final Note
The chapter asserts that recognizing Jesus’ death as
non-sacrificial allows a clearer comprehension of the
Gospel’s revolutionary message about love, resulting in a call
to individual and communal renunciation of violence. This
perspective invites a re-evaluation of traditional
interpretations and underlines the relevance of the Gospel's
teachings in addressing contemporary issues of violence and
community relations.
Chapter 8 Summary : The Sacrificial
Reading
andHistorical Christianity
Chapter 8 Summary: The Sacrificial Reading and
Historical Christianity
Key Themes
Sacrificial Reading vs. Non-Sacrificial Reading
: Renée Girard discusses how the sacrificial interpretation of
Jesus' Passion and Redemption does not align with the core
messages in the New Testament, save for possibly the Epistle
to the Hebrews. He argues that this reading masks the true
significance of Christian doctrine and reinforces cultural
foundations based on violence and scapegoating.
Historical Consequences
: The sacrificial reading has historically positioned
Christianity as a persecutory force, particularly towards Jews,
reflecting the misunderstandings and errors of the early
community extending from the sacrificial logic inherent in
human culture.
Misinterpretations of Christ's Death
: Girard posits that many interpretations equate Christ's
sacrifice with Judaic sacrifices, neglecting the unique
transformation and significance of Jesus' death, which he
contends represents the end of sacrificial violence.
Theological Implications
God's Role in Violence
: The traditional sacrificial reading inadvertently places God
in the position of violence, diminishing the human
responsibility for Christ's death. Girard argues that many
misread the divine will and human culpability inherent in the
Passion narrative.
Judgment of Solomon as a Prefiguration
: The biblical story highlights the dangers of mimetic desire
and rivalry, which Girard connects to the fundamental
dynamics present in human conflict, drawing parallels to
Christ's message and its implications for community and
sacrifice.
Modern Context and Reflection
Crisis of Meaning
: Girard interprets contemporary global challenges through
the lens of the Gospels, particularly the apocalyptic
implications of humanity's potential for self-destruction in
light of modern technology. He asserts that the sacrificial
reading prevents a proper understanding of the present
situation.
Ultimate Choice
: Humanity faces a dilemma: whether to renounce violence or
succumb to its destructive capacities. The awareness of this
situation reveals a critical juncture in human history, aligning
closely with gospel teachings that emphasize love and the
rejection of violence.
Conclusion
Girard contends that the true essence of Christianity, stripped
of its sacrificial misinterpretations, is rooted in love and the
active choice against violence. Contemporary discussions
must engage with the genuine themes of the Gospel while
recognizing the historical baggage of sacrificial
interpretations that have clouded understanding.
Chapter 9 Summary : The Logos of
Heraclitus and the Logos of john
Chapter 9 Summary: The Logos of Heraclitus and
the Logos of John
Introduction to the Logos
René Girard examines the concept of Logos, its origins, and
its implications in both Greek philosophy and Christian
theology. He acknowledges the intrigue surrounding Christ’s
identification as the Logos in the Gospel of John and
discusses the historical philosophical approach towards this
connection, notably the tension between Greek thought and
Christian teachings.
Philosophical Context and Historical Mistrust
Girard outlines how early Christianity exhibited skepticism
toward Greek philosophy, which viewed the Logos as a
divine principle organizing the universe. Over time,
philosophy began to dominate theological considerations,
blending Greek and Christian concepts. This led to a
dichotomy where Greek philosophers were regarded as
precursors to Christian thought, complicating the
understanding of Logos.
Heidegger's Approach to Logos
Martin Heidegger's philosophy introduces a critical
perspective by distinguishing between the Greek and
Johannine Logos. He suggests that the Greek Logos connotes
violence and authority, correlating it with oppressive forms
of control. However, Girard critiques Heidegger for
misinterpreting the Johannine Logos, suggesting that his
analysis unfairly aligns it with tyranny, lacking the
recognition of its foundational non-violence.
Violence and the Gospels
The Gospels, particularly John's, present a more loving
interpretation of the divine, contrasting sharply with the
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the Greek
Logos. Girard
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the Johannine portrayal of the
Logos as love rather than
power, noting that true knowledge aligns with the
Chapter 10 Summary : Mimetic Desire
Chapter 10 Summary
Mimetic Desire and Human Nature
The discussion begins with the differentiation between
human desire and animal needs, emphasizing that human
desire arises when mimetic processes interfere with
instinctual appetites. The aim is to situate desire within the
broader anthropological context, where it remains relatively
distinctive but significantly influenced by mimesis. Human
desire evolves as hominization progresses, marking a
complex interaction between mimetic functions and
psychological development.
Desire in Religious and Modern Societies
It is argued that in religious societies, rigid frameworks help
distribute individual appetites and mitigate unchecked
mimetic desires. In contrast, modern societies allow desire to
overflow its boundaries, leading to heightened mimetic
rivalry and conflict. The participants note the dialectic
between opposing views on desire, where one side sees its
proliferation as a loss of cultural bonds, while the other
celebrates its liberating potential.
The Dynamics of Mimetic Rivalry
The text explores how modern culture liberates desire but
also fosters deeper conflicts due to the absence of traditional
prohibitions, thus transforming benign rivalries into
destructive competition. Additionally, it critiques the
misconception that the resolution of desire hinges solely on
overcoming external constraints, indicating instead that
interpersonal mimetic rivalry becomes a much more active
and aggressive barrier.
The Relationship Between Desire and Conflict
An analysis of desire as a mimetic crisis reveals its inherent
relation to personal rivalry and the absence of collective
cathartic resolutions found in primitive societies. Modern life
lacks mechanisms to resolve conflicts constructively, leading
to neurotic behaviors as individuals grapple with these
desires absent the unifying rituals of the past.
Double Bind and the Individual Experience
The concept of the "double bind," originating from Gregory
Bateson's theories, illustrates how contradictory societal
messages create confusion and dysfunction. As individuals
mimic desires without discerning beneficial from harmful
models, psychological disorders emerge. This environment
lacks broader cultural supports for understanding these
dynamics.
Cultural Implications of Mimetic Rivalry
The text critiques various intellectual currents that
misconstrue desire and rivalry, explaining how capitalism
amplifies mimetic phenomena rather than inventing them. A
detailed exploration of object rivalry demonstrates how the
perceived value of objects intensifies through competitive
desire, often leading to disillusionment upon possession.
Conclusion: The Nature of Desire
Ultimately, desire is portrayed as a cyclical process that
complicates the pursuit of fulfillment, with subjects often
courting failure regardless of triumph. This cyclical nature
leads to a continual quest for new objects and models,
reflecting a logic akin to gambling. Pascal's wager is
mentioned as an analogy for the unpredictable nature of
desire, presenting it as a losing bet against a non-violent,
benevolent ideal often sought but rarely found.
Chapter 11 Summary : Desire without
Object
Desire without Object: Doubles and Interdividuality
Introduction to Mimetism
Mimetism involves a contagion of desire in human
relationships, where distinctions between models and
imitators often vanishes. As individuals imitate each other's
desires, they oscillate between roles of model and disciple,
leading to a state where differences dissolve into reciprocal
violence and rivalry.
Understanding Doubles
Doubles are viewed as individuals trapped in a cycle of
reciprocal violence and imitation, blurring the lines of
distinct identities. This concept ties in with aspects of
traditional literature and psychoanalysis, which have
historically described doubles as mere reflections or weak
images. Girard posits that these doubles reflect a deeper
mimetic rivalry, where conflict exacerbates the sameness of
desires.
Desire and Fashion in Society
Girard elaborates on how society's intellectual life mimics
fashion dynamics where the desire to differentiate becomes
paradoxical, leading to ubiquitous sameness amidst attempts
at individuality. This reflects an acceleration of mimetic
desire across various facets of culture, impacting literature
and societal trends.
Psychopathology and Desire
Psychiatric perspectives often misconstrue the experiences of
those termed psychotic. Girard argues that individuals in
psychosis perceive mimetic relationships as devoid of
difference, unveiling a hidden reciprocity that mainstream
psychology overlooks. The psychotic condition demonstrates
how the desire to differentiate feeds back into a cycle of
conflict.
The Role of Violence and Rivalry
The text discusses how rivalry can invoke cycles of
alternating dominance and defeat, reminiscent of
manic-depressive experiences, and how this can reflect
broader social dynamics. As individuals succeed and fail in
social contexts, they oscillate between highs and lows driven
by the competition inherent in mimetic desire.
Hypnosis and Possession
Hypnosis is depicted as a dynamic embodiment of mimetic
desire, where the subject's consciousness narrows down to
the hypnotist's suggestions. In contrast, possession involves a
retention of self-awareness, suggesting a different underlying
structure compared to psychosis. The implications of these
states provide insight into how desire operates across
different psychological phenomena.
Conclusion: Intersections of Desire, Culture, and
Psychology
Girard emphasizes the complexity of desire, drawing
connections between historic and contemporary
understandings of human relationships. The aspects of
violence, rivalry, and cultural production become illuminated
through the lens of mimetic theory. This exploration of desire
challenges conventional psychiatric discourse, suggesting a
fundamental link between psychosis and the mimetic
processes at play in human interactions.
Chapter 12 Summary : Mimesis and
Sexuality
Chapter 12: Mimesis and Sexuality
Introduction to Desire and Masochism
- The initial understanding of metaphysical desire assumes
that individuals seek failure, leading to a preference for
insurmountable obstacles.
- Desire is inherently about success, yet often fixates on
unattainable results due to the inherent nature of mimetic
rivalry—desires modelled after others.
The Nature of Mimetic Desire
- Desire converts models into obstacles, leading individuals
to embrace challenges that highlight their inadequacies.
- Masochism is a mislabelled consequence of the desire for
obstacles and should not muddy the comprehensibility of
mimetic processes.
Theatrical Masochism
- The concept of theatrical masochism, where individuals
seek humiliation in sexual contexts, is critiqued as a
misinterpretation of underlying mimetic behavior.
- Instead of being driven by a desire for humiliation, subjects
actually aim at the authority and allure represented by their
rivals.
Sadism and Masochism as Mimetic Structures
- Masochism and sadism are seen as two sides of the same
mimetic coin, redirecting desire away from objects to the
models that embody idealized characteristics.
- The subject’s desire increasingly becomes about mirroring
the rival rather than achieving direct gratification from a
sexual object.
Homosexuality and Mimetic Desire
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manifest in homosexual behaviors,
sexual rivalry can have homosexual structures.
Chapter 13 Summary : Psychoanalytic
Mythology
Chapter 13 Summary: Psychoanalytic Mythology Freud’s Platonism and the Use of the Oedipal
Archetype
Introduction to the Oedipus Complex
- Freud introduced the Oedipus complex to explain triangular
rivalries involving love interests and rivals.
