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Disclaimer:
You must get your physician’s approval before beginning this exercise program. These
recommendations are not medical guidelines but are for educational purposes only. You must consult
your physician before starting this program or if you have any medical condition or injury that prohibits
physical activity.
The information in this report is meant to integrate, not replace, proper exercise training. All forms of
exercise pose some inherent risks. The editors and publishers advise all readers to take full
responsibility for their safety and know their limits. Before practicing the exercises in this book, be sure
not to take risks beyond the level of your experience, aptitude, training and fitness. The exercises and
dietary programs in this book are not intended as a substitute for any exercise routine or treatment or
dietary regimen that may have been prescribed by your physician.
Don’t lift heavy weights if you are alone, inexperienced, injured, or fatigued. Don’t perform any
exercise unless you have been shown the proper technique by a certified personal trainer or a certified
strength and conditioning specialist. Always ask for instruction and assistance when lifting. Don’t
perform any exercise without proper instruction. Always do a warm-up prior to strength training and
interval training.
See your physician before starting any exercise or nutrition program. If you are taking any medications,
you must talk to your physician before starting any exercise program, including Bodyweight Sports
Training. If you experience any lightheadedness, dizziness, or shortness of breath while exercising,
stop the movement and consult a physician.
You must have a complete physical examination if you have a sedentary lifestyle, high cholesterol,
high blood pressure, diabetes, overweight, or if you are over 30 years old. Please discuss all nutritional
changes with your physician or a registered dietician. If your physician recommends you not to this
guide, please follow your doctor’s orders.
Strength Training:
Practical Programming and Science
of Barbell Training
By Health Class
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1: TRAINING FREQUENCY AND WORK CAPACITY
THE NOVICE LIFTER
THE INTERMEDIATE LIFTER
THE ADVANCED LIFTER
STRENGTH AND EXERCISE CORRELATION.
SET AND REPETITIONS.
VOLUME OF TRAINING AND MUSCLE HYPERTROPHY.
TRAINING UNDER FATIGUE.
REPETITIONS RECOMMENDATION FOR NOVICES.
REST INTERVALS IN WORKOUT
TRAINING TO FAILURE.
LIMITATIONS TO FAILURE TRAINING.
CHAPTER 2: BUILD UP TO PROPER WORKOUT AND TRAINING.
WARM-UP
ECCENTRIC TRAINING
WHY IS ECCENTRIC TRAINING EFFECTIVE?
BENEFITS OF ECCENTRIC TRAINING
ISOMETRIC ACTION TRAINING
● Isometric action training as an important muscle activator
● Isometric training as a stimulus for strength gains
● Isometric action training as a stimulus for muscle growth
BENEFITS OF ISOMETRIC TRAINING
APPLICATIONS OF ISOMETRIC ACTION TRAINING
CHAPTER 3: APPLICATION OF VARIOUS TRAINING METHODS
TO BASIC STRENGTH EXERCISES
Eccentric training methods
Concentric training methods
Repetitive effort method
Dynamic effort method
Isometric training methods
Maximal eccentrics
Contrast training
Overshoot training
CHAPTER 4: RESISTANCE TRAINING, MAXIMUM
ACCELERATION TRAINING, VARIABLE RESISTANCE
TRAINING
Problems with regular lifting exercises
CHAPTER 5: BASIC CONCEPTS OF BIOMECHANICS AND
TECHNIQUE IN POWERLIFTING
TECHNICAL STRUCTURE OF COMPETITIVE EXERCISES
PERIOD AND PHASE STRUCTURE OF BARBELL EXERCISES
TECHNIQUE FOR TYPICAL BARBELL EXERCISES
Squat Technique
Bench Press Technique
CHAPTER 6: PRINCIPLES AND CLASSIFICATION OF PHYSICAL
EXERCISE
CHAPTER 7: THE ROLE OF STRENGTH IN LIFTING
ENDURANCE
Lifting technique
NUTRIENT AND MICRO NUTRIENT FOR GAINS
Anabolism and Catabolism
Proteins
Protein Supplementation
Carbohydrates
Types of Carbohydrates
Fats
Essential Fatty Acids
References.
TRAINING FREQUENCY AND WORK CAPACITY
Managing training intensity, volume and frequency are the key for an optimal
loading and training adaptation, avoiding setback and overtraining. Training
frequency is a hard term to define like intensity and volume. Some authors
consider training frequency as the number of training session in a micro
cycle, some of them define it as the number of training sessions per muscle
group per micro cycle, or as the number of training sessions per training goal.
Basically, you need to take into consideration both definitions, since you
need to take into account muscle loading, central nervous system loading,
endocrine system loading and the joints loading. Training frequency depends
on a lot of factors like training goal, training phase, level of the athlete and
work capacity. Numerous training systems are different variations of
intensity, volume and frequency combos. Work capacity is also hard to
define, it usually is context-dependent and has also a huge number of
subtypes. Basically, work capacity is the ability to sustain training load and
recover from it efficiently. You cannot develop work capacity by doing
bunch of sled work and intervals. This will develop a form of aerobic power
that could be used to speed up recovery between sets, but this also depends
on sets type (what repetition continuum zone). Work capacity is usually
something that must be looked at larger time-frame (like micro cycle), and it
is something that develops over the years. Basically, you can manage to
survive a given training session, but you may not actually recover from it in
matter of days even weeks due to a poor work capacity. Factors that affect
training frequency also affect work capacity, like muscle loading and ability
to recover from it, central nervous system loading and toleration for such a
work, endocrine system loading and ability to recover from it and joint
loading and ability to sustain it.
The optimal training frequency depends thus on the training goals, intensity,
training volume and fatigue type they develop (muscular, CNS, endocrine,
joint), level of the athlete and work capacity.
THE NOVICE LIFTER
No matter what sport an athlete comes from, if he starts doing serious (not
counting wellness experience here) strength training for the first time, he is
novice. Be it experienced soccer player, Olympic weightlifting beginner,
powerlifting beginner or beginner bodybuilder.
The main characteristics of novice lifter is that he needs very simple planning
and his strength grows up rapidly. Mark Rippetotoe provides excellent
explanation of all phases of the lifter in Practical Programming book, and his
work will be used here as a template. Here is a short overview of novice
characteristics:
✔
Novices progress from training session to training session (Linear
progression in weight - PBs)
✔ Novices need small number of lifts
✔
Novice will not develop overtraining that easily and on the other
hand, if they do, the signs will be hard visible (which is ’bad’).
✔ The more advanced is the athlete, the longer is the off-period and
the drastically the reduction in weight and volume is needed.
✔ If novice start to ’stuck’, simple an off day (with reduced weight) is
enough to recover them.
✔ If the unload is in use, the weight should be reduced for 10% and
the cycle should begin once again.
✔
If the novice shows constant need of an off day, then he should
progress toward intermediate level.
✔
The end of novice phase is marked by performance plateau
occurring sometime between the third and ninth month of training,
with variations due to individual differences.
The goal of novice phase is to learn to lift (develop technique) and develop
strength. Rippetoe suggests using 5 repetitions per set, because this allows
both increase in strength and mass gain (depending on the nutrition and other
training) without the disruption of the technique due to much repetitions per
set. This also allows easier progressions in weight (e.g. you can use greater
weight jump if you use 5 repetitions per set, then 10 repetitions per set).
Once again, the design of strength training program for novice lifter depends
on the goals of that program, other training components (for non-strength
athletes), and training phase.
Bodybuilders may start to argue that there is a need to do 8-12 repetitions per
set. However, I guess with proper nutrition, both 5 repetitions athletes and 812 repetitions ones will have similar if not the same results over time (if the
resulting weight on the bar is the same). Anyway, the first phase of strength
increase is achieved via inter- and intra-muscular coordination and there is
very little muscle mass increase, so there is no real need for bodybuilding
methods. Stick to 5 repetitions per set until you develop a minimum amount
of strength (intermediate phase) and then start doing bodybuilding methods.
Increased strength will later allow you to lift greater weights for repetitions
and thus stimulate growth more easily.
Before we move on, let’s define the term Personal Best (PB) or Personal
Record (PR) in strength training. Theoretically, PB is an increase in strength.
Practically, this means achieving something you haven’t achieved before and
demonstrating it, by lifting more weight, lifting the same weight for more
repetitions or lifting it for more sets. For example, if your 1RM moves from
100kg to 102,5kg its PB. If your 5RM moves from 85kg to 87.2kg its PB. If
you do multiple sets, for example 5x5 and manage to do 80kg, but you
suddenly do 5x6 or 5x5 with 82,5kg, it’s PBs. Thus PB is having more
weight on the bar than ’before’ for a given repetitions and sets. What about
you make PB and don’t train for a year and then restart training? Are all lifts
below your old PB considered as non-PB lifts until you surpass your old PB?
In reality – yes they are, but when it comes to planning they are all new PBs,
because your strength level is lower now. Therefore, PB is an all-time record,
but it is also based on your current strength level and previous strength
cycles. Another interesting point is RPE. What if you managed to do 3x5
with 100kg at 7 RPE that couple of weeks ago seemed like 10? Yes, your
strength has improved, but this is NOT PB! This can happen in unloading
micro cycles and in adjustment micro cycles and its great (this shows you are
stronger), but PB means surpassing previous cycle weight/repetitions/sets or
showing that new level of strength not ’perceiving it’.
There could be couple of phases of novices IMO (depending on the sport).
The following examples are just hypothetical for average lifter, but can be
used for power lifter, Olympic lifter and bodybuilder. Let’s review them.
Phase 1. Athletes start to learn technique of the basic compound lifts for 5
repetitions for 3 sets. RPE is around 6-7, although he doesn’t know that yet.
In every training session you increase weight on the bar and achieve PB, until
load becomes 9-10 RPE. Take small step forward to avoid stalling too soon.
If the athlete is unable to finish 3 sets with 5 repetitions on a given weight,
repeat the weights for 3 times. Focus hard on technique; go as fast as you can
on a way up, take more rest between sets, up to 5 min. If this doesn’t help
then deload – take 10-15% for that exercise and start over by adding
progressively the weight.
Phase 2. During this phase you should include new a exercise, but do it
slowly over time. This will provide easier days and provide new training
stimulus to increase strength. After this time the athlete is very proficient
with basic moves, learns RPE system, knows when and how to deload and
how this affect his performance. I would start learning deadlift by now (if
RDL is more than 60kg for example, and if they show good form on bottom
of the deadlift) and replace one squat workout for it. You can also include
front squat variations and start learning clean/snatch using top-down
progression (learn catch, learn shrug & jump from power position, learn jump
and catch), and as deadlift moves up, start doing clean/snatch from the floor.
Also, you can start moving repetitions to higher or lower zone for a given
goals (relative strength/ muscular hypertrophy). Training volume (number of
sets) can increase over time slightly.
Phase 3. When the introduction of new exercises doesn’t seem to prevent
staleness, then playing with loading parameters will (sometimes) do it. This
involves playing with volume and intensity within loading micro cycles.
Variations in repetitions and sets will provide new training stimuli and
prevent boredom. All exercises during a training session have equal
importance and deserve the same training emphasis.
THE INTERMEDIATE LIFTER
The main characteristics of the intermediate lifter are the following:
✔
Intermediates cannot put an equal emphasis on all exercises in
terms of volume, intensity and effort during a single training session,
and/or during all training sessions within micro cycle.
✔
Intermediates need more directed loading to develop given motor
ability
✔
Intermediates need greater stress (load - more sets and volume and
greater intensity) to cause improvements, but they need more rest
(thus the need for week variety) and improvements are smaller and
slower to come
✔
Work capacity (the ability of the body to recover) improves over
time, but in absolute terms. For example, when a novice squats
100kg for 3 sets of 5 he is challenged in terms of recovery ability,
but once he is able to squat 150kg for 5 sets of 5 months after, doing
100kg for 3 sets of 5 is not challenging in terms of recovery ability,
nor it provides great training effect. However, will the athlete
recover the same time from 150kg for 5 sets of 5, as he recovered
months before with 100kg for 3 sets of 5? Maybe yes, maybe no.
This is why absolute work capacity (100kg) certainly goes up, and I
guess relative work capacity (as percentage of 1RM) goes down,
stays the same, or raises slowly and requests greater recovery time
✔
Intermediates can hit PBs from week to week in general
✔
Intermediates need regular easier days within micro cycle, and this
comes together with number one characteristic
✔
Intermediates need regular and more longer unload period
compared to novices
Compared to novices where every training effects ’spills-over’ to numerous
motor abilities, intermediates need more directed training load to develop a
given motor ability/quality.
Basically, intermediates are ready for a true complex-parallel (concurrent)
approach, if the goal of strength training is the development of numerous
motor abilities/tasks simultaneously. Again, we must differ between strength
training as a training system’s component for non-strength sports, and
strength training for strength sports. For non-strength sports you can use a
complex-parallel approach for strength training (development of explosive
strength, strength and muscle mass), or you can arrange strength training in a
different faction to fill your athletic needs. Anyway, the similarities in the
planning of the strength training are still large, and that is why non-strength
athletes can learn great informations from intermediate strength planning.
Basically, since intermediates cannot put equal emphasis (in terms of volume,
intensity and effort) on all exercises during single training sessions, priorities
must be set. They need exercise emphasis. In addition, since they cannot hit
PBs during every training session for a given movement, you simply cannot
expect doing 3 sets of squats per week and hitting PBs every time.
THE ADVANCED LIFTER
Basic characteristics of the advanced athlete are the following:
✔
They cannot develop everything at once. They need to prioritize
the training goals or they will suffer from overtraining and limited
progress
✔
The cumulative/delayed training effects of series of workouts
becomes more and more important. PBs are achieved every couple
of weeks or months.
✔
Training must be organized into longer periods of time, and those
periods progress from higher volume and lower intensity toward
lower volume and higher intensity
✔
Sometimes the characteristic number three doesn’t always apply,
especially if the aim of training block is to produce acute overreaching and later usage of delayed training effects
Compared to intermediate athletes, advanced athletes need greater training
load to further improve a given motor ability/characteristic, but cannot
improve more than couple of them can do at a given moment, because total
training load would be too much for their work capacity. This is why
complex-parallel approach is very difficult to successfully use, except
eventually at the first phase of advanced level.
In the mentioned concurrent examples for intermediate level, athletes try to
improve everything at once: Olympic lifts, squat, deadlifts, benches, chins,
presses and rows, while also performing secondary and auxiliary movements
for muscle mass. This will work for a decent amount of time (if the week
structure is optimally organized based on athletes adaptability and work
capacity, along with other factors), but after some time you will soon find out
that you simply cannot do everything at once. Trying to increase clean
performance will leave you fatigued for squats. Squats will leave you
fatigued for presses, etc., etc. This is the time when you need to prioritize
your training; you need to focus on couple of things while maintaining others
(unless you utilize block approach where you are using training residuals
instead of maintenance loads). The usage of block approach or emphasis
approach is now a necessity.
In my opinion there are three things that may direct ’prioritization’ in strength
training:
✔
Movement pattern. One may decide to pursuit Olympic lifts (or
Clean, or Snatch, or Jerk), one may decide to concentrate on
improving his bench press, or one may decide to concentrate on his
deltoids development. In bodybuilding world this is called ’muscle
specialization’.
✔
Motor ability/quality. One may decide to pursuit relative strength
and maintain his hypertrophy, or one may maintain fat levels and
strength while aiming for maximal muscular hypertrophy, etc.
✔
A combination. One may decide to pursuit his speed in his bench
press and work on his sticking point, while also maintaining strength
and hypertrophy in his pecs and the rest of his body.
STRENGTH AND EXERCISE CORRELATION.
Strength is developed by exercises that use lots of joints and lots of muscles
moving lots of weight over a long range of motion. Fundamental strength
exercises like the squat, the press, the deadlift, and the bench press, along
with power exercises like the clean and the snatch, always form the basis of
any strength and conditioning that is actually useful for an athlete,
irrespective of the level of training advancement.
In the beginning, you'll want to limit the amount of exercises you perform to
just the basic barbell lifts, and bodyweight and dumbbell "assistance work".
By focusing all your efforts into mastering these select few lifts instead of
performing 137 different exercises in the span of four weeks, you'll not only
be able to clearly track the efficacy of what you're doing but also master
proper form much faster.
Training the same lifts with a higher frequency reinforces neuromuscular
patterns, thus enhancing both intra- and inter-muscular coordination. Because
strength gains highly depend on neuromuscular efficiency, strength is best
maximized by performing the same basic movements on a regular basis.
As a result, this will allow you to make the fastest strength gains you'll ever
make in your entire life.
A person that goes from squatting 60 kg for 10 repetitions will be a bigger
and stronger version of himself when he can squat 120 kg x10. In addition,
the only way to do that as quickly as possible is to SQUAT OFTEN. Any
amount of leg presses, leg extensions or leg curls will provide the same type
of training stimulus (remember that training adaptations are specific to the
type of the exercise you perform).
For all intents and purposes, there are three essential scientific aspects you
need to understand about training for strength. Everything else is secondary
and beyond the scope of this book. If you're interested in learning about
scientific reasons and applications behind strength training that run much
deeper than what we cover here, check out the resources section at the end of
this book.
●
Strength is proportional to the cross-sectional area of a muscle, so
that larger muscles have the potential to develop greater strength
than smaller muscles.
● Muscular strength is determined not only by the quantity of involved
muscle mass but also by the extention to which individual fibers in a
muscle are activated (by intramuscular coordination).
● Training adaptations are highly specific. This principle dictates that
the results you get from training are specific to the type of exercise
you perform and only those muscles exposed to a training stimulus
will increase in strength. The specific movement pattern used in
training is where most strength improvement will occur, even when
different exercises involve identical muscle groups. Consequently, if
you want to improve your 1RM on barbell squats, your time would
be better spent on doing a lot of barbell squats to proper depth rather
than nonspecific exercises such as leg extensions, leg presses or
half-squats.
Below there is a short list of main and assistance exercises for illustration
purposes.
Main Exercises
●
●
●
●
Squat
Deadlift
Bench Press
Overhead Press (and their variations)
Assistance Exercises
●
●
●
●
●
●
Chin-Up
Dip
Push-Up
DB Split Squat
Hip Thrust
DB Bench Press
● Ab Wheel etc.
Assistance work is designed to:
● Prevent strength imbalances
● Build muscle
● Strengthen weak areas and
●
Assist the basic lifts (squat, bench press, overhead press, and
deadlift; or whatever lifts you deem important in your training)
What about isolation exercises?
While many people these days in the strength & conditioning realm of fitness
shun training body parts as "non-functional", the truth remains that there is
also a place for isolation movements in a properly designed strength training
program. Isolation exercises "fill in the gaps", so to say. The fact of the
matter remains that you need direct isolation work for smaller muscle groups
if you want to maximize your muscular potential. Yes, there are people who
can get insanely big and strong with merely the basic lifts but exceptions
don't make the rule.
Typically, what you do first in a workout is the exercise that has the highest
rank in importance. While for many people bench pressing and curls fit that
description and are performed before any other exercises, there's a better way
to organize resistance exercises for optimal results.
The most demanding neural work should be done first, meaning that high
velocity work and/or low rep work should be done first in the workout.
Because power exercises - such as the snatch, hang clean, power clean, and
push jerk - require the highest level of skill and concentration of all the
exercises and are most affected by fatigue, they should be performed first in a
training session, followed by other non-power main exercises, and then
assistance exercises. Some people also refer to this arrangement as "multijoint exercises and then single-joint exercises", or "large muscle areas and
then small muscle areas".
In other words, power cleans would be done before squats, since acceleration
is critical in the performance of the first ones, and the nervous system has to
be more fresh to perform a heavy set of power cleans than a heavy set of
squats.
Another thing to keep in mind is that executing exercises involving large
muscle groups before smaller muscle groups in a training session will
maximize the total amount of weight lifted and repetitions completed during
that session. Performing an upper body assistance exercise - such as triceps
extensions - prior to a barbell bench press will negatively affect your
performance on the main lift since the triceps are already in a fatigued state
from the triceps extension exercise.
Interestingly, switching the exercises around and performing the bench press
exercise prior to the isolation exercise for the triceps will not have any
adverse effects on your ability to perform the latter due to the fact that
smaller muscles will be well challenged and overloaded during a heavy
resistance training session whether it will be done first or last.
When it comes to specific skill work, such as pistol squat or handstand
progressions, that should be scheduled at the beginning of a workout while
you're still fresh. You can implement those movements either as a part of
your warm-up, as the first or second exercise right before or after a power
exercise (depending on which training aspect you consider most important),
or in a completely separate training session on off days.
SET AND REPETITIONS.
Common sense would dictate us that to get better at something you'd need to
practice it more. Whether it's playing the guitar, learning a new language or
collecting rare stamps, the more time and effort you invest into mastering a
task, the greater your ability to perform that specific task will become over
time. Nobody ever got better at something by doing less of it. Remember
that.
As we've already discussed, training volume, intensity and frequency are all
interdependent factors. Generally speaking, the lower your training intensity
is, the more volume you need in order to reach rewards and vice versa.
Likewise, when frequency is high (i.e. daily training or multiple training
sessions per day), intensity and volume can't remain high for long periods of
time, as this will compromise the body's ability to recover, leading to
plateaued or even diminished strength levels and the possibility of
overtraining.
Following the previously established guidelines of training each muscle
group twice or three times a week (beginners and intermediates,
respectively), then the question that arises is the following:
"How many sets should I perform for a combination of strength and size?"
Single and multiple sets
Regarding training for strength and size, some people audaciously claim that
one single set (often taken to the point of failure) is all that is needed for
producing maximum strength and muscle gains. The vast body of evidence in
the scientific literature does not support this notion.
In fact, in the light of current research on the whole single versus multiple set
discussion, multiple-set protocols are clearly in the lead.
Kramer and colleagues noticed that multiple sets not performed to failure
yield superior gains in 1RM squat strength compared to one set to failure in
moderately trained subjects.
Rhea and others demonstrated that when intensity is kept equal, multiple sets
produce greater strength gains in both the upper and lower body than one set
in a periodized training program. Their researches indicate that single-set
programs result in similar strength gains as multiple-set programs for an
initial short training period in untrained individuals. However, as progression
occurs and higher gains are desired, multiple-set programs are more effective
for trained individuals. So, for programs with an extended duration, multiple
sets are superior than single sets for gaining strength.
Moreover, Krieger and colleagues found that 2 to 3 sets per exercise are
associated with 46% greater strength gains than 1 set in both trained and
untrained subjects.
For muscle hypertrophy, 2-3 sets per exercise are more effective than 1 set
(40% greater size gains with multiple compared to single set) in both trained
and untrained subjects.
Now here's where things get really interesting and I apologize in advance if
your eyes are glazing over already. Feel free to come back to this part at a
later time (or never).
According to the research papers by Krieger quoted above, there seems to be
no significant difference between 2-3 sets per exercise and 4-6 sets per
exercise in terms of strength gains, although there may be a corresponding
increase in hypertrophy in relation to a higher number of sets performed.
However, as the author also noticed, the fact that whether 2-3 sets and 4-6
sets per exercise actually produce different rates of hypertrophy was still
inconclusive at the time the research papers were published.
A more recent study found indeed a difference. Researchers from Down
Under compared the effect of 1, 4 and 8 sets of squats performed at 80% of
1RM twice a week on strength and hypertrophy on trained individuals. What
they found is that the high-volume protocol (8 sets) was superior than 1 and 4
sets in terms of both squatting strength and lean mass increases. After all of
this massive, it's evident that multiple sets are more effective than single sets
as clearly stated by research.
Number of Repetitions.
Undoubtedly you have heard the old maxim that low repetitions only build
strength, high repetitions are great for losing fat and enhancing muscle tone
(which is BS), and that the growth zone is 8-12 repetitions (that's why you
always see 3x10 as the most usual set and rep combination in training
programs in the magazines). An estimated ~ 25% of the hypertrophic
response in human skeletal muscle following resistance training is
determined by the loading.
As such, loading is one of the most (if not the most) important factors when
designing strength training programs, both if the prime goal is increased
muscle mass or if it's gaining strength with as little increase in muscle mass
as possible, the latter being a viable training objective for many athletes
competing in sports involving weight classes, such as boxers, wrestlers or
weightlifters.
As far as the number of repetitions per set for optimal hypertrophy is
concerned, biggest gains will typically occur when performing 6-12
repetitions on a given exercise (yellow area in the picture above). Scientific
evidence appears to support this notion. While still far from 100%
conclusive, a current research indicates that training with loads at 70-85% of
1RM (approximately 6-12 repetitions per set) is best for maximizing muscle
growth.
Furthermore, when observing the repetition continuum, it becomes evident
that performing lower repetitions (1-5) emphasizes more strength than
hypertrophy gains. And before you wonder how Olympic weightlifters only
perform low repetitions and still get jacked, you should realize that their
training frequency and volume far exceeds those of the typical gym rat... not
to mention the pharmaceutical assistance that many pro level athletes receive
nowadays.
