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An Exploration of Existentialism in Counseling and Therapeutic Approaches
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Existentialism is a philosophical approach to counseling that is derived from an exploration of common
“givens” of human existence in comparison to individual identity and meaning. While this may seem to be a
contradiction, rather, this is just one of the natural tensions and conflicts inherent in life that are at the core of
the Existential approach. Frankl (2006) contends “the tension between what one has already achieved, and what
one still ought to accomplish or the gap between what one is and what one should become” (p. 104) is the basis
for mental health. The search for homeostasis is futile and a misconception of mental hygiene, rather the
struggle towards a worthwhile goal (or tension) is the essence of a “potential meaning waiting to be fulfilled”
(Frankl 2006, p. 105).
In this tension, individuals are challenged to face the four givens of life, regardless of their inherent wish
to avoid these topics, which everyone must experience as part of human existence. These givens include death
and mortality(or existence in a limit-limited state), freedom and responsibility, isolation (or search for
connection), and meaning (or meaninglessness). At any point in one’s life, the individual is constantly being
pulled by these basic tensions of living. While facing these conflicts may seem daunting to many, it is through
this tension that our foundation in our authentic self is solidified in a similar way to how an arch is strengthened
by increasing the load with a capstone to join the parts more firmly together (Frankl 2006, p. 105). It is through
these conflicts, that one can discover their true identity and strive for self-actualization.
History of Existentialism
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While Viktor Frankl is often credited as the father of Existentialism, Existentialism is a philosophical
approach that has existed for centuries. One could argue, with the emphasis on the four givens of life,
existentialist assumptions may have existed for as long as man and the givens of our existence. Simultaneous to
Frankl, Rollo May was establishing the roots of Existentialism in the United States (Schnipke 2023). Prior to
both of these psychotherapists formally recording their existential insights in the psychology and mental health
field, hundreds of writers and philosophers had broached many of these topics.
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Roman stoics as far back as 100 AD, including Seneca, Epictetus and Marcus Aurelis aimed to
acknowledge one’s eminent death as a way to remain focused on the present and find meaning. Kierkegard and
Nietzshe, in the 1800s, notably explored the individual’s relationship with the world, as well as with the
universe, and their relationship to their god (or lack thereof) (Schnipke 2023). Beyond these writers, these
concepts of meaning, mortality, freedom, responsibility, anxiety, aloneness, or search for connection is seen
throughout surviving texts across history including ancient Greecian and Roman theater, The Canterbury Tales,
Beowulf, several Shakespearean plays, and an exponential list of others. The prevalence of these givens
throughout literature, as well as in media today, emphasizes how ingrained these themes are as the core of
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existence. With these penetrating our daily life, a counselor must have a foundational understanding and a
preparedness to explore these topics that will inevitably come up through exploration with their clients.
Authenticity: Choosing to Be Oneself
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Kierkegaard proposed that becoming a human is an ongoing project throughout one’s life. Our task is
not necessarily to discover who we are but to continually create ourselves (Corey 2023). Nietzche adds the
importance of individuality, positing that if we allow ourselves to participate in herd morality, as sheep, we can
be nothing but mediocrities. Conversely by allowing ourselves to be authentically our individual self, as is our
human right, we release ourselves from societal constraints and allow for creativity and originality (Corey
20223). In addition to the benefit of authenticity, Nietzche’s claim that individuality is the only way to
creativity, one can infer that even in collectivistic societies, a level of authenticity is necessary as creativity
leads to innovation that furthers the advancement of society.
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A challenge to authenticity lies in our inherent fear of aloneness. Individuals strive for connection to
reject the reality of aloneness as a part of life. In searching for connection, we seek answers, approval, and
direction from the important people in our world. “Rather than trusting ourselves to search within and find our
own answers to the conflicts in our life, we sell out by becoming what others expect of us. Our being becomes
rooted in their expectations and we become strangers to ourselves” (Corey 2023).
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Simultaneous to discovering our authentic self, one must question our behaviors and actions, which one
theoretically chooses in accordance with one’s values. A pivotal element of the Existential approach to
counseling is evaluating one’s personally held value system. Since we often assimilate our worldview to those
around us, we must question if our value system is truly ours. If it is not, is the value system we are currently
living by truly consistent with our intended way of living and the goals and meanings we wish to live by?