- His perspective reflects ambivalence in relationships,
interpreting the loved woman as the mother and the rival as
the father.
Mimetic Desire vs. Oedipus Complex
- R.G. argues that mimetic desire and the Oedipus complex
are fundamentally incompatible.
- Freud's concept of desire is unique and intrinsic, focused on
the mother's role and separated from paternal identification.
- R.G. critiques the Oedipus complex for its inability to
adequately account for complexities of desire and rivalry.
Family Dynamics and Rivalry
- R.G. emphasizes that the family functions to mitigate
rivalry in a manner unlike what Freud proposed.
- Pathology in desire does not originate from family
dynamics but from mimetic rivalry that transcends familial
structures.
Success of the Oedipus Complex in Psychoanalysis
- Despite its failures, the Oedipus complex became
entrenched in psychoanalytic thought, reflecting Freud's
contributions to discourse.
- R.G. connects the enduring influence of Freud’s ideas with
a natural inclination towards archetypal frameworks in
understanding human desire.
Imitation and Desire
- The reproduction of the Oedipal triangle occurs through
mimetic imitation rather than through innate desire.
- R.G. argues that Freud overlooked the implications of
mimetic desire in interpreting rivalry, often producing an
oversimplified view of complex relationships.
Narcissism and Desire
- R.G. critiques Freud's views on narcissism, asserting that
they ignore the dynamics of desire rooted in imitation.
- There is an intrinsic link between object-directed desire and
narcissism, challenging the Freudian dichotomy.
Cultural Implications of Narcissism
- R.G. suggests that feelings of envy and shortcomings in
narcissism stem from cultural dynamics influenced by
broader mimetic trends.
- The discussion also touches on how modern interpretations
of narcissism reflect our collective struggle with desire and
societal values.
Conclusion: A Shift in Understanding
- The chapter ultimately calls for a reevaluation of Freud's
contributions through the lens of mimetic desire, arguing that
this perspective better captures the dynamics of human
relationships.
- R.G. highlights the contradiction in Freud's theories
regarding narcissism and desire, asserting that contemporary
understandings can reveal deeper truths about human nature
and behavior dynamics.
Chapter 14 Summary : Beyond Scandal
Chapter 14 Summary: Beyond Scandal: Proust's
Conversion
Proust's Exploration of Narcissism
René Girard discusses how Marcel Proust's early work, *Jean
Santeuil*, presents a model of Freudian narcissism,
contrasting it with the later masterpiece *A la recherche du
temps perdu*. He argues that the protagonist, Jean Santeuil,
embodies 'intact narcissism', portraying a deceptive
self-centeredness that lacks authentic understanding of
desire. While *Jean Santeuil* reflects a superficial aesthetic
typical of its era, *A la recherche* reveals a deeper
understanding of desire dynamics and the complexities of
interpersonal relations.
The Shift in Proust's Perspective
Girard notes a significant evolution in Proust’s understanding
of self and desire between the two works. The latter
demonstrates a profound awareness of mimetic desire, where
the narrator grapples with desires influenced by others,
contrasted with the self-absorbed experiences of Jean
Santeuil. Proust's later writing delves into themes of
existential anguish arising from this interdependence of
desires among individuals.
Mimetic Desire and Its Consequences
The discussion emphasizes that true literary greatness, as
evidenced in Proust's later work, arises from an
acknowledgment of the pervasive influence of mimetic
desire, where individuals are interlinked through their
desires, leading to scandalous relationships that can
perpetuate violence and rivalry.
The Role of Scandal in Interdividual Psychology
Girard pivots to a theological perspective, examining the
concept of ‘skandalon’ in the Gospels. He illustrates how
scandal, linked with obstacles and temptation, reflects the
complex dynamics of mimetic desire. He argues that the
Gospels present a radical departure from sacrificial
victimization by revealing the perils of mimetic rivalry
among humans.
Divine and Human Scandal
Girard elucidates the dual nature of scandal as both a cause
and effect of mimetic desire, suggesting that it exemplifies
the human struggle against self-destructive tendencies shaped
by interdividual relationships. He contrasts this with the
divine, demonstrating that in the Gospels, God transcends the
violent sacralization typically associated with idols,
emphasizing love over the stumbling blocks created by
human desires.
The Revelation of Christ
The discussion culminates in the assertion that Jesus, seen as
the cornerstone and ultimate victim, challenges the sacrificial
structures and reveals the true nature of desire devoid of
rivalry. Girard ends with an invitation to embrace non-violent
imitation of Christ to transcend scandalous relationships and
realize a genuine existence free from the burdens of mimetic
desire.
This synthesis of narrative, philosophy, and theology forms a
compelling exploration of Proust's literary evolution and its
broader implications within the framework of Girard's
theories of desire and violence.
Best Quotes from Things Hidden Since
the Foundation of the World by René
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Chapter 1 | Quotes From Pages 15-59
1.Science is the distinctive achievement of the
modern mind.
2.For centuries religion has been declining in the West and its
disappearance is now a global phenomenon.
3.But we encounter these general principles in the form of
words like mana and sacer in each particular culture.
4.It is certainly natural for a question, as question, to become
suspect if it remains unanswered for a long time.
5.We must limit ourselves to the reading of symbolic forms,
Lévi-Strauss tells us; meaning must be sought where it
resides and not elsewhere.
6.If one compares the many admirable monographs on
individual cultures accumulated by ethnologists since
Malinowski, particularly by the English, one can see that
ethnology does not possess a coherent terminology for
investigating religion.
7.One good part of what we call politeness consists in
self-effacement before another in order to avoid mimetic
rivalry.
8.If human beings suddenly ceased imitating, all forms of
culture would vanish.
9.Acquisitive mimesis, or, if one prefers, a possessive
mimesis whose effects and consequences should be
carefully studied and considered.
10.The community finds itself unified once more at the
expense of a victim who is not only incapable of
self-defense but is also unable to provoke any reaction of
vengeance.
11.Religion always scandalizes in periods of decomposition
because the violence that had entered into its composition
is revealed as such and loses its reconciliatory power.
12.Our hypothesis explains not only why prohibitions and
rituals exist everywhere but also why all cultures attribute
their foundation to supernatural powers.
13.Religion is nothing other than this immense effort to keep
the peace.
14.The sacred is violence, but if religious man worships
violence it is only insofar as the worship of violence is
supposed to bring peace.
15.To see in my theory some sort of 'cult of violence',
approval of sacrifice, or, at the other extreme, a blanket
condemnation of human culture is to miss the point
entirely.
16.It is impossible to say, but I am inclined to think not. It is
possible to think that numerous human communities have
disintegrated under the pressure of a violence that never
led to the mechanism I have just described.
17.We must attempt to reproduce the entire event as exactly
as possible.
Chapter 2 | Quotes From Pages 60-95
1.The change from discord to harmony is not
attributed to its actual cause, the unifying mimesis
of collective violence, but to the victim itself.
2.Religious thought tends to think of everything in terms of
the victim, which becomes the focal point of all meaning;
the actual principle in the return to order is never perceived.
3.The two contrary practices confirm rather than contradict
the violent origin, each one isolating an essential aspect of
the founding mechanism as that aspect would appear in the
perspective created by the transferences.
4.Ultimately there is not even a myth of the origin
independent of the inauguration of the monarch. Royalty is
a mythology in action.
5.The discovery of the scapegoat as the mechanism of
symbolic thought, human thought itself, justifies a
deconstructive discourse and at the same time completes it.
Chapter 3 | Quotes From Pages 96-116
1.The brain of the human infant is already so large
at birth that delivery would be impossible for the
female without the enlargement of the pelvis,
which does not take place in other primates.
2.The period of infant dependence among animals is
commonly short, and periods of oestrus are distributed in
such a way that any interference of maternal and sexual
functions is nonexistent or reduced to a minimum.
3.In order to appreciate the problem of controlling violence,
we must also consider that strange activity we call war,
which, along with cannibalism, must have appeared early
in human or pre-human groups.
4.It is important to realize that extreme rage becomes
centripetal once it has been given free rein; it is never
naturally centrifugal.
5.The notion of the father does not exist among apes.
Subdominant animals will let themselves die of hunger
rather than challenge dominant animals for their food.
6.If instead of throwing branches at one another as they
sometimes do, chimpanzees were to learn to throw stones
at one another, their social life would be radically shaken.
7.The rapid increase in brain size, as well as other
phenomena, required an interaction between biological and
cultural factors, but what has been missing is a model for
the organizing and driving factor in the process, a motor for
this strange machine.
8.The mechanism would have exercised palliative and
preventive effects on rivalries in a manner analogous and
proportional to what it achieves through the intermediary of
fully humanized prohibitions and rituals.
9.Because of the victim, in so far as it seems to emerge from
the community and the community seems to emerge from
it, for the first time there can be something like an inside
and an outside, a before and after, a community and the
sacred.
10.We must attempt to set aside the whole context of
acquired meanings in order to understand that at the most
primitive levels the victimage mechanism is already at
work and generates the most basic strata of meaning.
Chapter 4 | Quotes From Pages 117-137
1.I can show you analyses in the work of
Lévi-Strauss that concern the founding murder
itself, that reveal the principal structural traits
involved, without demonstrating any awareness of
what is being shown or any understanding of the
fact that they are in the process of revealing the
generative mechanism of all mythology.
2.In both myths, we can see the schema of the mimetic crisis
and a violent destructuring that releases the victimage
mechanism.
3.The community is unable to see in the victim only an
occasional and passive instrument of its own
metamorphosis, a catalyst for its instant transition from
collective hysteria to tranquility.
4.What seems to justify Lévi-Strauss's cavalier treatment of
the all-against-one motif in these two myths is that in spite
of its crucial character this relation is also quite susceptible
to inversion, displacement, countless metamorphoses, and
even, in some myths, complete disappearance.
5.To reject my hypothesis on the grounds that structuralism
has taught us not to confuse representations with their
referents is to misunderstand completely the reasons that
necessitate my postulating the reality of lynching behind
mythology.
6.The representation of lynching in myths is always found in
a context that necessitates the inference of its reality,
because only that inference can illuminate that myth as a
whole and in all its details.
7.There is one and only one perspective capable of making
lynching a positive action—since it sees the victim as a real
threat that must be dealt with by any means available—and
this is the perspective of the lynchers themselves.
Chapter 5 | Quotes From Pages 138-152
1.A society that replaces myth by an awareness of
persecution is a society in the process of
desacralization.
2.The discovery of the founding mechanism as a mechanism
not only of religion but of culture and of hominization
itself is a decisive step.
3.It is impossible to rehabilitate a sacrificial mechanism in
the process of decomposition because growing awareness
of these mechanisms is what decomposes them.
4.Human beings must become reconciled without the aid of
sacrificial intermediaries or resign themselves to the
imminent extinction of humanity.
