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Praise for CISSP® All-in-One Exam Guide
Fernando’s latest update to the CISSP All-In-One Exam Guide continues the tradition
started in past collaborations with Shon Harris of breaking down key concepts and critical skills in a way that prepares the reader for the exam. Once again the material proves to
be not only a vital asset to exam preparation but a valued resource reference for use well
after the exam has been passed.
Stefanie Keuser, CISSP,
Chief Information Officer,
Military Officers Association of America
The CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide is the only book one needs to pass the CISSP exam.
Fernando Maymí is not just an author, he is a leader in the cybersecurity industry. His
insight, knowledge, and expertise is reflected in the content provided in this book. The
book will not only give you what you need to pass the exam, it can also be used to help
you further your career in cybersecurity.
Marc Coady, CISSP,
Compliance Analyst,
Costco Wholesale
A must-have reference for any cyber security practitioner, this book provides invaluable
practical knowledge on the increasingly complex universe of security concepts, controls,
and best practices necessary to do business in today’s world.
Steve Zalewski,
Former Chief Information Security Officer,
Levi Strauss & Co.
Shon Harris put the CISSP certification on the map with this golden bible of the CISSP.
Fernando Maymí carries that legacy forward beautifully with clarity, accuracy, and
balance. I am sure that Shon would be proud.
David R. Miller, CISSP, CCSP, GIAC GISP GSEC GISF,
PCI QSA, LPT, ECSA, CEH, CWNA, CCNA, SME, MCT,
MCIT Pro EA, MCSE: Security, CNE, Security+, etc.
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An excellent reference. Written clearly and concisely, this book is invaluable to students,
educators, and practitioners alike.
Dr. Joe Adams,
Founder and Executive Director,
Michigan Cyber Range
A lucid, enlightening, and comprehensive tour de force through the breadth of cyber
security. Maymí and Harris are masters of the craft.
Dr. Greg Conti,
Founder,
Kopidion LLC
I wish I found this book earlier in my career. It certainly was the single tool I used to
pass the CISSP exam, but more importantly it has taught me about security from many
aspects I did not even comprehend previously. I think the knowledge that I gained from
this book is going to help me in many years to come. Terrific book and resource!
Janet Robinson,
Chief Security Officer
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ALL IN ONE
CISSP
®
EXAM GUIDE
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Fernando Maymí, PhD, CISSP, is a security practitioner with
over 25 years’ experience in the field. He is currently Vice President
of Training at IronNet Cybersecurity, where, besides developing cyber talent for the company, its partners, and customers,
he has led teams providing strategic consultancy, security assessments, red teaming, and cybersecurity exercises around the world.
Previously, he led advanced research and development projects at
the intersection of artificial intelligence and cybersecurity, stood
up the U.S. Army’s think tank for strategic cybersecurity issues,
and was a West Point faculty member for over 12 years. Fernando worked closely with
Shon Harris, advising her on a multitude of projects, including the sixth edition of the
CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide.
Shon Harris, CISSP, was the founder and CEO of Shon Harris Security LLC and
Logical Security LLC, a security consultant, a former engineer in the Air Force’s Information Warfare unit, an instructor, and an author. Shon owned and ran her own
training and consulting companies for 13 years prior to her death in 2014. She consulted
with Fortune 100 corporations and government agencies on extensive security issues. She
authored three best-selling CISSP books, was a contributing author to Gray Hat Hacking:
The Ethical Hacker’s Handbook and Security Information and Event Management (SIEM)
Implementation, and a technical editor for Information Security Magazine.
About the Contributor/Technical Editor
Bobby E. Rogers is an information security engineer working as a contractor for Department of Defense agencies, helping to secure, certify, and accredit their information systems. His duties include information system security engineering, risk management, and
certification and accreditation efforts. He retired after 21 years in the U.S. Air Force,
serving as a network security engineer and instructor, and has secured networks all over
the world. Bobby has a master’s degree in information assurance (IA) and is pursuing a
doctoral degree in cybersecurity from Capitol Technology University in Maryland. His
many certifications include CISSP-ISSEP, CEH, and MCSE: Security, as well as the
CompTIA A+, Network+, Security+, and Mobility+ certifications.
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ALL IN ONE
CISSP
®
EXAM GUIDE
Ninth Edition
Fernando Maymí
Shon Harris
New York Chicago San Francisco
Athens London Madrid Mexico City
Milan New Delhi Singapore Sydney Toronto
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guide and/or material is not sponsored by, endorsed by, or affiliated with (ISC)2 in any manner. This publication and
accompanying media may be used in assisting students to prepare for the CISSP exam. Neither (ISC)² nor McGraw Hill
warrants that use of this publication and accompanying media will ensure passing any exam. (ISC)²®, CISSP®, CAP®,
ISSAP®, ISSEP®, ISSMP®, SSCP® and CBK® are trademarks or registered trademarks of (ISC)² in the United States and
certain other countries. All other trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners.
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Copyright © 2022 by McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976,
no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval
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We dedicate this book to all those
who have served others selflessly.
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CONTENTS AT A GLANCE
Part I
Security and Risk Management
Chapter 1
Cybersecurity Governance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Chapter 2
Risk Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Chapter 3
Compliance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Chapter 4
Frameworks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Part II
Asset Security
Chapter 5
Assets.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Chapter 6
Data Security.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Part III
Security Architecture and Engineering
Chapter 7
System Architectures.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Chapter 8
Cryptology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Chapter 9
Security Architectures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Chapter 10
Site and Facility Security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Part IV
Communication and Network Security
Chapter 11
Networking Fundamentals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Chapter 12
Wireless Networking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
Chapter 13
Securing the Network.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
Chapter 14
Network Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
Chapter 15
Secure Communications Channels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
Part V
Identity and Access Management
Chapter 16
Identity and Access Fundamentals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
Chapter 17
Managing Identities and Access. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765
ix
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Part VI
Security Assessment and Testing
Chapter 18
Security Assessments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813
Chapter 19
Measuring Security.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
Part VII Security Operations
Chapter 20
Managing Security Operations.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885
Chapter 21
Security Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 939
Chapter 22
Security Incidents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989
Chapter 23
Disasters.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029
Part VIII Software Development Security
Chapter 24
Software Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1079
Chapter 25
Secure Software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1117
Appendix A Comprehensive Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
Appendix B Objective Map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1209
Appendix C About the Online Content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1225
Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1231
Index.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1253
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CONTENTS
From the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxix
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxiii
Why Become a CISSP? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxv
Part I
Chapter 1
Security and Risk Management
Cybersecurity Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fundamental Cybersecurity Concepts and Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Confidentiality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Authenticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nonrepudiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Balanced Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other Security Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Security Governance Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aligning Security to Business Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Organizational Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Organizational Roles and Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Security Policies, Standards, Procedures, and Guidelines . . . . . . . . . Security Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Baselines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Personnel Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Candidate Screening and Hiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Employment Agreements and Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Onboarding, Transfers, and Termination Processes . . . . . . . . Vendors, Consultants, and Contractors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Compliance Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Privacy Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Security Awareness, Education, and Training Programs . . . . . . . . . . Degree or Certification? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Methods and Techniques to Present
Awareness and Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4
5
5
6
6
6
7
8
10
13
17
18
25
27
29
31
32
32
32
33
35
36
37
39
39
40
40
40
41
xi
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Chapter 2
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Periodic Content Reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Program Effectiveness Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Professional Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (ISC)2 Code of Professional Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Organizational Code of Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Computer Ethics Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
43
44
44
45
45
46
46
48
51
Risk Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Risk Management Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Holistic Risk Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Information Systems Risk Management Policy . . . . . . . . . . . The Risk Management Team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Risk Management Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview of Vulnerabilities and Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Identifying Threats and Vulnerabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Assessing Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Asset Valuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Risk Assessment Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Methodologies for Risk Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Risk Analysis Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Qualitative Risk Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Responding to Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Total Risk vs. Residual Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Countermeasure Selection and Implementation . . . . . . . . . . Types of Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Control Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Monitoring Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Effectiveness Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Change Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Compliance Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Risk Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Continuous Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Supply Chain Risk Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Upstream and Downstream Suppliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Risks Associated with Hardware, Software, and Services . . . . . Other Third-Party Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Minimum Security Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Service Level Agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Business Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Standards and Best Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Making BCM Part of the Enterprise Security Program . . . . . Business Impact Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
53
54
56
56
57
58
62
63
65
66
67
72
76
79
81
81
83
88
91
91
92
93
94
95
96
98
98
99
100
101
101
104
106
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Chapter 3
Chapter 4
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Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
116
118
121
Compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Laws and Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of Legal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Common Law Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cybercrimes and Data Breaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Complexities in Cybercrime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Evolution of Attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . International Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Breaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Import/Export Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transborder Data Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Licensing and Intellectual Property Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trade Secret . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trademark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Patent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internal Protection of Intellectual Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Software Piracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Compliance Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Contractual, Legal, Industry Standards,
and Regulatory Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Privacy Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Liability and Its Ramifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Requirements for Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Administrative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Criminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Civil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Regulatory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
125
126
129
130
132
134
138
139
145
146
147
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
155
Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Overview of Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Risk Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NIST RMF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ISO/IEC 27005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OCTAVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FAIR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
171
173
173
177
178
179
156
158
158
161
161
162
162
162
162
163
165
168
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Information Security Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Security Program Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Security Control Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Enterprise Architecture Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Why Do We Need Enterprise Architecture Frameworks? . . . . Zachman Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Open Group Architecture Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Military-Oriented Architecture Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ITIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Six Sigma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Capability Maturity Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Putting It All Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part II
Chapter 5
00-FM.indd 14
179
180
183
189
191
192
194
195
196
196
197
197
199
203
203
205
208
Asset Security
Assets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Information and Assets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Physical Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Protecting Mobile Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Paper Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Safes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Managing the Life Cycle of Assets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inventories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Secure Provisioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Asset Retention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Life Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Archival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
214
214
215
220
220
221
221
222
223
224
227
228
230
230
232
237
238
239
240
244
245
245
247
250
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Chapter 6
Part III
Chapter 7
00-FM.indd 15
Data Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data Security Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scoping and Tailoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Protection Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Digital Asset Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Digital Rights Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Loss Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cloud Access Security Broker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
253
254
258
258
258
261
263
265
275
276
276
277
279
Security Architecture and Engineering
System Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General System Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Client-Based Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Server-Based Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Database Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . High-Performance Computing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Industrial Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distributed Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ICS Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Virtualized Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Virtual Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Containerization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Microservices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Serverless . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cloud-Based Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Software as a Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Platform as a Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Infrastructure as a Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Everything as a Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cloud Deployment Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pervasive Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Embedded Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internet of Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distributed Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Edge Computing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
283
284
284
285
288
289
291
293
294
294
296
296
298
299
299
301
302
303
304
304
305
305
306
306
307
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Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
310
311
314
Chapter 8
Cryptology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The History of Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cryptography Definitions and Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cryptosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kerckhoffs’ Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Strength of the Cryptosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . One-Time Pad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cryptographic Life Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cryptographic Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Symmetric Key Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Asymmetric Key Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elliptic Curve Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quantum Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hybrid Encryption Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hashing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Message Integrity Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Public Key Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Digital Certificates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Certificate Authorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Registration Authorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PKI Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Key Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Attacks Against Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Key and Algorithm Attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Implementation Attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other Attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
317
321
323
324
325
325
328
328
329
335
342
344
346
351
351
354
359
359
360
362
362
364
367
367
370
372
375
376
379
381
Chapter 9
Security Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Threat Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Attack Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STRIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Lockheed Martin Cyber Kill Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The MITRE ATT&CK Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Why Bother with Threat Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
385
386
387
387
389
389
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Secure Design Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Defense in Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zero Trust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trust But Verify . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shared Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Separation of Duties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Least Privilege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Keep It Simple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Secure Defaults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fail Securely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Privacy by Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Security Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bell-LaPadula Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biba Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clark-Wilson Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Noninterference Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Brewer and Nash Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Graham-Denning Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Harrison-Ruzzo-Ullman Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Security Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Security Capabilities of Information Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trusted Platform Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hardware Security Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Self-Encrypting Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bus Encryption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Secure Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
390
392
392
392
393
394
395
396
396
397
397
398
399
400
400
402
402
402
404
404
404
406
407
407
408
411
412
413
415
Chapter 10 Site and Facility Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Site and Facility Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Security Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Site Planning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design . . . . . . . . Designing a Physical Security Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Site and Facility Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Work Area Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Processing Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Storage Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fire Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Environmental Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
417
418
423
427
433
441
441
443
446
447
448
454
461
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Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part IV
Communication and Network Security
Chapter 11 Networking Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data Communications Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Network Reference Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Application Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Presentation Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Session Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transport Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Network Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Link Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Physical Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Functions and Protocols in the OSI Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tying the Layers Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Local Area Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Network Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Medium Access Control Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Layer 2 Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transmission Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Layer 2 Security Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internet Protocol Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IP Addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IPv6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Address Resolution Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internet Control Message Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Simple Network Management Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Domain Name Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Network Address Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Routing Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intranets and Extranets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Metropolitan Area Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Metro Ethernet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wide Area Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dedicated Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WAN Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00-FM.indd 18
461
461
463
465
469
469
470
471
474
475
477
479
480
480
483
483
485
487
487
489
494
499
500
502
503
510
512
515
517
520
522
524
531
533
537
538
539
540
541
543
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00-FM.indd 19
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
553
555
557
Chapter 12 Wireless Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wireless Communications Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spread Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . Wireless Networking Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WLAN Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WLAN Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other Wireless Network Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other Important Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evolution of WLAN Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802.11i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802.11w . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WPA3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802.1X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Best Practices for Securing WLANs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mobile Wireless Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Multiple Access Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Generations of Mobile Wireless . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
559
561
563
564
564
565
568
573
574
575
576
578
578
579
582
582
584
585
588
590
590
592
594
Chapter 13 Securing the Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Applying Secure Design Principles to Network Architectures . . . . . Secure Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Link Encryption vs. End-to-End Encryption . . . . . . . . . . . . . TLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VPN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Secure Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Web Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Domain Name System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Electronic Mail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Multilayer Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distributed Network Protocol 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Controller Area Network Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Modbus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
597
599
600
602
605
611
611
616
621
626
626
627
627
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00-FM.indd 20
Converged Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Encapsulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fiber Channel over Ethernet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internet Small Computer Systems Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Network Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VLANs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Virtual eXtensible Local Area Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Software-Defined Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Software-Defined Wide Area Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
628
628
629
629
630
632
632
635
635
636
638
640
Chapter 14 Network Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transmission Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cabling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bandwidth and Throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Network Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Repeaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Routers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gateways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Proxy Servers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PBXs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Network Access Control Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Network Diagramming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Operation of Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Endpoint Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Content Distribution Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
643
644
648
654
655
655
656
657
660
662
663
665
667
668
670
673
674
674
675
677
678
Chapter 15 Secure Communications Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Voice Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Public Switched Telephone Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ISDN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cable Modems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IP Telephony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
682
682
683
685
686
687
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Multimedia Collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Meeting Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Unified Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Remote Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VPN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Desktop Virtualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Secure Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Network Sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Remote Procedure Calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Virtualized Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Third-Party Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part V
Identity and Access Management
Chapter 16 Identity and Access Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Identification, Authentication, Authorization, and Accountability . . . . Identification and Authentication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Knowledge-Based Authentication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biometric Authentication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ownership-Based Authentication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Credential Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Password Managers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Password Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Self-Service Password Reset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Assisted Password Reset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Just-in-Time Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Registration and Proofing of Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Profile Update . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Session Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Accountability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Identity Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Directory Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Directories’ Role in Identity Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Single Sign-On . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Federated Identity Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Federated Identity with a Third-Party Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Integration Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . On-Premise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cloud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hybrid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00-FM.indd 21
693
694
695
696
697
699
701
702
703
703
704
705
707
707
709
711
715
715
718
720
723
729
736
736
737
737
738
738
738
740
740
741
745
747
748
750
752
754
754
755
756
756
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Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
757
759
762
Chapter 17 Managing Identities and Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Authorization Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discretionary Access Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mandatory Access Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Role-Based Access Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rule-Based Access Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Attribute-Based Access Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Risk-Based Access Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Implementing Authentication and Authorization Systems . . . . . . . . Access Control and Markup Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OAuth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OpenID Connect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kerberos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Remote Access Control Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Managing the Identity and Access Provisioning Life Cycle . . . . . . . Provisioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Access Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Configuration Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Deprovisioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Controlling Physical and Logical Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Information Access Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . System and Application Access Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Access Control to Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Facilities Access Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765
765
766
768
771
774
774
775
776
776
782
783
784
789
795
796
796
796
799
800
801
801
802
802
802
804
804
805
808
Part VI
Security Assessment and Testing
Chapter 18 Security Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Test, Assessment, and Audit Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Designing an Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Validating an Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Testing Technical Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vulnerability Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other Vulnerability Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Penetration Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Red Teaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00-FM.indd 22
813
813
814
815
817
817
819
822
827
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Breach Attack Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Log Reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Synthetic Transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Code Reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Code Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Misuse Case Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Test Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interface Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Compliance Checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conducting Security Audits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internal Audits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External Audits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Third-Party Audits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
828
832
833
834
835
837
837
838
838
840
842
843
844
845
846
848
Chapter 19 Measuring Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Quantifying Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Security Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Key Performance and Risk Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Security Process Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Account Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Backup Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Security Training and Security Awareness Training . . . . . . . . Disaster Recovery and Business Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analyzing Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Writing Technical Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Executive Summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Management Review and Approval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Before the Management Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reviewing Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Management Approval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
851
853
855
857
858
860
863
867
869
870
872
873
875
876
876
877
877
878
879
881
Part VII Security Operations
Chapter 20 Managing Security Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Foundational Security Operations Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Accountability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Need-to-Know/Least Privilege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00-FM.indd 23
885
885
887
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Separation of Duties and Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Privileged Account Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Job Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Service Level Agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Change Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Change Management Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Change Management Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Configuration Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Baselining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Provisioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Resource Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . System Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Source Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Backups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vulnerability and Patch Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vulnerability Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Patch Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Physical Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External Perimeter Security Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Facility Access Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internal Security Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Personnel Access Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intrusion Detection Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Auditing Physical Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Personnel Safety and Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Travel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Security Training and Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emergency Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Duress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888
889
889
890
891
891
893
893
894
894
895
895
896
896
896
900
900
903
906
906
916
924
924
925
929
929
930
930
931
931
932
932
934
937
Chapter 21 Security Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Security Operations Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elements of a Mature SOC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Threat Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Preventive and Detective Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Firewalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . Antimalware Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sandboxing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Outsourced Security Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Honeypots and Honeynets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Artificial Intelligence Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 939
939
940
941
944
945
967
969
972
973
974
976
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Logging and Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Log Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Security Information and Event Management . . . . . . . . . . . . Egress Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . User and Entity Behavior Analytics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Continuous Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978
978
979
981
981
981
982
983
984
986
Chapter 22 Security Incidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989
Overview of Incident Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989
Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995
Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996
Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996
Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997
Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998
Remediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999
Lessons Learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999
Incident Response Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000
Roles and Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000
Incident Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1002
Notifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003
Operational Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004
Runbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006
Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006
Motive, Opportunity, and Means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007
Computer Criminal Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008
Evidence Collection and Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008
What Is Admissible in Court? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013
Digital Forensics Tools, Tactics, and Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . 1015
Forensic Investigation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1016
Other Investigative Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1018
Forensic Artifacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
Reporting and Documenting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1026
Chapter 23 Disasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029
Recovery Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029
Business Process Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033
Data Backup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1034
Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041
Human Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042
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Recovery Site Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043
Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049
Disaster Recovery Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055
Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055
Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1056
Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058
Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058
Training and Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1060
Lessons Learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1061
Testing Disaster Recovery Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1061
Business Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
BCP Life Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
Information Systems Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
End-User Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075
Part VIII Software Development Security
Chapter 24 Software Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1079
Software Development Life Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1079
Project Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081
Requirements Gathering Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1082
Design Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083
Development Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
Testing Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089
Operations and Maintenance Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091
Development Methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1095
Waterfall Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1095
Prototyping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096
Incremental Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096
Spiral Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1098
Rapid Application Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1099
Agile Methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1100
DevOps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103
DevSecOps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104
Other Methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104
Maturity Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1106
Capability Maturity Model Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1107
Software Assurance Maturity Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1109
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Contents
xxvii
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1110
Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1110
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1112
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1114
Chapter 25 Secure Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1117
Programming Languages and Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1118
Assemblers, Compilers, Interpreters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1120
Runtime Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1122
Object-Oriented Programming Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1124
Cohesion and Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1130
Application Programming Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1132
Software Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1132
Secure Software Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1133
Source Code Vulnerabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1133
Secure Coding Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1134
Security Controls for Software Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1136
Development Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1137
Tool Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1138
Application Security Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1139
Continuous Integration and Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1140
Security Orchestration, Automation, and Response . . . . . . . . 1141
Software Configuration Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1142
Code Repositories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1143
Software Security Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1144
Risk Analysis and Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1144
Change Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1145
Assessing the Security of Acquired Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1145
Commercial Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1146
Open-Source Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1146
Third-Party Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1147
Managed Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1148
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1148
Quick Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1148
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1150
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1152
Appendix A Comprehensive Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1189
Appendix B Objective Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1209
Appendix C About the Online Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1225
System Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1225
Your Total Seminars Training Hub Account . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1225
Privacy Notice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1225
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Single User License Terms and Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1225
TotalTester Online . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1227
Graphical Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1227
Online Flash Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1228
Single User License Terms and Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1228
Technical Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1229
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1231
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1253
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FROM THE AUTHOR
Thank you for investing your resources in this ninth edition of the CISSP All-in-One
Exam Guide. I am confident you’ll find it helpful, not only as you prepare for the CISSP
exam, but as a reference in your future professional endeavors. That was one of the overarching goals of Shon Harris when she wrote the first six editions and is something I’ve
strived to uphold in the last three. It is not always easy, but I think you’ll be pleased with
how we’ve balanced these two requirements.
(ISC)2 does a really good job of grounding the CISSP Common Body of Knowledge
(CBK) in real-world applications, but (let’s face it) there’s always a lot of room for
discussion and disagreements. There are very few topics in cybersecurity (or pretty much
any other field) on which there is universal agreement. To balance the content of this
book between exam preparation and the murkiness of real-world applications, we’ve
included plenty of comments and examples drawn from our experiences.
I say “our experiences” deliberately because the voice of Shon remains vibrant, informative, and entertaining in this edition, years after her passing. I’ve preserved as many of
her insights as possible while ensuring the content is up to date and relevant. I also strove
to maintain the conversational tone that was such a hallmark of her work. The result is
a book that (I hope) reads more like an essay (or even a story) than a textbook but is
grounded in good pedagogy. It should be easy to read but still prepare you for the exam.
Speaking of the exam, the changes that (ISC)2 made to the CBK in 2021 are not
dramatic but are still significant. Each domain was tweaked in some way, and seven of
the eight domains had multiple topics added (domain 1 was the exception here). These
changes, coupled with the number of topics that were growing stale in the eighth edition
of this book, prompted me to completely restructure this edition. I tore each domain and
topic down to atomic particles and then re-engineered the entire book to integrate the
new objectives, which are listed in Table 1.
Domain 2: Asset Security
2.4
Manage data lifecycle
2.4.1
Data roles (i.e., owners, controllers, custodians, processors, users/subjects)
2.4.3
Data location
2.4.4
Data maintenance
2.5
Ensure appropriate asset retention (e.g., End-of-Life (EOL), End-of-Support (EOS))
Domain 3: Security Architecture and Engineering
(Under 3.7 Understand methods of cryptanalytic attacks)
3.7.1
Brute force
3.7.4
Frequency analysis
Table 1 CBK 2021: New Objectives (continued)
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Domain 3: Security Architecture and Engineering
3.7.6
Implementation attacks
3.7.8
Fault injection
3.7.9
Timing
3.7.10
Man-in-the-Middle (MITM)
3.7.11
Pass the hash
3.7.12
Kerberos exploitation
3.7.13
Ransomware
(Under 3.9 Design site and facility security controls)
3.9.9
Power (e.g., redundant, backup)
Domain 4: Communication and Network Security
(Under 4.1 Assess and implement secure design principles in network architectures)
4.1.3
Secure protocols
4.1.6
Micro-segmentation (e.g., Software Defined Networks (SDN), Virtual eXtensible Local
Area Network (VXLAN), Encapsulation, Software-Defined Wide Area Network (SD-WAN))
4.1.8
Cellular networks (e.g., 4G, 5G)
(Under 4.3 Implement secure communication channels according to design)
4.3.6
Third-party connectivity
Domain 5: Identity and Access Management (IAM)
(Under 5.1 Control physical and logical access to assets)
5.1.5
Applications
(Under 5.2 Manage identification and authentication of people, devices, and services)
5.2.8
Single Sign On (SSO)
5.2.9
Just-In-Time (JIT)
(Under 5.4 Implement and manage authorization mechanisms)
5.4.6
Risk based access control
(Under 5.5 Manage the identity and access provisioning lifecycle)
5.5.3
Role definition (e.g., people assigned to new roles)
5.5.4
Privilege escalation (e.g., managed service accounts, use of sudo, minimizing its use)
5.6
Implement authentication systems
5.6.1
OpenID Connect (OIDC)/Open Authorization (OAuth)
5.6.2
Security Assertion Markup Language (SAML)
5.6.3
Kerberos
5.6.4
Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS)/Terminal Access Controller
Access Control System Plus (TACACS+)
Domain 6: Security Assessment and Testing
(Under 6.2 Conduct security control testing)
6.2.9
Breach attack simulations
6.2.10
Compliance checks
Table 1 CBK 2021: New Objectives
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Domain 6: Security Assessment and Testing
(Under 6.3 Collect security process data (e.g., technical and administrative))
6.3.6
Disaster Recovery (DR) and Business Continuity (BC)
(Under 6.4 Analyze test output and generate report)
6.4.1
Remediation
6.4.2
Exception handling
6.4.3
Ethical disclosure
Domain 7: Security Operations
(Under 7.1 Understand and comply with investigations)
7.1.5
Artifacts (e.g., computer, network, mobile device)
(Under 7.2 Conduct logging and monitoring activities)
7.2.5
Log management
7.2.6
Threat intelligence (e.g., threat feeds, threat hunting)
7.2.7
User and Entity Behavior Analytics (UEBA)
(Under 7.7 Operate and maintain detective and preventative measures)
7.7.8
Machine learning and Artificial Intelligence (AI) based tools
(Under 7.11 Implement Disaster Recovery (DR) processes)
7.11.7
Lessons learned
Domain 8: Software Development Security
(Under 8.2 Identify and apply security controls in software development ecosystems)
8.2.1
Programming languages
8.2.2
Libraries
8.2.3
Tool sets
8.2.5
Runtime
8.2.6
Continuous Integration and Continuous Delivery (CI/CD)
8.2.7
Security Orchestration, Automation, and Response (SOAR)
8.2.10
Application security testing (e.g., Static Application Security Testing (SAST), Dynamic
Application Security Testing (DAST))
(Under 8.4 Assess security impact of acquired software)
8.4.1
Commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS)
8.4.2
Open source
8.4.3
Third-party
8.4.4
Managed services (e.g., Software as a Service (SaaS), Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS),
Platform as a Service (PaaS))
(Under 8.5 Define and apply secure coding guidelines and standards)
8.5.4
Software-defined security
Table 1 CBK 2021: New Objectives (continued)
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Note that some of these objectives were implicit in the previous (2018) version of
the CBK and were therefore covered in the eighth edition of this book. The fact that
they are now explicit is an indication of their increased importance both in the exam
and in the real world. (Please pay particular attention to these as you prepare for the
exam.) All in all, this ninth edition is significantly different (and improved) when
compared to the previous one. I think you’ll agree. Thank you, again, for investing in
this ninth edition.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank all the people who work in the information security industry who
are driven by their passion, dedication, and a true sense of doing right. These selfless
professionals sacrifice their personal time to prevent, block, and respond to the relentless efforts of malicious actors around the world. We all sleep more peacefully at night
because you remain at the ready.
In this ninth edition, I would also like to thank the following:
•• Ronald C. Dodge, Jr., who introduced me to Shon Harris and, in so doing,
started me off on one of the best adventures of my life
•• Kathy Conlon, who, more than anyone else, set the conditions that led to nine
editions of this book
•• Carol Remicci
•• David Harris
•• The men and women of our armed forces, who selflessly defend our way of life
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WHY BECOME A CISSP?
As our world changes, the need for improvements in security and technology continues
to grow. Organizations around the globe are desperate to identify and recruit talented
and experienced security professionals to help protect their assets and remain competitive. As a Certified Information Systems Security Professional (CISSP), you will be seen
as a security professional of proven ability who has successfully met a predefined standard of knowledge and experience that is well understood and respected throughout the
industry. By keeping this certification current, you will demonstrate your dedication to
staying abreast of security developments.
Consider some of the reasons for attaining a CISSP certification:
•• To broaden your current knowledge of security concepts and practices
•• To demonstrate your expertise as a seasoned security professional
•• To become more marketable in a competitive workforce
•• To increase your salary and be eligible for more employment opportunities
•• To bring improved security expertise to your current occupation
•• To show a dedication to the security discipline
The CISSP certification helps organizations identify which individuals have the ability,
knowledge, and experience necessary to implement solid security practices; perform risk
analysis; identify necessary countermeasures; and help the organization as a whole
protect its facility, network, systems, and information. The CISSP certification also
shows potential employers you have achieved a level of proficiency and expertise in skill
sets and knowledge required by the security industry. The increasing importance placed
on security by organizations of all sizes will only continue in the future, leading to even
greater demands for highly skilled security professionals. The CISSP certification shows
that a respected third-party organization has recognized an individual’s technical and
theoretical knowledge and expertise, and distinguishes that individual from those who
lack this level of knowledge.
Understanding and implementing security practices is an essential part of being a good
network administrator, programmer, or engineer. Job descriptions that do not specifically target security professionals still often require that a potential candidate have a good
understanding of security concepts and how to implement them. Due to staff size and
budget restraints, many organizations can’t afford separate network and security staffs.
But they still believe security is vital to their organization. Thus, they often try to combine
knowledge of technology and security into a single role. With a CISSP designation, you
can put yourself head and shoulders above other individuals in this regard.
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The CISSP Exam
Because the CISSP exam covers the eight domains making up the CISSP CBK, it is often
described as being “an inch deep and a mile wide,” a reference to the fact that many questions
on the exam are not very detailed and do not require you to be an expert in every subject.
However, the questions do require you to be familiar with many different security subjects.
The CISSP exam comes in two versions depending on the language in which the test
is written. The English version uses Computerized Adaptive Testing (CAT) in which the
number of questions you are asked depends on your measured level of knowledge but
ranges from 100 to 150. Of these, 25 questions will not count toward your score, as they
are being evaluated for inclusion in future exams (this is why they are sometimes called
pre-test questions). Essentially, the easier it is for the test software to determine your level
of proficiency, the fewer questions you’ll get. Regardless of how many questions you are
presented, though, you will have no more than three hours to complete the test. When
the system has successfully assessed your level of knowledge, the test will end regardless
of how long you’ve been at it.
EXAM TIP CAT questions are intentionally designed to “feel” hard (based on the
system’s estimate of your knowledge), so don’t be discouraged. Just don’t get
bogged down because you must answer at least 100 questions in three hours.
The non-English version of the CISSP exam is also computer-based but is linear, fixedform (not adaptive) and comprises 250 questions, which must be answered in no more
than six hours. Like the CAT version, 25 questions are pre-test (unscored), so you will
be graded on the other 225 questions. The 25 research questions are integrated into the
exam, so you won’t know which go toward your final grade.
Regardless of which version of the exam you take, you need a score of 700 points out
of a possible 1,000. In both versions, you can expect multiple choice and innovative
questions. Innovative questions incorporate drag-and-drop (i.e., take a term or item and
drag it to the correct position in the frame) or hotspot (i.e., click the item or term that
correctly answers the question) interfaces, but are otherwise weighed and scored just
like any other question. The questions are pulled from a much larger question bank to
ensure the exam is as unique as possible for each examinee. In addition, the test bank
constantly changes and evolves to more accurately reflect the real world of security. The
exam questions are continually rotated and replaced in the bank as necessary. Questions
are weighted based on their difficulty; not all questions are worth the same number of
points. The exam is not product or vendor oriented, meaning no questions will be specific to certain products or vendors (for instance, Windows, Unix, or Cisco). Instead, you
will be tested on the security models and methodologies used by these types of systems.
EXAM TIP There is no penalty for guessing. If you can’t come up with the
right answer in a reasonable amount of time, then you should guess and
move on to the next question.
(ISC)2, which stands for International Information Systems Security Certification
Consortium, also includes scenario-based questions in the CISSP exam. These questions
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present a short scenario to the test taker rather than asking the test taker to identify terms
and/or concepts. The goal of the scenario-based questions is to ensure that test takers not
only know and understand the concepts within the CBK but also can apply this
knowledge to real-life situations. This is more practical because in the real world you
won’t be challenged by having someone asking you, “What is the definition of collusion?”
You need to know how to detect and prevent collusion from taking place, in addition to
knowing the definition of the term.
After passing the exam, you will be asked to supply documentation, supported by a
sponsor, proving that you indeed have the type of experience required to obtain CISSP
certification. The sponsor must sign a document vouching for the security experience
you are submitting. So, make sure you have this sponsor lined up prior to registering for
the exam and providing payment. You don’t want to pay for and pass the exam, only to
find you can’t find a sponsor for the final step needed to achieve your certification.
The reason behind the sponsorship requirement is to ensure that those who achieve
the certification have real-world experience to offer organizations. Book knowledge is
extremely important for understanding theory, concepts, standards, and regulations, but
it can never replace hands-on experience. Proving your practical experience supports the
relevance of the certification.
A small sample group of individuals selected at random will be audited after passing
the exam. The audit consists mainly of individuals from (ISC)2 calling on the candidates’
sponsors and contacts to verify the test taker’s related experience.
One of the factors that makes the CISSP exam challenging is that most candidates,
although they work in the security field, are not necessarily familiar with all eight CBK
domains. If a security professional is considered an expert in vulnerability testing or application security, for example, she may not be familiar with physical security, cryptography,
or forensics. Thus, studying for this exam will broaden your knowledge of the security field.
The exam questions address the eight CBK security domains, which are described
in Table 2.
Domain
Description
Security and Risk
Management
This domain covers many of the foundational concepts of information
systems security. Some of the topics covered include
•• Professional ethics
•• Security governance and compliance
•• Legal and regulatory issues
•• Personnel security policies
•• Risk management
Asset Security
This domain examines the protection of assets throughout their life cycle.
Some of the topics covered include
•• Identifying and classifying information and assets
•• Establishing information and asset handling requirements
•• Provisioning resources securely
•• Managing the data life cycle
•• Determining data security controls and compliance requirements
Table 2 Security Domains that Make Up the CISSP CBK (continued)
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Domain
Description
Security
Architecture and
Engineering
This domain examines the development of information systems that remain
secure in the face of a myriad of threats. Some of the topics covered include
•• Secure design principles
•• Security models
•• Selection of effective controls
•• Cryptography
•• Physical security
Communication
and Network
Security
This domain examines network architectures, communications
technologies, and network protocols with the goal of understanding how to
secure them. Some of the topics covered include
•• Secure network architectures
•• Secure network components
•• Secure communications channels
Identity and Access
Management (IAM)
Identity and access management is one of the most important topics in
information security. This domain covers the interactions between users
and systems as well as between systems and other systems. Some of the
topics covered include
•• Controlling physical and logical access to assets
•• Identification and authentication
•• Authorization mechanisms
•• Identity and access provisioning life cycle
•• Implementing authentication systems
Security
Assessment
and Testing
This domain examines ways to verify the security of our information
systems. Some of the topics covered include
•• Assessment and testing strategies
•• Testing security controls
•• Collecting security process data
•• Analyzing and reporting results
•• Conducting and facilitating audits
Security
Operations
This domain covers the many activities involved in the daily business of
maintaining the security of our networks. Some of the topics covered
include
•• Investigations
•• Logging and monitoring
•• Change and configuration management
•• Incident management
•• Disaster recovery
Software
Development
Security
This domain examines the application of security principles to the
acquisition and development of software systems. Some of the topics
covered include
•• The software development life cycle
•• Security controls in software development
•• Assessing software security
•• Assessing the security implications of acquired software
•• Secure coding guidelines and standards
Table 2 Security Domains that Make Up the CISSP CBK (continued)
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What Does This Book Cover?
This book covers everything you need to know to become an (ISC)2-certified CISSP. It
teaches you the hows and whys behind organizations’ development and implementation of policies, procedures, guidelines, and standards. It covers network, application,
and system vulnerabilities; what exploits them; and how to counter these threats. This
book explains physical security, operational security, and why systems implement the
security mechanisms they do. It also reviews the U.S. and international security criteria
and evaluations performed on systems for assurance ratings, what these criteria mean,
and why they are used. This book also explains the legal and liability issues that surround
computer systems and the data they hold, including such subjects as computer crimes,
forensics, and what should be done to properly prepare computer evidence associated
with these topics for court.
While this book is mainly intended to be used as a study guide for the CISSP exam,
it is also a handy reference guide for use after your certification.
Tips for Taking the CISSP Exam
Many people feel as though the exam questions are tricky. Make sure to read each question and its answer choices thoroughly instead of reading a few words and immediately
assuming you know what the question is asking. Some of the answer choices may have
only subtle differences, so be patient and devote time to reading through the question
more than once.
A common complaint heard about the CISSP exam is that some questions seem a
bit subjective. For example, whereas it might be easy to answer a technical question that
asks for the exact mechanism used in Transport Layer Security (TLS) that protects against
man-in-the-middle attacks, it’s not quite as easy to answer a question that asks whether
an eight-foot perimeter fence provides low, medium, or high security. Many questions
ask the test taker to choose the “best” approach, which some people find confusing and
subjective. These complaints are mentioned here not to criticize (ISC)2 and the exam
writers, but to help you better prepare for the exam. This book covers all the necessary
material for the exam and contains many questions and self-practice tests. Most of the
questions are formatted in such a way as to better prepare you for what you will encounter on the actual exam. So, make sure to read all the material in the book, and pay close
attention to the questions and their formats. Even if you know the subject well, you may
still get some answers wrong—it is just part of learning how to take tests.
In answering many questions, it is important to keep in mind that some things are
inherently more valuable than others. For example, the protection of human lives and
welfare will almost always trump all other responses. Similarly, if all other factors are
equal and you are given a choice between an expensive and complex solution and a simpler and cheaper one, the second will win most of the time. Expert advice (e.g., from an
attorney) is more valuable than that offered by someone with lesser credentials. If one of
the possible responses to a question is to seek or obtain advice from an expert, pay close
attention to that question. The correct response may very well be to seek out that expert.
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Familiarize yourself with industry standards and expand your technical knowledge and
methodologies outside the boundaries of what you use today. We cannot stress enough
that being the “top dog” in your particular field doesn’t mean you are properly prepared
for all eight domains the exam covers.
When you take the CISSP exam at the Pearson VUE test center, other certification
exams may be taking place simultaneously in the same room. Don’t feel rushed if you see
others leaving the room early; they may be taking a shorter exam.
How to Use This Book
Much effort has gone into putting all the necessary information into this book. Now it’s
up to you to study and understand the material and its various concepts. To best benefit
from this book, you might want to use the following study method:
•• Study each chapter carefully and make sure you understand each concept presented.
Many concepts must be fully understood, and glossing over a couple here and
there could be detrimental to your success on the exam. The CISSP CBK contains
hundreds of individual topics, so take the time needed to understand them all.
•• Make sure to study and answer all of the questions. If any questions confuse you,
go back and study the corresponding sections again. Remember, you will encounter questions on the actual exam that do not seem straightforward. Do not ignore
the confusing questions, thinking they’re not well worded. Instead, pay even
closer attention to them because they are included for a reason.
•• If you are not familiar with specific topics, such as firewalls, laws, physical security,
or protocol functionality, use other sources of information (books, articles, and
so on) to attain a more in-depth understanding of those subjects. Don’t just rely
solely on what you think you need to know to pass the CISSP exam.
•• After reading this book, study the questions and answers, and take the practice
tests. Then review the (ISC)2 exam objectives and make sure you are comfortable
with each bullet item presented. If you are not comfortable with some items, revisit
the chapters in which they are covered.
•• If you have taken other certification exams—such as Cisco or Microsoft—you
might be used to having to memorize details and configuration parameters. But
remember, the CISSP test is “an inch deep and a mile wide,” so make sure you
understand the concepts of each subject before trying to memorize the small,
specific details.
•• Remember that the exam is looking for the “best” answer. On some questions
test takers do not agree with any or many of the answers. You are being asked to
choose the best answer out of the four being offered to you.
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PART I
Security and Risk
Management
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
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CHAPTER
Cybersecurity Governance
This chapter presents the following:
• Fundamental cybersecurity concepts
• Security governance principles
• Security policies, standards, procedures, and guidelines
• Personnel security policies and procedures
• Security awareness, education, and training
The only truly secure system is one that is powered off, cast in a block
of concrete and sealed in a lead-lined room with armed guards—and
even then I have my doubts.
—Eugene H. Spafford
While some of us may revel in thinking about and implementing cybersecurity, the fact is
that most organizations would much rather focus on many other things. Businesses exist
to generate profits for their shareholders. Most nonprofit organizations are dedicated
to furthering particular social causes such as charity, education, or religion. Apart from
security service providers, organizations don’t exist specifically to deploy and maintain
firewalls, intrusion detection systems, identity management technologies, and encryption devices. No corporation really wants to develop hundreds of security policies, deploy
antimalware products, maintain vulnerability management systems, constantly update
its incident response capabilities, and have to comply with the myriad of security laws,
regulations, and standards that exist worldwide. Business owners would like to be able to
make their widgets, sell their widgets, and go home with a nice profit in their pockets.
But things are not that simple.
Organizations are increasingly faced with attackers who want to steal customer data to
carry out identity theft and banking fraud. Company secrets are commonly being stolen
by internal and external entities for economic espionage purposes. Systems are being
hijacked and used within botnets to attack other organizations, mine cryptocurrencies,
or spread spam. Company funds are being secretly siphoned off through complex and
hard-to-identify digital methods, commonly by organized criminal rings in different
countries. And organizations that find themselves in the crosshairs of attackers may come
under constant attack that brings their systems and websites offline for hours or days.
Companies are required to practice a wide range of security disciplines today to keep
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their market share, protect their customers and bottom line, stay out of jail, and still sell
their widgets.
As we start our exploration of the Certified Information Systems Security Professional
(CISSP) Common Body of Knowledge (CBK) in this chapter, we will define what
cybersecurity means and how it must be governed by, well, CISSPs. Each organization
must develop an enterprise-wide security program that consists of technologies,
procedures, and processes covered throughout this book. As you go along in your security
career, you will find that most organizations have some (but rarely all) pieces to the
puzzle of an “enterprise-wide security program” in place. Many of the security programs
in place today can be thought of as lopsided or lumpy. The security programs excel
within the disciplines that the team is most familiar with, and the other disciplines are
found lacking. It is your responsibility to become as well rounded in security as possible
so that you can identify these deficiencies in security programs and help improve upon
them. This is why the CISSP exam covers a wide variety of technologies, methodologies,
and processes—you must know and understand them holistically if you are going to help
an organization carry out security holistically.
Fundamental Cybersecurity Concepts and Terms
As cybersecurity professionals, our efforts are ultimately focused on the protection of
our information systems. These systems consist of people, processes, and technologies
designed to operate on information. To protect them means to ensure the confidentiality,
integrity, and availability (the CIA triad) of all assets in our information systems as well as
the authenticity and nonrepudiation of tasks performed in them. Each asset will require
different levels of these types of protection, as we will see in the following sections.
Availability
Security
objectives
Integrity
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Confidentiality
PART I
Confidentiality means keeping unauthorized entities (be they people or processes) from
gaining access to information assets. It ensures that the necessary level of secrecy is enforced
at each junction of data processing and prevents unauthorized disclosure. This level of
secrecy should prevail while data resides on systems and devices within the network, as
it is transmitted, and once it reaches its destination. Confidentiality can be provided by
encrypting data as it is stored and transmitted, by enforcing strict access control and data
classification, and by training personnel on the proper data protection procedures.
Attackers can thwart confidentiality mechanisms by network monitoring, shoulder
surfing, stealing credentials, breaking encryption schemes, and social engineering. These
topics will be addressed in more depth in later chapters, but briefly, shoulder surfing is when
a person looks over another person’s shoulder and watches their keystrokes or views data as
it appears on a computer screen. Social engineering is when one person tricks another person
into sharing confidential information, for example, by posing as someone authorized to
have access to that information. Social engineering can take many forms. Any one-to-one
communication medium can be used to perform social engineering attacks.
Users can intentionally or accidentally disclose sensitive information by not encrypting
it before sending it to another person, by falling prey to a social engineering attack,
by sharing a company’s trade secrets, or by not using extra care to protect confidential
information when processing it.
Integrity
Integrity means that an asset is free from unauthorized alterations. Only authorized entities should be able to modify an asset, and only in specific authorized ways. For example,
if you are reviewing orders placed by customers on your online store, you should not be
able to increase the price of any items in those orders after they have been purchased. It
is your store, so you can clearly change prices as you wish. You just shouldn’t be able to
do it after someone agrees to buy an item at a certain price and gives you authorization
to charge their credit card.
Environments that enforce and provide this attribute of security ensure that attackers,
or mistakes by users, do not compromise the integrity of systems or data. When an attacker
inserts malware or a back door into a system, the system’s integrity is compromised. This
can, in turn, harm the integrity of information held on the system by way of corruption,
malicious modification, or the replacement of data with incorrect data. Strict access
controls, intrusion detection, and hashing can combat these threats.
Authorized users can also affect a system or its data’s integrity by mistake (although
internal users may also commit malicious deeds). For example, a user with a full hard drive
may unwittingly delete a configuration file under the mistaken assumption that deleting
a file must be okay because the user doesn’t remember ever using it. Or a user may insert
incorrect values into a data-processing application that ends up charging a customer
$3,000 instead of $300. Incorrectly modifying data kept in databases is another common
way users may accidentally corrupt data—a mistake that can have lasting effects.
Security should streamline users’ capabilities and give them only certain choices and
functionality, so errors become less common and less devastating. System-critical files
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should be restricted from viewing and access by users. Applications should provide
mechanisms that check for valid and reasonable input values. Databases should let only
authorized individuals modify data, and data in transit should be protected by encryption
or other mechanisms.
Availability
Availability protection ensures reliable and timely access to data and resources to authorized individuals. Network devices, computers, and applications should provide adequate
functionality to perform in a predictable manner with an acceptable level of performance. They should be able to recover from disruptions in a secure and quick fashion,
so productivity is not negatively affected. Necessary protection mechanisms must be in
place to protect against inside and outside threats that could affect the availability and
productivity of all business-processing components.
Like many things in life, ensuring the availability of the necessary resources within an
organization sounds easier to accomplish than it really is. Networks have many pieces
that must stay up and running (routers, switches, proxies, firewalls, and so on). Software
has many components that must be executing in a healthy manner (operating system,
applications, antimalware software, and so forth). And an organization’s operations
can potentially be negatively affected by environmental aspects (such as fire, flood,
HVAC issues, or electrical problems), natural disasters, and physical theft or attacks.
An organization must fully understand its operational environment and its availability
weaknesses so that it can put in place the proper countermeasures.
Authenticity
One of the curious features of the modern Internet is that sometimes we are unsure of
who is putting out the things we read and download. Does that patch really come from
Microsoft? Did your boss really send you that e-mail asking you to buy $10,000 worth
of gift cards? Authenticity protections ensure we can trust that something comes from its
claimed source. This concept is at the heart of authentication, which establishes that an
entity trying to log into a system is really who it claims to be.
Authenticity in information systems is almost always provided through cryptographic
means. As an example, when you connect to your bank’s website, the connection should
be encrypted using Transport Layer Security (TLS), which in turn uses your bank’s digital
certificate to authenticate to your browser that it truly is that bank on the other end and
not an impostor. When you log in, the bank takes a cryptographic hash of the credentials
you provide and compares them to the hash the bank has in your records to ensure it
really is you on the other end.