Without creating an internally derived, personal value system, one does not have the foundation or clear
direction to pursue a meaningful life (Corey 2023). However, what provides meaning one day may not provide
meaning the next and what has been meaningful to a person throughout their life may be meaningless on their
deathbed (Corey 2023). Thus, one’s identity should not be viewed as a fixed goal–something to successfully
discover before moving on to another project, rather, one’s identity is continually evolving as we continuously
recreate ourselves in a constant state of transition (Corey 2023). To truly live an authentic life, one must
continually question themselves, others and the world to respond to the ever-present choices laid before us,
limited as they may seem.
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As an author of one’s own life, we have the opportunity to create our own destiny–if we choose to see
the options available to us. While an undeniable aspect of human existence is freedom, we may not be free from
the conditions which we are born into, those imposed on us by society or other realities of life. Existentialism
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“embraces three values: (1) the freedom to become within the context of natural and self-imposed limitations;
(2) the capacity to reflect on the meaning of our choices; and (3) the capacity to act on the choices we make”
(Corey 2023). Often, individuals will state that there are no options available to them. On the contrary, there is
always a choice. Not acting on the choices available is a choice and a denial of one’s responsibility to their
freedom. Therefore, it is a central task of the Existential counseling approaches to help the client recognize the
choices that are available to them despite circumstance and how, without seeing choice, they are allowing others
to make decisions in their stead. By seeing choices available to them, clients are encouraged to recognize the
price they have paid by accepting the impositions of others by denying the existence of their freedom to choose
and instead create new patterns to live by to discover and pursue a more authentic and fulfilling life (Corey
2023). In one’s choices, however, one must still acknowledge their responsibility and own that there are no
guaranteed outcomes of their choices. ​
A Time-Bound Tension
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Perhaps the most important tension in human existence is time. Death is imperative. Thus, each person
has a ticking clock counting down the time available to them. In this unspecified count-down, each choice has
greater meaning. By confronting the reality of death, or a time-bound reality on any situation or life-stage, one
can experience a revitalized encouragement to see the choices available to them and a stronger drive to act on
their own accord. By evaluating our anxieties around death, we can find a deeper understanding of if we are
living authentically. Frankl (2006, p.109) offers the advise, “Live as if you were living already for the second
time and as if you had acted the first time as wrongly as you are about to act now” as an invitation to imagine
your life as if you are on your deathbed, reflecting on your present moment. From your deathbed, what will you
think of your life? What choices might you blame yourself for not seeing and how can you change this vision by
acting in the present? Confronting a client with questions such as these will encourage them to face life’s
finiteness and finality. By making the client more fully aware of their responsibilities to themselves in their
finiteness, they can confront their freedom to choose “for what, to what, or to whom he understands himself to
be responsible” (Frankl 110).
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Through this same lens, Existential practitioners view time as multidimensional. While the emphasis on
choice is focused on the here and now, with the idea that, as humans, we are here, now, and we must determine
what to do with this life in the present, the past and future are both constantly influencing the present
(Heidenreich 2021). One’s past is unique to oneself and their unique experiences are what create the
foundations for their values and beliefs as they exist in the present. Similarly, the future that you are envisioning
provides direction for your goals. Your values (past) and goals (future) are two largely significant factors in
determining the choices one will choose to make. Thus, while focusing on how to act on the options available to
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you in the present, one must consider the context of both their future and their past, which is always present
(Heidenreich 2021).
A Holistic, Contextual Lens
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To expand on time as a multidimensional entity, much is one’s identity. While it is vital to find one’s
authentic self, there is a tension in that one is both inherently alone in their life (there is no one else who was
born at the same time, will die at the same time, and live the same experiences as oneself), one does not exist in
isolation from external influences. “A core characteristic of the existential view is that an individual is a ‘being
in the world’ who has biological, social, and psychological needs. Being in the world involves the physical
world, the world of relationships with others, and one's own relationship to self” (Center for Substance Abuse
Treatments 1999). It is up to the individual “to decide whether he should interpret his life task as being
responsible to society or his own conscience” (Frankl 2006, p. 110). There is a fundamental relational and inter
relational nature of human existence–we are always in the world as well as with others (Heidenreich 2021).
