FINGERPRINTS
Sir Francis Galton. A British Anthropologist, a
scientist, and cousin to Charles Darwin, who divided
the types of Fingerprint into arches, loops, and
whorls known as ALW. He also stated that if there is
possibility for two prints to be the same it is: 1:
64,000,000 000. He publishes the first book on
fingerprints. In his book, Galton identifies the
individuality and uniqueness of fingerprints. The
unique characteristics of fingerprints, as identified by
Galton, will officially become known as minutiae;
however they are sometimes still referred to as
"Galton's Details"
Is an impression design by the end joint of
the fingers and thumb on smooth surface through the
media of ink, sweat or any substance capable of
producing visibility
Three types of Phalanges or finger bones
1. Distal phalanges- fingertips (Terminal)
2. Medial (middle) phalanges – intermediate in
location (expect for thumb and toe)
3. Proximal phalanges - closest to the hand
Carpal bones - located on the wrist area. A set of 8
irregularly shape bones
J. C. Mayer (1788) He stated in his book
(Anatomiche Kuphertafeln Nebst dazu Gehorigen)
that "Although the arrangement of the skin ridges is
never duplicated in two persons, nevertheless, the
similarities are closer among some individuals.
Metacarpals - 5 each one related to each finger
2. Constancy or permanency
Palmar side - front of the hand pertaining or
corresponding to the palm of the hand
That the friction ridge once fully developed its
arrangement will remain the same throughout man's
life."
There are 56 phalanges in the human body, fourteen
on each hand and toe.
Dorsal - back of the hand
Herman Welcker.
Plantar - pertaining to the sole of the feet
He took the prints of his own palms and after fortyone years he printed the same palms to prove that
prints do not change, except for some scratches due
to old age.
Ball zone - is a large cushion below the base of the
big toe. This corresponds to the thenar zone in palm
prints
Thenar zone - is a large cushion at the base of the
thumb Hypothenar Zone - embraces the large
cushion below the base of the little finger.
3. Infallibility
That fingerprint is a positive and reliable means of
identification. It cannot easily be forged.
Carpal delta zone - is an area about the center of the
palm, down near the wrist.
Fingerprints offer an infallible means of personal
identification. The contemporary method of
identification which is the DNA or deoxyribonucleic
acid which is the marvelous protein substance which
controls the form and function of the cells and tissues
of particular individual so that they harmonized with
his heredity pattern is less credible and hence, no
match to the infallibility of fingerprints. In DNA, it
was proven that identical twins have the same DNA
but different fingerprints: This infallibility of
fingerprints brought about the downfall of the
Bertillon system of Alphonse Bertillon which
generally accepted for thirty years but never
recovered from the vents in 1903 due to West case.
When William West visited Leavenworth, Kansas, he
denied previous imprisonment there. But the record
clerk ran the Bertillon instruments located on the file
of Will West whose measurements were practically
identical and whose photographs appeared to be the
same. Will West was already in penitentiary serving a
Calcar zone - the area at the heel.
Tibial zone - is one is the area on the big toe of the
foot. It derives from tibia bone of the lower leg which
corresponds to the radius bone of the forearm
THREE DOGMATIC PRINCIPLES OF FINGERPRINT
Fingerprints - are governed by three dogmatic
principles which are recognized judicially by courts
all over the world. These principles are based on
facts.
Dogmatic utterances
refers to the positive in manner of
1. Individuality
No two persons have the same fingerprint (based on
Statistic Probability)
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life sentence. When fingerprints of the two were
taken and compared, they showed up no
resemblance or found to be different. The fallibility of
the three systems of personal identification,
photographs, Bertillon system, and names was
demonstrated in West case. The incident called the
reliability of Bertillon measurements into question,
and it was decided that a more positive means of
identification was necessary. The value of
fingerprints as a means of detecting that fallibility
was established
found along the edges of individual fingerprint
ridges.
These characteristics are the result of the
alignment and shape of the individual ridge units and
the relationship between them, as well as the effects
of pores that are close to the edge of the ridges.
The method was pioneered by Salil Chatterjee
in 1962, who created it while researching the
possibility of a new criminal identification method.
SCIENTIFIC
METHODS
IDENTIFICATION
Related Sciences to the Study of Fingerprint:
1. Chiroscopy
OF
PERSONAL
1. Portrait Parle (Personal description) "speaking
likeness". Is a verbal, accurate and picturesque
description of the person identified.
Derived from the Greek words:
Cheir - means a hand; and
2. Photography. Photography was first applied as a
means of personal identification in police works.
Skopien - means to examine
Is the science which deals with the study of
the prints of the palms of the hand."
3. Anthropometry (Bertillon System) Alphonse
Bertillon, a French criminologist, devise a scheme
utilizing measurement of the human body as basis of
identification. It was considered as the first scientific
method of personal identification
Sir William Herschel (British Administrator
in District of Bengal in India) He printed the palms of
the natives in order to avoid impersonation among
laborer. Prints of the entire palms were used instead
of signature. Rajyadhar Konai was the first person
Herschel printed the palm (He requires fingerprint
and signatures on civil contracts?)
Basis of the Bertillon's method of identification
a. Human skeleton does not change after 20
years.
b. It is impossible for two human beings to
have bones alike.
2. Podoscopy. Derived from the Greek words:
Podo-means the foot, and
c. Measurement easily taken with the aid of a
simple instrument.
Skopien - to examine. Is the science which
deals with the study of the footprints.
4. Fingerprint Identification.
3. Poroscopy
5. Handwriting Identification.
Derived from the Greek words:
6. Teeth (Odontology). The most convenient way of
identifying a person by means of the teeth is the use
of a dental diagram or chart.
Poros – means a pore , and
Skopien - to examine
7. Blood Grouping and Blood Typing; and
Is the scientific study of the arrangement of
the sweat pores. Is the study of the configuration,
size, and relative position of the pores in human skin,
which are the external openings of the sebaceous and
sweat glands. Together with dactyloscopy and palm
print identification, it is used in criminalistics for
purposes of identification. Edmond Locard-Father of
Poroscopy.
8. DNA Testing (Deoxyribonucleic acid) (A-adenine,
C- cytosine, T- thymine, and G- guamine Sequence). It
was considered as the latest method of personal
identification, discovered by Prof. Alec Jeffreys in
1985.
Friction Skin
Is an epidermal hairless skin found on the ventral or
lower surface of the hands and feet, covered with
minute ridges and furrows and without coloring
matters or pigment. Are strips of the skin on the end
4. Edgeoscopy
Is method of identification through the
examination of the unique details and characteristics
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joints of our fingers and thumb by which fingerprints
are made. Also called as papillary or epidermal ridges
These perspirations are the ones that forms the ridge
characteristics on any smooth surface/objects it may
comes in contact or touched.
Fundamental Layers of the Friction Skin
In an inked finger impression, the ridges appear as
black lines with tiny white dots known or called as
pores.
1. Epidermis- the outermost layer
Two main layers of Epidermis:
The stratum corneum covers the
surface of the ridges on fingers and toes.
Dermal Papillae - are irregular pegs composed of
delicate connective tissue protruding and forming the
ridges of the skin on the fingers, palms, toes and soles
of the feet.
Five Sub-Division of the stratum Corneum
Prof. Marcelo Malphigi
1. Corneous layer
5. Generating layer
Professor of Anatomy at the University of Bologna,
Italy, is the one who discovered the 2 fundamental
layers of the friction skin and also known as the
Grandfather of Fingerprints. He originated the term
loops and spiral! And one layer of the skin was
named after him, the Malphigian layer. Written the
book entitled "De Externo Tactus Organo"
b. Stratum mucosum.
Ridge Formation:
The stratum mucosum on the other
hand, is just beneath the covering surface.
The stratum mucosum is folded so as to form
ridges which corresponds to the surface
ridges
Ridges starts to form in the fingers and thumb during
the 3rd to 4th months of the fetus life
a. Stratum Corneum
2. Transparent layer
3. Malphigian layer
4. Granular layer
Ridge Destruction
The destruction of the friction skin can either be
temporary or permanent. Generally temporary
destruction occurs when only the epidermis layer of
the friction skin has been damage, while permanent
damage can be injected to the friction skin due to
damage to the dermis layer.