5.The gradual emergence of the victimage mechanism has
already dominated our history for some time and this will
accelerate its pace in the years to come.
6.The very poverty of texts of persecution and the fact that
the victim is barely sacralized already reflects a certain
emergence of the founding mechanism.
7.There can no longer be any question of giving polite
lip-service to a vague ‘ideal of non-violence'.
Chapter 6 | Quotes From Pages 153-191
1.We simply cannot confine our hypothesis to the
area of hominization and primitive religion.
2.The Flood... is the fatal conclusion of a process which
brings back the violence from which it originally managed
to get free.
3.The single victim brings reconciliation and safety by
restoring life to the community.
4.If we turn to the Old Testament[...] we find ourselves
immediately in familiar territory.
5.The voice of thy brother's blood crieth unto me from the
ground.
6.You stiff-necked people, uncircumcised in heart and ears,
you always resist the Holy Spirit.
7.Religion is organized around a more or less violent
disavowal of human violence.
8.The killing must bear witness to the guilt of those
concerned in the murder.
9.The voice of conscience, the focus of public consciousness,
will not allow the crime to go unpunished.
10.Only those texts in which this foundation is made
apparent will no longer be built upon it and so will be
genuinely revealing.
Chapter 7 | Quotes From Pages 192-235
1.I desire mercy, and not sacrifice
2.Go and learn what this means: I desire mercy, and not
sacrifice.
3.If you have really followed my argument up to this point,
you will already realize that from our particular perspective
the sacrificial interpretation of the Passion must be
criticized and exposed as a most enormous and paradoxical
misunderstanding.
4.Indeed, this is why those who have seen Jesus have seen
the Father himself.
5.By rejecting the sacrificial definition of the Passion, we
arrive at a simpler, more direct, and more coherent reading.
6.The Gospels deprive God of his most essential role in
primitive religions—that of polarizing everything mankind
does not succeed in mastering.
7.Violence always is derived from purely human
mechanisms.
8.If all mankind offered the other cheek, no cheek would be
struck.
9.He who agrees to lose his life will keep it for eternal life,
for he alone is not a killer, he alone knows the fullness of
love.
10.Jesus is not there to stress once again in his own person
the unified violence of the sacred; he is not there to ordain
and govern like Moses.
Chapter 8 | Quotes From Pages 236-274
1.The task is to show that the Christian sons have
repeated, even aggravated, all the errors of their
Judaic fathers.
2.Reducing the responsibility enables one to particularize the
Christian event, to diminish its universality, and to search
for the guilty men who would absolve humankind of
guilt—the role the Jews fulfill.
3.The sacrificial reading is basically a form of regression—it
discharges human violence, but to a lesser degree.
4.We must beware of calling Christ's action sacrificial, even
if we then have no words or categories to convey its
meaning.
5.The good mother has absolutely no inclination to 'sacrifice'
herself in the abstract. She wishes to carry on living to take
care of her child.
6.The current threat resembles the forms of terror created by
the sacred and requires the same type of precautions.
Chapter 9 | Quotes From Pages 275-294
1.The essence of the matter is repeated three times.
The Logos came into the world, yet the world
knew him not, his own people received him not.
2.If love and violence are incompatible, the definition of the
Logos must take this into account.
3.The Gospel of John states that God is love, and the
synoptic Gospels make clear that God treats all warring
brothers with an equal measure of benevolence.
4.The logos is still in the process of revealing itself; if it
tolerates being concealed yet another time, this is to put off
for just a short while the fullness of its revelation.
5.Love is the only true revelatory power because it escapes
from, and strictly limits, the spirit of revenge and
recrimination.
Chapter 10 | Quotes From Pages 295-310
1.Desire is undoubtedly a distinctively human
phenomenon that can only develop when a certain
threshold of mimesis is transcended.
2.In the long run, the pessimism of 'reactionaries' never
proves to be justified, but neither does the optimism of
revolutionaries.
3.Men lose the kind of obstacle that is inert and passive, but
at the same time beneficent and equal for all—the obstacle
that for this reason could never really become humiliating
or incapacitating.
4.Desire now flourishes within a society whose cathartic
resources are vanishing—a society where the only
mechanism that could renew these resources functions less
and less effectively.
5.The value of an object grows in proportion to the resistance
met with in acquiring it.
Chapter 11 | Quotes From Pages 311-337
1.Mimetism is indeed the contagion which spreads
throughout human relationships, and in principle
it spares no one.
2.In rivalry, everyone occupies all the positions, one after
another and then simultaneously, and there are no longer
any distinct positions.
3.Desire tends to become a caricature of itself, or, to put it
another way, to cause all the symptoms to become more
and more aggravated.
4.Psychiatry regards the sick person as a kind of monad.
Even when he insists upon the importance of relationships
with the other, the psychologist does not attach sufficient
weight to their foundational character.
5.In the absence of any concrete object, the 'nothing' of
prestige appears to be everything.
6.Desire becomes detached from the object, bit by bit, and
attaches itself to the model.
7.What is the structure of the form of disorder we refer to as
psychosis? No one seems capable of giving a clear reply to
this question.
8.The sick person is not completely justified in carrying to an
extreme, as he does, everything capable of affecting his
relationships with others.
9.The structure of psychosis is constituted, bit by bit, by the
psychotic structure that ‘sees' it as a possible outcome, that
is to say, a possible way of reintroducing difference.
10.The very close but also rather mysterious links between
hypnosis, hysteria and possession have often been noted
by the authors who have looked into these phenomena
over the centuries.
Chapter 12 | Quotes From Pages 338-363
1.Desire seeks ever for success. But it will have
nothing to do with easy successes; like Nietzsche, it
is only interested in lost causes.
2.Desire refuses to understand why the model changes into
an obstacle, but it sees clearly that this change always takes
place.
3.Secondary masochism is simply the theatrical
representation of this phenomenon, which draws sexual
pleasure in its wake.
4.Homosexuality corresponds to an ‘advanced' stage of
mimetic desire, but this stage can also correspond to a form
of heterosexuality in which the partners play the roles of
model and rival, as well as that of object, for one another.
5.Desire becomes detached from the object and attaches itself
to the model that is taken as an obstacle.
Chapter 13 | Quotes From Pages 364-404
1.Freud invents the Oedipus complex as a way of
explaining all these triangles, of explaining why
this ambivalence repeats itself in so many cases of
rivalry.
2.Mimetic desire and the Oedipus complex are incompatible
for two main reasons.
3.The father serves as a model for identification, but it is not
normal for the father to become a model for sexual desire;
it is normal for a father to serve as a model for
apprenticeship, not for sexual desire.
4.If the Oedipus complex is absolutely incapable of
accounting for what Freud wants it to account for, we still
have to explain how it is that the idea has been so
extraordinarily successful.
5.The family does not play the same necessary role as it does
for Freud in the pathology of desire.
6.The only possible answer is the one we have given—the
mimetic solution.
Chapter 14 | Quotes From Pages 405-444
1.‘The artistic temperament’ of Jean Santeuil can be
rediscovered in the character Legrandin, with his
cravat that trails in the wind, his commonplaces on
nature and the ideal, and the liking for solitude on
which he preens himself.
2.The mediocrity of Jean Santeuil arises from the fact that the
work still reflects back the image of himself that Proust, as
a man and a writer, wanted to convey to others.
3.The unchallenged superiority of A la recherche in the
domain of desire... depend upon modifications in
structure... that can easily be identified when the work is
compared with Jean Santeuil.
4....a world with fewer and fewer fixed and institutionalized
barriers will afford more and more opportunities for people
to be fascinating obstacles for each other.
5.Colloquial historic Christianity is playing the role of the
scapegoat. We attempt to wash our hands of any complicity
with the violence that lies at our origins, and this very
attempt perpetuates the complicity.
Things Hidden Since the Foundation of
the World Questions
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Chapter 1 | The Victimage Mechanism as the Basis
of Religion| Q&A
1.Question
What is the fundamental mechanism that Girard
identifies as central to understanding religion?
Answer:René Girard identifies the 'victimage
mechanism' as central to understanding religion,
which explains how communities respond to crises
of violence and conflict through the scapegoating of
a single victim. This process involves the collective
mimetic rivalry of individuals converging against
one designated victim, which restores order and
peace within the community at the expense of that
victim.
2.Question
Why does Girard believe that the study of mimesis is
critical to understanding human behavior?
Answer:Girard argues that mimesis, or imitation, is
fundamental to human behavior since all human learning is
based on imitation. If humans were to stop imitating, all
forms of culture would vanish. Understanding mimesis helps
to reveal the complexities of desire and conflict, particularly
how mimetic rivalry can lead to violence and the necessity of
the victimage mechanism in resolving such crises.
3.Question
How do prohibitions and rituals relate to the mimetic
crisis according to Girard?
Answer:Girard posits that prohibitions are designed to avert
the mimetic crisis by restricting behaviors that provoke
rivalry, while rituals serve to reenact and resolve the mimetic
crisis through collective participation in controlled forms of
conflict. Rituals bring the community together against a
single victim, thereby restoring social order, while
prohibitions seek to prevent the escalation of conflict.
4.Question
What role does the concept of the scapegoat play in
Girard's theory of religion?
Answer:The scapegoat is integral to Girard's theory as it
represents the individual upon whom the community's
collective violence and rage is projected. In moments of
crisis, the community unifies against this victim, believing
that their sacrifice will restore peace and order. This belief
obscures the community's role in creating conflict and
highlights how religious systems are built upon these
dynamics of violence and reconciliation.
5.Question
Can Girard's theory of mimetic rivalry be applied to
contemporary societies? How?
Answer:Yes, Girard's theory can be applied to contemporary
societies by examining how mimetic rivalry manifests in
modern conflicts, such as social or political divisions. For
instance, modern scapegoating can be seen in the way public
figures are vilified or blamed for collective societal issues.
The same underlying dynamics of desire and conflict that
Girard describes can still be observed, indicating that the
mechanism operates both in historical contexts and within
current cultural frameworks.
6.Question
How does Girard's view challenge traditional
understandings of violence in society?
Answer:Girard challenges traditional understandings of
violence by suggesting that it is not merely a product of
individual aggression but rather a collective phenomenon
rooted in mimetic rivalry. His theory posits that violence
escalates as individuals imitate each other's desires and
conflicts. By highlighting the social dimensions of violence
through the lens of mimesis, Girard shifts the focus from
individual pathology to communal dynamics, suggesting that
religion has evolved to manage and mitigate these collective
instincts.
7.Question
What implications does Girard's theory have for the
future of cultural and religious systems?
Answer:Girard's theory suggests that as societies become
more aware of the dynamics of mimetic rivalry and its
consequences, there may be potential for avoiding cycles of
violence through greater understanding and awareness. This
self-knowledge can pave the way for reconstructing cultural
and religious systems that prioritize reconciliation and peace
rather than scapegoating and exclusion.