Nonrepudiation
While authenticity establishes that an entity is who it claims to be at a particular point
in time, it doesn’t really provide historical proof of what that entity did or agreed to. For
example, suppose Bob logs into his bank and then applies for a loan. He doesn’t read the
fine print until later, at which point he decides he doesn’t like the terms of the transaction,
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PART I
so he calls up the bank to say he never signed the contract and to please make it go away.
Although the session was authenticated, Bob could claim that he walked away from his
computer while logged into the bank’s website, that his cat walked over the keyboard and
stepped on enter, executing the transaction, and that Bob never intended to sign the
loan application. It was the cat. Sadly, his claim could hold up in court.
Nonrepudiation, which is closely related to authenticity, means that someone cannot
disavow being the source of a given action. For example, suppose Bob’s bank had
implemented a procedure for loan applications that required him to “sign” the application
by entering his personal identification number (PIN). Now the whole cat defense falls
apart unless Bob could prove he trained his cat to enter PINs.
Most commonly, nonrepudiation is provided through the use of digital signatures.
Just like your physical signature on a piece of paper certifies that you either authored
it or agree to whatever is written on it (e.g., a contract), the digital version attests to
your sending an e-mail, writing software, or agreeing to a contract. We’ll discuss digital
signatures later in this book, but for now it will be helpful to remember that they are
cryptographic products that, just like an old-fashioned physical signature, can be used
for a variety of purposes.
EXAM TIP A good way to differentiate authenticity and nonrepudiation is
that authenticity proves to you that you’re talking to a given person at a
given point in time. Nonrepudiation proves to anyone that a given person
did or said something in the past.
Balanced Security
In reality, when information security is considered, it is commonly only through the lens
of keeping secrets secret (confidentiality). The integrity and availability threats tend to be
overlooked and only dealt with after they are properly compromised. Some assets have
a critical confidentiality requirement (e.g., company trade secrets), some have critical
integrity requirements (e.g., financial transaction values), and some have critical availability requirements (e.g., e-commerce web servers). Many people understand the concepts of the CIA triad, but may not fully appreciate the complexity of implementing
the necessary controls to provide all the protection these concepts cover. The following
provides a short list of some of these controls and how they map to the components of
the CIA triad.
Availability:
• Redundant array of independent disks (RAID)
• Clustering
• Load balancing
• Redundant data and power lines
• Software and data backups
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• Disk shadowing
• Co-location and offsite facilities
• Rollback functions
• Failover configurations
Integrity:
• Hashing (data integrity)
• Configuration management (system integrity)
• Change control (process integrity)
• Access control (physical and technical)
• Software digital signing
• Transmission cyclic redundancy check (CRC) functions
Confidentiality:
• Encryption for data at rest (whole disk, database encryption)
• Encryption for data in transit (IPSec, TLS, PPTP, SSH, described in Chapter 4)
• Access control (physical and technical)
All of these control types will be covered in this book. What is important to realize
at this point is that while the concept of the CIA triad may seem simplistic, meeting its
requirements is commonly more challenging.
Other Security Terms
The words “vulnerability,” “threat,” “risk,” and “exposure” are often interchanged, even
though they have different meanings. It is important to understand each word’s definition and the relationships between the concepts they represent.
A vulnerability is a weakness in a system that allows a threat source to compromise
its security. It can be a software, hardware, procedural, or human weakness that can be
exploited. A vulnerability may be a service running on a server, unpatched applications
or operating systems, an unrestricted wireless access point, an open port on a firewall,
lax physical security that allows anyone to enter a server room, or unenforced password
management on servers and workstations.
A threat is any potential danger that is associated with the exploitation of a vulnerability.
If the threat is that someone will identify a specific vulnerability and use it against the
organization or individual, then the entity that takes advantage of a vulnerability is
referred to as a threat agent (or threat actor). A threat agent could be an intruder accessing
the network through a port on the firewall, a process accessing data in a way that violates
the security policy, or an employee circumventing controls in order to copy files to a
medium that could expose confidential information.
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PART I
A risk is the likelihood of a threat source exploiting a vulnerability and the corresponding
business impact. If a firewall has several ports open, there is a higher likelihood that an
intruder will use one to access the network in an unauthorized method. If users are not
educated on processes and procedures, there is a higher likelihood that an employee
will make an unintentional mistake that may destroy data. If an intrusion detection
system (IDS) is not implemented on a network, there is a higher likelihood an attack
will go unnoticed until it is too late. Risk ties the vulnerability, threat, and likelihood of
exploitation to the resulting business impact.
An exposure is an instance of being exposed to losses. A vulnerability exposes an
organization to possible damages. If password management is lax and password rules are
not enforced, the organization is exposed to the possibility of having users’ passwords
compromised and used in an unauthorized manner. If an organization does not have its
wiring inspected and does not put proactive fire prevention steps into place, it exposes
itself to potentially devastating fires.
A control, or countermeasure, is put into place to mitigate (reduce) the potential risk.
A countermeasure may be a software configuration, a hardware device, or a procedure
that eliminates a vulnerability or that reduces the likelihood a threat agent will be
able to exploit a vulnerability. Examples of countermeasures include strong password
management, firewalls, a security guard, access control mechanisms, encryption, and
security awareness training.
NOTE The terms “control,” “countermeasure,” and “safeguard” are
interchangeable terms. They are mechanisms put into place to reduce risk.
If an organization has antimalware software but does not keep the signatures up
to date, this is a vulnerability. The organization is vulnerable to more recent malware
attacks. The threat is that a threat agent will insert malware into the environment and
disrupt productivity. The risk is the likelihood of a threat agent using malware in the
environment and the resulting potential damage. If this happens, then a vulnerability
has been exploited and the organization is exposed to loss. The countermeasures in
this situation are to update the signatures and install the antimalware software on all
computers. The relationships among risks, vulnerabilities, threats, and countermeasures
are shown in Figure 1-1.
Applying the right countermeasure can eliminate the vulnerability and exposure, and
thus reduce the risk. The organization cannot eliminate the threat agent, but it can protect
itself and prevent this threat agent from exploiting vulnerabilities within the environment.
Many people gloss over these basic terms with the idea that they are not as important
as the sexier things in information security. But you will find that unless a security team
has an agreed-upon language in place, confusion will quickly take over. These terms
embrace the core concepts of security, and if they are confused in any manner, then the
activities that are rolled out to enforce security are commonly confused.
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Figure 1-1
The relationships
among the
different security
concepts
Gives rise to
Exploits
Threat
agent
Leads to
Threat
Vulnerability
Risk
Directly affects
Asset
Exposure
Safeguard
Can damage
And causes an
Can be
countermeasured by a
Security Governance Principles
Now that we have established a shared vocabulary for the fundamental cybersecurity
concepts and understand how they relate to each other, let’s turn our attention to how
we can prioritize, assess, and continuously improve the security of our organizations.
This is where security governance comes into play. Security governance is a framework
that supports the security goals of an organization being set and expressed by senior
management, communicated throughout the different levels of the organization, and
consistently applied and assessed. Security governance grants power to the entities who
need to implement and enforce security and provides a way to verify the performance of
these necessary security activities. Senior management not only needs to set the direction
of security but also needs a way to be able to view and understand how their directives
are being met or not being met.
If a board of directors and CEO demand that security be integrated properly at all
levels of the organization, how do they know it is really happening? Oversight mechanisms
must be developed and integrated so that the people who are ultimately responsible for
an organization are constantly and consistently updated on the overall health and security
posture of the organization. This happens through properly defined communication
channels, standardized reporting methods, and performance-based metrics.
Let’s compare two companies. Company A has an effective security governance
program in place and Company B does not. Now, to the untrained eye it would seem
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Company A
Company B
Board members understand that information
security is critical to the company and
demand to be updated quarterly on security
performance and breaches.
Board members do not understand that
information security is in their realm of
responsibility and focus solely on corporate
governance and profits.
The chief executive officer (CEO), chief
financial officer (CFO), chief information officer
(CIO), chief information security officer (CISO),
and business unit managers participate in a
risk management committee that meets each
month, and information security is always one
topic on the agenda to review.
The CEO, CFO, and business unit managers
feel as though information security is
the responsibility of the CIO, CISO, and IT
department and do not get involved.
Executive management sets an acceptable
risk level that is the basis for the company’s
security policies and all security activities.
The CISO copied some boilerplate security
policies, inserted his company’s name, and
had the CEO sign them.
Executive management holds business unit
managers responsible for carrying out risk
management activities for their specific
business units.
All security activity takes place within the
security department; thus, security works
within a silo and is not integrated throughout
the organization.
Critical business processes are documented
along with the risks that are inherent at the
different steps within the business processes.
Business processes are not documented and
not analyzed for potential risks that can affect
operations, productivity, and profitability.
Employees are held accountable for any
security breaches they participate in, either
maliciously or accidentally.
Policies and standards are developed, but no
enforcement or accountability practices have
been envisioned or deployed.
Security products, managed services, and
consulting services are purchased and
deployed in an informed manner. They are
also constantly reviewed to ensure they are
cost-effective.
Security products, managed services, and
consulting services are purchased and
deployed without any real research or
performance metrics to determine the return
on investment or effectiveness.
The organization is continuing to review its
processes, including security, with the goal of
continued improvement.
The organization does not analyze its
performance for improvement, but continually
marches forward and makes similar mistakes
over and over again.
PART I
as though Companies A and B are equal in their security practices because they both
have security policies, procedures, and standards in place, the same security technology
controls (firewalls, endpoint detection, identity management, and so on), defined
security roles, and security awareness training. You may think, “These two companies are
on the ball and quite evolved in their security programs.” But if you look closer, you will
see some critical differences (listed in Table 1-1).
Does the organization you work for look like Company A or Company B? Most
organizations today have many of the pieces and parts to a security program (policies,
standards, firewalls, security team, IDS, and so on), but management may not be
Table 1-1 Security Governance Program: A Comparison of Two Companies
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truly involved, and security has not permeated throughout the organization. Some
organizations rely just on technology and isolate all security responsibilities within the
IT group. If security were just a technology issue, then this security team could properly
install, configure, and maintain the products, and the company would get a gold star
and pass the audit with flying colors. But that is not how information security works. It
is much more than just technological solutions. Security must be driven throughout the
organization, and having several points of responsibility and accountability is critical.
At this point, you may be asking, “So, what does security governance actually look like
in the real world?” Security governance is typically implemented as a formal cybersecurity
program or an information security management system (ISMS). Whichever of these
names you call it, it is a collection of policies, procedures, baselines, and standards that an
organization puts in place to make sure that its security efforts are aligned with business
needs, streamlined, and effective, and that no security controls are missing. Figure 1-2
illustrates many of the elements that go into a complete security program.
Governance
model
Vulnerability
and threat
management
Policy
development
Regulations
Development
of metrics
Common
threats
Vulnerability
and threat
management
System
life cycle
security
Policy
compliance
Auditing
Security
program
Common
threats
Company
assets
Network
security
Risk analysis
and management
Risk analysis
and management
Process
management
Incident
response
Physical
security
Personnel
security
Laws
Data
classification
Use of
metrics
Communication
security
Business
continuity
Process
development
and
monitoring
Operational
management
Tactical management
Organizational
security
Strategic management
Figure 1-2 A complete security program contains many items.
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Aligning Security to Business Strategy
PART I
An enterprise security architecture is a subset of an enterprise architecture (discussed in
depth in Chapter 4) and implements an information security strategy. It consists of layers
of solutions, processes, and procedures and the way they are linked across an enterprise
strategically, tactically, and operationally. It is a comprehensive and rigorous method
for describing the structure and behavior of all the components that make up a holistic
ISMS. The main reason to develop an enterprise security architecture is to ensure that
security efforts align with business practices in a standardized and cost-effective manner.
The architecture works at an abstraction level and provides a frame of reference. Besides
security, this type of architecture allows organizations to better achieve interoperability,
integration, ease of use, standardization, and governance.
How do you know if an organization does not have an enterprise security architecture
in place? If the answer is “yes” to most of the following questions, this type of architecture
is not in place:
• Does security take place in silos throughout the organization?
• Is there a continual disconnect between senior management and the security staff?
• Are redundant products purchased for different departments for overlapping
security needs?
• Is the security program made up of mainly policies without actual implementation
and enforcement?
• When a user’s access requirements increase because of business needs, does the
network administrator just modify the access controls without the user manager’s
documented approval?
• When a new product is being rolled out, do unexpected interoperability issues
pop up that require more time and money to fix?
• Do many “one-off ” efforts take place instead of following standardized procedures
when security issues arise?
• Are the business unit managers unaware of their security responsibilities and how
their responsibilities map to legal and regulatory requirements?
• Is “sensitive data” defined in a policy, but the necessary controls are not fully
implemented and monitored?
• Are stovepipe (point) solutions implemented instead of enterprise-wide solutions?
• Are the same expensive mistakes continuing to take place?
• Is security governance currently unavailable because the enterprise is not viewed
or monitored in a standardized and holistic manner?
• Are business decisions being made without taking security into account?
• Are security personnel usually putting out fires with no real time to look at and
develop strategic approaches?
• Are some business units engaged in security efforts that other business units
know nothing about?
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If many of these answers are “yes,” no useful architecture is in place. Now, the following
is something very interesting the authors have seen over several years. Most organizations
have multiple problems in the preceding list and yet they focus on each item as if it is
unconnected to the other problems. What the CSO, CISO, and/or security administrator
does not always understand is that these are just symptoms of a treatable disease. The
“treatment” is to put one person in charge of a team that develops a phased-approach
enterprise security architecture rollout plan. The goals are to integrate technologyoriented and business-centric security processes; link administrative, technical, and
physical controls to properly manage risk; and integrate these processes into the IT
infrastructure, business processes, and the organization’s culture.
A helpful tool for aligning an organization’s security architecture with its business
strategy is the Sherwood Applied Business Security Architecture (SABSA), which is shown
in Table 1-2. It is a layered framework, with its first layer describing the business context
within which the security architecture must exist. Each layer of the framework decreases
in abstraction and increases in detail, so it builds upon the others and moves from policy
to practical implementation of technology and solutions. The idea is to provide a chain
of traceability through the contextual, conceptual, logical, physical, component, and
operational levels.
Assets
(What)
Motivation
(Why)
Process
(How)
People
(Who)
Location
(Where)
Time
(When)
Contextual
The
business
Business risk
model
Business
process
model
Business
organization
and
relationships
Business
geography
Business time
dependencies
Conceptual
Business
attributes
profile
Control
objectives
Security
strategies and
architectural
layering
Security
entity model
and trust
framework
Security
domain
model
Securityrelated
lifetimes and
deadlines
Logical
Business
information
model
Security
policies
Security
services
Entity schema
and privilege
profiles
Security
domain
definitions and
associations
Security
processing
cycle
Physical
Business
data model
Security rules,
practices, and
procedures
Security
mechanisms
Users,
applications,
and user
interface
Platform
and network
infrastructure
Control
structure
execution
Component
Detailed
data
structures
Security
standards
Security
products and
tools
Identities,
functions,
actions, and
ACLs
Processes,
nodes,
addresses,
and protocols
Security step
timing and
sequencing
Operational
Assurance
of operation
continuity
Operation risk
management
Security
service
management
and support
Application
and user
management
and support
Security
of sites,
networks, and
platforms
Security
operations
schedule
Table 1-2 SABSA Architecture Framework
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• What are you trying to do at this layer? The assets to be protected by your
security architecture.
• Why are you doing it? The motivation for wanting to apply security, expressed
in the terms of this layer.
• How are you trying to do it? The functions needed to achieve security at
this layer.
• Who is involved? The people and organizational aspects of security at this layer.
• Where are you doing it? The locations where you apply your security, relevant
to this layer.
• When are you doing it? The time-related aspects of security relevant to this layer.
PART I
The following outlines the questions that are to be asked and answered at each level
of the framework:
SABSA is a framework and methodology for enterprise security architecture and
service management. Since it is a framework, this means it provides a structure for
individual architectures to be built from. Since it is a methodology also, this means it
provides the processes to follow to build and maintain this architecture. SABSA provides
a life-cycle model so that the architecture can be constantly monitored and improved
upon over time.
EXAM TIP You do not need to memorize the SABSA framework, but you do
need to understand how security programs align with business strategies.
For an enterprise security architecture to be successful in its development and
implementation, the following items must be understood and followed: strategic
alignment, business enablement, process enhancement, and security effectiveness. We’ll
cover the first three of these in the following sections but will cover security effectiveness
in Chapter 18 when we discuss security assessments.
Strategic Alignment
Strategic alignment means the business drivers and the regulatory and legal requirements are
being met by the enterprise security architecture. Security efforts must provide and support
an environment that allows an organization to not only survive, but thrive. The security
industry has grown up from the technical and engineering world, not the business world.
In many organizations, while the IT security personnel and business personnel might be
located physically close to each other, they are commonly worlds apart in how they see the
same organization they work in. Technology is only a tool that supports a business; it is
not the business itself. The IT environment is analogous to the circulatory system within
a human body; it is there to support the body—the body does not exist to support the
circulatory system. And security is analogous to the immune system of the body—it is
there to protect the overall environment. If these critical systems (business, IT, security)
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do not work together in a concerted effort, there will be deficiencies and imbalances. While
deficiencies and imbalances lead to disease in the body, deficiencies and imbalances within
an organization can lead to risk and security compromises.
Business Enablement
When looking at the business enablement requirement of the enterprise security architecture, we need to remind ourselves that each organization exists for one or more specific
business purposes. Publicly traded companies are in the business of increasing shareholder value. Nonprofit organizations are in the business of furthering a specific set
of causes. Government organizations are in the business of providing services to their
citizens. Companies and organizations do not exist for the sole purpose of being secure.
Security cannot stand in the way of business processes, but should be implemented to
better enable them.
Business enablement means the core business processes are integrated into the security
operating model—they are standards based and follow a risk tolerance criteria. What
does this mean in the real world? Let’s say a company’s accountants have figured out that
if they allow the customer service and support staff to work from home, the company
would save a lot of money on office rent, utilities, and overhead—plus, the company’s
insurance would be cheaper. The company could move into this new model with the
use of virtual private networks (VPNs), firewalls, content filtering, and so on. Security
enables the company to move to this different working model by providing the necessary
protection mechanisms. If a financial institution wants to enable its customers to view
bank account information and carry out money transfers online, it can offer this service
if the correct security mechanisms are put in place (access control, authentication,
secure connections, etc.). Security should help the organization thrive by providing the
mechanisms to do new things safely.
Process Enhancement
Process enhancement can be quite beneficial to an organization if it takes advantage of
this capability when it is presented to it. An organization that is serious about securing
its environment will have to take a close look at many of the business processes that
take place on an ongoing basis. Many times, these processes are viewed through the eyeglasses of security, because that’s the reason for the activity, but this is a perfect chance to
enhance and improve upon the same processes to increase productivity. When you look
at many business processes taking place in all types of organizations, you commonly find
a duplication of efforts, manual steps that can be easily automated, or ways to streamline
and reduce time and effort that are involved in certain tasks. This is commonly referred
to as process reengineering.
When an organization is developing its security enterprise components, those
components must be integrated into the business processes to be effective. This can allow
for process management to be refined and calibrated. This, in turn, allows for security to be
integrated in system life cycles and day-to-day operations. So, while business enablement
means “we can do new stuff,” process enhancement means “we can do stuff better.”
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Organizational Processes
PART I
The processes we just covered are regular day-to-day ones. There are other processes that
happen less frequently but may have a much more significant impact on the security
posture of the organization. Let’s dig a bit deeper into some of these key organizational
processes and how our security efforts align with, enable, and enhance them.
Mergers and Acquisitions
As companies grow, they often acquire new capabilities (e.g., markets, products, and
intellectual property) by merging with another company or outright acquiring it. Mergers and acquisitions (M&A) always take place for business reasons, but they almost always
have significant cybersecurity implications. Think of it this way: your company didn’t
acquire only the business assets of that other company it just purchased; it also acquired
its security program and all the baggage that may come with it. Suppose that during
the M&A process you discover that the company that your company is acquiring has a
significant but previously unknown data breach. This is exactly what happened in 2017
when Verizon acquired Yahoo! and discovered that the latter had experienced two massive security breaches. The acquisition went forward, but at a price that was $350 million
lower than originally agreed.
One of the ways in which companies protect themselves during a merger or
acquisition is by conducting extensive audits of the company they are about to merge
with or acquire. There are many service providers who now offer compromise assessments,
which are in-depth technical examinations of a company’s information systems to
determine whether an undocumented compromise is ongoing or has happened in the
past. It’s sort of like exploratory surgery; let’s open up the patient and see what we find.
Another approach is to conduct an audit of the ISMS, which is more focused on policies,
procedures, and controls.
Divestitures
A divestiture, on the other hand, is when your company sells off (or otherwise gets rid
of ) a part of itself. There are many reasons why a company may want to divest itself of
a business asset, such as having a business unit that is not profitable or no longer well
aligned with the overarching strategy. If the divestiture involves a sale or transfer of an
asset to another company, that company is going to audit that asset. In other words, for
us cybersecurity professionals, a divestiture is when we have to answer tough questions
from the buyer, and an M&A is when we are the ones asking the tough questions of
someone else. They are two sides to the same coin.
If your company is divesting assets for whose security you are responsible, you will
probably work closely with the business and legal teams to identify any problem areas that
might reduce the value of the assets being sold. For example, if there are any significant
vulnerabilities in those assets, you may want to apply controls to mitigate the related risks.
If you discover a compromise, you want to eradicate it and recover from it aggressively.
A less obvious cybersecurity implication of divestiture is the need to segment the part
or parts of the ISMS that involve the asset(s) in question. If your company is selling a
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business unit, it undoubtedly has security policies, procedures, and controls that apply to
it but may also apply to other business areas. Whoever is acquiring the assets will want
to know what those are, and maybe even test them at a technical level. You need to be
prepared to be audited without revealing any proprietary or confidential information in
the process. Be sure to keep your legal team close to ensure you are responsive to what is
required of you, but nothing else.
Governance Committees
The organizational processes we’ve described so far (M&A and divestitures) are triggered by a business decision to either acquire or get rid of some set of assets. There is
another key process that is ongoing in many organizations with mature cybersecurity
practices. A governance committee is a standing body whose purpose is to review the
structures and practices of the organization and report its findings to the board of
directors. While it may sound a bit scary to have such a committee watching over
everything you do, they can actually be your allies by shining a light on the tough
issues that you cannot solve by yourself without help from the board. It is important
for you to know who is who in your organization and who can help get what you need
to ensure a secure environment.
Organizational Roles and Responsibilities
Senior management and other levels of management understand the vision of the organization, the business goals, and the objectives. The next layer down is the functional
management, whose members understand how their individual departments work, what
roles individuals play within the organization, and how security affects their department
directly. The next layers are operational managers and staff. These layers are closer to
the actual operations of the organization. They know detailed information about the
technical and procedural requirements, the systems, and how the systems are used. The
employees at these layers understand how security mechanisms integrate into systems,
how to configure them, and how they affect daily productivity. Every layer offers different insight into what type of role security plays within an organization, and each should
have input into the best security practices, procedures, and chosen controls to ensure the
agreed-upon security level provides the necessary amount of protection without negatively affecting the company’s productivity.
EXAM TIP Senior management always carries the ultimate responsibility for
the organization.
Although each layer is important to the overall security of an organization, some
specific roles must be clearly defined. Individuals who work in smaller environments
(where everyone must wear several hats) may get overwhelmed with the number of roles
presented next. Many commercial businesses do not have this level of structure in their
security teams, but many large companies, government agencies, and military units do.
What you need to understand are the responsibilities that must be assigned and whether
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PART I
they are assigned to just a few people or to a large security team. These roles include
the executive management, security officer, data owner, data custodian, system owner,
security administrator, supervisor (user manager), change control analyst, data analyst,
user, auditor, and the guy who gets everyone coffee.
Executive Management
The individuals designated as executive management typically are those whose titles start
with “chief,” and collectively they are often referred to as the “C-suite.” Executive leaders
are ultimately responsible for everything that happens in their organizations, and as such
are considered the ultimate business and function owners. This has been evidenced time
and again (as we will see shortly) in high-profile cases wherein executives have been fired,
sued, or even prosecuted for organizational failures or fraud that occurred under their
leadership. Let’s start at the top of a corporate entity, the CEO.
Chief Executive Officer The chief executive officer (CEO) has the day-to-day
management responsibilities of an organization. This person is often the chairperson of
the board of directors and is the highest-ranking officer in the company. This role is for
the person who oversees the company’s finances, strategic planning, and operations from
a high level. The CEO is usually seen as the visionary for the company and is responsible
for developing and modifying the company’s business plan. The CEO sets budgets;
forms partnerships; and decides on what markets to enter, what product lines to develop,
how the company will differentiate itself, and so on. This role’s overall responsibility is to
ensure that the company grows and thrives.
NOTE The CEO can delegate tasks, but not necessarily responsibility. More
and more regulations dealing with information security are holding the
CEO accountable for ensuring the organization practices due care and
due diligence with respect to information security, which is why security
departments across the land are receiving more funding. Personal liability
for the decision makers and purse-string holders has loosened those purse
strings, and companies are now able to spend more money on security than
before. (Due care and due diligence are described in detail in Chapter 3.)
Chief Financial Officer The chief financial officer (CFO) is responsible for the
corporation’s accounting and financial activities and the overall financial structure of the
organization. This person is responsible for determining what the company’s financial
needs will be and how to finance those needs. The CFO must create and maintain the
company’s capital structure, which is the proper mix of equity, credit, cash, and debt
financing. This person oversees forecasting and budgeting and the processes of submitting
financial statements to the regulators and stakeholders.
Chief Information Officer The chief information officer (CIO) may report to either
the CEO or CFO, depending upon the corporate structure, and is responsible for
the strategic use and management of information systems and technology within the
organization. Over time, this position has become more strategic and less operational in
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Executives and Incarcerations and Fines, Oh My!
The CFO and CEO are responsible for informing stakeholders (creditors, analysts,
employees, management, investors) of the firm’s financial condition and health. After
the corporate debacles at Enron and WorldCom uncovered in 2001–2002, the U.S.
government enacted the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX), which prescribes to the CEO
and CFO financial reporting responsibilities and includes penalties and potential
personal liability for failure to comply. SOX gave the Securities Exchange Commission (SEC) more authority to create regulations that ensure these officers cannot
simply pass along fines to the corporation for personal financial misconduct. Under
SOX, they can personally be fined millions of dollars and/or go to jail. The following list provides a sampling of some of the cases in the past decade in which C-suite
executives have been held accountable for cybersecurity issues under various laws:
• August 2020 Joseph Sullivan, former chief information security officer at
Uber, was charged with obstruction of justice and misprision of a felony in
connection with the attempted cover-up of the 2016 hack of Uber.
• July 2019 Facebook agreed to pay $100M in fines for making misleading
disclosures concerning the risks to user data after becoming aware that
Cambridge Analytica had improperly collected and misused PII on nearly
30M Facebook users in 2014 and 2015. The company neither admitted nor
denied the SEC allegations as part of this agreement.
• March 2019 Jun Ying, a former chief information officer for Equifax,
pled guilty and was subsequently convicted to four months in prison on
charges of insider trading for allegedly selling his stock in the company after
discovering a massive data breach. He suspected (correctly) that the stock
would lose value once the breach became known.
• March 2018 Martin Shkreli, a notorious pharmaceutical executive, was
sentenced to seven years in prison after being convicted of securities fraud
stemming from his alleged use of funds from new companies to pay down
debts previously incurred by financially troubled companies.
• December 2017 KIT Digital’s former CEO Kaleil Isaza Tuzman was
found guilty of market manipulation and fraud charges. His former CFO,
Robin Smyth, had previously pled guilty and turned government witness
against Tuzman. As of this writing, Tuzman is still awaiting sentencing.
• June 2015 Joe White, the former CFO of Shelby Regional Medical
Center, was sentenced to 23 months in federal prison after making false
claims to receive payments under the Medicare Electronic Health Record
Incentive Program.
These are only some of the big cases that made it into the headlines. Other executives
have also received punishments for “creative accounting” and fraudulent activities.
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PART I
many organizations. CIOs oversee and are responsible for the day-in, day-out technology
operations of a company, but because organizations are so dependent upon technology,
CIOs are being asked to sit at the corporate table more and more.
CIO responsibilities have extended to working with the CEO (and other management)
on business-process management, revenue generation, and how business strategy can be
accomplished with the company’s underlying technology. This person usually should
have one foot in techno-land and one foot in business-land to be effective because she is
bridging two very different worlds.
The CIO sets the stage for the protection of company assets and is ultimately
responsible for the success of the company’s security program. Direction should be
coming down from the CEO, and there should be clear lines of communication between
the board of directors, the C-level staff, and mid-management.
Chief Privacy Officer The chief privacy officer (CPO) is a newer position, created mainly
because of the increasing demands on organizations to protect a long laundry list of
different types of data. This role is responsible for ensuring that customer, company, and
employee data is kept safe, which keeps the company out of criminal and civil courts and
hopefully out of the headlines. This person is often an attorney with privacy law experience
and is directly involved with setting policies on how data is collected, protected, and given
out to third parties. The CPO often reports to the chief security officer.
It is important that the CPO understand the privacy, legal, and regulatory requirements
the organization must comply with. With this knowledge, the CPO can then develop the
organization’s policies, standards, procedures, controls, and contract agreements to ensure
that privacy requirements are being properly met. Remember also that organizations
are responsible for knowing how their suppliers, partners, and other third parties are
protecting this sensitive information. The CPO may be responsible for reviewing the
data security and privacy practices of these other parties.
Some companies have carried out risk assessments without considering the penalties
and ramifications they would be forced to deal with if they do not properly protect the
information they are responsible for. Without considering these liabilities, risk cannot be
properly assessed.
Privacy
Privacy is different from security. Privacy indicates the amount of control an individual should be able to have and expect to have as it relates to the release of their
own sensitive information. Security refers to the mechanisms that can be put into
place to provide this level of control.
It is becoming more critical (and more difficult) to protect personally identifiable
information (PII) because of the increase of identity theft and financial fraud threats.
PII is a combination of identification elements (name, address, phone number,
account number, etc.). Organizations must have privacy policies and controls in
place to protect their employee and customer PII. Chapter 3 discusses PII in depth.
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CSO vs. CISO
The CSO and CISO may have similar or very different responsibilities, depending
on the individual organization. In fact, an organization may choose to have both,
either, or neither of these roles. It is up to an organization that has either or both
of these roles to define their responsibilities. By and large, the CSO role usually has
a further-reaching list of responsibilities compared to the CISO role. The CISO is
usually focused more on technology and has an IT background. The CSO usually is
required to understand a wider range of business risks, including physical security,
not just technological risks.
The CSO is usually more of a businessperson and typically is present in larger
organizations. If a company has both roles, the CISO reports directly to the CSO.
The CSO is commonly responsible for ensuring convergence, which is the formal
cooperation between previously disjointed security functions. This mainly pertains
to physical and IT security working in a more concerted manner instead of working
in silos within the organization. Issues such as loss prevention, fraud prevention,
business continuity planning, legal/regulatory compliance, and insurance all have
physical security and IT security aspects and requirements. So one individual
(CSO) overseeing and intertwining these different security disciplines allows for a
more holistic and comprehensive security program.
The organization should document how privacy data is collected, used, disclosed,
archived, and destroyed. Employees should be held accountable for not following the
organization’s standards on how to handle this type of information.
Chief Security Officer The chief security officer (CSO) is responsible for understanding
the risks that the company faces and for mitigating these risks to an acceptable level.
This role is responsible for understanding the organization’s business drivers and for
creating and maintaining a security program that facilitates these drivers, along with
providing security, compliance with a long list of regulations and laws, and any customer
expectations or contractual obligations.
The creation of this role is a mark in the “win” column for the security industry
because it means security is finally being seen as a business issue. Previously, security
was relegated to the IT department and was viewed solely as a technology issue. As
organizations began to recognize the need to integrate security requirements and business
needs, creating a position for security in the executive management team became more of
a necessity. The CSO’s job is to ensure that business is not disrupted in any way due to
security issues. This extends beyond IT and reaches into business processes, legal issues,
operational issues, revenue generation, and reputation protection.
Data Owner
The data owner (information owner) is usually a member of management who is in
charge of a specific business unit and who is ultimately responsible for the protection
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PART I
and use of a specific subset of information. The data owner has due-care responsibilities
and thus will be held responsible for any negligent act that results in the corruption or
disclosure of the data. The data owner decides upon the classification of the data she is
responsible for and alters that classification if the business need arises. This person is also
responsible for ensuring that the necessary security controls are in place, defining security requirements per classification and backup requirements, approving any disclosure
activities, ensuring that proper access rights are being used, and defining user access criteria. The data owner approves access requests or may choose to delegate this function to
business unit managers. And the data owner will deal with security violations pertaining
to the data she is responsible for protecting. The data owner, who obviously has enough
on her plate, delegates responsibility of the day-to-day maintenance of the data protection mechanisms to the data custodian.
NOTE Data ownership takes on a different meaning when outsourcing data
storage requirements. You may want to ensure that the service contract
includes a clause to the effect that all data is and shall remain the sole and
exclusive property of your organization.
Data Custodian
The data custodian (information custodian) is responsible for maintaining and protecting the data. This role is usually filled by the IT or security department, and the duties
include implementing and maintaining security controls; performing regular backups
of the data; periodically validating the integrity of the data; restoring data from backup
media; retaining records of activity; and fulfilling the requirements specified in the company’s security policy, standards, and guidelines that pertain to information security and
data protection.
System Owner
The system owner is responsible for one or more systems, each of which may hold and
process data owned by different data owners. A system owner is responsible for integrating security considerations into application and system purchasing decisions and development projects. The system owner is responsible for ensuring that adequate security is
being provided by the necessary controls, password management, remote access controls,
operating system configurations, and so on. This role must ensure that the systems are
Data Owner Issues
Each business unit should have a data owner who protects the unit’s most critical information. The company’s policies must give the data owners the necessary
authority to carry out their tasks.
This is not a technical role, but rather a business role that must understand the
relationship between the unit’s success and the protection of this critical asset. Not all
businesspeople understand this role, so they should be given the necessary training.
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properly assessed for vulnerabilities and must report any that are discovered to the incident response team and data owner.
Security Administrator
The security administrator is responsible for implementing and maintaining specific security network devices and software in the enterprise. These controls commonly include
firewalls, an intrusion detection system (IDS), intrusion prevention system (IPS), antimalware, security proxies, data loss prevention, etc. It is common for a delineation to
exist between the security administrator’s responsibilities and the network administrator’s
responsibilities. The security administrator has the main focus of keeping the network
secure, and the network administrator has the focus of keeping things up and running.
A security administrator’s tasks commonly also include creating new system user
accounts, implementing new security software, testing security patches and components,
and issuing new passwords. The security administrator must make sure access rights
given to users support the policies and data owner directives.
Supervisor
The supervisor role, also called user manager, is ultimately responsible for all user activity and
any assets created and owned by these users. For example, suppose Kathy is the supervisor
of ten employees. Her responsibilities would include ensuring that these employees understand their responsibilities with respect to security; making sure the employees’ account
information is up to date; and informing the security administrator when an employee is
fired, suspended, or transferred. Any change that pertains to an employee’s role within the
company usually affects what access rights they should and should not have, so the user
manager must inform the security administrator of these changes immediately.
Change Control Analyst
Since the only thing that is constant is change, someone must make sure changes happen
securely. The change control analyst is responsible for approving or rejecting requests to
make changes to the network, systems, or software. This role must make certain that the
change will not introduce any vulnerabilities, that it has been properly tested, and that
it is properly rolled out. The change control analyst needs to understand how various
changes can affect security, interoperability, performance, and productivity.
Data Analyst
Having proper data structures, definitions, and organization is very important to a company. The data analyst is responsible for ensuring that data is stored in a way that makes
the most sense to the company and the individuals who need to access and work with
it. For example, payroll information should not be mixed with inventory information;
the purchasing department needs to have a lot of its values in monetary terms; and the
inventory system must follow a standardized naming scheme. The data analyst may be
responsible for architecting a new system that will hold company information or advising in the purchase of a product that will do so. The data analyst works with the data
owners to help ensure that the structures set up coincide with and support the company’s
business objectives.
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User
PART I
The user is any individual who routinely uses the data for work-related tasks. The user
must have the necessary level of access to the data to perform the duties within their position and is responsible for following operational security procedures to ensure the data’s
confidentiality, integrity, and availability to others.
Auditor
The function of the auditor is to periodically check that everyone is doing what they are
supposed to be doing and to ensure the correct controls are in place and are being maintained securely. The goal of the auditor is to make sure the organization complies with
its own policies and the applicable laws and regulations. Organizations can have internal
auditors and/or external auditors. The external auditors commonly work on behalf of a
regulatory body to make sure compliance is being met.
While many security professionals fear and dread auditors, they can be valuable tools
in ensuring the overall security of the organization. Their goal is to find the things you
have missed and help you understand how to fix the problems.
Why So Many Roles?
Most organizations will not have all the roles previously listed, but what is important is
to build an organizational structure that contains the necessary roles and map the correct
security responsibilities to them. This structure includes clear definitions of responsibilities,
lines of authority and communication, and enforcement capabilities. A clear-cut structure
takes the mystery out of who does what and how things are handled in different situations.
Security Policies, Standards,
Procedures, and Guidelines
Computers and the information processed on them usually have a direct relationship
with a company’s critical missions and objectives. Because of this level of importance,
senior management should make protecting these items a high priority and provide
the necessary support, funds, time, and resources to ensure that systems, networks, and
information are protected in the most logical and cost-effective manner possible. A comprehensive management approach must be developed to accomplish these goals successfully. This is because everyone within an organization may have a different set of personal
values and experiences they bring to the environment with regard to security. It is important to make sure everyone is consistent regarding security at a level that meets the needs
of the organization.
For a company’s security plan to be successful, it must start at the top level and be
useful and functional at every single level within the organization. Senior management
needs to define the scope of security and identify and decide what must be protected
and to what extent. Management must understand the business needs and compliance
requirements (regulations, laws, and liability issues) for which it is responsible regarding
security and ensure that the company as a whole fulfills its obligations. Senior management
also must determine what is expected from employees and what the consequences of
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noncompliance will be. These decisions should be made by the individuals who will be
held ultimately responsible if something goes wrong. But it is a common practice to bring
in the expertise of the security officers to collaborate in ensuring that sufficient policies
and controls are being implemented to achieve the goals being set and determined by
senior management.
A security program contains all the pieces necessary to provide overall protection
to an organization and lays out a long-term security strategy. A security program’s
documentation should be made up of security policies, procedures, standards, guidelines,
and baselines. The human resources and legal departments must be involved in the
development and enforcement of rules and requirements laid out in these documents.
ISMS vs. Enterprise Security Architecture
What is the difference between an ISMS and an enterprise security architecture?
An ISMS outlines the controls that need to be put into place (risk management,
vulnerability management, business continuity planning, data protection, auditing,
configuration management, physical security, etc.) and provides direction on how
those controls should be managed throughout their life cycle. The ISMS specifies
the pieces and parts that need to be put into place to provide a holistic security
program for the organization overall and how to properly take care of those pieces
and parts. The enterprise security architecture illustrates how these components are
to be integrated into the different layers of the current business environment. The
security components of the ISMS have to be interwoven throughout the business
environment and not siloed within individual company departments.
For example, the ISMS will dictate that risk management needs to be put in
place, and the enterprise security architecture will chop up the risk management
components and illustrate how risk management needs to take place at the strategic,
tactical, and operational levels. As another example, the ISMS could dictate that
data protection needs to be put into place. The security architecture can show how
this happens at the infrastructure, application, component, and business level. At
the infrastructure level we can implement data loss protection technology to detect
how sensitive data is traversing the network. Applications that maintain sensitive
data must have the necessary access controls and cryptographic functionality. The
components within the applications can implement the specific cryptographic
functions. And protecting sensitive company information can be tied to business
drivers, which is illustrated at the business level of the architecture.
The ISO/IEC 27000 series (which outlines the ISMS and is covered in detail in
Chapter 4) is very policy oriented and outlines the necessary components of a security
program. This means that the ISO standards are general in nature, which is not a
defect—they were created that way so that they could be applied to various types of
businesses, companies, and organizations. But since these standards are general, it
can be difficult to know how to implement them and map them to your company’s
infrastructure and business needs. This is where the enterprise security architecture
comes into play. The architecture is a tool used to ensure that what is outlined in the
security standards is implemented throughout the different layers of an organization.
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PART I
The language, level of detail, formality of the documents, and supporting mechanisms
should be examined by the policy developers. Security policies, standards, guidelines,
procedures, and baselines must be developed with a realistic view to be most effective.
Highly structured organizations usually follow documentation in a more uniform way.
Less structured organizations may need more explanation and emphasis to promote
compliance. The more detailed the rules are, the easier it is to know when one has
been violated. However, overly detailed documentation and rules can prove to be more
burdensome than helpful. The business type, its culture, and its goals must be evaluated
to make sure the proper language is used when writing security documentation.
There are a lot of legal liability issues surrounding security documentation. If your
organization has a policy outlining how it is supposed to be protecting sensitive information
and it is found out that your organization is not practicing what it is preaching, criminal
charges and civil suits could be filed and successfully executed. It is important that an
organization’s security does not just look good on paper, but in action also.
Security Policy
A security policy is an overall general statement produced by senior management (or a
selected policy board or committee) that dictates what role security plays within the
organization. A security policy can be an organizational policy, an issue-specific policy, or
a system-specific policy. In an organizational security policy, management establishes how
a security program will be set up, lays out the program’s goals, assigns responsibilities,
shows the strategic and tactical value of security, and outlines how enforcement should be
carried out. This policy must address applicable laws, regulations, and liability issues and
how they are to be satisfied. The organizational security policy provides scope and direction for all future security activities within the organization. It also describes the amount
of risk senior management is willing to accept.
The organizational security policy has several important characteristics that must be
understood and implemented:
• Business objectives should drive the policy’s creation, implementation, and
enforcement. The policy should not dictate business objectives.
• It should be an easily understood document that is used as a reference point for
all employees and management.
• It should be developed and used to integrate security into all business functions
and processes.
• It should be derived from and support all legislation and regulations applicable
to the company.
• It should be reviewed and modified as a company changes, such as through
adoption of a new business model, a merger with another company, or change
of ownership.
• Each iteration of the policy should be dated and under version control.
• The units and individuals who are governed by the policy must have easy access
to it. Policies are commonly posted on portals on an intranet.
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• It should be created with the intention of having the policies in place for several
years at a time. This will help ensure policies are forward-thinking enough to deal
with potential changes that may arise.
• The level of professionalism in the presentation of the policies reinforces their
importance, as well as the need to adhere to them.
• It should not contain language that isn’t readily understood by everyone. Use
clear and declarative statements that are easy to understand and adopt.
• It should be reviewed on a regular basis and adapted to correct incidents that
have occurred since the last review and revision of the policies.
A process for dealing with those who choose not to comply with the security
policies must be developed and enforced so there is a structured method of response to
noncompliance. This establishes a process that others can understand and thus recognize
not only what is expected of them but also what they can expect as a response to their
noncompliance.
Organizational security policies are also referred to as master security policies. An
organization will have many policies, and they should be set up in a hierarchical manner.
The organizational (master) security policy is at the highest level, with policies underneath
it that address security issues specifically. These are referred to as issue-specific policies.
An issue-specific policy, also called a functional policy, addresses specific security issues
that management feels need more detailed explanation and attention to make sure a
comprehensive structure is built and all employees understand how they are to comply
with these security issues. For example, an organization may choose to have an e-mail
security policy that outlines what management can and cannot do with employees’ e-mail
messages for monitoring purposes, that specifies which e-mail functionality employees
can or cannot use, and that addresses specific privacy issues.
As a more specific example, an e-mail policy might state that management can read
any employee’s e-mail messages that reside on the mail server, but not when they reside
on the user’s workstation. The e-mail policy might also state that employees cannot
use e-mail to share confidential information or pass inappropriate material and that
they may be subject to monitoring of these actions. Before they use their e-mail clients,
employees should be asked to confirm that they have read and understand the e-mail
policy, either by signing a confirmation document or clicking Yes in a confirmation
dialog box. The policy provides direction and structure for the staff by indicating what
they can and cannot do. It informs the users of the expectations of their actions, and it
provides liability protection in case an employee cries “foul” for any reason dealing with
e-mail use.
EXAM TIP A policy needs to be technology and solution independent. It
must outline the goals and missions, but not tie the organization to specific
ways of accomplishing them.
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Organizational policy:
• Acceptable use policy
• Risk management policy
• Vulnerability management policy
• Data protection policy
• Access control policy
• Business continuity policy
• Log aggregation and auditing policy
• Personnel security policy
• Physical security policy
• Secure application development policy
• Change control policy
• E-mail policy
• Incident response policy
PART I
A common hierarchy of security policies is outlined here, which illustrates the
relationship between the master policy and the issue-specific policies that support it:
A system-specific policy presents the management’s decisions that are specific to the
actual computers, networks, and applications. An organization may have a systemspecific policy outlining how a database containing sensitive information should be
protected, who can have access, and how auditing should take place. It may also have a
system-specific policy outlining how laptops should be locked down and managed. This
policy type is directed to one or a group of similar systems and outlines how they should
be protected.
Policies are written in broad terms to cover many subjects in a general fashion. Much
more granularity is needed to actually support the policy, and this happens with the use
of procedures, standards, guidelines, and baselines. The policy provides the foundation.
The procedures, standards, guidelines, and baselines provide the security framework.
And the necessary security controls (administrative, technical, and physical) are used to
fill in the framework to provide a full security program.
Standards
Standards refer to mandatory activities, actions, or rules. Standards describe specific
requirements that allow us to meet our policy goals. They are unambiguous, detailed,
and measurable. There should be no question as to whether a specific asset or action
complies with a given standard.
Organizational security standards may specify how hardware and software products
are to be used. They can also be used to indicate expected user behavior. They provide a
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Types of Policies
Policies generally fall into one of the following categories:
• Regulatory This type of policy ensures that the organization is following
standards set by specific industry regulations (HIPAA, GLBA, SOX,
PCI DSS, etc.; see Chapter 3). It is very detailed and specific to a type of
industry. It is used in financial institutions, healthcare facilities, public
utilities, and other government-regulated industries.
• Advisory This type of policy strongly advises employees as to which
types of behaviors and activities should and should not take place within
the organization. It also outlines possible ramifications if employees do not
comply with the established behaviors and activities. This policy type can be
used, for example, to describe how to handle medical or financial information.
• Informative This type of policy informs employees of certain topics. It
is not an enforceable policy, but rather one that teaches individuals about
specific issues relevant to the company. It could explain how the company
interacts with partners, the company’s goals and mission, and a general
reporting structure in different situations.
means to ensure that specific technologies, applications, parameters, and procedures are
implemented in a uniform (standardized) manner across the organization. Organizational
standards may require that all employees use a specific smart card as their access control
token, that its certificate expire after 12 months, and that it be locked after three
unsuccessful attempts to enter a personal identification number (PIN). These rules are
compulsory within a company, and if they are going to be effective, they must be enforced.
An organization may have an issue-specific data classification policy that states
“All confidential data must be properly protected.” It would need a supporting data
protection standard outlining how this protection should be implemented and followed,
as in “Confidential information must be protected with AES256 at rest and in transit.”
Tactical and strategic goals are different. A strategic goal can be viewed as the ultimate
endpoint, while tactical goals are the steps necessary to achieve it. As shown in Figure 1-3,
standards, guidelines, and procedures are the tactical tools used to achieve and support
the directives in the security policy, which is considered the strategic goal.
EXAM TIP The term standard has more than one meaning in our industry.