2. Dermis - the inner layer containing the "blood
vessel, dermal papillae, various glands and nerves.
Components of the Friction Skin
1. Ridge surface
General Rules on Ridge Destruction:
a. Ridges-are elevated or hill like structure of
friction skin or the black lines with tiny white
dots in an inked impression.
Destruction of the Epidermis - temporary.
Destruction reached the dermis layer - permanent
damage.
b. Furrows are the depressed or canal like
structure in an inked impression, or the white
space between two black lines or ridges in an
inked impression.
Cut - a depth of more than 1 mm will constitute
permanent scar.
2. Sweat pores- the tiny openings that serves as the
exits of sweat/ the tiny white dots.
SOME NOTABLE ATTEMPTS
RIDGES AND DISGUISED:
3. Sweat duct a hose-like structure that serves as the
passageway.
4. Sweat glands- the glands that produces of sweat
John Dillinger, US notorious public enemy No. 1, who
tried to remove his fingerprints with acid but failed.
Post-mortem fingerprints taken after FBI agents shot
him proved that he was Dillinger.
Ridges - are the tiny elevation or the hill like
structure found on the epidermis of the skin
containing sweat pores. Through these sweat ducts
emitted the greasy or oily substance from the sweat
glands.
Roberts James Pitts = Known as "the man without
fingerprints". After learning from another inmate of
the possible destruction of fingerprints, he contacted
a doctor. He removed the skin up to the generative
layer and served thin into incisions on each side of
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OF
DESTROYING
Pitt's chest. Scar tissue was developed. Almost a year
later, he was picked up and the police were amazed to
find that he had no fingerprints. The Texas
Department of Public Safety was able to effect
identification out of the second joints of his fingers.
He is also known by the name of Roscoe Pitts.
Is a kind of ridge formation that curves back
in the direction from which it started. It looks like a
hairpin.
7. Sufficient recurve Is a recurving ridge complete in
its shoulder and is free from any appendage.
8. Ending ridge
SOME URREGULAR IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF
FINGERS:
Refers to an endpoint of a ridge, or a ridge
with abrupt ending
Ankylosis - a bone condition in which the finger
joints cannot be bent
9. Appendage Is a short ridge found at the top or at
the summit of a recurving ridge
1. Ectodactyl refers to the condition in which the
person is born with missing finger/s
10. Rod or bar ( found inside the innermost recurving
Is a short or long ridge ridge of a loop pattern:
2. Macrodactyl refers to the condition at which the
person's finger is enlarged.
11. Obstruction AS THE SHOULDER)
3. Macrodactyly refers to the condition at which a
person's finger is smaller than its usual size.
Is a short ridge found inside the innermost
recurving ridge that spoiled the inner line of flow
towards the center of -OR the pattern.
4. Polydactyl refers to the condition at which a
person has more than the regular number of fingers
in one hand.
12. Type lines
These are considered as the boundaries of
fingerprint patterns. These are the two innermost
ridges that are running parallel or
5. Syndactyl refers to the condition of the hand
characterized by the side fusion of some fingers.
Ridge characteristics. those little points of detail in
the formation of the pattern which are used in
comparing two fingerprints to determine its identity.
nearly parallel with each other which diverge at a
certain point tending to surround the pattern areas
Type lines are not always continuous ridges. In fact
they are Note: When there is a definite break in type
line, the ridges more often to be broken.
1. Bifurcating ridge
13. Pattern area
A single ridge that divides itself in two
branches. It is sometimes called as "fork".
Is that part of the fingerprint that lies within
the area surrounded by the type lines: It is where the
core, delta, and other ridge characteristics used for
classification can be found. The pattern area is only
part of the fingerprint regarding impression with
which
are
concerned
interpretation
and
classification.
DIFFERENT RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS
2. Enclosure or lake ridge/eyelet
A ridge that divides into two branches and
meets to form the original ridge.
3. Converging ridge
The pattern area is that part of the print
which contains the pattern to be examined. It is
present in all patterns, of course but in many arches
and tented arches it is impossible to define. This is
not important; however, the only patterns in which
we need to define the pattern area for classification
purposes are
Is a ridge formation characterized by a close
angular end and serves as a point of convergence, or
it is the meeting of two ridges that were previously
running side by side..
4.Diverging ridge
Is the spreading of two ridges that are
flowing side by side and suddenly separating or
spreading apart
loops and whorls. "The pattern area of loops and
whorls are enclosed by type lines
The (8) Eight types of fingerprint
5. Dot ridge is a ridge that resembles like a dot, a
fragment or a period.
patterns Pattern interpretation refers to naming of
fingerprint patterns
6. Recurving or looping ridge
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A. Loops
The terms "radial" and "ulnar" are derived
from the radius bones and ulna bone of the forearm.
Eoops which flow in the direction of the ulna pone
(towards the little finger) are called ulnar loops and
those which flow in the direction of the radius bone
are called radial loops THUMB To differentiate an
ulnar loop in the plain or rolled impression it
important to know from what hand it was taken This
type of pattern was the most common of all and
composed of about sixty (60) percent of all prints.
2.
There must be sufficient recurve ridge
passing or touching the imaginary line
drawn between the core and delta
3.
There must be at least one ridge count.
d.
The delta should not be located on
the middle of the ending ridge
running between the type of line
towards the core but at the
endpoint of such an ending ridge
that was nearest to the core.
Core in Loops - The core is place upon or
within the innermost looping ridge. When the
looping ridge has a rod, or rods enclosed within it,
the core is place on a rod. When there is no such
formation, the core is place on the looping ridge
itself, in a designated spot.
Three basic Characteristics of a Loop:
There must be a delta.
The bifurcation should not be
selected as a delta if not open
towards the core.
2. The Core (also known as the heart or the inner
terminus) usually found at the center or innermost
recurve. points The core is the second of the two focal
points. It is the approximate center of the fingerprint
impression.
Note: the classification of loops is based on
the way the loops flow on the hand (not the card), so
that on the fingerprint card for the left hand, loops
flowing towards the thumb impression are ulnar, and
loops flowing towards the little finger impression are
radial.
1.
c.
No ridge or rod: When the innermost loop
contains no ending ridge or rod rising as high as the
shoulders of the loop, the core is place on the
shoulder of the loop farther from the delta.
Shoulders of a loop are the points at which
the recurving ridge turns inward or curve
The Two Fingerprint Terminus (Focal Points)
1. The Delta (also called the outer terminus) is a
point along a ridge formation found at the center or
near the center of the diverging type lines."
Different ridge formation that can serves as a
If there is even number of bars, the core is
located on the endpoint of the center ridges farther
from the delta (consider only the two innermost
rods)
1. A point of bifurcation ridge;
If there is an odd number of bars, the core is
located on the endpoint of the center ridge.
delta:
2. Point of converging ridge
Two loops, side by side. When the two loops
side by side, are present within one recurving ridge,
the two loops are considered as one, and the core is
place on the inner shoulder of the loop farthest from
the delta.
3. A point of an ending ridge,
4. A dot ridge
5. A short ridge, and
Two loops interlocking: imaginary line
crosses at point of intersection. When two loops are
interlocking, the loops are considered as one. If an
imaginary line drawn between the shoulders of both
loops crosses the point of interlocking, the core is
place at this point.
6. A point on a long ridge.
a.
When two or more possible deltas
conform to the definition, the delta
nearest to the core is chosen.
b.
When there is a choice between a
bifurcation and another type of
delta, the bifurcation is selected as
the delta
Two loops interlocking:
imaginary line
below intersection. When two loops are interlocking,
the loops are considered as one. If an imaginary line
drawn across the shoulders and falls below the
5
interlocking point of the loops, the core is placed on
the farthest shoulder of the loop closer to the delta.
2. Central pocket loop is a pattern which possesses
two - deltas with one or more ridges forming a
complete circuit, which maybe oval, spiral or circular
for it is a pattern consisting of two deltas, with one or
more recurving ridges with an obstruction at right
angle to the inner line of flow, and when an imaginary
line was drawn between two deltas, it should not
touch or cross any circuiting ridge.
Two loops interlocking: imaginary line above
intersection. When two loops are interlocking, the
loops are considered as one. If an imaginary line
drawn across the shoulders and falls above the
interlocking point of the loops, the core is placed on
the shoulder facing the delta of the loop farthest from
the delta.