If you're a person with no regular working hours, don't experience much
stress in life, have the time and energy to devote hours every day to lifting
weights, and spend several months or years working out and getting
accustomed to a high-volume and high-frequency training stimulus, that type
of training can be very effective for adding weight to the bar and size to your
frame. However, I understand that lots of people have lives outside of the
gym and have no inclination to train like a full-time weightlifter.
On the other hand, higher repetitions (12+) focus more on muscular
endurance, somewhat on hypertrophy and less on strength, although there's a
time and place for them as well (which I will address in a minute). All in all,
5-12 repetitions per set seems to hit the sweet spot for both strength and size
gain. And I would even go a step further, claiming that 5-8 repetitions is
where the magic happens for the drug- free, genetically average person (at
least at the beginning).
More or less repetitions?
A beginner needs a large amount of repetitions to learn the correct technique
and timing with the big barbell lifts. The rule of 10 000 states that in order to
achieve a high level of proficiency, you need to get 10 000 repetitions with a
given lift under your belt.
Good repetitions, that is. Bad ones don't count.
However, the real caveat lies in the fact that those 10 000 repetitions need to
be in the correct repetition range (for the most part). There's a difference
between doing sets of 5 and sets of 15. While performing sets of 15
repetitions will undoubtedly allow you to reach 10 000 repetitions faster than
sets of 5, I don't recommend going above 10-12 repetitions when you're first
starting out. With lower body lifts such as squats and deadlifts, I never
suggest my clients going above 8 repetitions in the beginning.
It's a good thing you brought it up because it's yet another myth which we
better dispose of right now. Look, what many of these so-called experts have
failed to comprehend is that doing a set of 5 repetitions (or any low rep set)
does NOT mean it's by default a slow, grinding maximum effort set that
snaps your spine in half. According to Siff, loads as small as 40% of 1RM
can significantly enhance the strength of a beginner (but have no
strengthening effect on an elite athlete).
Furthermore, according to Rhea et al., 60% of 1RM is the optimum amount
to be used to spur strength gains in a novice (those with less than 1 year of
consistent training).57 Even though I don't completely agree with that notion
(in my opinion, slightly higher intensities work better for most people I
design and have designed programs for past the raw newbie stage), these
findings demonstrate that a beginner doesn't need to use extremely heavy
weights to elicit a training response and gain strength.
While the idea of higher repetitions for beginners appears good in theory,
what really happens when a novice performs, so to say, 12 or more
repetitions (even with light weights) on a compound barbell exercise like the
squat, is that their smaller and weaker stabilizer muscles (abs, lower back)
give out before the stronger muscles of the legs (quads, gluts, hamstrings).
His form starts crumbling due to big relative strength imbalances between
muscle groups so that he’ll try to complete the lifts by overcompensating
with the aid of stronger muscle groups when the weaker muscles are too tired
to maintain solid technique any longer. This is why you often see a newbie
turn a set of proper back squats into good mornings when fatigue sets in
towards the end of a higher rep set. Alternatively, in the case of deadlifts, the
lower back starts rounding a bit more on every subsequent repetition. Or they
start bouncing the bar off the chest on the bench press. Everything this
behaviour does is teach the trainee bad habits and increase the risk of injury.
According to Berger, practicing while fatigued not only reduces the quality of
performance but also negatively affects the learning of relatively complex
total body movements. So not only we compromise the form in the short term
but also ingrain false movement patterns that we'll need to fix in the future.
VOLUME OF TRAINING AND MUSCLE HYPERTROPHY.
Volume is a highly individual thing. Some people grow on high volume,
whereas others can see great gains with only one or two work sets.
How someone responds to a high-volume training plan depends on multiple
factors such as age, training age, injury history, ability to recover, external
life stressors, etc. Another thing we need to take into account is that you
can't increase volume forever. If 8 sets of squats is better than 4 sets, then
surely 16 would be even better. In addition, when 16 sets cease to produce
further gains (as all training protocols at some point will do) why not going
up to 32 sets? Or 100? Once again, we can merely establish guidelines and go
from there... Peterson and colleagues summarized their findings in the
following manner:
●
For untrained individuals, maximal strength gains are elicited at an
average training intensity of 60% of 1RM, 3 days per week, and with
an average training volume of 4 sets per muscle group.
●
Recreationally trained non-athletes exhibit maximal strength gains
with an average training intensity of 80% of 1RM, 2 days per week,
and an average volume of 4 sets per muscle group.
●
For advanced athletic populations, maximal strength gains are seen
at an average training intensity of 85% of 1RM, 2 days per week,
and with an average training volume of 8 sets per muscle group (16
total sets per week per muscle group).
A study done by Wernbom et al. established similar specifications,
suggesting that hypertrophy in novice to intermediate lifters can be
maximized with up to 3-6 sets per muscle group, performed 2-3 times per
week (6-18 total sets per week per muscle group). The researchers also noted
that advanced lifters probably need even higher volumes to elicit further
gains in size.
TRAINING UNDER FATIGUE.
Eventually, when good form has become second nature, we can and should
utilize higher-repetition sets in our training, for example 20RM squats.
However, in the beginning we want to lay a foundation for proper learning
and solid execution of the basic exercises. In addition, we do that by keeping
the loads fairly low and repetitions low to moderate.
Starting light allows us to master technique quickly while being able to
continuously add weight to the bar without fear of injury or hitting a wall in
three weeks. It's not uncommon for clients - especially if they're female or
otherwise on the weaker side - to begin with just the barbell weighing 20
kilograms, perfecting their technique with low to moderate repetitions while
simultaneously adding 2,5-5 kg per session to the bar, and continuously
getting stronger. Eventually, in the next three to six months down the line,
they will overtake in strength levels many gym rats who still perform strictly
high repetitions.
As we have already established, progressive overloading is the name of the
game. You will be hard-pressed to find a person who looks strong but trains
with puny weights (barring an injury). You need to surpass the numbers
written in your training journal if you ever expect to get anywhere with your
training. It's much easier to beat your previous records from week to week
with low to moderate repetitions (5-8) than it is with 10, 15 or 20 repetitions
per set. As an anecdote (yes, this is purely anecdotal, believe me), it's also
how I added over 100 kg to my deadlift within the first 12 months of
practicing the lift. I simply pulled in the 5-8 repetitions range with different
stances (conventional, sumo) and at a different height (off the floor, off
pins/blocks), and tried to beat my training journal every time I stepped inside
the gym.
REPETITIONS RECOMMENDATION FOR NOVICES.
First of all, you need to master a perfect technique so that you don't crumble
under the tremendous fatigue you'll be experiencing with high repetitions.
Second, with a 1RM of 60 kg on the squat, your wheels won't be growing too
much with 20 repetition squats performed with just the bar in comparison to
have added 100 kg to your squat 1RM a year or two down the line. So save
the high repetitions for the time in your training career when you actually do
get something out of them.
When you're first starting out, drop the ego, start light and keep the volume
and intensity moderate. Beginners don't need to perform annoying training
sessions with high volume and intensity to testify strength increases. Focus
on learning proper lifting form and try to add weight to the bar as often as
possible.
Past the novice stage (~ 1-2 years of progressive strength training), the
following guidelines apply:
●
Lower volumes (1–3 sets) and intensities (50–70% 1RM) cause
minimal strength improvements among experienced athletes.
● For athletes with more than one year of strength training experience,
the intensity of 80% of 1RM is close to optimal.
● Generally, if gaining strength is your main objective in the gym,
most of your work sets should be done in the 70-85% of 1RM range,
which amounts to approximately 6-12 repetitions per set.
Combine that with lifting loads above 85% of 1RM (1-5 repetitions per set)
from time to time, and you've got your bases covered. Occasionally
performing low repetitions is great for producing additional strength gains
primarily via neural adaptations, and should not be completely neglected as a
training tool.
●
If you're more after hypertrophy, the traditional "bodybuilding"
approach of higher volume, moderate intensity at 60-80% with
multiple sets and multiple exercises per body part is very effective.
●
Regarding total repetitions per muscle group per workout, greater
gains in muscle mass are noted initially with increasing volume (or
duration) of work, but with diminishing returns as the volume
increases further. Overall, moderate volumes (~ 30–60 repetitions
per muscle group per session) appear to yield the largest responses.
REST INTERVALS IN WORKOUT
The amount of rest between sets is strongly related to the intensity (% of
1RM) of the exercise. The higher the intensity is and the heavier the loads
lifted are, the longer the rest periods between sets needs to be to allow for a
sufficient recovery. Furthermore, the more muscle groups in a given exercise
is simultaneously targeting, the longer will be the rest interval required.
Your rest periods depend entirely on your training related goals.
Hence, a heavy squat for a triple is much more demanding than a 12-rep set
of dumbbell curls, and requires a longer rest interval to recover from it. When
training for maximum strength, longer rest periods (≥ 3 minutes) are
generally more effective than shorter ones (30-120 seconds), since it takes the
body about three minutes to fully regain your strength on a given exercise.
Then again, anyone who has ever performed a brutal 20RM set of breathing
squats will tell you that after three minutes you're slowly beginning to scrape
yourself off the floor and maybe, just maybe you are capable of standing up
without your legs turning into cooked noodles.
According to the previous point about strength being regained after
approximately three minutes, longer rest periods also allow a lifter to perform
a higher volume of training with a given load than do 1- or 2-minute rest
intervals, which appears to be important in stimulating greater strength and
hypertrophy adaptations. The practical aspects of longer rest intervals (> 5
minutes) must also be considered, since you don't want to drag your workouts
for too long. Besides, there is definitely a point of diminishing returns when it
comes to extending rest periods, where a longer rest interval doesn't yield
additional volume or strength gain. Although that specific point has to be
exactly determined yet, it is enough to say that you will rarely - if ever - need
to rest longer than 5 minutes between sets.
Regarding hypertrophy, metabolic stress and achieving a huge pump seem to
be pretty important. In contrast to exercises that involve larger muscle
groups, which are generally suited for hoisting big weights and require
relatively long rest periods, isolation movements are usually intended for
moving lighter weights for higher repetitions, keeping rest periods relatively
short, and getting the biggest pump possible in the intended muscle(s). This
seems to be in line with scientific research as well, which indicates that
moderate rest periods of 30-120 seconds produce the best results regarding
hypertrophy.
When constructing a productive strength training program, it makes sense to
rest longer on basic multi-joint exercises that hit the biggest muscle groups
and are physiologically the most demanding to perform and recover from.
For submaximal lifts (less than 90% of 1RM), 3–5 minutes rest should be
prescribed between sets to allow a consistency in repetitions without large
reductions in training intensity, whereas 0.5 to 2 minutes are optimal for
accessory work from a muscle-building standpoint.
TRAINING TO FAILURE.
Izquierdo and colleagues demonstrated that not training to failure was more
beneficial for power production, whereas both training and not training to
failure resulted in similar improvements in maximal strength. However,
training leading to repetition failure seemed more beneficial for enhancing
upper body local muscular endurance. This notion supports anecdotal
bodybuilder evidence that taking a set to failure is advantageous for maximal
hypertrophy, since more repetitions performed at a given % of 1RM in a
hypertrophy repetition range lead to better muscle gains.
As stated by a review of current research by Peterson and co-workers,
training to failure does not elicit greater strength gains than not training to
failure. This is true even when comparing protocols that utilize multiple sets
taken to failure versus multiple sets not to failure. According to another study
led on advanced athletes, it appears that training to failure on a constant basis
(i.e. frequently taking all or a majority of working sets to failure) is not as
favourable for building strength and power as cutting the set before failure is
reached.
In essence, if your main goal is strength and power, training to failure is not
necessary or even recommended on heavy compound movements. Especially
for power production it's even damaging, since practicing an explosive lift
such as a power clean or dumbbell snatch in a fatigued state will lead to
breakdowns in technique and decreased power production. If you want to
focus your training efforts more on muscle growth, training to failure can be
an effective training technique to spur more hypertrophy. Because of
muscular hypertrophy is a major contributor to long-term increases in
maximal strength, advanced lifters should consider training to failure
occasionally. For this purpose, it is suggested that reaching failure might be
prescribed only on the last set of a given exercise or series of exercises that
address similar muscle groups or movement patterns.
LIMITATIONS TO FAILURE TRAINING.
One thing we need to stress over and over again regarding training to failure
is that it places a heavier weight on the nervous system and is harder to
recover from. Constantly grinding out repetitions at near-maximal intensities
really takes a toll on the body by overtaxing your neuromuscular system and
overstressing your joints. Therefore, when utilizing heavy, multi-joint barbell
lifts that target large muscle groups (squats, bench presses, and so on), and
training for maximal strength, failure training should be avoided for the most
part, since it's very exhausting for the nervous and hormonal system, so that
recovery from it takes longer and overreaching/overtraining is more likely to
occur.
Furthermore, training to failure should not be practiced repeatedly over long
periods due to the potential for decreases in growth-promoting hormones and
increases in overuse injuries. The over-prescription of failure sets may result
in decreased resting levels of testosterone and increased resting levels of
cortisol, which are counterproductive to hypertrophy. Another thing we need
to keep in mind is the effect of failure training on your athletic capabilities if
you actively participate in a sport (i.e. play basketball, flag football or soccer
few times every week). When you regularly tax the muscles and nervous
system via training to failure, your performance on the field may lack in
quality due to your body's limited capacity to recover from strenuous
exercise.
Lifting weights 3-4 times a week while training to failure and playing your
sport other 3 or more times per week cause a tremendous amount of stress on
the entire nervous system. As a result, this could potentially lead to a plateau
or even decrease in strength levels, and rarely feeling "fresh" in the gym or
on the field.
Finally, training to failure is not recommended when training skill-based
exercises or exercises that could potentially put you in a dangerous position,
such as handstand push-ups.
Figure 5. Inclusion to muscular failure at the various stages of training status
according to the ACSM.
What about forced repetitions?
Drinkwater and colleagues discovered that for moderately trained athletes,
there is no additional benefit to strength or power development when training
repeated sets of forced repetitions compared with ceasing training sets once
the point of repetition failure has been reached, even when higher volumes of
both successful and failed repetitions are completed.
This means that once concentric failure has been reached, forced or partnerassisted repetitions don't produce any additional strength or power gain.
CHAPTER TWO
BUILD UP TO PROPER WORKOUT AND TRAINING.
WARM-UP
Before every training session whether it is strength training, conditioning, or
agilities session, a complete warm-up and flexibility session must be done. A
proper warm-up will:
✔
✔
Increase the body temperature prior to training
Prepare the major joints for strenuous activity through all ranges of
motion
✔ Increase flexibility of specific joints for increased range of motion
✔ Mentally prepare an athlete for the training that is about to be done
General Warm-Up
The following activities can be done prior to any workout:
Light Jog - 5-10 minutes of continuous jogging at a moderate pace
Jump Rope - 3- 5 minutes of continuous jumping or See Agility/Footwork
Section for specific jump rope programs
Bike/Stairmaster/Cross Trainer - 5-10 minutes at a moderate intensity and
pace
An indication of a good warm-up is a light sweat. Follow the general warmup with a brief stretch and then move onto the specific warm-up. A longer,
more complete flexibility session should be done after the specific warm-up
Flexibility
Flexibility is an important variable in athletic development. Flexibility can
help the increase of speed, power, agility, quickness, and strength. Flexibility
is also a key component in the prevention of injuries. A greater range of
motion in joint can reduce the chance of muscle tears, ligament strain, and
injury to connective tissue. Also a greater range of motion that a joint has, the
more efficient the muscles, tendons, ligaments and the joint itself will be
when they are put through strenuous activity.
Flexibility is joint specific so every major joint structure must be stretched
regularly in order to maximize the effects of a program. In addition to static
and dynamic stretching programs, proper strength training may increase
flexibility. A current research demonstrates that strength training through a
full and safe range of motion can lead to increases in joint flexibility,
Points of emphasis:
✔
✔
✔
Always perform a general warm-up prior to stretching.
Be relaxed while stretching
Begin all stretches slowly; ease into position, hold, ease out of
stretch
✔ Hold all stretches for 10-15 seconds
✔
Do not bounce. This could cause injury and prevent flexibility
development by not allowing the muscle being stretched to relax.
✔ Do not stretch so far that you experience joint pain.
✔ Always stretch before and after workouts. Stretching post-exercise
will prevent soreness and accelerate recovery.
Feet Together (Standing)
Feet together, reach hands toward toes.
Relax low back.
Do not bounce.
Legs Spread
Spread feet as wide as possible, while maintaining balance.
Reach with both hands to ankle.
Complete a repetition to the left, right and middle.
Hip Flexor – Twist Over
Same as Hip Flexor stretch.
Put opposite elbow on knee and twist.
Try to get shoulders parallel to thigh of front leg.
Squat Stretch
Take a position with your feet slightly wider than shoulder
width.
Keep your heels on the ground and chest up.
Back should be flat.
Push out on knees.
Quad Stretch
Remain on side.
Slowly pull back on foot.
Keep hips in extension to stretch hip flexor.
Calf Stretch
Keep legs straight.
Keep heel on the ground.
Keep hips high.
Feet Together (Seated)
Feet together, reach
Hands toward toes
Relax low back
Do not bounce
Groin Stretch
Pull the heels as close to the body as possible
Push out on the knees with the elbows
Legs Over Head
Relax the low back
Try to extend legs until straight with toes pointed down
Do not bounce
Knees to Chest
Pull the knee to the chest
Opposite leg should be straight
Extend the Leg
Grab high on the calf
Extend the leg by pushing the heel to the sky
Leg Over
Keep the shoulders and hips flat on the ground
The leg across should be perpendicular to the torso
Modified Hurdler
Bring heel to leg
Keep leg straight and flat on ground
Reach with both hands
Spinal Twist
Apply pressure to leg with elbow
Turn shoulders to 90 degrees
Foot of bent leg must be flat
ECCENTRIC TRAINING
The eccentric action of a muscle refers to a resisted lengthening of that
muscle; a muscle exerting force while it’s being lengthened. This type of
action has also been called the yielding action (as opposed to the overcoming
action which refers to the actual lifting of the resistance) as well as the
negative action. Eccentric action is present in most free-weight and machine
exercises. However, since concentric strength potential is lower than the
eccentric strength potential the yielding portion of a movement is rarely fully
stimulated. In other words, the relative weakness of the overcoming portion
prevents a complete overload during the yielding portion of the exercise.
Individual seeking maximum results should plan training methods
emphasizing eccentric overload.
Eccentric stress as a superior stimulus for strength improvements
It’s been a while since we’ve known that the yielding (eccentric/negative)
portion of an exercise is responsible for more strength gains than the
overcoming (concentric/biometric/positive) portion. For example, a study by
Hortobagyi and coworkers found that the total maximal strength
improvement from eccentric-only training brought more strength gain than a
concentric-only program followed for 6 weeks. By total maximal strength I
mean the sum of maximum concentric, isometric, and eccentric strength. In
that parameter, eccentric training gave an average of improvement of 85%,
while concentric training led to an improvement of 78%. Furthermore, this
study used submaximal yielding actions and maximal overcoming actions.
Surely this tells us a lot about the potential of yielding strength training, at
least when maximum strength gains are the concern.
In addition, it is to be noted that these results are in accordance with the body
of scientific literature on the subject. For example, a study by Higbie et al.
(1996) found a combined strength increase (concentric strength improvement
plus eccentric strength improvement) of 43% with an eccentric-only regime
compared to one of 31.2% with a concentric only scheme. We should also
note a study by Hilliard-Robertson and coworkers which concluded, “A
resistance training protocol which includes eccentric as well as concentric
exercise, particularly when the eccentric is emphasized, appears to result in
greater strength gain than concentric exercise alone”. This is in accordance
with an early study by Komi and Buskirk (1972) who recorded greater
strength increases after an eccentric training procedure than after a
concentric-only regimen.
It was also found that omitting eccentric stress in a training program severely
compromised the potential strength gain (Dudley et al. 1991).
Eccentric stress as a superior stimulus for muscle growth
The last above-mentioned study (Higbieet al. 1996) found that eccentriconly training led to an average muscle size gain of 6.6% over 10 weeks
while a concentric-only program led to gains of 5%. While the difference
may not seem to be huge, any bodybuilder who knows his gear understands
that 2% more muscle over a 10 week period can be visually important,
especially in the long run.
These results are backed by another recent study (Farthing and Chilibeck
2003), which concluded that “Eccentric training resulted in greater
hypertrophy than concentric training.” One recent study even found
accentuated eccentric training to cause 19% more muscle growth than
traditional strength training over 11 weeks. Another research concluded,
“Eccentric muscle actions are a necessary stimulus for muscle hypertrophy”
WHY IS ECCENTRIC TRAINING EFFECTIVE?
Eccentric training allows one to stimulate greater strength and size gains than
pure concentric training. Why is that? There are five major reasons:
●
There is a greater neural adaptation to eccentric training than to
concentric training (Hortobagyi et al. 1996).
●
There is a more important force output produced during a maximal
eccentric action (greater overload) because you can use a higher
external load (Colliander and Tesch 1990).
● There is a higher level of stress per motor unit during eccentric work.
Less motor units are recruited during the eccentric portion of a
movement, thus each of the recruited motor units receives much
more stimulation (Grabiner and Owings 2002; Linnamo et al. 2002).
Furthermore, since the nervous systems seems to recruit less motor
units during a maximal eccentric action, the potential for
improvement could be greater than with maximal concentric action.
●
There is some evidence that maximal eccentric actions will
preferably recruit fast- twitch muscle fibers, which are more
responsive to muscle growth and strengthening (Nardone et al. 1989,
Howell et al. 1995, Hortobagyi et al. 1996). In fact, eccentric
training may stimulate an evolution towards a faster contractile
profile (Martin et al. 1995).
● Most of the micro-trauma to the muscle cells incurred during training
is a result of the eccentric action (Brown et al. 1997, Gibala et al.
2000). It has been established that this micro-trauma acts as the
signal to start the muscle adaptation process (Clarke and Feedback,
1996).
BENEFITS OF ECCENTRIC TRAINING
For most of us, strength and size gains are the name of the game. However
the positive effects of negative training don’t stop there. We could also note
the following “fringe” benefits:
●
Greater cross-education (Hortobagyi and Lambert 1997). Crosseducation refers to the transfer of strength gain from one limb/side to
the other. In practical terms it means that if you train only your right
arm using eccentric actions, some of the strength gained would
transfer to the left arm. This can be very beneficial to prevent
excessive strength loss if one limb is immobilized.
● Eccentric training is also a superior method to treat tendinosis when
compared with concentric exercise (Mafi et al. 2001). So it could be
stated that this form of training is adequate to be used by injured
athletes and that it is relatively safer than concentric training even if
the loads used are greater.
●
A last point of interest is that strength gain from eccentric training
are kept longer during a period of detraining than the increase from
concentric-only training (Collinder and Tesch 1992, Housh et al.
1996), which may be very important for athletes who cannot train as
much during the season as they can in the off-season.
ISOMETRIC ACTION TRAINING
An isometric muscle action refers to exerting muscle strength/muscle tension
without producing an actual movement or a change in muscle length.
Isometric muscle action can also be called static training.
Examples of isometric action training can include:
● Holding a weight at a certain position in the range of motion
● Pushing/pulling against an immovable external resistance
Historically it’s been believed that we can produce more strength in a
maximum isometric action than in a concentric contraction. While some
studies find a slight difference, Soviet literature concludes that: “it is
necessary to point out that there is not a statistically significant difference
between the maximum strength, as measured in a static regime, and the
maximum weight that can be lifted in the same movement” (A.S. Medvedyev
1986).
While probably not as effective as yielding or overcoming training, isometric
training can still be significantly advantageous to most athletes.
Isometric action training as an important muscle activator
One of the most important benefits of isometric action training is that it’s the
contraction regime that leads to the greatest activation level. Activation refers
to the use of the motor-units of a muscle. A recent study comparing the level
of muscle activation during isometric, concentric, and eccentric muscle
actions found that one can recruit over 5% more motor-units/muscle fibers
during a maximal isometric muscle action than during either a maximal
eccentric or maximal concentric action; 95.2% for isometric compared to
88.3% for the eccentric and 89.7% for the concentric (Babault et al. 2001).
These finding are in accordance with the body of literature which finds that
one can recruit almost all motor-units during a maximal isometric action
(Allen et al. 1995, Allen et al. 1998, Belanger and McComas 1981, De Serres
and Enoka 1998, Gandevia et al. 1998, Gandevia and McKenzie 1988,
Merton 1954, Newham et al. 1991, Yue et al. 2000). So this means that
isometric action training can improve our capacity to recruit motor-units
during a maximal contraction. This way including this type of training in our
program can improve our capacity to activate motor-units, even in dynamic
actions. In the long run, this improved neural drive could greatly increase
one’s strength production potential.