Internal documentation that lays out rules that must be followed is a
standard. But sometimes, best practices, as in the ISO/IEC 27000 series,
are referred to as standards because they were developed by a standards
body. And as we will see later, we have specific technologic standards, as in
IEEE 802.11. You need to understand the context of how this term is used.
The CISSP exam will not try and trick you on this word; just know that the
industry uses it in several different ways.
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Policy
PART I
Figure 1-3
Policies are
implemented
through
standards,
procedures, and
guidelines.
Standards
Mandatory
Procedures
Guidelines
Recommended but optional
Baselines
The term baseline refers to a point in time that is used as a comparison for future changes.
Once risks have been mitigated and security put in place, a baseline is formally reviewed
and agreed upon, after which all further comparisons and development are measured
against it. A baseline results in a consistent reference point.
Let’s say that your doctor has told you that you’re overweight due to your diet of donuts,
pizza, and soda. (This is very frustrating to you because the supplement company’s TV
commercial said you could eat whatever you wanted and just take their very expensive
pills every day and lose weight.) The doctor tells you that you need to exercise each day
and elevate your heart rate to double its normal rate for 30 minutes twice a day. How do
you know when you are at double your heart rate? You find out your baseline (regular
heart rate) by using a heart rate monitor or going old school and manually taking your
pulse with a stopwatch. So you start at your baseline and continue to exercise until you
have doubled your heart rate or die, whichever comes first.
Baselines are also used to define the minimum level of protection required. In security,
specific baselines can be defined per system type, which indicates the necessary settings
and the level of protection being provided. For example, a company may stipulate that
all accounting systems must meet an Evaluation Assurance Level (EAL) 4 baseline.
This means that only systems that have gone through the Common Criteria process
and achieved this rating can be used in this department. Once the systems are properly
configured, this is the necessary baseline. When new software is installed, when patches
or upgrades are applied to existing software, or when other changes to the system take
place, there is a good chance the system may no longer be providing its necessary
minimum level of protection (its baseline). Security personnel must assess the systems as
changes take place and ensure that the baseline level of security is always being met. If a
technician installs a patch on a system and does not ensure the baseline is still being met,
there could be new vulnerabilities introduced into the system that will allow attackers
easy access to the network.
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NOTE Baselines that are not technology oriented should be created and
enforced within organizations as well. For example, a company can mandate
that while in the facility all employees must have a badge with a picture ID in
view at all times. It can also state that visitors must sign in at a front desk and
be escorted while in the facility. If these rules are followed, then this creates
a baseline of protection.
Guidelines
Guidelines are recommended actions and operational guides to users, IT staff, operations
staff, and others when a specific standard does not apply. They can also be used as a recommended way to achieve specific standards when those do apply. Guidelines can deal
with the methodologies of technology, personnel, or physical security. Life is full of gray
areas, and guidelines can be used as a reference during those times. Whereas standards
are specific mandatory rules, guidelines are general approaches that provide the necessary
flexibility for unforeseen circumstances.
A policy might state that access to confidential data must be audited. A supporting
guideline could further explain that audits should contain sufficient information to allow
for reconciliation with prior reviews. Supporting procedures would outline the necessary
steps to configure, implement, and maintain this type of auditing.
Procedures
Procedures are detailed step-by-step tasks that should be performed to achieve a certain
goal. The steps can apply to users, IT staff, operations staff, security members, and others
who may need to carry out specific tasks. Many organizations have written procedures on
how to install operating systems, configure security mechanisms, implement access control lists, set up new user accounts, assign computer privileges, audit activities, destroy
material, report incidents, and much more.
Procedures are considered the lowest level in the documentation chain because they
are closest to the computers and users (compared to policies) and provide detailed steps
for configuration and installation issues.
Procedures spell out how the policy, standards, and guidelines will actually be
implemented in an operating environment. If a policy states that all individuals who access
confidential information must be properly authenticated, the supporting procedures will
explain the steps for this to happen by defining the access criteria for authorization, how
access control mechanisms are implemented and configured, and how access activities
are audited. If a policy states that backups should be performed, then the procedures will
define the detailed steps necessary to perform the backup, the timelines of backups, the
storage of backup media, and so on. Procedures should be detailed enough to be both
understandable and useful to a diverse group of individuals.
Implementation
To tie these items together, let’s walk through an implementation example. A corporation’s security policy indicates that confidential information should be properly protected.
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PART I
It states the issue in very broad and general terms. A supporting standard mandates
that all customer information held in databases must be encrypted with the Advanced
Encryption Standard (AES) algorithm while it is stored and that it cannot be transmitted over the Internet unless IPSec encryption technology is used. The standard indicates
what type of protection is required and provides another level of granularity and explanation. The supporting procedures explain exactly how to implement the AES and IPSec
technologies, and the guidelines cover how to handle cases when data is accidentally
corrupted or compromised during transmission. Once the software and devices are configured as outlined in the procedures, this is considered the baseline that must always be
maintained. All of these work together to provide a company with a security structure.
Unfortunately, security policies, standards, procedures, baselines, and guidelines often
are written because an auditor instructed a company to document these items, but then
they are placed on a file server and are not shared, explained, or used. To be useful, they
must be put into action. Employees aren’t going to follow the rules if they don’t know the
rules exist. Security policies and the items that support them not only must be developed
but must also be implemented and enforced.
To be effective, employees need to know about security issues within these documents;
therefore, the policies and their supporting counterparts need visibility. Awareness
training, manuals, presentations, newsletters, and screen banners can achieve this
visibility. It must be clear that the directives came from senior management and that
the full management staff supports these policies. Employees must understand what is
expected of them in their actions, behaviors, accountability, and performance.
Implementing security policies and the items that support them shows due care by the
company and its management staff. Informing employees of what is expected of them
and the consequences of noncompliance can come down to a liability issue. For example,
if a company fires an employee because he was downloading pornographic material to
the company’s computer, the employee may take the company to court and win if the
employee can prove he was not properly informed of what was considered acceptable
and unacceptable use of company property and what the consequences were. Security
awareness training is covered later in this chapter, but personnel security is much broader
than that.
Personnel Security
Although society has evolved to be extremely dependent upon technology in the workplace, people are still the key ingredient to a successful company. But in security circles,
people are often the weakest link. Either accidentally through mistakes or lack of training, or intentionally through fraud and malicious intent, personnel cause more serious
and hard-to-detect security issues than hacker attacks, outside espionage, or equipment
failure. Although the future actions of individuals cannot be predicted, it is possible to
minimize the risks by implementing preventive measures. These include hiring the most
qualified individuals, performing background checks, using detailed job descriptions,
providing necessary training, enforcing strict access controls, and terminating individuals
in a way that protects all parties involved.
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Several items can be put into place to reduce the possibilities of fraud, sabotage, misuse
of information, theft, and other security compromises. Separation of duties (SoD) makes
sure that one individual cannot complete a critical task by herself. In the movies, when a
submarine captain needs to launch a nuclear missile to blow up the enemy and save (or
end) civilization as we know it, the launch usually requires two codes to be entered into
the launching mechanism by two different senior crewmembers. This is an example of
separation of duties, and it ensures that the captain cannot complete such an important
and terrifying task all by himself.
Separation of duties is a security control that can reduce the potential for fraud. For
example, an employee cannot complete a critical financial transaction by herself. She will
need to have her supervisor’s approval before the transaction can be completed. There is
usually a third person involved who verifies that this procedure was followed.
In an organization that practices separation of duties, collusion must take place for
fraud to be committed. Collusion means that at least two people are working together to
cause some type of destruction or fraud. In our example, the employee and her supervisor
must be participating in the fraudulent activity to make it happen. Even if this were to
happen, the third person who reviewed the transaction would provide a way to detect
this collusion early enough (hopefully) to stop the transaction.
Two variations of separation of duties are split knowledge and dual control. In both
cases, two or more individuals are authorized and required to perform a duty or task.
In the case of split knowledge, no one person knows or has all the details to perform a
task. For example, two managers might be required to open a bank vault, with each only
knowing part of the combination. In the case of dual control, two individuals are again
authorized to perform a task, but both must be available and active in their participation
to complete the task or mission. For example, two officers must perform an identical keyturn in a nuclear missile submarine, each out of reach of the other, to launch a missile.
The control here is that no one person has the capability of launching a missile, because
they cannot reach to turn both keys at the same time.
These are examples of what is generally known as an m of n control, which is a control
that requires a certain number of agents (m) out of a pool of authorized agents (n) to
complete an operation. This type of control can also be called quorum authentication,
because it requires the collaboration of a certain number of individuals (the quorum). In
the bank vault example, if there were five managers authorized to open the vault and two
were required to actually open it, this would be a 2 of 5 control, since m = 2 and n = 5.
You don’t want to make n too big because that increases the odds that two individuals
could secretly conspire to do something harmful. On the other hand, you would not
want m and n to have the same value, since the loss of any one individual would render
the vault unopenable!
Job rotation (rotation of assignments) is an administrative detective control that can be
put into place to uncover fraudulent activities. No one person should stay in one position
for a long time because they may end up having too much control over a segment of the
business. Such total control could result in fraud or the misuse of resources. Employees
should be moved into different roles with the idea that they may be able to detect
suspicious activity carried out by the previous employee filling that position. This type of
control is commonly implemented in financial institutions.
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PART I
Employees in sensitive areas should be forced to take their vacations, which is known
as a mandatory vacation. While they are on vacation, other individuals fill their positions
and thus can usually detect any fraudulent errors or activities. Two of the many ways to
detect fraud or inappropriate activities would be the discovery of activity on someone’s
user account while they’re supposed to be away on vacation, or if a specific problem
stopped while someone was away and not active on the network. These anomalies are
worthy of investigation. Employees who carry out fraudulent activities commonly do
not take vacations because they do not want anyone to figure out what they are doing
behind the scenes. This is why they must periodically be required to be away from the
organization for a period of time, usually two weeks. Placing someone on administrative
leave during an investigation is also a form of mandatory vacation.
Candidate Screening and Hiring
The issues, policies, and procedures discussed in the previous section are important to consider in the daily operations of your organization’s staff, but let’s not get too far ahead of
ourselves. Personnel security starts way before a staff member shows up for work. Hiring the
right candidate for a position can have a significant impact on the organization’s security.
Depending on the position to be filled, human resources should perform a level of
candidate screening to ensure that the company hires the right individual for the right
job. Each candidate’s skills should be tested and evaluated, and the caliber and character
of the individual should be examined. Joe might be the best programmer in the state,
but if someone looks into his past and finds out he served prison time because he hacked
into a bank, the hiring manager might not be so eager to bring Joe into the organization.
Human resources should contact candidates’ references, review their military records,
if applicable, verify their educational background, obtain their credit report, check
out their publicly viewable social media presence, and, if necessary, require proof of a
recently administered negative drug test. Many times, candidates are able to conceal
important personal behaviors, which is why hiring practices now include scenario
questions, personality tests, and observations of the individual, instead of just looking
at a person’s work history. When a person is hired, he is bringing his skills and whatever
other baggage he carries. A company can reduce its heartache pertaining to personnel by
first conducting useful and careful hiring practices.
The goal is to hire the “right person” and not just hire a person for “right now.”
Employees represent an investment on the part of the organization, and by taking the
time and hiring the right people for the jobs, the organization will be able to maximize
its investment and achieve a better return. Many organizations place a lot of value on
determining whether a candidate is a good “cultural” fit. This means that the person will
blend well into the culture that already exists in the company. People who fit in are more
likely to follow the existing norms, policies, and procedures.
A detailed background check can reveal some interesting information. Things like
unexplained gaps in employment history, the validity and actual status of professional
certifications, criminal records, driving records, job titles that have been misrepresented,
credit histories, unfriendly terminations, appearances on suspected terrorist watch lists,
and even real reasons for having left previous jobs can all be determined through the use
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of background checks. This has real benefit to the employer and the organization because
it serves as the first line of defense for the organization against being attacked from
within. Any negative information found in these areas could be indicators of potential
problems that the candidate could create for the company at a later date if hired. Take the
credit report, for instance. On the surface, the candidate’s credit standing may seem to be
personal information that the organization doesn’t need to know about, but if the report
indicates the potential employee has a poor credit standing and a history of financial
problems, your organization certainly won’t want to place that person in charge of its
accounting, or even the petty cash.
Ultimately, the goal of performing background checks is to achieve several different
things for the organization at the same time:
• Mitigate risk
• Lower hiring and training costs and the turnover rate for employees
• Protect customers and employees from someone who could potentially conduct
malicious and dishonest actions that could harm the organization, its employees,
and its customers as well as the general public
In many cases, it is also harder to go back and conduct background checks after
the individual has been hired and is working, because there will need to be a specific
cause or reason for conducting this kind of investigation. If any employee moves to a
position of greater security sensitivity or potential risk, a follow-up investigation should
be considered.
Possible background check criteria could include
• National identification number trace
• Criminal check
• Sexual offender registry check
• Employment verification
• Education verification
• Professional reference verification
• Immigration check
• Professional license/certification verification
• Credit report
• Drug screening
Employment Agreements and Policies
Congratulations! Your organization found the right candidate who passed its screening
with flying colors and accepted the offer of employment. Now what? Depending on
the jurisdiction in which your organization is located, it may be legally required as an
employer to enter into a contract or other agreement with the candidate in order for the
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hiring action to be official. Whether or not this is a requirement for your organization,
it is almost always a good idea to put this employment agreement in writing and ensure
that it is signed by both parties. If you are a hiring manager, you should always follow the
guidance provided by your human resources and legal teams, but it is useful to be aware
of how this all works.
One of the key elements of an employment agreement is a reference to the policies that
are applicable to employees in their new roles. Again, depending on where you are in the
world, some policies (typically those dealing with safety and welfare) may be required to
be included or referenced in the agreement. At a minimum, the employment agreement
should include language pointing to the employee manual or other repository of policies
for your organization. The point is that every new hire should sign an agreement stating
that they are aware of the policies with which they must comply as a condition of
employment. This becomes particularly helpful if there are any allegations of misconduct
later on. For example, absent a signed employment agreement, if an employee deliberately
(or even maliciously) accesses a computer or files that she shouldn’t, she could claim she
was never told it was wrong and get off the hook. According to the Federal Bureau
of Investigation (FBI) manual on prosecuting computer crimes, “it is relatively easy to
prove that a defendant had only limited authority to access a computer in cases where the
defendant’s access was limited by restrictions that were memorialized in writing, such as
terms of service, a computer access policy, a website notice, or an employment agreement
or similar contract.”
Another important element of an employment agreement is the establishment of a
probationary period. This is a period of time during which it is relatively easy to fire the
new employee for misconduct or just failing to live up to expectations. Depending on the
laws in your jurisdiction, it could be difficult to get rid of an employee even if it’s obvious
they are not working out. A probationary period could be helpful should you decide that
your new hire is not as good as you thought.
Onboarding, Transfers, and Termination Processes
Onboarding is the process of turning a candidate into a trusted employee who is able to
perform all assigned duties. Having a structured and well-documented onboarding process not only will make the new employee feel valued and welcome but will also ensure
that your organization doesn’t forget any security tasks. Though the specific steps will
vary by organization, the following are some that are pretty universal:
• The new employee attends all required security awareness training.
• The new employee must read all security policies, be given an opportunity to
have any questions about the policies answered, and sign a statement indicating
they understand and will comply with the policies.
• The new employee is issued all appropriate identification badges, keys, and access
tokens pursuant to their assigned roles.
• The IT department creates all necessary accounts for the new employee, who signs
into the systems and sets their passwords (or changes any temporary passwords).
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Organizations should develop nondisclosure agreements (NDAs) and require them to be
signed by new employees to protect the organization and its sensitive information. NDAs
typically specify what is considered sensitive information, how it should be protected,
when it can be shared with others, and how long these obligations last after the employee
(or the agreement) is terminated.
One of the most overlooked issues in personnel security is what happens when
an employee’s role within the organization changes. This could be a promotion (or
demotion), assumption of new additional roles, loss of old roles, transfer to another
business unit, or perhaps the result of a total restructuring of a business unit. Typically,
what happens is that whatever old authorizations the employee had are never taken away,
but new ones are added. Over time, employees who’ve been transferred or reassigned
could accumulate a very extensive set of authorizations on information systems that they
no longer need to access. IT and security staff need to be involved in transfers and role
changes so that they can determine what policies apply and which permissions should
be added, left in place, or removed. The goal is to ensure that every staff member has the
permissions they need to do their jobs, and not a single one more.
Unfortunately, sometimes organizations have to terminate employees. Because
terminations can happen for a variety of reasons, and terminated people have different
reactions, companies should have a specific set of procedures to follow with every termination
to ensure that their security posture isn’t undermined in the process. For example:
• The employee must leave the facility immediately under the supervision of a
manager or security guard.
• The employee must surrender any identification badges or keys, be asked to
complete an exit interview, and return company supplies.
• That user’s accounts and passwords must be disabled or changed immediately.
These actions may seem harsh when they actually take place, but too many companies
have been hurt by vengeful employees who have retaliated against the companies after
their positions were revoked for one reason or another. If an employee is disgruntled in
any way or the termination is unfriendly, that employee’s accounts must be disabled right
away, and all passwords on all systems must be changed.
Practical Tips on Terminations
Without previous arrangement, an employee cannot be compelled to complete an
exit interview, despite the huge value to the company of conducting such interviews.
Neither can an employee be compelled to return company property, as a practical
matter, if he or she simply chooses not to. The best way to motivate departing
employees to comply is to ensure that any severance package they may be eligible
for is contingent upon completion of these tasks, and that means having them agree
to such conditions up-front, as part of their employment agreement.
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Vendors, Consultants, and Contractors
PART I
Many companies today could not perform their business functions without the services
of an assortment of vendors, consultants, and contractors who have different levels of
access to the companies’ facilities and information systems. From the janitorial staff who
have physical access to virtually any area of a facility to the outsourced software developers in a different country who could introduce (willingly or otherwise) vulnerabilities
(or even backdoors) to the companies’ most sensitive systems, the risks associated with
vendors, consultants, and contractors can be significant if left unmitigated.
There are a number of approaches to dealing with third parties in your environment from
an information security standpoint. One approach is to enter into service agreements that
require contractors to use security controls that are at least as stringent as your organization’s
security controls, and to prove it. The service agreement could include specific requirements
for security controls or leverage existing standards such as the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) 27001 certification (which we discuss in Chapter 4). Either way,
the agreement must specify a way to verify compliance with the contractual obligations and
clearly state the penalties for failing to meet those obligations.
Another approach to dealing with third parties is to assume that vendors, consultants,
and contractors are untrusted and place strict controls around every aspect of their
performance. For example, you could require that janitors be escorted by designated
employees and that outsourced developers work on virtual desktop infrastructure under
the control of your organization. You could also require that highly sensitive assets (e.g.,
proprietary algorithms, trade secrets, and customer data) be off limits to these third
parties. This approach will likely reduce certain risks but may not be ideal for building
partnerships or engendering mutual trust.
There is no single best way to deal with the security issues inherent in working with third
parties. As with every aspect of personnel security, you should work in close coordination
with your business units, human resources staff, and legal counsel. Coordinating with
legal counsel is particularly critical, because your organization’s liability may (and often
does) extend to the actions and inactions of your vendors, consultants, and contractors.
For example, if your organization’s network is breached because one of your contractors
violated policies and that breach resulted in customers’ PII being stolen and causing
them financial losses, your company could be liable for their damages. This is known as
downstream liability.
Compliance Policies
There are many forms of liability that may pertain to your organization. Your organization
may be subject to external regulations that require special attention and compliance from
a security standpoint. Examples are healthcare providers in the United States, who fall
under the Healthcare Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA); companies
that handle payment card information, which must follow the Payment Card Industry
Data Security Standard (PCI DSS); and organizations that handle personal information of
citizens of the European Union, which fall under the General Data Protection Regulation
(GDPR). Many more examples exist, but the point is that if your organization is regulated,
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then your personnel security practices must comply with these regulations. As a security
leader, you should know which regulations apply to your organization and how security
policies, including personnel security ones, work to ensure regulatory compliance.
Privacy Policies
Even if your organization doesn’t fall under GDPR or any of the myriad of similar privacy regulations and laws, there are good reasons for you to ensure that your organization
has a privacy policy and that your information security practices are aligned with it. For
example, suppose you have a policy that allows employees to privately check personal
webmail during their breaks, and you also have a policy of decrypting and inspecting
all web traffic on your networks to ensure no adversaries are using encryption to sneak
around your security controls. These two policies could be in conflict with each other.
Worse yet, an employee could sue for violation of privacy if his e-mail messages are intercepted and read by your security team.
Security Awareness, Education,
and Training Programs
Even if you develop security policies that protect organizational assets and are aligned
with all relevant laws and regulations, it is all for naught if nobody knows what they
are expected to do. For an organization to achieve the desired results of its security
program, it must communicate the what, how, and why of security to its employees.
Security awareness training should be comprehensive, tailored for specific groups, and
organization-wide. It should repeat the most important messages in different formats;
be kept up to date; be entertaining, positive, and humorous; be simple to understand;
and—most important—be supported by senior management. Management must allocate the resources for this activity and enforce its attendance within the organization.
The goal is for each employee to understand the importance of security to the company
as a whole and to each individual. Expected responsibilities and acceptable behaviors
must be clarified, and noncompliance repercussions, which could range from a warning
to dismissal, must be explained before being invoked. Security awareness training can
modify employees’ behavior and attitude toward security. This can best be achieved
through a formalized process of security awareness training.
Degree or Certification?
Some roles within the organization need hands-on experience and skill, meaning that
the hiring manager should be looking for specific industry certifications. Some positions
require more of a holistic and foundational understanding of concepts or a business
background, and in those cases a degree may be required. Table 1-3 provides more information on the differences between awareness, training, and education.
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Training
Education
Attribute
“What”
“How”
“Why”
Level
Information
Knowledge
Insight
Learning
objective
Recognition and
retention
Skill
Understanding
Example
teaching
method
Media:
Videos
Newsletters
Posters
CBT
Social engineering
testing
Practical Instruction:
Lecture and/or demo
Case study
Hands-on practice
Theoretical Instruction:
Seminar and discussion
Reading and study
Research
Test
measure
True/False, multiple
choice (identify
learning)
Problem solving—i.e.,
recognition and resolution
(apply learning)
Essay (interpret learning)
Impact
timeframe
Short-term
Intermediate
Long-term
PART I
Awareness
Table 1-3 Aspects of Awareness, Training, and Education
Methods and Techniques to Present Awareness and Training
Because security is a topic that can span many different aspects of an organization, it can
be difficult to communicate the correct information to the right individuals. By using a
formalized process for security awareness training, you can establish a method that will
provide you with the best results for making sure security requirements are presented to
the right people in an organization. This way you can make sure everyone understands
what is outlined in the organization’s security program, why it is important, and how it
fits into the individual’s role in the organization. The higher levels of training typically
are more general and deal with broader concepts and goals, and as the training moves
down to specific jobs and tasks, it becomes more situation specific as it directly applies to
certain positions within the company.
A security awareness program is typically created for at least three types of audiences:
management, staff, and technical employees. Each type of awareness training must be
geared toward the individual audience to ensure each group understands its particular
responsibilities, liabilities, and expectations. If technical security training were given to
senior management, their eyes would glaze over as soon as protocols and firewalls were
mentioned. On the flip side, if legal ramifications, company liability issues pertaining to
protecting data, and shareholders’ expectations were discussed with the IT group, they
would quickly turn to their smartphone and start tweeting, browsing the Internet, or
texting their friends.
Members of senior management would benefit the most from a short, focused security
awareness orientation that discusses corporate assets and financial gains and losses
pertaining to security. They need to know how stock prices can be negatively affected by
compromises, understand possible threats and their outcomes, and know why security
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must be integrated into the environment the same way as other business processes.
Because members of management must lead the rest of the company in support of
security, they must gain the right mindset about its importance.
Middle management would benefit from a more detailed explanation of the policies,
procedures, standards, and guidelines and how they map to the individual departments for
which each middle manager is responsible. Middle managers should be taught why their
support for their specific departments is critical and what their level of responsibility is for
ensuring that employees practice safe computing activities. They should also be shown
how the consequences of noncompliance by individuals who report to them can affect the
company as a whole and how they, as managers, may have to answer for such indiscretions.
Staff training, which typically involves the largest portion of an organization, should
provide plenty of examples of specific behaviors that are expected, recommended, and
forbidden. This is an opportunity to show how alert users can be sensors providing early
warning of attacks, which can dramatically improve the security posture of any organization.
This can be accomplished by training the staff to recognize and report the sorts of attacks they
are likely to face. Conversely, it is important to also show the consequences, organizational
and personal, of being careless or violating policies and procedures.
The technical departments must receive a different presentation that aligns more to their
daily tasks. They should receive a more in-depth training to discuss technical configurations,
incident handling, and how to recognize different types of security compromises.
Perhaps no other topic is more important or better illustrates the need to communicate
security issues differently to each of these three audiences than the topic of social
engineering. Social engineering is the deliberate manipulation of a person or group of
persons to persuade them to do something they otherwise wouldn’t or shouldn’t. In a
security context, this typically means getting a member of the organization to violate
a security policy or procedure or to help an attacker compromise a system. The most
common form of social engineering is phishing, which is the use of e-mail messages
to perform social engineering. While all employees should know that they should not
click on links or open attachments in e-mail messages if they don’t recognize the sender,
executives, managers, and end users should be presented the problem in a different light.
Regardless of how the training is presented, it is usually best to have each employee sign
a document indicating they have heard and understand all the security topics discussed
and that they also understand the ramifications of noncompliance. This reinforces the
policies’ importance to the employee and also provides evidence down the road if the
employee claims they were never told of these expectations. Awareness training should
happen during the hiring process and at least annually after that. Attendance of training
should also be integrated into employment performance reports.
Various methods should be employed to reinforce the concepts of security awareness.
Things like screen banners, employee handbooks, and even posters can be used as ways
to remind employees about their duties and the necessities of good security practices.
But there are other ways to drive employee engagement. For example, gamification is
the application of elements of game play to other activities such as security awareness
training. By some accounts, gamification can improve employees’ skill retention by
40 percent. Another approach is to leverage employees who are not formally part of the
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security program and yet have the skills and aptitudes that make them security advocates
within their own business units. These individuals can be identified and deliberately
nurtured to act as conduits between business units and the security program. They can
become security champions, which are members of an organization that, though their
job descriptions do not include security, inform and encourage the adoption of security
practices within their own teams.
Periodic Content Reviews
The only constant in life is change, so it should come as no surprise that after we develop
the curricula and materials for security awareness training, we have to keep them up to
date by conducting periodic content reviews. It is essential that this be a deliberate process and not done in an ad hoc manner. One way to do this is to schedule refreshes at
specific intervals like semi-annually or yearly and assign the task to an individual owner.
This person would work with a team to review and update the plan and materials but is
ultimately responsible for keeping the training up to date.
Another approach is to have content reviews be triggered by other events. For example,
reviews can be required whenever any of the following occur:
• A security policy is added, changed, or discontinued
• A major incident (or pattern of smaller incidents) occurs that could’ve been
avoided or mitigated through better security awareness
• A major new threat is discovered
• A major change is made to the information systems or security architecture
• An assessment of the training program shows deficiencies
Program Effectiveness Evaluation
Many organizations treat security awareness training as a “check in the box” activity that
is done simply to satisfy a requirement. The reality, however, is that effective training has
both objectives (why we do it) and outcomes (what people can do after participating in
it). The objectives are usually derived from senior-level policies or directives and drive the
development of outcomes, which in turn drive the content and methods of delivery. For
example, if the objective is reducing the incidence of successful phishing attacks, then it
would be appropriate to pursue an outcome of having end users be able to detect a phishing e-mail. Both the objective and the outcome are measurable, which makes it easier to
answer the question “is this working?”
We can evaluate whether the security training program is effective in improving an
organization’s security posture by simply measuring things before the training and then
after it. Continuing the earlier example, we could keep track of the number of successful
phishing attacks and see what happens to that number after the training has been conducted.
This would be an assessment of the objective. We could also take trained and untrained
users and test their ability to detect phishing e-mails. We would expect the trained users to
fare better at this task, which would test the outcome. If we see that the number of phishing
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attacks remains unchanged (or worse, grows) or that the users are no better at detecting
phishing e-mails after the training, then maybe the program is not effective.
When assessing the effectiveness of a training program, it is very important to analyze
the data and not jump to conclusions. In the phishing example, there are many possible
explanations for the lack of improvement. Maybe the adversaries are sending moresophisticated messages that are harder to detect. Similarly, the results could simply show
that the users just don’t care and will continue to click links and open attachments until
the consequences become negative enough for them. The point is to consider the root
causes of the measurements when assessing the training.
Professional Ethics
Security awareness and training, of course, build on the notion that there are right ways
and wrong ways in which to behave. This is the crux of ethics, which can be based on
many different issues and foundations. Ethics can be relative to different situations and
interpreted differently from individual to individual. Therefore, they are often a topic of
debate. However, some ethics are less controversial than others, and these types of ethics
are easier to expect of all people.
An interesting relationship exists between law and ethics. Most often, laws are based
on ethics and are put in place to ensure that others act in an ethical way. However, laws
do not apply to everything—that is when ethics should kick in. Some things may not be
illegal, but that does not necessarily mean they are ethical.
Certain common ethical fallacies are used by many in the computing world to justify
unethical acts. They exist because people look at issues differently and interpret (or
misinterpret) rules and laws that have been put into place. The following are examples
of these ethical fallacies:
• Hackers only want to learn and improve their skills. Many of them are not
making a profit off of their deeds; therefore, their activities should not be
seen as illegal or unethical.
• The First Amendment protects and provides the right for U.S. citizens to
write viruses.
• Information should be shared freely and openly; therefore, sharing confidential
information and trade secrets should be legal and ethical.
• Hacking does not actually hurt anyone.
(ISC)2 Code of Professional Ethics
(ISC)2 requires all certified system security professionals to commit to fully supporting
its Code of Ethics. If a CISSP intentionally or knowingly violates this Code of Ethics, he
or she may be subject to a peer review panel, which will decide whether the certification
should be revoked.
The (ISC)2 Code of Ethics for the CISSP is listed on the (ISC)2 site at https://www
.isc2.org/Ethics. The following list is an overview, but each CISSP candidate should read
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the full version and understand the Code of Ethics before attempting this exam. The
code’s preamble makes it clear that “[t]he safety and welfare of society and the common
good, duty to our principals, and to each other, requires that we adhere, and be seen to
adhere, to the highest ethical standards of behavior.” It goes on to provide four canons
for CISSPs:
• Protect society, the common good, necessary public trust and confidence, and the
infrastructure
• Act honorably, honestly, justly, responsibly, and legally
• Provide diligent and competent service to principals
• Advance and protect the profession
Organizational Code of Ethics
More regulations are requiring organizations to have an ethical statement and potentially
an ethical program in place. The ethical program is to serve as the “tone at the top,”
which means that the executives need to ensure not only that their employees are acting
ethically but also that they themselves are following their own rules. The main goal is to
ensure that the motto “succeed by any means necessary” is not the spoken or unspoken
culture of a work environment. Certain structures can be put into place that provide a
breeding ground for unethical behavior. If the CEO gets more in salary based on stock
prices, then she may find ways to artificially inflate stock prices, which can directly hurt
the investors and shareholders of the company. If managers can only be promoted based
on the amount of sales they bring in, these numbers may be fudged and not represent
reality. If an employee can only get a bonus if a low budget is maintained, he might be
willing to take shortcuts that could hurt company customer service or product development. Although ethics seem like things that float around in the ether and make us feel
good to talk about, they have to be actually implemented in the real corporate world
through proper business processes and management styles.
The Computer Ethics Institute
The Computer Ethics Institute is a nonprofit organization that works to help advance
technology by ethical means.
The Computer Ethics Institute has developed its own Ten Commandments of
Computer Ethics:
1. Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other people.
2. Thou shalt not interfere with other people’s computer work.
3. Thou shalt not snoop around in other people’s computer files.
4. Thou shalt not use a computer to steal.
5. Thou shalt not use a computer to bear false witness.
6. Thou shalt not copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid.
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7. Thou shalt not use other people’s computer resources without authorization or
proper compensation.
8. Thou shalt not appropriate other people’s intellectual output.
9. Thou shalt think about the social consequences of the program you are writing or
the system you are designing.
10. Thou shalt always use a computer in ways that ensure consideration and respect
for your fellow humans.
Chapter Review
This chapter laid out some of the fundamental principles of cybersecurity: the meaning of security, how it is governed, and the means by which it is implemented in an
enterprise. It then focused on the most important aspect of security: people. They are
the most important asset to any organization and can also be the greatest champions, or
underminers, of cybersecurity. The difference lies in who we hire, what roles we assign to
them, and how we train them. Bring the right people into the right seats and train them
well and you’ll have a robust security posture. Do otherwise at your own peril.
Our collective goal in information systems security boils down to ensuring the
availability, integrity, and confidentiality of our information in an environment rich in
influencers. These include organizational goals, assets, laws, regulations, privacy, threats,
and, of course, people. Each of these was discussed in some detail in this chapter. Along
the way, we also covered tangible ways in which we can link security to each of the
influencers. As CISSPs we must be skilled in creating these linkages, as we are trusted to
be able to apply the right solution to any security problem.
Quick Review
• The objectives of security are to provide confidentiality, integrity, availability,
authenticity, and nonrepudiation.
• Confidentiality means keeping unauthorized entities (be they people or processes)
from gaining access to information assets.
• Integrity means that that an asset is free from unauthorized alterations.
• Availability protection ensures reliability and timely access to data and resources
to authorized individuals.
• Authenticity protections ensure we can trust that something comes from its
claimed source.
• Nonrepudiation, which is closely related to authenticity, means that someone
cannot disavow being the source of a given action.
• A vulnerability is a weakness in a system that allows a threat source to compromise
its security.
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• A threat is any potential danger that is associated with the exploitation of
a vulnerability.
• A threat source (or threat agent, or threat actor) is any entity that can exploit
a vulnerability.
• A risk is the likelihood of a threat source exploiting a vulnerability and the
corresponding business impact.
• A control, or countermeasure, is put into place to mitigate (reduce) the
potential risk.
• Security governance is a framework that provides oversight, accountability,
and compliance.
• An information security management system (ISMS) is a collection of policies,
procedures, baselines, and standards that an organization puts in place to make
sure that its security efforts are aligned with business needs, streamlined, and
effective and that no security controls are missing.
• An enterprise security architecture implements an information security strategy
and consists of layers of solutions, processes, and procedures and the way they are
linked across an enterprise strategically, tactically, and operationally.
• An enterprise security architecture should tie in strategic alignment, business
enablement, process enhancement, and security effectiveness.
• Security governance is a framework that supports the security goals of an
organization being set and expressed by senior management, communicated
throughout the different levels of the organization, and consistently applied
and assessed.
• Senior management always carries the ultimate responsibility for the organization.
• A security policy is a statement by management dictating the role security plays
in the organization.
• Standards are documents that describe specific requirements that are compulsory
in nature and support the organization’s security policies.
• A baseline is a minimum level of security.
• Guidelines are recommendations and general approaches that provide advice
and flexibility.
• Procedures are detailed step-by-step tasks that should be performed to achieve
a certain goal.
• Job rotation and mandatory vacations are administrative security controls that
can help detect fraud.
• Separation of duties ensures no single person has total control over a critical
activity or task.
• Split knowledge and dual control are two variations of separation of duties.
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• Social engineering is an attack carried out to manipulate a person into providing
sensitive data to an unauthorized individual.
• Security awareness training should be comprehensive, tailored for specific groups,
and organization-wide.
• Gamification is the application of elements of game play to other activities such
as security awareness training.
• Security champions, which are members of an organization that, though their
job descriptions do not include security, inform and encourage the adoption of
security practices within their own teams.
• Professional ethics codify the right ways for a group of people to behave.
Questions
Please remember that these questions are formatted and asked in a certain way for
a reason. Keep in mind that the CISSP exam is asking questions at a conceptual level.
Questions may not always have the perfect answer, and the candidate is advised against
always looking for the perfect answer. Instead, the candidate should look for the best
answer in the list.
1. Which factor is the most important item when it comes to ensuring security is
successful in an organization?
A. Senior management support
B. Effective controls and implementation methods
C. Updated and relevant security policies and procedures
D. Security awareness by all employees
Use the following scenario to answer Questions 2–4. Todd is a new security manager and
has the responsibility of implementing personnel security controls within the financial
institution where he works. Todd knows that many employees do not fully understand
how their actions can put the institution at risk; thus, he needs to develop a security
awareness program. He has determined that the bank tellers need to get a supervisory
override when customers have checks over $3,500 that need to be cashed. He has
also uncovered that some employees have stayed in their specific positions within the
company for over three years. Todd would like to be able to investigate some of the
activities of bank personnel to see if any fraudulent activities have taken place. Todd is
already ensuring that two people must use separate keys at the same time to open the
bank vault.
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PART I
2. Todd documents several fraud opportunities that the employees have at the
financial institution so that management understands these risks and allocates
the funds and resources for his suggested solutions. Which of the following
best describes the control Todd should put into place to be able to carry out
fraudulent investigation activity?
A. Separation of duties
B. Job rotation
C. Mandatory vacations
D. Split knowledge
3. If the financial institution wants to ensure that fraud cannot happen successfully
unless collusion occurs, what should Todd put into place?
A. Separation of duties
B. Job rotation
C. Social engineering
D. Split knowledge
4. Todd wants to be able to prevent fraud from taking place, but he knows that some
people may get around the types of controls he puts into place. In those situations
he wants to be able to identify when an employee is doing something suspicious.
Which of the following incorrectly describes what Todd is implementing in this
scenario and what those specific controls provide?
A. Separation of duties, by ensuring that a supervisor must approve the cashing of
a check over $3,500. This is an administrative control that provides preventive
protection for Todd’s organization.
B. Job rotation, by ensuring that one employee only stays in one position for
up to three months at a time. This is an administrative control that provides
detective capabilities.
C. Security awareness training, which can also emphasize enforcement.
D. Dual control, which is an administrative detective control that can ensure that
two employees must carry out a task simultaneously.
5. Which term denotes a potential cause of an unwanted incident, which may result
in harm to a system or organization?
A. Vulnerability
B. Exploit
C. Threat
D. Attacker
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6. A CISSP candidate signs an ethics statement prior to taking the CISSP examination.
Which of the following would be a violation of the (ISC)2 Code of Ethics that
could cause the candidate to lose his or her certification?
A. E-mailing information or comments about the exam to other CISSP candidates
B. Submitting comments on the questions of the exam to (ISC)2
C. Submitting comments to the board of directors regarding the test and content
of the class
D. Conducting a presentation about the CISSP certification and what the
certification means
7. You want to ensure that your organization’s finance department, and only the
finance department, has access to the organization’s bank statements. Which of
the security properties would be most important?
A. Confidentiality
B. Integrity
C. Availability
D. Both A and C
8. You want to make use of the OpenOffice productivity software suite mandatory
across your organization. In what type of document would you codify this?
A. Policy
B. Standard
C. Guideline
D. Procedure
9. For an enterprise security architecture to be successful in its development and
implementation, which of the following items is not essential?
A. Strategic alignment
B. Security guidelines
C. Business enablement
D. Process enhancement
10. Which of the following practices is likeliest to mitigate risks when considering
a candidate for hiring?
A. Security awareness training
B. Nondisclosure agreement (NDA)
C. Background checks
D. Organizational ethics
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Answers
2. C. Mandatory vacation is an administrative detective control that allows for an
organization to investigate an employee’s daily business activities to uncover any
potential fraud that may be taking place. The employee should be forced to be
away from the organization for a two-week period, and another person should be
put into that role. The idea is that the person who was rotated into that position
may be able to detect suspicious activities.
PART I
1. A. Without senior management’s support, a security program will not receive the
necessary attention, funds, resources, and enforcement capabilities.
3. A. Separation of duties is an administrative control that is put into place to ensure
that one person cannot carry out a critical task by himself. If a person were able to
carry out a critical task alone, this could put the organization at risk. Collusion is
when two or more people come together to carry out fraud. So if a task was split
between two people, they would have to carry out collusion (working together)
to complete that one task and carry out fraud.
4. D. Dual control is an administrative preventive control. It ensures that two
people must carry out a task at the same time, as in two people having separate
keys when opening the vault. It is not a detective control. Notice that the question
asks what Todd is not doing. Remember that on the exam you need to choose the
best answer. In many situations you will not like the question or the corresponding
answers on the CISSP exam, so prepare yourself. The questions can be tricky,
which is one reason why the exam itself is so difficult.
5. C. The question provides the definition of a threat. The term attacker (option D)
could be used to describe a threat agent that is, in turn, a threat, but use of this
term is much more restrictive. The best answer is a threat.
6. A. A CISSP candidate and a CISSP holder should never discuss with others what
was on the exam. This degrades the usefulness of the exam to be used as a tool to
test someone’s true security knowledge. If this type of activity is uncovered, the
person could be stripped of their CISSP certification because this would violate
the terms of the NDA into which the candidate enters prior to taking the test.
Violating an NDA is a violation of the ethics canon that requires CISSPs to act
honorably, honestly, justly, responsibly, and legally.
7. D. Confidentiality is ensuring that unauthorized parties (i.e., anyone other than
finance department employees) cannot access protected assets. Availability is
ensuring that authorized entities (i.e., finance) maintain access to assets. In this
case, both confidentiality and availability are important to satisfy the requirements
as stated.
8. B. Standards describe mandatory activities, actions, or rules. A policy is intended
to be strategic, so it would not be the right document. A procedure describes the
manner in which something must be done, which is much broader than is needed
to make using a particular software suite mandatory across your organization.
Finally, guidelines are recommended but optional practices.
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9. B. Security guidelines are optional recommendations on issues that are not covered
by mandatory policies, standards, or procedures. A successful enterprise security
architecture is aligned with the organization’s strategy, enables its business, and
enhances (rather than hinders) its business processes.
10. C. The best way to reduce risk is to conduct background checks before you offer
employment to a candidate. This ensures you are hiring someone whose past has
been examined for any obviously disqualifying (or problematic) issues. The next
step would be to sign an employment agreement that would include an NDA,
followed by onboarding, which would include security awareness training and
indoctrination into the organizational code of ethics.
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CHAPTER
Risk Management
2
This chapter presents the following:
• Risk management (assessing risks, responding to risks, monitoring risks)
• Supply chain risk management
• Business continuity
A ship in harbor is safe, but that is not what ships are built for.
—William G.T. Shedd
We next turn our attention to the concept that should underlie every decision made
when defending our information systems: risk. Risk is so important to understand as a
cybersecurity professional that we not only cover it in detail in this chapter (one of the
longest in the book) but also return to it time and again in the rest of the book. We start
off narrowly by focusing on the vulnerabilities in our organizations and the threats that
would exploit them to cause us harm. That sets the stage for an in-depth discussion of
the main components of risk management: framing, assessing, responding to, and monitoring risks. We pay particular attention to supply chain risks, since these represent a big
problem to which many organizations pay little or no attention. Finally, we’ll talk about
business continuity because it is so closely linked to risk management. We’ll talk about
disaster recovery, a closely related concept, in later chapters.
Risk Management Concepts
Risk in the context of security is the likelihood of a threat source exploiting a vulnerability and the corresponding business impact. Risk management (RM) is the process of
identifying and assessing risk, reducing it to an acceptable level, and ensuring it remains
at that level. There is no such thing as a 100-percent-secure environment. Every environment has vulnerabilities and threats. The skill is in identifying these threats, assessing the
probability of them actually occurring and the damage they could cause, and then taking
the right steps to reduce the overall level of risk in the environment to what the organization identifies as acceptable.
Risks to an organization come in different forms, and they are not all computer
related. As we saw in Chapter 1, when a company acquires another company, it takes
on a lot of risk in the hope that this move will increase its market base, productivity,
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and profitability. If a company increases its product line, this can add overhead, increase
the need for personnel and storage facilities, require more funding for different materials,
and maybe increase insurance premiums and the expense of marketing campaigns. The
risk is that this added overhead might not be matched in sales; thus, profitability will be
reduced or not accomplished.
When we look at information security, note that an organization needs to be aware of
several types of risk and address them properly. The following items touch on the major
categories:
• Physical damage Fire, water, vandalism, power loss, and natural disasters
• Human interaction Accidental or intentional action or inaction that can
disrupt productivity
• Equipment malfunction Failure of systems and peripheral devices
• Inside and outside attacks Hacking, cracking, and attacking
• Misuse of data Sharing trade secrets, fraud, espionage, and theft
• Loss of data Intentional or unintentional loss of information to unauthorized
parties
• Application error Computation errors, input errors, and software defects
Threats must be identified, classified by category, and evaluated to calculate their
damage potential to the organization. Real risk is hard to measure, but prioritizing the
potential risks in the order of which ones must be addressed first is obtainable.
Holistic Risk Management
Who really understands risk management? Unfortunately, the answer to this question
is that not enough people inside or outside of the security profession really get it. Even
though information security is big business today, the focus all too often is on applications, devices, viruses, and hacking. Although these items all must be considered and
weighed in risk management processes, they should be considered pieces of the overall
security puzzle, not the main focus of risk management.
Security is a business issue, but businesses operate to make money, not just to be
secure. A business is concerned with security only if potential risks threaten its bottom
line, which they can in many ways, such as through the loss of reputation and customer
base after a database of credit card numbers is compromised; through the loss of
thousands of dollars in operational expenses from a new computer worm; through the
loss of proprietary information as a result of successful company espionage attempts;
through the loss of confidential information from a successful social engineering attack;
and so on. It is critical that security professionals understand these individual threats, but
it is more important that they understand how to calculate the risk of these threats and
map them to business drivers.
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PART I
To properly manage risk within an organization, you have to look at it holistically.
Risk, after all, exists within a context. The U.S. National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) Special Publication (SP) 800-39, Managing Information Security
Risk, defines three tiers to risk management:
• Organization view (Tier 1) Concerned with risk to the organization as a
whole, which means it frames the rest of the conversation and sets important
parameters such as the risk tolerance level.
• Mission/business process view (Tier 2) Deals with the risk to the major
functions of the organization, such as defining the criticality of the information
flows between the organization and its partners or customers.
• Information systems view (Tier 3) Addresses risk from an information systems
perspective. Though this is where we will focus our discussion, it is important to
understand that it exists within the context of (and must be consistent with) other,
more encompassing risk management efforts.
These tiers are dependent on each other, as shown in Figure 2-1. Risk management
starts with decisions made at the organization tier, which flow down to the other two
tiers. Feedback on the effects of these decisions flows back up the hierarchy to inform
the next set of decisions to be made. Carrying out risk management properly means
that you have a holistic understanding of your organization, the threats it faces, the
countermeasures that can be put into place to deal with those threats, and continuous
monitoring to ensure the acceptable risk level is being met on an ongoing basis.
Figure 2-1 The three tiers of risk management (Source: NIST SP 800-39)
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Information Systems Risk Management Policy
Proper risk management requires a strong commitment from senior leaders, a documented process that supports the organization’s mission, an information systems risk
management (ISRM) policy, and a delegated ISRM team. The ISRM policy should be
a subset of the organization’s overall risk management policy (risks to an organization
include more than just information security issues) and should be mapped to the organizational security policies. The ISRM policy should address the following items:
• The objectives of the ISRM team
• The level of risk the organization will accept and what is considered an acceptable
level of risk
• Formal processes of risk identification
• The connection between the ISRM policy and the organization’s strategic planning
processes
• Responsibilities that fall under ISRM and the roles to fulfill them
• The mapping of risk to internal controls
• The approach toward changing staff behaviors and resource allocation in response
to risk analysis
• The mapping of risks to performance targets and budgets
• Key metrics and performance indicators to monitor the effectiveness of controls
The ISRM policy provides the foundation and direction for the organization’s security
risk management processes and procedures and should address all issues of information
security. It should provide direction on how the ISRM team communicates information on
the organization’s risks to senior management and how to properly execute management’s
decisions on risk mitigation tasks.