3. Double loop - this pattern consisting of two
separate and distinct loop formations, with sets of
shoulders and two deltas.
B. Arches
1. Plain arch
Elements
The Plain arch is the simplest of all
fingerprint patterns, and it is easily distinguished. Is
a pattern in which the ridges flows from one side to
the other or flows towards the, without recurving,
usually having a slight upward curved in the pattern,
making the pattern like an arch. It has no core and no
delta.
a.
Two separate loop formation
b.
Two separate and distinct sets of shoulder
c.
Two deltas
4. Accidental whorl - this is a pattern consisting of a
combination of two different types of pattern such as
a loop and a whorl, a loop and a centrai pocket loop,
or any combination of two different loop and whorl
type patter, but it cannot be a combination of a plain
arch with any pattern. It can have two or more deltas.
2. Tented arch
Is a type of fingerprint pattern in which most
of the ridges enters on one side of the impression and
flow or tend to flow, out upon the other side, but in
which the ridge or ridges at the center of the
formation thrust themselves upward, from an angle,
or form any two of the three basic characteristics of
the loop.
Basic Rule in taking Fingerprints:
1. Subject should be instructed to stand
straight but relax facing the slab."
2. The subject hand should be completely dry
Three kinds:
3. Thumb fingers are rolled towards the body
while other fingers are rolled away from the
body
Tented with angle. The type in which the ridges at the
center form a definite angle of at least ninety degrees.
Thus resembling a tent.
Recording means placing of the prints in their proper
places on the card
Tented, resembling a loop. The type approaching the
loop pattern and possessing two of the three basic or
essential characteristics of the loop but lacking the
third.
Types of fingerprint impression
1. Rolled Impression - are fingerprint impression
taken individually by rolling each finger from one
side to the other side and from the tip to the end of
the first joint
Tented with upthrust. This type in which one or
more ridges at the center form an upthrust.
Upthrust refers to an ending ridge of any length at a
sufficient degree from horizontal plane.
2. Plain Impression - are impression made by
simultaneously pressing the finger to the card, use as
a reference to classification,
C. Whorls
1. Plain whorl is a pattern consisting of two deltas
and which at least one ridge makes a turn through
one complete circuit. And if an imaginary line was
drawn between two deltas, it must touch or cross any
circuiting ridge. It consists of the simplest form of
whorl construction and is most common of the whorl
subdivisions.
Basic Instrument in taking prints:
1. Ink Slab is a metallic or glass plate where the ink is
spread for purpose
2. Ink Roller is a rubber made roller designed to
spread the fingerprint ink to the slab.
6
3. Fingerprint Ink-is a special form of ink designed
for taking fingerprint impression sometimes
submitted printer's ink.
Derived from the Latin words:
Dactyl means finger, and
Skopien to study or examine.
4. Fingerprint card - is an 8" x 8" card designed for
recording fingerprint impression
Is the practical application of the science of
fingerprints.
5. Card holder - usually a fixed card holder placed in a
flat
Sir Jean Johannes Purkenjie
table designed to prevent the movement of the card
in the course of the taking of the fingerprint.
A professor in physiology, theology and anatomy at
the University of Breslau, Germany, known as the
Father of Dactyloscopy. "
Latent Prints = prints found at the scene of the crime.
Dactylography is the scientific study of fingerprint as
a means of identification.
Types of latent prints
1. Visible prints = are those prints which are readily
visible to the naked eye. It can either be: Molded
prints or Prints made by contamination with colored
substance.
Dactylomancy is the scientific study of fingerprint for
purposes of personality interpretation
CLASSIFICATION FORMULA
2. Invisible prints = prints that are generally made by
sweat or perspiration that requires developing for
visibility.
The Henry- Galton System with the FBI modification
and extension as adopted by almost all English
Speaking countries of the world. The Philippines as
one is using this system
Factors Affecting Stability or Prints at the Crime
Scene:
Sir Edward Richard Henry An Inspector General of
Police in Bengal, India, develops the first system of
classifying fingerprints. He also developed his own
system of classification while working in Scotland
Yard. His system was of classification was
established with the help of two Hindu police namely
Kahn Bahadur Azizul Haque and Ral Hem Chandra
Bose. It was widely accepted by almost all English
speaking countries making him know as the "Father
of Fingerprint". His system finally replaced the
Bertillonage. system of identification in France.
(Anthropometry by Alphonse Bertillon)
1. Subject Factor
1. II. Nature of the surface
2. Climatic Condition
Methods of Developing Prints:
1. Dusting Method = = considered as the simplest and
traditional methods used in developing prints at the
scene of the crime. (Use of Powder and Brush)
2. Rolling Method basically used in developing prints
in = paper done by simply rolling the paper with
powder spreading in its surface.
Juan Vucetich (1891)
Argentine Police Official, Initiated the fingerprinting
of criminals, (First case used was the Rojas Homicide
in 1892)
3. Fuming Methods = done by using chemical fumes
such as lodine and Ammonium Fumes:
4. Silver Nitrate method done by spraying a 5 percent
solution of silver nitrate to the surface of the paper.
FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION- the sorting of
fingerprints into file groups so that a file may be set
upon the basis of fingerprints alone. Fingerprints are
classified by General shape (arch, loop, or whorl),
position in finger, and relative size.
5. Ninhydrin Method is considered as one of the best
method used in developing prints in paper.
6. Laser Method = is a modern method of tracing and
developing prints.
The making of identifications by fingerprints
comparison and classification of fingerprints.
Post Mortem Fingerprints- are prints taken from a
deceased person.
Fingerprint classification uses class characteristics
to group like fingerprints for filing and retrieval
(many people have same fingerprint classification)
Ante-Mortem fingerprint - Taken from a living
individual
Dactyloscopy
7
Fingerprints identification Refers to utilization of
individual characteristics to individualize a print to a
specific person
2nd pair = right middle and right ring:
3rd pair =right little and left thumb;
4th pair = left index and left middle; and1
Classification line, It refers to a long line usually
placed on the right upper comer of the fingerprint
chart where the classification formula of the given
10 rolled fingerprints is exhibited.
5th pair = left ring and left little
Step 2. Assign the numerical values to whorl patterns.
Each finger is given a value only if it has a whorl
pattern, if the finger has an arch or loop, it is given a
value of zero
Reference Classification Formula. Refers to an
additional formula serve as a reference in case of
doubtful prints Place the at bottom of the
classification formula.
Step 3. Knowing the fingers classified as numerator
and the fingers classified denominator.
Reference classification, Refers to the classification
derived from a set of prints having approximating or
questionable patterns, or a second-choice
classification
Numerators = fingers with even numbers
(2,4,6,8 and 10)
Denominators = fingers with odd numbers
Sequencing. Refers to the placing of a group of
classified wate into their correct filling order before
beginning to file or searc them.
(1,3,5,7, and 9)
Step 4. Summation of numerical value assigned to
whorl typepatterns
Two Preliminary stops:
A. Check first whether or not the rolled unpression
are in their proper position by using the plains
impression as the guide
Sum all the numerators and denominators
numericalvalue plus the pre-established fraction of
1/1 to complete theprimary division
B. Do the Blocking
2. Secondary DivisionThis division is obtaining by
writing the Capital letter
Blocking out refers to the process of writing below
each patte the corresponding symbols of the
fingerprints in the space provided for each pattern.
symbols (taken from the index fingers) and the small
letters(from thumb, middle, ring and little finger, The
secondary division is subdivided into two:
Symbols use for blocking
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
a. By capital letters - all letters appearing on
both index fingers, with the symbol
appearing at right index shall be take as the
numerator and the symbol appearing at left
index be taken as the denominator.