In the past, isometric exercises have been described as a technique that
should only be used by advanced lifters. I respectfully disagree. One of the
biggest shortcomings of low-class lifters is the incapacity to produce
maximum intramuscular tension during a concentric contraction. Isometric
exercise can thus be used to learn how to produce this high level of tension,
as it requires less motor skills than the corresponding dynamic action. For
this reason I see isometric exercises as very beneficial for all classes of
athletes.
Isometric training as a stimulus for strength gains
It has long been known that isometric action training (IAT) can lead to
significant strength increase. In a recent experimentation, strength gains of
14-40% were found over a 10-week period using isometric action training.
However, it is important to understand that the strength gains from an
isometric scheme occur especially to train the joint angles (Roman 1986,
Kurz 2001), although there is a positive transfer of 20 to 50% of the strength
gained in a 20-degree range (working angle less or more of 20 degrees).
Some people might see this limitation as a negative aspect of isometric action
training. Nevertheless, some authors prefer to see this as a benefit because it
enables you to exert a greater level of strength at a certain point in the
motion, allowing the athlete to stimulate more strength raise at a point where
he needs it the most (sticking point).
Isometric action training as a stimulus for muscle growth
While initial reports on isometric action training hypothesized that this type
of workout would not lead to significant muscle gain due to the absence of
work, recent findings actually conclude that an isometric training scheme can
lead to gain in muscle size. A study by Kanchisa et al. (2002) found an
average muscle cross-sectional area (size) improvement of 12.4% for
maximal isometric contraction training and of 5.3% for isometric training at
60% of maximum contraction after a training period of 10 weeks. The
authors attributed the increase in muscle size to metabolic demands and
endocrine activities rather than mechanical stress and neuromuscular control.
BENEFITS OF ISOMETRIC TRAINING
1. Maximum intramuscular tension is attained for only a brief
period in dynamic exercises (mostly due to the fact that the
resistance has velocity and acceleration components), while in
isometric exercises you can sustain that maximal tension for a
longer period of time. For example, instead of maintaining
maximum intramuscular tension for 0.25 to 0.5 second in the
concentric portion of a dynamic movement, you may support it
for around 3-6 seconds during an isometric exercise. Strength is
greatly influenced by the total time under maximal tension. If
you can add 10-20 seconds of maximal intramuscular tension
per session, then you increase your potential for strength
growth.
2. Isometric trainings can help you improve strength at a precise
point in the range of motion of an exercise. This can prove to be
very valuable to get past plateaus due to a chronic sticking
point.
3. Isometric exercise is not “energy cunsumption”, meaning that
you do not spend much energy by doing isometric training.
Therefore, you can get the benefits of IAT without interfering
with the rest of your planned workout.
Bottom line
It is important to note that isometric action training has still limited
applications for an athlete or bodybuilder. Yes, it can help increasing strength
and size, but without a concurrent dynamic (yielding and overcoming)
program the gain will be slow. In fact, some coaches noted that increases
from isometric exercises stop after 6-8 weeks of use (Medvedyev 1986). So
while isometric action training can be very helpful to work on a weak point
or improve an athlete’s capacity to activate motor-units, it should only be
used for short periods of time when progress has slowed down or when a
rapid strength improvement is needed. Isometric action training can also be
useful during periods of lowered training volumes, i.e. when someone has to
decrease his training load either due to fatigue symptoms or time constraints,
isometric work can help prevent muscle and strength losses.
APPLICATIONS OF ISOMETRIC ACTION TRAINING
Here are few recommendations based on the work of Y.I. Ivanov of the old
Soviet Union, John Ziegler of the U.S., and my own personal experience:
1. You must contract your muscles as hard as you can; to be
effective you must reach and maintain a level of maximum
intramuscular tension.
2. The duration of an action (or “set”) should be 1-10 seconds, 3-6
being best in most cases.
3. Use at least 3 positions per movement, but as many as 6
positions can be used for maximum results (if time and
equipment permit). Choose key positions of the equivalent
dynamic exercise if you want a positive transfer of the strength
gain.
4. Take enough rest between actions (sets) to allow the maximum
tension to be produced each time. I personally find that you
need 10 times more rest than you spend contracting. For
example, if you use 3-second actions, you rest 30 seconds. If
you use 6- second actions you rest 60 seconds, etc.
5. Isometric exercises should be used concurrently (in the same
workout) with a similar dynamic exercise, preferably of a highspeed nature.
6. For optimal results, isometric training should be around 10% of
the total strength training volume (calculated as the number of
seconds under tension).
Many coaches agree that isometric exercises should be used at the end of a
workout (Brunner and Tabachnik 1990, Vorobiev 1988). However, Siff and
Verkhoshansky (1999) state that isometric action training can be used first in
a workout to potentiate/facilitate subsequent strength and speed-strength
exercises. I agree with the latter.
CHAPTER THREE
APPLICATION OF VARIOUS TRAINING METHODS TO BASIC
STRENGTH EXERCISES
● Eccentric training methods
There are several different eccentric training methods. Firstly understand that
by eccentric training methods I mean those in which the eccentric portion of
the exercise is emphasized, not necessarily exercises in which there is only an
eccentric action taking place.
There are three main types of eccentric training, each with its own subtypes
and applications. These three types of training are:
● Submaximal eccentric training
● Near-maximal and maximal eccentric training
● Supramaximal eccentric training
The following graph can help you understand the various types of eccentric
action methods:
Submaximal eccentric training
With submaximal eccentric training you find yourself using a load that is
lower than your maximum concentric (or isometric) strength. Since your
maximum eccentric strength is significantly higher, the intensity of work will
thus be submaximal. Therefore, to create a significant training effect we must
use certain training techniques that will create an important stimulus, despite
the relatively low intensity. I will show three of these techniques (although
there are many more possibilities): eccentric/isometric contrast,
eccentric/concentric contrast, and slow eccentrics.
Eccentric/isometric contrast
- Version 1
In this type of exercise you find yourself slowly lowering a load equivalent to
60-80% of your maximum concentric strength in a movement, adding several
isometric (static) pauses during the yielding (lowering) portion; the longer
the range of motion of an exercise is, the more pauses you’ll take. Each of
these pauses should last 3 to 6 seconds. Once the bar has been fully lowered
(eccentric portion of the movement is completed) you lift the bar or have a
partner that lift it for you.
For big ROM compound movements (squats, deadlifts, etc.) you should use
3-4 pauses, for medium ROM compound movements (bench press, barbell
rowing, military press, etc.) you should use 2-3 pauses, and for short ROM
exercises you should use 2 pauses.
Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method:
Perceived effort/difficulty: Very high
Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): Very high effect on functional
elements (strength, power): Low Load: 60-80% of maximum concentric
effort
Number of repetitions per set: 3-6
Number of sets per exercise: 3-6
Number of exercises per muscle group: 1-3
Rest between sets: 90-120 seconds
- Version 2
In this second version you will use a load equivalent to 70-90% of your
concentric maximum on an exercise. You lower the bar slightly (usually to
the strongest point in the range of motion) and you hold it there for as long as
you can (maximum duration isometric effort). When you can no longer hold
the weight statically you lower it as slowly as you can until you reach the end
of the full range of motion. Then you have a partner that assist you in lifting
the bar.
Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method:
Perceived effort/difficulty: Very high
Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): Very high effect on
functional elements (strength, power): Moderate load: 70-90% of
maximum concentric effort
Number of repetitions per set: 1
Number of sets per exercise: 5-7
Number of exercises per muscle group: 1-3
Rest between sets: 90-120 seconds
Eccentric/concentric contrast
This method is fairly basic and in many ways similar to the slow eccentric
method. It consists of dissociating the eccentric and concentric portions of a
lift. In this way it becomes both a pure concentric and pure eccentric method
(thus it can be included in both categories). You lower the bar slowly, under
control. Once you reach the end of the yielding portion of the movement you
pause for 3-5 seconds. This is not an isometric pause; you must relax your
muscles! Then you execute the concentric portion as fast as you can. You use
a relatively light load for this exercise (50-70% of your concentric maximum)
and lower the load in 5-10 seconds while lifting it explosively.
Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method:
Perceived effort/difficulty: Moderate
Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): Moderate
Effect on functional elements (strength, power): Low (strength) to
moderate (power)
Load: 50-70% of maximum concentric effort
Number of repetitions per set: 5-10
Number of sets per exercise: 3-6
Number of exercises per muscle group: 1-3
Rest between sets: 60-90 seconds
Near-maximal and maximal eccentric training
This method basically refers to lowering, under control, a load near (or at) the
point of maximum eccentric strength. Since it is hard (and somewhat risky) to
evaluate the exact maximum eccentric strength level, I suggest using a load
that is between 100-150% of the maximum concentric strength in a given
movement.
I have included three basic techniques in the NM/M eccentric class of
methodic:
1. The 2/1 technique: Using a load that is 100-150% of the
concentric strength of a single-limb exercise, do the
eccentric/yielding portion with just that one limb (e.g. with only
the right arm) and the concentric/overcoming portion with both
limbs.
2. The 2 movement’s technique: Using a load that is 100-150% of
the concentric strength of any isolation exercise, execute the
concentric portion as a compound movement (as it was
explained earlier in this text).
3. Maximal pure eccentrics: In this variation, commonly known as
“negatives,” you only perform the eccentric portion of an
exercise and have a spotter to lift the bar back to the starting
position for you. Weight releasers can also be used for this
purpose (to lighten the load to lift during the concentric phase to
an insignificant level).
In all three cases the purpose is always to lower a load close to your
maximum capacity. The methods only vary in the way that you bring the
weight back, up to the starting position for another repetition (or to conclude
the set).
Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method:
Perceived effort/difficulty: Moderate
Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): High
Effect on functional elements (strength, power): Very high/strength, low/
power
Load: 100-150% of maximum concentric effort
Number of repetitions per set: 1-6
Number of sets per exercise: 4-8
Number of exercises per muscle group: 1-2
Rest between sets: 120-180 seconds
These methods can have a deep effect on both strength and muscle size.
However, for the technique to have an important impact on muscle size, the
total volume must be relatively high. If hypertrophy is your main objective,
then you should use 6-8 sets of 4-6 repetitions using 100-110% of your
concentric maximum. If relative strength (strength relative to your
bodyweight) is your goal, then a lower volume of work is best; 4-6 sets of 1-3
repetitions at 120-150% of your concentric maximum.
Super-maximal eccentric training
The objective of this form of training is to place a very important mechanical
and neural stress on the organism to increase its force production and to
stimulate qualitative (as opposed to quantitative for hypertrophy methods)
structural changes.
Understand that by super-maximal I am referring to a mechanical stress at, or
higher than, the maximum eccentric strength in a movement. There are two
ways of doing this:
1. By using kinetic energy accumulation training (KEAT) methods
in which the fall of the body or an object leads to an important
accumulation of kinetic energy. This accumulation of kinetic
energy leads to a reflexive and voluntary (mixed action)
muscular contraction during which the amount of force
produced is higher than the maximum possible voluntary force
output. Force production of up to 200% of the isometric
maximum (thus 200-210% of the concentric and 120-150% of
the eccentric maximum) has been reported during high intensity
depth jumping. Shock training and over speed eccentrics are
included in this category.
2. By using loads that are over one’s voluntary eccentric maximum
(we are thus talking about loads of around 150-200% of one’s
concentric maximum). Since the load cannot be lowered under
control (as it’s over one’s maximum eccentric strength) I
strongly advise against this type of training; the risk potential is
too high, even for extremely well trained athletes.
The only two super-maximal eccentric methods that should be considered are
shock training and over speed eccentrics.
Shock training refers mostly to depth jumps, but it can also include any
exercise in which you are catching an external load and doing an explosive
concentric action immediately afterward. Another form of shock training,
which could be termed “reactive eccentrics/isometrics,” includes depth
landings from various heights and different positions. Depth landing basically
refer to dropping from a certain height into a catch position while “sticking”
the landing (shortest possible absorption) and then holding this position for a
few seconds. In most cases the landing position should mimic an important
posture used in the athlete’s sport of choice.
The main advantage of these shock exercises is to develop the capacity to
absorb an external force, which is an often-overlooked quality in sports.
Before being able to move an external force (e.g. an opponent, your own
body as it hits the ground, etc.) you must be able to absorb its force, stop its
movement, and then overcome it. The better you are at absorbing force, the
more effective you can be at overcoming a source of resistance.
Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method:
Perceived effort/difficulty: Low (although the actual impact is very high)
Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): Low to moderate
Effect on functional elements (strength, power): Very high
Load: Above the eccentric maximum from an accumulation of kinetic
energy
Number of repetitions per set: 3-10
Number of sets per exercise: 3-5 (do not exceed 40 total ground contacts)
Number of exercises per muscle group: 1-2
Rest between sets: 120-180 seconds
● Concentric training methods
Concentric methods refer to training techniques in which the
concentric/overcoming portion of the movement is emphasized; this does not
mean that there is no eccentric or isometric action involved. Note that to be
effective, a concentric method must maximize motor unit recruitment.
When we talk about concentric training methods we can use Zatsiorsky’s
classification:
●
●
The repetitive effort method
The maximum effort method
●
The dynamic effort method
These methods can be further divided into various techniques. The following
figure shows some possible applications of these three basic methods.
● Repetitive effort method
Here we are basically talking about bodybuilding methods, which involve
doing a lot of work in a series with a moderate load. The objective is to
recruit as many motor units as possible within a muscle by what’s known as
cumulative fatigue. As some motor units/muscle fibers become too tired to
handle the load, more and more are recruited. When using a high volume of
work more motor units are recruited due to the large amount of muscle
fatigue. These methods are thus very effective at increasing the quantitative
aspect of the training adaptations. However, because the level of
intramuscular tension (proportional to the force output) produced during the
set is relatively low; these methods don’t lead to maximum improvement in
the muscle’s functions. However, to increase muscle size these methods are
optimal.
Sets to failure
This is your basic bodybuilding scheme. You select a load that is 60-80% of
your maximum in a lift and you perform repetitions until failure (the point
where completing another repetition is impossible).
Ideally:
●
Novice lifters will want to use a load permitting 12-15 repetitions
and perform 2-4 sets per exercise.
●
Intermediate lifters will want to use a load permitting 8-12
repetitions and perform 3-5 sets per exercise.
● Advanced lifters will want to use a load permitting 6-8 repetitions
and perform 4-6 sets per exercise.
The most effective way of performing this type of training is to yield
(eccentric portion) slowly (3-5 seconds) and to overcome (concentric portion)
as fast as you can. This will maximize muscle tension. The rest intervals
should be very short to prevent full muscle recovery, thus forcing the body to
recruit more and more motor units for each set.
Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method:
Perceived effort/difficulty: High
Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): High to very high Effect on
functional elements (strength, power): Low to moderate Load: 60-80% of the
concentric maximum
Number of repetitions per set: 6-15
Number of sets per exercise: 2-6
Number of exercises per muscle group: 2-4
Rest between sets: 45-90 seconds
Post-fatigue, pre-fatigue, post- and pre-fatigue
The objective of all three of these techniques is to further fatigue a certain
muscle group by using an isolation exercise (for the target muscle) either
before (pre), after (post), or before and after (pre and post) a multi-joint
exercise. The logic is that in a compound exercise the load is distributed over
several muscles at the same time, so each muscle is not necessarily being
fully stimulated. By using an isolation exercise in conjunction with the multijoint exercise you are making sure to fully fatigue (thus to recruit and
stimulate as many motor units as possible) the target muscle group.
Post-fatigue
In short, the post-fatigue method consists of adding a less complex movement
after your main movement to fully stimulate and fatigue the target muscle
group. These two exercises are done with no pause in between them. The
logic behind this method is that in complex (multi-joint) movements the
weaker muscle groups will always fail first, leaving the prime movers understimulated. For example, in the bench press the triceps or deltoids are likely
to fail before the stronger pectorals, leaving this way the pectorals understimulated. By adding an isolation exercise for the pectorals (e.g. flies) right
after your set of bench presses you will be able to fully fatigue and stimulate
your pectorals. The more stimulation you put on your muscles, the more
protein degradation occurs, the higher the anabolic response.
Example of the post-fatigue method for the pectorals
Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method:
Perceived effort/difficulty: Very high
Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): Very high
Effect on functional elements (strength, power): Moderate Load: 60-80%
of the concentric maximum (multi-joint exercise)
Number of repetitions per set: 6-15 (MJ exercise) and 10-20 (ISO
exercise)
Number of sets per exercise: 2-6
Number of exercises per muscle group: 1-3
Rest between sets: No rest between exercises, 60-120 seconds between
sets
Pre-fatigue
The objective of this method is somewhat similar to the post-fatigue method
in which the goal is to fatigue a specific muscle group that might not get fully
stimulated from a complex exercise. As I have mentioned before, the
strongest muscle involved in a movement will rarely be fully stimulated from
this movement because the weaker muscles will fail first. However, if you
fatigue this muscle before you perform the main exercise, then you will be
able to fully stimulate it when you do the main exercise.
This technique is very effective at stimulating hypertrophy in a specific body
part (the body part for which you do the isolation exercise). However, it is
not as good for developing overall hypertrophy as the post-fatigue method
because it is possible that you will not be able to use as much weight on the
main exercise due to the pre-fatigue set. Because of this characteristic, the
main use of this method is to improve a weak body part.
If you have an underdeveloped chest compared to your shoulders and arms
use a pre-fatigue set for the chest. If your back is lacking behind your arms
and shoulders, use a pre-fatigue set for the back. In addition, it isn't even
obligatory to do a pre-fatigue set for the strongest muscle group in the main
exercise. For example, if you feel like your triceps are proportionally weaker
compared to your chest, and then you can pre-fatigue them before doing the
bench press.
Example of the pre-fatigue method for the triceps
Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method:
Perceived effort/difficulty: Very high
Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): Very high
Effect on functional elements (strength, power): Low
Load: 60-80% of the concentric maximum (multi-joint exercise)
Number of repetitions per set: 6-15 (MJ exercise) and 10-20 (ISO
exercise)
Number of sets per exercise: 2-6
Number of exercises per muscle group: 1-3
Rest between sets: No rest between exercises, 60-120 seconds between
sets Pre- and post-fatigue
This is certainly the most difficult hypertrophy method of all, and probably
the most effective as well. It is simply a mix of the pre-fatigue method and
post-fatigue method. It leads to the greatest possible hypertrophy response of
all the methods that you can use in the gym. Because this method is so
intense it should not be used for more than 2-3 weeks straight.
You can do two types of pre-/post-fatigue training:
1. Targeting the same muscle group during the pre-fatigue exercise and
the post- fatigue exercise; this will place a large hypertrophy
stimulus on the targeted muscle group.
2.
Targeting one muscle group during the pre-fatigue exercise and
another one during the post-fatigue exercise. This allows you to
correct two different weaknesses at the same time.
Example of the pre- and post-fatigue method for the triceps and chest
Example of the pre- and post-fatigue method for the triceps
Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method:
Perceived effort/difficulty: Extremely high
Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): Extremely high
Effect on functional elements (strength, power): Low
Load: 60-80% of the concentric maximum (multi-joint exercise)
Number of repetitions per set: 6-15 (MJ exercise) and 10-20 (ISO
exercises) Number of sets per exercise: 2-3
Number of exercises per muscle group: 1-2
Rest between sets: No rest between the three exercises, 60-120 seconds
between sets
Drop sets
The drop set method, if pushed to the extreme, can be even harder than the
pre- and post- fatigue method. The drop set method is an extension of the
post-fatigue method where you use the same exercise with a lighter load
after your main set. Only in the drop set method you add 2-6 additional postfatigue sets of the same exercise with gradually decreasing loads. This
method is probably the best to fully stimulate a muscle group, but it can be
truly excruciating and hard. Like the pre- and post-fatigue method it should
never be used for more than 2-3 weeks straight.
Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method:
Perceived effort/difficulty: Extremely high
Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): Extremely high
Effect on functional elements (strength, power): Low
Load: Variable during the set, start at around 70-90% of your maximum
Number of repetitions per set: Highly variable, depends on the number of
drops
Number of sets per exercise: 2-3
Number of exercises per muscle group: 1-2
Rest between sets: No rest between drops, 60-120 seconds between sets
Maximum effort method
Maximum effort refers to overcoming an external resistance close to, or at,
your maximum capacity for a certain exercise. It is characterized by a very
large amount of intramuscular tension producing a maximal amount of force.
In Layman’s terms, maximum effort refers to straining hard to lift a certain
load. I will present two methods (the two most effective ones): maximal
lifting and heavy lifting coupled with manual isometrics.
Maximal lifting
This is the most straightforward maximum effort method. It consists of lifting
a barbell weighing 90-100% of your maximum on a certain lift. Because of
the maximal level of intensity, the number of repetitions per set is kept low
(1-3 repetitions per set). This type of lifting doesn’t have a significant impact
on muscle mass, unless a very large number of sets are used. However, it is
very effective at increasing strength, mostly through neural processes
(especially intramuscular coordination) and qualitative changes to the muscle
structures.
Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method:
Perceived effort/difficulty: High
Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): Low to moderate Effect on
functional elements (strength, power): Very high Load: 90-100% of the
concentric maximum
Number of repetitions per set: 1-3
Number of sets per exercise: 4-8
Number of exercises per muscle group: 1-2
Rest between sets: 150-180 seconds between sets Heavy loads combined
with manual isometrics
This method is one of my favorite. It consists of doing repetitions with a
relatively heavy load (70-80%) while during certain repetitions (or during all
of them) a partner applies a manual overload to the bar (he pushes against the
bar), preventing you from continuing the concentric portion of the lift (the
combined barbell load and manual load is therefore above the concentric
maximum, but not above the isometric maximum). The manual overload is
placed for 2-3 seconds and then released, allowing the lifter to complete the
repetition.
This type of training can also be classified as functional isometrics. One of
the biggest benefits of this method is to integrate the benefits of maximal
isometric work into a dynamic perspective. It also allows you to place an
emphasis on the weakest part of a lift.
Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method:
Perceived effort/difficulty: Very high
Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): Moderate to high
Effect on functional elements (strength, power): High
Load: 70-80% of the concentric maximum plus a manual overload
Number of repetitions per set: 2-6 (with 1-3 manual overloads per set)
Number of sets per exercise: 3-5
Number of exercises per muscle group: 1-2
Rest between sets: 150--180 seconds between sets
● Dynamic effort method
This method relies on lifting sub-maximal loads with a high degree of
acceleration.
The dynamic effort method allows for maximal motor unit recruitment
through an increase in intramuscular coordination and increased motor unit
activation via a potentiation of the central nervous system. There is also an
evidence showing that an explosive (high acceleration) exercise increases the
rate of fast-twitch fiber innervation, leading to an inverted motor recruitment
pattern. Normal motor recruitment pattern: The slow-twitch fibers are
recruited first and as the intensity of the movement and the demand on the
muscle increases, the fast twitch fibers enter into the action. This is known as
the “size principle.” According to it, the smallest, most oxidative (ST) fibers
are recruited first and the most powerful fibers (FT) are recruited last.
Inverted recruitment pattern: During explosive exercises (especially those of
a ballistic nature) the activation threshold of all the motor units is brought to
the same level. This means that the signal to activate the motor units occurs at
the same time for all types of fibers. However, since the nerve impulse takes
less time to innervate the fast-twitch fibers than the slow-twitch fibers (60ms
vs. 140ms), these FT fibers enter into action first, hence the reverse order of
activation/recruitment.
This form of recruitment is also found in
maximal/supra-maximal eccentric training and EMS training.
Dynamic effort methods offer a lot to most athletes who need explosive
strength and speed.
Isometric training methods
Isometric methods refer to producing muscle tension without moving. With
this method you are basically fighting a source of resistance without altering
its position
We will discuss three applications of this method:
●
Maximal duration isometrics (equivalent to the repetitive effort
method)
●
Maximal intensity isometrics (equivalent to the maximal effort
method)
● Ballistic isometrics (equivalent to the dynamic effort method)
There are also mixed isometric regimes (also known as functional
isometrics), but these applications have already been discussed.
You’ll notice that I mentioned two types of isometric exercises: overcomingisometric and yielding-isometric. You need to understand that this doesn’t
mean that you are combining a concentric (or eccentric) action along with the
isometric action. The actual external outcome of the exercise is the same;
there is no movement at all. However, the intent during the exercise changes.
Overcoming-isometric: You are pushing or pulling against an immovable
resistance. There is no external movement, but your intent is to move the
resistance (even if it’s impossible).
Yielding-isometric: You are holding a weight and your objective is to
prevent it from going down. So once again, there is no external movement.
However, your intent is no longer to move the resistance, but to stop its
movement. It is important to understand that both techniques won't have the
same effect. For one thing, the neural patterns used in both cases will be
different. Overcoming-isometrics may have a bigger impact on concentric
strength than yielding-isometrics.