8.Question
What does Girard suggest about the relationship between
human culture and the divine?
Answer:Girard posits that human culture is heavily
influenced by the perception of divine intervention in
mitigating violence and establishing order through the
sacrificial victim. The sacred is seen as a construct that
reflects humanity's understanding and misinterpretation of its
own violent tendencies, which are projected onto divine
figures. Thus, the nature of the divine in Girard's framework
is inextricably linked to human social dynamics and the quest
for peace.
Chapter 2 | The Development of Culture and
Institutions| Q&A
1.Question
What is the significance of the victim in the context of
cultural rituals?
Answer:The victim serves as a focal point in rituals,
transforming community relations from discord to
harmony. The death of the victim is perceived as a
necessary sacrifice to achieve societal peace, despite
the underlying violence of mimetic rivalry that leads
to their selection. The complexity of ritual
practices—whether emphasizing violence or
reconciliation—reveals the duality of the victim's
role as both a scapegoat and a source of sacredness.
2.Question
How do opposed ritual practices reflect a common origin
according to Girard?
Answer:Opposing rituals, such as those demanding
unanimous participation in a sacrifice versus those
prohibiting contact with the victim, both stem from the same
victimage mechanism. They illustrate how religious thought
can simultaneously highlight different aspects of the
victim—its presence as a source of danger versus its unifying
sacrificial power—indicating the interpretative flexibility of
cultural practices.
3.Question
Can you explain the relationship between monarchy and
sacrifice?
Answer:Monarchy can be understood as an institutional
embodiment of the sacrificial mechanism. Initially, a king
acts as a surrogate victim whose presence stabilizes the
community. As power consolidates over time, the sacrificial
role of the monarch transforms, leading to an evolution
where the king transitions from a direct sacrificial role to one
where sacrificial connotations are more symbolic, preserving
the foundational sacrificial dynamic within the political
structure.
4.Question
What does Girard say about the connection between
death and human culture?
Answer:Girard argues that human culture is deeply
intertwined with the concept of death, particularly through
the lens of the sacrificial victim. The perception of death as
sacred, rather than as a mere cessation of life, allows for the
development of cultural practices surrounding death. This
understanding transforms mourning into a unifying ritual,
making each death a catalyst for cultural renewal instead of
despair.
5.Question
How does Girard critique the modern understanding of
religion in relation to cultural institutions?
Answer:Girard critiques modern perspectives that view
religion as a byproduct of social structures, arguing instead
that cultural institutions arise from the sacrificial mechanism.
He emphasizes that the nuances of religious thought have
been historically underestimated, and that to understand the
essence of any institution, one must consider its roots in
ritual and the complex dynamics surrounding the sacrificial
victim.
6.Question
What role do prohibitions play in Girard's theory of
culture?
Answer:Prohibitions, such as those against incest or the
consumption of totemic foods, create necessary boundaries
within groups to prevent mimetic conflict. These prohibitions
compel groups to engage in rituals that channel desires
outward, ultimately framing social interaction as a series of
exchanges mediated by sacred or sacrificial meanings.
7.Question
How do Girard's theories address the apparent paradox
of the sacred king as both powerful and vulnerable?
Answer:The sacred king embodies a profound paradox: while
representing ultimate authority and societal unity, they also
exist under the threat of sacrifice, positioning them as a
reconciliatory figure capable of channeling societal tensions.
This duality illustrates how political power is interwoven
with the sacrificial essence, where the king’s vulnerability
preserves the stability of the community.
Chapter 3 | The Process of
Hominization| Q&A
1.Question
What is the significance of the victimage mechanism in
the process of hominization?
Answer:The victimage mechanism serves as a
crucial turning point in the transition from animal
behavior to human culture. It allows societies to
manage mimetic rivalries and violence by
channeling aggression towards a surrogate victim,
thereby establishing social order that fosters the
formation of complex cultural institutions and
prohibitions.
2.Question
How does the prolonged vulnerability of human infants
relate to the evolution of social structures?
Answer:The prolonged vulnerability of human infants
necessitated adaptations in parental behavior, leading to the
formation of family units. This need for cooperative
child-rearing introduced structures that protect both the
vulnerable young and the social bonds among adults,
influencing the development of human societies.
3.Question
In what way does Girard critique contemporary views on
culture and evolution?
Answer:Girard critiques contemporary views for often
resorting to vague terminologies like 'culture' and 'evolution'
without addressing the intricate relationships between
biological evolution and cultural processes. He argues that
these discussions often oversimplify complex interactions,
neglecting the specifics of how cultural processes contribute
to human development.
4.Question
What role does 'acquisitive mimesis' play in the
development of human societies according to Girard?
Answer:Acquisitive mimesis is the tendency of individuals to
imitate the desires and actions of others, leading to rivalry
and conflict. This mechanism is foundational in forming
social structures as it drives competition and ultimately the
necessity for the victimage mechanism to establish order and
mitigate violence within communities.
5.Question
Can you explain how mimetic rivalry can simultaneously
lead to a breakdown of social order and the establishment
of a new one?
Answer:Mimetic rivalry can escalate to a point where it
threatens the stability of a community, leading to chaos or
violence. However, when this rivalry results in a collective
crisis, it can trigger the victimage mechanism. This
mechanism allows the group to unify against a common
victim, restoring social cohesion and paving the way for new
cultural and social structures to emerge.
6.Question
How does Girard's view of animal behavior contribute to
our understanding of human culture?
Answer:Girard suggests that animal behaviors, such as
dominance patterns and mimetic interactions, provide a
foundation for understanding human sociality. The transition
from animal to human involves a complex interplay of these
instinctual behaviors intertwined with cultural rituals that
manage violence and conflict.
7.Question
What does Girard mean by the term 'transcendental
signifier' in relation to human culture?
Answer:The 'transcendental signifier' refers to the victim,
which embodies a fundamental duality of good and evil, life
and death, serving as a focal point for community attention.
It signifies the origins of meaning within culture, arising
from collective experiences of violence and reconciliation.
8.Question
Why does Girard argue that human sexuality is more
conflictual than that of animals?
Answer:Girard argues that human sexuality is entangled with
the dynamics of acquisitive mimesis, leading to intense
rivalries and conflicts over partners. Unlike animal sexuality,
which is driven more by instinctual behavior, human
sexuality is complicated by social desires and mimetic
structures, making it inherently more unstable.
9.Question
How does the concept of ritual evolve from animal
behavior to human society according to Girard?
Answer:Rituals in human society can be seen as an evolution
of animal behavior where collective actions around a victim
become more organized and symbolically significant. As
societies develop, these rituals incorporate more complex
social meanings, linking individuals to a collective identity
while allowing for the management of violence and mimetic
conflict.
Chapter 4 | Myth:The Invisibility of
the Founding Murder| Q&A
1.Question
What is the significance of the 'founding murder' in
mythology as discussed in this chapter?
Answer:The founding murder is presented as a
central event that underpins the structure of
mythology, suggesting that myths often obscure and
justify collective violence against a victim, which
allows a community to restore order. This victim,
often portrayed as a divine figure or a necessary
sacrifice, becomes crucial for societal cohesion,
illustrating how myths can reflect real, violent acts
that shape cultural order.
2.Question
How do the Ojibwa and Tikopia myths illustrate the
concept of collective violence?
Answer:Both myths demonstrate a mimetic crisis where a
victim's actions lead to collective violence. In the Ojibwa
myth, a supernatural being inadvertently causes death
through his gaze, necessitating collective expulsion. The
Tikopia myth depicts a god who steals provisions, prompting
the community to pursue him violently. These actions
exemplify the community's need to attribute disorder to an
individual, reinforcing social bonds through shared violence.
3.Question
What structural elements does Lévi-Strauss identify in
the myths that Girard critiques?
Answer:Lévi-Strauss identifies themes such as radical
elimination and the transition from undifferentiation to
differentiation, interpreting myths as logical representations
of cultural order. However, Girard critiques this by arguing
that such analyses overlook the inherent violence and the
sociological implications of these narratives, which reflect
real historical acts of violence rather than abstract logical
structures.
4.Question
Why does Girard argue that myths frequently represent
collective violence?
Answer:Girard posits that the recurrent themes of collective
violence in myths reveal a societal mechanism for coping
with internal conflict. The myths serve as a vehicle for
expressing communal anxieties and fears, often projecting
them onto a scapegoat victim who, through their expulsion or
sacrifice, restores order and peace to the community.
5.Question
What role do physical signs or infirmities in mythological
figures play according to Girard?
Answer:Girard suggests that physical signs or infirmities in
mythological figures may indicate their role as potential
victims or scapegoats in their societies. This reflects a deeper
societal mechanism where any apparent difference can mark
someone for persecution, tying their physical state to the
community's need for cohesion through the exclusion or
elimination of a perceived threat.
6.Question
How does Girard connect the themes of myth to
contemporary societal issues?
Answer:Girard connects the themes of myth and collective
violence to contemporary societal issues such as
overpopulation and the search for scapegoats in times of
crisis. He suggests that modern fears about excessive growth
and societal overcrowding reflect an underlying sacrificial
question, where societies might seek to resolve tension
through selective forms of violence, mirroring the historical
patterns observed in myths.
7.Question
What critique does Girard offer of Lévi-Strauss's
topological model of mythology?
Answer:Girard critiques Lévi-Strauss's topological model for
its excessive focus on abstract logic and structuralism, which
he argues obscures the real physical and violent elements
central to myth. Girard asserts that Lévi-Strauss's approach
fails to address the fundamental social realities of violence
and sacrifice that shape myths and cultural narratives.
8.Question
What does Girard mean by suggesting that mythology
reflects a 'transfigured account of real violence'?
Answer:Girard suggests that mythology often presents a
distorted or symbolic representation of actual historical acts
of violence, cloaked in divine or mythological context. This
transfigurement serves to mask the real implications of these
acts while embedding their consequences within cultural
narratives that aim to restore order and justify collective
actions.
9.Question
In what ways does Girard believe that myths serve a
function in society?
Answer:Girard believes that myths serve a critical function in
society by allowing communities to process violence and
maintain social cohesion. They provide a framework for
understanding conflict and crisis by attributing blame to a
specific victim, thereby facilitating collective reconciliation
and preventing chaos or disorder.
10.Question
What implications does Girard's theory of mythology
have for understanding human behavior in groups?
Answer:Girard's theory implies that human behavior in
groups is often driven by mimetic rivalry and the need for
scapegoats. This suggests that collective violence can arise
from shared tensions, where communities unite against a
perceived threat, reinforcing bonds at the expense of an
individual, thereby exposing deeper psychological and social
dynamics at play.