Ulnar loop >>>
Radial loop>>>
Plain arch >>>
Tented Arch>>>
Plain whorl>>>>>>>
Central Pocket loop whorl>>>>
Double loop whorl>>>>>>>>>>>>W
Accidental whorls *>>> W>>for index use>>X
Radial loop = R Plain whorl =W
Ulnar loop = U Central pocket loop = C
1. Primary Division
Plain arch = A Double loop = D
Is the summation of all numerical value assigned
toWhorls
appearing
in
fingerprint
chart
whichNumerators and denominators Plus the preestablishedfraction of 1/1. It is always, represented
by numerical value
Tented Arch = T Accidental whorl = X
b. By Small letters only letters r for radial loop, a
for plainarch, and t for tented arch taken from
both thumbs, both middle,both ring and both
little fingers are included (r, a, t)Symbols
appearing at right fingers are numerator and
symbols appearing at left fingers are
denominator
Steps in Primary classification
Step 1. Pairing
The fingers are paired on the following sequence:
.Note: only small letters for patterns radial loop (r),
plain arch (a) and tented arch (t) are included for
1st pair right thumb and right index;8
8
small letters. Small letter^ a u^ prime prime for ulnar
loop and small letter "w" for whorls are excludedfor
small letter.
Note: A white space must intervene between the
delta and the first ridge to be counted
Values table for loop ridge count conversions:
4. Sub-secondary division
Index fingers 1-9 ridge counts= ! (Inner loop) 10
ridge counts or more=0 (Outer loop)
This is done by ridge counting of loops an ridge
tracingof whorls appearing in the index, middle, and
ring fingers ofboth right and left hands.
Middle fingers 1-10 ridge counts =1 (Inner loop) 11
ridge counts or more=0 (Outer loop)
Ridge counting is the process of counting the neges
thattouch or cross an imaginary line drawn between
the delta and core of a loop. Is that point on a ridge at
in front of and nearest the center of the divergence of
the type lines.
Ring fingers
1-13 ridge counts =1 (Inner loop)
14 ridge counts or more=0 (Outer loop)
Ridge tracing is the process of counting the ridges
intervening between the tracing ridge and the right
delta. (INTERVENING ROGS). This process was used
to determine the three subdivisions of whorls into
inner, outer, and meeting which is represented (in
capital I, M, O. I-AOR MURE IR IPSIDE / ABOVE ( M. 030R MORE IR SUSIPE/NOLON Also means tracking or
trailing the ridge commencing from left 2. delta going
across the right delta or nearest in distance to the
right delta with the number of ridges intervening
between the Being traced ridge being traced and the
right delta are accounted for.
Rules in Ridge Counting
A. Locate the exact points and core and delta.
B. Count all ridges which touch or cross an imaginary
line drawn between delta and core. In actual use of
fingerprint cards for classification, the lens is guided
by a redline shown on the disk.
C. Never include the delta and core in counting. Count
only those ridges which intervene or pass the
imaginary line of the count line
D. Incipient ridges are never counted no matter
where they appear. The general rule is that in order
to be counted, the width of the ridge must be equal to
the width of the other ridges in the pattern under
consideration.
Rules in ridge tracing
Incipient ridges refer to a short, narrow, and badly
formed, their diameter is never equal to the diameter
of an average ridge and their course is practically
always interrupted. They are not considered when
classifying fingerprints.
Ridges subject to ridge counting:
a.
A ridge island or a dot ridge gives one ridge
count;
b.
A short ridge is counted as one;
c.
A long ridge is counted as one;
d.
An abrupt ending ridges is given one ridge
count;
e.
A bifurcating ridge is given two ridge counts
when it was crossed in opening or at the
center of the bifurcation.
f.
a.
Look for the left delta and trace the delta
towards the front of the right delta.
b.
When the ridge being traced abruptly ends,
drop to the next ridge just below the
original tracing ridge and continue the
tracing until it reaches the opposite side or
the right delta..
c.
When the left delta is a dot, the same thing
would be done as in procedure in no. 1.
d.
When the ridge being traced is a bifurcation,
always follow the lower branch until tracing
is completed
e.
Determine whether the tracing ridge flows
inside (above) or below (outside) the right
delta.
f.
Count the number of intervening ridges
(between the tracing ridge and right delta)
4. Major Division This is similar to Sub-Secondary
division though it is applies to the thumb only and
ridge counting has been modified.
Ridge enclosure is counted as two ridges g.
Criss-crossing ridge or meeting of two
ridges is counted as two.
9
Table of conversions of ridge counts of loops for
thumb there are two tables of conversions for the
ridge counts of the loop on the right thumb
Classification of amputated fingers:
e). When one or more fingers from same hand are
amputated or missing, it is given the classification of
the opposite fingers (including the ridge count or
ridge tracing, except the primary classification)
2. When two or more opposite fingers are amputated
or missing, it is given the classification of plain whorl
with ridge tracing of Meeting (M)
Table A
1-11 ridge counts
= S ( small )
12-16 ridge counts
= M ( medium )
3. When all fingers are amputated or missing, they
are all treated as plain whorls with ridge tracing of
Meeting (M)
17 ridge counts or more = L ( large )
Note: Apply or use Table A for the ridge counts of the
loop on the right thumb if the left thumb has a ridge
counts of 16 or less.
Forensic 2
PHOTOGRAPHY
Etymology;
Table B
1-17 ridge counts
= S ( small )
18-22 ridge counts.
= M ( medium )
The word derived from the Greek words "Phos"
which means "light" and "Graphos" means "Writing"
or "Graphia" meaning "to Draw".(Although
'heliography', 'photogeny', and 'daguerreotypy', were
first used as alternatives; 'photography' eventually
gained universal precedence as the preferred name)
23 ridge counts or more = L ( large )
Note: Apply or use table B for the ridge counts of loop
on the right thumb if/when the left thumb has a ridge
count is 17 or more
Photography - is a science or art which deals with
the reproduction of image by the action of light on
sensitized materials, with the aid of a camera and its
accessories, lens, and the chemical process involved
therein
Table B can be used only for right thumb, it should be
used for ridge counts of loop on the left thumb, in
case the left thumb is also a loop use the table of
conversion for the ridge counts of loop located on
Table A.
Photograph
Is the mechanical and chemical result of
Photography. Picture and photograph are not the
same for a picture is a generic term is referring to all
kinds of formed image while a photograph is an
image that can only be a product of photography.
5. Final Division
This is done by ridge counting of loops and whorls
from the two little fingers. In this division whorls are
ridge counted not to be ridge traced.
1. Loops -ridge counted in its conventional way;
Sir John Frederic. W. Herschel The one who coined
the word photography when he wrote a letter to
Henry Fox Talbot in 1839. BIRTH YEAR OF AUTO()
(Note on the Art of Photography', 14 March 1839)
2. Whorls:
a. Plain whorl and central pocket loop whorl shall be
treated as ulnar loop from the hand of origin.
Investigative photography has gone through three
basic
b. A double loop is ridge counted to an upright loop;
and c. An accidental whorl be ridge counted in all but
the least ridge count will be used.
evolutions:
> First, Daguerreotype.
6. Key Division
> 2nd film photography; and
This division is derived by getting the ridge count of
the first loop formation appearing in the ten fingers
except the In case f absence of a loop, the first whorl
will be ridge counted two little fingers. following the
rules of ridge counting a whorl under final division.
> 3rd Digital photography
Joseph Nicephore Niepce Is a French inventor who
produces the first permanent photographic image on
10
a summer 1826. The photographic image was with a
camera obscura.
 In the early 1940s, commercially viable
colour films (except Kodachrome, introduced
in 1935) were brought to the market.
 These films used the modern technology of
dye- coupled colours in which a chemical
process connects the three dye layers
together to create an apparent colour image.
Joseph (Ibn Al-Haytham)
He is a great authority on optics in the Middle Ages
who lived around 1000 A.D. He invented the first
pinhole camera, also known as the Camera Obscura.
He was able to explain why the images were upside
down. Prior to Niepce, people just used the Camera
Obscura for viewing or drawing purposes not for
making photographs.
Legal foundation of Photographic Evidence
A. For black and white photographs:
 1859-Daguerreotype was use in civil case,
Lueo vs. US (regarding the authenticity of
photographs in comparing signatures)
 1874-In
criminal
case
introducing
photograph as Underzook identification
evidence underzook vs. commonwealth
Photograph produced by Niepce required eight hours
of light exposure to create and after appearing would
soon fade away.
Heliography
 Coined by its inventor Joseph Nicephore
Niepe
 Came from 2 Greek words Helios means sun
and graphein means writing or drawing.
 This term encompassed both the source and
the process in describing this first
successfully permanent means of letting light
record itself.