Maximal duration isometric (repetitive effort)
With maximal duration isometric exercises you are pushing/pulling or
holding a sub-maximal load for as long as possible, heading for muscle
failure. For maximum effect we want to use sets ranging from 20 to 60
seconds in length. The effect of this type of training on muscle mass can be
great as there is a very significant growth stimulus placed on all muscle
fibers.
*Note: A lot of studies don’t report a lot of muscle growth from isometric
training. This is only because the old German model of 6-second actions (or
something similar) was used in the experiments. This duration of effort, albeit
adequate for strength gain, is not sufficient to cause hypertrophic changes in
the muscles. However, when using sets lasting 20-60 seconds, the growth
stimulus is significant.
With this method you can use both overcoming-isometrics and yieldingisometrics (which were explained earlier). However, I think that yielding
isometrics (holding a weight) are much superior when it comes to maximal
duration isometric training. In this case, a load of 50 to 80% for a duration of
20 to 60 seconds is best.
As it was mentioned earlier in the text, with isometric training you will have
to use at least three positions per exercise to get improvement throughout the
entire range of motion.
Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method:
Perceived effort/difficulty: Very high
Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): High to very high
Effect on functional elements (strength, power): Low
Load: 50-80% of the concentric maximum if using yielding-isometrics
Number of repetitions per set: 20-60 seconds per set
Number of sets per exercise: 2-4 per position / 3 positions per exercise
Number of exercises: 1
Rest between sets: 60-90 seconds between sets
Maximal intensity isometric (maximum effort)
The maximal intensity isometric method is related to the concentric
maximum effort method. You will try to maintain a maximum isometric
action for 3-6 seconds. You can, once again, use either overcomingisometrics or yielding-isometrics, but in this case overcoming isometrics
(pushing/pulling against pins or an immovable resistance) give the best
results and are much safer.
This type of isometric training doesn’t have a significant impact on muscle
mass, however it can increase muscle density and myogenic tone (also called
“tonus,” or the firmness/hardness of your muscles). Its main effect is on
maximum strength development, which occurs specifically the joint angle to
be trained. So once again, you’ll have to use multiple positions. There is also
some evidence that maximum isometric training can improve the capacity to
recruit and synchronize motor-units (intramuscular coordination) even in
dynamic movements.
Even though overcoming-isometrics are best for this method, you can still
use yielding- isometrics. In this case you would use a load of 100 to 110% of
your maximum.
Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method:
Perceived effort/difficulty: Moderate
Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): Low
Effect on functional elements (strength, power): High
Load: 100-110% of the concentric maximum if using yielding-isometrics
Number of repetitions per set: 3-6 seconds per set
Number of sets per exercise: 3-6 per position / 3+ positions per exercise
Number of exercises: 1
Rest between sets: 30-90 seconds between sets
Ballistic isometric (dynamic effort method)
Be careful not to mix up iso-ballistic (or stato-ballistic) training with the
ballistic isometric method. Iso-ballistic is a mixed regime method in which an
explosive dynamic action is preceded by an isometric pause. The ballistic
isometric method refers to pushing against an immovable resistance for a
very brief period of time (1-2 seconds) while trying to reach peak force
output as fast as possible (basically trying to go from 0% force to 100% force
in 1 or 2 seconds). You cannot use the yielding-isometric method here, as it
doesn’t suit the nature of the exercise. The nature is to produce maximum
isometric tension in as little time as possible. This type of exercise is
especially good to develop starting-strength and is very useful for any athlete
involved in a sport where explosive starts from a static position are involved.
Here are the characteristics and parameters of this method:
Perceived effort/difficulty: Low
Effect on structural elements (hypertrophy): Very low Effect on
functional elements (strength, power): High Load: N/A
Number of repetitions per set: 1-2 seconds per set
Number of sets per exercise: 5-10 per position / 3+ positions per exercise
Number of exercises: 1
Rest between sets: 10-30 seconds between sets
Weight releasers are one of the most important tools that a coach can buy.
Furthermore they’re cheap, which make it a most for the least deal (best
result with the minimum effort)! I personally use this tool in the training of
almost all of my athletes, and it constitute a significant part of their yearly
program. Releasers are quite simple to understand. Basically we’re talking
about hooks which are attached to the bar and loaded with weight. The hooks
hang down lower than the bar, so as you lower the rod, the releasers will
contact the ground, making them “unhook” the bar, thus releasing some
weight from the bar.
They thus allow an athlete to lower more weight than he lifts. As it was
mentioned in the first chapter of this book, the eccentric portion of a
movement is responsible for a lot of strength and size gain. However since
you are always stronger during the eccentric portion of the lift, the
stimulation you can place on your body during that part of a lift will always
be limited by your concentric (overcoming) strength. So basically it becomes
very hard to increase the tension magnitude during the eccentric portion of
regular exercises. All you can really do is increase the duration of the
lowering phase. This indeed increase the stimulation placed on the muscles
during the eccentric action, but it is somewhat limited for athletes wanting to
increase their maximal strength level.
An alternative is to have a partner pushing down on the bar during the
eccentric portion of the lift. I’ve tried this technique on myself and it does
work even if it becomes very hard to quantify the training processes. How
much resistance did you add during the eccentric portion? 45lbs, 35lbs,
100lbs? You really can’t tell. Therefore, this method can be useful, but it’s
also limitative.
Releasers on the other hand allow you to add resistance during the eccentric
portion of a lift and you will know exactly how much resistance you added.
Maximal eccentrics
For this training technique an athlete should work up to the maximum weight
he can lower under control. For safety purposes my athletes must lower the
bar in 5 seconds during a maximal eccentric exercise. If they can’t lower it in
5 seconds, it’s too heavy. Someone will argue that it’s not a true maximum. I
agree, but the overload is more than enough to stimulate positive gains in
strength. You start the exercise with 50-100lbs less than your maximum set
on the bar (e.g. if your bench press maximum is 400lbs, the bar weight would
be 300-350lbs). This won’t change during the workout. I choose that load
because I don’t like to add too much weight to the releasers (it could damage
them) but I don’t want to use a bar weight that turns the exercise into a
maximal concentric exercise. There is a place and time for a combination of
maximal eccentric and maximal concentric but this method focuses only on
the eccentric part. Since we are doing only single repetitions, the load during
the concentric portion will be easy and not stressful at all on the body.
The starting weight for the combination of releasers plus the bar weight
should be equal to your concentric maximum. For example, if your maximum
is 400lbs and that the bar weight is 330lbs you should use 70lbs in releaser
(35lbs per side). You add weight to the releasers with each set until you can
no longer lower the load under control in 5 seconds. Most individuals will be
able to use 110-130% of their concentric maximum. However, if you do less
than that don’t be sad, in fact feel happy! This means that this form of
training will increase your strength limit at a faster rate than any other
method (since it’s a weak point). On the other hand, if you can lower 150%
of your maximum or more, this type of training won’t be very effective
because it’s not a limiting factor in your performance level.
This training method has several positive impacts on performance. First it can
increase eccentric, isometric and concentric strength to a large extent. This is
mostly due to neural adaptations, but also to some structural changes. It also
increases the athlete’s capacity to control an important external force, which
can be useful on the playing field. Psychologically it helps getting used to
holding heavy weights, so when you attempt a concentric maximum, it will
feel lighter by comparison, giving you a psychological boost. There is also
some evidence that lowering big weights offer more than a psychological
benefit: it’s possible to desensitize the Golgi Tendon Organs and Muscle
Spindles by using a technique. This will allow you to use a greater proportion
of your strength potential due to a lowered neural inhibition. Lastly, since this
is a form of accentuated eccentric training, it will lead to significant structural
changes. Since the duration of a set is relatively low, it will take many sets to
build up a cumulative stimulation sufficient to lead to muscle gain. However,
in the long run this method can have a very positive effect on functional
hypertrophy. I never use this technique more than once per week with my
athletes, and never use it for more than 6 weeks straight, more often it’s used
in a 3-weeks block.
Contrast training
Contrast training refers to the use of a load that is equally challenging during
both the eccentric and concentric portion of a lift. Since we’re stronger during
the eccentric portion, the only way this method can be applied is to add
resistance during the eccentric part of the exercise.
To properly select the training load it is important to know both your
concentric and eccentric maximum on the lift you intend to use. For example,
your bench press 1RM could be 400lbs and your maximal eccentric bench
press (lowered in 5 seconds) could be 475lbs. Since we want to use the same
relative load during both phases of the movement, both the bar weight and
releaser weight must be carefully selected.
For example, if you want to train at 80% the loads should be:
a. Bar weight (concentric portion)= 400lbs x 80% = 320lbs
b. Releasers weight + bar weight (eccentric portion) = 475lbs x 80% =
380lbs
c. Releasers weight = 380lbs – 320lbs = 60lbs (30lbs each side)
So to recap our athlete choosing to train at 80% would use a bar weight of
320lbs and add 30lbs to each releaser. This way he lowers 80% of his
eccentric maximum and lift 80% of his concentric maximum.
This training method should be performed for multi-repetitions sets. Since the
releasers must be replaced on each repetition I suggest two approaches:
1.
Cluster training: perform 5-8 single repetitions with around 5-10
seconds of rest between them. After each repetition you rack the bar
and replace the releasers (or have a partner that replace them).
2. Paused training: you also perform 5-8 repetitions but after each
repetition you hold the bar at arm’s length while two partners
simultaneously replace the releasers.
I prefer option number one. Option number two is a big risk, for example the
spotters could replace the releasers at with a slight delay between them; this
could lead to an injury.
However the second option has the advantage of keeping the muscles under
load for a longer period of time, which may be slightly better for hypertrophy
purposes.
Since the fatigue factor might be more important (because of the added
eccentric loading) you might be able to complete 1-2 repetitions less than
during a concentric emphasis set for the same relative load. The following
table indicates good repetitions target to shoot for at given loads.
Load
95%
90%
85%
80%
75%
70%
Minimum
reps
Maximum
reps
1
1
3
5
6
8
Average
2
4
6
8
11
13
1
2
4
6
8
10
This method is especially effective at stimulating maximum hypertrophy in a
very short period of time because the stimulation is equivalent during both
phases of the movement. Remember to always perform the eccentric portion
in 5 seconds (since your eccentric maximum is based on a 5 seconds effort).
It’s also an effective method at increasing eccentric and concentric strength at
the same rate, at the same time. Which can be useful for some athletes who
already have a proper eccentric strength/concentric strength ratio.
Overshoot training
Overshoot refers to a sur-activation of fast-twitch motor units during the
eccentric portion of the lift allowing the athlete to be more explosive during
the concentric portion. In many regards this works the same as depth jumps
and other high impact plyometric drills. We will accomplish this overshoot
by lowering a heavy load during the eccentric portion and lifting a light load
as fast as possible. The eccentric portion doesn’t have to be as controlled as
during the preceding two methods. Lowering the load in 2 seconds is
adequate. The bar weight should be around 50-60% of your concentric
maximum and you add another 30-40% on the releasers. For example, an
athlete who can bench press 400lbs would use the following:
a. Bar weight = 400lbs x 50% = 200lbs
b. Releasers weight = 400lbs x 40% = 160lbs (80lbs per side)
We want to perform sets of 2-4 repetitions using this method. However the
releasers are only used on the first one. The overshoot phenomenon being
maintained for the whole sets provides that acceleration is maintained at the
maximum possible.
Tip and recommendations
✔
Before each utilization make sure that the releasers are in working
order. If the steel rod becomes slightly bent, I suggest buying new
ones as they may become hazardous.
✔
Make sure that both releasers release in the same direction.
✔
Find out the perfect rod length (which is adjustable) for you. Not
all people are built the same way. We want the releasers to drop
when the bar is 1-2” from the chest (bench press) or at parallel
(squat).
✔
Make sure to lower the bar under control. A good way to see if
you’re doing this is if the releasers unhook at the same time.
CHAPTER FOUR
RESISTANCE TRAINING, MAXIMUM ACCELERATION
TRAINING, VARIABLE RESISTANCE TRAINING
● Problems with regular lifting exercises
Before we start talking about the problems inherent to regular lifting
exercises, I must first say that it is not my intention to say that regular
strength exercises are not effective and that they should be removed from a
training program. On the contrary! Free-weight lifting is still one of the best
way to increase limit strength, strength-endurance and muscle mass. For most
people, this type of exercise will be more than sufficient. However for the
elite athletes who need that extra edge or those who are perfectionists and
want to get the absolute best out of their training, additional methods should
be used to compensate for the small shortcoming of regular free-weight
lifting.
Time spent decelerating the bar
In most sports an athlete’s success is directly dependent on his capacity to
accelerate. Strength coaches have long realized this, which has led to
explosive free-weight lifting that is using moderate weights in classical
strength exercises, performing the concentric portion as fast as possible
(trying to accelerate as much as possible).
The problem that exists with explosive lifting using normal exercises is that
the preventive deceleration phase can be as long, if not longer, as the
voluntary acceleration phase. How can this happen if we’re trying to lift the
weight as fast as possible? Well the body wants to protect itself. So near the
end of the concentric action, it will instinctively decelerate to avoid any
ballistic shock in the joints and muscles. For the body, it’s more natural to
slowly decrease speed until velocity is zero than to make a sudden stop from
max velocity to zero velocity. Blame it on your dear protective mechanisms!
Let’s take the back squat for example. You accelerate when you first start to
lift the bar, but acceleration quickly diminishes and deceleration starts as you
stand above parallel. Moreover, the faster you attempt to lift the bar, the
shorter the acceleration phase will be and the longer the deceleration phase
will be.
Therefore, by trying to go faster you actually are increasing deceleration!
This can have a negative impact on your nervous system, which becomes
better as decelerating than at accelerating. Furthermore, the deceleration
period occurs in the sport-specific joint angles where acceleration is the most
important! The sport-scientist D.G. Sale has demonstrated that it is the intent
to accelerate the bar that is important rather than the actual speed of the bar
that causes neural adaptations. Now, if you spend more time decelerating the
bar than accelerating it, even if bar speed is fast, you learn bad motor habits.
This is where jump stretch bands come in. These bands provide a lot of
resistance. By attaching those to the bar when lifting you can significantly
increase the load during the last portion of a lift. The benefit when
acceleration is concerned is that the bands will actually decelerate the bar
(because of the increase in resistance). So you won't have that preventive
deceleration phase: the bar speed will slow down, but you will be able to try
to accelerate it as much as possible because of the increased resistance.
Basically even if bar speed becomes slower than during regular explosive
lifting, the intent to accelerate is more important when using bands. This will
lead to more sport-efficient motor patterns: basically learning to keep on
accelerating rather than decelerating as you reach the strongest positions of
the range of motion.
Problem 2: Loading not adapted to mechanical advantage
Another problem with regular lifting is that the load doesn’t change during
the movement. This is because you are lifting an object (in this case a free-
weight) of a constant mass. The problem with this is that this constant load
will not place a maximal stimulation throughout the whole range of motion.
Let me explain it: we all know that we’re stronger in a quarter squat than in a
half squat, and we’re stronger in a half squat than in a full squat. This is
nothing groundbreaking so far. However, this means that the constant load
will not provide the same impact during the whole range of motion.
The problem is that this sort of lifting places the greatest overload in the
initial portion of the lift because that’s where the relative importance of the
load compared to the strength at the specific joint angle is the greatest.
However in a vast majority of sport actions the most important portion of the
range of motion of a joint is that last ½ or last ¼ part. This part of the range
of motion must be overloaded, but instead it is under loaded! A possible
solution would be to use partial movements in training, quarter squats, half
squats, half bench, half deadlift, etc. However this also poses several
problems, not being the least the development of strength imbalances.
CHAPTER FIVE
BASIC CONCEPTS OF BIOMECHANICS AND TECHNIQUE IN
POWERLIFTING
The biomechanics of motor actions studies the properties and functions of the
musculoskeletal system and human motor actions on the basis of concepts,
principles, and laws of classical mechanics.
A sports technique (as in the technique used in a particular sport) is a set of
methods and actions that provide the most effective solution to motor tasks
arising from a specific sport, its discipline and the type of competition. The
best choice of methods and actions is the one when an athlete lifting the
barbell at maximum weight (without breaking the rules of the competition)
uses his physical and mental capabilities in the most effective way.
Formation and improvement of motor actions is a multi-step process,
inseparable from the training process. This can be defined as the technical
preparation of an athlete.
The technical proficiency of an athlete is the degree of mastering the
movements performed by himself, i.e. sports technique. This corresponds to
the characteristics of an athletic discipline and is aimed at achieving success
in competition. Technical training is aimed at teaching the movements
technique as well as bringing them to perfection by an athlete (L.P. Matveev,
1982: N.G.Ozolin, 2002; V.N.Platonov, 2004).
Technical skills holds a special place among other components of sports
preparedness. In the execution of any physical exercise an athlete
demonstrates the results of their physical, tactical, and theoretical training.
Currently, many experts consider technical preparation as the strategic
direction of modern sports training.
Due to the fact that any activity related to the demonstration of physical
qualities (specifically in the barbell exercises with strength, speed, and
flexibility) the movement control, which is carried out on the basis of the
firmly engrained skills, must evolve along the development of these qualities.
Motor skills in strength sports, where sports achievements are associated with
heavy lifting, can be described as an ability to perform the movements of a
physical exercise automatically.
The level of the development of strength, speed, and flexibility affects the
form of an exercise and its techniques. Consequently, performing barbell
exercises in powerlifting occurs under specific conditions, and is
characterized by a number of athlete’s actions:
● During an exercise with small and medium-sized weights as well as
maximum and supra maximum weights, the muscular system of an
athlete undergoes varying degrees of dynamic and static stresses.
The heavier the weight is, the more muscles are involved in the
movement.
●
The body of an athlete is an open kinematic chain with a large
number of links where almost all the links have three degrees of
freedom, ultimately providing subtle and varied movement
coordination. With this in mind, for a successful exercise with great
power output, it is necessary to put the joints and links in the body in
an optimal position in order to provide the maximum
synchronization of the muscle groups involved and allow for each
muscle’s strength to be manifested.
●
In the course of an exercise with weights, one can observe an
alternation of superior, relatively calm, inferior, and static forces.
There are short-term movements by inertia, as well as a
manifestation of varied simultaneous efforts in different body parts.
When one muscle group is actively moving and performing dynamic
work, others maintain a certain position in the joints, thus
performing static work. There are continuous changes and different
alternations of dynamic and static operation modes of the body as a
whole as well as its separate parts.
●
Unusual balance conditions occur in the performance of exercises
with a barbell. The general center of mass of the «athlete-barbell
unit» changes continuously until the very end of the exercise by
moving upwards and downwards, e.g. squat, over a limited area of
support. Therefore, when studying the powerlifting exercises
technique, an athlete and a barbell must be considered as a single
complete mechanical unit with a common fulcrum.
An athlete must learn to move bars of different weights with the same
technique. Only under this condition during trainings there is an increase in
the level of development of physical qualities as well as technological
improvement that are made automatically. A number of studies in this area
have shown that first of all, the characteristics of the trained sportsmen’s
kinematic, dynamic and rhythmic movements vary with increasing the
barbell weight during exercise. When the barbell weight increases along with
the changes in the spatial and temporal characteristics of the motion, you can
also observe changes in the nature of muscle tension and effort. These
changes are determined by a kind of «muscular sense». This feeling must be
formed in order to work with different weights successfully.
Secondly, the consideration of what occurs in competition must be made.
When an athlete lifts a weight significantly exceeding what has been lifted in
training, there is an extrapolation of motion control in the new structure, that
is the ability of the nervous system to adequately address emerging motor
tasks based on prior experience. The athlete’s body, which is learning
different skills when lifting barbells of different weights, gains the ability to
correctly perform exercises with a greater bar weight.
The stability of the technique is related to its interference immunity, that is to
say that the technique remains consistent and stable regardless of the
competition conditions or the functional state of an athlete.
TECHNICAL STRUCTURE OF COMPETITIVE EXERCISES
The technical structure of competitive exercises can be divided into three
categories: the basis of the movements’ technique, their sequence, and
details.
The basis of the technique can be defined as a combination of parts and
features of the dynamic, kinematic and rhythmic structures of the movement,
which are necessary to execute a motor task in a certain way, i.e. a particular
sequence in the demonstration of muscular strength; the right combination of
movements coordinated in space and time, etc. Loss or violation of at least
one or part of the elements makes the completion of a motor task impossible.
The following requirements should be considered as the basis of the
powerlifting movements’ technique:
●
●
●
●
●
Establishment of optimal joint angle, particularly in the most
difficult sections of the path (e.g. in «sticking points»), when it is not
possible to use inertia for the upward movement.
Consistent activation of certain muscle groups, starting from the
strongest and moving on to the weakest ones.
Providing the most efficient direction of barbell movement with the
optimal speed at every step of the process.
Creation of the necessary conditions to ensure the effectiveness of
the implementation of the final path of the bar.
Creating the necessary conditions for supporting an athlete’s body
(especially for their constituent body parts) to allow longer and more
efficient transmission of muscular effort to the barbell throughout
the execution of a competitive exercise.
The motor action technique as many other system has its own structure with a
defining element. The execution of the main element usually occurs in a
relatively short period of time and requires a lot of muscular effort.
The main element of the technique is the most important and crucial part of a
particular method of motor task performance. For example, in the high jump
the main element is propulsion, coupled with fast and high gait; in throwing
sports - the final effort; arching over the gymnastics apparatus - timely and
rapid extension in the hip joints, followed by stopping. Performing basic
movements in the execution usually occurs in a relatively short period of time
and requires a lot of muscular effort.
Technique’s details are secondary movement features that do not disrupt its
underlying mechanism. They depend on the morphological and functional
characteristics of an athlete. An individual technique, which appears to be the
most appropriate one for a particular person, is characterized by the proper
use of the so-called technique’s details.
In the theory and practice of physical education, the structure of a movement,
which is a relatively stable element of a motor activity, is considered as a
whole.
The motor structure is the connection between movements in space and
time (defined as kinematic structure) as well as the power and energy of
interaction (defined as dynamic structure).
When learning an exercise (e.g. lifting the bar), the kinematic structure is
determined as the first step. Video shooting followed by its biomechanical
analysis is used to study the structure. This makes it possible to determine the
trajectory of the barbell, the center of mass of the athlete, the center of mass
of the bar, a common center of mass of the athlete in relation to the barbell,
and the location of the individual units of the athlete’s body. Additionally, the
duration of the exercise and the various phases of motion, velocity and
acceleration of the body in space, the rate of rising of the bar, etc. can be
determined through biomechanical analysis.
The dynamic structure is a natural interaction force (dynamic) of human
body parts between each other and external bodies (surroundings,
support, equipment, partners, and opponents).
An analysis of the dynamic structure is carried out through various dynamic
and strain gauge devices, which allows one to obtain objective data regarding
efforts when lifting the equipment. For example, you can see parts of the
body interact with each other and external bodies (suspension, partners, and
opponents). This defines the application of force in an athlete lifting weights,
inertial resistance, and the reasons for a particular motion.
The anatomical structure determines the interaction of the osseousligament and muscular apparatus, the mode of operation of the muscles
and the coordination of muscle contractions.
Rhythmic structure is a pattern of the interconnection between movements
over time, the ratio of movement duration, all motor act or its single actions.
The speed and duration of subsequent movements depend on how the effort
is emphasized in a particular time. Parts of the movement differ in direction,
speed, acceleration, and force. The rhythmic ratio is measured exclusively by
time indicators. The rhythmic structure is used as a particularly distinct
indicator of an exercise mastery, reflects a peculiar combination of temporal
and spatial characteristics of the motion and shows the execution order of the
individual phases.
PERIOD AND PHASE STRUCTURE OF BARBELL EXERCISES
A Period is a time frame during which something occurs (starts and ends). In
powerlifting, a period can be defined as a quite independent part of an
exercise, during which rational conditions for the effectiveness of the
subsequent movements are formed. In each period there are significant
changes in the spatial, temporal, kinematic, rhythmic movement
characteristics. A relative completion of some actions can be observed as
well. Period consists of phases with common features.
A motor task can be defined as generalized requirements for motor actions,
which are determined by the nature of the impending action and the overall
consistency of its stages. Each motor action of an individual carries out
certain motor tasks. The task can be for example to achieve a particular end
goal (such as a squat), or in the performance of a given movement. The
completion of a motor task is the goal of motion control. A motor task
appears to be a model of something that has not yet occurred («model of a
future», according to Bernstein).
Phase (in Greek - manifestation) is a smaller constituent part of an exercise
that provides a solution to a motor task. A phase is a change in the muscle
contraction form in major muscle groups that participate in a motor action.
Previous phases create optimal conditions for the solution of the subsequent
phase. According to NA Bernstein «... the end of any movement is the
beginning of the subsequent one». Phase characteristics have a certain timing;
their duration depends on an athlete’s sports qualification, his height, and the
barbell weight. If a period is divided into two phases, it solves a more general
problem, the result of which extends to the subsequent, more significant part
of a motor task and even to the whole exercise.