Frankl offers the analogy that a painter will depict a picture of the world as the painter sees it, an
ophthalmologist enables us to see the world as it is, but from an existential perspective, we are able to widen
and broaden the visual field to see the whole spectrum (Frankl 2006, p. 110).
Finding Meaning, Even in Suffering
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A basic premise of Existentialism is that life has unconditional meaning under all circumstances. How
one finds and interprets that meaning is a unique journey. The value and meaning of each individual is found
through one’s own internalized values that were realized in their past. Their meaning is not contingent on
usefulness or other factors. “Today’s society is characterized by achievement orientation and consequently it
adores people who are successful and happy and… young” (Frankl 2006, p. 151). Through this lens of society,
it can make it difficult to believe the meaning and value of individuals with other features. However, if one does
not realize the flaw in this limited view of meaning and value, then “one owes it only to personal inconsistency
not to plea for euthenasia along the lines of Hitler’s program, that is to say, ‘mercy’ killing of all those who have
lost their social usefulness” (Frankl 2006, p. 152). Instead, meaning is created out of one’s engagement with
what they value. By committing to what one values, the purpose that makes one’s life worthwhile can be found
(Corey 2023).
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As was discussed with the concept of choice, as humans, we are constantly reinventing ourselves. What
may have meaning today, may not have meaning tomorrow or on one’s deathbed. As such, the final meaning of
one’s life may not reveal itself until the edge of death, if at all. Yet, the final meaning of life is dependent on the
meanings of all of the single situations one has faced in their life–much as one must interpret the meanings of
individual scenes of a movie, before comprehending the meaning of the movie as a whole (Frankl 2006, p.
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143-144). To strive for self-actualization, or this ultimate meaning, is not an attainable aim. “The more [one]
would strive for it, the more [one] would miss it” (Frankl 2006, p. 111). However, as part of being human, one’s
existence is always pointing or directing to something or someone other than oneself–be it a meaning to fulfill
or another human being to encounter. The more one dedicates himself to this cause, the more human one
becomes themself, or approaches self-actualization.
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Even in suffering, one can find meaning. Frankl (2006, p.113) offers a case study of a widower who
presents with dissatisfaction at life following the death of his wife. Upon hearing the man’s story and his
ongoing suffering, Frankl questions “What would have happened if you had died first and your wife had
survived you?” The man replies, “For her this would have been terrible! How she would have suffered!” Frankl
then asserts an alternative meaning to the man's suffering: His survival to mourn her has spared her this
suffering and it is his suffering that accomplished this mercy for her. The man said no words, but collected
himself, calmly shook Frankl’s hand in thanks, and left his office, presumably freed from his suffering. This
case illustrates that, for some, “suffering ceases to be suffering at the moment it finds a meaning of a sacrifice”
Frankl (2006, p. 113). While one cannot typically undo the event that led to one’s suffering, the attitude towards
the suffering, or the understanding of one’s meaning within that suffering, can be explored and changed.
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This sense of meaning despite suffering holds true through Frankl’s own experience of suffering.
Throughout Man’s Search for Meaning (Frankl 2006), Frankl recounts the horrors he faced in the concentration
camps during World War II–being separated from his family -who ultimately perished, malnutrition, starvation,
psychological and physical abuse, disease, excessive work and injury, deprivation of nearly every human right
and possible comfort. Yet, several times, Frankl mentions his luck and good fortune on various occasions
throughout this time, such as momentary, small acts of kindness from empathetic capos by serving him the soup
from the bottom of the pot, rich with meat and vegetables rather than skimming the broth from the top. He does
not pity himself often in this text, nor does he reflect on his misfortune of being sent to the camps but sees it as
a circumstance of his life. Despite the atrocities he witnessed and experienced, he found meaning in this portion
of his life, and the lives of the others he had met in the camps, many of whom perished. Frankl credits his
survival to his drive to meaning in recreating and publishing his manuscript.
