Chapter 2 Empiricism: is an approach to discover and know the world based on trusting our senses and observing the world by seeing Dogmatism: clinging to our elders’ belief Scientific Method: procedure for using empirical evidence to establish facts Theory: explanation of a natural phenomenon Hypothesis Falsifiable prediction Basic Questions in Psychology: Observation (what do people do?), method of explanation (why do they do it?) Challenges in Psychology’s method: people are extremely complex, people are extremely variable, people are extremely reactive Operational definition: description of property in measurable terms Construct validity: extent to which the thing being measured adequately characterizes the property Detector: design an instrument that has reliability and power Reliability: tendency for a measure to produce the same measurement whenever it is used to measure the same thing Power: ability of a measure to detect conditions specified in the operational definition Demand characteristics: aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think someone else wants or expects Naturalistic Observation: observe without their knowledge Double blind studies: neither experimenter nor participant know Observer bias: expectations influence both observation and reality Ways to reduce demand characteristic: privacy, unawareness, no control Privacy: people tend to be more honest when they know their responses are not associated with them Control: observe involuntary behaviours Unawareness: don’t disclose expectations Population: Sampling WEIRD countries Representative sample Frequency distribution: graphic representation showing the number of times in which the measurement of a property takes on each of its possible values Normal distribution: mathematically defined frequency distribution in which most measurements are concentrated around the middle Central tendency: middle Mean: avg Mode: most common Median: middle Skewed distribution Variability: extent measurement differ Range: max – min Standard distribution: statistic that describes the avg difference between measurements in frequency distribution and the mean of that distribution Correlation: relationship between variables in which variations in the value of one variable are synchronized with variations in value of the other Positive correlation: more is more relationship Negative correlation: more is less relationship Correlation Coefficient: measure of the direction and strength of correlation (r) Causation: Natural correlation Relation between Correlation vs. Causation Third-variable problem Experimentation Manipulation Random Assignment: we don’t ask them what group they want to be in Self-selection: individuals pick group Experimental Group: receives treatment Control Group: N/a Independent Variable: variable that we manipulate Dependent Variable: variable measured at the end Case method Between-subject Design: each group in the experiment is composed of a different set of participants Within-subject design: (repeated measures) each participant is exposed to all the conditions of an independent variable Repeated measure Statistical significance: p< 0.05 p-value: odds that random assignment has failed Critical thinning: involves asking ourselves tough question Whole truth? Unbiased? Enemies to Critical thinking: our tendency to see what we want or expect to see, tendency to ignore what we can’t see Validity of research: how well an experimental procedure actually tests what it is designed to test Internal validity: Degree to which an experiment supports clear causal conclusions) External validity: will the results GENERALIZE OUTSIDE OF your experimental context. Confounding Factor: anything that is different between the two groups (in an experiment) OTHER THAN the independent variable. Replication: Repeat an experiment Replication Crisis: 1/3 are significantly significant, go until it is Type I error/False alarm: conclude relationship, but none Type II error/Missed detection: conclude no relationship, but there is The core principal of ethics in human research: goal doesn’t justify means, means used is more important First, research should show respect for persons and their right to make decisions for and about themselves without undue influence or coercion. o Second, research should show concern for welfare which means that it should attempt to maximize benefits and reduce risks to the participant. o Third, research should be just, which means that it should distribute benefits and risks equally to participants without prejudice towards particular individuals or groups. Informed consent Deception Risk-benefit analysis Debriefing Freedom from coercion Confidentiality 3 R’s in animal research (Replacement: use of animal is justified , Reduction: smallest number , Refinement: minimize pain Honor system in science: -no authority is charged with monitory what psychologists do with data collected -no authority is charged to see if the claims they make are true Honorable attitude: -Results are reported truthfully on what was done and what was found -credit is ethically assigned -data is shared Chapter 9 Language: system for communicating with others using signals that are combined according to rules of grammar and convey meaning Grammar: set of rules that specify how the units of language can be combined to produce meaningful messages Syntax: literal order of words Syntactical rule: how wors can be combined to form phrases and sentences Symbols Semantics: meaning Generativity (Generative System) Unique aspect of Human language: complex structure, intangible objects, talk to ourselves Surface structure: syntax Deep structure: meaning Phoneme: smallest units of language Phonological rule: indicate how phonemes can be combined to form words Morpheme: smallest meaningful units of language Morphological rule: morphemes can be combined to form words Bottom-up processing: building up from sensory signals to a concept Overgeneralization: Lose the ability to distinguish contrasting sounds by 6 months; from 4-6 months they babble: similar order of learning in various languages Pragmatic: The social context of language, language occurs in a social context and pragmatic knowledge helps understand what other people are really saying and make sure that other people get the point of what you are communicating; form of top-down processing Top-down processing: having a concept/ expectation at the beginning and imposing it on incoming sensory signals Behaviorist Explanation: through reinforcement, shaping, extinction and other basic principles of operant conditioning we learn language BF Skinner: behaviorism Nativist Explanations: holds that language development is best explained as an innate, biological capacity Noam Chomsky Universal grammar: a collection of processes that facilitate language learning -Language ability is partly separate from general intelligence -Language acquisition is possible during a restricted period of development; harder following puberty Interactionist Explanations: holds that although infants are born with an innate ability to acquire language, social interactions play a crucial role in language Telegraphic speech: Telegraphic speech is a concise message characterized by the use of three-word short phrases or sentences made up of main content words such as nouns and verbs and void of function words and grammatical morphemes such as articles Function words: function morphemes Language development theories General cognitive development: orderly progression that results from general cognitive development (One word then two word: progression