Chapter 5 | Texts of Persecution| Q&A
1.Question
What is the significance of desacralization in modern
society according to Girard?
Answer:Desacralization signifies a major shift
where society moves from mythological explanations
of violence to a more critical understanding of
persecution. This transition allows cultural
institutions to increasingly acknowledge and address
collective violence and victimization, shifting the
focus from sacrificial mechanisms to an awareness
of unjust violence. It leads to an increased visibility
of mechanisms of persecution, which, while offering
greater understanding, may also result in a
resurgence of violence as traditional forms of
cultural cohesion weaken.
2.Question
How does Girard connect the understanding of violence
and human existence?
Answer:Girard posits that violence and the question of
human existence are interdependent. The ability to decipher
the mechanisms behind collective violence allows for a
deeper exploration of human nature. The increased awareness
of these mechanisms unveils the arbitrary nature of violence,
fundamentally altering our understanding of human
relationships, culture, and societal functioning.
3.Question
What does the term 'scapegoat' signify in both ritual and
modern contexts?
Answer:The term 'scapegoat' signifies both a ritualistic
practice, as seen in the biblical context of the Day of
Atonement, and a modern psycho-sociological mechanism
where society transfers its conflicts and anxieties onto an
arbitrary victim. This duality reflects an evolution in
understanding, demonstrating how ancient rites related to
sacrifice still echo in contemporary practices that
involuntarily create victims in our midst.
4.Question
Why do modern texts of persecution differ from ancient
myths?
Answer:Modern texts of persecution are more accessible for
interpretation than ancient myths because the victims in these
texts are not completely sacralized. The distance from myth
allows for greater transparency in recognizing the victim’s
role, thus facilitating a clearer analysis of the victimization
mechanisms at play in modern conflicts compared to those
seen in mythological narratives.
5.Question
What challenges arise as we begin to uncover the
victimage mechanism?
Answer:As we uncover the victimage mechanism, we may
experience a resurgence of violence, as traditional sacrificial
structures become less effective. This process can lead to a
chaotic environment where humanity grapples with
newfound knowledge of its violent tendencies, potentially
resulting in an escalation of violent acts against designated
scapegoats as societies attempt to reclaim lost forms of
cohesion.
6.Question
How does Girard view the role of critical consciousness in
recognizing persecution?
Answer:Girard believes that increased critical consciousness
is essential for recognizing and understanding persecution.
As awareness grows, the arbitrary nature of victimization
becomes clear, which erodes the legitimacy of myths that
previously justified violence and sacrificial practices, paving
the way for a society that prioritizes reconciliation over
retribution.
7.Question
What implications does Girard's theory have for the
future of humanity?
Answer:Girard's theory suggests that for humanity to survive,
there must be a collective renunciation of violence and an
understanding of our interconnections beyond sacrificial
systems. As we continue to unravel the cultural mechanisms
of persecution, we face a pivotal choice: either evolve toward
a recognition of shared humanity or risk annihilation through
unchecked violence.
Chapter 6 | Things Hidden Since the
Foundation ofthe World| Q&A
1.Question
What is the central idea discussed in Chapter 6 regarding
the concept of scapegoating in biblical contexts?
Answer:The chapter explores the role of
scapegoating within biblical narratives, particularly
focusing on how the deaths of figures like Abel and
Jesus reveal the mechanisms of violence that
underpin human societies. The author argues that
the biblical text critiques the cultural tendency to
project violence onto victims, emphasizing the
innocence of the victims rather than justifying their
persecution, which is a shift from other mythologies
that often glorify the origins of violence.
2.Question
How does Girard interpret the story of Cain and Abel in
relation to the establishment of civilization?
Answer:Girard interprets the story of Cain and Abel as
emblematic of the founding violence inherent in human
civilization. He discusses how the murder of Abel by Cain
not only establishes Cain's lineage and society but also
reflects the broader mythic principle where community order
is maintained through the exclusion and violence inflicted on
a single victim.
3.Question
In what ways does the author suggest that the biblical
narrative differs from other myths concerning violence
and victimization?
Answer:The author proposes that biblical narratives, unlike
many other myths, take a moral stand by emphasizing the
innocence of the victims and the culpability of their
murderers. This reversal of traditional mythic narratives
creates a distinctive ethical dimension that advocates for the
well-being of the victim, challenging the cultural norms that
sanctioned violence.
4.Question
What implications does Girard attribute to the biblical
interpretation of violence for contemporary society?
Answer:Girard suggests that the biblical interpretation of
violence serves as a powerful critique of modern societies'
tendency to scapegoat and disguise violence behind cultural
narratives. He argues that recognizing the scapegoat
mechanism in biblical texts encourages individuals to
confront and dismantle the structures of violence in
contemporary cultures, promoting empathy and justice
instead.
5.Question
How does the chapter relate the themes of sacrifice and
societal order to the stories of Joseph and Jesus?
Answer:The narratives of Joseph and Jesus illustrate how
societal order often relies upon the sacrifice of an innocent
victim. Joseph's mistreatment by his brothers and subsequent
rise to power reflects a cultural reconciliation achieved
through his suffering, while Jesus' crucifixion epitomizes a
radical critique of such sacrificial systems, ultimately
revealing the original injustice of such violence.
6.Question
Why does Girard place emphasis on the innocence of
victims in biblical texts?
Answer:Girard emphasizes the innocence of victims to
highlight a significant shift in how victims are portrayed in
the biblical tradition. He believes this shift is crucial for
fostering a deeper moral awareness in readers, challenging
the historical and cultural justifications for violence that
often characterize human behavior.
7.Question
What role does collective guilt play in Girard's analysis of
biblical narratives?
Answer:In Girard's analysis, collective guilt emerges as a
pivotal theme where communities are often unable to
acknowledge their role in violence against scapegoats. This
unacknowledged guilt underpins societal dynamics, leading
to a cycle of violence that these biblical narratives seek to
expose and critique, urging a recognition of shared
culpability.
8.Question
How can the metaphor of the tomb in the biblical context
be interpreted according to Girard?
Answer:The metaphor of the tomb symbolizes the
concealment of violence and death within human culture; it
reflects how societies build ‘tombs’ around their past violent
acts as a means of denying their origins. By exposing the
violence that has been hidden and legitimizing it through
cultural means, Girard points out that biblical texts aim to
challenge this concealment and reveal the underlying truths
of human violence.
9.Question
How does Girard connect the stories in the Bible to
universal anthropological themes?
Answer:Girard connects biblical stories to universal
anthropological themes, suggesting that they reflect deep
human tendencies to scapegoat and consolidate societal order
through violence. By doing so, he argues that these narratives
can be seen as revealing the foundational mechanisms of
human societies, thus offering insights into the nature of
culture and violence that transcend specific historical
contexts.
Chapter 7 | A Non-Sacrificial Reading
of the Gospel Text| Q&A
1.Question
What is the central difference between the sacrificial
reading of the Gospels and the non-sacrificial reading
proposed by Girard?
Answer:The sacrificial reading interprets the death
of Jesus as a required sacrifice for the sins of
humanity, often viewing God as necessitating that
sacrifice for justice or vengeance. In contrast,
Girard advocates a non-sacrificial reading, which
suggests that Jesus' death is not presented as a
sacrifice at all in the Gospels. Instead, it emphasizes
that Jesus’ message was one of non-violence and
reconciliation, aiming to end the cycle of violence
inherent in sacrificial practices.
2.Question
How does Jesus’ statement "I desire mercy, and not
sacrifice" reflect the non-sacrificial reading of the
Gospels?
Answer:This statement underscores Jesus' rejection of the
sacrificial system and highlights his focus on mercy and
human relationship rather than ritualistic sacrifice. It
indicates that true reconciliation with God comes from living
out mercy in human relationships, not through the act of
offering sacrifices.
3.Question
In what way does Girard argue that Jesus’ message
reveals the true nature of violence?
Answer:Girard posits that Jesus reveals the founding
mechanism of violence—that all cultures have relied on
scapegoating to manage social conflict. By exposing and
refusing to participate in this mechanism, especially through
his own crucifixion, Jesus offers humanity a chance to see
and break free from the cycle of violence and mimetic
rivalry.
4.Question
What implications does the rejection of a sacrificial
interpretation of Jesus’ death have on modern
Christianity, according to Girard?
Answer:Girard's rejection of a sacrificial interpretation may
challenge traditional views within Christianity that uphold
violence and sacrifice as a means of redemption. It suggests a
need for a re-evaluation of the core principles of Christianity,
urging a shift towards understanding God's nature as
inherently non-violent and advocating for a faith centered on
love and reconciliation.
5.Question
How do the themes of Apocalypse and the Kingdom of
God connect in Girard's non-sacrificial reading?
Answer:In Girard's view, the themes of Apocalypse and the
Kingdom of God are interlinked by the response to Jesus'
teachings. The Apocalypse emerges not as a divine judgment
but as a consequence of humanity's refusal to accept Jesus'
invitation to the Kingdom, where love prevails over violence.
The failure to embrace the Kingdom leads to apocalyptic
outcomes, underscoring the human responsibility for societal
violence.
6.Question
What role does the concept of 'mimetic rivalry' play in
understanding the dynamics of violence in human society
according to Girard?
Answer:Mimetic rivalry is a central concept in Girard's
theory, suggesting that individuals model their desires on
others, leading to competition and conflict. This rivalry
escalates into violence when individuals perceive others as
obstacles to their own desires. Recognizing this pattern helps
in understanding how societies perpetuate cycles of violence
and conflict, which Jesus' teachings aim to dismantle.
7.Question
How does Girard explain the apparent contradiction
between the violent imagery often associated with
apocalyptic texts and the non-violent message central to
Jesus’ teachings?
Answer:Girard asserts that the violent imagery in apocalyptic
texts is not reflective of God's will but rather a human
response to crisis and conflict. The destruction and despair
expressed in these texts stem from humanity's failure to
adopt the principles of the Kingdom of God, which promotes
non-violence and reconciliation, thereby revealing the
chaotic results of mimetic violence when unaddressed.
8.Question
What message does Girard convey about the nature of
God as depicted in the Gospel texts, especially in relation
to violence?
Answer:Girard emphasizes that the God depicted in the
Gospels is fundamentally non-violent and calls for humanity
to reject violence. God desires mercy rather than sacrifice
and yearns for reconciliation among people, reflecting a clear
shift from the violent deities often found in other religious
traditions.
9.Question
In Girard's analysis, how should one interpret the role of
Jesus as the 'scapegoat' within the non-sacrificial
framework?
Answer:Within Girard's non-sacrificial framework, Jesus is
viewed as the ultimate scapegoat who exposes the violent
mechanisms of society. Instead of being a sacrificial victim
to appease God, his suffering and death reveal humanity’s
reliance on scapegoating and challenge people to abandon
such practices, inviting them into a transformative
relationship devoid of violence.