Existentialism in Counseling and Therapeutic Approaches
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With the assertion that each individual ultimately is alone, or unique, in that they are the only one who
will live their exact life, how can a practitioner expect to predict the behavior of man? One can predict the
movements of a machine, or even attempt to predict the dynamisms of the human psyche, but man is ultimately
self-determining. Rather than trying to interpret the human mind merely as a mechanism, treatable merely in
terms of technique, a humanized psychiatry must be explored (Frankl 2006, p. 132-133). From an existential -
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humanistic approach, there are as many types of psychotherapy as there are psychotherapists, with each
individual practitioner developing their own style and particular emphasis in response to their particular clients
(Schnipke 2023). Other theories and approaches to counseling and psychotherapy are limited in their
assumptions that individuals can be understood with one set of “rules” or “fixed” with one set of techniques.
Existentialists contend that what man becomes, within the limits and endowments of his environment, he
constructed himself. Frankl (2006) describes the various reactions he witnessed in the prisoners of Auschwitz as
clear distinctions against the assumptions of other psychotherapists, such as Freud. Freud had ascertained that
regardless of the diversity of a group of people, if faced uniformly with hunger, their differences would blur,
leaving only the universal urges. Frankl reminds the reader, however, that if this proposition were true, the
camps would have looked much differently than he experienced. Instead, Frankl recalls that people unmasked
themselves, highlighting their differences even more - both the swine and the saints (Frankl 2006, 154). Frankl
strengthens his assertions by expecting the dispute of his account and experience as exceptions to the rule, to
which he responds “Sed omnia praeclara tam difficilia quam rara sunt (but everything great is just as difficult
to realize as it is rare to find)” (Frankl 2006, p. 154).
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Given the support for authenticity and individuality, Existentialism avoids being directive in therapeutic
approaches or techniques. “Many existential therapists…point blank refuse to operationalize or even describe
their way of conducting therapy, insisting instead that such things cannot be manualized or even described as
each therapeutic encounter is unique” (Heidenreich 2021). Many contend that Existentialism is a philosophy
rather than a school of psychotherapy. Yalom regards Existentialism as an “an attitude and a stance that can be
integrated with a wide range of therapeutic approaches” (Heidenreich 2021).
Common Elements and Approaches of Existential Practitioners
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With this common view of Existentialism as a distinct approach to psychotherapy, it is difficult to
describe unique approaches, however many practitioners, researchers, and writers are in agreement of certain
foundational approaches and attributes to Existentialism in counseling and other therapeutic approaches.
Primarily, these include the experience, roles and relationships within a therapeutic setting and goals of a
therapeutic encounter.
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In addition to operating in accordance with the key aspects listed previously, within a therapeutic
alliance, the counselor and client are seen as “fellow travelers”. The counselor approaches the session in an
egalitarian relationship, offering a dialogic conversation, while exhibiting authentic empathy, encouragement,
reflective listening, acceptance of the client’s subjective experience and recognition of the subjective nature of
the human experience (Center for Substance Abuse Treatments 1999). A key element to a successful therapeutic
relationship is the practitioner’s “existential attitude and willingness to engage the client in a direct and deeply
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human manner in a collaborative exploration of the dilemmas of living in contrast to an expert led attempt to
cure, educate or change the client” (Heidenreich 2021). Yalom approaches his clients with a sense of
wonderment, excited to hear the unique stories they reveal and discover the unique therapeutic approach that
may be most effective for their individual experience and presenting problems (Corey 2023, p. 161).
Existentially oriented sessions also work towards similar goals: to help the client become more aware of
themself in their circumstances, increase clients’ responsibility and ability to choose, to promote self-esteem,
and, ultimately to assist the client to determine their meaning in life. The primary challenge of Existential
practitioners is to “help the client make personal decisions about how to live, driving on creativity and love,
instead of letting outside events determine their behavior” (Center for Substance Abuse Treatments 1999). It is a
“steadfast and loyal endeavor to reflect on the everyday human reality in order to make sense of it”
(Heidenreich 2021).