 Also called as sun prints
 Considered the prototype for the modern
photographby by letting light draw the
picture




A. For color photograph
> 1943 Civil litigations Green vs. City and county of Denver Colorado, involving spoiled meat in violation
of a health ordinance prohibiting the sale of putrid
meat to the public
> 1960- In criminal case, State vs. Conte, showing the
graphic wound of the victim
> In the Philippines, the admissibility of photograph
as evidence was ruled in the case: City of Manila vs.
Cabangis 10 Phil. 151 a photograph is admissible in
evidence upon proof of exactness and accuracy.
Louis Daguerre
Developed a more convenient and effective
method
of
A photography, naming
Daguerreotype
The
Daguerreotype
was
the
first
commercially
successful
photographic
process.
Daguerre was able to reduce exposure time
to less than 30 minutes and keep the image
from disappearing afterwards
Daguerreotype created a lasting image, one
that would not change if exposed to light."
"That the photograph is a true and faithful
representation of the subject as seen by the naked
eye."
Police Photography - Refers to the application of the
principles of photography is relation to the police
work and in the administration of justice.
Forensic photography - refers to the process of
photographing and recording crime scene or any
other objects for court presentation.
Henry Fox Talbot
Police photographer - refers to the person who is
tasked to take photographs of crime scene, suspects,
witnessesor any physical evidence founds at the
crime scene, bring them to the laboratory for
processingrecordingand filing.
. The inventor of the first negative from which
multiple positive prints was made. He perfected
this paper-negative process and called it a
calotype, Greek for "Beautiful Picture":
The calotype introduced in 1841; a negativepositive process using a paper negative.
Different application of photography in police work
Colour Photographs
1. Personal Identification
11

Personal Identification is the first application
of photography in police work. Alphonse Bertillon
was the first police who utilized photography in
police work as a supplementary identification in his
Anthropometry system.
Photographs should be taken of the crime
scene only without spectators or police
personnel
 To adequately present the crime scene
initially, the photographs must form an
organized sequence and show all relevant
locations and objects. >
• Prisoners, persons subject for investigation.
• Unidentified cadaver (victim of crimes,
traffic accidents, natural calamities etc.)
• Missing persons (for publications and alert
warnings)
• Lost or stolen properties (paintings,
antiques, sculpture etc)
• Civilian (police and NBI clearance )
 The crime scene photographs must progress
from general to specific
Sketch of the Crime Scene
The sketch is the simplest and the most
effective
way
of
showing
actual
measurements and of identifying significant
items of evidence in their location at the
scene. Sketching is supplementary to
photography.
Mug shot - refers to a photographic shot of a
suspect or witnesses from head to elbow level taken
in various views front whole body, front, right and
left side quarter view from head to elbow with the
use of the following equipment's: height indicator;
four sets flood lamp; title board; flash units; and
letter sets.
Kinds of Sketches
1. Rough Sketch-made by the investigator at
the crime scene. No scale proportion is
ignored, and everything is approximated
It is to be used as a basis of the finished
sketch.
2. . Finished Sketch-made primarily for
presentation. Scale and proportion
observed.
2. For Purposes
It is the utmost used of photography in police
work.
Documentation of the Crime Scene
The
photographer
begins
taking
photographs as soon as possible. The
evidence collectors do not touch or moved
any evidence once it is located until it has
been identified, measured, and recorded."
Notes Taking
Note taking must be a constant activity
throughout the processing of the crime scene.
Crime Scene Photography
Notes must include
 Detailed written description of the Crime
Scene with locations of physical evidence
received;
 The time when the physical evidence was
discovered
 The person who discovered and collected
physical evidence;
 How the evidence was packaged and marked;
and
 The disposition of the item when it was
collected
Main Objective
To create an accurate objective visual record
of the crime scene before any item is moved
as possible physical evidence.
Guidelines for taking photographs of a Crime
Scen
 Photographs of a crime scene should be taken
as soon as possible, before note or a search
for evidence begins. taking, sketching
Purpose of Crime Scene Photography
 The pictures should the original, illustrate
scene. uncontaminated condition of the crime
scene
1. To record the original scene and related areas;
2. To record the initial appearance of physical
evidence;
12
3.
It will provide investigators and others with this
permanent visual record of the scene for later
use; and
4. Photographs are also used in court trials and
hearings.
3.For Discovering and Proving
Different Views in photographing the crime scene
Photomicrography
Photography can enhance human
discovering and proving things such as:
vision
in
A. With the use of Magnification
Crime Scene photography - is the taking of
photographs of the scene of the crime, rather than
the criminal.
 Is the taking a magnified photograph of small
object through attaching a camera to the
ocular of a compound microscope to show
minute details of the physical evidence.
a. General View/ Long-range RL TO THE VIEW
OF THE) Is the taking an over-all view of the
scene of the crime.
 It shows direction and location of the crime
scene
 . Distance: From the doorway to the room and
other corners of the room
b. Medium View/ Mid-range photograph - Is the
taking of the photograph of the scene of the
crime by dividing it into section
 Distance: Eight or ten feet from the victim.
Intended to show the nature of the
crimePhotographing the crime scene by
dividing it into sections
 This view will best view the nature of the
crime.
Photomacrogaphy (macro photography)
 Is the taking a magnified photograph of small
object by attaching an extended tube lens
(macro lens) to the camera.
Microphotography
Is a process in which photographs are shrunk to
microscopic scale.
• John Benjamin Dancer was one of the first to
produce microphotographs in 1839 Using
the
daguerreotype process. **
• He achieved a reduction ratio of 160:1
.c. Close-up View
Telephotography
 Is the taking of individual photograph of the
evidence at the scene of the crime. It is
designed to show the details of the crime
Ps the process of taking photograph of a far object
with the aid of a long focus and Telephoto lens.
B. Used of Artificial Light such as X-ray, Ultra-violet
and Infra-red rays to show something which may not
be visible with the aid of human eye alone.
Photographs to record items of evidence:
Take two photographs of each item of
evidence
a. One should be an orientation (midrange) shot
to show how the item is related to its
surroundings.
b. The second photograph should be a close-up
to bring out the details of the object itself.

Ultraviolet examination - UV radiation is invisible and
occurs in the wavelengths just below the visible blueviolet of the visible spectrumThese invisible rays
react on some substances so that visible light is
reflecteda phenomenon known as fluorescence.
Fluorescence is the emission of light by a substance
that has absorbed light or other electromagnetic
radiation
Lenses to be used:
Two lenses are usually ideal at a crime scene:
a. Wide angle lens;
b. Normal lens
c. Macro zoom lens is the most ideal for the
crime scene work
Infrared examination - infrared examination employs
invisible radiation beyond the red portion of the
visible spectrum that is usually recorded on specially
sensitized photographic emulsionThis infrared or
sometimes referred to as heat rays, THE can also be
converted to visible light by electronic viewing
equipment which to date has had limited used in
question document work
Extreme Close-up View
Commonly designed in laboratory photographing
using
some
magnification
such
as
photomacrography and photomicrography
4. For Preservation
13
Crime scene and other physical evidence
requires photograph for preservation purposes.
Crime scene cannot be retained as is for a long period
of time but through photograph the initial condition
of the scene of the crime can be preserved properly.
of being transformed into an image through
the action of light and with some chemical
processes.
5. For Communication
Photograph is one of the most universal
methods of communication considering that no other
language can be known universally than photograph.
ITS NATURE and CHARACTERISTICS
Methods of forming images by means of light
1. Pinhole method
> Is the oldest method of forming image where a box
camera with a very small hole without lens' is use to
collect light and form image
2. Shadow method
> This method is the principle involved in the use of
X-ray machine.
3. Lens method
8. Police Training - Modern facilities are now being
used as instructional material not only in police
training as well as in other agencies.
Is the modern metfiod of forming image by light
action passing a lens
9. Reproducing and Copying With the use of
photography any number of reproductions of the
evidence can be made those giving unlimited
opportunity for its examination and even allow other
experts or person to examine the specimen without
compromising the original.
Light - is defined as an electromagnetic energy with
the speed of 186,00 miles per second.
Its wave travel is said to be characterized in certain
extent based on velocity, wavelength, and frequency
of the number of vibrations of the wave per second.