The Risk Management Team
Each organization is different in its size, security posture, threat profile, and security
budget. One organization may have one individual responsible for ISRM or a team that
works in a coordinated manner. The overall goal of the team is to ensure that the organization is protected in the most cost-effective manner. This goal can be accomplished only
if the following components are in place:
• An established risk acceptance level provided by senior management
• Documented risk assessment processes and procedures
• Procedures for identifying and mitigating risks
• Appropriate resource and fund allocation from senior management
• Security awareness training for all staff members associated with information assets
• The ability to establish improvement (or risk mitigation) teams in specific areas
when necessary
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PART I
• The mapping of legal and regulation compliancy requirements to control and
implement requirements
• The development of metrics and performance indicators so as to measure and
manage various types of risks
• The ability to identify and assess new risks as the environment and organization
change
• The integration of ISRM and the organization’s change control process to ensure
that changes do not introduce new vulnerabilities
Obviously, this list is a lot more than just buying a new shiny firewall and calling the
organization safe.
The ISRM team, in most cases, is not made up of employees with the dedicated
task of risk management. It consists of people who already have a full-time job in the
organization and are now tasked with something else. Thus, senior management support
is necessary so proper resource allocation can take place.
Of course, all teams need a leader, and ISRM is no different. One individual should be
singled out to run this rodeo and, in larger organizations, this person should be spending
50 to 70 percent of their time in this role. Management must dedicate funds to making
sure this person receives the necessary training and risk analysis tools to ensure it is a
successful endeavor.
The Risk Management Process
By now you should believe that risk management is critical to the long-term security
(and even success) of your organization. But how do you get this done? NIST SP 800-39
describes four interrelated components that comprise the risk management process. These
are shown in Figure 2-2. Let’s consider each of these components briefly now, since they
will nicely frame the remainder of our discussion of risk management.
• Frame risk Risk framing defines the context within which all other risk
activities take place. What are our assumptions and constraints? What are the
organizational priorities? What is the risk tolerance of senior management?
• Assess risk Before we can take any action to mitigate risk, we have to assess
it. This is perhaps the most critical aspect of the process, and one that we will
discuss at length. If your risk assessment is spot-on, then the rest of the process
becomes pretty straightforward.
• Respond to risk By now, we’ve done our homework. We know what we should,
must, and can’t do (from the framing component), and we know what we’re up
against in terms of threats, vulnerabilities, and attacks (from the assess component).
Responding to the risk becomes a matter of matching our limited resources with
our prioritized set of controls. Not only are we mitigating significant risk, but,
more importantly, we can tell our bosses what risk we can’t do anything about
because we’re out of resources.
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Figure 2-2
The components
of the risk
management
process
Assess
Frame
Monitor
Respond
• Monitor risk No matter how diligent we’ve been so far, we probably missed
something. If not, then the environment likely changed (perhaps a new
threat source emerged or a new system brought new vulnerabilities). In order
to stay one step ahead of the bad guys, we need to continuously monitor the
effectiveness of our controls against the risks for which we designed them.
You will notice that our discussion of risk so far has dealt heavily with the whole
framing process. In the preceding sections, we’ve talked about the organization (top to
bottom), the policies, and the team. The next step is to assess the risk, and what better
way to start than by understanding threats and the vulnerabilities they might exploit.
Overview of Vulnerabilities and Threats
To focus our efforts on the likely (and push aside the less likely) risks to our organizations, we need to consider what it is that we have that someone (or something) else may
be able to take, degrade, disrupt, or destroy. As we will see later (in the section “Assessing
Risks”), inventorying and categorizing our information systems is a critical early step
in the process. For the purpose of modeling the threat, we are particularly interested in
the vulnerabilities inherent in our systems that could lead to the compromise of their
confidentiality, integrity, or availability. We then ask the question, “Who would want to
exploit this vulnerability, and why?” This leads us to a deliberate study of our potential
adversaries, their motivations, and their capabilities. Finally, we determine whether a
given threat source has the means to exploit one or more vulnerabilities in order to attack
our assets.
NOTE We will discuss threat modeling in detail in Chapter 9.
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Vulnerabilities
PART I
Everything built by humans is vulnerable to something. Our information systems, in
particular, are riddled with vulnerabilities even in the best-defended cases. One need only
read news accounts of the compromise of the highly protected and classified systems of
defense contractors and even governments to see that this universal principle is true. To
properly analyze vulnerabilities, it is useful to recall that information systems consist of
information, processes, and people that are typically, but not always, interacting with
computer systems. Since we discuss computer system vulnerabilities in detail in Chapter 6,
we will briefly discuss the other three components here.
Information In almost every case, the information at the core of our information
systems is the most valuable asset to a potential adversary. Information within a computer
information system (CIS) is represented as data. This information may be stored (data
at rest), transported between parts of our system (data in transit), or actively being used
by the system (data in use). In each of its three states, the information exhibits different
vulnerabilities, as listed in the following examples:
• Data at rest Data is copied to a thumb drive and given to unauthorized parties
by an insider, thus compromising its confidentiality.
• Data in transit Data is modified by an external actor intercepting it on the
network and then relaying the altered version (known as a man-in-the-middle or
MitM attack), thus compromising its integrity.
• Data in use Data is deleted by a malicious process exploiting a “time-of-check
to time-of-use” (TOC/TOU) or “race condition” vulnerability, thus compromising
its availability.
Processes Most organizations implement standardized processes to ensure the
consistency and efficiency of their services and products. It turns out, however, that
efficiency is pretty easy to hack. Consider the case of shipping containers. Someone
wants to ship something from point A to point B, say a container of bananas from
Brazil to Belgium. Once the shipping order is placed and the destination entered, that
information flows from the farm to a truck carrier, to the seaport of origin to the ocean
carrier, to the destination seaport, to another truck carrier, and finally to its destination
at some distribution center in Antwerp. In most cases, nobody pays a lot of attention
to the address once it is entered. But what if an attacker knew this and changed the
address while the shipment was at sea? The attacker could have the shipment show up
at a different destination and even control the arrival time. This technique has actually
been used by drug and weapons smuggling gangs to get their “bananas” to where they
need them.
This sort of attack is known as business process compromise (BPC) and is commonly
targeted at the financial sector, where transaction amounts, deposit accounts, or other
parameters are changed to funnel money to the attackers’ pockets. Since business processes
are almost always instantiated in software as part of a CIS, process vulnerabilities can be
thought of as a specific kind of software vulnerability. As security professionals, however,
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it is important that we take a broader view of the issue and think about the business
processes that are implemented in our software systems.
People Many security experts consider humans to be the weakest link in the security
chain. Whether or not you agree with this, it is important to consider the specific
vulnerabilities that people present in a system. Though there are many ways to exploit the
human in the loop, there are three that correspond to the bulk of the attacks, summarized
briefly here:
• Social engineering This is the process of getting a person to violate a security
procedure or policy, and usually involves human interaction or e-mail/text messages.
• Social networks The prevalence of social network use provides potential
attackers with a wealth of information that can be leveraged directly (e.g.,
blackmail) or indirectly (e.g., crafting an e-mail with a link that is likely to be
clicked) to exploit people.
• Passwords Weak passwords can be cracked in milliseconds using rainbow
tables and are very susceptible to dictionary or brute-force attacks. Even strong
passwords are vulnerable if they are reused across sites and systems.
Threats
As you identify the vulnerabilities that are inherent to your organization and its systems,
it is important to also identify the sources that could attack them. The International
Organization for Standardization and the International Electrotechnical Commission in
their joint ISO/IEC standard 27000 define a threat as a “potential cause of an unwanted
incident, which can result in harm to a system or organization.” While this may sound
somewhat vague, it is important to include the full breadth of possibilities. When a threat
is one or more humans, we typically use the term threat actor or threat agent. Let’s start
with the most obvious: malicious humans.
Cybercriminals Cybercriminals are the most common threat actors encountered by
individuals and organizations. Most cybercriminals are motivated by greed, but some
just enjoy breaking things. Their skills run the gamut, from so-called script kiddies with
just a basic grasp of hacking (but access to someone else’s scripts or tools) to sophisticated
cybercrime gangs who develop and sometimes sell or rent their services and tools to
others. Cybercrime is the fastest-growing sector of criminal activity in many countries.
One of the factors that makes cybercrime so pervasive is that every connected device
is a target. Some devices are immediately monetizable, such as your personal smartphone
or home computer containing credentials, payment card information, and access to your
financial institutions. Other targets provide bigger payouts, such as the finance systems
in your place of work. Even devices that are not, by themselves, easily monetizable can
be hijacked and joined into a botnet to spread malware, conduct distributed denial-ofservice (DDoS) attacks, or serve as staging bases from which to attack other targets.
Nation-State Actors Whereas cybercriminals tend to cast a wide net in an effort to
maximize their profits, nation-state actors (or simply state actors) are very selective in
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PART I
who they target. They use advanced capabilities to compromise systems and establish a
persistent presence to allow them to collect intelligence (e.g., sensitive data, intellectual
property, etc.) for extended periods. After their presence is established, state actors may
use prepositioned assets to trigger devastating effects in response to world events. Though
their main motivations tend to be espionage and gaining persistent access to critical
infrastructure, some state actors maintain good relations with cybercrime groups in their
own country, mostly for the purposes of plausible deniability. By collaborating with these
criminals, state actors can make it look as if an attack against another nation was a crime
and not an act of war. At least one country is known to use its national offensive cyber
capabilities for financial profit, stealing millions of dollars all over the world.
Many security professionals consider state actors a threat mostly to government
organizations, critical infrastructure like power plants, and anyone with sophisticated
research and development capabilities. In reality, however, these actors can and do target
other organizations, typically to use them as a springboard into their ultimate targets. So,
even if you work for a small company that seems uninteresting to a foreign nation, you
could find your company in a state actor’s crosshairs.
Hacktivists Hacktivists use cyberattacks to effect political or social change. The term
covers a diverse ecosystem, encompassing individuals and groups of various skillsets
and capabilities. Hacktivists’ preferred objectives are highly visible to the public or
yield information that, when made public, aims to embarrass government entities or
undermine public trust in them.
Internal Actors Internal actors are people within the organization, such as employees,
former employees, contractors, or business associates, who have inside information
concerning the organization’s security practices, data, and computer systems. Broadly
speaking, there are two types of insider threats: negligent and malicious. A negligent insider
is one who fails to exercise due care, which puts their organization at risk. Sometimes,
these individuals knowingly violate policies or disregard procedures, but they are not doing
so out of malicious intent. For example, an employee could disregard a policy requiring
visitors to be escorted at all times because someone shows up wearing the uniform of a
telecommunications company and claiming to be on site to fix an outage. This insider trusts
the visitor, which puts the organization at risk, particularly if that person is an impostor.
The second type of insider threat is characterized by malicious intent. Malicious
insiders use the knowledge they have about their organization either for their own
advantage (e.g., to commit fraud) or to directly cause harm (e.g., by deleting sensitive
files). While some malicious insiders plan their criminal activity while they are employees
in good standing, others are triggered by impending termination actions. Knowing (or
suspecting) that they’re about to be fired, they may attempt to steal sensitive data (such as
customer contacts or design documents) before their access is revoked. Other malicious
insiders may be angry and plant malware or destroy assets in an act of revenge. This
insider threat highlights the need for the “zero trust” secure design principle (discussed in
Chapter 9). It is also a really good reason to practice the termination processes discussed
in Chapter 1.
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In the wake of the massive leak of classified data attributed to Edward Snowden in
2012, there’s been increased emphasis on techniques and procedures for identifying and
mitigating the insider threat source. While the deliberate insider dominates the news, it is
important to note that the accidental insider can be just as dangerous, particularly if they
fall into one of the vulnerability classes described in the preceding section.
Nature Finally, the nonhuman threat source can be just as important as the ones
we’ve previously discussed. Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and the Tohoku earthquake and
tsunami in 2011 serve as reminders that natural events can be more destructive than any
human attack. They also force the information systems security professional to consider
threats that fall way outside the norm. Though it is easier and, in many cases, cheaper to
address likelier natural events such as a water main break or a fire in a facility, one should
always look for opportunities to leverage countermeasures that protect against both mild
and extreme events for small price differentials.
Identifying Threats and Vulnerabilities
Earlier, it was stated that the definition of a risk is the probability of a threat exploiting a
vulnerability to cause harm to an asset and the resulting business impact. Many types of
threat actors can take advantage of several types of vulnerabilities, resulting in a variety
of specific threats, as outlined in Table 2-1, which represents only a sampling of the risks
many organizations should address in their risk management programs.
Other types of threats can arise in an environment that are much harder to identify
than those listed in Table 2-1. These other threats have to do with application and user
errors. If an application uses several complex equations to produce results, the threat can
be difficult to discover and isolate if these equations are incorrect or if the application is
using inputted data incorrectly. This can result in illogical processing and cascading errors
as invalid results are passed on to another process. These types of problems can lie within
application code and are very hard to identify.
Threat Actor
Can Exploit This Vulnerability
To Cause This Effect
Cybercriminal
Lack of antimalware software
Ransomed data
Nation-state actor
Password reuse in privileged
accounts
Unauthorized access to
confidential information
Negligent user
Misconfigured parameter in the
operating system
Loss of availability due to a system
malfunction
Fire
Lack of fire extinguishers
Facility and computer loss or
damage, and possibly loss of life
Malicious insider
Poor termination procedures
Deletion of business-critical
information
Hacktivist
Poorly written web application
Website defacement
Burglar
Lack of security guard
Breaking windows and stealing
computers and devices
Table 2-1 Relationship of Threats and Vulnerabilities
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User errors, whether intentional or accidental, are easier to identify by monitoring and
auditing users’ activities. Audits and reviews must be conducted to discover if employees
are inputting values incorrectly into programs, misusing technology, or modifying data
in an inappropriate manner.
After the ISRM team has identified the vulnerabilities and associated threats, it must
investigate the ramifications of any of those vulnerabilities being exploited. Risks have
loss potential, meaning that the organization could lose assets or revenues if a threat agent
actually exploited a vulnerability. The loss may be corrupted data, destruction of systems
and/or the facility, unauthorized disclosure of confidential information, a reduction in
employee productivity, and so on. When performing a risk assessment, the team also
must look at delayed loss when assessing the damages that can occur. Delayed loss is
secondary in nature and takes place well after a vulnerability is exploited. Delayed loss
may include damage to the organization’s reputation, loss of market share, accrued late
penalties, civil suits, the delayed collection of funds from customers, resources required
to reimage other compromised systems, and so forth.
For example, if a company’s web servers are attacked and taken offline, the immediate
damage (loss potential) could be data corruption, the man-hours necessary to place
the servers back online, and the replacement of any code or components required. The
company could lose revenue if it usually accepts orders and payments via its website. If
getting the web servers fixed and back online takes a full day, the company could lose
a lot more sales and profits. If getting the web servers fixed and back online takes a full
week, the company could lose enough sales and profits to not be able to pay other bills
and expenses. This would be a delayed loss. If the company’s customers lose confidence
in it because of this activity, the company could lose business for months or years. This
is a more extreme case of delayed loss.
These types of issues make the process of properly quantifying losses that specific
threats could cause more complex, but they must be taken into consideration to ensure
reality is represented in this type of analysis.
Assessing Risks
A risk assessment, which is really a tool for risk management, is a method of identifying vulnerabilities and threats and assessing the possible impacts to determine where to
implement security controls. After parts of a risk assessment are carried out, the results
are analyzed. Risk analysis is a detailed examination of the components of risk that is used
to ensure that security is cost-effective, relevant, timely, and responsive to threats. It is
easy to apply too much security, not enough security, or the wrong security controls and
to spend too much money in the process without attaining the necessary objectives. Risk
analysis helps organizations prioritize their risks and shows management the amount of
resources that should be applied to protecting against those risks in a sensible manner.
EXAM TIP The terms risk assessment and risk analysis, depending on who
you ask, can mean the same thing, or one must follow the other, or one is
a subpart of the other. Here, we treat risk assessment as the broader effort,
which is reinforced by specific risk analysis tasks as needed. This is how you
should think of it for the CISSP exam.
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Risk analysis has four main goals:
• Identify assets and their value to the organization.
• Determine the likelihood that a threat exploits a vulnerability.
• Determine the business impact of these potential threats.
• Provide an economic balance between the impact of the threat and the cost of the
countermeasure.
Risk analysis provides a cost/benefit comparison, which compares the annualized cost of
controls to the potential cost of loss. A control, in most cases, should not be implemented
unless the annualized cost of loss exceeds the annualized cost of the control itself. This
means that if a facility is worth $100,000, it does not make sense to spend $150,000
trying to protect it.
It is important to figure out what you are supposed to be doing before you dig right in
and start working. Anyone who has worked on a project without a properly defined scope
can attest to the truth of this statement. Before an assessment is started, the team must
carry out project sizing to understand what assets and threats should be evaluated. Most
assessments are focused on physical security, technology security, or personnel security.
Trying to assess all of them at the same time can be quite an undertaking.
One of the risk assessment team’s tasks is to create a report that details the asset
valuations. Senior management should review and accept the list and use these values
to determine the scope of the risk management project. If management determines
at this early stage that some assets are not important, the risk assessment team should
not spend additional time or resources evaluating those assets. During discussions with
management, everyone involved must have a firm understanding of the value of the
security CIA triad—confidentiality, integrity, and availability—and how it directly
relates to business needs.
Management should outline the scope of the assessment, which most likely will be
dictated by organizational compliance requirements as well as budgetary constraints.
Many projects have run out of funds, and consequently stopped, because proper project
sizing was not conducted at the onset of the project. Don’t let this happen to you.
A risk assessment helps integrate the security program objectives with the organization’s
business objectives and requirements. The more the business and security objectives are
in alignment, the more successful both will be. The assessment also helps the organization
draft a proper budget for a security program and its constituent security components.
Once an organization knows how much its assets are worth and the possible threats those
assets are exposed to, it can make intelligent decisions about how much money to spend
protecting those assets.
A risk assessment must be supported and directed by senior management if it is to be
successful. Management must define the purpose and scope of the effort, appoint a team
to carry out the assessment, and allocate the necessary time and funds to conduct it. It is
essential for senior management to review the outcome of the risk assessment and to act
on its findings. After all, what good is it to go through all the trouble of a risk assessment
and not react to its findings? Unfortunately, this does happen all too often.
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Asset Valuation
PART I
To understand possible losses and how much we may want to invest in preventing them,
we must understand the value of an asset that could be impacted by a threat. The value
placed on information is relative to the parties involved, what work was required to
develop it, how much it costs to maintain, what damage would result if it were lost or
destroyed, how much money enemies would pay for it, and what liability penalties could
be endured. If an organization does not know the value of the information and the other
assets it is trying to protect, it does not know how much money and time it should spend
on protecting them. If the calculated value of your company’s secret formula is x, then the
total cost of protecting it should be some value less than x. Knowing the value of our information allows us to make quantitative cost/benefit comparisons as we manage our risks.
The preceding logic applies not only to assessing the value of information and protecting
it but also to assessing the value of the organization’s other assets, such as facilities, systems,
and even intangibles like the value of the brand, and protecting them. The value of the
organization’s facilities must be assessed, along with all printers, workstations, servers,
peripheral devices, supplies, and employees. You do not know how much is in danger of
being lost if you don’t know what you have and what it is worth in the first place.
The actual value of an asset is determined by the importance it has to the organization
as a whole. The value of an asset should reflect all identifiable costs that would arise if
the asset were actually impaired. If a server cost $4,000 to purchase, this value should
not be input as the value of the asset in a risk assessment. Rather, the cost of replacing or
repairing it, the loss of productivity, and the value of any data that may be corrupted or
lost must be accounted for to properly capture the amount the organization would lose
if the server were to fail for one reason or another.
The following issues should be considered when assigning values to assets:
• Cost to acquire or develop the asset
• Cost to maintain and protect the asset
• Value of the asset to owners and users
• Value of the asset to adversaries
• Price others are willing to pay for the asset
• Cost to replace the asset if lost
• Operational and production activities affected if the asset is unavailable
• Liability issues if the asset is compromised
• Usefulness and role of the asset in the organization
• Impact of the asset’s loss on the organization’s brand or reputation
Understanding the value of an asset is the first step to understanding what security
mechanisms should be put in place and what funds should go toward protecting it. A very
important question is how much it could cost the organization to not protect the asset.
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Determining the value of assets may be useful to an organization for a variety of
reasons, including the following:
• To perform effective cost/benefit analyses
• To select specific countermeasures and safeguards
• To determine the level of insurance coverage to purchase
• To understand what exactly is at risk
• To comply with legal and regulatory requirements
Assets may be tangible (computers, facilities, supplies) or intangible (reputation, data,
intellectual property). It is usually harder to quantify the values of intangible assets, which
may change over time. How do you put a monetary value on a company’s reputation? This
is not always an easy question to answer, but it is important to be able to do so.
Risk Assessment Teams
Each organization has different departments, and each department has its own functionality, resources, tasks, and quirks. For the most effective risk assessment, an organization
must build a risk assessment team that includes individuals from many or all departments to ensure that all of the threats are identified and addressed. The team members
may be part of management, application programmers, IT staff, systems integrators,
and operational managers—indeed, any key personnel from key areas of the organization.
This mix is necessary because if the team comprises only individuals from the IT department, it may not understand, for example, the types of threats the accounting department
faces with data integrity issues, or how the organization as a whole would be affected if
the accounting department’s data files were wiped out by an accidental or intentional act.
Asking the Right Questions
When looking at risk, it’s good to keep several questions in mind. Raising these
questions helps ensure that the risk assessment team and senior management know
what is important. Team members must ask the following:
• What event could occur (threat event)?
• What could be the potential impact (risk)?
• How often could it happen (frequency)?
• What level of confidence do we have in the answers to the first three
questions (certainty)?
A lot of this information is gathered through internal surveys, interviews, or
workshops. Viewing threats with these questions in mind helps the team focus on
the tasks at hand and assists in making the decisions more accurate and relevant.
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Or, as another example, the IT staff may not understand all the risks the employees in
the warehouse would face if a natural disaster were to hit, or what it would mean to their
productivity and how it would affect the organization overall. If the risk assessment team
is unable to include members from various departments, it should, at the very least, make
sure to interview people in each department so it fully understands and can quantify
all threats.
The risk assessment team must also include people who understand the processes that
are part of their individual departments, meaning individuals who are at the right levels
of each department. This is a difficult task, since managers sometimes delegate any sort
of risk assessment task to lower levels within the department. However, the people who
work at these lower levels may not have adequate knowledge and understanding of the
processes that the risk assessment team may need to deal with.
Methodologies for Risk Assessment
The industry has different standardized methodologies for carrying out risk assessments.
Each of the individual methodologies has the same basic core components (identify vulnerabilities, associate threats, calculate risk values), but each has a specific focus. Keep
in mind that the methodologies have a lot of overlapping similarities because each one
has the specific goal of identifying things that could hurt the organization (vulnerabilities and threats) so that those things can be addressed (risk reduced). What make these
methodologies different from each other are their unique approaches and focuses.
If you need to deploy an organization-wide risk management program and integrate
it into your security program, you should follow the OCTAVE method. If you need to
focus just on IT security risks during your assessment, you can follow NIST SP 800-30.
If you have a limited budget and need to carry out a focused assessment on an individual
system or process, you can follow the Facilitated Risk Analysis Process. If you really want
to dig into the details of how a security flaw within a specific system could cause negative
ramifications, you could use Failure Modes and Effect Analysis or fault tree analysis.
NIST SP 800-30
NIST SP 800-30, Revision 1, Guide for Conducting Risk Assessments, is specific to information systems threats and how they relate to information security risks. It lays out the
following steps:
1. Prepare for the assessment.
2. Conduct the assessment:
a. Identify threat sources and events.
b. Identify vulnerabilities and predisposing conditions.
c. Determine likelihood of occurrence.
d. Determine magnitude of impact.
e. Determine risk.
3. Communicate results.
4. Maintain assessment.
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The NIST risk management methodology is mainly focused on computer systems and
IT security issues. It does not explicitly cover larger organizational threat types, as in
succession planning, environmental issues, or how security risks associate to business risks.
It is a methodology that focuses on the operational components of an enterprise, not
necessarily the higher strategic level.
FRAP
Facilitated Risk Analysis Process (FRAP) is a second type of risk assessment methodology.
The crux of this qualitative methodology is to focus only on the systems that really need
assessing, to reduce costs and time obligations. FRAP stresses prescreening activities so
that the risk assessment steps are only carried out on the item(s) that needs it the most.
FRAP is intended to be used to analyze one system, application, or business process at a
time. Data is gathered and threats to business operations are prioritized based upon their
criticality. The risk assessment team documents the controls that need to be put into place
to reduce the identified risks along with action plans for control implementation efforts.
This methodology does not support the idea of calculating exploitation probability
numbers or annualized loss expectancy values. The criticalities of the risks are
determined by the team members’ experience. The author of this methodology (Thomas
Peltier) believes that trying to use mathematical formulas for the calculation of risk is too
confusing and time consuming. The goal is to keep the scope of the assessment small and
the assessment processes simple to allow for efficiency and cost-effectiveness.
OCTAVE
The Operationally Critical Threat, Asset, and Vulnerability Evaluation (OCTAVE) methodology was created by Carnegie Mellon University’s Software Engineering Institute
(SIE). OCTAVE is intended to be used in situations where people manage and direct
the risk evaluation for information security within their organization. This places the
people who work inside the organization in the power positions of being able to make
the decisions regarding what is the best approach for evaluating the security of their
organization. OCTAVE relies on the idea that the people working in these environments
best understand what is needed and what kind of risks they are facing. The individuals
who make up the risk assessment team go through rounds of facilitated workshops. The
facilitator helps the team members understand the risk methodology and how to apply it
to the vulnerabilities and threats identified within their specific business units. OCTAVE
stresses a self-directed team approach.
The scope of an OCTAVE assessment is usually very wide compared to the more
focused approach of FRAP. Where FRAP would be used to assess a system or application,
OCTAVE would be used to assess all systems, applications, and business processes within
the organization.
The OCTAVE methodology consists of the seven processes (or steps) listed here:
1. Identify enterprise knowledge.
2. Identify operational area knowledge.
3. Identify staff knowledge.
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4. Establish security requirements.
6. Perform infrastructure vulnerability evaluation.
7. Conduct multidimensional risk analysis.
PART I
5. Map high-priority information assets to information infrastructure.
8. Develop protection strategy.
FMEA
Failure Modes and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is a method for determining functions, identifying functional failures, and assessing the causes of failure and their failure effects
through a structured process. FMEA is commonly used in product development and
operational environments. The goal is to identify where something is most likely going to
break and either fix the flaws that could cause this issue or implement controls to reduce
the impact of the break. For example, you might choose to carry out an FMEA on your
organization’s network to identify single points of failure. These single points of failure
represent vulnerabilities that could directly affect the productivity of the network as a
whole. You would use this structured approach to identify these issues (vulnerabilities),
assess their criticality (risk), and identify the necessary controls that should be put into
place (reduce risk).
The FMEA methodology uses failure modes (how something can break or fail) and
effects analysis (impact of that break or failure). The application of this process to a
chronic failure enables the determination of where exactly the failure is most likely
to occur. Think of it as being able to look into the future and locate areas that have
the potential for failure and then applying corrective measures to them before they do
become actual liabilities.
By following a specific order of steps, the best results can be maximized for an FMEA:
1. Start with a block diagram of a system or control.
2. Consider what happens if each block of the diagram fails.
3. Draw up a table in which failures are paired with their effects and an evaluation
of the effects.
4. Correct the design of the system, and adjust the table until the system is not
known to have unacceptable problems.
5. Have several engineers review the Failure Modes and Effect Analysis.
Table 2-2 is an example of how an FMEA can be carried out and documented.
Although most organizations will not have the resources to do this level of detailed work
for every system and control, an organization can carry it out on critical functions and
systems that can drastically affect the organization.
FMEA was first developed for systems engineering. Its purpose is to examine the
potential failures in products and the processes involved with them. This approach
proved to be successful and has been more recently adapted for use in evaluating risk
management priorities and mitigating known threat vulnerabilities.
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Prepared by:
Approved by:
Revision:
Failure Effect on . . .
Failure
Mode
Failure
Cause
Component
or Functional
Assembly
Next Higher
Assembly
Item Identification
Function
IPS application
content filter
Inline
perimeter
protection
Fails to
close
Traffic
overload
Single point of IPS blocks
failure Denial of ingress traffic
service
stream
IPS is
brought
down
Health check
status sent
to console
and e-mail
to security
administrator
Central antivirus
signature update
engine
Push updated
signatures to
all servers and
workstations
Fails to
provide
adequate,
timely
protection
against
malware
Central
server
goes
down
Individual
Network is
node’s antivirus infected with
software is not malware
updated
Central
server can
be infected
and/or
infect other
systems
Heartbeat
status check
sent to central
console,
and e-mail
to network
administrator
Fire suppression
water pipes
Suppress fire
in building
1 in 5 zones
Fails to
close
Water
in pipes
freezes
None
Fire
suppression
system pipes
break
Suppression
sensors tied
directly into
fire system
central console
Etc.
Table 2-2 How an FMEA Can Be Carried Out and Documented
Building 1
has no
suppression
agent
available
System
Failure
Detection
Method
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FMEA is used in assurance risk management because of the level of detail, variables, and
complexity that continues to rise as corporations understand risk at more granular levels.
This methodical way of identifying potential pitfalls is coming into play more as the need
for risk awareness—down to the tactical and operational levels—continues to expand.
Fault Tree Analysis
While FMEA is most useful as a survey method to identify major failure modes in a
given system, the method is not as useful in discovering complex failure modes that may
be involved in multiple systems or subsystems. A fault tree analysis usually proves to be
a more useful approach to identifying failures that can take place within more complex
environments and systems. First, an undesired effect is taken as the root or top event of
a tree of logic. Then, each situation that has the potential to cause that effect is added to
the tree as a series of logic expressions. Fault trees are then labeled with actual numbers
pertaining to failure probabilities. This is typically done by using computer programs
that can calculate the failure probabilities from a fault tree.
Figure 2-3 shows a simplistic fault tree and the different logic symbols used to represent
what must take place for a specific fault event to occur.
When setting up the tree, you must accurately list all the threats or faults that can occur
within a system. The branches of the tree can be divided into general categories, such
as physical threats, network threats, software threats, Internet threats, and component
failure threats. Then, once all possible general categories are in place, you can trim
them and effectively prune from the tree the branches that won’t apply to the system in
question. In general, if a system is not connected to the Internet by any means, remove
that general branch from the tree.
Top-level failure event is
broken down into possible
contributory failure events.
Failure Event B
Failure Event A
OR symbol means that event
A happens when one or more
of events B, C, or D happen.
Failure Event C
Failure Event D
AND symbol means that
event D happens only when
both events E and F happen.
Failure Event E
Failure Event F
Figure 2-3 Fault tree and logic components
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Some of the most common software failure events that can be explored through a fault
tree analysis are the following:
• False alarms
• Insufficient error handling
• Sequencing or order
• Incorrect timing outputs
• Valid but unexpected outputs
Of course, because of the complexity of software and heterogeneous environments,
this is a very small sample list.
EXAM TIP A risk assessment is used to gather data. A risk analysis examines
the gathered data to produce results that can be acted upon.
Risk Analysis Approaches
So up to this point, we have accomplished the following items:
• Developed a risk management policy
• Developed a risk management team
• Identified organizational assets to be assessed
• Calculated the value of each asset
• Identified the vulnerabilities and threats that can affect the identified assets
• Chosen a risk assessment methodology that best fits our needs
The next thing we need to figure out is if our risk analysis approach should be
quantitative or qualitative in nature. A quantitative risk analysis is used to assign monetary
and numeric values to all elements of the risk analysis process. Each element within the
analysis (asset value, threat frequency, severity of vulnerability, impact damage, safeguard
costs, safeguard effectiveness, uncertainty, and probability items) is quantified and
entered into equations to determine total and residual risks. It is more of a scientific or
mathematical approach (objective) to risk analysis compared to qualitative. A qualitative
risk analysis uses a “softer” approach to the data elements of a risk analysis. It does not
quantify that data, which means that it does not assign numeric values to the data so
that it can be used in equations. As an example, the results of a quantitative risk analysis
could be that the organization is at risk of losing $100,000 if a buffer overflow were
exploited on a web server, $25,000 if a database were compromised, and $10,000 if a
file server were compromised. A qualitative risk analysis would not present these findings
in monetary values, but would assign ratings to the risks, as in Red, Yellow, and Green.
A quantitative analysis uses risk calculations that attempt to predict the level of
monetary losses and the probability for each type of threat. Qualitative analysis does not
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use calculations. Instead, it is more opinion and scenario based (subjective) and uses a
rating system to relay the risk criticality levels.
Quantitative and qualitative approaches have their own pros and cons, and each applies
more appropriately to some situations than others. An organization’s management and
risk analysis team, and the tools they decide to use, will determine which approach is best.
In the following sections we will dig into the depths of quantitative analysis and then
revisit the qualitative approach. We will then compare and contrast their attributes.
Automated Risk Analysis Methods
Collecting all the necessary data that needs to be plugged into risk analysis equations
and properly interpreting the results can be overwhelming if done manually. Several
automated risk analysis tools on the market can make this task much less painful and,
hopefully, more accurate. The gathered data can be reused, greatly reducing the time
required to perform subsequent analyses. The risk analysis team can also print reports
and comprehensive graphs to present to management.
EXAM TIP Remember that vulnerability assessments are different from risk
assessments. A vulnerability assessment just finds the vulnerabilities (the
holes). A risk assessment calculates the probability of the vulnerabilities
being exploited and the associated business impact.
The objective of these tools is to reduce the manual effort of these tasks, perform
calculations quickly, estimate future expected losses, and determine the effectiveness and
benefits of the security countermeasures chosen. Most automatic risk analysis products
port information into a database and run several types of scenarios with different
parameters to give a panoramic view of what the outcome will be if different threats
come to bear. For example, after such a tool has all the necessary information inputted,
it can be rerun several times with different parameters to compute the potential outcome
if a large fire were to take place; the potential losses if a virus were to damage 40 percent
of the data on the main file server; how much the organization would lose if an attacker
were to steal all the customer credit card information held in three databases; and so on.
Running through the different risk possibilities gives an organization a more detailed
understanding of which risks are more critical than others, and thus which ones to
address first.
Steps of a Quantitative Risk Analysis
If we choose to carry out a quantitative risk analysis, then we are going to use mathematical equations for our data interpretation process. The most common equations used for
this purpose are the single loss expectancy (SLE) and the annualized loss expectancy (ALE).
The SLE is a monetary value that is assigned to a single event that represents the organization’s potential loss amount if a specific threat were to take place. The equation is laid
out as follows:
Asset Value × Exposure Factor (EF) = SLE
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The exposure factor (EF) represents the percentage of loss a realized threat could have
on a certain asset. For example, if a data warehouse has the asset value of $150,000, it can
be estimated that if a fire were to occur, 25 percent of the warehouse would be damaged,
in which case the SLE would be $37,500:
Asset Value ($150,000) × Exposure Factor (25%) = $37,500
This tells us that the organization could potentially lose $37,500 if a fire were to take
place. But we need to know what our annual potential loss is, since we develop and use
our security budgets on an annual basis. This is where the ALE equation comes into play.
The ALE equation is as follows:
SLE × Annualized Rate of Occurrence (ARO) = ALE
The annualized rate of occurrence (ARO) is the value that represents the estimated
frequency of a specific threat taking place within a 12-month timeframe. The range
can be from 0.0 (never) to 1.0 (once a year) to greater than 1 (several times a year), and
anywhere in between. For example, if the probability of a fire taking place and damaging
our data warehouse is once every 10 years, the ARO value is 0.1.
So, if a fire within an organization’s data warehouse facility can cause $37,500 in
damages, and the frequency (or ARO) of a fire taking place has an ARO value of 0.1
(indicating once in 10 years), then the ALE value is $3,750 ($37,500 × 0.1 = $3,750).
The ALE value tells the organization that if it wants to put in controls to protect the
asset (warehouse) from this threat (fire), it can sensibly spend $3,750 or less per year to
provide the necessary level of protection. Knowing the real possibility of a threat and how
much damage, in monetary terms, the threat can cause is important in determining how
much should be spent to try and protect against that threat in the first place. It would
not make good business sense for the organization to spend more than $3,750 per year
to protect itself from this threat.
Clearly, this example is overly simplistic in focusing strictly on the structural losses.
In the real world, we should include other related impacts such as loss of revenue due
to the disruption, potential fines if the fire was caused by a violation of local fire codes,
and injuries to employees that would require medical care. The number of factors to
consider can be pretty large and, to some of us, not obvious. This is why you want to
have a diverse risk assessment team that can think of all the myriad impacts that a simple
event might have.
Uncertainty
In risk analysis, uncertainty refers to the degree to which you lack confidence
in an estimate. This is expressed as a percentage, from 0 to 100 percent. If you
have a 30 percent confidence level in something, then it could be said you have a
70 percent uncertainty level. Capturing the degree of uncertainty when carrying out
a risk analysis is important, because it indicates the level of confidence the team and
management should have in the resulting figures.
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Threat
Single Loss
Expectancy (SLE)
Annualized Rate of
Occurrence (ARO)
Annualized Loss
Expectancy (ALE)
Facility
Fire
$230,000
0.1
$23,000
Trade secret
Stolen
$40,000
0.01
$400
File server
Failed
$11,500
0.1
$1,150
Business data
Ransomware
$283,000
0.1
$28,300
Customer
credit card info
Stolen
$300,000
3.0
$900,000
PART I
Asset
Table 2-3 Breaking Down How SLE and ALE Values Are Used
Now that we have all these numbers, what do we do with them? Let’s look at the
example in Table 2-3, which shows the outcome of a quantitative risk analysis. With this
data, the organization can make intelligent decisions on what threats must be addressed
first because of the severity of the threat, the likelihood of it happening, and how much
could be lost if the threat were realized. The organization now also knows how much
money it should spend to protect against each threat. This will result in good business
decisions, instead of just buying protection here and there without a clear understanding
of the big picture. Because the organization’s risk from a ransomware incident is $28,300,
it would be justified in spending up to this amount providing ransomware preventive
measures such as offline file backups, phishing awareness training, malware detection
and prevention, or insurance.
When carrying out a quantitative analysis, some people mistakenly think that the
process is purely objective and scientific because data is being presented in numeric
values. But a purely quantitative analysis is hard to achieve because there is still some
subjectivity when it comes to the data. How do we know that a fire will only take place
once every 10 years? How do we know that the damage from a fire will be 25 percent
of the value of the asset? We don’t know these values exactly, but instead of just pulling
them out of thin air, they should be based upon historical data and industry experience.
In quantitative risk analysis, we can do our best to provide all the correct information,
and by doing so we will come close to the risk values, but we cannot predict the future
and how much future incidents will cost us or the organization.
Results of a Quantitative Risk Analysis
The risk analysis team should have clearly defined goals. The following is a short list of
what generally is expected from the results of a risk analysis:
• Monetary values assigned to assets
• Comprehensive list of all significant threats
• Probability of the occurrence rate of each threat
• Loss potential the organization can endure per threat in a 12-month time span
• Recommended controls
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Although this list looks short, there is usually an incredible amount of detail under each
bullet item. This report will be presented to senior management, which will be concerned
with possible monetary losses and the necessary costs to mitigate these risks. Although the
report should be as detailed as possible, it should also include an executive summary so
that senior management can quickly understand the overall findings of the analysis.
Qualitative Risk Analysis
Another method of risk analysis is qualitative, which does not assign numbers and monetary values to components and losses. Instead, qualitative methods walk through different scenarios of risk possibilities and rank the seriousness of the threats and the validity
of the different possible countermeasures based on opinions. (A wide-sweeping analysis
can include hundreds of scenarios.) Qualitative analysis techniques include judgment,
best practices, intuition, and experience. Examples of qualitative techniques to gather
data are Delphi, brainstorming, storyboarding, focus groups, surveys, questionnaires,
checklists, one-on-one meetings, and interviews. The risk analysis team will determine
the best technique for the threats that need to be assessed, as well as the culture of the
organization and individuals involved with the analysis.
The team that is performing the risk analysis gathers personnel who have knowledge
of the threats being evaluated. When this group is presented with a scenario that describes
threats and loss potential, each member responds with their gut feeling and experience
on the likelihood of the threat and the extent of damage that may result. This group
explores a scenario of each identified vulnerability and how it would be exploited. The
“expert” in the group, who is most familiar with this type of threat, should review the
scenario to ensure it reflects how an actual threat would be carried out. Safeguards that
would diminish the damage of this threat are then evaluated, and the scenario is played
out for each safeguard. The exposure possibility and loss possibility can be ranked as
high, medium, or low on a scale of 1 to 5 or 1 to 10.
A common qualitative risk matrix is shown in Figure 2-4. Once the selected personnel
rank the likelihood of a threat happening, the loss potential, and the advantages of each
Likelihood
Consequences
Insignificant
Minor
Moderate
Major
Severe
Almost certain
M
H
H
E
E
Likely
M
M
H
H
E
Possible
L
M
M
H
E
Unlikely
L
M
M
M
H
Rare
L
L
M
M
H
Figure 2-4 Qualitative risk matrix: likelihood vs. consequences (impact)
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The Delphi technique is a group decision method used to ensure that each member
gives an honest opinion of what he or she thinks the result of a particular threat
will be. This avoids a group of individuals feeling pressured to go along with others’
thought processes and enables them to participate in an independent and anonymous way. Each member of the group provides his or her opinion of a certain threat
and turns it in to the team that is performing the analysis. The results are compiled
and distributed to the group members, who then write down their comments anonymously and return them to the analysis group. The comments are compiled and
redistributed for more comments until a consensus is formed. This method is used
to obtain an agreement on cost, loss values, and probabilities of occurrence without
individuals having to agree verbally.
PART I
The Delphi Technique
safeguard, this information is compiled into a report and presented to management to
help it make better decisions on how best to implement safeguards into the environment.
The benefits of this type of analysis are that communication must happen among team
members to rank the risks, evaluate the safeguard strengths, and identify weaknesses, and
the people who know these subjects the best provide their opinions to management.
Let’s look at a simple example of a qualitative risk analysis.
The risk analysis team presents a scenario explaining the threat of a hacker accessing
confidential information held on the five file servers within the organization. The risk
analysis team then distributes the scenario in a written format to a team of five people
(the IT manager, database administrator, application programmer, system operator,
and operational manager), who are also given a sheet to rank the threat’s severity, loss
potential, and each safeguard’s effectiveness, with a rating of 1 to 5, 1 being the least
severe, effective, or probable. Table 2-4 shows the results.
Threat = Hacker
Accessing
Confidential
Information
Effectiveness
of Firewall
Effectiveness
of Intrusion
Detection
System
Effectiveness
of Honeypot
4
4
3
2
4
4
3
4
1
2
3
3
4
2
1
System
operator
3
4
3
4
2
1
Operational
manager
5
4
4
4
4
2
Results
3.6
3.4
3.6
3.8
3
1.4
Severity
of Threat
Probability
of Threat
Taking Place
Potential
Loss to the
Organization
IT manager
4
2
Database
administrator
4
Application
programmer
Table 2-4 Example of a Qualitative Analysis
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This data is compiled and inserted into a report and presented to management. When
management is presented with this information, it will see that its staff (or a chosen set)
feels that purchasing a firewall will protect the organization from this threat more than
purchasing an intrusion detection system (IDS) or setting up a honeypot system.
This is the result of looking at only one threat, and management will view the severity,
probability, and loss potential of each threat so it knows which threats cause the greatest
risk and should be addressed first.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Each method has its advantages and disadvantages, some of which are outlined in
Table 2-5 for purposes of comparison.
The risk analysis team, management, risk analysis tools, and culture of the organization
will dictate which approach—quantitative or qualitative—should be used. The goal of
either method is to estimate an organization’s real risk and to rank the severity of the
threats so the correct countermeasures can be put into place within a practical budget.
Table 2-5 refers to some of the positive aspects of the quantitative and qualitative
approaches. However, not everything is always easy. In deciding to use either a quantitative
or qualitative approach, the following points might need to be considered.
Quantitative Cons:
• Calculations can be complex. Can management understand how these values
were derived?
• Without automated tools, this process is extremely laborious.
• More preliminary work is needed to gather detailed information about the
environment.
• Standards are not available. Each vendor has its own way of interpreting the
processes and their results.
Attribute
Quantitative
Requires no calculations
Requires more complex calculations
Qualitative
X
X
Involves high degree of guesswork
X
Provides general areas and indications of risk
X
Is easier to automate and evaluate
X
Used in risk management performance tracking
X
Allows for cost/benefit analysis
X
Uses independently verifiable and objective metrics
X
Provides the opinions of the individuals who know the
processes best
Shows clear-cut losses that can be accrued within one
year’s time
X
X
Table 2-5 Quantitative vs. Qualitative Characteristics
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Qualitative Cons:
PART I
• The assessments and results are subjective and opinion based.
• Eliminates the opportunity to create a dollar value for cost/benefit discussions.
• Developing a security budget from the results is difficult because monetary values
are not used.
• Standards are not available. Each vendor has its own way of interpreting the
processes and their results.
NOTE Since a purely quantitative assessment is close to impossible and
a purely qualitative process does not provide enough statistical data for
financial decisions, these two risk analysis approaches can be used in a
hybrid approach. Quantitative evaluation can be used for tangible assets
(monetary values), and a qualitative assessment can be used for intangible
assets (priority values).
Responding to Risks
Once an organization knows the amount of total and residual risk it is faced with, it must
decide how to handle it. Risk can be dealt with in four basic ways: transfer it, avoid it,
reduce it, or accept it.
Many types of insurance are available to organizations to protect their assets. If an
organization decides the total risk is too high to gamble with, it can purchase insurance,
which would transfer the risk to the insurance company.
If an organization decides to terminate the activity that is introducing the risk, this is
known as risk avoidance. For example, if a company allows employees to use instant messaging
(IM), there are many risks surrounding this technology. The company could decide not to
allow any IM activity by employees because there is not a strong enough business need for
its continued use. Discontinuing this service is an example of risk avoidance.
Another approach is risk mitigation, where the risk is reduced to a level considered
acceptable enough to continue conducting business. The implementation of firewalls,
training, and intrusion/detection protection systems or other control types represent
types of risk mitigation efforts.
The last approach is to accept the risk, which means the organization understands the
level of risk it is faced with, as well as the potential cost of damage, and decides to just
live with it and not implement the countermeasure. Many organizations will accept risk
when the cost/benefit ratio indicates that the cost of the countermeasure outweighs the
potential loss value.
A crucial issue with risk acceptance is understanding why this is the best approach
for a specific situation. Unfortunately, today many people in organizations are accepting
risk and not understanding fully what they are accepting. This usually has to do with
the relative newness of risk management in the security field and the lack of education
and experience in those personnel who make risk decisions. When business managers are
charged with the responsibility of dealing with risk in their department, most of the time
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they will accept whatever risk is put in front of them because their real goals pertain to
getting a project finished and out the door. They don’t want to be bogged down by this
silly and irritating security stuff.