Through emerging awareness, the client may discover that they are trading their independence for their
anxiety, realize that their identity had been anchored in another’s definition of them, see that they are keeping
themselves prisoner by living by a past decision that no longer serves them, learn that they are not condemned
to a future similar to their past, or realize that they are failing to live in the present moment due to a
preoccupation with the past, their future, or an attempt to do too many things at once. Through these
understandings, the client is able to choose themselves and accept that despite their limitations, they are still
worthwhile (Corey 2023, p. 168). An exciting, yet challenging, aspect of human nature is that we are constantly
a work in progress. Our task is not to discover ourselves but to continually create ourselves (Corey 2023).
Theories Associated with Existentialism
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Being that Existentialists largely refrain from operationalizing their approach to counseling and
psychotherapy, it is difficult to find techniques specific to existentialism. However, the Existential approach to
counseling and psychotherapy is typically associated most closely with Logotherapy and Phenomenology.
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Logotherapy, as established by Frankl, is designed to help clients find a meaning in life. Meaning, or
meaninglessness, as a universal given of human existence, often is an underlying problem that leads individuals
to seek counseling or therapy. Meaning, however, is an illusive and on-going struggle throughout life. Within
Logotherapy, Frankl (2006, p. 123-124) discusses the technique paradoxical intention, or the idea that overly
focusing on what you seek ultimately makes it unattainable. By reversing one’s attitude, by replacing a fear with
a paradoxical wish, the anxiety is deflated. In a case study, Frankl describes a woman who was experiencing
sexual neurosis. The more she tried to experience orgasm, the less she was able to succeed. Pleasure, as well as
many other feelings or goals, must remain a side-effect or by-product, otherwise it is spoiled. The anticipatory
anxiety for the client to confirm her femininity was enough to prevent the patient from experiencing peak
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pleasure, since the orgasm itself had been made the object of intention, or the goal. By redirecting her intention
toward her partner, the orgasm established itself spontaneously.
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Phenomenology is also frequently discussed as an Existential approach. Phenomenology focuses on
experiencing the session, or life, as a phenomenon rather than expectations or “the exploration and clarification
of what reveals itself in the way it reveals itself” (Heidenreich 2021). This lens asserts that events and
understandings are open to interpretation. Phenomena are understood in terms of their appearances, rather than
what they may or may not really be through the client’s first-person perspective. This is completed in three
overlapping and interdependent phrases of phenomenological investigation: (1) phenomenological reduction,
where the counseling identifies and sets aside preconceptions and bias sin order to be with what arises in
awareness as it is presented, (2) the rule of description, where the client is encouraged to describe rather than
exemplar with descriptive clarification rather than hypotheses, (3) rule of horizontalization where the therapist
avoids placing any potentially biased hierarchies of significance on the experiences or description obtained in
the other steps (Heidenreich 2021).
Integrative Approaches with Existential Founding
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Frankl, largely credited as the father of the Existential Approach, believed in passing the torch of his
ideas and approaches to “independent and inventive, innovative and creative spirits [rather than] raising parrots
that just rehash ‘their master’s voice’” (Frankl 2006, p. 153). As such, Existentialism lends itself strongly
toward integration with other theories and approaches. Many of the key concepts are clearly illustrated in
approaches such as Gestalt Therapy, Person-Centered Therapy, Choice Theory/ Reality Therapy, Feminist
Therapy, Narrative Therapy, Positive Psychology and several others. Existential qualities can even be seen in
the serenity prayer from many twelve step programs, “accept the things that cannot be changed, the courage to
change what can be changed and the wisdom to know the difference” (Center for Substance Abuse Treatments
1999).
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Beyond these, Existential can be considered as an integrative foundation for nearly any approach to
therapy as it addresses the givens in life (death, meaning, aloneness, choice), which will inevitably arise as
concerns for every client at some point in their lives. Even Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT) which is often
seen as directly opposing many Existential views, can benefit from these integrative notions. For example,
phobias, panic disorders and obsessive compulsive disorders(OCD) are often, ultimately, related to death
anxiety. Phobias are not purely a fear of heights or spiders, OCD is not purely a fear of germs or not completing
a behavior, but of the impending risk of death due to these encounters. By making the idea of death less taboo,
the counselor may be able to lessen the symptoms or presenting problems (Heidenreich 2021).