of short term mem) Experience with a specific language: orderly progression is dependent on experience with a specific language, reflecting a child’s knowledge of that language Language Laterality Right cerebral hemisphere in language: has som capacity for processing VERBAL MEANING -through neuroimaging studies; the right hemisphere is shown to be activated during LANGUAGE TASKS -Damage to right hemisphere has led to SUBTLE LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION PROBLEMS -Some children have recovered language abilities with left hemisphere removal Broca’s Aphasia: understand language well, but have increasing comprehension difficulty as grammatical structure gets more complex; lack speech production and function morphemes Broca’s area: left frontal cortex, involved in the production of the sequential patterns in vocal and sign language Wernicke’s area: left temporal cortex, involved in language comprehension Wernicke’s Aphasia: produce grammatical speech, but have difficulty with comprehending language Bilingualism: No benefit nor negative, equal to. Later onset of Alzheimer’s Limitation of teaching human language to non-human: -Limited vocabularies -Limited Conceptual Repertoire: I.e. difficulty understanding the INTANGIBLES -Limited Understanding of Grammar: complexity of grammar, rarely exceed 3-4 words. Lack ease and speed to generate and comprehend language Occipital lobe has been shown to be related to language for the blind Developmental specialization hypothesis: states that being blind from birth alters the typical development of brain specialization -there is a sensitive period in brain development during which visual cortex can be most effectively co-opted to perform language functions Linguistic relativity hypothesis: idea that language shapes the nature of thought ASK Concepts: mental representation that groups or categorizes shared features of related objects, events, or other stimuli How to Categorize with rules= Necessary condition: must be true of the object to belong Sufficient condition: if it is true of the object, it simply proves that it belongs to the category Theories on how individuals prefer to categorize Prototypes theory: concept that we classify new objects by comparing them to “best” member of category -right visual field (left hemisphere receive input first) -visual cortex – holistic activity responsible for image processing Exemplar theory: holds that we make category judgements by comparing a new instance with stored memories of other instances of the category -left visual field (right hemisphere receives input first) -prefrontal cortex -analysis and decision making Category-specific deficit: neurological syndrome characterized by an inability to recognize objects that belong to a particular category Category-specific brain organization: Rational choice theory: classical view that decisions are made by determining how likely something is to happen, judging the value of the outcome, and then “multiplying” by two Judging frequencies and probabilities: individuals are good at estimating the frequency of an event, but poor at tasks that require thinking in terms of probabilities Algorithms: well-defined sequence of procedures or rules that guarantees a solution to a problem Heuristics: fast and efficient strategy that may facilitate decision making but does not guarantee that a solution will be reached Availability heuristic: items more readily available in memory are judged as having occurred more frequently Representativeness heuristic: mental shortcut that involves making a probability judgement by comparing an object or event with a prototype of the object or event Conjunction fallacy: people think that two events are more likely to occur together than either as a single event Framing Effect: people give different answers to the same problem depending on how the problem is framed Sunk-cost fallacy: people make decisions about a current situation based on what they have previously invested in the situation Optimism bias: people believe that, compared with other individuals, they are more likely to experience positive events and less likely to experience negative events in the future Optimism bias and culture: earlier research findings suggest that optimism bias is greater in North Americans than in individuals from Eastern Cultures. Different cultures show differing levels of optimise bias; may be a clue to understanding its origins Prospect theory: idea that investors place more weight on perceived gains than perceived losses Loss aversion: GUARANTEE WIN Risk taking: more willing to take risks to avoid losses then achieve gains Assumptions of Prospect theory: certainty effect, reference point, more willing to take risks to avoid losses then achieve gains 1)simplify available info – focus on one thing 2)people choose the prospect they believe offers the best value Certainty Effect: Some problem solving involves brilliant flashes of insight and creative solutions that have never before been tried. It relies on restructuring a problem so that it turns into a problem you already know how to solve. Insightful solutions are rarely incremental. Reference dependence: same outcome different attitude Decision making and the brain Means-ends analysis: process of searching for the means or steps to reduce the differences between the current situation and desired goal -Analyze Goal state - Analyze the current state -List the difference - Reduce differences by: direct means, subgoals, or finding a similar problem having a known solution Ill-defined problems: doesn’t have a clear goal nor well defined path to solution Well-defined problems: one with a clearly specified goals and clearly defined solution path Analogical problem solving solving a problem by finding a similar problem with a known solution and applying that solution to the current problem Creativity and Insight: Some problem solving involves brilliant flashes of insight and creative solutions that have never before been tried. It relies on restructuring a problem so that it turns into a problem you already know how to solve. Insightful solutions are rarely incremental. -RIGHT TEMPORAL LOBE Functional fixedness: tendency to perceive the functions of objects as unchanging Reasoning: CONCLUSION Logic: tool for evaluating reason Belief bias: judgements about whether to accept conclusions on how believable conclusions are whether the arguments are logically valid Syllogistic reasoning: determining whether a conclusion follows from two statements that are assumed true: deductive reasoning Belief-laden reasoning: syllogosms could be impaired by pre-existing knowledge and beliefs -temporal lobe Belief-neutral reasoning: containing obsure terms with meaning unknown Parietal lobe Illusory truth effect: repeated exposure to a statement increase the likelihood that people will judge the statement to be true Illusion of explanatory depth: individuals overestimate the depth of their reasoning Belief Bias explain and example: all the birds fly; bats fly – bats are bird Syllogostic reasoning Belief Laden: previous beliefs have influence when syllogistic reasoning/ logic Neutral: no contradiction Representative Heuristic explain and example: decide or judge quickly based on information given Language Laterality: language is left hemisphere dominant Weird countries: western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic Category specific deficit brain organization: shown that we have category specific organization in brain, id structure is damged in certain part
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