Risk acceptance should be based on several factors. For example, is the potential loss
lower than the countermeasure? Can the organization deal with the “pain” that will come
with accepting this risk? This second consideration is not purely a cost decision, but may
entail noncost issues surrounding the decision. For example, if we accept this risk, we
must add three more steps in our production process. Does that make sense for us? Or
if we accept this risk, more security incidents may arise from it, and are we prepared to
handle those?
The individual or group accepting risk must also understand the potential visibility
of this decision. Let’s say a company has determined that it is not legally required
to protect customers’ first names, but that it does have to protect other items like
Social Security numbers, account numbers, and so on. So, the company ensures that
its current activities are in compliance with the regulations and laws, but what if its
customers find out that it is not protecting their full names and they associate this with
identity fraud because of their lack of education on the matter? The company may not
be able to handle this potential reputation hit, even if it is doing all it is supposed to be
doing. Perceptions of a company’s customer base are not always rooted in fact, but the
possibility that customers will move their business to another company is a potential
fact your company must comprehend.
Figure 2-5 shows how a risk management program can be set up, which ties together
many of the concepts covered thus far in this chapter.
PLAN
1. Identify team
2. Identify scope
3. Identify method
4. Identify tools
5. Understand acceptable
risk level
COLLECT INFORMATION
1. Identify assets
2. Assign value to assets
3. Identify vulnerabilities and threats
4. Calculate risks
5. Cost/benefit analysis
6. Uncertainty analysis
DEFINE
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Risk mitigation
2. Risk transference
3. Risk acceptance
4. Risk avoidance
MANAGEMENT
RISK MITIGATION
RISK AVOIDANCE
Control selection
Implementation
Monitoring
Discontinue activity
RISK TRANSFERENCE
RISK ACCEPTANCE
Purchase insurance
Do nothing
Figure 2-5 How a risk management program can be set up
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Total Risk vs. Residual Risk
PART I
The reason an organization implements countermeasures is to reduce its overall risk to an
acceptable level. As stated earlier, no system or environment is 100 percent secure, which
means there is always some risk left over to deal with. This is called residual risk.
Residual risk is different from total risk, which is the risk an organization faces if
it chooses not to implement any type of safeguard. An organization may choose to
take on total risk if the cost/benefit analysis results indicate this is the best course of
action. For example, if there is a small likelihood that an organization’s web servers can
be compromised and the necessary safeguards to provide a higher level of protection
cost more than the potential loss in the first place, the organization will choose not to
implement the safeguard, choosing to deal with the total risk.
There is an important difference between total risk and residual risk and which type of
risk an organization is willing to accept. The following are conceptual formulas:
threats × vulnerability × asset value = total risk
(threats × vulnerability × asset value) × controls gap = residual risk
You may also see these concepts illustrated as the following:
total risk – countermeasures = residual risk
NOTE The previous formulas are not constructs you can actually plug
numbers into. They are instead used to illustrate the relation of the
different items that make up risk in a conceptual manner. This means no
multiplication or mathematical functions actually take place. It is a means
of understanding what items are involved when defining either total or
residual risk.
During a risk assessment, the threats and vulnerabilities are identified. The possibility of
a vulnerability being exploited is multiplied by the value of the assets being assessed, which
results in the total risk. Once the controls gap (protection the control cannot provide)
is factored in, the result is the residual risk. Implementing countermeasures is a way of
mitigating risks. Because no organization can remove all threats, there will always be some
residual risk. The question is what level of risk the organization is willing to accept.
Countermeasure Selection and Implementation
Countermeasures are the means by which we reduce specific risks to acceptable levels.
This section addresses identifying and choosing the right countermeasures for computer
systems. It gives the best attributes to look for and the different cost scenarios to investigate when comparing different types of countermeasures. The end product of the analysis of choices should demonstrate why the selected control is the most advantageous to
the organization.
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NOTE The terms control, countermeasure, safeguard, security mechanism,
and protection mechanism are synonymous in the context of information
systems security. We use them interchangeably.
Control Selection
A security control must make good business sense, meaning it is cost-effective (its benefit
outweighs its cost). This requires another type of analysis: a cost/benefit analysis. A commonly used cost/benefit calculation for a given safeguard (control) is
(ALE before implementing safeguard) – (ALE after implementing safeguard) –
(annual cost of safeguard) = value of safeguard to the organization
For example, if the ALE of the threat of a hacker bringing down a web server is
$12,000 prior to implementing the suggested safeguard, and the ALE is $3,000 after
implementing the safeguard, while the annual cost of maintenance and operation of the
safeguard is $650, then the value of this safeguard to the organization is $8,350 each year.
Recall that the ALE has two factors, the single loss expectancy and the annual rate of
occurrence, so safeguards can decrease either or both. The countermeasure referenced
in the previous example could aim to reduce the costs associated with restoring the web
server, or make it less likely that it is brought down, or both. All too often, we focus our
attention on making the threat less likely, while, in some cases, it might be less expensive
to make it easier to recover.
The cost of a countermeasure is more than just the amount filled out on the purchase
order. The following items should be considered and evaluated when deriving the full
cost of a countermeasure:
• Product costs
• Design/planning costs
• Implementation costs
• Environment modifications (both physical and logical)
• Compatibility with other countermeasures
• Maintenance requirements
• Testing requirements
• Repair, replacement, or update costs
• Operating and support costs
• Effects on productivity
• Subscription costs
• Extra staff-hours for monitoring and responding to alerts
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PART I
Many organizations have gone through the pain of purchasing new security products
without understanding that they will need the staff to maintain those products. Although
tools automate tasks, many organizations were not even carrying out these tasks before,
so they do not save on staff-hours, but many times require more hours. For example,
Company A decides that to protect many of its resources, purchasing an intrusion
detection system is warranted. So, the company pays $5,500 for an IDS. Is that the
total cost? Nope. This software should be tested in an environment that is segmented
from the production environment to uncover any unexpected activity. After this testing
is complete and the security group feels it is safe to insert the IDS into its production
environment, the security group must install the monitoring management software,
install the sensors, and properly direct the communication paths from the sensors to
the management console. The security group may also need to reconfigure the routers
to redirect traffic flow, and it definitely needs to ensure that users cannot access the IDS
management console. Finally, the security group should configure a database to hold all
attack signatures and then run simulations.
Costs associated with an IDS alert response should most definitely be considered.
Now that Company A has an IDS in place, security administrators may need additional
alerting equipment such as smartphones. And then there are the time costs associated
with a response to an IDS event.
Anyone who has worked in an IT group knows that some adverse reaction almost
always takes place in this type of scenario. Network performance can take an unacceptable
hit after installing a product if it is an inline or proactive product. Users may no longer
be able to access a server for some mysterious reason. The IDS vendor may not have
explained that two more service patches are necessary for the whole thing to work
correctly. Staff time will need to be allocated for training and to respond to all of the
alerts (true or false) the new IDS sends out.
So, for example, the cost of this countermeasure could be $23,500 for the product
and licenses; $2,500 for training; $3,400 for testing; $2,600 for the loss in user
productivity once the product is introduced into production; and $4,000 in labor for
router reconfiguration, product installation, troubleshooting, and installation of the two
service patches. The real cost of this countermeasure is $36,000. If our total potential
loss was calculated at $9,000, we went over budget by 300 percent when applying this
countermeasure for the identified risk. Some of these costs may be hard or impossible to
identify before they are incurred, but an experienced risk analyst would account for many
of these possibilities.
Types of Controls
In our examples so far, we’ve focused on countermeasures like firewalls and IDSs, but
there are many more options. Controls come in three main categories: administrative,
technical, and physical. Administrative controls are commonly referred to as “soft controls” because they are more management oriented. Examples of administrative controls
are security documentation, risk management, personnel security, and training. Technical
controls (also called logical controls) are software or hardware components, as in firewalls,
IDS, encryption, and identification and authentication mechanisms. And physical controls
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are items put into place to protect facilities, personnel, and resources. Examples of physical controls are security guards, locks, fencing, and lighting.
These control categories need to be put into place to provide defense-in-depth, which
is the coordinated use of multiple security controls in a layered approach, as shown
in Figure 2-6. A multilayered defense system minimizes the probability of successful
penetration and compromise because an attacker would have to get through several
different types of protection mechanisms before she gained access to the critical assets.
For example, Company A can have the following physical controls in place that work in
a layered model:
• Fence
• Locked external doors
• Closed-circuit TV (CCTV)
• Security guard
• Locked internal doors
• Locked server room
• Physically secured computers (cable locks)
Potential threat
Virus scanners
Patch management
Rule-based access control
Account management
Asset
Secure architecture
Demilitarized zones (DMZs)
Firewalls
Virtual private networks (VPNs)
Policies and procedures
Physical security
Figure 2-6 Defense-in-depth
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• Firewalls
• Intrusion detection system
• Intrusion prevention system
• Antimalware
• Access control
• Encryption
PART I
Technical controls that are commonly put into place to provide this type of layered
approach are
The types of controls that are actually implemented must map to the threats the
organization faces, and the number of layers that are put into place must map to the
sensitivity of the asset. The rule of thumb is the more sensitive the asset, the more layers
of protection that must be put into place.
So the different categories of controls that can be used are administrative, technical,
and physical. But what do these controls actually do for us? We need to understand what
the different control types can provide us in our quest to secure our environments.
The different types of security controls are preventive, detective, corrective, deterrent,
recovery, and compensating. By having a better understanding of the different control
types, you will be able to make more informed decisions about what controls will be best
used in specific situations. The six different control types are as follows:
• Preventive Intended to avoid an incident from occurring
• Detective Helps identify an incident’s activities and potentially an intruder
• Corrective Fixes components or systems after an incident has occurred
• Deterrent Intended to discourage a potential attacker
• Recovery Intended to bring the environment back to regular operations
• Compensating Provides an alternative measure of control
Once you understand fully what the different controls do, you can use them in the right
locations for specific risks.
When looking at a security structure of an environment, it is most productive to use
a preventive model and then use detective, corrective, and recovery mechanisms to help
support this model. Basically, you want to stop any trouble before it starts, but you must
be able to quickly react and combat trouble if it does find you. It is not feasible to prevent
everything; therefore, what you cannot prevent, you should be able to quickly detect.
That’s why preventive and detective controls should always be implemented together
and should complement each other. To take this concept further: what you can’t prevent,
you should be able to detect, and if you detect something, it means you weren’t able
to prevent it, and therefore you should take corrective action to make sure it is indeed
prevented the next time around. Therefore, all three types work together: preventive,
detective, and corrective.
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The control types described next (administrative, physical, and technical) are
preventive in nature. These are important to understand when developing an enterprisewide security program. Obviously, these are only provided as illustrative examples.
Keep in mind as you go over them that a specific control may fall within multiple
classifications. For example, most security cameras could be considered preventive (since
they may dissuade criminals from breaking in if they are highly visible), detective (if there
is a person monitoring them live), and corrective (if they are used to track a criminal that
breached your physical perimeter).
Preventive: Administrative
• Policies and procedures
• Effective hiring practices
• Pre-employment background checks
• Controlled termination processes
• Data classification and labeling
• Security awareness
Preventive: Physical
• Badges, swipe cards
• Guards, dogs
• Fences, locks, mantraps
Preventive: Technical
• Passwords, biometrics, smart cards
• Encryption, secure protocols, call-back systems, database views, constrained user
interfaces
• Antimalware software, access control lists, firewalls, IPS
Table 2-6 shows how these types of control mechanisms perform different security
functions. Many students get themselves wrapped around the axle when trying to get
their mind around which control provides which functionality. This is how this train
of thought usually takes place: “A security camera system is a detective control, but if
an attacker sees its cameras, it could be a deterrent.” Let’s stop right here. Do not make
this any harder than it has to be. When trying to map the functionality requirement to
a control, think of the main reason that control would be put into place. A firewall tries
to prevent something bad from taking place, so it is a preventive control. Auditing logs
is done after an event took place, so it is detective. A data backup system is developed so
that data can be recovered; thus, this is a recovery control. Computer images are created
so that if software gets corrupted, they can be reloaded; thus, this is a corrective control.
Note that some controls can serve different functions. Security guards can deter
would-be attackers, but if they don’t deter all of them, they can also stop (prevent)
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Control Type:
Preventive Detective
Corrective
Deterrent
Recovery
Compensating
X
X
PART I
Controls by
Category:
Physical
Fences
X
Locks
X
Badge system
X
Security guard
X
Mantrap doors
X
X
X
Lighting
X
X
Motion
detectors
X
Closed-circuit
TVs
X
Offsite facility
Administrative
Security policy
X
Monitoring and
supervising
Separation of
duties
X
X
X
X
Investigations
Security
awareness
training
X
X
Job rotation
Information
classification
X
X
X
Technical
ACLs
X
Encryption
X
Audit logs
X
IDS
X
Antimalware
software
X
X
Workstation
images
Smart cards
X
X
Data backup
X
Table 2-6 Control Categories and Types
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the ones that try to get into a facility. Perhaps the attacker was particularly sneaky and
he managed to get into an office building, in which case the security guards can be
detective controls as they make the rounds and even corrective controls when they find
the intruder, call law enforcement, and escort the attacker out of the building and into
the backseat of a police car. When taking the CISSP exam, look for clues in the question
to determine which functionality is most relevant.
One control functionality that some people struggle with is a compensating control.
Let’s look at some examples of compensating controls to best explain their function.
If your organization needed to implement strong physical security, you might suggest
to management that they employ security guards. But after calculating all the costs of
security guards, your organization might decide to use a compensating (alternative)
control that provides similar protection but is more affordable—as in a fence. In another
example, let’s say you are a security administrator and you are in charge of maintaining
the organization’s firewalls. Management tells you that a certain protocol that you know
is vulnerable to exploitation has to be allowed through the firewall for business reasons.
The network needs to be protected by a compensating (alternative) control pertaining
to this protocol, which may be setting up a proxy server for that specific traffic type to
ensure that it is properly inspected and controlled. So a compensating control is just an
alternative control that provides similar protection as the original control but has to be
used because it is more affordable or allows specifically required business functionality.
Several types of security controls exist, and they all need to work together. The
complexity of the controls and of the environment they are in can cause the controls
to contradict each other or leave gaps in security. This can introduce unforeseen holes
in the organization’s protection that are not fully understood by the implementers. An
organization may have very strict technical access controls in place and all the necessary
administrative controls up to snuff, but if any person is allowed to physically access any
system in the facility, then clear security dangers are present within the environment.
Together, these controls should work in harmony to provide a healthy, safe, and
productive environment.
The risk assessment team must evaluate the security controls’ functionality and effectiveness. When selecting a security control, some attributes are more favorable than others. Table 2-7 lists and describes attributes that should be considered before purchasing
and committing to a security control.
Security controls can provide deterrence attributes if they are highly visible. This tells
potential evildoers that adequate protection is in place and that they should move on to
an easier target. Although the control may be highly visible, attackers should not be able
to discover the way it works, thus enabling them to attempt to modify it, or know how
to get around the protection mechanism. If users know how to disable the antimalware
program that is taking up CPU cycles or know how to bypass a proxy server to get to the
Internet without restrictions, they will do so.
Control Assessments
Once you select the administrative, technical, and physical controls that you think will
reduce your risks to acceptable levels, you have to ensure that this is actually the case.
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Description
Modular
The control can be installed or removed from an environment
without adversely affecting other mechanisms.
Provides uniform protection
A security level is applied in a standardized method to all
mechanisms the control is designed to protect.
Provides override functionality
An administrator can override the restriction if necessary.
Defaults to least privilege
When installed, the control defaults to a lack of
permissions and rights instead of installing with everyone
having full control.
Independence of control and the
asset it is protecting
The given control can protect multiple assets, and a given
asset can be protected by multiple controls.
Flexibility and security
The more security the control provides, the better. This
functionality should come with flexibility, which enables
you to choose different functions instead of all or none.
Usability
The control does not needlessly interfere with users’ work.
Asset protection
The asset is still protected even if the countermeasure
needs to be reset.
Easily upgraded
Software continues to evolve, and updates should be able
to happen painlessly.
Auditing functionality
The control includes a mechanism that provides auditing
at various levels of verbosity.
Minimizes dependence on other
components
The control should be flexible and not have strict requirements
about the environment into which it will be installed.
Must produce output in usable
and understandable format
The control should present important information in a format
easy for humans to understand and use for trend analysis.
Testable
The control should be able to be tested in different
environments under different situations.
Does not introduce other
compromises
The control should not provide any covert channels or
back doors.
System and user performance
System and user performance should not be greatly
affected by the control.
Proper alerting
The control should have the capability for thresholds to be
set as to when to alert personnel of a security breach, and
this type of alert should be acceptable.
Does not affect assets
The assets in the environment should not be adversely
affected by the control.
PART I
Characteristic
Table 2-7 Characteristics to Consider When Assessing Security Controls
A control assessment is an evaluation of one or more controls to determine the extent to
which they are implemented correctly, operating as intended, and producing the desired
outcome. Let’s look at each of those test elements in turn using anonymized examples
from the real world.
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You may have chosen the right control for a given risk, but you also need verification
that the manner in which it is implemented is correct too. Let’s suppose you decide to
upgrade a firewall to mitigate a number of risks you’ve identified. You invest a ton of
money in the latest and greatest firewall and apply a bunch of rules to filter out the good
from the bad. And yet, you forget to change the administrator’s default password, and
an attacker is able to log into your firewall, lock out the security team by changing the
password, and then change the rules to allow malicious traffic through. The technical
control was good, it just wasn’t implemented correctly. You avoid this by developing a
thorough set of tests that look at every aspect of the implementation and ensure no steps
were skipped or done wrong.
Another aspect of verification is to ensure that the controls are operating as intended.
You may have implemented the control correctly, but there are many reasons why it
may not work as you expected it would. For example, suppose you implement a policy
that all personnel in a facility must wear identification badges. Employees, contractors,
and visitors each get their own unique badge design to differentiate them. The policy is
implemented, and all staff are trained on it, but after a few weeks people get complacent
and stop noticing whether they (or others) are wearing badges. The administrative control
was properly implemented but is not working as intended. The control assessment should
include operational checks, such as having different people (perhaps some who are well
known in the organization and some who are not part of it) walk through the facility
with no badges and see whether they are challenged or reported.
Finally, we want validation that the controls are producing the desired outcomes.
Controls are selected for the purpose of reducing risk…so are they? Suppose you install
temperature sensors in your data center that generate alarms whenever they get too hot.
You are trying to reduce the risk of hardware failures due to high temperatures. These
physical controls are properly installed and work as intended. In fact, they generate alarms
every day during peak usage hours. Are they reducing the risk? Unless you upgrade the
underpowered air conditioning unit, all these alarms will do nothing to help you avoid
outages. Any assessment of your controls must explicitly test whether the risk for which
they were selected is actually being reduced.
EXAM TIP An easy way to differentiate verification and validation is that
verification answers the question “did we implement the control right?”
while validation answers the question “did we implement the right control?”
Security and Privacy
Security effectiveness deals with metrics such as meeting service level agreement (SLA)
requirements, achieving returns on investment (ROIs), meeting set baselines, and providing management with a dashboard or balanced scorecard system. These are ways
to determine how useful the current security solutions and architecture as a whole are
performing.
Another side to assessing security controls is ensuring that they do not violate our
privacy policies and regulations. It does us no good to implement the best security
controls if they require gross violations of people’s right to keep certain information
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PART I
about themselves from being known or used in inappropriate ways. For example, an
organization could have a policy that allows employees to use the organization’s assets
for personal purposes while they are on breaks. The same organization has implemented
Transport Layer Security (TLS) proxies that decrypt all network traffic in order to conduct
deep packet analysis and mitigate the risk that a threat actor is using encryption to hide
her malicious deeds. Normally, the process is fully automated and no other staff members
look at the decrypted communications. Periodically, however, security staff manually
check the system to ensure everything is working properly. Now, suppose an employee
reveals some very private health information to a friend over her personal webmail and
that traffic is monitored and observed by a security staffer. That breach of privacy could
cause a multitude of ethical, regulatory, and even legal problems for the organization.
When implementing security controls, it is critical to consider their privacy implications.
If your organization has a chief privacy officer (or other privacy professional), that person
should be part of the process of selecting and implementing security controls to ensure
they don’t unduly (or even illegally) violate employee privacy.
Monitoring Risks
We really can’t just build a risk management program (or any program, for that matter),
call it good, and go home. We need a way to assess the effectiveness of our work, identify
deficiencies, and prioritize the things that still need work. We need a way to facilitate
decision making, performance improvement, and accountability through collection,
analysis, and reporting of the necessary information. More importantly, we need to be
able to identify changes in the environment and be able to understand their impacts on
our risk posture. All this needs to be based on facts and metrics. As the saying goes, “You
can’t manage something you can’t measure.”
Risk monitoring is the ongoing process of adding new risks, reevaluating existing
ones, removing moot ones, and continuously assessing the effectiveness of our controls
at mitigating all risks to tolerable levels. Risk monitoring activities should be focused
on three key areas: effectiveness, change, and compliance. The risk management team
should continually look for improvement opportunities, periodically analyze the data
gathered from each key area, and report its findings to senior management. Let’s take a
closer look at how we might go about monitoring and measuring each area.
Effectiveness Monitoring
There are many reasons why the effectiveness of our security controls decreases. Technical controls may not adapt quickly to changing threat actor behaviors. Employees may
lose awareness of (or interest in) administrative controls. Physical controls may not keep
up with changing behaviors as people move in and through our facilities. How do we
measure this decline in the effectiveness of our controls and, more importantly, the rising
risks to our organizations? This is the crux of effectiveness monitoring.
One approach is to keep track of the number of security incidents by severity.
Let’s say that we implemented controls to reduce the risk of ransomware attacks. We
redesigned our security awareness training, deployed a new endpoint detection and
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response (EDR) solution, and implemented an automated offline backup system.
Subsequently, the number of ransomware-related incidents sharply declined across all
severity categories. While we still see a handful of localized cases here and there, no
data is lost, nobody is forced offline, and business is humming. However, recently we
are noticing that the number of low-severity incidents has started to increase. These are
cases where the ransomware makes it onto a workstation but is stopped as it attempts
to encrypt files. If we’re not paying attention to this trend, we may miss the fact that
the malware is evolving and becoming more effective at evading our EDR solution.
We’d be giving the adversary a huge advantage by letting them experiment and improve
while we do nothing about it. This is why effectiveness monitoring is important, and
why it has to be tied to specific metrics that can be quantified and analyzed over time.
In the previous example, the metric was the number of incidents related to ransomware
in our environment. There are many other metrics you could use, depending on the
control in question. You could use a red team and measure the number of times it
is successful at compromising various assets. You could use the number of suspected
phishing attacks reported by alert employees. Whatever your approach, you should
determine the effectiveness metrics you’ll use to monitor controls when you decide to use
those controls. Then, you really need to track those metrics over time to identify trends.
Failure to do so will result, almost inevitably, in the gradual (or perhaps sudden) increase
in risk until, one sad day, it is realized.
NOTE The Center for Internet Security (CIS) publishes a helpful (and free)
document titled “CIS Controls Measures and Metrics,” currently in its seventh
version. It provides specific measures for each control as well as goals for
their values in your organization.
A good way to enable effectiveness monitoring is to establish a standing group that
periodically checks known threats and the controls that are meant to mitigate them.
An example of this is a threat working group (TWG), which consists of members of all
major parts of the organization, meeting regularly (say, monthly) to review the list of
risks (sometimes called a risk registry) and ensure that threats and controls remain valid.
The TWG assigns owners to each risk and ensures those persons or groups are keeping
up their responsibilities. The TWG can also be the focal point for scheduling security
assessments, be they internal or external, to verify and validate the controls.
Change Monitoring
Even if you keep track of known threats and the risks they pose, it is likely that changes in
your organization’s environment will introduce new risks. There are two major sources of
change that impact your overall risk: information systems and business. The first is perhaps the most obvious to cybersecurity professionals. A new system is introduced, an old
one retired, or an existing one updated or reconfigured. Any of these changes can produce
new risks or change those you are already tracking. Another source of changes that introduce risks is the business itself. Over time, your organization will embark on new ventures, change internal processes, or perhaps merge with or acquire another organization.
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PART I
All these changes need to be carefully analyzed to ensure an accurate understanding of
their effects on the overall risk posture.
Monitoring changes to your environment and dealing with the risks they could
introduce is part of a good change management process. Typically, organizations will
have a change advisory board (CAB) or a similarly named standing group that reviews
and approves any changes such as the development of new policies, systems, and business
processes. The CAB measures changes through a variety of metrics that also are used to
monitor risks, such as the following:
• Number of unauthorized changes
• Average time to implement a change
• Number of failed changes
• Number of security incidents attributable to changes
NOTE We will discuss change management in more detail in Chapter 19.
Compliance Monitoring
Something else that could change in your organization and affect your risk are legal,
regulatory, and policy requirements. Compliance monitoring is a bit easier than effectiveness monitoring and change monitoring, because compliance tends to change fairly
infrequently. Laws and external regulations usually take years to change, while internal
regulations and policies should be part of the change management process we discussed
previously. Though the frequency of compliance changes is fairly low, these changes can
have significant impacts in the organization. A great example of this is the General Data
Protection Regulation (GDPR) that came into effect in May 2018. It was years in the
making, but it has had huge effects on any organization that stores or processes data
belonging to a person from the European Union (EU).
Another aspect of compliance monitoring is responding to audit findings. Whether it is
an external or internal audit, any findings dealing with compliance need to be addressed.
If the audit reveals risks that are improperly mitigated, the risk team needs to respond to
them. Failure to do so could result in significant fines or even criminal charges.
So, what can we measure to monitor our compliance? It varies among organizations,
but here are some common metrics to consider:
• Number of audit findings
• Ratio of internal (i.e., self-discovered) to external (i.e., audit) inquiries
• Average time to close an inquiry
• Number of internal disciplinary actions related to compliance
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No organization is perfectly compliant all the time, so there is always an element of
compliance risk. These risks, however, increase dramatically if there is no formal process
for searching for and dealing with issues that violate policies, regulations, or laws.
Risk Reporting
Risk reporting is an essential component of risk management in general and risk monitoring in particular. (Recall that risk management encompasses framing, assessing,
responding to, and monitoring the risks.) Reporting enables organizational decisionmaking, security governance, and day-to-day operations. It is also important for compliance purposes.
So, how should we report risks? There is no set formula for reporting, but there are a
couple of guiding principles. The first one is to understand the audience. There are at
least three groups at which you may target risk reports: executives (and board members),
managers, and risk owners. Each requires a different approach.
Executives and Board Members
Senior leaders in an organization are generally not interested in the details, nor should
they be. Their role is to set and monitor the strategic direction, not to run day-to-day
operations. These leaders want to know whether risks can be properly mitigated or
require change to the organizational strategy. They will be interested in the biggest risks
to the organization and will want to know what is being done to address them. Executives and board members should also be briefed on risks that have been “accepted” and
what their potential impacts could be.
When dealing with senior decision makers, risk heat maps, such as illustrated in
Figure 2-7, are typically used rather than verbose descriptions. This is to ensure that these
leaders can get the information they need at a glance in order to decide whether strategic
adjustments may be needed. In Figure 2-7, board members likely would be interested in
Risk
Figure 2-7
Sample risk
heat map
1
Very High
2
3
Impact
High
Medium
8
Low
11
6
10
9
Very Low
12
13
15
14
Very
Low
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7
5
4
Low
Medium
High
Very
high
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Managers
Managers across the organization will need much more detailed reports because they are
responsible for, well, managing the risks. They will want to know current risks and how
they’ve been trending over time. Are risks decreasing or increasing? Either way, why?
Where does progress seem to be stuck? These are some of the questions managers will
want the report to answer. They will also want to be able to drill into specific items of
interest to get into the details, such as who owns the risk, how we are responding to the
risk, and why the current approach may not be working.
Many organizations rely on risk management dashboards for this level of reporting.
These dashboards may be part of a risk management tool, in which case they’d be
interactive and allow drilling into specific items in the report. Organizations without
these automated tools typically use spreadsheets to generate graphs (showing trends over
time) or even manually developed slides. Whatever the approach, the idea is to present
actionable information allowing business unit managers to track their progress over time
with respect to risks.
PART I
discussing risk item #7 first since it is particularly significant. That is the point of a heat
map: it allows senior-level audiences to home in on the important topics for discussion.
Risk Owners
This is the internal audience that needs the most detailed reporting, because the risk
owners are the staff members responsible for managing individual risks. They take direction from management as they respond to specific risks. For example, if the organization
decides to transfer a given risk, the risk owner will be responsible for ensuring the insurance policy is developed and acquired effectively. This will include performance indicators, such as cost, coverage, and responsiveness. Cybersecurity insurance companies often
require that certain controls be in place in order to provide coverage, so the risk owner
must also ensure that these conditions are met so that the premiums are not being paid
in vain.
Continuous Improvement
Only by reassessing the risks on a periodic basis can the risk management team’s statements on security control performance be trusted. If the risk has not changed and the
safeguards implemented are functioning in good order, then it can be said that the risk is
being properly mitigated. Regular risk management monitoring will support the information security risk ratings.
Vulnerability analysis and continued asset identification and valuation are also
important tasks of risk management monitoring and performance. The cycle of
continued risk analysis is a very important part of determining whether the safeguard
controls that have been put in place are appropriate and necessary to safeguard the assets
and environment.
Continuous improvement is the practice of identifying opportunities, mitigating
threats, improving quality, and reducing waste as an ongoing effort. It is the hallmark of
mature and effective organizations.
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Level
Maturity
Characteristics
1
Initial
Risk activities are ad hoc, reactive, and poorly controlled.
2
Repeatable
Procedures are documented and (mostly) followed.
3
Defined
Standard procedures, tools, and methods are applied consistently.
4
Managed
Quantitative methods are applied both to risk management and to
the program.
5
Optimizing
Data-driven innovation occurs across the entire organization.
Table 2-8 Typical Maturity Model
Risk Maturity Modeling
Maturity models are tools that allow us to determine the ability of our organizations for
continuous improvement. We generally assess the maturity of an organization’s risk management on a scale of 1 to 5, as shown in Table 2-8. There is actually a level 0, which is
where the organization is not managing risk at all.
While it may be tempting to think that we should all strive to achieve the highest
level of maturity with regard to risk management, the reality is that we should reach the
right level of maturity given our resources, strategies, and business environment. It would
make little sense for a very small retail company to strive for level 5, because doing so
would require a level of resource investment that is not realistic. Conversely, it would be a
very bad idea for a large enterprise in the defense industry to be satisfied with a maturity
level 1, because the risks it faces are substantial. Ultimately, the level of maturity that
makes sense is a business decision, not a cybersecurity one.
Supply Chain Risk Management
Many organizations fail to consider their supply chain when managing risk, despite the
fact that it often presents a convenient and easier back door to an attacker. So what is a
supply chain anyway? A supply chain is a sequence of suppliers involved in delivering
some product. If your company manufactures laptops, your supply chain will include
the vendor that supplies your video cards. It will also include whoever makes the integrated circuits that go on those cards, as well as the supplier of the raw chemicals that are
involved in that process. The supply chain also includes suppliers of services, such as the
company that maintains the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems
needed to keep your assembly lines running.
The various organizations that make up your supply chain will have a different outlook
on security than you do. For one thing, their threat modeling will include different
threats than yours. Why would a criminal looking to steal credit card information target
an HVAC service provider? This is exactly what happened in 2013 when Target had over
40 million credit cards compromised. Target had done a reasonable job at securing its
perimeter, but not its internal networks. The attacker, unable (or maybe just unwilling)
to penetrate Target’s outer shell head-on, decided to exploit the vulnerable network of
one of Target’s HVAC service providers and steal its credentials. Armed with these, the
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Figure 2-8
Simplified supply
chain
Materials
Supplier
PART I
thieves were able to gain access to the point of sale terminals and, from there, the credit
card information.
The basic processes you’ll need to implement to manage risk in your supply chain
are the same ones you use in the rest of your risk management program. The differences
are mainly in what you look at (that is, the scope of your assessments) and what you
can do about it (legally and contractually). A good resource to help integrate supply
chain risk into your risk management program is NIST SP 800-161, Supply Chain Risk
Management Practices for Federal Information Systems and Organizations.
One of the first things you’ll need to do is to create a supply chain map for your
organization. This is essentially a network diagram of who supplies what to whom, down
to your ultimate customers. Figure 2-8 depicts a simplified systems integrator company
(“Your Company”). It has a hardware components manufacturer that supplies it hardware
and is, in turn, supplied by a materials producer. Your Company receives software from a
developer and receives managed security from an external service provider. The hardware
and software components are integrated and configured into Your Company’s product,
which is then shipped to its distributor and on to its customers. In this example, the
company has four suppliers on which to base its supply chain risk assessment. It is also
considered a supplier to its distributor.
Now, suppose the software developer in Figure 2-8 is attacked and the threat actors
insert malicious code into the developer’s software product. Anyone who receives that
application from Your Company, or perhaps through an otherwise legitimate software
update, also gets a very stealthy piece of malware that “phones home” to these actors,
telling them where the malware is and what its host network looks like. These are
sophisticated, nation-state spies intent on remaining undetected while they penetrate
some very specific targets. If an infected organization is of interest to them, they’ll deliver
the next stage of malware with which to quietly explore and steal files. Otherwise, they’ll
Components
Manufacturer
10
10101
010
Software
Developer
Your Company
Distributor
Customers
Security
Provider
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tell the malware to go dormant, making their actions extremely difficult to detect. This
is a high-level description of a cyber campaign discovered in late 2020 that exploited the
Orion software developed by U.S.-based firm SolarWinds. The magnitude of this series
of attacks underscores the importance of managing risk introduced by your suppliers.
Upstream and Downstream Suppliers
Suppliers are “upstream” from your company if they supply materials, goods, or services
to your company and your company uses those in turn to provide whatever it is that it
supplies to others. The core vulnerability that exists in these supply arrangements is that
you could allow untrusted hardware, software, or services into your organization or products, where they could cause security problems. The Greeks used this to their advantage
against the Trojans.
Conversely, your company may be upstream from others in the same supply chain.
These would be your company’s downstream suppliers. While it may be tempting to
think that you should be concerned only about supply chain security upstream, those
who follow your company in the supply chain may have their own set of upstream
requirements for your firm. Furthermore, your customers may not care that a security
issue was caused by your downstream distributor; your brand name could be damaged
all the same.
Risks Associated with Hardware, Software, and Services
While we explore risks inherent in any hardware, software, and services later in this book,
for now let’s consider those risks that are specifically tied to supply chains. That is to say,
what risks do you face when you acquire something (or someone’s service) and insert it
into your information systems?
Hardware
One of the major supply chain risks is the addition of hardware Trojans to electronic
components. A hardware Trojan is an electronic circuit that is added to an existing device
in order to compromise its security or provide unauthorized functionality. Depending
on the attacker’s access, these mechanisms can be inserted at any stage of the hardware
development process (specification, design, fabrication, testing, assembly, or packaging).
It is also possible to add them after the hardware is packaged by intercepting shipments
in the supply chain. In this case, the Trojan may be noticeable if the device is opened and
visually inspected. The earlier in the supply chain that hardware Trojans are inserted, the
more difficult they are to detect.
Another supply chain risk to hardware is the substitution of counterfeit components.
The problems with these clones are many, but from a security perspective one of the most
important is that they don’t go through the same quality controls that the real ones do.
This leads to lower reliability and abnormal behavior. It could also lead to undetected
hardware Trojans (perhaps inserted by the illicit manufacturers themselves). Obviously,
using counterfeits could have legal implications and will definitely be a problem when
you need customer support from the manufacturer.
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Software
PART I
Like hardware, third-party software can be Trojaned by an adversary in your supply
chain, particularly if it is custom-made for your organization. This could happen if your
supplier reuses components (like libraries) developed elsewhere and to which the attacker
has access. It can also be done by a malicious insider working for the supplier or by a
remote attacker who has gained access to the supplier’s software repositories. Failing all
that, the software could be intercepted in transit to you, modified, and then sent on its
way. This last approach could be made more difficult for the adversary by using code
signing or hashes, but it is still possible.
Services
More organizations are outsourcing services to allow them to focus on their core business functions. Organizations use hosting companies to maintain websites and e-mail
servers, service providers for various telecommunication connections, disaster recovery
companies for co-location capabilities, cloud computing providers for infrastructure or
application services, developers for software creation, and security companies to carry out
vulnerability management. It is important to realize that while you can outsource functionality, you cannot outsource risk. When your organization is using these third-party
service providers, it can still be ultimately responsible if something like a data breach
takes place. The following are some things an organization should do to reduce its risk
when outsourcing:
• Review the service provider’s security program
• Conduct onsite inspection and interviews
• Review contracts to ensure security and protection levels are agreed upon
• Ensure service level agreements are in place
• Review internal and external audit reports and third-party reviews
• Review references and communicate with former and existing customers
• Review Better Business Bureau reports
• Ensure the service provider has a business continuity plan (BCP) in place
• Implement a nondisclosure agreement (NDA)
• Understand the provider’s legal and regulatory requirements
Service outsourcing is prevalent within organizations today but is commonly forgotten
about when it comes to security and compliance requirements. It may be economical to
outsource certain functionalities, but if this allows security breaches to take place, it can
turn out to be a very costly decision.
Other Third-Party Risks
An organization’s supply chain is not its only source of third-party risks. There are many
other ways in which organizations may be dependent on each other that don’t really fit the
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supplier–consumer model. For example, many companies have a network of channel partners that help them directly or indirectly sell products. Others engage in general or limited
partnerships for specific projects, and these relationships require sharing some resources
and risks. Most organizations nowadays have a complex web of (sometimes not so obvious)
third parties on whom they rely to some extent and who, therefore, introduce risks.
Minimum Security Requirements
The key to effectively mitigating risks to an organization introduced by its suppliers is
to clearly state each party’s requirements in the contract or agreement that governs their
relationship. In terms of cybersecurity, this includes whatever measures are needed to
protect sensitive data at rest, in transit, and in use. It also includes the actions the supplier
shall perform should the data become compromised, as well as the means through which
the purchasing organization may proactively verify compliance. In summary, the critical
classes of requirements that should be included in a contractual agreement are as follows.
• Data protection Proactive cybersecurity measures
• Incident response Reactive cybersecurity measures
• Verification means Ways in which the customer may verify the preceding
requirements
If any requirements are missing, ambiguously stated, or otherwise vitiated, the supplier
agreement can become void, voidable, or unenforceable. So, how do you verify that your
supplier is complying with all contractual requirements dealing with risk? Third-party
assessments are considered best practice and may be required for compliance (e.g., with
PCI DSS). The following are some examples of external evaluations that would indicate
a supplier’s ability to comply with its contractual obligations:
• ISO 27001 certification
• U.S. Department of Defense Cybersecurity Maturity Model Certification (CMMC)
• Payment Card Industry Digital Security Standard (PCI DSS) certification
• Service Organization Control 1 (SOC1) or 2 (SOC2) report
• U.S. Federal Risk and Authorization Management Program (FedRAMP)
authorization
NOTE We will discuss these third-party evaluations in subsequent chapters.
Other third-party evaluations, such as vulnerability assessments and penetration
tests, are helpful in establishing a baseline of security in the organization. However, by
themselves, these limited-scope tests are insufficient to verify that the supplier is able to
fulfill its contractual obligations.
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Service Level Agreements
PART I
A service level agreement (SLA) is a contractual agreement that states that a service provider guarantees a certain level of service. If the service is not delivered at the agreed-upon
level (or better), then there are consequences (typically financial) for the service provider.
SLAs provide a mechanism to mitigate some of the risk from service providers in the
supply chain. For example, an Internet service provider (ISP) may sign an SLA of 99.999
percent (commonly called “five nines”) uptime to the Internet backbone. That means
that the ISP guarantees less than 26 seconds of downtime per month.
Business Continuity
Though we strive to drive down the risks of negative effects in our organizations, we can
be sure that sooner or later an event will slip through and cause negative impacts. Ideally,
the losses are contained and won’t affect the major business efforts. However, as security
professionals we need to have plans in place for when the unthinkable happens. Under
those extreme (and sometimes unpredictable) conditions, we need to ensure that our
organizations continue to operate at some minimum acceptable threshold capacity and
quickly bounce back to full productivity.
Business continuity (BC) is an organization’s ability to maintain business functions
or quickly resume them in the event that risks are realized and result in disruptions.
The events can be pretty mundane, such as a temporary power outage, loss of network
connectivity, or a critical employee (such as a systems administrator) suddenly becoming
ill. These events could also be major disasters, such as an earthquake, explosion, or energy
grid failure. Disaster recovery (DR), by contrast to BC, is the process of minimizing the
effects of a disaster or major disruption. It means taking the necessary steps to ensure that
the resources, personnel, and business processes are safe and able to resume operation in a
timely manner. So, DR is part of BC and the disaster recovery plan (DRP) covers a subset
of events compared to the broader business continuity plan (BCP).
EXAM TIP A business continuity plan (BCP) and a disaster recovery plan
(DRP) are related but different. The DRP is a subset of the BCP and is focused
on the immediate aftermath of a disaster. The BCP is much broader and
covers any disruption including (but not limited to) disasters.
NOTE We discuss disaster recovery plans in detail in Chapter 23.
A BCP can include getting critical systems to another environment while repair of
the original facilities is underway, getting the right people to the right places during this
time, and performing business in a different mode until regular conditions are back in
place. A BCP also involves dealing with customers, partners, and shareholders through
different channels until everything returns to normal. So, disaster recovery deals with,
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“Oh my goodness, the sky is falling,” and continuity planning deals with, “Okay, the
sky fell. Now, how do we stay in business until someone can put the sky back where it
belongs?”
Business Continuity
Planning
Senior
management
IT Disaster Recovery
Planning
Business lines
Application availability
Data confidentiality and integrity
Telecommunications and network
Property management
While disaster recovery and business continuity planning are directed at the
development of plans, business continuity management (BCM) is the holistic management
process that should cover both of them. BCM provides a framework for integrating
resilience with the capability for effective responses in a manner that protects the
interests of an organization’s key stakeholders. The main objective of BCM is to allow
the organization to continue to perform business operations under various conditions.
Business Continuity Management
Issues
Addressed
Availability
Reliability
Recoverability
Solution
Enterprise high
availability
Server-level
management
Business
continuity planning
Objective
Achieve and maintain
the chosen availability
level of the enterprise’s
IT infrastructure
Emphasis
Technology
Focus
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Effectively manage and
Provide an effective plan
control the IT infrastructure to minimize downtime of
to improve the overall
key processes in the
operational reliability
event of a major disruption
Processes
Proactive and
preventive
People
Response and
recovery
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PART I
Certain characteristics run through many of the chapters in this book: availability,
integrity, and confidentiality. Here, we point out that integrity and confidentiality must
be considered not only in everyday procedures but also in those procedures undertaken
immediately after a disaster or disruption. For instance, it may not be appropriate to leave
a server that holds confidential information in one building while everyone else moves to
another building. Equipment that provides secure VPN connections may be destroyed
and the team might respond by focusing on enabling remote access functionality while
forgetting about the needs of encryption. In most situations the organization is purely
focused on getting back up and running, thus focusing on functionality. If security is not
integrated and implemented properly, the effects of the physical disaster can be amplified
as threat actors come in and steal sensitive information. Many times an organization is
much more vulnerable after a disaster hits, because the security services used to protect it
may be unavailable or operating at a reduced capacity. Therefore, it is important that if
the organization has secret stuff, it stays secret.
Availability is one of the main themes behind business continuity planning, in that
it ensures that the resources required to keep the business going will continue to be
available to the people and systems that rely upon them. This may mean backups need
to be done religiously and that redundancy needs to be factored into the architecture
of the systems, networks, and operations. If communication lines are disabled or if a
service is rendered unusable for any significant period of time, there must be a quick and
tested way of establishing alternative communications and services. We will be diving
into the many ways organizations can implement availability solutions for continuity and
recovery purposes throughout this section.
When looking at business continuity planning, some organizations focus mainly on
backing up data and providing redundant hardware. Although these items are extremely
important, they are just small pieces of the organization’s overall operations pie. Hardware
and computers need people to configure and operate them, and data is usually not useful
unless it is accessible by other systems and possibly outside entities. Thus, a larger picture
Business Continuity Planning
Preplanned procedures allow an organization to
• Provide an immediate and appropriate response to emergency situations
• Protect lives and ensure safety
• Reduce business impact
• Resume critical business functions
• Work with outside vendors and partners during the recovery period
• Reduce confusion during a crisis
• Ensure survivability of the organization
• Get “up and running” quickly after a disaster
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of how the various processes within an organization work together needs to be understood.
Planning must include getting the right people to the right places, documenting the
necessary configurations, establishing alternative communications channels (voice and
data), providing power, and making sure all dependencies are properly understood and
taken into account.
It is also important to understand how automated tasks can be carried out manually,
if necessary, and how business processes can be safely altered to keep the operation of the
organization going. This may be critical in ensuring the organization survives the event
with the least impact to its operations. Without this type of vision and planning, when a
disaster hits, an organization could have its backup data and redundant servers physically
available at the alternative facility, but the people responsible for activating them may
be standing around in a daze, not knowing where to start or how to perform in such a
different environment.
Standards and Best Practices
Although no specific scientific equation must be followed to create continuity plans, certain best practices have proven themselves over time. The National Institute of Standards
and Technology is responsible for developing best practices and standards as they pertain
to U.S. government and military environments. It is common for NIST to document the
requirements for these types of environments, and then everyone else in the industry uses
NIST’s documents as guidelines. So these are “musts” for U.S. government organizations
and “good to have” for other, nongovernment entities.
NIST outlines the following steps in SP 800-34, Rev. 1, Contingency Planning Guide
for Federal Information Systems:
1. Develop the continuity planning policy statement. Write a policy that provides the
guidance necessary to develop a BCP and that assigns authority to the necessary
roles to carry out these tasks.
2. Conduct the business impact analysis (BIA). Identify critical functions and systems
and allow the organization to prioritize them based on necessity. Identify
vulnerabilities and threats, and calculate risks.
3. Identify preventive controls. Once threats are recognized, identify and implement
controls and countermeasures to reduce the organization’s risk level in an
economical manner.
4. Create contingency strategies. Formulate methods to ensure systems and critical
functions can be brought online quickly.
5. Develop an information system contingency plan. Write procedures and guidelines
for how the organization can still stay functional in a crippled state.
6. Ensure plan testing, training, and exercises. Test the plan to identify deficiencies
in the BCP, and conduct training to properly prepare individuals on their
expected tasks.
7. Ensure plan maintenance. Put in place steps to ensure the BCP is a living
document that is updated regularly.
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Continuity
policy
- Integrate law
and regulation
requirements
- Define the scope,
goals, and roles
- Management
approves policy
BIA
- Identify critical
functions
- Identify critical
resources
- Calculate MTD for
resources
- Identify threats
- Calculate risks
- Identify backup
solutions
Develop
BCP
- Document
- Procedures
- Recovery solutions
- Roles and tasks
- Emergency
response
Identify preventive
controls
Create contingency
strategies
- Implement controls
- Mitigate risk
- Business processes
- Facility
- Supply and
technology
- User and user
environment
- Data
Exercise,
test, and drill
- Test plan
- Improve plan
- Train employees
PART I
Although NIST SP 800-34 deals specifically with IT contingency plans, these steps are
similar when creating enterprise-wide BCPs and BCM programs.
Maintain
BCP
- Integrate into change
control process
- Assign responsibility
- Update plan
- Distribute after
updating
Since BCM is so critical, it is actually addressed by other standards-based organizations,
listed here:
ISO/IEC 27031:2011 Guidelines for information and communications technology
readiness for business continuity. This ISO/IEC standard is a component of the overall
ISO/IEC 27000 series.
