15. Conditioning and Learning
Classical Conditioning
• Learning through association. A neutral stimulus becomes linked with a meaningful one
until it produces a learned response.
• Unconditioned Stimulus (US) → naturally produces an Unconditioned Response (UR)
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) → paired with US until it produces a Conditioned Response
(CR)
• Extinction occurs when the CS appears without the US; the CR weakens
Relationship: CS must predict the US. When prediction breaks, the learned response fades.
Blocking
• Previously learned CS prevents learning of a new CS because the outcome is already
expected.
• Shows conditioning requires new or surprising information.
Operant Conditioning
• Learning through consequences (voluntary behavior).
• Reinforcement increases behavior; punishment decreases behavior.
Relationship: Classical conditioning changes involuntary responses; operant changes
voluntary behavior.
Observational Learning
• Learning by watching others; requires attention, memory, reproduction, and motivation.
16. Memory (Encoding, Storage, Retrieval)
Encoding
• Getting information into memory through recoding and adding meaning.
Storage
• Maintaining information over time in both working and long-term memory.
Retrieval
• Accessing stored information; failure occurs due to weak cues or poor encoding.
Relationship: Strong encoding → strong storage → easier retrieval.
Working Memory
• Limited-capacity workspace for holding and manipulating information.
Chunking
• Grouping information into meaningful units to improve retention.
Distributed Practice
• Spacing out study sessions improves long-term memory.
Distinctiveness
• Unique information is more memorable.
Types of Memory
• Episodic (personal experiences), semantic (facts), collective (shared cultural memory)
Flashbulb Memories
• Vivid emotional memories that feel accurate but may contain errors.
17. Eyewitness Testimony & Memory Biases
Misinformation Effect
• Post-event misleading information distorts memory.
False Memories
• Recollections of events that never happened or happened differently.
Eyewitness Testimony
• Influenced by stress, biases, wording, expectations; often inaccurate.
Innocence Project
• Many wrongful convictions result from faulty eyewitness memory.
18. Judgment and Decision Making
System 1 vs System 2
• System 1 is fast; System 2 is slow and analytical.
Relationship: System 1 produces biases; System 2 corrects them.
Anchoring
• Relying heavily on the first piece of information.
Framing
• Decisions change depending on presentation of information.
Overconfidence
• Overestimating knowledge or accuracy.
Bounded Rationality
• Limited time, information, and mental resources restrict perfect decisions.
Biases
• Systematic errors such as confirmation and hindsight biases.
Fixing Decision Making
• Slow down, compare options, use checklists, seek perspectives.
19. Cognitive Development in Childhood
Nature vs Nurture
• Development results from interaction of genetics and environment.
Continuous vs Discontinuous
• Gradual vs stage-based development.
Habituation and Dishabituation
• Habituation reduces response; dishabituation renews it.
Piaget’s Stages
• Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational.
20. Intelligence
g (General Intelligence)
• A single underlying mental ability.
Crystallized vs Fluid Intelligence
• Crystallized is learned knowledge; fluid is problem-solving ability.
IQ Tests & Norms
• Compare individual performance to population data.
Reliable vs Valid
• Reliability = consistency; validity = accuracy.
Standardized
• Same administration for all test-takers.
Stereotype Threat
• Anxiety about confirming stereotypes reduces performance.
Emotional Intelligence
• Understanding and managing emotions.
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
• Proposed separate forms of intelligence.
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
• Analytical, creative, practical intelligence.
Correlates of Intelligence
• Predict academic and job performance.
21. The Healthy Life
Biopsychosocial vs Biomedical Models
• Biopsychosocial includes psychological and social influences; biomedical focuses only on
physical illness.
Behaviors vs Habits
• Behaviors are single actions; habits are repeated and automatic.
Stress and Health
• Chronic stress weakens the body and increases illness risk.
Coping Strategies
• Problem-focused and emotion-focused coping.
Social Support
• Reduces stress and improves resilience.
Adherence
• Following medical advice; influenced by complexity, cost, and support.
Stress Reduction Techniques
• Exercise, mindfulness, relaxation, sleep routines.
Seeking Treatment
• Influenced by trust, symptoms, access, and cultural beliefs.