10.Question
In what ways does Girard hope the non-sacrificial
reading can contribute to healing societal violence in
contemporary contexts?
Answer:Girard hopes that a non-sacrificial understanding of
Jesus' message can foster reconciliation and peace by urging
individuals and communities to recognize the destructive
patterns of violence and instead embrace love, forgiveness,
and non-violence. This approach has the potential to break
cycles of retribution and contribute to a more peaceful
society.
Chapter 8 | The Sacrificial Reading
andHistorical Christianity| Q&A
1.Question
What is the main argument presented regarding the
sacrificial reading of Christianity?
Answer:The main argument is that the sacrificial
reading of Christianity reintroduces violence into
the understanding of God's relationship with
humanity and obscures the true nature of Christ's
message, which emphasizes love and non-violence. It
critiques the idea that Christ's death serves as a
sacrifice in the traditional sense, arguing instead for
a non-sacrificial interpretation that aligns with the
essence of love and the rejection of violence.
2.Question
How does the author view the historical interpretation of
the Passion and its impact on Christianity?
Answer:The author posits that the historical interpretation of
the Passion, grounded in sacrifice, has led to a culture of
violence within Christianity that mirrors past religions and
perpetuates a system of scapegoating. This has historically
condemned not only the Jewish people but has also caused
Christians to fail in recognizing their shared human
responsibility in the violent actions carried out in the name of
God.
3.Question
What does the author mean by 'sacrificial culture' in
Christianity?
Answer:The 'sacrificial culture' refers to the social and
religious structures that arise from interpreting religious texts
through the lens of sacrifice and violence. This leads to
scapegoating and reinforces cycles of violence, where the
figure of Christ is misinterpreted as a sacrificial victim rather
than a model of unconditional love and non-violence.
4.Question
What implications does the author draw from the
'Judgement of Solomon' in relation to violence and
sacrifice?
Answer:The 'Judgement of Solomon' illustrates the
destructive nature of mimetic rivalry and how sacrificial
logic fails to identify genuine maternal love. The real
mother’s willingness to give up her child to save its life
represents a non-sacrificial ethic opposed to the violence of
dividing the child—symbolizing human conflict and the
consequences of selfish desires.
5.Question
How does the text address the relationship between
modern culture and the sacrificial reading of
Christianity?
Answer:The text argues that modern cultural interpretations
heavily rely on sacrificial readings, which obscure the
apocalyptic truths inherent in modern existence. This
relationship perpetuates a narrative of violence and allows for
continued cycles of conflict under the guise of seeking peace,
revealing a historical loop where humanity struggles to
escape its violent tendencies.
6.Question
What role does the author believe the notion of sacrifice
plays in contemporary Christian thought?
Answer:The author asserts that contemporary Christian
thought often remains ensnared by sacrificial interpretations
that limit understanding of the Gospels. This perpetuates a
rigid view of God characterized by violence and sacrifice,
ultimately hindering the potential for a radical and
transformative understanding of love as exemplified by
Christ.
7.Question
In what ways does the author suggest we can move
beyond the sacrificial interpretation?
Answer:The author suggests that embracing a non-sacrificial
reading of the Gospels—focused on love and the rejection of
violence—can transform our understanding of Christ's
teachings. This involves recognizing the anthropological
implications of the text and the need to confront human
violence without recourse to sacrificial logic.
8.Question
How does the author perceive the significance of Christ's
death and the Resurrection?
Answer:The author sees Christ's death not as part of a
sacrificial economy but as a profound statement against
violence, with the Resurrection indicating hope and the
possibility of a life transcending death, free from the
sacrifices that characterize older, violent religions.
9.Question
What critique does the author offer about modern
interpretations of apocalypse within the context of
Christianity?
Answer:The author critiques modern interpretations of
apocalypse as often misinterpreted through a lens of divine
retribution rather than as a revelation of human destructive
potential. This perspective limits understanding of the
Gospel's call for non-violence and unity among humanity.
10.Question
What does the author emphasize about the ethical
implications of self-sacrifice in Christianity?
Answer:The author challenges the notion of self-sacrifice as
a virtue in Christianity, arguing that it can lead to a
misinterpretation of biblical texts that promote unity and life.
Instead, the author advocates for a focus on true life and love,
which should guide ethical behavior rather than a culture of
self-sacrifice.
Chapter 9 | The Logos of Heraclitus and the Logos
of john| Q&A
1.Question
What is the significance of the term 'Logos' in both
Heraclitus' philosophy and the Gospel of John?
Answer:The term 'Logos' in Heraclitus' philosophy
signifies the divine, rational principle that governs
the universe, transcending mere language or
discourse. In the Gospel of John, it denotes Christ as
the creative force and redeemer, closely aligned with
God's creative work. Thus, both 'Logos' forms
signify a higher, unifying truth, yet their
implications differ: the Heraclitean Logos connects
to the violence inherent in sustaining order, while
the Johannine Logos emphasizes love and the
rejection of violence.
2.Question
How does the relationship between the Greek Logos and
the Johannine Logos illustrate the tension in Western
thought?
Answer:The relationship illustrates a historical tension
between the rational, often violent underpinnings of Greek
thought and the transformative, non-violent vision of
Christianity. Despite efforts to distinguish these thoughts,
Western scholarship often engages in a mimetic rivalry,
leading to a philosophical landscape that favors Greek
rationalism over Christian revelation, continually
overshadowing the unique qualities of the Johannine Logos.
3.Question
Why is Heidegger's interpretation of the two types of
Logos significant?
Answer:Heidegger attempts to differentiate the Greek and
Johannine Logos, emphasizing the violence inherent in the
former. However, his failure to fully recognize the unique
characteristics of the Johannine Logos—focused on love and
absence of violence—illustrates the limitations of modern
philosophical thought, which still struggles with the legacy
of sacrificial systems.
4.Question
What role does the concept of expulsion play in
understanding the Johannine Logos?
Answer:Expulsion in the Johannine context signifies
humanity's rejection and misrecognition of the Logos,
reflecting a foundational aspect of human society where the
true nature of the divine—characterized by love—is
continuously ignored. John's narrative specifically reveals
this theme, marking the Logos as an outcast, highlighting the
disparity between the world's understanding and the reality of
the divine presence.
5.Question
How does the distinction between love and violence
influence the understanding of the Logos?
Answer:The distinction underscores that love is
fundamentally incompatible with violence, positioning the
Johannine Logos as a force of love rather than one of power
and tyranny. This suggests a path towards true knowledge
through love, thus redefining how humanity can engage with
the concept of the divine and its inherent qualities, moving
towards peace and understanding rather than conflict.
6.Question
What can the comparison between the Genesis creation
narrative and the Prologue of John tell us about divine
action and human agency?
Answer:The Genesis narrative depicts God as the one who
expels humanity, establishing foundational cultural structures
through divine will. In contrast, the Prologue of John
emphasizes humanity's expulsion of God, portraying a
reversal where the divine Logos, although present, is
continually rejected. This shift illustrates a fundamental
change in understanding divine interaction with
humanity—from imposing structure through expulsion to
experiencing suffering as a victim of exclusion.
7.Question
How does Girard's analysis challenge traditional
interpretations of Christianity?
Answer:Girard challenges traditional readings by asserting
that the sacrificial interpretation prevalent in historical
Christianity actually misrepresents the essence of the
Johannine Logos. He posits that such readings obscure the
original message of the Gospels—centering on love and the
rejection of violence—thus allowing modern scholarship to
reiterate the very misconceptions it seeks to critique.
8.Question
What implications does the Johannine portrayal of God
have for contemporary understandings of the divine?
Answer:The Johannine portrayal fundamentally challenges
contemporary views that associate divinity with
authoritarianism and tyranny. By depicting God as love and
as one who suffers rather than inflicts suffering, it invites a
re-examination of how humanity perceives and interacts with
the divine, urging a move away from coercive
understandings toward a more relational and compassionate
engagement.
9.Question
How does Girard suggest the misunderstanding of the
Logos relates to broader cultural narratives?
Answer:Girard proposes that misunderstandings of the Logos
influence cultural narratives by perpetuating cycles of
violence and sacrifice. These narratives often ignore the
expulsion of the true Logos, leading societies to construct
frameworks where the divine is continuously overlooked,
reinforcing the mythic and sacrificial tendencies that define
much of human culture.
10.Question
What challenges does Girard present to the prevailing
philosophical frameworks in understanding the Logos?
Answer:Girard's challenge lies in advocating for a return to a
recognition of the Logos' singularity, a perspective often lost
in philosophical discourse. By dismissing the binary of the
Greek and Johannine Logos as mere intellectual distinctions,
he urges a reevaluation of how love and violence define
human existence and our understanding of the divine,
arguing for an essential shift that recognizes love as a
foundational truth rather than an abstract ideal.
Chapter 10 | Mimetic Desire| Q&A
1.Question
How does the text define human desire in relation to
mimetic rivalry?
Answer:Human desire is presented as a complex
phenomenon that arises when mimetic rivalry
becomes a significant factor in human relationships.
Unlike animal instincts which are straightforward,
human desire is shaped by the mimetic effect, where
one individual's desire is informed and influenced
by the desires of others. This rivalry can escalate,
leading to conflict, competition, and often
disappointment.
2.Question
What role does culture play in shaping desire according
to Girard?
Answer:Culture distributes individual appetites in
hierarchical and structured ways, which can help mitigate
uncontrolled mimetic rivalry. In rigid societies, these cultural
norms prevent the chaotic spread of desire, whereas modern
society, with its emphasis on individual freedom, can
exacerbate desire's undifferentiated nature, leading to greater
conflict and distress.
3.Question
What does Girard mean by the 'metaphysical' aspect of
desire?
Answer:Metaphysical desire refers to the way rivalry
transforms simple needs into profound desires that seem to
transcend the physical realm. This aspect of desire arises
when individuals misinterpret their rivalries, attributing
deeper meanings to their desires that often lead to obsession
and dissatisfaction.
4.Question
How does the concept of the 'double bind' relate to desire
and rivalry?
Answer:The 'double bind' describes the contradictory
messages individuals receive from their models in mimicry.
As one is encouraged to imitate, one is simultaneously
warned against it due to the threat of rivalry. This creates
confusion and exacerbates desire, as individuals cannot
distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable forms of
mimicry.
5.Question
What are the implications of mimetic rivalry in modern
society?
Answer:In modern society, the absence of clear cultural
restraints on desire leads to intensified rivalries. This often
results in a landscape where individuals feel increasingly
alienated, fostering a sense of existential dread as they
confront their desires without the guidance of prohibitive
norms.
6.Question
How does Girard critique the idea that eliminating
societal restrictions on desire will lead to fulfillment?