ISO 22301:2019 International standard for business continuity management systems.
The specification document against which organizations will seek certification.
Business Continuity Institute’s Good Practice Guidelines (GPG) Represents the
consensus view of an international group of BC practitioners. As of this writing, the latest
edition was published in 2018. It is organized around six Professional Practices (PP):
• Policy and Program Management (PP1) Focuses on governance
• Embedding Business Continuity (PP2) Provides guidance on embedding
BCM in the organization’s culture, which includes awareness and training
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• Analysis (PP3) Addresses organizational review, risk assessment, and business
impact analysis, among other topics
• Design (PP4) Focuses on identifying and selecting the right BC solutions
• Implementation (PP5) Addresses what should go into the BC plan
• Validation (PP6) Covers exercising, maintaining, and reviewing the program
DRI International Institute’s Professional Practices for Business Continuity
Management Best practices and framework to allow for BCM processes, which are
broken down into the following sections:
• Program Initiation and Management
• Risk Assessment
• Business Impact Analysis
• Business Continuity Strategies
• Incident Response
• Plan Development and Implementation
• Awareness and Training Programs
• Business Continuity Plan Exercise, Assessment, and Maintenance
• Crisis Communications
• Coordination with External Agencies
Why are there so many sets of best practices and which is the best for your organization?
If your organization is part of the U.S. government or a government contracting
organization, then you need to comply with the NIST standards. If your organization
is in Europe or your organization does business with other organizations in Europe,
then you might need to follow the European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA)
requirements. While we are not listing all of them here, there are other country-based
BCM standards that your organization might need to comply with if it is residing in or
does business in one of those specific countries. If your organization needs to get ISO
certified, then ISO/IEC 27031 and ISO 22301 could be the standards to follow. While
the first of these is focused on IT, the second is broader in scope and addresses the needs
of the entire organization.
Making BCM Part of the Enterprise Security Program
As we already explained, every organization should have security policies, procedures,
standards, and guidelines. People who are new to information security commonly think
that this is one pile of documentation that addresses all issues pertaining to security, but
it is more complicated than that—of course.
Business continuity planning ought to be fully integrated into the organization as a
regular management process, just like auditing or strategic planning or other “normal”
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An organization has no real hope of rebuilding itself and its processes after a disaster
if it does not have a good understanding of how its organization works in the first
place. This notion might seem absurd at first. You might think, “Well, of course an
organization knows how it works.” But you would be surprised at how difficult it is
to fully understand an organization down to the level of detail required to rebuild
it. Each individual may know and understand his or her little world within the
organization, but hardly anyone at any organization can fully explain how each and
every business process takes place.
PART I
Understanding the Organization First
processes. Instead of being considered an outsider, BCP should be “part of the team.”
Further, final responsibility for BCP should belong not to the BCP team or its leader,
but to a high-level executive manager, preferably a member of the executive board. This
will reinforce the image and reality of continuity planning as a function seen as vital to
the organizational chiefs.
By analyzing and planning for potential disruptions to the organization, the BCP
team can assist other business disciplines in their own efforts to effectively plan for and
respond effectively and with resilience to emergencies. Given that the ability to respond
depends on operations and management personnel throughout the organization, such
capability should be developed organization-wide. It should extend throughout every
location of the organization and up the employee ranks to top-tier management.
As such, the BCP program needs to be a living entity. As an organization goes through
changes, so should the program, thereby ensuring it stays current, usable, and effective.
When properly integrated with change management processes, the program stands a much
better chance of being continually updated and improved upon. Business continuity is a
foundational piece of an effective security program and is critical to ensuring relevance
in time of need.
A very important question to ask when first developing a BCP is why it is being
developed. This may seem silly and the answer may at first appear obvious, but that is
not always the case. You might think that the reason to have these plans is to deal with
an unexpected disaster and to get people back to their tasks as quickly and as safely as
possible, but the full story is often a bit different. Why are most companies in business?
To make money and be profitable. If these are usually the main goals of businesses, then
any BCP needs to be developed to help achieve and, more importantly, maintain these
goals. The main reason to develop these plans in the first place is to reduce the risk of
financial loss by improving the company’s ability to recover and restore operations. This
encompasses the goals of mitigating the effects of the disaster.
Not all organizations are businesses that exist to make profits. Government agencies,
military units, nonprofit organizations, and the like exist to provide some type of
protection or service to a nation or society. Whereas a company must create its BCP
to ensure that revenue continues to come in so that the company can stay in business,
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other types of organizations must create their BCPs to make sure they can still carry
out their critical tasks. Although the focus and business drivers of the organizations and
companies may differ, their BCPs often have similar constructs—which is to get their
critical processes up and running.
Protecting what is most important to a company is rather difficult if what is most
important is not first identified. Senior management is usually involved with this step
because it has a point of view that extends beyond each functional manager’s focus area
of responsibility. Senior management has the visibility needed to establish the scope of
the plan. The company’s BCP should be focused on the company’s critical mission and
business functions. And, conversely, the BCP must support the organization’s overall
strategy. The functions must have priorities set upon them to indicate which is most
crucial to a company’s survival. The scope of the BCP is defined by which of these
functions are considered important enough to warrant the investment of resources
required for BC.
As stated previously, for many companies, financial operations are most critical. As
an example, an automotive company would be affected far more seriously if its credit
and loan services were unavailable for a day than if, say, an assembly line went down
for a day, since credit and loan services are where it generates the biggest revenues. For
other organizations, customer service might be the most critical area to ensure that order
processing is not negatively affected. For example, if a company makes heart pacemakers
and its physician services department is unavailable at a time when an operating room
surgeon needs to contact it because of a complication, the results could be disastrous for
the patient. The surgeon and the company would likely be sued, and the company would
likely never again be able to sell another pacemaker to that surgeon, her colleagues, or
perhaps even the patient’s health maintenance organization (HMO). It would be very
difficult to rebuild reputation and sales after something like that happened.
Advanced planning for emergencies covers issues that were thought of and foreseen.
Many other problems may arise that are not covered in the BCP; thus, flexibility in
the plan is crucial. The plan is a systematic way of providing a checklist of actions that
should take place right after a disaster. These actions have been thought through to help
the people involved be more efficient and effective in dealing with traumatic situations.
The most critical part of establishing and maintaining a current BCP is management
support. Management must be convinced of the necessity of such a plan. Therefore, a
business case must be made to obtain this support. The business case may include current
vulnerabilities, regulatory and legal obligations, the current status of recovery plans,
and recommendations. Management is mostly concerned with cost/benefit issues, so
preliminary numbers need to be gathered and potential losses estimated. A cost/benefit
analysis should include shareholder, stakeholder, regulatory, and legislative impacts, as
well as impacts on products, services, and personnel. The decision of how a company
should recover is commonly a business decision and should always be treated as such.
Business Impact Analysis
Business continuity planning deals with uncertainty and chance. What is important to
note here is that even though you cannot predict whether or when a disaster will happen,
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PART I
that doesn’t mean you can’t plan for it. Just because we are not planning for an earthquake to hit us tomorrow morning at 10 a.m. doesn’t mean we can’t plan the activities
required to successfully survive when an earthquake (or a similar disaster) does hit. The
point of making these plans is to try to think of all the possible disasters that could take
place, estimate the potential damage and loss, categorize and prioritize the potential
disasters, and develop viable alternatives in case those events do actually happen.
A business impact analysis (BIA) is considered a functional analysis, in which a team
collects data through interviews and documentary sources; documents business functions,
activities, and transactions; develops a hierarchy of business functions; and finally applies
a classification scheme to indicate each individual function’s criticality level. But how do
we determine a classification scheme based on criticality levels?
The BCP committee must identify the threats to the organization and map them to
the following characteristics:
• Maximum tolerable downtime and disruption for activities
• Operational disruption and productivity
• Financial considerations
• Regulatory responsibilities
• Reputation
The committee will not truly understand all business processes, the steps that must
take place, or the resources and supplies these processes require. So the committee must
gather this information from the people who do know—department managers and
specific employees throughout the organization. The committee starts by identifying
the people who will be part of the BIA data-gathering sessions. The committee needs to
identify how it will collect the data from the selected employees, be it through surveys,
interviews, or workshops. Next, the team needs to collect the information by actually
conducting surveys, interviews, and workshops. Data points obtained as part of the
information gathering will be used later during analysis. It is important that the team
members ask about how different tasks—whether processes, transactions, or services,
along with any relevant dependencies—get accomplished within the organization. The
team should build process flow diagrams, which will be used throughout the BIA and
plan development stages.
Upon completion of the data collection phase, the BCP committee needs to conduct a
BIA to establish which processes, devices, or operational activities are critical. If a system
stands on its own, doesn’t affect other systems, and is of low criticality, then it can be
classified as a tier-two or tier-three recovery step. This means these resources will not be
dealt with during the recovery stages until the most critical (tier one) resources are up and
running. This analysis can be completed using a standard risk assessment as illustrated
in Figure 2-9.
Risk Assessment
To achieve success, the organization should systematically plan and execute a formal
BCP-related risk assessment. The assessment fully takes into account the organization’s
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Figure 2-9
Risk assessment
process
Risk analysis
(including business
impact analysis)
Monitor and review
Risk identification
Risk management
Communication and consultation
Establish the content
Risk evaluation
Risk treatment
tolerance for continuity risks. The risk assessment also makes use of the data in the BIA
to supply a consistent estimate of exposure.
As indicators of success, the risk assessment should identify, evaluate, and record all
relevant items, which may include
• Vulnerabilities for all of the organization’s most time-sensitive resources
and activities
• Threats and hazards to the organization’s most urgent resources and activities
• Measures that cut the possibility, length, or effect of a disruption on critical
services and products
• Single points of failure; that is, concentrations of risk that threaten
business continuity
• Continuity risks from concentrations of critical skills or critical shortages of skills
• Continuity risks due to outsourced vendors and suppliers
• Continuity risks that the BCP program has accepted, that are handled elsewhere,
or that the BCP program does not address
Risk Assessment Evaluation and Process
In a BCP setting, a risk assessment looks at the impact and likelihood of various threats
that could trigger a business disruption. The tools, techniques, and methods of risk
assessment include determining threats, assessing probabilities, tabulating threats, and
analyzing costs and benefits.
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The end goals of a business continuity–focused risk assessment include
PART I
• Identifying and documenting single points of failure
• Making a prioritized list of threats to the particular business processes of the
organization
• Putting together information for developing a management strategy for risk
control and for developing action plans for addressing risks
• Documenting acceptance of identified risks, or documenting acknowledgment of
risks that will not be addressed
The risk assessment is assumed to take the form of the equation Risk = Threat ×
Impact × Probability. However, the BIA adds the dimension of time to this equation. In
other words, risk mitigation measures should be geared toward those things that might
most rapidly disrupt critical business processes and commercial activities.
The main parts of a risk assessment are
• Review the existing strategies for risk management
• Construct a numerical scoring system for probabilities and impacts
• Make use of a numerical score to gauge the effect of the threat
• Estimate the probability of each threat
• Weigh each threat through the scoring system
• Calculate the risk by combining the scores of likelihood and impact of each threat
• Get the organization’s sponsor to sign off on these risk priorities
• Weigh appropriate measures
• Make sure that planned measures that alleviate risk do not heighten other risks
• Present the assessment’s findings to executive management
Threats can be man-made, natural, or technical. A man-made threat may be an
arsonist, a terrorist, or a simple mistake that can have serious outcomes. Natural threats
may be tornadoes, floods, hurricanes, or earthquakes. Technical threats may be data
corruption, loss of power, device failure, or loss of a data communications line. It is
important to identify all possible threats and estimate the probability of them happening.
Some issues may not immediately come to mind when developing these plans, such as
an employee strike, vandals, disgruntled employees, or hackers, but they do need to be
identified. These issues are often best addressed in a group with scenario-based exercises.
This ensures that if a threat becomes reality, the plan includes the ramifications on all
business tasks, departments, and critical operations. The more issues that are thought
of and planned for, the better prepared an organization will be if and when these events
take place.
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The BCP committee needs to step through scenarios in which the following
problems result:
• Equipment malfunction or unavailable equipment
• Unavailable utilities (HVAC, power, communications lines)
• Facility becomes unavailable
• Critical personnel become unavailable
• Vendor and service providers become unavailable
• Software and/or data corruption
The specific scenarios and damage types can vary from organization to organization.
Assigning Values to Assets
Qualitative and quantitative impact information should be gathered and then properly
analyzed and interpreted. The goal is to see exactly how an organization will be affected
by different threats. The effects can be economical, operational, or both. Upon completion of the data analysis, it should be reviewed with the most knowledgeable people
within the organization to ensure that the findings are appropriate and that it describes
the real risks and impacts the organization faces. This will help flush out any additional
data points not originally obtained and will give a fuller understanding of all the possible
business impacts.
Loss criteria must be applied to the individual threats that were identified. The criteria
may include the following:
• Loss in reputation and public confidence
• Loss of competitive advantages
BIA Steps
The more detailed and granular steps of a BIA are outlined here:
1. Select individuals to interview for data gathering.
2. Create data-gathering techniques (surveys, questionnaires, qualitative and
quantitative approaches).
3. Identify the organization’s critical business functions.
4. Identify the resources these functions depend upon.
5. Calculate how long these functions can survive without these resources.
6. Identify vulnerabilities and threats to these functions.
7. Calculate the risk for each different business function.
8. Document findings and report them to management.
We cover each of these steps in this chapter.
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PART I
• Increase in operational expenses
• Violations of contract agreements
• Violations of legal and regulatory requirements
• Delayed-income costs
• Loss in revenue
• Loss in productivity
These costs can be direct or indirect and must be properly accounted for.
For instance, if the BCP team is looking at the threat of a terrorist bombing, it is
important to identify which business function most likely would be targeted, how all
business functions could be affected, and how each bulleted item in the loss criteria
would be directly or indirectly involved. The timeliness of the recovery can be critical for
business processes and the company’s survival. For example, it may be acceptable to have
the customer-support functionality out of commission for two days, whereas five days
may leave the company in financial ruin.
After identifying the critical functions, it is necessary to find out exactly what is
required for these individual business processes to take place. The resources that are
required for the identified business processes are not necessarily just computer systems,
but may include personnel, procedures, tasks, supplies, and vendor support. It must be
understood that if one or more of these support mechanisms is not available, the critical
function may be doomed. The team must determine what type of effect unavailable
resources and systems will have on these critical functions.
The BIA identifies which of the organization’s critical systems are needed for survival
and estimates the outage time that can be tolerated by the organization as a result of
various unfortunate events. The outage time that can be endured by an organization is
referred to as the maximum tolerable downtime (MTD) or maximum tolerable period of
disruption (MTPD), which is illustrated in Figure 2-10.
Figure 2-10
Maximum
tolerable
downtime
Irreparable
losses
Point at which the impact
becomes unacceptable
Serious but
survivable
losses
No loss
MTD
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The following are some MTD estimates that an organization may use. Note that these
are sample estimates that will vary from organization to organization and from business
unit to business unit.
• Nonessential 30 days
• Normal 7 days
• Important 72 hours
• Urgent 24 hours
• Critical Minutes to hours
Each business function and asset should be placed in one of these categories, depending
upon how long the organization can survive without it. These estimates will help the
organization determine what backup solutions are necessary to ensure the availability of
these resources. The shorter the MTD, the higher priority of recovery for the function in
question. Thus, the items classified as Urgent should be addressed before those classified
as Normal.
For example, if being without a T1 communication line for three hours would cost
the company $130,000, the T1 line could be considered Critical, and thus the company
should put in a backup T1 line from a different carrier. If a server going down and being
unavailable for ten days will only cost the company $250 in revenue, this would fall into
the Normal category, and thus the company may not need to have a fully redundant
server waiting to be swapped out. Instead, the company may choose to count on its
vendor’s SLA, which may promise to have it back online in eight days.
Sometimes the MTD will depend in large measure on the type of organization in
question. For instance, a call center—a vital link to current and prospective clients—
will have a short MTD, perhaps measured in minutes instead of weeks. A common
solution is to split up the calls through multiple call centers placed in differing locales.
If one call center is knocked out of service, the other one can temporarily pick up the
load. Manufacturing can be handled in various ways. Examples include subcontracting
the making of products to an outside vendor, manufacturing at multiple sites, and
warehousing an extra supply of products to fill gaps in supply in case of disruptions to
normal manufacturing.
The BCP team must try to think of all possible events that might occur that could
turn out to be detrimental to an organization. The BCP team also must understand it
cannot possibly contemplate all events, and thus protection may not be available for
every scenario introduced. Being properly prepared specifically for a flood, earthquake,
terrorist attack, or lightning strike is not as important as being properly prepared to
respond to anything that damages or disrupts critical business functions.
All of the previously mentioned disasters could cause these results, but so could a
meteor strike, a tornado, or a wing falling off a plane passing overhead. So the moral of
the story is to be prepared for the loss of any or all business resources, instead of focusing
on the events that could cause the loss.
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PART I
EXAM TIP A BIA is performed at the beginning of business continuity
planning to identify the areas that would suffer the greatest financial or
operational loss in the event of a disaster or disruption. It identifies the
organization’s critical systems needed for survival and estimates the outage
time that can be tolerated by the organization as a result of a disaster or
disruption.
Identify Critical IT Resources
Input from users,
business process
owners, application
owners, and other
associated groups
Critical Business Process
1. Payroll processing
2. Time and attendance reporting
3. Time and attendance verification
4. Time and attendance approval
Critical Resources
• LAN server
• WAN access
• E-mail
• Mainframe access
• E-mail server
Identify Disruption Impacts and Allowable Outage Times
Process: 2. Time and attendance reporting
Max. allowable
outage: 8 hours
Impact
• Delay in time-sheet
processing
• Inability to perform payroll
operations
• Delay in payroll processing
Critical Resources
• LAN server
• WAN access
• E-mail
• Mainframe access
• E-mail server
Develop Recovery Priorities
Resources
• LAN server
• WAN access
• E-mail
• Mainframe access
• E-mail server
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Recovery Priority
High
Medium
Low
High
High
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Chapter Review
We took a very detailed look at the way in which we manage risk to our information
systems. We know that no system is truly secure, so our job is to find the most likely
and the most dangerous threat actions so that we can address them first. The process of
quantifying losses and their probabilities of occurring is at the heart of risk assessments.
Armed with that information, we are able to make good decisions in terms of controls,
processes, and costs. Our approach is focused not solely on the human adversary but also
on any source of loss to our organizations. Most importantly, we use this information to
devise ways in which to ensure we can continue business operations in the face of any
reasonable threat.
Quick Review
• Risk management is the process of identifying and assessing risk, reducing it to
an acceptable level, and ensuring it remains at that level.
• An information systems risk management (ISRM) policy provides the foundation
and direction for the organization’s security risk management processes and
procedures and should address all issues of information security.
• A threat is a potential cause of an unwanted incident, which may result in harm
to a system or organization.
• Four risk assessment methodologies with which you should be familiar are NIST
SP 800-30; Facilitated Risk Analysis Process (FRAP); Operationally Critical
Threat, Asset, and Vulnerability Evaluation (OCTAVE); and Failure Modes and
Effect Analysis (FMEA).
• Failure Modes and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is a method for determining functions,
identifying functional failures, and assessing the causes of failure and their effects
through a structured process.
• A fault tree analysis is a useful approach to detect failures that can take place
within complex environments and systems.
• A quantitative risk analysis attempts to assign monetary values to components
within the analysis.
• A purely quantitative risk analysis is not possible because qualitative items cannot
be quantified with precision.
• Qualitative risk analysis uses judgment and intuition instead of numbers.
• Qualitative risk analysis involves people with the requisite experience and
education evaluating threat scenarios and rating the probability, potential loss,
and severity of each threat based on their personal experience.
• Single loss expectancy × frequency per year = annualized loss expectancy
(SLE × ARO = ALE)
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• The main goals of risk analysis are the following: identify assets and assign values
to them, identify vulnerabilities and threats, quantify the impact of potential
threats, and provide an economic balance between the impact of the risk and the
cost of the safeguards.
• Capturing the degree of uncertainty when carrying out a risk analysis is
important, because it indicates the level of confidence the team and management
should have in the resulting figures.
• Automated risk analysis tools reduce the amount of manual work involved in the
analysis. They can be used to estimate future expected losses and calculate the
benefits of different security measures.
• The risk management team should include individuals from different departments
within the organization, not just technical personnel.
• Risk can be transferred, avoided, reduced, or accepted.
• Threats × vulnerability × asset value = total risk.
• (Threats × vulnerability × asset value) × controls gap = residual risk.
• When choosing the right safeguard to reduce a specific risk, the cost, functionality,
and effectiveness must be evaluated and a cost/benefit analysis performed.
• There are three main categories of controls: administrative, technical, and
physical.
• Controls can also be grouped by types, depending on their intended purpose, as
preventive, detective, corrective, deterrent, recovery, and compensating.
• A control assessment is an evaluation of one or more controls to determine the
extent to which they are implemented correctly, operating as intended, and
producing the desired outcome.
• Security control verification answers the question “did we implement the control
right?” while validation answers the question “did we implement the right control?”
• Risk monitoring is the ongoing process of adding new risks, reevaluating existing
ones, removing moot ones, and continuously assessing the effectiveness of your
controls at mitigating all risks to tolerable levels.
• Change management processes deal with monitoring changes to your
environment and dealing with the risks they could introduce.
• Continuous improvement is the practice of identifying opportunities, mitigating
threats, improving quality, and reducing waste as an ongoing effort. It is the
hallmark of mature and effective organizations.
• A supply chain is a sequence of suppliers involved in delivering some product.
• Business continuity management (BCM) is the overarching approach to managing
all aspects of BCP and DRP.
• A business continuity plan (BCP) contains strategy documents that provide
detailed procedures that ensure critical business functions are maintained and
that help minimize losses of life, operations, and systems.
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• A BCP provides procedures for emergency responses, extended backup operations,
and post-disaster recovery.
• A BCP should have an enterprise-wide reach, with each individual organizational
unit having its own detailed continuity and contingency plans.
• A BCP needs to prioritize critical applications and provide a sequence for efficient
recovery.
• A BCP requires senior executive management support for initiating the plan and
final approval.
• BCPs can quickly become outdated due to personnel turnover, reorganizations,
and undocumented changes.
• Executives may be held liable if proper BCPs are not developed and used.
• Threats can be natural, man-made, or technical.
• The business impact analysis (BIA) is one of the most important first steps in the
planning development. Qualitative and quantitative data on the business impact of
a disaster need to be gathered, analyzed, interpreted, and presented to management.
• Executive commitment and support are the most critical elements in developing
the BCP.
• A business case must be presented to gain executive support. This is done by
explaining regulatory and legal requirements, exposing vulnerabilities, and
providing solutions.
• Plans should be prepared by the people who will actually carry them out.
• The planning group should comprise representatives from all departments or
organizational units.
• The BCP team should identify the individuals who will interact with external
players, such as the reporters, shareholders, customers, and civic officials.
Response to the disaster should be done quickly and honestly, and should be
consistent with any other organizational response.
Questions
Please remember that these questions are formatted and asked in a certain way for a reason.
Keep in mind that the CISSP exam is asking questions at a conceptual level. Questions may
not always have the perfect answer, and the candidate is advised against always looking for
the perfect answer. Instead, the candidate should look for the best answer in the list.
1. When is it acceptable to not take action on an identified risk?
A. Never. Good security addresses and reduces all risks.
B. When political issues prevent this type of risk from being addressed.
C. When the necessary countermeasure is complex.
D. When the cost of the countermeasure outweighs the value of the asset and
potential loss.
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A. Risk analysis
B. Cost/benefit analysis
PART I
2. Which is the most valuable technique when determining if a specific security
control should be implemented?
C. ALE results
D. Identifying the vulnerabilities and threats causing the risk
3. Which best describes the purpose of the ALE calculation?
A. Quantifies the security level of the environment
B. Estimates the loss possible for a countermeasure
C. Quantifies the cost/benefit result
D. Estimates the loss potential of a threat in a span of a year
4. How do you calculate residual risk?
A. Threats × risks × asset value
B. (Threats × asset value × vulnerability) × risks
C. SLE × frequency = ALE
D. (Threats × vulnerability × asset value) × controls gap
5. Why should the team that will perform and review the risk analysis information
be made up of people in different departments?
A. To make sure the process is fair and that no one is left out.
B. It shouldn’t. It should be a small group brought in from outside the organization
because otherwise the analysis is biased and unusable.
C. Because people in different departments understand the risks of their department.
Thus, it ensures the data going into the analysis is as close to reality as possible.
D. Because the people in the different departments are the ones causing the risks,
so they should be the ones held accountable.
6. Which best describes a quantitative risk analysis?
A. A scenario-based analysis to research different security threats
B. A method used to apply severity levels to potential loss, probability of loss,
and risks
C. A method that assigns monetary values to components in the risk assessment
D. A method that is based on gut feelings and opinions
7. Why is a truly quantitative risk analysis not possible to achieve?
A. It is possible, which is why it is used.
B. It assigns severity levels. Thus, it is hard to translate into monetary values.
C. It is dealing with purely quantitative elements.
D. Quantitative measures must be applied to qualitative elements.
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Use the following scenario to answer Questions 9–11. A company has an e-commerce website that carries out 60 percent of its annual revenue. Under the current circumstances,
the annualized loss expectancy for a website against the threat of attack is $92,000. After
implementing a new application-layer firewall, the new ALE would be $30,000. The
firewall costs $65,000 per year to implement and maintain.
8. How much does the firewall save the company in loss expenses?
A. $62,000
B. $3,000
C. $65,000
D. $30,000
9. What is the value of the firewall to the company?
A. $62,000
B. $3,000
C. –$62,000
D. –$3,000
10. Which of the following describes the company’s approach to risk management?
A. Risk transference
B. Risk avoidance
C. Risk acceptance
D. Risk mitigation
Use the following scenario to answer Questions 11–13. A small remote office for a company
is valued at $800,000. It is estimated, based on historical data, that a fire is likely to occur
once every ten years at a facility in this area. It is estimated that such a fire would destroy
60 percent of the facility under the current circumstances and with the current detective
and preventive controls in place.
11. What is the single loss expectancy (SLE) for the facility suffering from a fire?
A. $80,000
B. $480,000
C. $320,000
D. 60%
12. What is the annualized rate of occurrence (ARO)?
A. 1
B. 10
C. .1
D. .01
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13. What is the annualized loss expectancy (ALE)?
B. $32,000
C. $48,000
PART I
A. $480,000
D. .6
14. Which of the following is not one of the three key areas for risk monitoring?
A. Threat
B. Effectiveness
C. Change
D. Compliance
15. What is one of the first steps in developing a business continuity plan?
A. Identify a backup solution.
B. Perform a simulation test.
C. Perform a business impact analysis.
D. Develop a business resumption plan.
Answers
1. D. Organizations may decide to live with specific risks they are faced with if the
cost of trying to protect themselves would be greater than the potential loss if the
threat were to become real. Countermeasures are usually complex to a degree, and
there are almost always political issues surrounding different risks, but these are
not reasons to not implement a countermeasure.
2. B. Although the other answers may seem correct, B is the best answer here.
This is because a risk analysis is performed to identify risks and come up with
suggested countermeasures. The annualized loss expectancy (ALE) tells the
organization how much it could lose if a specific threat became real. The ALE
value will go into the cost/benefit analysis, but the ALE does not address the cost
of the countermeasure and the benefit of a countermeasure. All the data captured
in answers A, C, and D is inserted into a cost/benefit analysis.
3. D. The ALE calculation estimates the potential loss that can affect one asset from
a specific threat within a one-year time span. This value is used to figure out the
amount of money that should be earmarked to protect this asset from this threat.
4. D. The equation is more conceptual than practical. It is hard to assign a number
to an individual vulnerability or threat. This equation enables you to look at
the potential loss of a specific asset, as well as the controls gap (what the specific
countermeasure cannot protect against). What remains is the residual risk, which
is what is left over after a countermeasure is implemented.
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5. C. An analysis is only as good as the data that goes into it. Data pertaining to
risks the organization faces should be extracted from the people who understand
best the business functions and environment of the organization. Each department
understands its own threats and resources, and may have possible solutions to
specific threats that affect its part of the organization.
6. C. A quantitative risk analysis assigns monetary values and percentages to the
different components within the assessment. A qualitative analysis uses opinions
of individuals and a rating system to gauge the severity level of different threats
and the benefits of specific countermeasures.
7. D. During a risk analysis, the team is trying to properly predict the future and
all the risks that future may bring. It is somewhat of a subjective exercise and
requires educated guessing. It is very hard to properly predict that a flood will
take place once in ten years and cost a company up to $40,000 in damages, but
this is what a quantitative analysis tries to accomplish.
8. A. $62,000 is the correct answer. The firewall reduced the annualized loss expectancy
(ALE) from $92,000 to $30,000 for a savings of $62,000. The formula for ALE is
single loss expectancy × annualized rate of occurrence = ALE. Subtracting the ALE
value after the firewall is implemented from the value before it was implemented
results in the potential loss savings this type of control provides.
9. D. –$3,000 is the correct answer. The firewall saves $62,000, but costs $65,000
per year. 62,000 – 65,000 = –3,000. The firewall actually costs the company
more than the original expected loss, and thus the value to the company is a
negative number. The formula for this calculation is (ALE before the control
is implemented) – (ALE after the control is implemented) – (annual cost of
control) = value of control.
10. D. Risk mitigation involves employing controls in an attempt to reduce either
the likelihood or damage associated with an incident, or both. The four ways of
dealing with risk are accept, avoid, transfer, and mitigate (reduce). A firewall is a
countermeasure installed to reduce the risk of a threat.
11. B. $480,000 is the correct answer. The formula for single loss expectancy (SLE)
is asset value × exposure factor (EF) = SLE. In this situation the formula would
work out as asset value ($800,000) × exposure factor (60%) = $480,000. This
means that the company has a potential loss value of $480,000 pertaining to this
one asset (facility) and this one threat type (fire).
12. C. The annualized rate occurrence (ARO) is the frequency that a threat will most
likely occur within a 12-month period. It is a value used in the ALE formula,
which is SLE × ARO = ALE.
13. C. $48,000 is the correct answer. The annualized loss expectancy formula
(SLE × ARO = ALE) is used to calculate the loss potential for one asset
experiencing one threat in a 12-month period. The resulting ALE value helps to
determine the amount that can reasonably be spent in the protection of that asset.
In this situation, the company should not spend over $48,000 on protecting this
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PART I
asset from the threat of fire. ALE values help organizations rank the severity level
of the risks they face so they know which ones to deal with first and how much to
spend on each.
14. A. Risk monitoring activities should be focused on three key areas: effectiveness,
change, and compliance. Changes to the threat landscape should be incorporated
directly into the first two, and indirectly into compliance monitoring.
15. C. A business impact analysis includes identifying critical systems and functions
of an organization and interviewing representatives from each department. Once
management’s support is solidified, a BIA needs to be performed to identify the
threats the company faces and the potential costs of these threats.
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CHAPTER
Compliance
3
This chapter presents the following:
• Regulations, laws, and crimes involving computers
• Intellectual property
• Data breaches
• Compliance requirements
• Investigations
If you think compliance is expensive, try noncompliance.
—Paul McNulty
Rules, formal or otherwise, are essential for prosperity in any context. This is particularly true when it comes to cybersecurity. Even if our adversaries don’t follow the rules
(and clearly they don’t), we must understand the rules that apply to us and follow them
carefully. In this chapter, we discuss the various laws and regulations that deal with computer information systems. We can’t really address each piece of legislation around the
world, since that would take multiple books longer than this one. However, we will offer
as examples some of the most impactful laws and regulations affecting multinational
enterprises. These include laws and regulations applicable to cybercrimes, privacy, and
intellectual property, among others. The point of this chapter is not to turn you into a
cyberlaw expert, but to make you aware of some of the topics about which you should
have conversations with your legal counsel and compliance colleagues as you develop and
mature your cybersecurity program.
Laws and Regulations
Before we get into the details of what you, as a cybersecurity leader, are required to do,
let’s start by reviewing some foundational concepts about what laws and regulations are,
exploring how they vary around the world, and then putting them into a holistic context.
Law is a system of rules created by either a government or a society, recognized as
binding by that group, and enforced by some specific authority. Laws apply equally to
everyone in the country or society. It is important to keep in mind that laws are not
always written down and may be customary, as discussed shortly. Regulations, by contrast,
are written rules dealing with specific details or procedures, issued by an executive body
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and having the force of law. Regulations apply only to the specific entities that fall under
the authority of the agency that issues them. So, while any U.S.-based organization is
subject to a U.S. law called the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA), only U.S.
organizations that deal with data concerning persons in the European Union (EU) would
also be subject to the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).
Types of Legal Systems
Your organization may be subject to laws and regulations from multiple jurisdictions.
As just mentioned, if your organization is based in the United States but handles data of
citizens of the EU, your organization is subject to both the CFAA and the GDPR. It is
important to keep in mind that different countries can have very different legal systems.
Your legal department will figure out jurisdictions and applicability, but you need to be
aware of what this disparity of legal systems means to your cybersecurity program. To this
end, it is helpful to become familiar with the major legal systems you may come across.
In this section, we cover the core components of the various legal systems and what differentiates them.
Civil (Code) Law System
• System of law used in continental European countries such as France and Spain.
• Different legal system from the common law system used in the United Kingdom
and United States.
• Civil law system is rule-based law, not precedent-based.
• For the most part, a civil law system is focused on codified law—or written laws.
• The history of the civil law system dates to the sixth century when the Byzantine
emperor Justinian codified the laws of Rome.
• Civil legal systems should not be confused with the civil (or tort) laws found in the
United States.
• The civil legal system was established by states or nations for self-regulation; thus,
the civil law system can be divided into subdivisions, such as French civil law,
German civil law, and so on.
• It is the most widespread legal system in the world and the most common legal
system in Europe.
• Under the civil legal system, lower courts are not compelled to follow the
decisions made by higher courts.
Common Law System
• Developed in England.
• Based on previous interpretations of laws:
• In the past, judges would walk throughout the country enforcing laws and
settling disputes.
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PART I
• The judges did not have a written set of laws, so they based their laws on
custom and precedent.
• In the 12th century, the king of England (Henry II) imposed a unified legal
system that was “common” to the entire country.
• Reflects the community’s morals and expectations.
• Led to the creation of barristers, or lawyers, who actively participate in the
litigation process through the presentation of evidence and arguments.
• Today, the common law system uses judges and juries of peers. If the jury trial is
waived, the judge decides the facts.
• Typical systems consist of a higher court, several intermediate appellate courts,
and many local trial courts. Precedent flows down through this system. Tradition
also allows for “magistrate’s courts,” which address administrative decisions.
• The common law system is broken down into criminal, civil/tort, and administrative.
Criminal Law System
• Based on common law, statutory law, or a combination of both.
• Addresses behavior that is considered harmful to society.
• Punishment usually involves a loss of freedom, such as incarceration,
or monetary fines.
• Responsibility is on the prosecution to prove guilt beyond a reasonable doubt
(innocent until proven guilty).
Civil/Tort Law System
• Offshoot of criminal law.
• Under civil law, the defendant owes a legal duty to the victim. In other words,
the defendant is obligated to conform to a particular standard of conduct, usually
set by what a “reasonable person of ordinary prudence” would do to prevent
foreseeable injury to the victim.
• The defendant’s breach of that duty causes injury to the victim; usually physical
or financial.
• Categories of civil law:
• Intentional Examples include assault, intentional infliction of emotional
distress, or false imprisonment.
• Wrongs against property An example is nuisance against landowner.
• Wrongs against a person Examples include car accidents, dog bites, and a
slip and fall.
• Negligence An example is wrongful death.
• Nuisance An example is trespassing.
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• Dignitary wrongs Include invasion of privacy and civil rights violations.
• Economic wrongs Examples include patent, copyright, and trademark
infringement.
• Strict liability Examples include a failure to warn of risks and defects in
product manufacturing or design.
Administrative (Regulatory) Law System
• Laws and legal principles created by administrative agencies to address a number of
areas, including international trade, manufacturing, environment, and immigration.
Customary Law System
• Deals mainly with personal conduct and patterns of behavior.
• Based on traditions and customs of the region.
• Emerged when cooperation of individuals became necessary as communities
merged.
• Not many countries work under a purely customary law system, but instead use
a mixed system where customary law is an integrated component. (Codified civil
law systems emerged from customary law.)
• Mainly used in regions of the world that have mixed legal systems (for example,
China and India).
• Restitution is commonly in the form of a monetary fine or service.
Religious Law System
• Based on religious beliefs of the region.
• In Islamic countries, the law is based on the rules of the Koran.
• The law, however, is different in every Islamic country.
• Jurists and clerics have a high degree of authority.
• Covers all aspects of human life, but commonly divided into
• Responsibilities and obligations to others.
• Religious duties.
• Knowledge and rules as revealed by God, which define and govern human affairs.
• Rather than create laws, lawmakers and scholars attempt to discover the truth of law.
• Law, in the religious sense, also includes codes of ethics and morality, which
are upheld and required by God. For example, Hindu law, Sharia (Islamic law),
Halakha (Jewish law), and so on.
Mixed Law System
• Two or more legal systems are used together and apply cumulatively or interactively.
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Civil law
Common law
PART I
• Most often mixed law systems consist of civil and common law.
• A combination of systems is used as a result of more or less clearly defined fields
of application.
• Civil law may apply to certain types of crimes, while religious law may apply to
other types within the same region.
• Examples of mixed law systems include those in Holland, Canada, and South Africa.
Mixed systems
Religious law
Asia
Europe
North
America
Caribbean
Central
America
Africa
Middle
East
Southeast
Asia
South
America
Oceania
Common Law Revisited
These different legal systems are certainly complex, and while you are not expected to be
a lawyer to pass the CISSP exam, having a high-level understanding of the different types
(civil, common, customary, religious, mixed) is important. The exam will dig more into
the specifics of the common law legal system and its components. Under the common
law legal system, civil law deals with wrongs against individuals or organizations that
result in damages or loss. This is referred to as tort law. Examples include trespassing,
battery, negligence, and product liability. A successful civil lawsuit against a defendant
would result in financial restitution and/or community service instead of a jail sentence.
When someone sues another person in civil court, the jury decides upon liability instead
of innocence or guilt. If the jury determines the defendant is liable for the act, then the
jury decides upon the compensatory and/or punitive damages of the case.
Criminal law is used when an individual’s conduct violates the government laws,
which have been developed to protect the public. Jail sentences are commonly the
punishment for criminal law cases that result in conviction, whereas in civil law cases
the punishment is usually an amount of money that the liable individual must pay the
victim. For example, in the O.J. Simpson case, the defendant was first tried and found
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not guilty in the criminal law case, but then was found liable in the civil law case. This
seeming contradiction can happen because the burden of proof is lower in civil cases than
in criminal cases.
EXAM TIP Civil law generally is derived from common law (case law), cases
are initiated by private parties, and the defendant is found liable or not
liable for damages. Criminal law typically is statutory, cases are initiated by
government prosecutors, and the defendant is found guilty or not guilty.
Administrative/regulatory law deals with regulatory standards that regulate performance
and conduct. Government agencies create these standards, which are usually applied
to companies and individuals within those specific industries. Some examples of
administrative laws could be that every building used for business must have a fire
detection and suppression system, must have clearly visible exit signs, and cannot have
blocked doors, in case of a fire. Companies that produce and package food and drug
products are regulated by many standards so that the public is protected and aware of
their actions. If an administrative law case determines that a company did not abide by
specific regulatory standards, officials in the company could even be held accountable.
For example, if a company makes tires that shred after a couple of years of use because
the company doesn’t comply with manufacturing safety standards, the officers in that
company could be liable under administrative, civil, or even criminal law if they were
aware of the issue but chose to ignore it to keep profits up.
Cybercrimes and Data Breaches
So far, we’ve discussed laws and regulations only in a general way to provide a bit of context. Let’s now dive into the laws and regulations that are most relevant to our roles as
cybersecurity leaders. Computer crime laws (sometimes collectively referred to as cyberlaw) around the world deal with some of the core issues: unauthorized access, modification or destruction of assets, disclosure of sensitive information, and the use of malware
(malicious software).
Although we usually only think of the victims and their systems that were attacked
during a crime, laws have been created to combat three categories of crimes. A computerassisted crime is where a computer was used as a tool to help carry out a crime. A computertargeted crime concerns incidents where a computer was the victim of an attack crafted
to harm it (and its owners) specifically. The last type of crime is where a computer is not
necessarily the attacker or the target, but just happened to be involved when a crime was
carried out. This category is referred to as computer is incidental.
Some examples of computer-assisted crimes are
• Exploiting financial systems to conduct fraud
• Stealing military and intelligence material from government computer systems
• Conducting industrial espionage by attacking competitors and gathering
confidential business data
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PART I
• Carrying out information warfare activities by leveraging compromised
influential accounts
• Engaging in hacktivism, which is protesting a government’s or organization’s
activities by attacking its systems and/or defacing its website
Some examples of computer-targeted crimes include
• Distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks
• Stealing passwords or other sensitive data from servers
• Installing cryptominers to mine cryptocurrency on someone else’s computers
• Conducting a ransomware attack
NOTE The main issues addressed in computer crime laws are unauthorized
modification, disclosure, destruction, or access and inserting malicious
programming code.
Some confusion typically exists between the two categories—computer-assisted crimes
and computer-targeted crimes—because intuitively it would seem any attack would fall
into both of these categories. One system is carrying out the attacking, while the other
system is being attacked. The difference is that in computer-assisted crimes, the computer
is only being used as a tool to carry out a traditional type of crime. Without computers,
people still steal, cause destruction, protest against organizations (for example, companies
that carry out experiments upon animals), obtain competitor information, and go to
war. So these crimes would take place anyway; the computer is simply one of the tools
available to the attacker. As such, it helps that threat actor become more efficient at
carrying out a crime.
Computer-assisted crimes are usually covered by regular criminal laws in that they
are not always considered a “computer crime.” One way to look at it is that a computertargeted crime could not take place without a computer, whereas a computer-assisted crime
could. Thus, a computer-targeted crime is one that did not, and could not, exist before
use of computers became common. In other words, in the good old days, you could not
carry out a buffer overflow on your neighbor or install malware on your enemy’s system.
These crimes require that computers be involved.
If a crime falls into the “computer is incidental” category, this means a computer
just happened to be involved in some secondary manner, but its involvement is still
significant. For example, if you have a friend who works for a company that runs the
state lottery and he gives you a printout of the next three winning numbers and you
type them into your computer, your computer is just the storage place. You could have
just kept the piece of paper and not put the data in a computer. Another example is
child pornography. The actual crime is obtaining and sharing child pornography pictures
or graphics. The pictures could be stored on a file server or they could be kept in a
physical file in someone’s desk. So if a crime falls within this category, the computer is
not attacking another computer and a computer is not being attacked, but the computer
is still used in some significant manner.
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Because computing devices are everywhere in modern society, computers are incidental
to most crimes today. In a fatal car crash, the police may seize the drivers’ mobile devices
to look for evidence that either driver was texting at the time of the accident. In a
domestic assault case, investigators may seek a court order to obtain the contents of the
home’s virtual assistant, such as Amazon Alexa, because it may contain recorded evidence
of the crime.
You may say, “So what? A crime is a crime. Why break it down into these types
of categories?” The reason these types of categories are created is to allow current laws
to apply to these types of crimes, even though they are in the digital world. Let’s say
someone is on your computer just looking around, not causing any damage, but she
should not be there. Should legislators have to create a new law stating, “Thou shall
not browse around in someone else’s computer,” or should law enforcement and the
courts just apply the already created trespassing law? What if a hacker got into a trafficcontrol system and made all of the traffic lights turn green at the exact same time? Should
legislators go through the hassle of creating a new law for this type of activity, or should
law enforcement and the courts use the already created (and understood) manslaughter
and murder laws? Remember, a crime is a crime, and a computer is just a new tool to
carry out traditional criminal activities.
Now, this in no way means countries can just depend upon the laws on the books and
that every computer crime can be countered by an existing law. Many countries have had
to come up with new laws that deal specifically with different types of computer crimes.
For example, the following are just some of the laws that have been created or modified
in the United States to cover the various types of computer crimes:
• 18 USC 1029: Fraud and Related Activity in Connection with Access Devices
• 18 USC 1030: Fraud and Related Activity in Connection with Computers
• 18 USC 2510 et seq.: Wire and Electronic Communications Interception and
Interception of Oral Communications
• 18 USC 2701 et seq.: Stored Wire and Electronic Communications and
Transactional Records Access
• Digital Millennium Copyright Act
• Cyber Security Enhancement Act of 2002
EXAM TIP You do not need to know these laws for the CISSP exam; they are
just examples.
Complexities in Cybercrime
Since we have a bunch of laws to get the digital bad guys, this means we have this whole
cybercrime thing under control, right? Alas, cybercrimes have only increased over the
years and will not stop anytime soon. Several contributing factors explain why these
activities have not been properly stopped or even curbed. These include issues related
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Attack
Attack
Attack
Trust Relationship
Trust Relationship
Small Business
Regional Supplier
PART I
to proper attribution of the attacks, the necessary level of protection for networks, and
successful prosecution once an attacker is captured.
Many attackers are never caught because they spoof their addresses and identities
and use methods to cover their digital footsteps. Many attackers break into networks,
take whatever resources they were after, and clean the logs that tracked their movements
and activities. Because of this, many organizations do not even know their systems have
been violated. Even if an attacker’s activities are detected, it does not usually lead to
the true identity of the individual, though it does alert the organization that a specific
vulnerability was exploited.
Attackers commonly hop through several systems before attacking their victim so that
tracking down the attackers will be more difficult. This is exemplified by a threat actor
approach known as an island-hopping attack, which is when the attacker compromises
an easier target that is somehow connected to the ultimate one. For instance, consider
a major corporation like the one depicted on the right side of Figure 3-1. It has robust
cybersecurity and relies on a regional supplier for certain widgets. Since logistics are
oftentimes automated, these two companies have trusted channels of communication
between them so their computers can talk to each other about when more widgets
might be needed and where. The supplier, in turn, relies on a small company that
produces special screws for the widgets. This screw manufacturer employs just a couple
of people working out of the owner’s garage and is a trivial target for an attacker. So,
rather than target the major corporation directly, a cybercriminal could attack the screw
manufacturer’s unsecured computers, use them to gain a foothold in the supplier, and
then use that company’s trusted relationship with the well-defended target to ultimately
get into its systems. This particular type of island-hopping attack is also known as a
supply-chain attack because it exploits trust mechanisms inherent in supply chains.
Many companies that are victims of an attack usually just want to ensure that the
vulnerability the attacker exploited is fixed, instead of spending the time and money
to go after and prosecute the attacker. This is a huge contributing factor as to why
cybercriminals get away with their activities. Some regulated organizations—for instance,
financial institutions—by law, must report breaches. However, most organizations do
not have to report breaches or computer crimes. No company wants its dirty laundry
out in the open for everyone to see. The customer base will lose confidence, as will
Multinational
Corporation
Figure 3-1 A typical island-hopping attack
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the shareholders and investors. We do not actually have true computer crime statistics
because most are not reported.
Although regulations, laws, and attacks help make senior management more aware
of security issues, when their company ends up in the headlines with reports of how
they lost control of over 100,000 credit card numbers, security suddenly becomes very
important to them.
NOTE Even though some institutions must, by law, report security
breaches and crimes, that does not mean they all follow this law. Some of
these institutions, just like many other organizations, often simply fix the
vulnerability and sweep the details of the attack under the carpet.