The analysis of every single movement phase of the competition exercises
technique allows for a better understanding of the kinematic and dynamic
characteristics of movements, and helps to determine variability and stability
for each particular phase. Someone can better understand and assess the
quality of performance to determine the role of each phase of the whole
exercise by knowing the requirements for each phase, establishing how they
fit together, and how they have to be used as a part of movements for the
general results of the exercise. Phase structure, considering the uniqueness
of the individual elements and the sequence of motion, is also imperative for
proper analysis.
Elements are the phase components. If periods and phases are a general
integral part of an exercise, accompanied by the technique of any skilled
individual, the elements indicate an individual technique. The elements of the
technique can be attributed to its detail.
The process of implementation of all three competitive powerlifting exercises
is conventionally divided into the preparatory, primary and final parts. The
preparatory part is the starting position. It creates the optimal conditions for
the implementation of the main part (the squat, bench press or deadlift),
aimed at addressing the main motor task of an exercise. The final part (in all
three cases) is the final position. It provides the necessary conditions for the
effective completion of the main motor task.
Biomechanical analysis is a process that analyzes the biomechanics of sports
training. This form of analysis is needed to address the issues of movement
formation as well as to determine the biomechanical patterns of motor
actions. This analysis will look into the causes and consequences of technical
mistakes in performing sports exercises, it will also find ways to help
overcome them, and choose options for effective individual interpretation of
the form of exercise and at the same time maintain the integrity of the
technique. Basic techniques are required and objectively necessary for any
athlete.
A good knowledge of the basic components of a sports exercise present an
exceptional value in mastering the technique, which will solve its main tasks.
Therefore, it is important to develop the basic requirements to be followed by
all elite athletes and used on the basis of biomechanical structural phases.
Detailed knowledge of the characteristics of competitive movements greatly
helps in the development of the recommendations on how to improve the
technique of power lifters, as well as in the construction of a modern training
program. Efficiency in obtaining and visualizing information is easily
achievable with the use of modern technologies, in particular, video analysis.
The effect of video analysis is largely determined by the method of analysis
and the way in which this information is relayed to the athlete or coach.
The study of the kinematics in the movements of humans and animals using
single- frame analysis of the images obtained through photo and film has
been done since the end of the 19th century. One of the first studies of the
kinematics of locomotion in humans and animals was conducted by J. Marey
(1830-1904). The application of motion capturing allowed the analysis of the
kinematics of human locomotion performed at high speed.
The greatest development of this method, known as kymocyclography, was
seen through the work of NA Bernstein. Its focus is the registration of
moving joints of the human body with a fixed camera. Electric bulbs were
attached to the joints of a test subject. The test subject then moved with the
bulbs perpendicular to the optical axis of the camera. An obturator with a cut
out window rotated in front of the open camera lens. The window of the
obturator, occasionally appearing in front of the camera, made the trajectory
of the joints movement intermittent.
TECHNIQUE FOR TYPICAL BARBELL EXERCISES
● Squat Technique
The Squat is one of the most efficient exercises in strength training in terms
of gaining muscle mass. The movement is polyarticular and involves a great
number of large and small muscles. Practically all the muscles of the lower
body are engaged during this exercise. Different movement types shift the
load on different muscle groups.
The effectiveness of squats is indisputable, and the best proof of this is the
huge role that this exercise plays in training athletes in different sports.
Squats are used in the training of a number of athletes. These include skiers,
throwers in track and field (shot put, hammer, etc.), sprinters, jumpers,
wrestlers, boxers, football players (both international and North American
variants), as well as various other sports.
The squat, which is the first competitive exercise in powerlifting, sets a
proper mental attitude of an athlete toward the rest of the competition. It is
impossible to achieve high results in the squat without effective completion
of motor tasks. This concerns the need for proper technique, which mainly
depends on the technical rules and requirements.
Rules and regulations for the squat
Technical rules and order of the powerlifting squat are approved by the
Presidium of the Russian Federation, which comply with the rules of the
International Powerlifting Federation (IPF):
1. The athlete shall face the front of the platform with the bar held
horizontally across the shoulders. Hands shall hold the bar in
any position in the bar inside or in contact with the inner collars.
After removing the bar from the rack, the athlete must move
backward to establish starting position. The spotter on the
platform can assist the athlete in the removal of the bar.
2. Once the athlete has taken a fixed position with a vertical torso
and the knees locked, the Chief Referee will give the signal to
begin. The signal is a movement of the hand down along with
the audible command «squat». Prior to receiving the signal, the
lifter is allowed to make any movement which does not involve
a breach of the rules in assuming the starting position.
3. After receiving the Chief Referee’s signal to begin, the lifter
must bend the knees and lower the body so that the upper part of
the legs at the hip joint (proximal) are lower than the top of the
knee (distal*). An attempt is considered as performed if the
athlete’s legs were bent at the knees. The athlete is allowed only
one decent attempt.
4. After the athlete completes the movement by recovering to an
upright position, the Chief Referee gives the signal to place the
bar back to the rack by the wrist movement backward and
audible command “rack”. After this signal, the athlete returns
the bar to the rack.
5. After the “rack” command, any motion of the feet is permitted.
When returning the bar to the racks (for safety reasons), the
athlete can be aided by the spotters.
6. During the time of the exercise on the platform shall be not
more than five and not less than two spotters.
First period - starting position (consists of two phases and five elements)
Phase 1. Preparatory position
Elements: grip the bar, step under the bar, place the bar on the shoulders and
remove the bar from the racks
Phase 2. Starting Position
Elements: Step back from the rack, feet placement, adjustment of the barbell
Second period - squat (2 phases and 2 elements)
Phase 3. Lowering to the squat
Elements: Lowering into a squat, achieving depth
Phase 4. Rising back up in the squat
Elements: rising back up in the squat, overcome the «sticking points» Third
period - the end of the exercise (2 phases and 3 elements)
Phase 5. Recovering to the final position
Elements: Complete straightening of the legs in the knee joints, recovering to
the final position
Phase 6. Return of the bar to the rack
Elements: the return of the bar
It should be noticed that the phases have certain time frames; their duration
depends on an athlete’s skills, his height and the weight of the bar. The
elements of the technique in most cases depend on the individual,
morphological and functional characteristics, the proper use of which forms
an individual technique for an athlete, making the technique (subject to all the
general rules of good movement) ideal for this particular person. Omission or
violation of at least one phase or component makes a motor task completion
impossible. The analysis has shown that the application of the above
kinematic structure of the squats technique in the training process increases
its effectiveness and mastery.
Technique and structure of squats
The ability to perform a particular motor action is based not only on the
general physical fitness but also on the knowledge of the technique. The
formation of motor action is subject to certain laws, the knowledge of which
makes it possible to effectively build the training process. For example, in
order to perform the motor structure of squats, a person needs to precisely
reproduce the technique phases of the studied action.
In order to teach the basics of squats, it is necessary to teach an athlete to
perform the squat in the correct order, taking into account the periods, phases
and elements, including all the single tasks on the way to the goal.
Therefore, the squat consists of three periods, six phases and ten elements.
Squats consist of three periods of six phases and ten elements. In this section,
each period will be described in more details together with visual examples.
First period - starting position (2 phases and 5 elements) Phase 1. Preparatory
position
The first phase lasts from the beginning of the grip to the removal of the bar
from the rack.
Its motor task is to create the optimal conditions for the starting position.
Preparatory actions:
1. Grip the barbell
Currently, the technical rules of the competition allow two grips of the
barbell: with all the fingers facing one direction (false grip) with four fingers
on one side of the barbell and the thumb on the other.
Grip width of each athlete is individual and depends on his anatomy, the
flexibility in the elbow and shoulder joints as well as muscle mass. Some
experts believe that the bar should be kept wider than shoulder width nearly
7-10 cm on each side.
2. Step under the bar
Stepping under the bar should be done in a quite narrow position, close to the
standard position (standing), so that later, when backing up, the athlete will
not lose his balance.
3. Placement of the barbell on the shoulders
In powerlifting, the barbell is placed on the back of the rear deltoids and the
middle part of the trapezius muscles, while slightly tilting forward. In order
to retain the bar on this part of the back, it is rigidly fixed by the hands,
increasing the weight on the wrist joints. This technique obviously shortens
the vertebral lever arm and reduces the load on the back muscles. The greater
the forward the back tilt, the less is the strain on the legs, and more on the
back. Low bar placement on the back provokes an increase in the forward tilt.
With this back position, the judge will not give the command to perform the
exercise.
4. Removing the bar from the rack
Removing the bar from the rack is performed by tensing the legs and back
muscles. When placing the bar on the shoulders, the trunk muscles are tense
and the shoulder blades are retracted.
Phase 2.
The phase begins with the athlete moving backwards from the racks and
securing of the position. The motor task of the second phase is to adopt a
good position for the firm (?) and effective interaction between the
components of the kinematic chain of the athlete’s body.
Elements: the athlete’s backwards movement from the rack, foot placement,
fixing the barbell from moving from the racks and assuming the starting
position.
1. The backwards movement
This element consists of one or two small steps depending on the design of
the racks. Then the athlete assumes a stable position so that the overall mass
center is evenly distributed between the heels and toes of both feet, i.e. in the
middle of the foot.
2. Foot placement
The wider the position of the feet is, the larger the angle of separation in the
feet will be, which will keep the thighs more parallel to the feet. In the
narrow position with toes pointing more forward, the knees will move further
forward, compared with having the knees wide apart. This is due to the fact
that in the narrow position there will be a greater distance from the front of
the knee to the back of the thigh. And the greater is the distance, the more the
knees have to move forward to adapt.
With a very wide position in a powerlifting squat one can observe that the
knees go forward slightly and the shins usually remain almost vertical. But
the wide position of the knees will not work if the toes are pointing forward,
because it causes the knee joint to be inverted, which is anatomically
incorrect.
3. Adjustment of the barbell.
The preparing for the squat is performed by tensing the arm muscles,
«activating» the knee joints, a few quick breaths to lift the chest, as well as
the final breath for about three-quarters of the maximum lungs capacity, and
tensing the chest muscles. In order to create a hard muscular frame around the
spine, the person should also slightly activate the rectus abdominis.
Phase 3. Lowering into the squat
This phase lasts from the beginning of bending of the knees and ends at the
moment of achieving the proper depth (“breaking the angle”). The motor task
of the phase is breaking a 90-degree angle, according to the rules.
Mark Rippetoe suggests that the squat should be performed in balance, that is
when the bar is right over the middle third of the foot. It does not matter
where the barbell is located (on the back or shoulders), if the bar is moving
along a straight path up or down, when performing squats with heavy
weights, the barbell barely deviates from this position. If this happens, the bar
is out of balance and slows down to the point where it will return to the
balance position otherwise the balance position will be lost.
Rippetoe also encourages the athlete to pay attention to the fact that at the
beginning of the squat:
● all skeletal components that support the bar - knees, hips, and spine
should be locked in extension so that the muscles have sufficient
strength to maintain this position of rest;
● The bar should be directly over the middle third of the foot.
Phase 4. Rising back up in the squat
The phase starts from the beginning of the leg extension in the knee and lasts
until the passage of the «sticking point». The motor task of the fourth phase is
the successful passage of «sticking points».
The rise from the bottom of the squat starts with the extension of the knee
joint with an average angular velocity relative to the thigh and shin of 2.0 2.2 rad\s. With the beginning of the knee joint extension, we can observe the
reduction of the angle between the thigh and torso for 0,2-0,24s. N.
Kichaykina and G. Samsonov (2010) suggest that this occurs as a result of
the changes in the dual angles of lower extremities as well as the torso bent in
order to maintain the necessary degree of stability in the balance.
All athletes, regardless of their skill and experience, reach the same point
(«sticking point») when lifting with a barbell from the bottom of the squat.
Usually, it occurs at a 30-degree angle between the thigh and the line parallel
to the floor, passing through the center of the knee joint. At this point, the
muscles of the lower limbs have to perform work in extremely unfavorable
mechanical conditions, because, for instance, the activation of the gluteal
muscles is reduced to a minimum, and the extensor muscles of the legs
experience the greatest load.
Phase 6. Return of the bar to the rack
The sixth phase starts with the beginning of the movement of the lifter to the
rack and ends with the return of the bar on the rack.
● Bench Press Technique
One of the main conditions to fulfill in order to improve achievements in the
bench press, as in other competition exercises, is to master the technique.
This is associated with the improvement of an athlete’s ability not only to
coordinate, but also to form precise movements. The technique of an exercise
must be regarded as the unity of form and content. The powerlifting bench
press (the second competitive exercise) is performed lying on a flat bench
with a barbell in the hands. The barbell is first held with locked arms. Then it
is lowered until it touches the chest and pressed up until full extension of the
arms is reached and the final position is stabilized.
When performing the bench press, the pectoral muscles are developed, as
well as arm and upper body muscles. This is why it is used in the training of
not only power lifters, but also bodybuilders, weightlifters, and
representatives of many other sports.
Bench press rules and regulations
The technical rules and the order of the bench press are approved by the
Presidium of the Russian Federation, which comply with the rules of the
International Powerlifting Federation: The lifter must lie on his back with
shoulders and glutes in contact with the surface of the bench. The movement
of the feet is allowed, but they must be fully in contact with the surface of the
platform or blocks (as far as the shape of the shoes allows it), but in any case
they do not have to be lifted from their placement during the exercise. The
bar should be taken so that the thumbs are wrapped around (not a false grip).
This position is maintained throughout the exercise.
The distance of the hands does not exceed 81 cm measured between the
forefingers. Both forefingers must be within the 81 cm marks and the whole
of the forefingers must be in contact with the 81 cm marks if maximum grip
is used. Reverse grip is prohibited.
To ensure a strong basis an athlete may use flat plates or blocks not
exceeding 30 cm from the surface of the platform. For all international
competitions, blocks of different heights: 5, 10, 20 and 30 cm, must be
provided for leg support.
The phase structure of the bench press
One of the common problems of any competitive exercise training that needs
to be addressed is the increase of technical mastery. In recent years, as
already mentioned in the previous chapters, the kinematic structure of
techniques has received a wider popularity. The structural approach, when
analyzing competitive exercises technique, allows to identify its phases in a
new way, to have a fresh look at methods and technique mastery. In the
structure of the bench press, specialists distinguish between preparatory, main
and final periods.
In the bench press, the preparatory period is the starting position. The main
period is the actual bench press. The final period is the stabilization of the
final position and the return of the bar to the rack.
First period - starting position (2 phases and 3 elements)
Phase 1. Preparatory position
Elements: positioning of an athlete on the bench; grip of the barbell, lifting
the bar off the rack.
Phase 2. Starting position (1 element)
Elements: fixing of the barbell with straight arms. Second period – press (3
phases and 7 elements)
Phase 3. Lowering the bar to the chest
Elements: lowering the bar until maximum speed point; from the point of
maximum speed until it touches the chest
Phase 4. Placing of the barbell on the chest
Elements: stabilizing of the barbell in a fixed position
Phase 5. Bench press of the bar
Elements: the rise to the point of maximum speed, from the maximum speed
point up to the sticking point, passage of the «sticking point», and press from
the «sticking point» to the full extension of the arms.
Third period- the final part of the exercise (2 phases and 2 elements)
Phase 6. Bar stabilization
Elements: stabilizing of the bar in the final position
Phase 7. Return of the bar to the rack
Elements: returning the bar on the rack
Technique and motor structure of the bench press
The motor structure can be described as interaction patterns of movements in
space and time (kinematic structure), as well as power and energy
interactions (dynamic structure)
in the movement system (D. Don, V.
Zatsiorsky, 1979). Every athlete’s move should be consciously directed
towards achieving a specific goal.
The competitive exercise - the bench press on a flat bench - consists of three
periods, seven phases and twelve elements. Each phase has its beginning and
end, and includes elements with specific motor tasks.
First period - Starting position (2 phases and 3 elements)
Elements: positioning of an athlete on the bench; gripping the barbell, lifting
the bar from the racks.
Phase 1. Preparatory position
The phase starts from the positioning of the athlete on the bench, gripping the
barbell and removing the bar from the racks.
The motor task of this phase is to assume the optimal body position on the
horizontal bench before the starting position.
Elements:
1. Positioning of the athlete on the bench: foot placement, barbell grip,
arching of the back:
a. Foot placement: an athlete can place his feet at any width, from
the widest to the narrowest, under the condition that your feet do
not touch the bench.
b) Gripping of the bar: it is necessary to grab at the knurling. In the bench
press the athlete can use two grips: wide (81 cm), i.e. the maximum under
competition rules, under which the main weight falls on the pectoral muscles,
and the medium grip (60-65 cm), which actively engages the triceps muscles
and the deltoid muscles. The choice of the grip depends on the length of the
arms and the power of the chest muscles of an athlete. The width of the grip
is specific for each athlete. However, there is a common axiom: the wider is
the grip, the shorter the path of the barbell from the chest will be with the
consequence of doing less work and vice versa, the narrower the grip is, the
longer the path of the bar will be requesting the athlete more work.
The starting position is taken with the shoulder blades pulled back (this
greatly reduces the range of motion) and straight elbows. The athlete should
try to arch the back as much as possible, keeping the shoulders and glutes in
contact with the bench. The more arched the back is, the shorter the path of
the bar will be and less physical effort will be required. The height of the arch
is not limited under competition rules and depends largely on the flexibility
of the athlete in the lumbar and thoracic spine sections.
2. Removing the bar from the racks with a spotter’s assistance
Now, the athlete remove the bar from the rack with the central spotter’s
assistance. The athlete lies down on the bench further away from the rack and
the spotter hands the bar to the athlete who has extended arms. In order to
execute this element, the bar should be on the rack at the height at which the
athlete will be able to take the handover from the spotter without
compromising the arch. If the bar is located too high, the athlete will have to
reach for it, which will decrease the arch, increasing the length of the torso.
When the bar is too low, the athlete will not be able to make a good arch, and
will experience difficulties removing the bar from the racks. Taking the
handover from a spotter, the athlete, slightly lifting the hips, moves the bar
forward and takes it down as low as possible on the extended hands, pulling
his shoulders blades and shoulders down. Then he lowers the hips on the
bench. The front deltoids should be lower than the pectoral muscles.
Phase 2. Starting position (1 element)
The second phase begins after receiving the barbell from the spotter and ends
with the athlete in a stationary position.
The motor task of this phase is to gain an optimal position for the effective
realization of the motor potential during the exercise.
Elements: Fixation of the barbell with extended arms
The head, shoulders and hips (glutes) are in contact with the surface of the
bench. The athlete’s soles and heels of the shoes touch the surface of the
platform or blocks. The first point of support in this position is the neck and
trapezius muscles. The athlete has retracted his shoulder blades and they do
not touch the bench, the shoulders are pulled down as much as possible. The
leg and back muscles are activated, the hips lie on the bench.
The command is given by the Chief referee immediately after the athlete is
motionless and the bar is in the correct position.
Second period - the bench press.
This period is divided into three phases and seven elements.
Phase 3. Lowering the bar to the chest
This phase begins with the bending of the elbows and ends when the barbell
touches the athlete’s chest. In this phase, the athlete must make a counter
movement of the chest to the bar without lifting his support points off the
bench. The angle between the arm and the body should be approximately 45
degrees in the downward movement of the barbell as well as the press. Both
moves are performed while holding one’s breathe. The speed of lowering the
bar on the chest depends on the athlete’s anthropometric features (his arm
length), the width of the grip, the height of the arch, the lowering speed and
weight of the bar, as well as the quality of the bench shirt. After analyzing
over 250 charts of vertical movement of the barbell, we have observed that
the lowering phase duration varies from 0.6 to 3.0 seconds, which points the
average at 1.28 seconds. The motor task of this phase is to select the most
favorable biomechanical trajectory of the barbell movement towards the
chest.
Elements:
1. Start lowering the bar until it reaches the point of maximum lowering
speed of the bar.
2. From the point of maximum lowering speed until the bar touches the chest.
The lowering speed decreases to zero in this segment. The athlete meets the
barbell with his body muscles, his legs and shoulder blades provide the
biggest support. Many athletes press the barbell deep into their chest.
Phase 4. Pausing the barbell in a fixed position
This phase starts when the barbell touches the chest and the athlete stabilizes
it on his chest and ends with the moment of separation of the barbell from the
chest.
The motor task of the phase is to keep the bar on the chest in accordance with
the rules of the competition and to switch the muscle work from the eccentric
to the concentric type.
Elements:
1. Keep a pause with a barbell on the chest
After lowering the bar to the chest, the athlete must hold it in a fixed position
on the chest, which means full stop. When analyzing the vertical movement
graphics, we have observed that athletes’ pauses are different not only in their
manner but also in duration. The minimum fixed pause duration was 0.3
seconds and the maximum was 1.5 seconds. The average duration was 0.70
seconds. According to the athletes, some of them begin the lift of the barbell
from the same point where it was lowered, whereas other shift the barbell
during the pause on the chest. The barbell can be moved forward (from the
head) or backward (to the head).
Phase 5. Press
The phase begins with the separation of the barbell from the chest (since the
extension of the arms at the elbows) and ends with a maximum straightening
of the arms at the elbows.
The motor task of the phase is to be constantly engaged without losing power
from the lowest point to the top of the bar movement.
Elements:
1.
Raising
the barbell to the point of maximum velocity
After the “Press” command, the athlete makes an explosive move, developing
the maximum speed of movement upward of the barbell.
2.
From
the point at which the barbell reaches the maximum speed of motion
to the sticking point. The athlete’s task is to keep the maximum
speed of the bar for as long as possible
3.
Passing
of the «sticking point»
Correlation analysis has shown that the height and the time of the «sticking
point» for each individual athlete depend on the qualifications, gender, the
weight of the bar and individual maximum results in the bench press. It has
been observed that with increasing skills, athletes in competitive conditions
show a more pronounced «sticking point.»
Probably, this phenomenon is connected with the fact that the weight of the
barbell is close to the record result of the athlete himself. The «sticking
point» is expressed through 0.4 - 1.2 seconds after passing the boundary
position (BP) between the fourth and fifth phases. Depending on the
anthropometric features of the athlete, the distance from the chest at this time
is 11-18 cm.
The task of the athlete is to keep the movement of the bar with the greatest
speed. The successful passage of the sticking point depends on the ability of
the athlete to maintain the speed of the press: the higher is the speed, the
easier it will be to pass the «sticking point» and vice versa.
4.
Raising
the bar after passing the «sticking point» to the full extension of the
arms at the elbows: the locked position.
Lifting the bar after passing the «sticking point» to the full extension of the
arms: the locked position. In the final part of the lift (approximately in the
upper third) we recommend to make an abrupt breath. A number of highclass athletes reduce the arch at the end of the movement, so to say, «leave»
the bar because it helps to activate your elbows at the end of the movement.
The arms and the elbows extensions must occur simultaneously.
The third period of the powerlifting bench press is called the final part. It
consists of two phases and two elements:
Phase 6. Stabilizing the barbell at the end position
The bar stabilization begins after the complete and simultaneous extension of
the arms at the elbows and lasts in a fixed position until the Chief Referee’s
signal “rack”. The motor task of the phase is keep the fixed posture in
accordance with the rules of the competition.
Elements:
1.
Stabilizing
the barbell in the final position: fully straightening the arms and the
elbows, the athlete stabilizes the barbell in a fixed position.
Phase 7. Return of the barbell to the rack
The motor task of this phase is to return the bar to the rack.
Elements:
1. Return of the bar on the rack
After the command “rack” the athlete returns the barbell to the rack by
himself or with the spotters’ assistance, by shifting the center of mass of the
barbell to the back behind the vertical projection of the athlete’s eyes.
CHAPTER SIX
PRINCIPLES AND CLASSIFICATION OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE
In order to perform an exercise, the athlet should first visualize it in a rational
sequence. In a training system there are specific principles of exercise
classification. Classification is a system of grouping of similar objects into
classes, groups, etc.; they are grouped based on common features and
attributes.
The classified categories are first separated into the largest groups (classes)
based on their common features. Sub-categories are then separated into
smaller groups based on more specific features they have in common. This
grouping system is usually presented as a scheme (classification) and is used
as visual mean of establishing a connection between the classified items.
Matveev L. (1977) notes that one of the main features of exercises
classification used in sports training is their similarities (or differences) with
the sports chosen as a specialization. It is assumed that each physical exercise
has more or less some constant principles; this is why according to the
physical education theory there are three categories of physical exercises in
all sports:
Group 1 – competitive exercises;
Group 2 – exercises for specific purposes;
Group 3 – general exercises.
Competitive exercises are holistic physical activities (including complex set
of activities) that serve as means for specific training and are performed in
the same way as during competition conditions in a chosen sport. The term
“competitive exercises” in this case is identical to the concept of “sport”.