Answer:Girard argues that the belief in the liberating power
of unrestrained desire is misguided. As societal prohibitions
are removed, individuals do not experience a blossoming of
pure desire but instead face the fierceness of mimetic rivalry,
which creates a competitive and often hostile environment
that stifles true fulfillment.
7.Question
What does Girard suggest is necessary to navigate the
complexities of desire?
Answer:To effectively navigate desire, Girard implies that
individuals must become aware of the mimetic dynamics at
play within their relationships. Understanding how rivalry
shapes desires can help mitigate negative outcomes and
foster healthier interpersonal connections.
8.Question
What is the relationship between desire and psychopathy
as discussed in the text?
Answer:The text suggests that as desire becomes increasingly
entangled in mimetic crises without resolution through
sacrificial mechanisms, individuals may experience
psychotic symptoms. This lack of resolution leads to a
chaotic interplay of desire and rivalry, manifesting in
psychological distress.
9.Question
How does Girard explain the behavior of individuals who
achieve their desired objects?
Answer:Girard posits that achieving the object of one's desire
often leads to disillusionment, as the reality falls short of
metaphysical expectations created by rivalry. Victory in
obtaining the desired object can accelerate feelings of
inadequacy and dissatisfaction, prompting the individual to
seek new desires and models.
10.Question
In what way does Girard relate gambling to human
desire?
Answer:Girard likens human desire to gambling, where the
individual continues to wager on their desires despite
increasing odds against fulfillment. Just as a gambler might
escalate their stakes in a losing game, the subject of desire
deepens their pursuit, often leading to self-destruction.
Chapter 11 | Desire without Object| Q&A
1.Question
What is the relationship between mimetic desire and
identity according to René Girard?
Answer:René Girard asserts that mimetic desire
leads to a continuous cycle of imitation and rivalry
between individuals. As one person desires what
another has, their desires intermingle, leading to the
blurring of identities. Each becomes a model and a
disciple to the other. Girard emphasizes that this
mimetic rivalry leads to violence and conflict, as the
individuals involved seek to differentiate themselves
while simultaneously desiring the same objects or
status, thus losing their distinct identities.
2.Question
How does mimetic rivalry manifest in everyday life?
Answer:Mimetic rivalry is evident in fashion trends, social
competition, or intellectual discourse, where individuals try
to distinguish themselves by opposing prevailing norms. Yet,
as they attempt to break away from a fashion or idea, they
ironically end up conforming to a new trend, demonstrating a
superficial difference that masks underlying similarity. This
rivalry results in a constant battle for prestige and validation,
leaving individuals trapped in an endless cycle of imitation.
3.Question
What does Girard mean by 'the relationship of doubles'?
Answer:The 'relationship of doubles' refers to the idea that in
mimetic rivalry, partners lose their individuality and become
indistinguishable in terms of their desires and actions. Each
person mirrors the other's experiences, leading to a situation
where neither can maintain a distinct position. This chaotic
reciprocity intensifies until the differences between them
dissolve, culminating in a cycle of conflict driven by their
intertwined identities.
4.Question
How does violence play a role in mimetic relationships
according to Girard?
Answer:Violence is a fundamental outcome of mimetic
relationships, serving both as the peak of competition and as
a catalyst for the return to order. When mimetic rivalry
escalates to violence, it highlights the indistinguishable
nature of the rivals, as they retaliate against one another. This
eruption of violence forces the individuals involved to
confront the reality of their shared desires, often leading to a
scapegoat mechanism that aims to restore peace by
channeling the violence onto a designated victim, thus
temporarily alleviating the tension.
5.Question
In what ways does Girard relate desire to psychosis?
Answer:Girard connects desire to psychosis by suggesting
that unchecked mimetic desire can lead to a detachment from
reality. As individuals become obsessed with their models
and lose sight of the actual objects of their desire, they may
experience a form of madness, characterized by the blurring
of their perceptions of themselves and others. This 'psychotic
structure' is marked by a lack of distinction between self and
other, reflecting the extreme consequences of mimetic
rivalry.
6.Question
What does Girard suggest about the role of desire in
modern culture?
Answer:Girard suggests that desire in modern culture is
characterized by its escalation and competition without clear
objects of pursuit, leading to a pervasive sense of instability
and dissatisfaction among individuals. In a society where
traditional roles and hierarchies have diminished, people are
caught in continuous cycles of ambition, driven by mimetic
desire to differentiate themselves. This results in neuroses
linked to the need for recognition and validation, promoting
an environment where individuals often mirror each other's
aspirations and failures.
7.Question
How does Girard view the connection between psychosis
and mimetic desire?
Answer:Girard views psychosis as an intensified
manifestation of mimetic desire, where the individual
becomes increasingly entangled in the dynamics of rivalry
and imitation. In this state, the object of desire effectively
disappears, leaving only the relationships defined by
aggressive mimetic behaviors. The psychotic individual
struggles with understanding his or her identity within these
reciprocal relationships, reflecting the terrifying
consequences of pure mimetic exposure.
8.Question
What are the main contrasts Girard draws between
hysteria, hypnosis, and possession?
Answer:Girard distinguishes hysteria, hypnosis, and
possession by noting that hysteria often relates to the
interplay of aggressive mimetic rivalry or conflict, while
hypnosis represents a peaceful mimetic state where one
subject models their desire according to another without
competition. Possession, on the other hand, while it can
involve altered states of consciousness and mimetic models,
maintains a differentiating factor between the possessor and
the possessed. Thus, hypnosis lacks the violent elements
present in hysteria and psychosis.
9.Question
What role does the scapegoat mechanism play in Girard's
theory?
Answer:The scapegoat mechanism is critical in Girard's
theory as it provides a resolution to the violence that mimetic
rivalry instigates. When tensions reach a breaking point, a
scapegoat is identified, often wrongfully, to absorb the
collective aggression of the group, thus restoring temporary
peace and order. This mechanism highlights the processes
through which culture emerges, as societies establish norms
and values to differentiate themselves from chaos.
10.Question
How does Girard's analysis of mimetic desire contribute
to our understanding of human relationships?
Answer:Girard's analysis of mimetic desire reveals the
inherent interconnectedness of human relationships,
emphasizing that our desires are not simply personal but are
deeply influenced by the desires of others. This
interdependence leads to a shared experience of rivalry,
competition, and often, violence. Understanding this
dynamic allows for deeper insights into social behaviors,
cultural phenomena, and psychological disorders,
underscoring the need for awareness and resolution in the
face of rivalrous impulses.
Chapter 12 | Mimesis and Sexuality| Q&A
1.Question
What is the relationship between desire and
disillusionment according to René Girard?
Answer:Girard suggests that desire is intricately
linked to disillusionment. The subject, seeking
satisfaction from objects or rivals, often knows that
achieving success leads to eventual disappointment.
Because of this knowledge, desire opts to pursue
unattainable obstacles for fulfillment. Thus, the
drive for desire is paradoxically influenced by the
experience of failure, compelling it to focus on rivals
or challenges that ensure a sense of longing and
disillusionment.
2.Question
How does Girard explain the distinction between
masochism and the mimetic process?
Answer:Girard emphasizes that what is often labeled as
masochism is rooted in a deeper mimetic desire process.
Rather than viewing masochism as an independent
phenomenon, he posits that it stems from the competition and
imitation of desires between subjects. The pain and
humiliation encountered by the masochist merely reflect the
desires shaped by their rivals, illustrating how the object of
desire becomes entwined with the experience of suffering.
3.Question
Why does Girard believe that traditional labels used in
psychiatry, like masochism, miss the core issue of desire?
Answer:Girard argues that psychiatric labels obscure the
underlying mimetic mechanisms driving desire. By labeling
behaviors as distinct phenomena (such as masochism),
psychiatry fails to recognize the common process of mimetic
rivalry where desires are shaped by the rival’s experiences
and objects of attraction. Instead of addressing the
interconnectedness of desires, psychiatry often labels
symptoms without understanding their deeper origins.
4.Question
What role does violence play in the structure of desire
according to Girard?
Answer:Girard posits that violence is intrinsically tied to
mimetic desire, acting as both a barrier and an allure. Desire
often mimics or competes for the object represented by a
rival, and the violence surrounding that competition becomes
a way to engage with desire. The rival's actions may be
perceived as obstacles that enhance the desirability of the
object, effectively turning violence into a source of erotic or
significant meaning within the mimetic framework.
5.Question
How does Girard connect homosexuality to mimetic
desire?
Answer:Girard suggests that homosexuality can be
understood as a manifestation of mimetic desire. In this view,
sexual rivalry often occurs between individuals of the same
sex, transforming the object of desire into a rival. He notes
that this dynamic doesn't necessitate a distinct sexual
orientation but rather highlights a structure where desire is
shaped by rivalry and competition, ultimately blurring lines
between heterosexual and homosexual experiences.
6.Question
In what way does Girard propose that societies might
understand jealousy and rivalry?
Answer:Girard proposes that jealousy and rivalry should be
understood through the lens of mimetic desire, where the
subject’s rivalry reflects an admiration or fear of a rival's
perceived superiority. Instead of viewing jealousy as an
isolated emotional response, it is indicative of deeper
mimetic processes at play that reveal the interconnections
between human desires, conflicts, and social dynamics.
7.Question
What conclusions can be drawn about desire from
Girard's discussion on masochism, rivalry, and – by
extension – psychopathology?
Answer:Girard concludes that desire is fundamentally a
relational phenomenon shaped by the dynamics of imitation
and rivalry. Psychopathological symptoms such as
masochism, jealousy, and even certain forms of
homosexuality should be viewed not as isolated conditions
but rather interconnected manifestations stemming from
mimetic relationships.
Chapter 13 | Psychoanalytic Mythology| Q&A
1.Question
What fundamental concepts do Girard and Freud discuss
regarding the Oedipus complex and mimetic desire?
Answer:Girard critiques Freud's Oedipal theory by
arguing that mimetic desire—imitation and
rivalry—operates fundamentally differently than
the intrinsic desires Freud describes. While Freud
positions desire within familial triangles, Girard
emphasizes mimetic relationships where desire for
an object stems from seeing it desired by another,
rather than an original paternal model.
2.Question
How does Girard explain the limitations of Freud's
perspective on desire?
Answer:Girard argues that Freud's view fails to account for
the mimetic nature of rivalry, suggesting that the Oedipus
complex cannot fully explain the complexities of desire in
triangular relationships; instead, Girard believes that desire is
rooted in imitation that perpetuates rivalry rather than solely
arising from family dynamics.
3.Question
What does Girard identify as a key flaw in Freud's
analysis of the Oedipus complex?
Answer:Girard points out that Freud does not recognize that
desire and the model of rivalry can be distinctly separate
concepts. Instead of acknowledging that desire can be
influenced by mimetic factors beyond the family context,
Freud reduces all desire to familial relations, which limits
understanding human relationships.