The Evolution of Attacks
Perpetrators of cybercrime have evolved from bored teenagers with too much time on
their hands to organized crime rings with very defined targets and goals. In the early
1990s, hackers were mainly made up of people who just enjoyed the thrill of hacking.
It was seen as a challenging game without any real intent of harm. Hackers used to take
down large websites (e.g., Yahoo!, MSN, Excite) so their activities made the headlines
and they won bragging rights among their fellow hackers. Back then, virus writers created viruses that simply replicated or carried out some benign activity, instead of the
more malicious actions they could have carried out. Unfortunately, today, these trends
have taken on more sinister objectives as the Internet has become a place of business.
This evolution is what drove the creation of the antivirus (now antimalware) industry.
Three powerful forces converged in the mid to late 1990s to catapult cybercrime
forward. First, with the explosive growth in the use of the Internet, computers became
much more lucrative targets for criminals. Second, there was an abundance of computer
experts who had lost their livelihoods with the end of the Soviet Union. Some of these
bright minds turned to cybercrime as a way to survive the tough times in which they
found themselves. Finally, with increased demand for computing systems, many software
developers were rushing to be first to market, all but ignoring the security (or lack
thereof ) of their products and creating fertile ground for remote attacks from all over the
world. These forces resulted in the emergence of a new breed of cybercriminal possessing
knowledge and skills that quickly overwhelmed many defenders. As the impact of
the increased threat was realized, organizations around the world started paying more
attention to security in a desperate bid to stop their cybercrime losses.
In the early 2000s, there was a shift from cybercriminals working by themselves to
the formation of organized cybercrime gangs. This change dramatically improved the
capabilities of these threat actors and allowed them to go after targets that, by then,
were very well defended. This shift also led to the creation of vast, persistent attack
infrastructures on a global scale. After cybercriminals attacked and exploited computers,
they maintained a presence for use in support of later attacks. Nowadays, these exploited
targets are known as malicious bots, and they are usually organized into botnets. These
botnets can be used to carry out DDoS attacks, transfer spam or pornography, or do
whatever the attacker commands the bot software to do. Figure 3-2 shows the many uses
cybercriminals have for compromised computers.
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Spam Zombie
Phishing Site
Malware Download Site
DDoS Extortion Zombie
Web Server
Bot Activity
Click Fraud Zombie
Anonymization Proxy
CAPTCHA Solving Zombie
Child Pornography Server
Spam Site
PART I
Warez/Piracy Server
HACKED PC
eBay/Paypal Fake Auctions
Webmail Spam
Stranded Abroad Advance Scams
Harvesting E-mail Contacts
E-mail Attacks
Account
Credentials
Harvesting Associated Accounts
Online Gaming Credentials
Website FTP Credentials
Skype/VoIP Credentials
Client-Side Encryption Certificates
Access to Corporate E-mail
Online Gaming Characters
Online Gaming Goods/Currency
PC Game License Keys
Virtual Goods
Financial
Credentials
Operating System License Key
Linkedln
Google+
Credit Card Data
Stock Trading Account
Mutual Fund/401(k) Account
Facebook
Twitter
Bank Account Data
Fake Antivirus
Reputation Hijacking
Hostage Attacks
Ransomware
E-mail Account Ransom
Webcam Image Extortion
Figure 3-2 Malicious uses for a compromised computer (Source: www.krebsonsecurity.com)
EXAM TIP You may see the term script kiddies on the exam (or elsewhere).
It refers to hackers who do not have the requisite skills to carry out specific
attacks without the tools provided on the Internet or through friends.
A recent development in organized cybercrime is the emergence of so-called Hacking
as a Service (HaaS), which is a play on cloud computing services such as Software as a
Service (SaaS). HaaS represents the commercialization of hacking skills, providing access
to tools, target lists, credentials, hackers for hire, and even customer support. In the last
couple of years, there has been a significant increase in the number of marketplaces in
which HaaS is available.
Many times hackers are just scanning systems looking for a vulnerable running service
or sending out malicious links in e-mails to unsuspecting victims. They are just looking
for any way to get into any network. This would be the shotgun approach to network
attacks. Another, more dangerous, attacker has you in the proverbial crosshairs and is
determined to identify your weakest point and exploit it. As an analogy, the thief that
goes around rattling door knobs to find one that is not locked is not half as dangerous
as the one who will watch you day in and day out to learn your activity patterns, where
you work, what type of car you drive, and who your family is and patiently wait for your
most vulnerable moment to ensure a successful and devastating attack.
We call this second type of attacker an advanced persistent threat (APT). This is a
military term that has been around for ages, but since the digital world is effectively a
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battleground, this term is more relevant each and every day. How an APT differs from
the plain old vanilla attacker is that the APT is commonly a group of attackers, not just
one hacker, that combine their knowledge and abilities to carry out whatever exploit will
get them into the environment they are seeking. The APT is very focused and motivated
to aggressively and successfully penetrate a network with various different attack methods
and then clandestinely hide its presence while achieving a well-developed, multilevel
foothold in the environment.
The “advanced” aspect of the term APT pertains to the expansive knowledge,
capabilities, and skill base of the APT. The “persistent” component has to do with the fact
that the group of attackers is not in a hurry to launch an attack quickly, but will wait for
the most beneficial moment and attack vector to ensure that its activities go unnoticed.
This is what we refer to as a “low-and-slow” attack. This type of attack is coordinated by
human involvement, rather than just a virus type of threat that goes through automated
steps to inject its payload. The APT has specific objectives and goals and is commonly
highly organized and well funded, which makes it the biggest threat of all.
APTs commonly use custom-developed malicious code that is built specifically for
its target, has multiple ways of hiding itself once it infiltrates the environment, may be
able to polymorph itself in replication capabilities, and has several different “anchors” to
make it hard to eradicate even if it is discovered. Once the code is installed, it commonly
sets up a covert back channel (as regular bots do) so that it can be remotely controlled by
the group of attackers. The remote control functionality allows the attackers to traverse
the network with the goal of gaining continuous access to critical assets.
APT infiltrations are usually very hard to detect with host-based solutions because the
attackers put the code through a barrage of tests against the most up-to-date detection
applications on the market. A common way to detect these types of threats is through
network traffic changes. For example, changes in DNS queries coming out of your network
could indicate that an APT has breached your environment and is using DNS tunneling
to establish command and control over the compromised hosts. The APT will likely
have multiple control servers and techniques to communicate so that if one connection
gets detected and removed, the APT still has an active channel to use. The APT may
implement encrypted tunnels over HTTPS so that its data that is in transmission cannot
be inspected. Figure 3-3 illustrates the common steps and results of APT activity.
The ways of getting into a network are basically endless (exploit a web service, induce
users to open e-mail links and attachments, gain access through remote maintenance
accounts, exploit operating systems and application vulnerabilities, compromise
connections from home users, etc.). Each of these vulnerabilities has its own fixes
(patches, proper configuration, awareness, proper credential practices, encryption, etc.).
It is not only these fixes that need to be put in place; we need to move to a more effective
situational awareness model. We need to have better capabilities of knowing what is
happening throughout our network in near to real time so that our defenses can react
quickly and precisely.
The landscape continues to evolve, and the lines between threat actors are sometimes
blurry. We already mentioned the difficulty in attributing an attack to a specific individual
so that criminal charges may be filed. Something that makes this even harder is the practice
among some governments of collaborating with criminal groups in their countries.
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PART I
Figure 3-3 Gaining access into an environment and extracting sensitive data
Common Internet Crime Schemes
• Business e-mail compromise
• Business fraud
• Charity and disaster fraud
• Counterfeit prescription drugs
• Credit card fraud
• Election crimes and security
• Identity theft
• Illegal sports betting
• Nigerian letter, or “419”
• Ponzi/pyramid
• Ransomware
• Sextortion
Find out how these types of computer crimes are carried out by visiting
https://www.fbi.gov/scams-and-safety/common-scams-and-crimes.
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Do You Trust Your Neighbor?
Most organizations do not like to think about the fact that the enemy might be
inside the organization and working internally. It is more natural to view threats as
the faceless unknowns that reside on the outside of our environment. Employees
have direct and privileged access to an organization’s assets, and they are commonly
not as highly monitored compared to traffic that is entering the network from external entities. The combination of too much trust, direct access, and the lack of monitoring allows for a lot of internal fraud and abuse to go unnoticed.
There have been many criminal cases over the years where employees at various
organizations have carried out embezzlement or have launched revenge attacks after
they were fired or laid off. While it is important to have fortified walls to protect
us from the outside forces that want to cause us harm, it is also important to realize
that our underbelly is more vulnerable. Employees, contractors, and temporary
workers who have direct access to critical resources introduce risks that need to be
understood and countermeasured.
The way it works is that the government looks the other way as long as the crimes are
committed in other countries. When the government needs a bit of help to obfuscate
what it’s doing to another government, it enlists the help of the cybercrime gang they’ve
been protecting (or at least tolerating) and tell them what to do and to whom. To the
target, it looks like a cybercrime but in reality it had nation-state goals.
So while the sophistication of the attacks continues to increase, so does the danger of
these attacks. Isn’t that just peachy?
Up until now, we have listed some difficulties of fighting cybercrime: the anonymity
the Internet provides the attacker; attackers are organizing and carrying out more
sophisticated attacks; the legal system is running to catch up with these types of crimes;
and organizations are just now viewing their data as something that must be protected.
All these complexities aid the bad guys, but what if we throw in the complexity of attacks
taking place between different countries?
International Issues
If a hacker in Ukraine attacks a bank in France, whose legal jurisdiction is that? How do
these countries work together to identify the criminal and carry out justice? Which country is required to track down the criminal? And which country should take this person to
court? Well, the short answer is: it depends.
When computer crime crosses international boundaries, the complexity of such issues
shoots up considerably and the chances of the criminal being brought to any court
decreases. This is because different countries have different legal systems, some countries
have no laws pertaining to computer crime, jurisdiction disputes may erupt, and some
governments may not want to play nice with each other. For example, if someone in Iran
attacked a system in Israel, do you think the Iranian government would help Israel track
down the attacker? What if someone in North Korea attacked a military system in the
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PART I
United States? Do you think these two countries would work together to find the hacker?
Maybe or maybe not—or perhaps the attack was carried out by a government agency
pretending to be a cybercrime gang.
There have been efforts to standardize the different countries’ approaches to computer
crimes because they happen so easily over international boundaries. Although it is very easy
for an attacker in China to send packets through the Internet to a bank in Saudi Arabia,
it is very difficult (because of legal systems, cultures, and politics) to motivate these
governments to work together.
The Council of Europe (CoE) Convention on Cybercrime, also known as the Budapest
Convention, is one example of an attempt to create a standard international response to
cybercrime. In fact, it is the first international treaty seeking to address computer crimes
by coordinating national laws and improving investigative techniques and international
cooperation. One of the requirements of the treaty is that signatories develop national
legislation outlawing a series of cybercrimes, such as hacking, computer-related fraud,
and child pornography. The convention’s objectives also include the creation of a
framework for establishing jurisdiction and extradition of the accused. For example,
extradition can only take place when the event is a crime in both jurisdictions. As of
April 2021, 68 countries around the world (not just in Europe) have signed or ratified
the treaty, contributing to the global growth in effective cybercrime legislation that is
internationally interoperable. According to the United Nations (UN), 79 percent of the
world’s countries (that’s 154) now have cybercrime laws. All these laws vary, of course,
but they may impact your own organization depending on where you do business and
with whom.
Data Breaches
Among the most common cybercrimes are those relating to the theft of sensitive data.
In fact, it is a rare month indeed when one doesn’t read or hear about a major data
breach. Information is the lifeblood of most major corporations nowadays, and threat
actors know this. They have been devoting a lot of effort over the past several years to
compromising and exploiting the data stores that, in many ways, are more valuable to
organizations than any vault full of cash. This trend continues unabated, which makes
data breaches one of the most important issues in cybersecurity today.
In a way, data breaches can be thought of as the opposite of privacy: data owners lose
control of who has the ability to access their data. When an organization fails to properly
protect the privacy of its customers’ data, it increases the likelihood of experiencing a data
breach. It should not be surprising, therefore, that some of the same legal and regulatory
issues that apply to privacy also apply to data breaches.
It is important to note that data breaches need not involve a violation of personal
privacy. Indeed, some of the most publicized data breaches have had nothing to do with
personally identifiable information (PII) but with intellectual property (IP). It is worth
pausing to properly define the term data breach as a security event that results in the actual
or potential compromise of the confidentiality or integrity of protected information by
unauthorized actors. Protected information can be PII, IP, protected health information
(PHI), classified information, or any other information that can cause damage to an
individual or organization.
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Personally Identifiable Information
Personally identifiable information (PII) is data that can be used to uniquely identify,
contact, or locate a single person or can be used with other sources to uniquely
identify a single individual. PII needs to be highly protected because it is commonly
used in identity theft, financial crimes, and various criminal activities.
While it seems as though defining and identifying PII should be easy and
straightforward, what different countries, federal governments, and state governments
consider to be PII differs.
The U.S. Office of Management and Budget in its memorandum M-07-16,
“Safeguarding Against and Responding to the Breach of Personally Identifiable
Information,” defines PII as “information that can be used to distinguish or trace an
individual’s identity, either alone or when combined with other personal or identifying
information that is linked or linkable to a specific individual.” Determining what
constitutes PII, then, depends on a specific risk assessment of the likelihood that the
information can be used to uniquely identify an individual. This is all good and well,
but doesn’t really help us recognize information that might be considered PII. Typical
components are listed here:
• Full name (if not common)
• National identification number
• Home address
• IP address (in some cases)
• Vehicle registration plate number
• Driver’s license number
• Face, fingerprints, or handwriting
• Credit card numbers
• Digital identity
• Birthday
• Birthplace
• Genetic information
The following items are less often used because they are commonly shared by so
many people, but they can fall into the PII classification and may require protection
from improper disclosure:
• First or last name, if common
• Country, state, or city of residence
• Age, especially if nonspecific
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• Gender or race
• Name of the school they attend or workplace
• Grades, salary, or job position
• Criminal record
As a security professional, it is important to understand which legal and regulatory
requirements are triggered by data breaches. To further complicate matters, most U.S.
states, as well as many other countries, have enacted distinct laws with subtle but
important differences in notification stipulations. As always when dealing with legal
issues, it is best to consult with an attorney. This section is simply an overview of some
of the legal requirements of which you should be aware.
U.S. Laws Pertaining to Data Breaches
We’ve already mentioned various U.S. federal statutes dealing with cybercrimes. Despite
our best efforts, there will be times when our information systems are compromised and
personal information security controls are breached. Let’s briefly highlight some of the
laws that are most relevant to data breaches:
• California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA)
• Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)
• Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health (HI-TECH) Act
• Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act of 1999
• Economic Espionage Act of 1996
It is worth recalling here that data breaches are not only violations of customer
privacy. When a threat actor compromises a target corporation’s network and exposes its
intellectual property, a breach has occurred. While the other laws we have discussed in
this section deal with protecting customers’ PII, the Economic Espionage Act protects
corporations’ IP. When you think of data breaches, it is critical that you consider both
PII and IP exposure.
Almost every U.S. state has enacted legislation that requires government and private
entities to disclose data breaches involving PII. The most important of these is probably
the California Consumer Privacy Act, which went into effect in 2020. The CCPA is
perhaps the broadest and most far-reaching of U.S. state laws around PII breaches, but
it is certainly not the only one. In almost every case, PII is defined by the states as the
combination of first and last name with any of the following:
• Social Security number
• Driver’s license number
• Credit or debit card number with the security code or PIN
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Unfortunately, that is where the commonalities end. The laws are so different that
compliance with all of them is a difficult and costly issue for most corporations. In some
states, simple access to files containing PII triggers a notification requirement, while in
other states the organization must only notify affected parties if the breach is reasonably
likely to result in illegal use of the information. Many experts believe that the CCPA will
set an example for other states and may provide a template for other countries.
European Union Laws Pertaining to Data Breaches
Global organizations that move data across other country boundaries must be aware of
and follow the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
Guidelines on the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flows of Personal Data. Since most
countries have a different set of laws pertaining to the definition of private data and how
it should be protected, international trade and business get more convoluted and can
negatively affect the economy of nations. The OECD is an international organization
that helps different governments come together and tackle the economic, social, and
governance challenges of a globalized economy. Because of this, the OECD came up
with guidelines for the various countries to follow so that data is properly protected and
everyone follows the same type of rules.
The core principles defined by the OECD are as follows:
• Collection Limitation Principle Collection of personal data should be limited,
obtained by lawful and fair means, and with the knowledge of the subject.
• Data Quality Principle Personal data should be kept complete and current
and be relevant to the purposes for which it is being used.
• Purpose Specification Principle Subjects should be notified of the reason for
the collection of their personal information at the time that it is collected, and
organizations should only use it for that stated purpose.
• Use Limitation Principle Only with the consent of the subject or by the
authority of law should personal data be disclosed, made available, or used for
purposes other than those previously stated.
• Security Safeguards Principle Reasonable safeguards should be put in place to
protect personal data against risks such as loss, unauthorized access, modification,
and disclosure.
• Openness Principle Developments, practices, and policies regarding personal
data should be openly communicated. In addition, subjects should be able to
easily establish the existence and nature of personal data, its use, and the identity
and usual residence of the organization in possession of that data.
• Individual Participation Principle Subjects should be able to find out whether
an organization has their personal information and what that information is, to
correct erroneous data, and to challenge denied requests to do so.
• Accountability Principle Organizations should be accountable for complying
with measures that support the previous principles.
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NOTE Information on the OECD Guidelines can be found at www.oecd.org/
internet/ieconomy/privacy-guidelines.htm.
Although the OECD Guidelines were a great start, they were not enforceable or
uniformly applied. The European Union in many cases takes individual privacy much
more seriously than most other countries in the world, so in 1995 it enacted the Data
Protection Directive (DPD). As a directive, it was not directly enforceable, but EU
member states were required to enact laws that were consistent with it. The intent of
this was to create a set of laws across the EU that controlled the way in which European
organizations had to protect the personal data and privacy of EU citizens. The Safe Harbor
Privacy Principles were then developed to outline how U.S.-based organizations could
comply with European privacy laws. For a variety of reasons, this system of directives,
laws, and principles failed to work well in practice and had to be replaced.
The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) was adopted by the EU in April
2016 and became enforceable in May 2018. It protects the personal data and privacy of
EU citizens. The GDPR, unlike a directive such as the DPD, has the full weight of a
law in all 27 member states of the EU. This means that each state does not have to write
its own version, which harmonizes data protection regulations and makes it easier for
organizations to know exactly what is expected of them throughout the bloc. The catch
is that these requirements are quite stringent, and violating them exposes an organization
to a maximum fine of 4 percent of that organization’s global turnover. For a company
like Google, that would equate to over $4 billion if they were ever shown to not be in
compliance. Ouch!
The GDPR defines three relevant entities:
• Data subject The individual to whom the data pertains
• Data controller Any organization that collects data on EU residents
• Data processor Any organization that processes data for a data controller
The regulation applies if any one of the three entities is based in the EU, but it also
applies if a data controller or processor has data pertaining to an EU resident. The GDPR
impacts every organization that holds or uses European personal data both inside and
outside of Europe. In other words, if your organization is a U.S.-based company that has
never done business with the EU, but it has an EU citizen working as a summer intern,
it probably has to comply with the GDPR or risk facing stiff penalties.
The GDPR set of protected types of privacy data is more inclusive than regulations
and laws outside the EU. Among others, protected privacy data includes
• Name
• Address
• ID numbers
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• Web data (location, IP address, cookies)
• Health and genetic data
• Biometric data
• Racial or ethnic data
• Political opinions
• Sexual orientation
To ensure this data is protected, the GDPR requires that most data controllers and
data processors formally designate a Data Protection Officer (DPO). DPOs are internal
compliance officers that act semi-independently to ensure that their organizations
follow the letter of the regulation. While DPOs are not ultimately responsible if their
organizations are not in compliance (at least according to the GDPR), in practice they are
charged with monitoring compliance, advising controllers on when and how to conduct
data protection impact assessments, and maintaining all required records.
Key provisions of the GDPR include
• Consent Data controllers and data processors cannot use personal data without
explicit consent of the data subjects.
• Right to be informed Data controllers and data processors must inform data
subjects about how their data is, will, or could be used.
• Right to restrict processing Data subjects can agree to have their data stored
by a collector but disallow it to be processed.
• Right to be forgotten Data subjects can request that their personal data be
permanently deleted.
• Data breaches Data controllers must report a data breach to the supervisory
authority of the EU member state involved within 72 hours of becoming aware of it.
Other Nations’ Laws Pertaining to Data Breaches
As might be expected, the rest of the world is a hodgepodge of laws with varying data
breach notification conditions and requirements. As of this writing, the United Nations
lists at least 62 countries that have no legally mandated notification requirements whatsoever. This is concerning because unscrupulous organizations have been known to outsource their data-handling operations to countries with no data breach laws in order to
circumvent the difficulties in reconciling the different country and state requirements.
The EU’s GDPR, though it has been called too restrictive and costly by some, has
served as a model for other countries to implement similar legislation. For example,
the two newest data protection laws, which came into full effect in 2020, are Brazil’s
General Personal Data Protection Law (Lei Geral de Proteção de Dados, or LGPD) and
Thailand’s Personal Data Protection Act (PDPA). Both apply to all organizations that
handle the personal information of these countries’ residents, whether they are physically
located within the country or not. Thailand’s PDPA further provides for jail time in
particularly egregious cases.
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Again, you do not need to know all these international laws to become a CISSP.
However, you need to be aware that they exist and may impact your business and
cybersecurity even if you didn’t know your organization had interests in those countries.
It is best to consult your organization’s legal or compliance team to determine which laws
apply to your own team.
Import/Export Controls
Another complexity that comes into play when an organization is attempting to work
with organizations in other parts of the world is import and export laws. Each country
has its own specifications when it comes to what is allowed in its borders and what is
allowed out. For example, the Wassenaar Arrangement implements export controls for
“Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies.” It is currently made up of
42 countries and lays out rules on how the following items can be exported from country
to country:
• Category 1
• Category 2
• Category 3
• Category 4
• Category 5
• Category 5
• Category 6
• Category 7
• Category 8
• Category 9
Special Materials and Related Equipment
Material Processing
Electronics
Computers
Part 1: Telecommunications
Part 2: Information Security
Sensors and Lasers
Navigation and Avionics
Marine
Aerospace and Propulsion
The main goal of the Wassenaar Arrangement is to prevent the buildup of military
capabilities that could threaten regional and international security and stability. So,
everyone is keeping an eye on each other to make sure no one country’s weapons can take
everyone else out. The idea is to try and make sure everyone has similar offensive and
defensive military capabilities with the hope that we won’t end up blowing each other up.
One item the agreement deals with is cryptography, which is considered a dual-use good
because it can be used for both military and civilian purposes. The agreement recognizes
the danger of exporting products with cryptographic functionality to countries that are in
the “offensive” column, meaning that they are thought to have friendly ties with terrorist
organizations and/or want to take over the world through the use of weapons of mass
destruction. If the “good” countries allow the “bad” countries to use cryptography, then
the “good” countries cannot snoop and keep tabs on what the “bad” countries are up to.
The specifications of the Wassenaar Arrangement are complex and always changing.
Which countries fall within the “good” and “bad” categories changes, and what can
be exported to whom and how changes. In some cases, no products that contain
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cryptographic functions can be exported to a specific country; some countries are
allowed to import only products with limited cryptographic functions; some countries
require certain licenses to be granted; and other countries (the “good” countries) have
no restrictions.
While the Wassenaar Arrangement deals mainly with the exportation of items, some
countries (China, Russia, Iran, etc.) have cryptographic import restrictions that have to be
understood and followed. These countries do not allow their citizens to use cryptography
because they believe that the ability to monitor many aspects of a citizen’s online activities
is essential to effectively governing people. This obviously gets very complex for companies
who sell products that use integrated cryptographic functionality. One version of the
product may be sold to China if it has no cryptographic functionality. Another version
may be sold to Russia if a certain international license is in place. A fully functioning
product can be sold to Canada, because who are they ever going to hurt?
It is important to understand the import and export requirements your organization
must meet when interacting with entities in other parts of the world. You could
inadvertently break a country’s law or an international treaty if you do not get the right
type of lawyers involved in the beginning and follow the approved processes.
Transborder Data Flow
While import and export controls apply to products, a much more common asset that
constantly moves in and out of every country is data, and, as you might imagine at this
point, there are laws, regulations, and processes that address what data can be moved
where, when, why, how, and by whom. A transborder data flow (TDF) is the movement
of machine-readable data across a political boundary such a country’s border. This data
is generated or acquired in one country but may be stored and processed in other countries as a result of TDFs. In a modern, connected world, this happens all the time. For
example, just imagine all the places your personal data will go when you make an airline
reservation to travel overseas, especially if you have a layover along the way.
NOTE Transborder data flows are sometimes called cross-border data flows.
Some governments control transborder data flows by enacting data localization laws
that require certain types of data to be stored and processed within the borders of their
respective country, sometimes exclusively. There are many reasons for these laws, but
they pretty much boil down to protecting their citizens, either by ensuring a higher
standard of privacy protection or by allowing easier monitoring of their actions (typically
the things citizens try to do overseas). Data localization can increase the cost of doing
business in some countries because your organization may have to provision (and protect)
information systems in that country that it otherwise wouldn’t.
Ironically, the very technology trend that initially fueled data localization concerns,
cloud computing services, ultimately became an important tool to address those concerns
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in a cost-effective manner. At their onset, cloud computing services promised affordable
access to resources around the globe, sometimes by shifting loads and storage from
one region to another. In recent years, the major cloud service providers have adapted
to localization laws by offering an increasing number of regions (sometimes down to
individual countries) where the data is guaranteed to remain.
Privacy
Privacy is becoming more threatened as the world increasingly relies on computing
technology. There are several approaches to addressing privacy, including the generic
approach and regulation by industry. The generic approach is horizontal enactment—
rules that stretch across all industry boundaries. It affects all industries, including government. Regulation by industry is vertical enactment. It defines requirements for specific
verticals, such as the financial sector and health care. In both cases, the overall objective is
twofold. First, the initiatives seek to protect citizens’ personally identifiable information.
Second, the initiatives seek to balance the needs of government and businesses to collect
and use PII with consideration of security issues.
In response, countries have enacted privacy laws. For example, although the United
States already had the Federal Privacy Act of 1974, it has enacted new laws, such as
the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act of 1999 and HIPAA, in response to an increased need
to protect personal privacy information. These are examples of a vertical approach to
addressing privacy, whereas the EU’s GDPR, Canada’s Personal Information Protection
and Electronic Documents Act, and New Zealand’s Privacy Act of 1993 are horizontal
approaches. Most countries nowadays have some sort of privacy requirements in their
laws and regulations, so we need to be aware of their impact on our information systems
and their security to avoid nasty legal surprises.
Licensing and Intellectual Property Requirements
Another way to get into trouble, whether domestically or internationally, is to run afoul
of intellectual property laws. As previously introduced, intellectual property (IP) is a type
of property created by human intellect. It consists of ideas, inventions, and expressions
that are uniquely created by a person and can be protected from unauthorized use by
others. Examples are song lyrics, inventions, logos, and secret recipes. IP laws do not
necessarily look at who is right or wrong, but rather how an organization or individual
can protect what it rightfully owns from unauthorized duplication or use and what it can
do if these laws are violated.
So who designates what constitutes authorized use? The owner of the IP does this
by granting licenses. A license is an agreement between an IP owner (the licensor) and
somebody else (the licensee), granting that party the right to use the IP in very specific
ways. For example, the licensee can only use the IP for a year unless they renew the
license (presumably after paying a subscription fee). A license can also be, and frequently
is, nontransferable, meaning only the licensees, and not their family members or friends,
can use it. Another common provision in the agreement is whether or not the license will
be exclusive to the licensee.
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Licenses can become moot if the IP is not properly protected by the licensor. An
organization must implement safeguards to protect resources that it claims to be intellectual
property and must show that it exercised due care (reasonable acts of protection) in its
efforts to protect those resources. For example, if an employee sends a file to a friend and
the company terminates the employee based on the activity of illegally sharing IP, then in
a wrongful termination case brought by the employee, the company must show the court
why this file is so important to the company, what type of damage could be or has been
caused as a result of the file being shared, and, most important, what the company had
done to protect that file. If the company did not secure the file and tell its employees that
they were not allowed to copy and share that file, then the company will most likely lose
the case. However, if the company implemented safeguards to protect that file and had an
acceptable use policy in its employee manual that explained that copying and sharing the
information within the file was prohibited and that the punishment for doing so could
be termination, then the company could not be found liable of wrongfully terminating
the employee.
Intellectual property can be protected by different legal mechanisms, depending upon
the type of resource it is. As a CISSP, you should be knowledgeable of four types of
IP laws: trade secrets, copyrights, trademarks, and patents. These topics are addressed
in depth in the following sections, followed by tips on protecting IP internally and
combating software piracy.
Trade Secret
Trade secret law protects certain types of information or resources from unauthorized
use or disclosure. For a company to have its resource qualify as a trade secret, the resource
must provide the company with some type of competitive value or advantage. A trade
secret can be protected by law if developing it requires special skill, ingenuity, and/or
expenditure of money and effort. This means that a company cannot say the sky is blue
and call it a trade secret.
A trade secret is something that is proprietary to a company and important for its
survival and profitability. An example of a trade secret is the formula used for a soft
drink, such as Coke or Pepsi. The resource that is claimed to be a trade secret must be
confidential and protected with certain security precautions and actions. A trade secret
could also be a new form of mathematics, the source code of a program, a method of
making the perfect jelly bean, or ingredients for a special secret sauce. A trade secret
has no expiration date unless the information is no longer secret or no longer provides
economic benefit to the company.
Many companies require their employees to sign a nondisclosure agreement (NDA),
confirming that they understand its contents and promise not to share the company’s
trade secrets with competitors or any unauthorized individuals. Companies require an
NDA both to inform the employees of the importance of keeping certain information
secret and to deter them from sharing this information. Having employees sign the NDA
also gives the company the right to fire an employee or bring charges if the employee
discloses a trade secret.
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A low-level engineer working at Intel took trade secret information that was valued
by Intel at $1 billion when he left his position at the company and went to work at
his new employer, rival chipmaker Advanced Micro Devices (AMD). Intel discovered
that this person still had access to Intel’s most confidential information even after
starting work at AMD. He even used the laptop that Intel provided to him to download
13 critical documents that contained extensive information about the company’s new
processor developments and product releases. Unfortunately, these stories are not rare,
and companies are constantly dealing with challenges of protecting the very data that
keeps them in business.
Copyright
In the United States, copyright law protects the right of the creator of an original work
to control the public distribution, reproduction, display, and adaptation of that original
work. The law covers many categories of work: pictorial, graphic, musical, dramatic, literary, pantomime, motion picture, sculptural, sound recording, and architectural. Copyright law does not cover the specific resource, as does trade secret law. It protects the
expression of the idea of the resource instead of the resource itself. A copyright is usually
used to protect an author’s writings, an artist’s drawings, a programmer’s source code,
or specific rhythms and structures of a musician’s creation. Computer programs and
manuals are just two examples of items protected under the Federal Copyright Act. The
program or manual is covered under copyright law once it has been written. Although
including a warning and the copyright symbol (©) is not required, doing so is encouraged so others cannot claim innocence after copying another’s work.
Copyright protection does not extend to any method of operations, process, concept,
or procedure, but it does protect against unauthorized copying and distribution of a
protected work. It protects the form of expression rather than the subject matter. A
patent deals more with the subject matter of an invention; copyright deals with how that
invention is represented. In that respect, copyright is weaker than patent protection, but
the duration of copyright protection is longer. Copyright protection exists for the life of
the creator plus 70 years. If the work was created jointly by multiple authors, the 70 years
start counting after the death of the last surviving one.
Computer programs can be protected under the copyright law as literary works. The
law protects both the source code and object code, which can be an operating system,
application, or database. In some instances, the law can protect not only the code but also
the structure, sequence, and organization. The user interface is part of the definition of a
software application structure; therefore, one vendor cannot copy the exact composition
of another vendor’s user interface.
Copyright infringement cases have exploded in numbers since the rise of “warez”
sites that use the common BitTorrent protocol. BitTorrent is a peer-to-peer file sharing
protocol and is one of the most common protocols for transferring large files. Warez is a
term that refers to copyrighted works distributed or traded without fees or royalties, in
general violation of the copyright law. The term generally refers to unauthorized releases
by groups, as opposed to file sharing between friends.
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Once a warez site posts copyrighted material, it is very difficult to have it removed
because law enforcement is commonly overwhelmed with larger criminal cases and does
not have the bandwidth to go after these “small fish.” Another issue with warez sites
is that the actual servers may reside in another country; thus, legal jurisdiction makes
things more difficult and the country that the server resides within may not even have a
copyright law. Film and music recording companies have had the most success in going
after these types of offenders because they have the funds and vested interest to do so.
Trademark
A trademark is slightly different from a copyright in that it is used to protect a word,
name, symbol, sound, shape, color, or combination of these. The reason a company
would trademark one of these, or a combination, is that it represents the company (brand
identity) to a group of people or to the world. Companies have marketing departments
that work very hard to create something new that will cause the company to be noticed
and stand out in a crowd of competitors, and trademarking the result of this work with a
government registrar is a way of properly protecting it and ensuring others cannot copy
and use it.
Companies cannot trademark a number or common word. This is why companies
create new names—for example, Intel’s Pentium and Apple’s iPhone. However, unique
colors can be trademarked, as well as identifiable packaging, which is referred to as “trade
dress.” Thus, Novell Red and UPS Brown are trademarked, as are some candy wrappers.
Registered trademarks are generally protected for ten years, but can be renewed for
another ten years indefinitely. In the United States, you must file paperwork with the U.S.
Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) between the fifth and sixth years showing that
you are actually using the trademark. This means that you can’t just create a trademark you
don’t ever use and still keep others from using it. You have to file another “Declaration of
Use” between the ninth and tenth year, and then every nine to ten years thereafter.
NOTE In 1883, international harmonization of trademark laws began with
the Paris Convention, which in turn prompted the Madrid Agreement
of 1891. Today, international trademark law efforts and international
registration are overseen by the World Intellectual Property Organization
(WIPO), an agency of the United Nations. The United States is a party to
this agreement.
There have been many interesting trademark legal battles over the years. In one case
a person named Paul Specht started a company named “Android Data” and had his
company’s trademark approved in 2002. Specht’s company failed, and although he
attempted to sell it and the trademark, he had no buyers. When Google announced that
it was going to release a new mobile operating system called Android, Specht built a new
website using his old company’s name to try and prove that he was indeed still using
this trademark. Specht took Google to court and asked for $94 million in trademark
infringement damages. The court ruled in Google’s favor and found that Google was not
liable for damages.
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Patent
EXAM TIP
PART I
Patents are given to individuals or organizations to grant them legal ownership of, and
enable them to exclude others from using or copying, the invention covered by the patent. The invention must be novel, useful, and not obvious—which means, for example,
that a company could not patent air. Thank goodness. If a company figured out how to
patent air, we would have to pay for each and every breath we took!
After the inventor completes an application for a patent and it is approved, the patent
grants a limited property right to exclude others from making, using, or selling the
invention for a specific period of time. For example, when a pharmaceutical company
develops a specific drug and acquires a patent for it, that company is the only one that
can manufacture and sell this drug until the stated year in which the patent is up (usually
20 years from the date of approval). After that, the information is in the public domain,
enabling all companies to manufacture and sell this product, which is why the price of a
drug drops substantially after its patent expires and generic versions hit the market.
The patent process also applies to algorithms. If an inventor of an algorithm acquires
a patent, she has full control over who can use the algorithm in their products. If the
inventor lets a vendor incorporate the algorithm, she will most likely get a fee and possibly
a license fee on each instance of the product that is sold.
Patents are ways of providing economic incentives to individuals and organizations
to continue research and development efforts that will most likely benefit society in
some fashion. Patent infringement is huge within the technology world today. Large
and small product vendors seem to be suing each other constantly with claims of patent
infringement. The problem is that many patents are written at a very high level. For
example, if Inge developed a technology that accomplishes functionality A, B, and C,
you could actually develop your own technology in your own way that also accomplished
A, B, and C. You might not even know that Inge’s method or patent existed; you just
developed this solution on your own. Yet if Inge did this type of work first and obtained
the patent, then she could go after you legally for infringement.
A patent is the strongest form of intellectual property protection.
The amount of patent litigation in the technology world is remarkable. In October
2020, Centripetal Networks won a $1.9 billion award against Cisco Systems involving
network threat detection technologies. In April of the same year, Apple and Broadcom
were ordered to pay Caltech $1.1 billion because they infringed multiple Caltech patents
pertaining to wireless error correction codes. Even though the amounts of these awards
are certainly eye-popping, they are not the only notable ones. It turns out that 2020 was a
pretty rough year for Apple, because it was also ordered to pay $506 million to PanOptis
and another $109 million to WiLAN in two other infringement cases.
This is just a brief list of recent patent litigation. These patent cases are like watching
100 Ping-Pong matches going on all at the same time, each containing its own characters
and dramas, and involving millions and billions of dollars.
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Figure 3-4 Defendants added to litigation campaigns by year (Data provided by RPX Corporation
on 12/14/20. © 2020 RPX Corporation)
While the various vendors are fighting for market share in their respective industries,
another reason for the increase in patent litigation is the emergence of nonpracticing
entities (NPEs), also known as patent trolls. NPE (or patent troll) is a term used to
describe a person or company who obtains patents, not to protect their invention, but to
aggressively and opportunistically go after another entity that tries to create something
based upon them. A patent troll has no intention of manufacturing an item based upon
their patent, but wants to get licensing fees from an entity that does manufacture the item.
For example, let’s say that Donald has ten new ideas for ten different technologies. He
puts them through the patent process and gets them approved, but he has no intention
of putting in all the money and risk it takes to actually create these technologies and
attempt to bring them to market. He is going to wait until you do this and then he is
going to sue you for infringing upon his patent. If he wins the court case, you have to pay
him licensing fees for the product you developed and brought to market.
It is important to do a patent search before putting effort into developing a new
methodology, technology, or business method. As you can see in Figure 3-4, there is a
lot of litigation due to patent infringement, and thousands of new defendants are being
added to the party each year. These cases are very costly but can oftentimes be avoided
with a bit of homework.
Internal Protection of Intellectual Property
Ensuring that specific resources are protected by the previously mentioned laws is very
important, but other measures must be taken internally to make sure the resources that
are confidential in nature are properly identified and protected.
The resources protected by one of the previously mentioned laws need to be identified
and integrated into the organization’s data classification scheme. This should be directed
by management and carried out by the IT staff. The identified resources should
have the necessary level of access control protection, auditing enabled, and a proper
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storage environment. If a resource is deemed secret, then not everyone in the organization
should be able to access it. Once the individuals who are allowed to have access are
identified, their level of access and interaction with the resource should be defined in
a granular method. Attempts to access and manipulate the resource should be properly
audited, and the resource should be stored on a protected system with the necessary
security mechanisms.
Employees must be informed of the level of secrecy or confidentiality of the resource
and of their expected behavior pertaining to that resource.
If an organization fails in one or all of these steps, it may not be covered by the laws
described previously, because it may have failed to practice due care and properly protect
the resource that it has claimed to be so important to the survival and competitiveness
of the organization.
Software Piracy
Software piracy occurs when the intellectual or creative work of an author is used or
duplicated without permission or compensation to the author. It is an act of infringement on ownership rights, and if the pirate is caught, he could be sued civilly for damages, be criminally prosecuted, or both.
When a vendor develops an application, it usually licenses the program rather than
sells it outright. The license agreement contains provisions relating to the approved use
of the software and the corresponding manuals. If an individual or organization fails to
observe and abide by those requirements, the license may be terminated and, depending
on the actions, criminal charges may be leveled. The risk to the vendor that develops and
licenses the software is the loss of profits it would have earned.
There are four categories of software licensing. Freeware is software that is publicly
available free of charge and can be used, copied, studied, modified, and redistributed
without restriction. Shareware, or trialware, is used by vendors to market their software.
Users obtain a free, trial version of the software. Once the user tries out the program, the
user is asked to purchase a copy of it. Commercial software is, quite simply, software that
is sold for or serves commercial purposes. And, finally, academic software is software that
is provided for academic purposes at a reduced cost. It can be open source, freeware, or
commercial software.
Some software vendors sell bulk licenses, which enable several users to use the product
simultaneously. These master agreements define proper use of the software along with
restrictions, such as whether corporate software can also be used by employees on their
home machines. One other prevalent form of software licensing is the End User License
Agreement (EULA). It specifies more granular conditions and restrictions than a master
agreement. Other vendors incorporate third-party license-metering software that keeps
track of software usability to ensure that the customer stays within the license limit and
otherwise complies with the software licensing agreement.
The information security officer should be aware of all these types of contractual
commitments required by software companies. This person needs to be educated on the
restrictions the organization is under and make sure proper enforcement mechanisms
are in place. If an organization is found guilty of illegally copying software or using
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more copies than its license permits, the security officer in charge of this task may be
primarily responsible.
Thanks to easy access to high-speed Internet, employees’ ability—if not the
temptation—to download and use pirated software has greatly increased. The June 2018
BSA Global Software Survey, a study conducted by the Business Software Alliance
(BSA) and International Data Corporation (IDC), found that 37 percent of the software
installed on personal computers globally was not properly licensed. This means that for
every two dollars’ worth of legal software that is purchased, one dollar’s worth is pirated.
Software developers often use these numbers to calculate losses resulting from pirated
copies. The assumption is that if the pirated copy had not been available, then everyone
who is using a pirated copy would have instead purchased it legally.
Not every country recognizes software piracy as a crime, but several international
organizations have made strides in curbing the practice. The Federation Against Software
Theft (FAST) and the Business Software Alliance (author of the Global Software Survey)
are organizations that promote the enforcement of proprietary rights of software. This
is a huge issue for companies that develop and produce software, because a majority of
their revenue comes from licensing fees. The study also estimates that the total economic
damage experienced by the industry was $46.3 billion in losses in 2018.
One of the offenses an individual or organization can commit is to decompile vendor
object code. This is usually done to figure out how the application works by obtaining
the original source code, which is confidential, and perhaps to reverse-engineer it in
the hope of understanding the intricate details of its functionality. Another purpose of
reverse-engineering products is to detect security flaws within the code that can later be
exploited. This is how some buffer overflow vulnerabilities are discovered.
Many times, an individual decompiles the object code into source code and either
finds security holes to exploit or alters the source code to produce some type of
functionality that the original vendor did not intend. In one example, an individual
decompiled a program that protects and displays e-books and publications. The vendor
did not want anyone to be able to copy the e-publications its product displayed and thus
inserted an encoder within the object code of its product that enforced this limitation.
The individual decompiled the object code and figured out how to create a decoder that
would overcome this restriction and enable users to make copies of the e-publications,
which infringed upon those authors’ and publishers’ copyrights.
The individual was arrested and prosecuted under the Digital Millennium Copyright
Act (DMCA), which makes it illegal to create products that circumvent copyright
protection mechanisms. Interestingly enough, many computer-oriented individuals
protested this person’s arrest, and the company prosecuting (Adobe) quickly decided to
drop all charges.
DMCA is a U.S. copyright law that criminalizes the production and dissemination of
technology, devices, or services that circumvent access control measures that are put into
place to protect copyright material. So if you figure out a way to “unlock” the proprietary
way that Barnes & Noble protects its e-books, you can be charged under this act. Even if
you don’t share the actual copyright-protected books with someone, you still broke this
specific law and can be found guilty.
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NOTE The European Union passed a similar law called the Copyright
Directive.
Compliance Requirements
While it is important to know which specific laws and regulations your organization
needs to be compliant with, it is also important to know how to ensure that compliance
is being met and how to properly convey that to the necessary stakeholders. If it hasn’t
already done so, your organization should develop a compliance program that outlines
what needs to be put into place to be compliant with the necessary internal and external
drivers. Then, an audit team should periodically assess how well the organization is doing
to meet the identified requirements.
The first step is to identify which laws and regulations your organization needs
to be compliant with (e.g., GDPR, HIPAA, PCI DSS, etc.). This will give you the
specific requirements that the laws and regulations impose on your organization.
The requirements, in turn, inform your risk assessment and allow you to select the
appropriate controls to ensure compliance. Once this is all done and tested, the auditors
have stuff to audit. These auditors can be internal or external to the organization and
will have long checklists of items that correspond with the legal, regulatory, and policy
requirements the organization must meet.
NOTE
Audits and auditors will be covered in detail in Chapter 18.
It is common for organizations to develop governance, risk, and compliance (GRC)
programs, which allow for the integration and alignment of the activities that take place
in each one of these silos of a security program. If the same key performance indicators
(KPIs) are used in the governance, risk, and compliance auditing activities, then the
resulting reports can effectively illustrate the overlap and integration of these different
concepts. For example, if a healthcare organization is not compliant with various HIPAA
requirements, this is a type of risk that management must be aware of so that it can ensure
the right activities and controls are put into place. Also, how does executive management
carry out security governance if it does not understand the risks the organization is
facing and the outstanding compliance issues? It is important for all of these things to
be understood by the decision makers in a holistic manner so that they can make the
best decisions pertaining to protecting the organization as a whole. The agreed-upon
KPI values are commonly provided to executive management in dashboards or scorecard
formats, which allow management to quickly understand the health of the organization
from a GRC point of view.
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Contractual, Legal, Industry Standards,
and Regulatory Requirements
Regulations in computer and information security cover many areas for many different reasons. We’ve already covered some of these areas, such as data privacy, computer
misuse, software copyright, data protection, and controls on cryptography. These regulations can be implemented in various arenas, such as government and private sectors, for
reasons dealing with environmental protection, intellectual property, national security,
personal privacy, public order, health and safety, and prevention of fraudulent activities.
Security professionals have so much to keep up with these days, from understanding
how the latest ransomware attacks work and how to properly protect against them, to
inventorying sensitive data and ensuring it only exists in approved places with the right
protections. Professionals also need to follow which new security products are released and
how they compare to the existing products. This is followed up by keeping track of new
technologies, service patches, hotfixes, encryption methods, access control mechanisms,
telecommunications security issues, social engineering, and physical security. Laws and
regulations have been ascending the list of things that security professionals also need
to be aware of. This is because organizations must be compliant with more and more
laws and regulations, both domestically and internationally, and noncompliance can
result in a fine or a company going out of business, and in some cases certain executive
management individuals ending up in jail.
Laws, regulations, and directives developed by governments or appointed agencies do
not usually provide detailed instructions to follow to properly protect computers and
company assets. Each environment is too diverse in topology, technology, infrastructure,
requirements, functionality, and personnel. Because technology changes at such a fast
pace, these laws and regulations could never successfully represent reality if they were too
detailed. Instead, they state high-level requirements that commonly puzzle organizations
about how to be compliant with them. This is where the security professional comes to
the rescue.
In the past, security professionals were expected to know how to carry out penetration
tests, configure firewalls, and deal only with the technology issues of security. Today,
security professionals are being pulled out of the server rooms and asked to be more
involved in business-oriented issues. As a security professional, you need to understand
the laws and regulations that your organization must comply with and what controls
must be put in place to accomplish compliance. This means the security professional
now must have a foot in both the technical world and the business world.