Electromagnetic radiation – in terms of classical
theory. the flow of energy at the universal speed of
light through free space or through a material or a
medium in the form of the electric and magnetic
fields that make up electromagnetic wave such as
radio waves, visible light, and gamma rays.
ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY
Sensitized
materials
Refers
to
Photographic Film which produces the
negative print and Photographic Film, which
produces the positive print otherwise
known as the photograph. These highly
sensitized chemical compounds are capable
Lens - Is the light gathering mechanism of
the camera that collect the reflected light
coming from the object to form the image.
A. Light
7. Crime Prevention - With the use of video camera
(hidden camera) and other advanced photographic
equipment crimes are being detected more easily and
even to the extent of preventing them from initially
occurring.
2.
4.
7. Chemical Process - The process necessary for
reducing silver halides into a form so as a latent
image and a positive image be made resulting to
what we called Photograph. Also known as the
Development
Evidence presented in court once accepted
became known as Exhibit. Either Exhibit 1,2,3 etc. for
the defense or Exhibit A, B, C etc for the prosecution.
Light - is a radiant electromagnetic energy
that travels in a form of a wave with an
average speed of 186, 000 miles per second.
Camera - Is light tight box designed to block
and exclude unwanted or unnecessary light
from reaching the sensitized material.
It is the image forming device of the camera.
6. For Court Exhibits
Almost all evidence presented in court before
formally be accepted requires that they satisfy the
basic requirements for admissibility which is
relevancy and competency. A question of relevancy is
usually proved by proving the origin of the evidence
and its relation to the case and this is usually
supplemented by photograph of the evidence giving
reference as to where it came from.
1.
3.
Electromagnetic spectrum - is a continuum of all
electromagnetic waves arrange according to
frequency and wavelength
Wavelength of wave - is the distance from peak to an
adjacent through in a wave
14
Frequency of a wave is the number of waves per unit
of time.
Absorbed; or
Transmitted
Light wavelength - is the distance measured
between two (2) successive crest or through of
wave and it is expressed in either Millimicron
(nanometer) or Angstrom.
(RAT Law).
1. Reflected - once the light hits a mirror and it
bounce back (bouncing of light).
Millimicrom - is the units of light wavelength
which is equivalent to one-millionth part of a
millimeter which the Angstrom is relatively
smaller for it has an equivalent measurement of
ten (10) millionth part of a millimeter.
Transmitted - when the light hits a
transparent glass this would allow the
light to pass through its medium
Transparent material - is a material in
which the light can pass through and the
object at the opposite side is clearly
visible.
Isaac Newton in 1666 proved that the light which
men see as white light is actually a mixture of all
colors of the spectrum.
Translucent - is a material in which the light can pass
through, but the object at the opposite side is not
clearly visible.
This is produced when we allow light to hit a glass
prism (Sharp Edge of the Glass).
.Absorbed - when the light hits a dark colored object
and prevents it from either bouncing or passing
through.
A rainbow array will then be shown with colors
red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet colors
(from top to bottom).
Bending of light
The visible light is also said of have a wavelength
of between 400-700 millimicron or nanometer
Light commonly travel in straight direction,
especially in open space, however, light may bend
when comes in contact with an object:
White light - is a mixture of all colors of the
spectrum, or the presence of all colors.
1. Reflection - is the bouncing back of light when it
hits a surface
Black (dark) - is the absence of color or the
absence of light
Two kinds of reflection:
Three primary colors of light Blue, Green, Red
1.
Regular reflection occurs when light
hits a flat, smooth and shiny surface
2. Irregular reflection occurs when light
hits a rough or uneven but shiny
object"
Three secondary colors of light Cyan Yellow
Magenta
Tertiary colors of light rose violet azure
aquamarine, chartreuse orange
Prism - is a solid for dispersing light; it is a
transparent polygonal solid object with flat faces
and usually a triangular cross section, used for
separating white light into spectrum of colors.
Light rays bend twice when passing through a
prism.
2. Refraction is the bending of light when strike a
transparent medium that suddenly change in its
speed
3. Diffraction is the bending of light when light strike
the sharp edge of an opaque material
Opaque material - which are impenetrable to light, or
a material in which the light cannot pass through.
Dispersion color may arise from differences in
the refractive or bending power of a transparent
medium of light of different wavelength.
The rainbow
phenomenon.
is
a
good
example
of
this
Types of Light
Lights can largely be classified into visible and
invisible light.
When light strikes a medium or a material, its
action can be characterized as either:
a.
Reflected;
15
Visible Light
Is the type of light that
produces different sensation when
reach the human eye. It is the type of
light, which can excite the retina of
the human eye
b.
3.
Transmitted
light
examination. Light comes
from the back or bottom. Used
in examination of watermarks,
fiber
arrangement
and
sequence of strokes.
d. Infra-red (Beyond the Red)
Invisible Light
> Considered as the photographic rays with the
longest wavelength ranging from 700 to 1000
millimicrons.
Are lights in which their
wavelength is either too short or too
long to excite the retina of the human
eye'i.e X-ray, Ultra-violet and Infra-red
lights.
It is designed to take photograph of over-written
documents, obliterated writing, and charred
documents or for black out photography. Sometimes
referred to as heat rays
2. Four types of photographic rays
a. X-ray (Rontgen ray)
Light Sources
> Light with the wavelength
between 1 to 30 millimicrons It is
produced by passing an electric
current through a special type of
vacuum tube. It was discovered by
Conrad Wilhelm Rontgen:
A. Natural Light are those light which come to
existence without the intervention of man e.g.
Sunlight
1. Bright Sunlight
> Object in an open space casts a deep
and uniform shadow and the object appears
glossy.
This type of light works in the
principle of shadow photography.
2. Hazy Sunlight
b. Ultra-violet ray (Before the violet)
 Radiation having a wavelength of 30
to 400 nanometers designed to
photograph
fingerprints
in
multicolored background, documents
that are altered, decipherment of
erase writing and developing invisible
writing. It is commercially known as
"black Light".
> Object in an open space cast a
transparent or bluish shadow.
3. Dull Sunlight
> Object in an open space cast no
shadow.
Cloudy bright - object in open space
cast no shadow, but objects at far distance are
clearly visible
c. Visible Light - Is the type of radiation
having a wavelength of 400 to 700
millimicrons
designed
for
ordinary
photographing purposes.
Cloudy dull – objects in open space
cast no shadow and object in far distance are
not clearly visible
Different application of visible light
1.
Direct light examination.
Designed to provide support
light in photographing.
2.
Side
light
examination/Oblique
light
examination. Is light coming
from one side at a very low
angle use in erasure and
indented writinga
B. Artificial Light - otherwise known as man-made
light e.g. fluorescent bulb, incandescent bulb and
photoflood lamp.
1. Continuous radiation Lamp that can give
illumination continuously
Photoflood lamp - is also known as
Reflectorized light or Spotlight. It is a light with a
reflector at the back which focuses the light to the
object the common wattage of this lamp is 500 watts.
16
Fluorescent Lamp - are tube lamps in which
the walls are coated with fluorescent powders with
both ends is mounted with a holder that serves as the
reflector. This is commonly used by everybody more
than it is used in photographing.
2. Anti-Halation Backing. Refers to that part
which is designed to hold back the light and prevents
halation.
Halation (halo) - is the spreading of light
beyond its proper boundaries in a developed
photographic image. A bright ring that sometimes
surrounds a bright object on a television screen
Incandescent bulb - is bulb with a wire
filament connecting two wires which sustain the
electrical charge that produces the light. Everybody
likewise commonly uses this although it is more
expensive in terms of electrical consumptions.
3. Base. Refers to that part which supports
the emulsion
Types of Film
Infra-red Lamp - is another artificial light
with its wavelength appear beyond the red portion of
the visible spectrum. This is an instrument that best
in deciphering obliterated forms of writings and
additions of writing or ink strokes in a document.
A. According to Use.
1. Black and White Film is usually
represented by a prefix or a suffix "Pan" or "Ortho"
and generally used in black and white photography.
Ultra-violet Lamp - Is an artificial lamp with
its radiation capable of creating a fluorescence
depending upon the material under consideration.
Their wavelengths appear just before the blue violet
color of the visible spectrum.
Examples are Ortholith film, Tri X-Pan and
Pan X-plus.