A Personal Reflection
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Many people view Existentialism and a dark and pessimistic view on life. On the contrary, I find
Existentialism liberating and inspiring. Death tends to be taboo. We hear that Existentialists talk about death
being a given of life, and immediately people begin to shy away out of disinterest and anxiety of examining
their mortality. However, it isn’t specifically death that Existentialists are examining, but the time-bound nature
of life. We, as humans, only have so long to live and we never know when our last day will be, we don’t know
how much time we have. With this limited time, what can I do today, right now, to ensure that I have lived a
meaningful life? If I were told this was my last day on Earth, what would I wish I had changed? Hopefully, it
isn’t actually my last day, but I can use this introspection to enact these changes now so I do not have those
regrets on my literal deathbed.
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Finding meaning is the key to the optimistic side of Existentialism in my opinion. Yes, death exists. The
reality is that many individuals will not have the opportunity to live a full life. People die from cancer, or gun
violence, or car accidents daily well before their age would make us expect them to leave us. Even when their
age may indicate their near passing, it rarely feels like enough time. By finding meaning, both in your life and
the lives of others, those left behind can honor their life by believing in, and continuing, their meaning in their
absence. A child who dies from an accident, a college student who dies from cancer, a mother who does not
survive childbirth, a grandfather who lived to 99–each of these individual lives has a meaning. At minimum,
they become statistics which may encourage research or systemic changes to prevent the misery of others after
them.
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The horrors of World War II, as described by Frankl’s experiences in the concentration camps, are
atrocious, but we must continue to speak of these atrocities to honor the legacy of the millions of individuals
who were victims of genocide by the Nazi party. While continuing to spread these stories is in no way an
adequate reparation, we can hope that their stories and their death can find some meaning in educating the
world of the risks of prejudices and other injustices in an effort to prevent similar events in the future.
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If meaning and introspection were not an inherent aspect of life, we would be no different than animals.
To limit the understanding of human life by not including meaning, purpose, choice, and morality, you would
negate the truth of concentration camps. When faced with seemingly imminent death within hours or days, in
other schools of thought, one would expect to see only conflict, uprising, theft, and other self-preserving
behaviors to avoid death as long as possible. Instead, the accounts of Frankl and others who lived through these
experiences, share stories of humanity–giving your friend your last crumb of bread, protecting your friend even
at the risk of detriment to yourself, or walking into the gas chambers willingly with a prayer on their lips.
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In my agreement to these concepts, I have been exploring what led me to view this approach as
optimistic in contraction to how many see this as dark and pessimistic. I have begun to see how Existential
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views are extremely present in various forms of storytelling. As an avid reader, and a lover of theater and film,
it has become clear to me that the time-bound element of death mimics the time-bound element of a story. In
literature, theater, and media, the time limit of the story is what encourages plot, or forces the characters to
make choices, take action and find meaning. Stories imitate life. Having lived so much of my life with my nose
in a book or analyzing scripts to design sets that were painted with symbolism to more clearly illustrate meaning
to the audience, I am actually surprised that it took me this long to make this connection. The more I open my
eyes to this connection, the more I see the Existential views even in mainstream media including Lord of the
Rings, Pirates of the Caribbean, Harry Potter, The Hunger Games, and The Truman Show to name a few. Even
Disney’s The Lion King’s “Hakuna Matata” emphasizes living in the now despite what happened in your past or
your unknown future.
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With how undeniable the givens of life are for every individual, even in varying amounts, I very much
see myself using Existentialism in my approach to counseling. With the limited specific techniques, I see this as
an opportunity to design a personally integrative approach which is fitting for me. I live by the phrase “a jack of
all trades is a master of none, though often much better than a master of one”. By this, I mean that I expect
myself to learn many techniques and theories of counseling. I understand the balance of not becoming overly
eclectic but finding a firm foundation to systematically be consistent, but I also see the imperative importance of
being able to respond to the vast variety of individuals with no two people having the same experience, meaning
that they will not have the same therapeutic journey. Even when two cases may seem very similar with client
demographics and presenting problems, there is an infinite number of possible, even probable, differences. I
intend to follow Yalom’s belief of approaching each client with a sense of wonderment, excited to hear the
unique stories they reveal and discover the unique therapeutic approach that may be most effective for their
individual experience to work collaboratively for their unique circumstances (Corey 2023, p. 161).