From a methodological point of view, a person should distinguish between
the actual competition exercises and their training form. The first ones are
done during actual competitions, in full compliance with the competition
rules planned for this type of sport. The latter would be more general in
nature, but still similar to competition exercises. Specific and often subtle
alterations to technique in these exercises are intended to emphasize
particular training adaptations.
Exercises for specific purposes belong to the second group of physical
exercises. The latter would be more general in nature, but still similar to
competition exercises. Specific and often subtle alterations to technique in
these exercises are intended to emphasize particular training adaptations. The
structure of these exercises is mainly determined by the character of a
selected sport, indeed they are performed with heavy weights, which allow
trainings with heavier loads. In this way, this exercise group appears to be the
most important when preparing athletes. These exercises help to develop
specific physical qualities, as well as athletes’ technical mastery of
competitive exercises.
General exercises are used to increase the level of general physical
preparation of an athlete and to involve specific muscle groups (exercises
with weights, gymnastic and acrobatic exercises, swimming, sports games,
etc.). Therefore, group 1 and 2 provide basic load for an athlete, while group
3 provides additional load.
Depending on the primary focus of the exercises, they can be divided into
introductory and developmental. Introductory exercises help master the
technique as well as movement qualities, whereas developmental exercises
are mainly aimed at developing physical qualities (strength, speed,
endurance, etc.) and most of them have a localized impact. Within a training
process, lead-in exercises are divided into three exercise groups: squats,
bench press, and deadlift.
Lead-in exercises for barbell squats include:
●
Squat to boxes of various heights or from platforms or pins of
various heights
● Front squat
● Squats with one or two pauses
● Slow eccentric squat with rapid upward movement
● Barbell squat against a wall
● Squat negatives (slow control of a heavy squat on the way down,
help up by training partners)
● Squat with chains
● Pyramid power rack squat
● Barbell partial squat
● Narrow position squat
Lead-in exercises for bench press on a horizontal bench:
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
Wide grip bench press
Medium grip bench press
Narrow grip bench press
Bench press with a foam roller under the lower back
Bench press with an extended pause
Explosive bench press
Speed bench press
Bench press with pauses
Slow negatives
Arched bar press
Bench press from a board on the chest (5-25 cm)
Bench press with chains
Lead-in exercises for deadlift:
●
●
●
●
●
Deadlift to the knees
Deadlift with one pause, bar above the knee joints
Deadlift with two pauses, bar below and above the knee joints
Deadlift on a stand (deficit deadlifts)
Deficit deadlift with one or two pauses
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
Deadlift with chains
Deadlift from blocks, e.g. bar below the knees
Deadlift from blocks, e.g. bar above the knees
Deadlift from below the knees to lockout
Deadlift from pins (starting at lockout and lowering down slowly)
Deadlift with slow return of the bar to the platform
Competitive deadlift + deadlift from below the knees to lockout
General developmental exercises are performed with a bar, kettle bells,
dumbbells, bands or gym equipment. They also include gymnastic exercises,
swimming and sports games. The abovementioned exercises promote the
versatile physical development of an athlete. In powerlifting, the exercises
from this group are used to increase the level of an athlete’s general physical
preparation as well as to develop individual muscle groups. These particular
exercises affect individual muscles; their technical parameters differ from
those of competitive exercises. They are performed with relatively small
weights and serve as an additional mean for an athlete’s training. Therefore,
they should be taken into account and analyzed separately (i.e. squats, bench
press and deadlift).
Developmental squat exercises:
● Cross-legged barbell squat
● Deep squats, standing on blocks, with weights (kettle bell, etc.) kept
in the hands
● Leg press on a leg press machine, seated
● Hack squat machine
● Leg extensions machine, seated
● Hamstrings curl machine, lying face down
● Barbell jump squat
● Deep squat jumps
Developmental bench press exercises:
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
Incline and decline bench press
Overhead barbell press (seated or standing)
Overhead barbell press, wide grip (seated or standing)
Dumbbell flyes (lying on a horizontal bench)
Parallel bar dips (with leg or waist weights)
Pushups with weight on the upper back (chest pushup style)
Pushups with weight on the upper back (triceps pushup style)
Pec deck (seated)
Dumbbell bench press (lying on a horizontal bench)
French press (bending the arms lying down, also known as Skull
Crushers)
● Bench dips (seated)
● Barbell overhead extensions (standing)
● Pull-ups (wide grip)
Developmental exercises for deadlift:
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
Deficit deadlifts
Bent-over barbell rows
Shoulder shrugs
Hyperextensions
Reverse hyperextensions
Barbell good mornings (seated, standing)
Barbell good mornings + squat (standing)
Deep good mornings
● Barbell squats exercises
Some experts consider the barbell squat a primary exercise, as it is one of the
most important exercise for your leg muscles, moreover, it affects the back
and upper body muscles.
Competition barbell squat is indicated in the scheme as “S1”. The first level
shows that there are 4 types of weights used in squat exercises: a barbell on
the shoulders, on the chest, or overhead, and with weights held in the hands.
The second level presents 4 position types during squats: regular, heels
together with toes turned out, wide, cross-legged (lunge position). The third
level describes weight types (plates, chains, Smith machine, hack machine),
the type of downward and upward movement (slow, fast), as well as squat
depth (partial squat, to a box, regular, deep).
Barbell squat exercises are divided into three groups.
Group 1 – competitive exercise – barbell squat.
The exercise is carried out in accordance with the standards and requirements
of the competition rules of the Russian Powerlifting Federation (RPF) and the
International Powerlifting Federation (IPF). Depending on the foot placement
in the starting position, athletes compete in various styles such as “sumo”
(wide foot placement), “conventional” (narrow foot placement), as well as
many other foot placement styles.
Group 2 – exercises for specific purposes
This group includes the following introductory as well as developmental
exercises:
● Squats to boxes of various height
SP: Standing with a barbell on your shoulders. Squat until you touch the box
with your hips. The box is placed at 15-20 cm behind the athlete. Once you
touch the box, immediately return to the starting position. The exercise
facilitates fast mastery of the squat technique; it also helps control hip and
knee movements.
● Front barbell squat to a box
SP: standing with a barbell on the chest. Squat until you touch the box with
your
hips. The box is placed at 15-20 cm behind the athlete. Once you
touch the box, immediately return to the starting position. It is recommended
to use these exercises when learning squat technique. It helps keeping the
back straight (upright) and not rounded.
● Barbell squat with one or two pauses
SP: standing with a barbell on your shoulders. While squatting, you should
make one or two pauses for 2-3 seconds. This exercise helps master the
technique of downward movement.
● Slow downward and upward squat
SP: standing with a barbell on your shoulders, feet to shoulder width.
Perform a competitive squat style in a slow manner. This exercises helps
master the competitive squat technique. It is recommended to perform the
exercises with 60-70% of maximum weight.
● Barbell squat against the wall
SP: standing against the wall with a bar on the shoulders. Your toes should be
touching the wall.
● Front barbell squat
SP: standing, feet to shoulder width, the bar should be placed on the deltoid
muscles.
Squat and return to the starting position. This weight-lifting exercise develops
the front thigh muscles (quadriceps) and helps improve the back arch (staying
upright).
● Squat negatives
SP: standing with a barbell on your shoulders, feet to shoulder width. Squat
slowly with maximum weight (80-90% of personal record) for 6-10 seconds,
then return to the starting position with an assistants’ help.
● Barbell squat with narrow position
SP: standing with a barbell on your shoulders, distance between the heels –
foot-width, toes to the sides.
The recommended weight is 30-40% of maximum weight.
● Barbell squat with chains
SP: standing with a barbell on your shoulders, feet to shoulder width. The
chain is attached to the bar. As the athlete is ascending the chains are rising
gradually increasing the load that reaches its maximum at the top.
● Barbell squat in “pyramid” power rack from the sticking point
This particular machine gives an athlete the opportunity to learn and practice
all the phases of squat technique. It allows to change the starting position of
the bar: the higher it is, the bigger the weight the athlete trains with should
be. This exercise is aimed at the improvement of the upward movement and
increase of leg muscles strength when passing the sticking point.
● Barbell half squats
This exercise is performed with maximum load (100-120% of the maximum
squat results) and has a good effect on the athletes who “shake” during squats
at competitions.
Group 3 – general developmental exercises
1. Barbell squat with slow downward and fast upward movement
SP: standing with a barbell on your shoulders, feet to shoulder width. Squat
slowly and get up fast. The recommended weight for the exercises is 50-60%
of the maximum.
Engaged muscles:
● Primary muscle group - quadriceps, gluteal muscles
● Secondary muscle group - hamstrings, adductors, sacrum and lumbar
muscles, abdominal muscles.
2. Split squat
SP: Standing with a barbell on your shoulders, right foot forward, shoulders
back, and torso upright. Bend the knee of the right leg, and slightly bend the
left one. Return to the starting position. The depth of a squat depends on the
degree of mobility in the hip, knee and ankle joints of the right leg.
The main idea of the exercise is not the weight but stretching of the
quadriceps. The leg that is in front works the most. The exercise improves the
flexibility of the hip and ankle joints.
Engaged muscles:
● Primary muscle group - quadriceps, gluteal muscles
●
Secondary muscle group - posterior group of thigh muscles,
adductors.
3. Deep squat, standing on boxes with weights (kettle bells, plates,
etc.,) in the hands or hung on a belt
SP: standing on a box with your feet wide apart, toes to the sides, back is
straight, slightly lean forward, hold the weights (dumbbells, kettle bell, etc.)
in your hands positioned between your legs perpendicular to the ground.
Bend your knees until your hips are below the knee joints level. Return to the
starting position.
Engaged muscles:
● Primary muscle group – quadriceps, gluteal muscles
● Secondary muscle group - hamstrings, adductor muscles, erector
spine muscles, abdominal muscles
4. Barbell jump squats
SP: stand with a barbell on your shoulders with your legs to hip width. Squat
deeply by bending your knees. Jump up by straightening your legs. We
recommend you to perform this exercise with light weight (10-20% of the
maximum weight). The exercise develops explosive speed and trains calf
muscles, mobility in the hip, knee and ankle joints. When jumping you need
to ensure that the barbell is not separated from the trapezius muscles (bar
doesn’t float off of your neck). Performing this exercise with heavy weight
may lead to injuries, as it can cause damage to the intervertebral discs.
5. Barbell calf raises
SP: standing with a barbell on your shoulders, place your toes on a block,
lower the heels to the maximum and raise on the bottom of your feet as high
as possible. Pause at the very top and return to the starting position.
Engaged muscles: triceps surae.
Bench Press exercises.
Bench press is the second competitive exercise. It’s important for an athlete
to develop the bench press along with their squat. Pressing exercises are
considered to be the most effective movements when it comes to developing
upper body muscles. They also lead to an increase of strength indicators,
muscle mass and they strengthen connective tissues.
Competitive bench press is indicated by “B1” code on the scheme.
The first specification level indicates the type of weight used: barbell,
weights.
The second level describes the initial position of the press: from the chest or
behind the head.
The third level shows the body position while performing the bench press:
lying down, sitting down, standing, or push press.
The fourth level describes the following: grip type (straight wrist, reversed),
torso angle, space-rhythm parameter (simultaneous, alternate, French press).
The fifth level refers exclusively to bench press and describes grip width
(wide, mid, narrow); mode (with pause, explosive, negative), range (with a
roller, lockout), details in torso position (no arch), type of weight (arched bar,
chains, bands), and bench inclination (head up or down).
Exercises are performed with a bar from the starting position (SP): lying
down on a horizontal bench.
1. Wide grip bench press
SP: grip width is 85-95 cm. With this particular grip width the biggest load
goes on the pectoral muscles. The lifter must lower the bar slowly and closer
to his throat.
Wide grip bench.
2. Medium grip
SP: grip width is 50-60 cm. In this exercise, all the upper body muscles are
engaged on the same level.
Medium grip press
3. Narrow grip
SP: grip width is 30-40 cm. While performing this exercise, two fingers
should be placed on the smooth part of the bar. This exercise brings a strong
focus to the triceps.
Narrow grip press.
4. Bench press with a roller under the back
SP: with a roller placed under the lower back. The roller helps assume the
proper torso position while performing this particular exercise, which allows
for a rapid mastering of the arch technique. The height of the roller is from
eight up to fifteen cm.
Bench press with roller
5. Bench press with an extended pause
This exercise is performed in a competitive style with a three-five seconds
pause on the chest. Due to this delay, the stress on the pectoral and deltoid
muscles is increased.
6. Explosive bench press
The exercise is performed with a slow lowering of the bar to the chest (on the
count of one-two-three) and a quick press (on the count of one). The exercise
helps increase the speed of bench press.
7. Bench press with a pause
While lowering the bar to the chest or pressing it off the chest, the athlete
should make a one to three seconds pause in the sticking point. If an athlete
experiences difficulties while performing this exercise in other points of his
range of motion, he should make additional pauses.
8. Reverse grip bench press
SP: grip with the palms placed towards the athlete’s face. In this exercise, the
weight used is not big, triceps and deltoids are more engaged than pecs.
9. Negative bench press
SP: the grip width is the same as in the competitive bench press technique.
The bar should be lowered to the chest very slowly (from five to ten
seconds). As soon as the bar touches the chest, two spotters return the bar to
the initial position. The exercise is performed with 90-100% weight. Not only
the athlete strengthens his connective tissues, he also gets mentally used to
bigger weights. However, this exercise heavily taxes the nervous system, thus
it should be used with caution.
10.
Bench press with chains
SP: chain locks are put on the barbell sleeves. As the bar is being pressed, the
chains gradually come off the floor; the weight becomes heavier, which
increases the load. The chains allow for a steady, gradual press. The exercise
helps strengthen the lockout of the bench press.
11.
Bench press with bands
SP: lying down on the bench. When lifting the bar, the bands are stretched to
increase the load. Load reaches its peak at the top. The bands are used to
create dynamic resistance, and allow for a steady press in which resistance is
added smoothly as the weight moves up.
12.
Bench press with elevated legs
In this exercise, the legs are not placed on the floor but held in the air, there is
no arch in the back. All this allows to disengage the leg and back muscles,
thereby giving the upper body muscles a bigger proportion of the load. The
weights used in this exercise are generally 10% - 20% lighter than during
competition pressing with feet down and back arched.
Group 3 – general exercises for bench press.
This group includes exercises for the development of the upper body and arm
muscles, as well as leg, back muscles and abdominals. The exercises used are
not only from gymnastics, but also from track and field, gymnastics,
swimming, and others.
Basic exercises for the chest muscles
1. Incline press
SP: laying on the incline bench at 30-45 degrees angle with the head up, the
back is pressed to the bench, the feet on the floor. Grip should be outside
shoulder width. Lower the bar to the top of the pectoral muscles. When
performing the exercise, the athlete must ensure that the elbows are turned
outwards, away from the body. The bigger is the angle of the bench, the more
the deltoid muscles will be engaged. By changing the angle of the movement,
the athlete additionally engages the upper pectoral muscles, and activates the
deltoid muscles. The optimal variant of the angle is 30 degrees.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group - upper fibers of the pectorals major muscle.
Secondary muscle group – front of the deltoid, triceps.
Inclined press
2. Decline bench press
SP: laying on the bench head down, the slope is 30-40 degrees, the back is
pressed to the bench, and the feet are pressed to the stand. Overhand grip, the
arms are wider than the shoulders. The bar touches the body three-five
centimeters below the pectoral muscles. Due to the shortened range of motion
and mechanical advantage provided by the position of the elbows close to the
body, it is possible to lift more weight than in the horizontal position.
Declined bench press
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group - medium fibers of the pectorals major muscle.
Secondary muscle group - triceps, anterior fibers of the deltoid muscle.
3. Dumbbell bench press
SP: laying down on a horizontal bench, the feet are on the floor. When
performing this exercise with especially heavy loads, two spotters should
pass the dumbbells while the athlete is laying on the bench. He takes the
dumbbells at the chest level, the palms are positioned inward (the wrists
should be placed so that the palms assume the bench press position). Then,
the lifter presses the dumbbells in a straight line from the shoulders not
allowing them to touch at the top. The main advantage of the exercise is that
it provides a greater range of motion and, consequently, a greater impact on
the muscles.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group - the pectoralis major muscle.
Secondary muscle group - anterior fibers of the deltoid, triceps.
Dumbbell bench press
4. Incline dumbbell flyes
SP: laying down on a horizontal bench, the feet are on the floor, the
dumbbells are above the head on the extended arms with palms facing each
other. Move the arms away from each other until the chest level or below.
Return to the starting position. Throughout the whole exercise the arms
should be slightly bent. In order to avoid injuries, the weight should not be
too heavy as the exercise is aimed at stretching the chest muscles.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group - the pectoralis major muscle.
Secondary muscle group - anterior fibers of the deltoid
5. Flat dumbbell flyes
SP: laying down on a horizontal bench, the feet are on the floor, dumbbells
are on extended arms above the upper part of the chest touching, the palms
are facing each other. The arms movement is the same as in the exercise
above. The arms should be slightly bent in the elbows throughout the whole
exercise.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group - the pectoralis major muscle.
Secondary muscle group - anterior fibers of the deltoid
Basic exercises for the development of the shoulder girdle
1. Overhead barbell press behind the neck (seated or standing)
SP: sitting on the bench with a barbell behind the neck. Press the barbell from
the overhead position. The abdominal and back muscles are stable, which
means that they maintain the torso in the upright position
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group – front and side fibers of the pectoralis major
muscle.
Secondary muscle group – rear fibers of the deltoid muscle, triceps.
2. Overhead barbell press from the chest (seated position)
SP: seated on a bench, the barbell is on the chest. Press the barbell up by fully
extending the arms, return the bar to the starting position by bending the
arms.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group – front and side fibers of the pectoralis major
muscle
Secondary muscle group – triceps, trapezius muscle, upper fibers of the
pectoralis major muscle
3. Alternating dumbbell press (standing or seated)
Starting Position: seated on the bench, arms with the dumbbells are at the
shoulders level. Lift the right arm with the dumbbell until it is fully extended.
Then bend it and return to the starting position. Lift the left arm. When
performing this exercise, it is crucial to lower the dumbbells as slowly as
possible.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group – front and side fibers of the pectoralis major
muscle. Secondary muscle group – side fibers of the pectoralis major
muscle, triceps.
4. Side dumbbell raises (standing or seated)
SP: standing, the arms with the dumbbells are down, the legs are to shoulder
width. Lift the dumbbell up to the sides, and then slowly lower them to the
starting position by creating resistance. Do not swing the dumbbells; lift them
only with the strength of the deltoid muscles.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group –side fibers of the pectoralis major muscle.
Secondary muscle group – front and rear fibers of the pectoralis major
muscle, triceps
5. Rear lateral raise (standing)
Starting position: standing, the legs are slightly bent, lean forward by bending
the body in the hip joints until the torso is almost parallel to the floor. The
arms with the dumbbells are down. Raise the dumbbells out to your sides,
and then lower them down to the starting position creating resistance
throughout the whole exercise.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group –rear fibers of the pectoralis major muscle.
Secondary muscle group – side fibers of the pectoralis major muscle,
trapezius and infraspinatus muscles, rhomboid muscle, teres minor and
teres major muscle.
6. Front dumbbell raise (standing or seated)
Starting Position: standing with the dumbbells in the arms. With the arm fully
extended, alternate the lift to the front and lift each dumbbell up until its
parallel to the floor.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group –anterior fibers of the pectoralis major muscle.
Secondary muscle group –pectoralis major muscle, trapezius and
serratus muscles.
Basic exercises for the development of the triceps muscles
1. French press (bending the arms lying down)
Starting Position: lying down on the horizontal bench, the hands hold the bar
with the narrow grip, the palms are on top. The legs are to the sides pressed
to the floor. By bending the arms in the elbows lower the bar to your
forehead or overhead. By extending the arms return the bar to the starting
position. Do not widen the elbows.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group – triceps.
Secondary muscle group –chest muscles, deltoid muscle, forearm muscle.
2. Barbell triceps extension (standing or seated)
Starting Position: seated on the bench, the barbell is on extended arms,
overhead narrow grip. Lower the bar behind your head; raise the bar in a
semicircular arc motion to the initial position. A dumbbell can be used
instead of a barbell.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group – triceps.
Secondary muscle group – deltoid muscle, forearm muscle.
3. Bench dips (seated)
SP: hold on to the edge of a box or platform behind you; put your legs on
another bench. Bending the arms, slowly lower the torso to the maximum.
Then, by extending the arms return to the starting position. It is
recommended to increase the load by putting a plate on your lap.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group – triceps.
Secondary muscle group – rear fibers of the pectoralis major muscle.
4. Dumbbell kickbacks
Starting Position: standing bent forward on your right leg, put your left arm
and leg on the bench, hold the dumbbell in your right hand with the elbow
bent, the elbow should be directed upwards. Fully extend the arm. Hold the
final position for one-two seconds and return the dumbbell to the initial
position.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group – triceps.
Secondary muscle group –rear deltoids, latissimus.
5. Dumbbell triceps extension
Starting Position: seated on the bench, the dumbbell is in the extended arm
above the head, the elbow is close to the head. Lower the dumbbell behind
the head until the forearm is parallel to the floor. Return the arm to the
starting position.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group – triceps.
Secondary muscle group – deltoid muscles, forearm muscles.
6. Triceps pushdowns (standing)
Starting position: facing the pulley machine, legs to shoulder width, back
straight. Grip the bar at the chest level, overhand grip, the arms are bent and
pressed to the torso. By extending the forearms, slowly pull the bar until the
arms are fully extended. Hold the position for one-two seconds in the lowest
point of the movement, then, by bending the arms return to the starting
position.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group – triceps.
Secondary muscle group – deltoid muscles, forearm muscles.
The wide grip mostly engages the long head of the triceps muscle, while the
narrow grip engages the lateral head.
Basic exercises for the development of the biceps muscles
1. Barbell curls (standing)
Starting Position: standing, legs to shoulder width, bar on extended arms,
underhand grip. Raise the bar as high as possible along an arc (the elbows are
stationary and pressed to the torso). Pause at the top. Lower the bar along the
same path until the arms are fully extended. If the fingers are spread
throughout the whole move, all of the biceps is equally engaged. If the thumb
is placed upwards, the lower part of the biceps is engaged. This exercise can
be performed with dumbbells by bending both arms at the same time or
alternating.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group – biceps.
Secondary muscle group – shoulder muscles, brachioradialis muscle,
anterior fibers of the deltoid muscle, forearm muscles
2. Barbell curl seated over incline bench
Starting position: the exercise is performed seated on Scott curl machine with
elbows on the incline pad. The grip is to shoulder width, palms down. The
arms are fully extended while the triceps muscle is pressed to the surface of
the pad. Bend the arms in the elbows. Lower the barbell to the starting
position. The triceps muscle remains on the pad surface throughout the whole
exercise. It is recommended to perform the exercise with an EZ curl bar to
avoid the excessive load on the forearms (photo 1.184-1.186).
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group – biceps.
Secondary muscle group – shoulder muscles, brachioradialis muscle,
anterior fibers of the deltoid muscle, forearm muscles.
3. Dumbbell alternate bicep curl (standing).
Starting position: standing, arms with dumbbells fully extended and placed
alongside the torso. The back is straight; the feet are to shoulder width. Palms
on the bottom. Bend the right arm at the elbow and raise the dumbbell to the
shoulder. Slowly lower the dumbbell to the starting position. Repeat the
exercise with the other arm.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group – biceps.
Secondary muscle group – shoulder muscles, brachioradialis muscle,
anterior fibers of the deltoid muscle, forearm muscles.
Basic exercises for the latissimusdorsi muscle
1. Pull-ups (wide grip)
Starting position: Hanging from the bar, wide grip, palms on top. Bend the
arms; pull up the torso so that the chin is above the crossbar.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group – medium and lower part of the latissimusdorsi.
Secondary muscle group – biceps, forearm muscles, serratus anterior
muscle.
2.
Crossbar pull-ups with the back of the head touching the crossbar
(wide grip)
Starting position: hanging on the bar, wide grip. Bend the arms; pull your
torso up until the back of your head touches the crossbar. The movements are
slow with one-two seconds pause at the top.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group – upper part of the latissimusdorsi.
Secondary muscle group – biceps, shoulder blade adductor muscles. The
wider is the grip, the more the upper lats are engaged.
3. Lat pulldown (seated)
Starting position: seated on the machine’s bench, arms up to the sides. The
grip is wider than the shoulders, overhand grip, torso upright. The lat bar
should be above the head. By bending the arms at the elbows, pull the bar
down over the head until it touches the lower neck. Hold the bar in this
position. By extending the arms, return the bar to the starting position (photo
1.196-1.198).
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group – latissimusdorsi muscle.
Secondary muscle group – rear fibers of the deltoid muscle, lower fibers
of the trapezius muscle, rhomboid muscles.