2.Colored p Film it can be divided into two
the Negative type and the reversal type of colored
film.
2. Short Duration type (flash unit)
Negative type - film use for ordinary
photographing purposes The suffix color was
use for negative or non-reversal film Ex.
Kodak color, Fuji color, Agfa color
Flash bulb - are chemical lamps, as it
generates lights by the rapid combustion of metal in
oxygen (burning of metallic wire). The bulb can be
used only once as the bulls busted when fired
electrically. Flash bulb is no longer available in the
market
Reversal (transparency) - Using a
suffix chrome. Use for projection viewing Ex.
Agfa chrome, fuji chrome, Kodachrome
Electronic Flash - produces light by an
instantaneous electrical in charges between two
electrodes in a gas filled glass bulbs. The electrical
energy for the discharge is kept in capacitor or
condenser. It usually ranges from 1/300 second and
1/5000 second, and because of this, subject in fast
motion can be arrested or stopped in the
photographs.
B. According to Spectral Sensitivity
Spectral sensitivity is the responsiveness of the film
emulsion to the different wavelength of the light
course.
B. SENSITIZED MATERIAL
It refers to the film and photographic paper that
basically composed of emulsion containing Silver
Halides suspended in gelatin and coated on a
transparent or reflective support.
Parts of the Sensitized Material
1. Emulsion. Refers to that part of the film or
photographic paper which contains the silver grains
which is the one sensitive to light.
1.
Blue Sensitive film = sensitive to U.V. light
and Blue light only.
2.
Orthochromatic Film Sensitive to U.V. Light
up to the green light. (Popular in the marker
as KODALITH FILM) . Light up to red
3.
Panchromatic film = Sensitive to U.V light
(sensitive to all colors of the visible light)
4.
Infra-red Film Sensitive to all colors and to
infra- red-light..
(Is a film with the longest spectral sensitivity)
FILM SPEED (Emulsion Speed)
In a colored film this emulsion surface can be
composed of Three layers (Blue, Green and Red) with
filters intervening.
This refers to the degree of sensitivity of the film to
light
17
1. ASA (American Standards Association) - this is
expressed in arithmetic value system: The bigger the
number the more sensitive the film is.
Rough papers - used for large prints or where
breath rather than detail is necessary
b.3. Color
2.DIN (Deutche Industre Normen) expressed in
Logarithmic value system. Used in the same principle
as the ASA. Din 12
o
White - preferred to be used in police
photography Cream - preferred for pictorial effect,
portraits, landscape or when warmth effect is
desired.
ISO
(International
Standard
Organization)
expressed
as
combination of ASA and DIN rating
According to Contrast (grade),
II. Photographic Paper Is that sensitized material that
will record the visible image in the final development
and become the photograph
1.
Velox No. 0 used for printing extremely
contrast negative or extremely exposed film.
2.
Velox No. 1-used for high contrast negative
(over exposed film)
3.
Velox No. 2-used for normal exposed filme
4.
Velox No. 3 used for negative with weak
contrast (under exposed)
5.
Velox No, 4 used to provide sufficient
contrast to compensate for very thin or
weak negatives. It is useful imprinting which
high contrast is desired.
Types of Photographic Papers
A. According to Emulsion Used (Silver halides
content)
1.
2.
3.
Silver Chloride paper - ( Used for contact
printing, the size of the positive print is the
same as the size of the negative used
Sensitivity to light is low and gives blueblack tones when property developed
Silver Bromide paper - Used projection,
Brinting and enlarging process. This is one
of the most ideal photo paper used for
police photography. It will give a black tone
when properly developed
B. CAMERA
Is a light tight box with light gathering device
and means of blocking unwanted or unnecessary
light from reaching the sensitized materials
Most modern cameras are designed to give a
long- term service. You can add to its service by
handling them carefully and taking care of the
equipment properly
Silver Chlorobromide paper - Used both for
projection and contact printing. Multispeed emulsion
B. According to Physical Characteristics
Camera is a light tight box, with a lens to form
an image, with shutter and diaphragm to control the
entry of the image, a means of holding a film to
record the image, and a viewer or viewfinder to show
the photographer what the image is.
b.1. Weight
Light weight - Designed for high flexibility
and when paper thickness is not of consideration
Intended for some purposes, which involves folding,
testing etc.
Basically, a camera can produce images with its
four- (4) basic parts such as light tight box, lens, and
shutter, Holder of sensitized material.
Single Weight - papers used for small prints
or which are need to be mounted on solid and fine
details necessary in the production! Used in ordinary
photographic purposes
The camera is classified as according to the
sizes of the film they use or format of the picture they
produce such as (1) large format cameras, these
cameras have bellows and use sheet films in the size
4"x5", 5"x7" and 8"x10", (2) medium format cameras,
some of these cameras are folding type with bellows
and some are rigid-body with film size of 120,220.
70mm.
Double weight - generally used for large
prints because they stand up under rough treatment.
b.2. Surface Texture,
Glossy paper - designed for fine details and
brilliant image formation
The double lens reflex camera falls under this
category: (3) small format cameras are those with
film size 126, 110,35mm,16mm and 8mm.
Semi-mate papers - obscure the fine details
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Photographic cameras today evolved from accidental
discovery of an image formed by light through a
pinhole (projection of light) A simple box bearing a
pinhole that captures an image was known as the
Pinhole camera. Later, a glass was placed on the
pinhole of the camera acting as a lens camera which
became known as camera obscura, a device which
uses a pinhole lens to project an image of the scene
outside onto the viewing surface.
with d sound, it has the ability to edit, delete images
allowing re-use of the storage. These types of
cameras can be incorporated into many devices such
as mobile phones to vehicles
As digital imaging becomes more widely used
in forensic science, however, there are still drawbacks
to the use of digital to imaging forensic science
casework. The drawbacks are "ul centered on the
quality and authenticity of the images which can be
altered with adobe photoshop or any of the
enhancement software programs Other drawbacks
are:
The image formed by means of light
projection from a pinhole into a darkened room was
the beginning of devising a pinhole camera. The
pinhole camera was simply a light tight box with a
pinhole at the front center of the box. The image
formed by the pinhole camera was a bit crude.
Improving the crudeness of image produce by the
pinhole camera, Giovanni Battista Della Porta added
a mirror behind the pinhole to effect brightness and
clarity and at the same time enlarge the hole by
inserting a telescope, thus, logical outcome of the
pinhole camera was born-camera obscura and gained
popularity in the 16 century. More than any other
form of arts, photography also requires equipment.
The basic piece of equipment for taking photographs
is the camera Yet, cameras alone will not produce a
photograph. The camera must be loaded with a film
and requires a photographer to manipulate it. The
film must be the right size of the camera. It must be
compatible, and the photographer must know how to
manipulate the camera.
1.
The amount of time required to take multiple
exposure because of the light sensor to read the
scene and adjust the f/stop or change the shutter
speed:
2.
Light sensor has to check the auto focus before it
captures the scene,
3.
Trigger the flash,
4.
4 Takes several seconds for a digital camera to
perform other processes once the image has
been taken save the image),
5.
Image resolution( traditional camera is far
superior in quality and performance, and
6.
Some digital cameras don't have shutter speed
fast enough to photograph action.
Conversely, digital imaging has its advantages over
traditional film-base photography
Digital camera
The definition of a digital camera is a tool
used to take photography and store it digitally on
computer memory An example of a digital camera is
one you take pictures with and then transfer directly
from the camera to your computer.
Mirror-less cameras have the advantage of
usually being lighter, more compact, faster, and better
for video, but that comes at the cost of access to
fewer lenses and accessories. DSLRS have the
advantage in lens selection and an optical viewfinder
that works better in low light, but they are more
complex and bulkier.
A digital camera is a camera that takes video
or still photographs, or both. Digitally by recording
the images on a light sensitive sensor Not film. Digital
cameras have features which are not found on the
film-based camera, such as displaying an image on
the camera screen immediately after it is recorded. It
also has the capacity to take a thousand images on a
single memory device, the ability to record video
1.
Digital makes thing very sleek, very convenient,
very compact
2.
Provides instant gratification, you can view the
photographs immediately:
3.
If you didn't get the shot, you know too soon you
did not get so you can make a retake instantly, an
opposed to film, you don't truly know until you
get the photos back from the processing
laboratory:
4.