4.Question
In what ways does Girard challenge the notion of
narcissism as presented by Freud?
Answer:Girard challenges Freud's concept of narcissism by
suggesting it merely reflects a desire for the objectified self
rather than a profound, intrinsic quality. Instead, he posits
that true desire should be seen through the lens of mimetic
interactions, where what one truly desires is the 'other' rather
than merely an enriched self.
5.Question
What role does social context play in the concept of desire
according to Girard?
Answer:Girard emphasizes that desire is deeply influenced
by social dynamics and cultural constructs. He suggests that
our desires are not just personal but are shaped by models
within society that dictate one's aspirations and rivalries,
thereby complicating the Oedipal narrative Freud proposes.
6.Question
How does Girard connect his critique of narcissism to
broader cultural patterns?
Answer:Girard links the concept of narcissism to societal
trends towards mimetic rivalry, asserting that as societies
move towards greater interconnectedness, the structures of
desire become clouded, leading individuals to seek validation
through imitation of others rather than through authentic
selfhood.
7.Question
What does Girard suggest is necessary for a more
accurate understanding of human desire?
Answer:Girard advocates for a shift away from rigid
psychoanalytic classifications toward an examination of
mimetic processes that account for the complexities and
dynamics of human relationships, highlighting the
significance of relational context rather than isolated
individual desire.
8.Question
What implications does Girard's analysis have for
understanding modern relationships?
Answer:Girard's analysis suggests that many contemporary
issues in relationships stem from mimetic rivalry and social
conditioning rather than purely individual psychological
conflicts, indicating a need for greater awareness of the
communal and imitative aspects of desire in understanding
personal interactions.
Chapter 14 | Beyond Scandal| Q&A
1.Question
What transformation does Proust undergo between 'Jean
Santeuil' and 'A la recherche du temps perdu'?
Answer:Proust experiences a significant revolution
in self-perception and understanding of desire. In
'Jean Santeuil', he exhibits intact narcissism, where
the protagonist's ego centers around personal
success among similar peers. However, 'A la
recherche' reveals a deeper exploration of mimetic
desire and its complexities, illustrating how desire
operates in relation to others rather than being
self-contained.
2.Question
How does Girard view the relationship between scandal
and mimetic desire?
Answer:Girard sees scandal as inherently linked to mimetic
desire, where individuals influence one another's desires,
creating obstacles that are simultaneously attractive and
harmful. The 'skandalon' serves as a model and an obstacle,
drawing individuals into a cycle of rivalry and conflict,
ultimately revealing the destructive nature of such desires.
3.Question
What role does the concept of 'skandalon' play in
understanding interpersonal relationships?
Answer:The 'skandalon' represents the obstacles erected by
mimetic desire and interpersonal rivalries. It emphasizes how
individuals can become stumbling blocks for one another,
reflecting the interconnectedness of human relationships
where envy and rivalry intertwine, leading to mutual
destruction.
4.Question
What insights do Girard's interpretations of Proust offer
regarding the evolution of literary expression?
Answer:Girard's analysis highlights the shift from
self-focused narratives that affirm individual exceptionalism
in Proust's early works to a communal and relational
understanding of desire in his later works. This evolution
underscores a transition from narcissistic self-reflection to a
profound exploration of how desires are shaped by and
intertwined with the lives of others.
5.Question
Why does Girard argue that modern thinkers struggle to
account for mimetic desire?
Answer:Girard believes modern thinkers often impose a
sacrificial framework on the understanding of desire, failing
to recognize the interpersonal dynamics involved. By
focusing too heavily on individual psychology, they overlook
the essential role of relationships and the communal nature of
desire, which is distinct in the Gospels and in a proper
understanding of mimetic rivalry.
6.Question
What does Girard suggest about the possibility of
achieving victory over mimetic desire?
Answer:Girard suggests that true victory over mimetic desire
cannot be achieved through intellectual efforts alone. It
requires a transformation akin to religious conversion, where
one acknowledges the depth of social desires and their
violent implications, moving towards an understanding
rooted in love and non-violence.
7.Question
How does Girard align his views with biblical teachings
regarding scandal and desire?
Answer:Girard finds parallels in biblical texts where scandal
is recognized as a pervasive obstacle rooted in mimetic
desire. He interprets passages in the Gospels that discuss
scandal as warnings against idolatry and mimetic rivalry,
emphasizing the call to transcend these dynamics through
love and community.
8.Question
What does Girard mean by the term 'intact narcissism'?
Answer:Intact narcissism refers to a state where an individual
is absorbed in their self-image and the admiration of others
without recognizing the underlying mimetic dynamics of
their desires, leading to superficial relationships and a lack of
true understanding of one’s desires impacted by others.
9.Question
Why does Girard critique Freud's view of narcissism?
Answer:Girard critiques Freud for reducing the complexities
of desire to individual psychic experiences, thereby
neglecting the communal and mimetic dimensions of desire.
He believes Freud's focus on individual narcissism fails to
address how desires are shaped through relationships and
interactions with others.
10.Question
In what way does Girard suggest literature can reflect
psychological truths?
Answer:Literature, particularly in the works of novelists like
Proust, can serve as a mirror reflecting interdividual
psychology, revealing the complexities of human
relationships, mimetic desires, and the struggles inherent in
individuals navigating these dynamics. It captures the
nuances of desire shaped through interaction and rivalry.
Things Hidden Since the Foundation of
the World Quiz and Test
Check the Correct Answer on Bookey Website
Chapter 1 | The Victimage Mechanism as the Basis
of Religion| Quiz and Test
1.Girard argues that religion should be approached
solely from a psychological perspective rather than
an anthropological one.
2.Mimesis, according to Girard, plays a dual role in society
as both a force of cohesion and a source of conflict.
3.Rituals are a response to mimetic crises and often lead to
division within communities rather than unification.
Chapter 2 | The Development of Culture and
Institutions| Quiz and Test
1.Ritual practices can originate from a common
mechanism of victimage, even if they appear
contradictory.
2.Monarchy emerged solely as a system of power without
any connection to sacrificial practices.
3.Human attitudes toward death are shaped solely by natural
experiences without cultural interpretations.
Chapter 3 | The Process of
Hominization| Quiz and Test
1.Human infants are born with disproportionately
small brains, requiring less adaptation from
parents.
2.The chapter suggests that violence is primarily instinctual
and occurs outside of familial structures.
3.Cultural evolution in humans is said to involve instinctual
behaviors rather than learned behaviors from mimetic
rivalry.
Chapter 4 | Myth:The Invisibility of
the Founding Murder| Quiz and Test
1.René Girard argues that myths serve as mere
linguistic structures that do not reveal historical
acts of violence.
2.The concept of 'mimetic crisis' in Girard's analysis refers to
the confusion between divine and human leading to
violence against a victim.
3.Girard believes that the representations of violence in
mythology are detached from real societal dynamics and
historic acts of violence.
Chapter 5 | Texts of Persecution| Quiz and Test
1.Modern research has moved from mythological
explanations of violence to a more critical
understanding of persecution in Western society.
2.The visibility of the victimization mechanism in modern
society has led to an increase in myth and ritual
surrounding violence and persecution.
3.The complexity of discovering the victimization
mechanism suggests that societies can achieve awareness
without any initial increase in violence.
Chapter 6 | Things Hidden Since the
Foundation ofthe World| Quiz and Test
1.René Girard argues that the scapegoating
mechanism is foundational to religion and culture,
and widely recognized by society.
2.Girard believes that the biblical myths glorify violence and
victors, rather than promoting moral perspectives against
violence.
3.In his analysis, Girard finds that the prophets in biblical
texts promote ritualistic violence as a way to achieve social
harmony.
Chapter 7 | A Non-Sacrificial Reading
of the Gospel Text| Quiz and Test
1.The Gospels depict Jesus as a sacrificial victim
who fulfills traditional roles of sacrifice.
2.The Gospels emphasize the need for unconditional love and
reconciliation, rejecting violent retribution and sacrifices.
3.Apocalyptic themes in the Gospels attribute violence to
divine mandate rather than human actions.
Chapter 8 | The Sacrificial Reading
andHistorical Christianity| Quiz and Test
1.René Girard argues that sacrificial interpretations
of Jesus' Passion align with the core messages of
the New Testament.
2.Girard believes that traditional sacrificial readings have
positioned Christianity as a persecutory force, particularly
towards Jews.
3.According to Girard, equating Christ's sacrifice with Judaic
sacrifices is a correct interpretation of the significance of
Jesus' death.
Chapter 9 | The Logos of Heraclitus and the Logos
of john| Quiz and Test
1.In chapter 9, Girard suggests that the Johannine
Logos is fundamentally associated with
non-violence and love.
2.Girard believes that Greek philosophy has no impact on the
understanding of the Johannine Logos.
3.According to Girard, love is presented as a true revelatory
force leading to genuine knowledge in the context of the
Johannine Logos.
Chapter 10 | Mimetic Desire| Quiz and Test
1.Human desire is strictly based on instinctual
appetites and does not involve mimetic processes.
2.In modern societies, unchecked mimetic desires do not lead
to increased conflict among individuals.
3.The cyclical nature of desire is compared to gambling,
suggesting that pursuit often leads to failure regardless of
success.
Chapter 11 | Desire without Object| Quiz and Test
1.Mimetism involves a contagion of desire in human
relationships, resulting in a state of reciprocal
violence and rivalry.
2.According to Girard, individuals in psychosis perceive
mimetic relationships as full of differences and distinctions
between desires.
3.Girard argues that the dynamics of desire in society reflect
individual differentiation, often leading to unique
identities.
Chapter 12 | Mimesis and Sexuality| Quiz and Test
1.According to Girard, desire often focuses on
unattainable results due to mimetic rivalry.
2.Masochism should be seen as a straightforward
consequence of the desire for obstacles, without any
complex underlying mimetic processes.
3.Freud's concept of latent homosexuality is viewed by
Girard as recognizing intrinsic homosexual desires.
Chapter 13 | Psychoanalytic Mythology| Quiz and
Test
1.Freud introduced the Oedipus complex to explain
triangular rivalries involving love interests and
rivals.
2.R.G. argues that mimetic desire and the Oedipus complex
are fundamentally compatible.
3.The chapter concludes by rejecting Freud's theories on
desire and asserting their relevance to contemporary
understandings of human behavior.
Chapter 14 | Beyond Scandal| Quiz and Test
1.Proust's early work *Jean Santeuil* reflects a
profound understanding of mimetic desire and
interpersonal relations.
2.According to Girard, scandal plays a significant role in
interdividual psychology, linked to mimetic desire and
temptation.
3.Girard claims that Jesus challenges sacrificial structures by
advocating for rivalry as a form of desire.