4. Seated cable row
Starting Position: seated, feet pressed to the machine’s platform, legs slightly
bent in the knees. Torso upright, arms straight in front of you, the grip is to
shoulder width, overhand grip. By bending the arms, pull the bar down to
your abdominals. Hold the position for one-two seconds and return to the
starting position.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group – middle and lower fibers of the trapezius muscle,
latissimusdorsi muscle.
Secondary muscle group – rhomboid muscles, rear fibers of the deltoid
muscle, biceps muscle, forearm muscles.
5. Bent over barbell row
Starting Position: standing, legs slightly bent in the knees, to shoulder width,
torso bent forward. The grip is wide, the head is slightly raised, focus your
gaze in front of you, the back is straight. Lift the bar until it touches the torso
and return to the starting position.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group –, latissimusdorsi muscle.
Secondary muscle group – trapezius muscle, rhomboid muscles, rear
fibers of the deltoid muscle.
Deadlift exercises
Deadlift is the final exercise in the power triathlon. The exercise has its own
peculiarities: all the large leg and back muscles are engaged when the legs
and back are straightened.
The first specification level describes the starting position (standing, from
blocks, on a stand, with Smith machine from the knees, seated), and the
movement (full, just shrug). The second level describes the starting position
of the bar (below, lower, or at the knees level), and the final bar position
(competitive, to the knees), grip width (regular, wide), weight type (plates,
chains, springs), work rate (with pauses, slow return to the platform). The
third specification level refers to the knee level deadlift, and indicates
additional parameters of lifting the weight (regular lift, with a pause, to the
knees plus competitive).
Group 1- of the deadlift exercises includes a competitive exercise, similar to
squats and bench press. It should follow all the norms and requirements of
the international competitions rules. It is performed in “sumo” style as well as
“conventional” style, and in a combination of both.
Group 2 -of the deadlift exercises includes exercises for specific purposes,
divided into introductory and developmental exercises.
Types of deadlift exercises.
1. Deadlift to the knees
Starting position: bar on the platform. Feet spread apart in “sumo” or
“conventional” style. Lift the bar to the knee joints level, pause for two-three
seconds. After the pause, return the bar to the platform.
2. Deadlift with one pause below the knees
This exercise is a more complicated version of the previous one.
Starting position: bar on the platform. Feet spread apart in “sumo” or
“conventional” style. Lift the bar until it is five-eight centimeters below the
knee joints, pause for two-three seconds, then lift the bar to the lockout
position.
3. Deadlift with one pause above the knees
Starting position: bar on the platform. Feet spread apart in “sumo” or
“conventional” style. Lift the bar until it is five-eight centimeters above the
knee joints, pause for two-three seconds, then lift the bar to the lockout
position.
4. Deadlift with two pauses below and above the knees
Starting position: bar on the platform. Feet spread apart in “sumo” or
“conventional” style. Lift the bar until it is five-eight centimeters below the
knee joints; make the first pause for one- two seconds. Then, lift the bar
until it is five-eight centimeters above the knee joints; make the second pause
for one-two seconds. After the second pause, lift the bar to the lockout
position.
5. Competitive deadlift plus deadlift from below the knees
Starting position: bar on the platform. Feet spread apart in “sumo” or
“conventional” style. Do the competitive deadlift, then, without returning the
bar to the platform, do the hang clean
lift below the knee joints. The
number of the lifts depends on the bar’s weight. This particular exercise helps
improve the deadlift technique, develop the strength of the leg and torso
extensor muscles, as well as the speed in the lockout stage.
6. Competitive deadlift plus deadlift from above the knees
Starting position: bar on the platform. Feet spread apart in “sumo” or
“conventional” style. Do the competitive deadlift, then, without returning the
bar to the platform, do the hang clean
lift above the knee joints. The
number of the lifts depends on the bar’s weight. This particular exercise helps
improve the deadlift technique, develop the strength of the leg and torso
extensor muscles as well as the speed in the lockout stage.
7. Deadlift to the knees plus competitive deadlift
Starting position: bar on the platform. Feet spread apart in “sumo” or
“conventional” style.
From the starting position, an athlete first performs the lift to the knee joints
level (once or twice), followed by the competitive deadlift. The exercise is
aimed at the improvement of the competitive deadlift technique. It helps the
development of the leg strength and torso extensor muscles.
8. Deficit deadlift
Starting position: standing on a seven-ten centimeters tall stand. Feet spread
apart in “sumo” or “conventional” style. It is recommended to spread the feet,
as it would be done at competitions: “sumo” style, “conventional” style.
When performing the deadlift from a stand, the bar’s path is longer, which
increases the load on the leg and torso extensor muscles. The exercise helps
in increasing strength when lifting the bar off the platform. It is not
recommended to use this exercise when training beginners, as the starting
position of this exercise is different from the regular one and can lead to the
acquisition of the wrong technique.
9. Deficit deadlift with one pause below the knees
Starting position: standing on a seven-ten centimeters tall stand. Feet spread
apart in “sumo” or “conventional” style. Lift the bar to five-eight centimeters
below the knee joints and pause for two-three seconds, and then lift the bar to
the final position.
10.
Deficit deadlift with one pause above the knees
Starting position: standing on a seven-ten centimeters tall stand. Feet spread
apart in “sumo” or “conventional” style. Lift the bar to five-eight centimeters
above the knee joints and pause for two-three seconds, and then lift the bar to
the final position.
11.
Deadlift with chains
Starting position: bar on the platform. Feet spread apart in “sumo” or
“conventional” style. Attach the chains to the sleeves of the bar, which will
increase the bar weight when lifted. Consequently, the load on leg and back
muscle will also increase. The load will reach its maximum at the lockout.
The exercise helps increase leg and back muscle strength at the lockout.
12.
Deadlift with chains with one pause below the knees
Starting position: bar on the platform. Feet spread apart in “sumo” or
“conventional” style. Perform the exercise in the same way as exercise 3.
13.
Deadlift with chains with one pause above the knees
The starting position and the exercise are the same as in exercise 4.
14.
Deadlift with chains with two pauses below and above the
knees
The starting position and the exercise are the same as in exercise 5.
General and developmental exercises
General and developmental exercises for powerlifting deadlift consist of the
exercises for back, leg, and abdominal muscle development.
Exercises for back muscle development
1. Deadlift from the edge of the block (from a “rib”)
Starting position: put the center of the bar on a narrow block. The grip is
wide. You should straighten the body as fast as possible while lowering the
bar as slow as possible. When lowering the bar, the legs should be slightly
bent.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group - posterior group of thigh muscles, gluteal
muscles.
Secondary muscle group - extensor muscles of the spine (m. erector
spinae), which
is divided into three parts: a) bristlecone muscle; b)
longissimus muscle; c) the iliac rib muscle.
2. Shoulder shrugs
Starting position: standing, legs to hip width, dumbbells in extended arms.
Raise the shoulders as high as possible, return to the starting position.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group – front and medium of the trapezius muscles.
Secondary muscle group - levator scapulae muscles, deltoid muscles.
3. Hyperextensions
Starting position: lay down on the machine (face down) and stabilize the feet.
Arms behind the head. Raise the torso until it is parallel to the floor. After
lowering the torso, slowly raise it up until fully extended. The exercise can be
performed with and without additional weight (barbell, plates, etc.) behind
the head or in lowered arms.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group - extensor muscles of the spine, bristlecone
muscle, longissimus muscle, iliac rib muscle
Secondary muscle group - longissimusdorsi, gluteal muscles, biceps
femoris.
4. Reverse hyperextensions
Start Position: lay with your face down on the machine and grip the handles.
Keeping your back straight lift your legs up, slowly return to the position in
which the body will be in a straight line (the torso line is the extension of the
legs line), hold this position for one-two seconds. You must avoid arching
your back.
5. Barbell good morning
Start position: standing, feet apart, with the bar on your shoulders. Slightly
bending your legs and keeping your back straight, lean forward until parallel
to the floor, return to the starting position.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group - extensor muscles of the spine, bristlecone
muscle, longissimus muscle, iliac rib muscle
Secondary muscle group – latissimusdorsi, gluteal muscles, rear thigh
muscles.
6. Seated barbell good morning
Start position: seated on the bench, feet apart, with a barbell on your
shoulders. Keeping your back straight, lean forward and return to the starting
position. The angle of the movement depends on the athlete’s hip flexibility.
The lower the lean is, the bigger the load on the extensor muscles will be. It
is crucial to remember that leaning forward rapidly is dangerous as the athlete
can injure the intervertebral ligaments.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group - extensor muscles of the spine, longissimus
muscle, iliac rib muscle
Secondary muscle group – latissimusdorsi, gluteal muscles, rear thigh
muscles.
7. Deep good mornings (standing)
Starting position: feet to shoulders width, weight (kettle bell, plates, etc.) in
extended arms. Lean forward. The exercise is performed with your back
straight and legs slightly bent in the knees.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group - extensor muscles of the spine, bristlecone
muscle, longissimus muscle, iliac rib muscle
Secondary muscle group – gluteal muscles, rear thigh muscles.
8. Barbell good morning plus squat (standing)
The barbell and foot position are the same as in squats. On count “one” lean
forward until the body is parallel to the floor. On count “two” squat from this
position. The shoulders and barbell are stabilized and the hips are lowered.
On count “three” lean forward from the squat. On count “four” straighten the
back to the starting position.
Exercises for abdominal muscle development
1. Hanging pike
Start position: hanging from a crossbar or wall bar. Raise the slightly bent
legs until your shins touch the bar. The movement is primarily done by the
hip flexors.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group – rectus abdominis.
Secondary muscle group – obliques, iliac rib muscle, rectus femoris,
adductor longus muscle.
2. Hanging leg raise
Start position: torso hanging upright from the machine, arms bent. Raise the
legs up until they are parallel to the floor. To make the exercise easier if
needed, the legs can be slightly bent in the knees.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group – rectus abdominis.
Secondary muscle group – obliques, iliac rib muscle, rectus femoris,
adductor longus muscle.
3. Flat bench sit-ups
Starting position: laying on a flat abdominal bench. Arms behind your head.
Legs bent in the knees (it will decrease the load on the lumbar spine region).
Raise the torso.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group – rectus abdominis, especially the upper part.
Secondary muscle group – obliques, serratus anterior muscle, iliac rib
muscle, rectus femoris.
4. Incline sit-ups
Starting position: laying with your head down on an incline abdominal bench.
The exercise is performed as the previous one. The load can be increased by
adding weight to the arms.
Engaged muscles:
Primary muscle group – rectus abdominis and obliques.
Secondary muscle group – serratus anterior muscle, iliac rib muscle, hip
flexors.
CHAPTER SEVEN
THE ROLE OF STRENGTH IN LIFTING
Strength is measured at different speeds. Explosive strength is fast velocity;
speed strength is intermediate velocity; and strength speed is slow velocity.
Consequently, isometrics are trained at zero velocity. Strength is a term that
is mostly related to how strong an individual is, but what does that mean?
Simply, strength is the ability to overcome or counteract external resistance
of different loads with various rates of speed. In most sports explosive
strength is essential.
What is explosive strength?It is the ability to rapidly increase the force. The
faster it’s increased, measured in time, the greater will be the explosive
strength (Tidow, 1990). How is it developed?Because the resistance must be
minimal, the simplest method in developing explosive strength is jumping
rope, which can start at any age. Young boxers and wrestlers use it for
conditioning and coordination, plus timing. For example, bounding over
hurdles of varying heights, one-leg and two-legged multi jumps are tried and
proved methods. In 1957, Dr. Y.V. Verkhoshansky was watching a triple
jumper and was amazed by the rebounding ability exhibited on the takeoff
after each landing. This was perhaps the beginning of his vast study for shock
training. Another means for explosive strength is depth jumps with or without
a rebound because they play a very large role in concentric and eccentric
strength development. Jumping upward onto a predetermined box height
increases explosive strength. Jumping resistance of some form can be
incorporated that may include hand and leg weights, weight vest, or
dumbbells. Jumping upward from off the knees is excellent, and a barbell can
add resistance. Remember the speed from which an individual moves
depends on external resistance. All of these trainings are designed to increase
the stretch shortening cycle or commonly known as reversible strength, refer
to the jumping chapter.
A strength coach should not duplicate the actions that occur on the playing
field in the weight room. This is Special Physical Preparedness (SPP), and
only General Physical Preparedness (GPP) force should take place. Many of
the players I have worked with say that they practice too much and have too
much contact in practice, reducing their abilities on game day.
If a football coach’s mentality is to train more and more, an over exertion of
physical and mental ability can occur. Strength coaches can learn to train
smarter, not harder. Repeating the same activities leads to accommodation,
which causes a decrease in response of a biological object to a continued
stimulus. In training, the stimulus is physical exercise (Zatsiorsky, 1995). By
doing the same speed exercises, an individual develops staleness in the
Central Nervous System (CNS). (Kurz, 2001). To avoid this stagnation, the
Conjugate System should be implemented because it changes exercises,
training intensities and volume. This system includes changing the rhythm
and frequency of sports tasks. Because of the short duration of most exercises
and drills for explosive strength, maximal force cannot be attained, which is
fully explained by the Hill equation for muscle contraction in Mel Siff’s
Super training (2003).
Concentric Strength
Raising weight concentrically without an eccentric phase first, builds a
powerful start. This develops starting strength where maximal force can be
generated in the first 300 milliseconds. This works for a powerful start after a
long snap count, for instance by sitting on a box up to eight seconds, has the
same concentric speed as normal box squatting that lasts roughly one second.
Apparently, while on a box, some muscles are lengthening whereas others are
becoming shorter, but never the whole muscles are held statically. This
concept is very important and not to be overlooked.
Eccentric Strength
Eccentric strength is the ability to lower a weight. Certain authorities
proclaim that an individual can lower as much as 50 percent more than he can
raise.
Static Strength
Static strength or isometric strength is used when the exertion of a muscle
increases but its length remains the same. Merely staying in a motionless
position requires static strength; for example, belt squatting in the skater’s
pose.
Speed Strength
Speed strength is the ability to exert maximal force during high speed
movement. (Allerheiligen, 1994). It is developed with low resistance, as these
exercises must be very quick. For the development of sprinters, the weight
should be 30 percent to 50 percent of one repetition at most for starting
strength. Concerning sports where resistance is great, the weights should
range from 30 percent to 50 percent of one repetition at most. This would
include throwing events such as the shot and hammer throw or team sports
such as wrestling or football; the barbell should move at least 0.8 m per
second up to 1.2 m per second. Weights for repetitions in this intensity zones
should not be less than two and no more than six. After six, the bar slows
down, thus force development is decreased. The rest between sets is based
around an individual’s GPP level at that time. It is much better to do low
repetitions and high sets. Why? A second repetition is more explosive than a
sixth repetition and low ones are easier to recover from.
While jumping is very important to increase speed strength to a great degree
by adding resistance to the body, legs, or holding weights in the hands, a
greater box height can be employed when the resistance is deleted. As an
individual implements the Westside weight program, top strength as well as
speed go up. Consequently, this system uses speed work and strength work
while simultaneously increases muscle mass. When an individual is training
and focusing on one type of strength for a period of three weeks, the other
strength elements suffer. No one can lift a heavy weight slowly; therefore an
individual must accelerate through the complete range of motion. Depending
on the amount of resistance, determines how fast the object moves. External
resistance is the key element that dictates how quickly a person overcomes
that resistance. This is due to the force-velocity relation.
Reactive Strength
Reactive strength is the training ability used for jumping up and going from
eccentric to concentric actions.
Starting Strength
Starting strength is measured by the maximal force that an individual exerts
at the beginning of a contraction.
Eccentric Strength
Eccentric strength has been the focus of many studies, but there is a little
valuable feedback to increase the concentric phase. Eccentric strength can
exceed concentric strength by 50 percent and isometric strength by 50 percent
to 100 percent. However, I am concerned with raising a load, not lowering it.
Many of the studies were done while lowering a load slowly, but if drop
jumps work, despite they are dangerous (and we know they are), the human
body approaches 9.8 m/s, which is the force of gravity near earth. Why do
coaches insist on lowering a weight slowly? Lowering a weight slowly
accomplishes two things: it can make muscles larger, which is great for a
body builder, but not for other types of athletes and it causes the most
muscular soreness. Both are unnecessary occurrences for increasing athletic
performance.
A research proves that the hardest part of the squat is taking the barbell out of
the rack and standing still. Once the eccentric phase begins, this enormous
amount of eccentric muscle strength takes over. Most injuries occur on the
eccentric phase because of the lengthening of the muscle in an eccentric
contraction. Moreover, the series elastic component (SEC) is exposed under
concentric work. The muscular pain from eccentrics is due to the damage
inflicted upon the myofibrils and connective tissue elements such as the Z
bands, which is a part of the SEC. Friden (1983) and Siff (2003) found that
extreme soreness disappeared and the ability to perform eccentric work
increased by 375 percent by continuing eccentric work, lasting eight weeks
with three workouts per week. Eccentric work causes more hypertrophy than
concentric work because of greater tissue damage.
Static and dynamic are two forms of muscle work, which are similar to the
timed relaxation of a runner’s leg while not touching the track. One would
think sitting on a box motionless would affect reversal strength.
ENDURANCE
Endurance is the Ability to Counter Fatigue
Much has been written about endurance. We know there is more than one
type of it. A person who is good at endurance is very effective at doing very
little. I believe that sports provide anaerobic activity suitable for the person
taking part. Endurance is only improved when someone is worked into a very
fatigued state.
General endurance is the ability to perform at low intensity or high intensity
at any non-sport specific workouts for prolonged time.
Methods of endurance training include the following:
1.
Continuous with variable intensity
2.
Constant intensity
3.
Circuit training
4.
Interval training
5.
Repetitive training.
Explosive Muscular Endurance
Aerobic endurance is the amount of oxygen an individual can take in and use,
if it is endurance that is sought after. Endurance has little use if muscular
endurance or the ability to produce power for a certain time is insufficient.
Muscular endurance is mostly tested with squatting or benching for high
repetitions. The athletes with the highest absolute strength should also have
the greatest muscular strength with sub-maximal weights just by the fact that
300 pounds may be 50 percent of his one rep maximum while it would be 75
percent for a person that could squat 600 pounds at most. This is simple
mathematics.
For lower body endurance, we never use squatting of any kind, except belt
squatting. It’s simply too dangerous because the back may fatigue before the
legs, leading to injuries. Therefore, how do we work on muscular endurance?
By power walking with pulling sleds, striding out as long as possible and
landing on the heel and pulling through simultaneously; the first step and the
last step are actually a start. By doing this, a person can develop a powerful
start off the line of the initial step and build the ability to accelerate and
delete deceleration at the end of the race. This works for a 40-yard dash,
indoor sprinting, 100 meter, 200 meter, 400 meter or any distance including
the marathon.
The truth about Endurance
There are fundamental principles for training general endurance. The first
principle is the length of the workouts, which depends on the sport or sport
activities on which an athlete is concentrating. The second principle is the
pace of movement. The desired rhythm must be maintained for a predetermined time or work interval such as 100 meters or 10,000 meters. Close
attention must be paid to the rest interval for adequate recovery, depending
on the level of preparedness of the athlete. In turn, the athlete should be able
to perform at least 60 repetitions per minute with 25 percent to 50 percent of
one repetition at most with light barbell exercises, belt squat walking or
squatting with a lightened method.
Know the goal being achieved. If strength endurance is the goal, heavy
training will be useless if someone tries to do several repetitions with 75
percent to 80 percent weights. The end result will be a gain in absolute
strength. I prefer the low intensity approach with resistance. This builds
general strength, general endurance, and thickens ligaments and tendons,
containing kinetic energy to increase the athlete’s ability because that is
where it is stored. Moreover, soft tissue injuries are reduced greatly. Low
intensity workouts like walking with resistance and resistance sled work for
pre-season training by reducing the load or the time of the actual work
becomes a method of restoration. The goals are to raise work capacity and
learn the best rotation of special workouts for general endurance for not only
a single sport activity, but more importantly, each and every athlete has his
particular needs that must be recognized. A last note is to do not use
machines; they train only muscles not motion.
Lifting technique
When striving for proper technique, our intentions are to lift the most weight
in contest situations. Proper technique isn’t intended to produce a
championship physique, but rather a world record performance. Technique is
a tool for a lifter to build the best leverages possible. With good form, a lifter
can stress his strong points and eliminate weaknesses. To analyze and build
technical skills, the lifts can be divided into smaller segments:
●
●
●
●
●
●
Setting up
Unracking the bar
Ascent
Reversing direction
Descent
Replacing the bar
For the deadlift, items 2 through 4 are unnecessary.
Squat
Most people think of the squat as a multi-joint movement. I see it as flexion
of the spinal erectors and hip flexors with a slight extension of the knees.
When watching a good squat technician, nothing moves but the hip joint. He
bends only at the hips. His back doesn’t move, and his knees don’t go
forward. Other muscles push gradually throughout the lift, just enough to
accommodate the external force that is being applied.
The feet should point straight out and forward, forcing the hip muscles into
play. It is hard to break parallel because the hip flexors and extensors are put
into a very strong position for lesion. Turn the feet slightly outward if you are
not flexible enough or if you have a thick waistline or have thick upper
thighs. If someone walks with his feet turned outward, he has weak
hamstrings.
When squatting, think about pushing the feet out, not down. This ensures that
the hip muscles are working correctly. Push the knees out the entire time,
starting from the moment the bar is un-racked. This should be felt in the hips.
Next, start pushing the gluteus to the rear as though searching for a chair that
is too far behind to sit down. Arch the lower back hard, keep the chest and
head up, and lean as much as possible, ensuring the bar stays as the center of
gravity. To ensure correct bar placement, raise the chest and pull the shoulder
blades together, which creates better leverages by placing the bar as back as
possible. However, if the bar is carried too low, it causes a lifter to bend
forward while destroying leverages. The hands should be wide enough to
avoid bicep tendonitis, and pull the elbows forward again by contracting the
shoulder blades together.
Which position should be implemented? Everyone should box squat with a
wide position. This builds important hip muscles. More than 30 years ago, the
great Jim Williams said to train as wide as possible and for a lifter to pull his
position in so that he can break parallel in a meet. While descending, the lifter
should always squat back, not down. When pushing the gluteus back, the
knees won’t go forward. By forcing the knees apart, the lifter is significantly
increasing his leverages. After breaking parallel, he must first push against
the bar. After all, the bar is what we are trying to raise. Pushing with the feet
first is a mistake. This causes the lifter to bend over and most likely the lift,
too.
Breathing is important. First, take air into the abdominal section and chest.
Hold the air until passing the hardest part of the lift, and exhale when nearing
the top position.
Bench Press
For training the bench press, use three to four different grips. Alternate from
the index finger just touching the smooth part of the bar to a grip that is two
inches wider than the grip where the little finger is in contact with the power
ring. A lifter should take the bar out of the rack by himself, pulling the
shoulder blades together and gripping the bar as tightly as possible. Next, pull
the bar out of the rack as if you were doing a pullover. This activates the lats
properly. Pull the bar straight above the point on the chest where you want to
lower it. Lower the bar quickly in a straight line.
Press the bar straight up and slightly toward the feet. This is the shortest
distance to press and eliminates shoulder rotation. Rotating the bar back over
the face can cause rotator and pec injuries.
Never intentionally push the bar over the face. Hold your breath for up to five
repetitions because holding the breath denies heavy training. Take in as much
air as possible before lifting the bar from the rack, and lower the bar as fast as
possible. Stop the bar as quick as you can and reverse to the concentric phase
as fast as possible. When training, raise the head as the bar is lowered and
keep the eyes on the bar throughout the movement. Use either a thumb less
grip or a thumb grip.
Technique during competition should be the same as in training with one
exception. Use a maximum wide grip with a thumb grip and use a lift-off. As
the bar is lowered, raise the head first and then the shoulders as if you were
doing a sit-up. This enables you to bring the bar lower on the body without
rolling it out of the hands.
Once the press command is given, slam the head and shoulders back down on
the bench for stability. Keep the feet out in front of the knees and press down
on the heels to ensure that the bottom stays on the bench. A longer torso is
more advantageous for bench pressing. Therefore, avoid shortening the torso
by arching the lower back. In addition, an extreme arch can cause an injury.
Deadlift
When using the conventional style, center the bar over the joint of the big toe
or a little closer. A good distance to start pulling is usually when the bar is
three to four inches from the shins. If a lifter is too close to the bar, it may
swing forward when pulling upward, which causes difficulties at the lockout.
The shoulder joints must be behind or over the bar when starting the pull.
Pull slightly toward the center of the body to keep the bar close to the legs
and always push the feet out to the sides. For most lifters, pointing the feet
out provides a stronger start because of the greater leg drive. This position
enables a strong finish because of increased hip rotation. The back position
can change because of the wide variety of body structures. Most lifters arch
their lower back while rounding the upper back at the same time. However,
don’t round the back too much because it will be difficult to lockout. A lifter
may get stuck in the knees. It is an advantage as long as the bar stays close to
the shins. The head position can vary anywhere from looking straight ahead
to looking downward about six feet in front of the body.