Eliminates carrying, changing and processing
rolls of film; and
5.
It is not necessary too take the film, maintain a
chain of custody, bring it to a processing
laboratory, have them developed and then get
the prints back to the police department or case
file.
Film camera is a camera that exposes
photographic film to light in order to take a picture.
19
Used since the late 1800s; the film is a chemical
emulsion on a plastic substrate that is sensitive to
light. Film movie cameras capture consecutive
images (frames) on 8mm, 16mm and 35mm film.
Contrast with digital cameras.
lens opening or relative aperture and it is expressed
in F-number.
F1.4 f12 f2.8 f-4 f-5.6 f-8 f-11 f-16 122
The lower the f-number, the bigger the lens
opening and the bigger the lens opening the greater
the volume of air that will passed through the lerids
and reach the sensitized material.
Essential Parts of a Camera
Light Tight Box - a box designed to keep light out
and serve as a frame to hold other parts.
If the objective of a photographer is obtain
the widest possible coverage of the lens in which
objects are all sharp, It will be advisable to used a
smaller lens opening.
Lens - designed to collect or to focus the reflected
light from an object to form an image on the film. It
draws the light into the camera and focuses it on the
film plane
TYPES OF THE CAMERA
Shutter - designed to control the time during which
the light reaches the film. The shutter is opened, or
released, by the shutter release button. The amount
of time the shutter stays open is controlled by the
shutter speed setting.
1.
View Finder Type- it is considered as the
smallest and the simplest type of camera
2.
Single Lens Reflex Camera - it is a type of camera
best suited for police work due to its
interchangeability of the lens
3.
Twin Lens Reflex Camera - A type of camera with
dual lens, one for focusing and the other for
forming the image.
View finder-designed to determine the field of view
of the camera or the extent of the coverage of the
given lens. Is the hole in the back of the camera that a
photographer looks through to aim the camera
4.
View or Press type is considered the biggest and
expensive type of camera used for movie making
OTHER PARTS OF A CAMERA
It is the image-forming device of the lens that has a
greater effect on the quality of the image to be
formed.
Holder of the sensitized material – located at
theopposite side of the lens designed to hold firmly
the sensitizednmaterial to prevent the formation of
the multiple or blurred image
LENS
Viewing System - Is that part of the camera which
provides the means of showing to the photographer
the entire scene coverage that can be recorded in the
sensitized material.
Is a medium or system which converges or diverge
light rays passing through it to form an image.
Film Advancer (film advance lever or knob) Designed to transfer the exposed film to the other
side or to the take up spool and the unexposed film
will be the opposite side of the lens for another
exposure.
Can be a glass or transparent material, which permit
light to pass through and change the direction of
light.
Shutter speed - is that part of the camera which
regulates the time exposure of the film thus, affecting
the amount of light reaching the sensitized material.
It is usually expressed in a fraction of a second.
CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES
Daniel Barbaro = first to introduce the use of lens in
the camera.
1. According to the type of image to be produced
Positive or Convex Lens (Converging Lens)
Characterized by the fact that it is thicker at the
center and thinner at the side which can bend the
light together and forms the image inversely?
1/1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/15 1/30
1/60 1/125 1/250 1/500 1/1000
Lens Aperture
Negative Concave Lens (diverging Lens) or
Characterized by the fact that it is thinner at the
center and thicker at the side and forms the virtual
image on the same side of the lens.
The ratio between the diameter of the whole lens in
relation to the focal length of the lens. It is the light
gathering power of the leris. Otherwise known as
2. According to Degree of Corrections
20
a.
Meniscus Lens lens that has no correction.
b.
Rapid Rectilinear Lens-lens corrected of
distortion
c.
Anastigmat Lens-correcting astigmatism
d.
Achromatic
aberration
e.
Apochromatic Lens - correcting both
astigmatism and chromatic aberration
Lens-correcting
Hyperfocal distance - is the nearest distance
at which when a lens is focused with a given
diaphragm opening will gives the maximum depth of
field.
2. Focusing is the setting of the proper distance to
form a sharp image. The one that controls the degree
of sharpness of the object.
chromatic
Focusing refers to that mechanism of a
camera designed to control the degree of sharpness
of the object to be photograph. It is usually obtained
by estimating the distance from the camera and that
of the object that will make a sharp or clear image
INHERRRENT LENS DEFECTS
Lens Aberration is the inability of the lens to produce
the true or real image of an object in the photograph.
1.
Spherical Aberration When light passing through
near the central part of a converging lens are
bended more sharply than t those rays falling in
the edge, thus the rays coming from the edges
are focused on a plane nearer the lens than those
coming from the central part.
2.
Coma (Also known as lateral aberration)
Inability of the lens to focus light that travels
straight or lateral, thus making it blurred while
the light reaching the lens oblique is the one the
is transmitted sharp.
3.
Curvature of field This kind of defect where the
image formed by a lens comes to a sharper focus
in curved surface than a flat surface.
4.
Distortion is a defect in shape not in sharpness.
It can either be Pincushion distortion (curving
inward) or Barrel (curving outward).
5.
6.
Types of focusing device:
a. Range finder (Either coincidence or split
image type)
Coincidence - otherwise known as
superimposed image focusing In this type of
focusing a single object will appear double
once the object is not in focus but moving the
focusing adjustment this double image will
coincide or superimposed to form a single
object.
Split Image focusing - on the other hand will
show an image in split or two parts once the
object in not in focus once the two parts of
the image has been united then the object is
already focused.
b. Ground Glass
This is observed from the viewing system of
the camera, once the object is not in focused
the object will be viewed to be blurred and
will turn sharp and clear once adjusted.
Chromatic Aberration Inability of the lens to
focus light of varying wavelength. The lens
refracts rays of short wavelength more strongly
than those of longer wavelength and therefore
bringing blue rays to a shorter focus than the
red: (DIN COLOR).
c. Scale Bed
Estimating the distance of the object and
adjusting camera control based on his
estimation do this:
Astigmatism is a form of lens defects in which
the horizontal and vertical axes are not equally
magnified. Inability of the lens to focus both
horizontal and vertical lines.
3. Focal Length is the distance measured from the
optical C center of the lens is set to focus on infinite
position. As according to focal lenses may be
classified as:
LENS CHARACTERISTICS
1.Relative Aperture- the light gathering power of the
lens expressed in F-number
a.
Depth of Field - is the distance measured
from the nearest to the farthest object in apparent
sharp focus when the lens
21
Wide Angle or Short Focus = with focal
length not longer than the diagonal half of
the negative: Useful in taking photograph at
short distance with wider area coverage.
b.
Normal or Medium Focus = with focal length
approximately THEqual but not longer than
twice the diagonal half of the hegative
Burning-in refers to additional exposure on a desired
portion of the negative used for purposes of making a
balance exposure
4.Long or Telephoto Lens = with focal length longer
than twice the diagonal half of the negative. "Best
used in long distance photographing but with narrow
area coverage.
ZOOM - lens lens with variable focal length or that or
more elements in the lens which can be adjusted
continuously by the movement of one system
5.
CHEMICAL PROCESS - The process of making the
latent image visible and permanent
a.
Development (Use of either D-76, Dektol or
Universal Solution) Is the process necessary
for reducing the silver halides to form the
image. Elon, Hydroquinone = used as main
developing agents
b.
Stop bath = normally composed of water
with little amount of dilute acetic acid that
serves to prevent contamination between
the developer and the acid fixer.
c.
Fixation = Is the process by which all
unexposed silver halides are dissolved or
removed from the emulsion surface and
making the image more permanent.
Sodium Thiosulfate (hypo) - is the main fixing agent
that dissolves unexposed silver halides.
Acetic Acid and Boric acid - serve as neutralizer
Sodium Sulfate - serves as the preservative
Potassium Bromide - restrainer or hardener
Sodium bicarbonate and borax powder - serves as
accelerator
Dodging - is the process of eliminating unwanted
portion negative during enlarging.
Cropping - is the process of omitting an object during
the process of enlarging and printing.
Vignetting - is the gradual fading of the image
towards the side through skillful adjustment on the
dodging board.
Dye toning - is the process designed in changing the
color tone of the photograph.
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