The most common grip is the standard reverse one. Some lifters use an
overhand hook grip with the arms hanging in a straight line. As a lifter gets
bigger, he may have to use a wider grip. When using sumo style in
deadlifting, the width of the position depends on flexibility. The longer a
person’s legs are, the wider his position has to be. Keep the hips as high as
possible, ensure that the back is in the proper position pulling himself slightly
lower than his optimal starting position. Push the hips against the bar and pull
out the bottom.
For breathing, keep the air out of the lungs—use abdominal breathing. This
keeps the torso short for better leverages and builds stability.
NUTRIENT AND MICRO NUTRIENT FOR GAINS
● Anabolism and Catabolism
Proper nitrogen retention is necessary for anabolism. Assuming in frequent
meals the right amount of protein is optimal for proper nitrogen retention.
Nitrogen balance occurs when the dietary nitrogen intake is equal to the
amount of nitrogen ejected. An athlete trying to maintain bodyweight wants
to keep nitrogen coming in at the same speed it is being excreted. Athletes
who are looking for muscle mass gain, however, need to maintain a positive
nitrogen balance. Lack of protein produces a negative nitrogen balance and
leads to a catabolic state.
Catabolism is controlled by glucocorticoid hormones: cortisol, cortisone
corticosterone, and deoxycorticosterone (cortisol is the main hormone in this
group). These hormones send signals to release stored proteins. This process
is catabolism, which is the breaking down of muscle tissue. The aminoacid
glutamine mitigates the catabolic effects of cortisol. When the cortisol is
allowed to remain elevated after exercise, the protein breakdown continues.
Optimal muscle growth and repair is achieved when the body stays anabolic.
With optimal training and nutrition, more time will elapse being anabolic
than catabolic. This is the reason why some athletes implement anabolic
steroids. Anabolic steroids raise androgen levels, meaning that fewer cells
will get the message to release protein. In turn, the body is in an anabolic
state even if more often the diet is not optimal.
Therefore, it is important for athletes or coaches to fully understand what
their bodies need in terms of nutrition before any start of hormone
supplementation. After an anabolic steroids regime is started, I recommend
tracking all changes in nutrition and performance, ensuring optimal gains if
an individual chooses to take anabolic steroids. If someone’s diet is slightly
off, performance gains can still be achieved while taking anabolic steroids,
but they will not be optimal. Think about working hard on a body part. That
body part is going to need amino acids to repair, and if a sufficient amount of
protein is not ingested, the body will pull amino acids from stores in healthy
body parts, which is counterproductive.
● Protein
Protein is the building block of the human body. It always bothers me how
many athletes choose to slack off on their protein intake because protein is
essential for gaining or maintaining muscle mass. It is impossible to recover
from training or an injury optimally without adequate amounts of protein.
The next time you are feeling over trained or your body is aching and you
don’t feel like you are recovering optimally, take an honest look at your
protein intake. When I was a young athlete, I did not understand the
importance of protein intake. Unfortunately, I did not take enough in, but I
trained and competed intensely. From the lack of protein, I suffered injuries
that slowed down my progress and ultimately led to injuries that I have had to
deal with since ever. This is what led me to study everything I could about
nutrition and to run experiments on my athletes and myself. I wanted to help
others avoid the problems I had incurred because of lack of knowledge in this
area. Coaches make sure athletes understand the importance of protein intake,
and athletes understand it is their responsibility to follow nutrition plans.
Protein molecules have multiple functions in the body, including the building
of muscle mass. They make up certain enzymes and hormones and serve as
important regulators in the body. The body uses protein for building and
repairing bones, blood, teeth, skin, hair, nails, and internal organs. Proteins
help regulate blood pressure, blood sugar level, and metabolism. Looking at
all the benefits, it is obvious why optimal protein intake is essential. The
building blocks of proteins are amino acids, and adequate amounts must be
available in an athlete’s rest periods after training for optimal recovery.
Essential amino acids (EAAs) cannot be produced by the body and must be
provided by food or supplementation. This is one place an athlete can take
advantage. Since the body does not produce it, an athlete must take it in
through diet. Because some athletes do not follow their diet perfectly, this is
where someone can take an advantage in recovery that will help boost
training and performance on a competition day. Non-essential amino acids
are produced by our body and are not a priority to have in the diet. The body
does not perceive a difference between mental and physical stress; therefore,
optimally training and eating is imperative, so the production of non-essential
amino acids efficiently proceeds for recovery.
Complete proteins are foods that contain all the nine essential amino acids.
All dietary proteins are converted into amino acids by enzymatic actions in
the digestive track. The chemical structure of protein is carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen and nitrogen atoms. take the nitrogen atom off the protein and one
has the atomic formula for a carbohydrate, which can readily be used for
energy. Proteins are our major source of nitrogen. Nitrogen is not found in
carbohydrates and fats. Proteins can be used as an energy source: one gram of
protein yields four calories of energy.
Protein Sources
The bulk of an athlete’s protein intake should come from food. A supplement
is just that, a supplement. In food sources proteins are found in animals and
plants. Meat sources and protein from nuts also contain fat. Supplemented
protein does play an important role: supplemented protein is digested faster
and is easier to prepare and consume. It is also an optimal choice for post
workout due to its faster absorption rate.
Beef: Beef tenderloin, Filet Mignon, Sirloin, Flank Steak, Round Steak, Top
Round, Roast Beef, Ground Round, Ground Sirloin, Ground Beef (93% fat
free or leaner).
Poultry: Chicken breasts (no skin), canned Chicken Breast, Turkey Breast,
Turkey Breast Cutlets,
Ground Turkey Breast (95% fat free or leaner), Canned Turkey Breast.
Fish: Just about all kinds, the best are: Tuna (canned in water or fresh), Cod,
Flounder, Halibut, Haddock, Orange Rough, Salmon (canned in water or fish,
but limit to twice weekly), Red Snapper, Scallops, Shrimp, Whitefish, and
Swordfish.
Other Meats: Buffalo, Ostrich, duck, horse and venison. Worldwide there are
many varieties of meat that are great choices of protein.
Dairy: Eggs, Milk, Cottage Cheese, Yogurt
Most animal proteins, such as meat, poultry, fish, eggs, cheese, and milk,
contain all of the essential amino acids and are therefore called complete
proteins.
Protein Supplementation
The following are popular sources of protein used to supplement protein
intake.
Egg protein:Egg white (egg albumin) contains a number of different types of
protein: Ovalbumin, Ovotransferrin, Ovomucoid, Globulins, Lysozyme,
Ovomucin, Avidin and some others. This different protein makeup enables
the body to easily digest and absorb this protein. It contains all the essential
amino acids required for optimal recovery after intense anaerobic workouts.
Today athletes are taking egg white protein supplements to build lean body
mass. Egg protein is also called a ‘perfect protein’ because it contains all the
building blocks of life, such as proteins, minerals, vitamins and good
cholesterol. It is also a rich source of BCAAs and arginine. Egg protein is a
good choice for post workout. Fortunately, there are egg white protein
products available, and of course, separate the yolks and cook the whites. It is
the most affordable and complete protein available, making it one of the best
choices for building or repairing muscle.
Whey protein:It comes from milk. During the process of turning milk into
cheese, whey protein is separated out. Whey has the highest amount of
Lucien of all protein powders, which helps stimulate protein synthesis. Whey
protein has the highest value in providing BCAAs: Whey Protein Isolate:
Max BV of 157 is the highest yield of protein currently available. Its short
chains and peptides make it available for absorption as quickly as ten minutes
after ingestion. Do not exceed 30 grams of whey at one time. Because of its
quick digestion rate, the body will not utilize all of it. Whey is more readily
used as an alternate source of energy (That’s the reason why you have to use
enough carbohydrates when supplementing with whey for bulking.). When
on low carbohydrate diets, whey can be used as an alternate source of energy,
sparing muscle protein and glutamine stores within the body.
This makes it a great choice of protein when trying to lean up. Drinking milk
with whey, the casein slows the absorption of whey.
Casein: This is the other protein that is isolated from milk. The benefit is that
the protein synthesized from casein is used more directly in muscle-building
than that synthesized from whey. Casein is the perfect complement to whey
so combining the two is a great choice for athletes: The whey protein gets in
a person’s system quickly, while the casein is long acting, so there is a quick
and continuous influx of amino acids and both stimulate protein synthesis in
the muscle. Casein is extremely slow digesting and continues to feed the
muscles long after other protein supplements have been digested. This makes
it ideal for the last meal before bed, or if it is going to be a while before the
next meal.
Soy protein:This protein is derived from soy beans. Soy protein can be used
by athletes who are lactose intolerant, and it is utilized as a meat substitute
for vegetarians. Soy protein can also be used for cooking instead of flour,
producing high protein foods that are low in fat. Soy also helps lower your
low-density lipoprotein (bad cholesterol) levels.
Hemp protein:Hemp protein is a good choice for a vegan; it is basically just
a milled hemp seed. Hemp protein is not an isolate, so it is hard to get a high
amount of protein in a shake because of the high amounts of fat and fiber
inside. Not ideal for an athlete with a high protein requirement. However, it
does make a good additive to shakes because of the healthy fats and fiber.
● Carbohydrates
Growing up as an athlete, it was common practice for our coaches to get us
carbohydrate load the night before a competition. While this was a start, we
did not talk about this optimally. This caused us to give up on a possible
advantage to the other competitors or team that did not need to be given.
Anyone who knows me knows that one thing that irritates me is giving up on
a controllable advantage. This section on carbohydrates illustrates how to
gain the advantage.
When carbohydrates are ingested, they are broken down into glucose, stored
in the muscles and liver as glycogen. Glucose circulates in the blood, also
known as blood sugar. Carbohydrates are an athlete’s main energy source;
one gram of carbohydrates is four calories. Carbohydrates are not necessary
for energy. The body can obtain all its energy from protein and fats, but it is
essential for training and competing and is the favourite fuel. They provide
energy more rapidly to working muscles than protein or fat. Carbohydrates
can provide up to five times as much energy as fats during anaerobic training.
Unlike fat and protein, carbohydrates can be broken down very quickly
without oxygen to provide large amounts of extra adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) through a process known as glycolysis during (an- aerobic) training.
ATP is formed a lot faster from carbohydrates compared to fat. The average
person contains only 250 grams (8.8 oz.) of ATP, and turns over his own
bodyweight in ATP each day. This additional way of energy is important for
maximal performance. The higher the intensity is, the more carbohydrates are
used for energy. This makes carbohydrates extremely important for strength
athletes and anaerobic training.
Carbohydrates are responsible for fueling the central nervous system (CNS)
and brain. The brain uses 70 percent of the available blood glucose. Earlier in
the book, the importance of the CNS was discussed, so don’t just employ the
training methods to keep CNS peaked, but implement the nutrition methods
as well. The brain and neurons generally cannot burn fat or protein for
energy. This is why bodybuilders who are going through carbohydrate
depletion phases during contest preparation have a hard time making
decisions and concentrating. Their thought processes are impaired. If brain
cells are deprived of glucose, an athlete will not have the mental edge needed
to compete. Performance will suffer because muscles are controlled by the
brain. If glucose levels are depleted enough, this will leave a weak and shaky
feeling. If the nervous system does not have optimal levels of glucose, it can
leave an athlete with impaired reaction time and leave him lethargic, which
affects an athlete’s motor skills and ability to recover. Athletes need their
CNS optimally fueled or he cannot perform optimally, another reason why
athletes should not be on low carbohydrate diets.
Types of Carbohydrates
Simple carbohydrates are made up of a single basic sugar. Table sugar or
corn ones are all types of simple sugars. On consumption, these sugars are
directly absorbed in the blood as glucose. Glucose enters the bloodstream at a
rate of roughly 30 calories per minute. Glucose provides instant energy as it
reaches different parts of the body through the blood. Cells absorb glucose
and convert it into energy to drive the cell. A set of chemical reactions on
glucose creates adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and creatine phosphate bond
in ATP (ATP-CP). This is what powers the first eight to 15 seconds of
activity. These are the fast acting carbohydrates found high on the glycemic
index.
Simple sugars are in fruits, vegetables, milk and milk products. In addition to
these, honey, molasses brown sugar, corn syrup and maple syrup are rich
sources of simple sugars. Some fruits like blackberries, blueberries and
raspberries are low on the glycemic index. A sweet taste is not always an
indicator of how fast a carbohydrate enters someone’s system.
Types of Simple Sugars:
Monosaccharaides
● Fructose: This is a monosaccharide found in fruit.
● Glucose: This is a monosaccharide found in fruit, vegetables and
grains
●
Galactose: This is a monosaccharide found in milk and milk
products.
Disaccharides
● Sucrose: This is a disaccharide (fructose and glucose) found in sugar
cane and table sugar.
● Lactose: This is a disaccharide (glucose and galactose) found in
dairy products.
●
Maltose, dextrose: This is a disaccharide (glucose and glucose)
found in commercial foods and germinating seeds.
● Malodextrin: This is dextrin (glucose polymer)
Complex carbohydrates, also known as polysaccharides, are digested slower
than simple carbohydrates, so glucose enters the bloodstream at a rate of
roughly only two calories per minute, depending on exactly what complex
carbohydrate one is ingesting. Examples of complex carbohydrates are
breads, rice and pasta. Starch and fiber are also considered complex
carbohydrates, but fiber cannot be digested or used for energy.
There are two kinds of fiber: soluble and insoluble. Soluble fiber lowers
cholesterol and has many other health benefits. Insoluble fiber helps remove
carcinogens and absorbs water as it moves through the digestive system,
easing defecation. Woman should take in 20 to 30 grams of fiber and men
should take in 30 to 40 grams of fiber per day.
Starch is a very important energy source in an athlete’s diet because it is
broken down and stored as glycogen. Foods high in starch include whole
grain breads, cereals, pasta, and grains. How the starch is processed before
we eat makes a difference in how fast we absorb it. The more processed it is,
the faster it is absorbed. Processing is essentially doing some of the work of
our digestive system.
These foods are turned into sugar within minutes of being in our bodies.
Flour (including whole grain flour) and most breakfast cereals are the most
rapidly digested starches. If grains or legumes, such as beans, brown rice or
whole barley, are not processed, the starch is broken down into sugars much
more slowly. Some will never be turned into sugar and will reach the large
intestine intact. These are called resistant starches.
Carbohydrate Oxidation and Intake
Endurance athletes need to keep in mind when setting up a nutrition plan that
exogenous carbohydrate oxidation rates do not exceed 1.0 to 1.1 g/min
(Jeukendrup&Jentjens, 2000). (The metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins
and fats into energy is referred to as oxidation). Highest rates of exogenous
glucose oxidation and the greatest endogenous carbohydrate sparing were
observed when carbohydrate was ingested at moderate rates (60 g/h) during
exercise (Wallis et al., 2007). This knowledge implies that athletes who
ingest a single type of carbohydrate should Consume about 60 g/h to 70 g/h
for optimal carbohydrate delivery. A carbohydrate intake from a single
source not greater than this does not increase carbohydrate oxidation rates
additionally, rather than the carbohydrates accumulate in the intestine,
causing gastrointestinal discomfort. When multiple carbohydrates are
ingested at high rates, greater maximal rates of exogenous carbohydrate
oxidation can be achieved.
In studies involving multiple carbohydrate sources (Jentjens et al., 2004abc,
2005ab, 2006; Wallis et al., 2007) very high oxidation rates were observed
with combinations of glucose plus fructose, with maltodextrins plus fructose,
and with glucose plus sucrose plus fructose. The highest rates were observed
with a mixture of glucose and fructose ingested at a rate of 144 g/h. With this
feeding regimen, exogenous carbohydrate oxidation peaked at 105 g/h. This
is 75 percent greater than what was previously thought to be the absolute
maximum.
● Fats
There are many views on nutrition out there. Someone promote high fat and
low carb diets while others endorse high carb low fat. I view nutrition the
same way I perceive training: every component is necessary. Choosing the
proper ratios is imperative for optimal nutrition. Using the Westside system
of training, we execute maximal effort, dynamic effort, repetition method and
recuperation methods every week. All components are important. It’s the
same with food. Athletes need the proper ratios of everything: proteins,
carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals. Remember, Westside does not
train minimally, and they do not train maximally. They train optimally! We
follow the same principal with our nutrition. Ingesting too much or not
enough of any particular macro nutrient just leads to poor performance.
Fat is essential for the optimal functioning of the body and brain. Fats
provide essential fatty acids, which are not made by the body and must be
obtained from food. Because of this, it is necessary to have an optimal fat
intake. Fats are also important to control inflammation, blood clotting, and
for building cells, cell membranes and nerves. All athletes need to keep
inflammation under control; fats can provide a way to help with that. Healthy
fats play an important role in keeping an individual on top of his mental
game, and they help fight fatigue. As athletes, we want to be mentally peaked
for training and competition. This is a controllable advantage we do not want
to give up. Fats are calories dense: they provide nine calories per gram, more
than twice the number provided by carbohydrates or protein. One pound of
stored fat provides approximately 3,600 calories of energy. All the energy
from stored carbohydrates would supply, at most, the energy for a 19.8 mile
run, but the fat that an average person has stored would provide energy for
about an 800 mile run (McArdle, Katch&Katch, 1991). Keep in mind that an
athlete’s aerobic system depends on fat for fuel.
The more energy a person derives from fat, the more energy will be available.
The less fat stored helps stabilize a person’s blood sugar levels (Maffetone
1990). When carbohydrates are not used for energy, fats become the primary
source. Animal and human studies have consistently demonstrated that low
carbohydrate, high fat diets consumed for more than seven days decrease
muscle glycogen content and carbohydrate oxidation, which is balanced with
markedly increased rates of fat oxidation, even in well trained endurance
athletes. Endurance athletes might not notice a loss in performance, but
strength athletes will. They will not get the intense muscle contractions
needed for their sport.
Comparing athletes with untrained people exercising at the same intensity,
the first ones with extensive endurance training have greater fat oxidation
during exercise without increased lipolysis. The breakdown of lipids is
known as lipolysis. It involves the hydrolysis of triglycerides into free fatty
acids followed by further degradation into acetyl units by beta oxidation. The
process produces Ketones, which are found in large quantities in ketosis, a
metabolic state that occurs when the liver converts fat into fatty acids, and
ketone bodies, which can be used by the body for energy. Lipolysis during
stress occurs in the fat cells, increasing cholesterol during chronic stress. It
also promotes water loss and curbs appetite, which may be good for a
bodybuilder getting ready for a show, but not for an endurance athlete.
For every gram of glycogen the body stores, the body will store up to three
grams of water. This is how depleting glycogen stores and going into ketosis
can cause dehydration. Ketosis also causes dizziness, light-headedness, and
fainting, which will not help performance and can be very dangerous.
Essential Fatty Acids
Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are where an athlete will get his biggest gain in
performance and health when it comes to fats. Essential fatty acids must be
taken in from the diet. Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are polyunsaturated
fatty acids. Alphalinolenic acid (ALA), an omega-3 fatty acid, and linoleic
acid (LA), an omega-6 fatty acid, are considered essential fatty acids because
they cannot be synthesized by humans, and they are essential to be healthy.
Nutrition plans should include omega-3 fats every day. Over the years of
training and competing in different sports, I have found EFAs necessary to
keep my inflammation down, so I can keep training. There are three essential
fatty acids: Linoleic, Linolenic, and arachidonic acid. They are very
important for cholesterol transport, blood clotting, and serum cholesterol and
membrane structure. Omega-3 fatty acids are highly concentrated in the
brain.
There are Several Different Types of Omega-3 Fatty Acids:
● EPA and DHA—Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic
acid (DHA): have a vast amount of research to back up their health
and performance benefits. EPA and DHA are found in cold-water
fatty fish.
●
ALA—Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) comes from plants. The
performance and health gains are less pronounced from this form of
omega-3 than EPA and DHA. The best vegetarian sources include
flaxseed, walnuts, and canola oil. The best meat sources are fatty
fish such as salmon, herring, mackerel, anchovies, or sardines, or
high-quality cold-water fish oil supplements.
Omega-3 fatty acids benefit the brain in the following ways:
● Prevent and reduce the symptoms of depression
● Protect against memory loss and dementia
●
Improved cognitive function (memory, problem-solving abilities,
etc.)
●
For the treatment of mental health issues and helps elevate and
stabilize mood
Optimal omega-3 fatty acid intake can help you fight fatigue and can be
helpful in the treatment of depression, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD), and bipolar disorder. Omega-3 fatty acids have also been shown to
have the following benefits on the body.
● Reduced risk of heart disease, stroke, and cancer
● Reduced joint pain, and inflammation
● Supports a healthy pregnancy
When supplementing with omega 3 fish oil, it is the total amount of EPA and
DHA on the label that is most important to look for. Some bottles will say
1,000 milligrams of fish oil, but the EPA and DHA might only total 200 mg.
I prefer using fish oil in liquid form. It is usually cheaper for the amount of
EPA and DHA you get, and it keeps an individual from belching it up such as
with capsules. I have all my athletes take fish oil supplements. The proper
omega 3 fatty acid intake is not a choice; it is mandatory for performance and
longevity in sport. Choose fish oil that is mercury-free, pharmaceutical grade,
molecularly distilled, and contains both DHA and EPA. Higher
concentrations of EPA are better. I also like using cod liver oil due to the
high vitamin D intake along with high levels of EPA and DHA. For athletes I
recommend three to five grams of EPA and DHA when healthy, but if injured
I have my athletes go up from five to seven grams per day because of the
anti-inflammatory properties.
Good Fats
Monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats are unsaturated fats known as
“good fats” because they are good for the heart, cholesterol, and overall
health. Be aware because just like with fats, there are good and bad types of
cholesterol. HDL cholesterol is the “good” kind of cholesterol found in
blood. LDL cholesterol is the “bad” kind. Ideally, keep HDL levels high and
LDL levels low. High levels of HDL cholesterol help protect against heart
disease and stroke while high levels of LDL cholesterol can clog arteries,
increasing the risk of heart disease. This is important for everyone, but
especially if an individual chooses to take anabolic steroids for performance
enhancement. In turn, minimize the risk by eating optimally. If not
disciplined enough to do this, then don’t take performance enhancing drugs.
Polyunsaturated fats lower triglycerides and fight inflammation, but
unsaturated fats have a lot of calories, so they need to be limited.
Most, but not all, liquid vegetable oils are unsaturated. (The exceptions
include coconut, palm, and palm kernel oils.) There are two types of
unsaturated fats:
●
Monounsaturated fats: Examples include the following: avocados,
almonds, peanuts, macadamia nuts, hazelnuts, pecans, cashews olive
and canola oils.
● Polyunsaturated fats: Examples include fish, safflower, sunflower,
corn, and soybean oils.
Unhealthy Fats
Saturated fats are the biggest dietary cause of high LDL (“bad cholesterol”)
levels. The biggest influence on the total and LDL cholesterol is the type of
fats eaten — not dietary cholesterol. Focus on replacing saturated fats with
unsaturated fats. Saturated fats have no place in an athlete’s diet. We train our
whole lives to be able to do few things that anyone else can do. Why not set
yourself apart when it comes to the diet, especially with the performance and
health gains you get out of it. Saturated fats are found in animal products
such as butter, cheese, whole milk, ice cream, cream, and high-fat cuts of
meat such as beef, lamb, pork, and chicken with the skin. They are also found
in some vegetable oils palm, and palm kernel oils. These are all foods an
athlete has not to eat.
Trans fatty acids (trans fats) are the least healthy of all fats since they not
only raise bad LDL cholesterol, but also lower the good HDL cholesterol.
Trans fatty acids are found in fried foods, commercial baked goods (donuts,
cookies, crackers), processed foods, and margarines, packed snack foods
(microwave popcorn, chips), and candy bars.
Fat Intake
A dietary fat intake between 20 and 25 percent in men is optimal while in
women 20 to 30 percent is what we have found to be ideal depending on the
type of training, the type of competition, and the athlete’s individual
physiological formation. Fat is slow digesting and can be converted into a
usable form of energy, but may take up to six hours depending on the type of
fat ingested. I do not recommend consuming fat immediately before or during
intense exercise. Fats have a high oxygen requirement. This is one of the
reasons why they are best for slow pace aerobic activity. While these calories
are less accessible to athletes performing quick and intense efforts like
sprinting or weight lifting, fat is essential for longer, slower, lower intensity
and endurance exercises such as easy cycling and distance running. Fat
provides the main fuel source for long duration, low to moderate intensity
exercises (endurance sports such as marathons, and ultra-marathons). Even
during an high intensity exercise, where carbohydrate is the main fuel source,
fat is needed to help access the stored carbohydrate (glycogen). It is in this
way that protein, carbohydrates and fats are all necessary in the proper ratio
for optimal performance.
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