But it’s not just laws and regulations you need to be aware of. Your organization may
also need to be compliant with certain standards in order to be competitive (or even
do business) in certain sectors. If your organization processes credit cards, then it has
to comply with the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS). This
is not a law or even a government regulation; instead, it is an example of a mandatory
industry standard. If your organization is a financial institution that is considered
part of the critical national infrastructure of the United Kingdom, then it may have
to comply with the CBEST standard even though any reputable organization in that
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sector is expected to do so voluntarily. And, finally, if your organization wants to sell
cloud services to the U.S. government, it won’t even be considered unless it is Federal
Risk and Authorization Management Program (FedRAMP) certified. So, compliance
is not just about laws and regulations. There are many other standards that may be
critical to the success of your organization.
Another compliance requirement that is sometimes missed by cybersecurity
professionals is related to contracts and other legally binding agreements. In the course
of doing business, your organization may enter into agreements that may have security
requirements. For example, your organization may partner with another organization
and thereby gain access to its sensitive data. The partnering agreement may have a clause
requiring both organizations to ensure that they have certain controls in place to protect
that data. If these protections are not already part of your own security architecture
and you fail to implement them (or even become aware of them), you would not be in
compliance with the contractual obligations, which could make your organization liable
in the event of a breach. The point is that we need to have open lines of communication
with our legal and business colleagues to ensure we are made aware of any security clauses
before we enter into a contract.
If You Are Not a Lawyer, You Are Not a Lawyer
Many times organizations ask their security professionals to help them figure out
how to be compliant with the necessary laws and regulations. While you might be
aware of and have experience with some of these laws and regulations, there is a high
likelihood that you are not aware of all the necessary federal and state laws, regulations, and international requirements your organization must meet. These laws,
regulations, and directives morph over time and new ones are added, and while you
may think you are interpreting them correctly, you may be wrong. It is critical that
an organization get its legal department involved with compliancy issues. Many
security professionals have been in this situation over many years. At many organizations, the legal staff does not know enough about all of these issues to ensure
the organization is properly protected. In this situation, advise the organization to
contact outside counsel to help them with these issues.
Organizations look to security professionals to have all the answers, especially
in consulting situations. You will be brought in as the expert. But if you are not a
lawyer, you are not a lawyer and should advise your customer properly in obtaining
legal help to ensure proper compliance in all matters. The increasing use of cloud
computing is adding an incredible amount of legal and regulatory compliance
confusion to current situations.
It is a good idea to have a clause in any type of consulting agreement you
use that explicitly outlines these issues so that if and when the organization gets
hauled to court after a computer breach, your involvement will be understood and
previously documented.
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Over time, the CISSP exam has become more global in nature and less U.S.-centric.
Specific questions on U.S. laws and regulations have been taken out of the test, so you
do not need to spend a lot of time learning them and their specifics. Be familiar with
why laws are developed and put in place and their overall goals, instead of memorizing
specific laws and dates.
Privacy Requirements
Privacy compliance requirements stem from the various data protection laws and
regulations we’ve already covered in this chapter (for example, CCPA, GDPR, and
HIPAA). The hard part is ensuring you are aware of all the localities within which your
organization gathers, stores, and processes various types of private data. The good news
is that, at their core, these laws are not all that different from one another in terms
of the security controls they require. In almost every case, the controls are reasonable
things we would want to have anyway. So, most of the work you’ll require to remain
compliant is pretty straightforward.
Where things get a bit murkier is when we consider what data is covered and when
we are required to notify someone. For example, the GDPR covers PII on EU persons
and HIPAA covers PHI on any patient treated by a U.S. healthcare provider. So, if
you suffer a data breach affecting the PHI of a German national who received care
in your U.S. facilities, you will most likely have to follow both reporting procedures
in these two laws. Under the GDPR, you’d have 72 hours from the time of discovery,
while under HIPAA, you could have up to 60 days. The notified parties, in addition to
the individual whose information was compromised, vary in each case, which further
complicates things.
The best approach is collaborate with your business and legal colleague to develop
detailed notification procedures that cover each potential breach. Once you’re satisfied
that your organization can comply with the notification requirements, you should
exercise different scenarios to test the procedures and ensure everyone is trained on how
to execute them. A breach will ruin your day all by itself, so there’s no sense in adding
the need to figure out compliance requirements at the point of crisis to make it worse.
Furthermore, having procedures that are periodically exercised can help prove to any
investigators that you were doing the right things all along.
Liability and Its Ramifications
Executives may be held responsible and liable under various laws and regulations. They
could be sued by stockholders and customers if they do not practice due diligence and
due care. Due diligence can be defined as doing everything within one’s power to prevent
a bad thing from happening. Examples of this would be setting appropriate policies,
researching the threats and incorporating them into a risk management plan, and ensuring audits happen at the right times. Due care, on the other hand, means taking the
precautions that a reasonable and competent person would take in the same situation.
For example, someone who ignores a security warning and clicks through to a malicious
website would fail to exercise due care.
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EXAM TIP Due diligence is normally associated with leaders, laws, and
regulations. Due care is normally applicable to everyone, and failure to
exercise it could be used to show negligence.
Before you can figure out how to properly protect yourself, you need to find out
what it is you are protecting yourself against. This is what due diligence is all about—
researching and assessing the current level of vulnerabilities so the true risk level is
understood. Only after these steps and assessments take place can effective controls and
safeguards be identified and implemented.
Due Care vs. Due Diligence
Due diligence is the act of gathering the necessary information so the best decisionmaking activities can take place. Before a company purchases another company, it
should carry out due diligence activities so that the purchasing company does not
have any “surprises” down the road. The purchasing company should investigate all
relevant aspects of the past, present, and predictable future of the business of the target company. If this does not take place and the purchase of the new company hurts
the original company financially or legally, the decision makers could be found
liable (responsible) and negligent by the shareholders.
In information security, similar data gathering should take place so that there
are no “surprises” down the road and the risks are fully understood before they are
accepted. If a financial company is going to provide online banking functionality to
its customers, the company needs to fully understand all the risks this service entails
for the company. Website hacking attempts will increase, account fraud attempts
will increase, database attacks will increase, social engineering attacks will increase,
and so forth. While this company is offering its customers a new service, it is also
making itself a juicier target for attackers and lawyers. The company needs to carry
out due diligence to understand all these risks before offering this new service so
that the company can make the best business decisions. If it doesn’t implement
proper countermeasures, the company opens itself up to potential criminal charges,
civil suits, regulatory fines, loss of market share, and more.
Due care pertains to acting responsibly and “doing the right thing.” It is a legal term
that defines the standards of performance that can be expected, either by contract or
by implication, in the execution of a particular task. Due care ensures that a minimal
level of protection is in place in accordance with the best practice in the industry.
If an organization does not have sufficient security policies, necessary
countermeasures, and proper security awareness training in place, it is not practicing
due care and can be found negligent. If a financial institution that offers online
banking does not implement TLS for account transactions, for example, it is not
practicing due care.
Many times due diligence (data gathering) has to be performed so that proper
due care (prudent actions) can take place.
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Senior management has an obligation to protect the organization from a long list of
activities that can negatively affect it, including protection from malicious code, natural
disasters, privacy violations, infractions of the law, and more. The costs and benefits
of this protection should be evaluated in monetary and nonmonetary terms to ensure
that the cost of security does not outweigh the expected benefits. Security should be
proportional to potential loss estimates pertaining to the severity, likelihood, and extent
of potential damage.
As Figure 3-5 shows, there are many costs to consider when it comes to security
breaches: loss of business, response activities, customer and partner notification, and
detection and escalation measures. These types of costs need to be understood so that
the organization can practice proper due care by implementing the necessary controls
to reduce the risks and these costs. Security mechanisms should be employed to reduce
the frequency and severity of security-related losses. A sound security program is a smart
business practice.
Senior management needs to decide upon the amount of risk it is willing to take
pertaining to computer and information security, and implement security in an economical
and responsible manner. These risks do not always stop at the boundaries of the organization.
Many organizations work with third parties, with whom they must share sensitive data. The
main organization is still liable for the protection of this sensitive data that it owns, even if
the data is on another organization’s network. This is why more and more regulations are
requiring organizations to evaluate their third-party security measures.
If one of the organizations does not provide the necessary level of protection and its
negligence affects a partner it is working with, the affected organization can sue the upstream
organization. For example, let’s say Company A and Company B have constructed an
extranet. Company A does not put in controls to detect and deal with viruses. Company A
6,061
30%
1,845
6,025
30%
1,833
4,826
34%
1,621
65%
3,936
2013
4,587
37%
1,703
65%
3,924
61%
2,928
2014
NPE
4,557
3,608
40%
1,430
57%
2,610
2015
2016
Operating Company
54%
1,957
3,375
47%
1,599
48%
1,608
3,603
39%
1,396
54%
1,961
2017
2018
2019
Pure Design Patent Litigation
42%
1,926
21%
981
36%
1,636
2020 YTD
Figure 3-5 Data breach costs (Source: Ponemon Institute and IBM Security)
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gets infected with a destructive virus and it is spread to Company B through the extranet.
The virus corrupts critical data and causes a massive disruption to Company B’s production.
Therefore, Company B can sue Company A for being negligent. Both companies need to
make sure they are doing their part to ensure that their activities, or the lack of them, will
not negatively affect another company, which is referred to as downstream liability.
EXAM TIP Responsibility generally refers to the obligations and expected
actions and behaviors of a particular party. An obligation may have a
defined set of specific actions that are required, or a more general and open
approach, which enables the party to decide how it will fulfill the particular
obligation. Accountability refers to the ability to hold a party responsible for
certain actions or inaction.
Each company has different requirements when it comes to its list of due care
responsibilities. If these steps are not taken, the company may be charged with
negligence if damage arises out of its failure to follow these steps. To prove negligence
in court, the plaintiff must establish that the defendant had a legally recognized obligation,
or duty, to protect the plaintiff from unreasonable risks and that the defendant’s failure
to protect the plaintiff from an unreasonable risk (breach of duty) was the proximate
cause of the plaintiff ’s damages. Penalties for negligence can be either civil or criminal,
ranging from actions resulting in compensation for the plaintiff to jail time for violation
of the law.
EXAM TIP Proximate cause is an act or omission that naturally and directly
produces a consequence. It is the superficial or obvious cause for an
occurrence. It refers to a cause that leads directly, or in an unbroken
sequence, to a particular result. It can be seen as an element of negligence
in a court of law.
Requirements for Investigations
Investigations are launched for a multitude of specific reasons. Maybe you suspect an
employee is using your servers to mine bitcoin after hours, which in most places would be
a violation of acceptable use policies. Maybe you think civil litigation is reasonably foreseeable or you uncover evidence of crime on your systems. Sometimes, we are the targets of
investigation and not the investigators, such as when a government regulator suspects we
are not in compliance. Though the investigative process is similar regardless of the reason,
it is important to differentiate the types of investigations you are likely to come across.
Administrative
An administrative investigation is one that is focused on policy violations. These
represent the least impactful (to the organization) type of investigation and will
likely result in administrative action if the investigation supports the allegations. For
instance, violations of voluntary industry standards (such as PCI DSS) could result in
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an administrative investigation, particularly if the violation resulted in some loss or bad
press for the organization. In the worst case, someone can get fired. Typically, however,
someone is counseled not to do something again and that is that. Either way, you want
to keep your human resources (HR) staff involved as you proceed.
Criminal
A seemingly administrative affair, however, can quickly get stickier. Suppose you start
investigating someone for a possible policy violation and along the way discover that
person was involved in what is likely criminal activity. A criminal investigation is one
that is aimed at determining whether there is cause to believe beyond a reasonable doubt
that someone committed a crime. The most important thing to consider is that we, as
information systems security professionals, are not qualified to determine whether or not
someone broke the law; that is the job of law enforcement agencies (LEAs). Our job,
once we have reason to believe that a crime may have taken place, is to preserve evidence,
ensure the designated people in our organizations contact the appropriate LEA, and assist
them in any way that is appropriate.
Civil
Not all statutes are criminal, however, so it is possible to have an alleged violation of a
law result in something other than a criminal investigation. The two likeliest ways to
encounter this is regarding possible violations of civil law or government regulations.
A civil investigation is typically triggered when a lawsuit is imminent or ongoing. It is
similar to a criminal investigation, except that instead of working with an LEA you will
probably be working with attorneys from both sides (the plaintiff is the party suing and
the defendant is the one being sued). Another key difference in civil (versus criminal)
investigations is that the standard of proof is much lower; instead of proving beyond a
reasonable doubt, the plaintiff just has to show that the preponderance of the evidence
supports the allegation.
Regulatory
Somewhere between the previous three (administrative, criminal, and civil investigations)
lies the fourth kind you should know. A regulatory investigation is initiated by a government regulator when there is reason to believe that the organization is not in compliance.
These vary significantly in scope and could look like any of the other three types of investigation depending on the severity of the allegations. As with criminal investigations, the
key thing to remember is that your job is to preserve evidence and assist the regulator’s
investigators as appropriate.
Chapter Review
The fact that the Internet is a global medium does not negate the power of governments to
establish and enforce laws that govern what can be done by whom on networks within each
country. This can create challenges for cybersecurity professionals whose organizations
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have clients, partners, or activities in multiple jurisdictions. The most important
thing you can do as a CISSP is develop a good relationship with your legal team and
use that to ensure you are aware of all the legal and regulatory requirements that may
pertain to cybersecurity. Then, after you implement the necessary controls, check with
your lawyer friends again to ensure you’ve exercised due diligence. Keep checking,
because laws and regulations do change over time, particularly if you are operating in
multiple countries.
Quick Review
• Law is a system of rules (written or otherwise), created by a government, that
apply equally to everyone in the country.
• Regulations are written rules issued by an executive body, covering specific issues,
and apply only to the specific entities that fall under the authority of the agency
that issues them.
• Civil law system:
• Uses prewritten rules and is not based on precedent.
• Is different from civil (tort) laws, which work under a common law system.
• Common law system:
• Made up of criminal, civil, and administrative laws.
• Customary law system:
• Addresses mainly personal conduct and uses regional traditions and customs as
the foundations of the laws.
• Is usually mixed with another type of listed legal system rather than being the
sole legal system used in a region.
• Religious law system:
• Laws are derived from religious beliefs and address an individual’s religious
responsibilities; commonly used in Muslim countries or regions.
• Mixed law system:
• Uses two or more legal systems.
• Criminal law deals with an individual’s conduct that violates government laws
developed to protect the public.
• Civil law deals with wrongs committed against individuals or organizations that
result in injury or damages. Civil law does not use prison time as a punishment,
but usually requires financial restitution.
• Administrative, or regulatory, law covers standards of performance or conduct
expected by government agencies from companies, industries, and certain officials.
• Many attacks cross international borders, which make them harder to prosecute
because doing so requires deconflicting the laws of the various countries involved;
attackers use this to their advantage.
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• Island-hopping attacks are those in which an attacker compromises an easier target
that has a trusted connection to the ultimate target.
• An advanced persistent threat (APT) is a sophisticated threat actor that has the
means and the will to devote extraordinary resources to compromising a specific
target and remaining undetected for extended periods of time.
• A data breach is a security event that results in the actual or potential compromise
of the confidentiality or integrity of protected information by unauthorized actors.
• Personally identifiable information (PII) is data that can be used to uniquely
identify, contact, or locate a single person or can be used with other sources to
uniquely identify a single individual.
• Each country has specific rules that control what can be legally imported and
exported. This applies particularly to some cryptographic tools and techniques.
• A transborder data flow (TDF) is the movement of machine-readable data across
a political boundary such as a country’s border.
• Data localization laws require that certain types of data be stored and processed
in that country, sometimes exclusively.
• Intellectual property (IP) is a type of property created by human intellect that
consists of ideas, inventions, and expressions that are uniquely created by a person
and can be protected from unauthorized use by others.
• A license is an agreement between an intellectual property (IP) owner (the licensor)
and somebody else (the licensee), granting that party the right to use the IP in very
specific ways.
• Trade secrets are deemed proprietary to a company and often include information
that provides a competitive edge. The information is protected as long as the
owner takes the necessary protective actions.
• Copyright protects the expression of ideas rather than the ideas themselves.
• Trademarks protect words, names, product shapes, symbols, colors, or a
combination of these used to identify products or a company. These items are
used to distinguish products from the competitors’ products.
• A patent grants ownership and enables that owner to legally enforce his rights
to exclude others from using the invention covered by the patent.
• Due diligence can be defined as doing everything within one’s power to
prevent a bad thing from happening. It is normally associated with leaders,
laws, and regulations.
• Due care means taking the precautions that a reasonable and competent person
would take in the same situation. It is normally applicable to everyone, and its
absence could be used to show negligence.
• Administrative investigations are focused on policy violations.
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• Criminal investigations are aimed at determining whether there is cause to believe
that someone committed a crime.
• A civil investigation is typically triggered when a lawsuit is imminent or ongoing,
and is similar to a criminal investigation, except that instead of working with law
enforcement agencies you will probably be working with attorneys from both sides.
• A regulatory investigation is initiated by a government regulator when there is
reason to believe that the organization is not in compliance.
Questions
Please remember that these questions are formatted and asked in a certain way for a
reason. Keep in mind that the CISSP exam is asking questions at a conceptual level.
Questions may not always have the perfect answer, and the candidate is advised against
always looking for the perfect answer. Instead, the candidate should look for the best
answer in the list.
1. When can executives be charged with negligence?
A. If they follow the transborder laws
B. If they do not properly report and prosecute attackers
C. If they properly inform users that they may be monitored
D. If they do not practice due care when protecting resources
2. To better deal with computer crime, several legislative bodies have taken what
steps in their strategy?
A. Expanded several privacy laws
B. Broadened the definition of property to include data
C. Required corporations to have computer crime insurance
D. Redefined transborder issues
3. Which of the following is true about data breaches?
A. They are exceptionally rare.
B. They always involve personally identifiable information (PII).
C. They may trigger legal or regulatory requirements.
D. The United States has no laws pertaining to data breaches.
Use the following scenario to answer Questions 4–6. Business is good and your company is
expanding operations into Europe. Because your company will be dealing with personal
information of European Union (EU) citizens, you know that it will be subject to the
EU’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). You have a mature security program
that is certified by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), so you are
confident you can meet any new requirements.
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4. Upon learning of your company’s plans to expand into Europe, what should be
one of the first things you do?
A. Consult your legal team
B. Appoint a Data Protection Officer (DPO)
C. Label data belonging to EU persons
D. Nothing, because your ISO certification should cover all new requirements
5. You have determined all the new GDPR requirements and estimate that you
will need an additional $250,000 to meet them. How can you best justify this
investment to your senior business leaders?
A. It is the right thing to do.
B. You are legally required to provide that money.
C. You’ll make way more profits than that in the new market.
D. The cost of noncompliance could easily exceed the additional budget
request.
6. Your Security Operations Center (SOC) chief notifies you of a data breach in
which your organization’s entire customer list may have been compromised.
As the data controller, what are your notification requirements?
A. No later than 72 hours after you contain the breach
B. Within 30 days of the breach
C. As soon as possible, but within 60 days of becoming aware of the breach
D. No later than 72 hours after becoming aware of the breach
Use the following scenario to answer Questions 7–9. Faced with a lawsuit alleging patent
infringement, your CEO stands up a working group to look at licensing and intellectual
property (IP) issues across the company. The intent is to ensure that the company is
doing everything within its power to enforce IP rights, both its own rights and others’
rights. The CEO asks you to lead an effort to look internally and externally for any
indication that your company is violating the IP rights of others or that your own IP is
being used by unauthorized parties.
7. Which term best describes what the CEO is practicing?
A. Due care
B. Due diligence
C. Compliance
D. Downstream liability
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A. Do nothing; the blogs are not particularly valuable, and you have bigger problems
PART I
8. You discover that another organization is publishing some of your company’s
copyrighted blogs on its website as if they were its own. What is your best course
of action?
B. Contact the webmasters directly and ask them to take the blogs down
C. Have the legal team send a cease-and-desist order to the offending organization
D. Report your findings to the CEO
9. You discover dozens of workstations running unlicensed productivity software in
a virtual network that is isolated from the Internet. Why is this a problem?
A. Users should not be able to install their own applications.
B. It is not a problem as long as the virtual machines are not connected to the
Internet.
C. Software piracy can have significant financial and even criminal repercussions.
D. There is no way to register the licenses if the devices cannot access the Internet.
10. Which of the following would you use to control the public distribution,
reproduction, display, and adaptation of an original white paper written by
your staff?
A. Copyright
B. Trademark
C. Patent
D. Trade secret
11. Many privacy laws dictate which of the following rules?
A. Individuals have a right to remove any data they do not want others to know.
B. Agencies do not need to ensure that the data is accurate.
C. Agencies need to allow all government agencies access to the data.
D. Agencies cannot use collected data for a purpose different from what they
collected it for.
12. Which of the following has an incorrect definition mapping?
i. Civil (code) law: Based on previous interpretations of laws
ii. Common law: Rule-based law, not precedent-based
iii. Customary law: Deals mainly with personal conduct and patterns of behavior
iv. Religious law: Based on religious beliefs of the region
A. i, iii
B. i, ii, iii
C. i, ii
D. iv
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Answers
1. D. Executives are held to a certain standard and are expected to act responsibly
when running and protecting an organization. These standards and expectations
equate to the due care concept under the law. Due care means to carry out
activities that a reasonable person would be expected to carry out in the same
situation. If an executive acts irresponsibly in any way, she can be seen as not
practicing due care and be held negligent.
2. B. Many times, what is corrupted, compromised, or taken from a computer is
data, so current laws have been updated to include the protection of intangible
assets, as in data. Over the years, data and information have become many
organizations’ most valuable asset, which must be protected by the laws.
3. C. Organizations experiencing a data breach may be required by laws or regulations
to take certain actions. For instance, many countries have disclosure requirements
that require notification to affected parties and/or regulatory bodies within a
specific timeframe.
4. A. Your best bet when facing a new legal or regulatory environment or issue is
to consult with your legal team. It is their job to tell you what you’re required
to do, and your job to get it done. Your will almost certainly need to appoint a
Data Protection Officer (DPO), and you will probably need to label or otherwise
categorize data belonging to EU persons, but you still need to check with your
attorneys first.
5. D. Fines for noncompliance with the GDPR can range from up to €20 million
(approximately $22.5 million) to 4 percent of a company’s annual global
revenue—whichever is greater. While it is true that this is the right thing to do,
that answer is not as compelling to business leaders whose job is to create value
for their shareholders.
6. D. The GDPR has the strictest breach notification requirements of any
data protection law in the world. Your organization is required to notify the
supervisory authority of the EU member state involved within 72 hours of
becoming aware of the breach. Examples of supervisory authorities are the Data
Protection Commission in Ireland, the Hellenic Data Protection Authority in
Greece, and the Agencia Española de Protección de Datos in Spain.
7. B. Due diligence is doing everything within one’s power to prevent a bad thing
from happening and is normally associated with an organization’s leaders. Given
the CEO’s intent, this is the best answer. Compliance could be an answer but is
not the best one since the scope of the effort appears to be very broad and there is
no mention of specific laws or regulations with which the CEO wants to comply.
8. C. A company must protect resources that it claims to be intellectual property
such as copyrighted material and must show that it exercised due care
(reasonable acts of protection) in its efforts to protect those resources. If you
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ignore this apparent violation, it may be much more difficult to enforce your
rights later when more valuable IP is involved. You should never attempt to do
this on your own. That’s why you have a legal team!
9. C. Whether or not the computers on which unlicensed software runs can reach
the Internet is irrelevant. The fact is that your company is using a software
product that it is not authorized to use, which is considered software piracy.
10. A. A copyright fits the situation precisely. A patent could be used to protect a novel
invention described in the paper, but the question did not imply that this was the
case. A trade secret cannot be publicly disseminated, so it does not apply. Finally, a
trademark protects only a word, symbol, sound, shape, color, or combination of these.
11. D. The Federal Privacy Act of 1974 and the General Data Protection Regulation
(GDPR) were created to protect personal data. These acts have many stipulations,
including that the information can only be used for the reason for which it
was collected.
12. C. The following has the proper definition mappings:
i. Civil (code) law: Rule-based law, not precedent-based
ii. Common law: Based on previous interpretations of laws
iii. Customary law: Deals mainly with personal conduct and patterns of behavior
iv. Religious law: Based on religious beliefs of the region
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CHAPTER
Frameworks
4
This chapter presents the following:
• Overview of frameworks
• Risk frameworks
• Information security frameworks
• Enterprise architecture frameworks
• Other frameworks
You can’t build a great building on a weak foundation.
—Gordon B. Hinckley
The previous chapters have covered a lot of material dealing with governance, risk, and
compliance. By now, you may be asking yourself, “How does this all fit together into an
actionable process?” This is where frameworks come to the rescue. You can think of a
framework as a strong foundation on which to build whatever it is you’re trying to build,
whether it’s a risk management program or security controls. A framework gives you just
enough rigidity to keep your effort from collapsing under its own weight, but still gives
you a lot of leeway so that you can customize the framework to your particular situation.
While it is possible (though very difficult) to build successful programs all by yourself,
why reinvent the wheel when you can leverage the hard-earned lessons of other experts
in the field?
In this chapter, we will discuss a variety of frameworks that you are likely to encounter
both in your job and when taking the CISSP exam. We divide them into three groups: risk
frameworks, information security frameworks, and enterprise architecture frameworks.
Risk management enables any successful information security program, so we’ll tackle
those two groups in that order, followed by enterprise architecture frameworks. We’ll then
round out our discussion with the other frameworks and concepts that you should know.
Overview of Frameworks
A framework is a basic structure underlying a system, concept, or text. So the purpose of
frameworks in IT and cybersecurity is to provide structure to the ways in which we manage risks, develop enterprise architectures, and secure all our assets. Think of frameworks
as the consensus of many great minds on how we should approach these issues.
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As you will see in the following sections, various for-profit and nonprofit organizations
have developed their own frameworks for risk management, security programs, security
controls, process management, and enterprise development. We will examine their
similarities and differences and illustrate where each is used within the industry. The
following is a basic breakdown.
Risk:
• NIST RMF The Risk Management Framework, developed by the National
Institute of Standards and Technology, is composed of three interrelated NIST
Special Publications (SPs): 800-39, 800-37, and 800-30.
• ISO/IEC 27005 Focused on risk treatment, this joint International
Organization for Standardization/International Electrotechnical Commission
framework is best used in conjunction with ISO/IEC 27000 series standards.
• OCTAVE The Operationally Critical Threat, Asset, and Vulnerability
Evaluation framework, developed at Carnegie Mellon University, is focused on
risk assessment.
• FAIR The FAIR Institute’s Factor Analysis of Information Risk framework focuses
on more precisely measuring the probabilities of incidents and their impacts.
Security Program:
• ISO/IEC 27000 series This is a series of international standards on how to
develop and maintain an information security management system (ISMS),
developed by ISO and IEC.
• NIST Cybersecurity Framework Driven by the need to secure government
systems, NIST developed this widely used and comprehensive framework for
risk-driven information security.
Security Controls:
• NIST SP 800-53 This NIST publication provides a catalog of controls and
a process for selecting them in order to protect U.S. federal systems.
• CIS Controls The Center for Internet Security (CIS) Controls framework is
one of the simplest approaches for companies of all sizes to select and implement
the right controls.
• COBIT 2019 This is a business framework to allow for IT enterprise
management and governance that was developed by ISACA.
Enterprise Architecture:
• Zachman Framework This is a model for the development of enterprise
architectures, developed by John Zachman.
• TOGAF The Open Group Architecture Framework is a model and methodology
for the development of enterprise architectures.
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NOTE
PART I
• DoDAF The U.S. Department of Defense Architecture Framework was
developed to ensure interoperability of systems to meet military mission goals.
• SABSA The Sherwood Applied Business Security Architecture model and
methodology for the development of information security enterprise architectures
was developed by the SABSA Institute.
Chapter 1 already discussed the SABSA model.
Risk Frameworks
By combining the definition of a framework in the previous section with our definition
of risk management in Chapter 2, we can define a risk management framework (RMF)
as a structured process that allows an organization to identify and assess risk, reduce it
to an acceptable level, and ensure that it remains at that level. In essence, an RMF is a
structured approach to risk management.
As you might imagine, there is no shortage of RMFs out there. What is important to
you as a security professional is to ensure your organization has an RMF that works for
you. That being said, there are some frameworks that have enjoyed widespread success
and acceptance. You should at least be aware of these, and ideally adopt (and perhaps
modify) one of them to fit your organization’s particular needs. We’ll cover the NIST
RMF in more detail, mostly to familiarize you with the components of this framework,
but also because it is the one you are most likely to encounter in your career.
NIST RMF
The NIST Risk Management Framework (RMF) is described in three core interrelated Special Publications (there are other key publications specific to individual steps
of the RMF):
• SP 800-37, Revision 2, Risk Management Framework for Information Systems
and Organizations
• SP 800-39, Managing Information Security Risk
• SP 800-30, Revision 1, Guide for Conducting Risk Assessments
This framework incorporates the key elements of risk management that you should
know as a security professional. It is important to keep in mind, however, that it is geared
toward federal government entities and may have to be modified to fit your own needs.
The NIST RMF outlines the seven-step process shown in Figure 4-1, each of which
will be addressed in turn in the following sections. It is important to note that this is
a never-ending cycle because our information systems are constantly changing. Each
change needs to be analyzed to determine whether it should trigger another trip around
the loop.
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Figure 4-1
The NIST Risk
Management
Framework
process
CATEGORIZE
MONITOR
SELECT
PREPARE
Process initiation
AUTHORIZE
IMPLEMENT
ASSESS
Prepare
The first step is to ensure that the top executives and the senior leaders (at both the strategic
and operational levels) are in sync across the organization. This includes agreeing on roles,
priorities, constraints, and risk tolerance. Another key activity during the prepare step is to
conduct an organizational risk assessment that provides a common point of reference for
the entire team to communicate about strategic risks. One of the outcomes of this assessment is the identification of high-value assets, on which the entire effort will be focused.
Categorize
The next step is to categorize your information systems based on criticality and sensitivity of the information to be processed, stored, or transmitted by those systems. The idea
is to create categories for your systems based on how important they are so that you can
prioritize your defensive resources. All U.S. government agencies are required to use the
following NIST SP 800-60 documents for this purpose: Volume I: Guide for Mapping Types
of Information and Information Systems to Security Categories and Volume II: Appendices
to Guide for Mapping Types of Information and Information Systems to Security Categories.
NIST SP 800-60 applies sensitivity and criticality to each security objective
(confidentiality, integrity, and availability) to determine a system’s criticality. For example,
suppose you have a customer relationship management (CRM) system. If its confidentiality
were to be compromised, this would cause significant harm to your company, particularly
if the information fell into the hands of your competitors. The system’s integrity and
availability, on the other hand, would probably not be as critical to your business, so they
would be classified as relatively low. The format for describing the security category (SC)
of this CRM would be as follows:
SCCRM = {(confidentiality, high),(integrity, low),(availability, low)}
SP 800-60 uses three SCs: low impact, moderate impact, and high impact. A lowimpact system is defined as an information system in which all three of the security
objectives are low. A moderate-impact system is one in which at least one of the security
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objectives is moderate and no security objective is greater than moderate. Finally, a
high-impact system is an information system in which at least one security objective
is high. This method of categorization is referred to as the “high water mark” because
it uses the highest security objective category to determine the overall category of
the system. In our example, the SC of the CRM system would be high because at least
one objective (confidentiality) is rated high.
Select
Once you have categorized your systems, it is time to select, and quite possibly tailor,
the controls you will use to protect them. The NIST RMF defines three types of security
controls: common, system-specific, and hybrid. A common control is one that applies to
multiple systems and exists outside of their individual boundaries. Following our CRM
example, if you placed a web application firewall (WAF) in front of the CRM (and in
front of all your other web applications), that would be an example of a common control.
The WAF is outside the system boundary of the CRM and protects it and other systems.
System-specific controls, on the other hand, are implemented within the system
boundary and, obviously, protect only that specific system. The system owner, and not
the broader organization, is responsible for these. An example would be a login page
on the CRM that forces the use of Transport Layer Security (TLS) to encrypt the user
credentials. If the authentication subsystem was an integral part of the CRM, then this
would be an example of an application-specific control.
Wouldn’t it be wonderful if everything was black or white, true or false? Alas, the real
world is much messier than that. Oftentimes, controls blur the line between common
and system-specific and become something else. A hybrid control, according to the
NIST RMF, is one that is partly common and partly system-specific. Continuing our
CRM example, a hybrid control could be security awareness training. There would be a
common aspect to the training (e.g., don’t share your password) but also some systemspecific content (e.g., don’t save your customers’ information and e-mail it to your
personal account so that you can reach out to them while you’re on vacation).
The specific controls required to mitigate risks to acceptable levels are documented
in the NIST control catalog, NIST SP 800-53, Revision 5, Security and Privacy Controls
for Information Systems and Organizations. We’ll discuss this publication later in this
chapter, but for now it is worth noting that it provides a mapping between the impact
categories we assigned to information systems in the categorize step of this RMF and
specific controls that mitigate risks to those systems.
Implement
There are two key tasks in this step: implementation and documentation. The first part is
very straightforward. For example, if you determined in the previous step that you need
to add a rule to your WAF to filter out attacks like Structured Query Language (SQL)
injection, you implement that rule. Simple. The part with which many of us struggle is
the documentation of this change.
The documentation is important for two obvious reasons. First, it allows everyone to
understand what controls exist, where, and why. Have you ever inherited a system that is
configured in a seemingly nonsensical way? You try to understand why certain parameters
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or rules exist but hesitate to change them because the system might fail. Likely, this was the
result of either improper documentation or (even worse) a successful attack. The second
reason why documentation is important is that it allows us to fully integrate the controls
into the overall assessment and monitoring plan. Failing to do this invites having controls
that quietly become obsolete and ineffective over time and result in undocumented risks.
Assess
The security controls we implement are useful to our overall risk management effort
only insofar as we can assess them. It is absolutely essential to our organizations to have
a comprehensive plan that assesses all security controls (common, hybrid, and systemspecific) with regard to the risks they are meant to address. This plan must be reviewed
and approved by the appropriate official(s), and it must be exercised.
To execute an assessment plan, you will, ideally, identify an assessor who is both
competent and independent from the team that implemented the controls. This person
must act as an honest broker that not only assesses the effectiveness of the controls but
also ensures the documentation is appropriate for the task. For this reason, it is important
to include all necessary assessment materials in the plan.
The assessment determines whether or not the controls are effective. If they are, then
the results are documented in the report so that they are available as references for the
next assessment. If the controls are not effective, then the report documents the results,
the remediation actions that were taken to address the shortcomings, and the outcome
of the reassessment. Finally, the appropriate security plans are updated to include the
findings and recommendations of the assessment.
NOTE An assessment of security controls is also called an audit. We discuss
audits in detail in Chapter 18.
Authorize
As we already discussed, no system is ever 100 percent risk-free. At this stage in the RMF,
we present the results of both our risk and controls assessments to the appropriate decisionmaker in order to get approval to connect our information system into our broader architecture and operate it. This person (or group) is legally responsible and accountable for the
system while it is operating, and therefore must make a true risk-based decision to allow
the system to operate. This person determines whether the risk exposure is acceptable to
the organization. This normally requires a review of a plan of action that addresses how
and when the organization will deal with the remaining weaknesses and deficiencies in the
information system. In many organizations this authorization is given for a set period of
time, which is usually specified in a plan of action and milestones (POAM or POA&M).
Monitor
These milestones we just mentioned are a key component of the monitoring or continuous improvement stage of the RMF. At a minimum, we must periodically look at all our
controls and determine whether they are still effective. Has the threat changed its tactics,
techniques, and procedures (TTPs)? Have new vulnerabilities been discovered? Has an
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ISO/IEC 27005
PART I
undocumented or unapproved change to our configuration altered our risk equations?
These are only some of the issues that we address through ongoing monitoring and continuous improvement.
ISO/IEC 27005, updated in 2018, is another widely used information security risk
management framework. Similar to the NIST RMF we just discussed, ISO/IEC 27005
provides guidelines for information security risk management in an organization but
does not dictate a specific approach for implementing it. In other words, the framework
tells us what sorts of things we ought to do, but not how to do them. Similarly to how
the NIST RMF can be paired with the security controls in NIST SP 800-53, ISO/IEC
27005 is best used in conjunction with ISO/IEC 27001, which, as we’ll see shortly, provides a lot more structure to information security program development.
The risk management process defined by ISO/IEC 27005 is illustrated in Figure 4-2.
It all starts with establishing the context in which the risks exist. This is similar to the
Figure 4-2
ISO/IEC 27005
risk management
process
CONTEXT ESTABLISHMENT
RISK ASSESSMENT
RISK ANALYSIS
RISK ESTIMATION
RISK EVALUATION
RISK DECISION POINT 1
Assessment satisfactory
No
RISK MONITORING AND REVIEW
RISK COMMUNICATION
RISK IDENTIFICATION
Yes
RISK TREATMENT
RISK DECISION POINT 2
Treatment satisfactory
No
Yes
RISK ACCEPTANCE
END OF FIRST OR SUBSEQUENT ITERATIONS
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business impact analysis (BIA) we discussed in Chapter 2, but it adds new elements,
such as evaluation criteria for risks as well as the organizational risk appetite. The risk
assessment box in the middle of the figure should look familiar, since we also discussed
this process (albeit with slightly different terms) in Chapter 2.
The risk treatment step is similar to the NIST RMF steps of selecting and implementing
controls but is broader in scope. Rather than focusing on controls to mitigate the risks,
ISO/IEC 27005 outlines four ways in which the risk can be treated:
• Mitigate the risk by implementing controls that bring it to acceptable levels.
• Accept the risk and hope it doesn’t realize, which assumes that the impact of this
risk is less than the cost of treating it.
• Transfer the risk to another entity such as an insurance company or a business
partner.
• Avoid the risk by not implementing the information system that brings it, or
by changing business practices so the risk is no longer present or is reduced to
acceptable levels.
NOTE The NIST RMF also briefly touches on these treatments in the
authorize step of its process.
Risk acceptance in ISO/IEC 27005 is very similar to the authorize step in the NIST
RMF, and the risk monitoring steps in both are very similar. A notable difference
between these two RMFs, on the other hand, is that ISO/IEC 27005 explicitly identifies
risk communication as an important process. This is an essential component of any
risk management methodology, since we cannot enlist the help of senior executives,
partners, or other stakeholders if we cannot effectively convey our message to a variety of
audiences. Just because this communication is not explicitly called out in the NIST RMF
or any other RMF, however, doesn’t decrease its importance.
As you can see, this framework doesn’t really introduce anything new to the risk
conversation we’ve been having over the last two chapters; it just rearranges things a
bit. Of course, despite these high-level similarities, the two risk-based frameworks we’ve
discussed differ in how they are implemented. For best results, you should combine ISO/
IEC 27005 risk management with an ISO/IEC 27001 security program.
OCTAVE
The Operationally Critical Threat, Asset, and Vulnerability Evaluation (OCTAVE) is
not really a framework per se. Rather, it is a methodology for risk assessments developed
at Carnegie Mellon University. So, while it falls short of a framework, it is fairly commonly used in the private sector. As a cybersecurity professional, you really should be
aware of it and know when it might come in handy.
OCTAVE is self-directed, meaning that it uses a small team of representatives of
IT and the business sides of the organization to conduct the analysis. This promotes
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PART I
collaboration on identifying risks and facilitates communication with business leaders
on those risks. It also follows the approach of focusing on the most critical assets in risk
analysis to prioritize areas of attention. OCTAVE follows the 80/20 Pareto principle,
which states that 80 percent of the consequences come from 20 percent of the causes.
This highlights one of the key benefits of this methodology, which is its focus on speed
based on the fact that, for most businesses, time is money.
This risk assessment methodology is divided into three phases. The first is an
organizational view, in which the analysis team defines threat profiles based on assets that
are critical to the business. The second phase then looks at the organization’s technology
infrastructure to identify vulnerabilities that might be exploited by those threats. Finally,
in the third phase, the team analyses and classifies individual risks as high, medium, or
low and then develops mitigation strategies for each. This classification scheme belies
one of the advantages or drawbacks (depending on your perspective) of OCTAVE: it is
fundamentally a qualitative approach to assessing risks.
FAIR
If you want to apply a more rigorous, quantitative approach to managing risk, you may
want to read up on the Factor Analysis of Information Risk (FAIR), which is a proprietary framework for understanding, analyzing, and measuring information risk. In fact,
if you want a quantitative approach, this is pretty much the only international standard
framework you can use. Recall that a quantitative approach is one in which risks are
reduced to numbers (typically monetary quantities), while a qualitative approach uses
categories of risks such as low, medium, and high.
The main premise of FAIR is that we should focus not on possible threats but on
probable threats. Thus, its quantitative nature makes a lot of sense. In this framework,
risk is defined as the “probable frequency and probable magnitude of future loss,” where
loss can be quantified as lost productivity, costs of replacement or response, fines, or
competitive advantage. Note that each of these can be reduced (perhaps with a bit of
work) to monetary quantities. If this approach appeals to you, consider it in conjunction
with the discussion of quantitative risk assessment in Chapter 2.
Information Security Frameworks
Armed with the knowledge gained from the risk management frameworks, we are now
ready to properly secure our information systems. After all, our main goal is to develop costeffective defenses that enable our organizations to thrive despite the risks they face. For this
reason, most information security frameworks have an explicit tie-in to risk management.
Broadly speaking, information security frameworks can be divided into two categories:
those that look holistically at the entire security program, and those that are focused
on controls. These are not mutually exclusive, by the way. As we will see, the NIST
Cybersecurity Framework is compatible with the NIST SP 800-53 controls. Nor do
information security frameworks have to be implemented in a wholesale manner. This
is, after all, the beauty of frameworks: we get to pick and choose the parts that make the
most sense to us and then tailor those to our specific organizational needs.
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Security Program Frameworks
Let’s start at the top. A security program is made up of many components: logical,
administrative, and physical protection mechanisms (i.e., controls); procedures; business
processes; and people. These components all work together to provide a protection level
for an environment. Each has an important place in the framework, and if one is missing
or incomplete, the whole framework may be affected. The program should work in layers: each layer provides support for the layer above it and protection for the layer below
it. Because a security program is a framework, organizations are free to plug in different
types of technologies, methods, and procedures to accomplish the necessary protection
level for their environment.
A security program based upon a flexible framework sounds great, but how do we build
one? Before a fortress is built, the structure is laid out in blueprints by an architect. We
need a detailed plan to follow to properly build our security program. Thank goodness
industry standards have been developed just for this purpose. Let’s take a closer look at
two of the most popular information security program frameworks: the ISO/IEC 27000
series and the NIST Cybersecurity Framework.
ISO/IEC 27000 Series
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 27000 series serves as industry best practices for the management of security controls in a holistic manner within organizations around the world.
The list of standards that makes up this series grows each year. Collectively, these standards describe an information security management system (ISMS), but each standard has a
specific focus (such as metrics, governance, auditing, and so on). The currently published
ISO/IEC 27000 series of standards (with a bunch of them omitted) include the following:
• ISO/IEC 27000
• ISO/IEC 27001
• ISO/IEC 27002
• ISO/IEC 27003
• ISO/IEC 27004
• ISO/IEC 27005
• ISO/IEC 27007
• ISO/IEC 27014
• ISO/IEC 27017
• ISO/IEC 27019
• ISO/IEC 27031
• ISO/IEC 27033
• ISO/IEC 27034
• ISO/IEC 27035
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Overview and vocabulary
ISMS requirements
Code of practice for information security controls
ISMS implementation guidance
ISMS monitoring, measurement, analysis, and evaluation
Information security risk management
ISMS auditing guidelines
Information security governance
Security controls for cloud services
Security for process control in the energy industry
Business continuity
Network security
Application security
Incident management
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PART I
• ISO/IEC 27037 Digital evidence collection and preservation
• ISO/IEC 27050 Electronic discovery
• ISO/IEC 27799 Health organizations
It is common for organizations to seek an ISO/IEC 27001 certification by an accredited
third party. The third party assesses the organization against the ISMS requirements laid
out in ISO/IEC 27001 and attests to the organization’s compliance level. Just as (ISC)2
attests to information security professionals’ knowledge once they pass the CISSP exam,
the third party attests to the security practices within the boundaries of the organization
it evaluates.
It is useful to understand the differences between the ISO/IEC 27000 series of
standards and how they relate to each other. Figure 4-3 illustrates the differences between
general requirements, general guidelines, and sector-specific guidelines.
EXAM TIP You don’t have to memorize the entire ISO/IEC 27000 series of
standards. You just need to be aware of them.
As you probably realize, ISO 27001 is the most important of these standards for most
organizations. It is not enough to simply purchase the document and implement it in
your environment; you actually need an external party (called a Certification Body) to
audit you and certify that you are in compliance with the standard. This ISO 27001
certification is useful to demonstrate to your customers and partners that you are not a
security risk to them, which in some cases can be a contractual obligation. Additionally,
Figure 4-3
How ISO/IEC
27000 standards
relate to each
other
27001
ISMS Requirements
General Requirements
What is an ISMS?
What must it do?
27002
Code of Practice
General Guidelines
How should an ISMS
provide information
security?
27011
ISMS Guidelines for
Telecommunications
Organizations
How should an ISMS
provide information security
in a telecommunications
sector organization?
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SectorSpecific
Guidelines
27799
Health Informatics ISMS in Health
How should an ISMS
provide information
security in a health
services organization?
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this certification can help avoid regulatory fines by proving that the organization practices
due diligence in protecting its information systems. The certification process can take
a year or longer (depending on how mature your security program is), but for many
medium and large business, it is worth the investment.
NIST Cybersecurity Framework
On February 12, 2013, U.S. President Barack Obama signed Executive Order 13636, calling for the development of a voluntary cybersecurity framework for organizations that are
part of the critical infrastructure. The goal of this construct was for it to be flexible, repeatable, and cost-effective so that it could be prioritized for better alignment with business
processes and goals. A year to the day later, NIST published the “Framework for Improving Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity,” commonly called the Cybersecurity Framework,
which was the result of a collaborative process with members of the government, industry,
and academia. The Cybersecurity Framework is divided into three main components:
• Framework Core Consists of the various activities, outcomes, and references
common to all organizations. These are broken down into five functions,
22 categories, and 98 subcategories.
• Implementation Tiers Categorize the degree of rigor and sophistication of
cybersecurity practices, which can be Partial (tier 1), Risk Informed (tier 2),
Repeatable (tier 3), or Adaptive (tier 4). The goal is not to force an organization
to move to a higher tier, but rather to inform its decisions so that it can do so if it
makes business sense.
• Framework Profile Describes the state of an organization with regard to the
Cybersecurity Framework categories and subcategories. A Framework Profile enables
decision-makers to compare the “as-is” situation to one or more “to-be” possibilities,
so that they can align cybersecurity and business priorities and processes in ways
that make sense to that particular organization. An organization’s Framework Profile
is tailorable based on the requirements of the industry segment within which it
operates and the organization’s needs.
The Framework Core practices organize cybersecurity activities into five higher-level
functions with which you should be familiar. Everything we do can be aligned with one
of these:
• Identify Understand your organization’s business context, resources, and risks.
• Protect Develop appropriate controls to mitigate risk in ways that make sense.
• Detect Discover in a timely manner anything that threatens your security.
• Respond Quickly contain the effects of anything that threatens your security.
• Recover Return to a secure state that enables business activities after an incident.
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Security Control Frameworks
PART I
EXAM TIP For the exam, you should remember the five functions of the NIST
Cybersecurity Framework and the fact that it is voluntary.
Up to now we have reviewed the ISO/IEC 27000 series and the NIST CSF, both of
which outline the necessary components of an organizational security program. Now we
are going to get more focused and look at the objectives of the controls we are going to
put into place to accomplish the goals outlined in our security program and enterprise
architecture. This is where security control frameworks come in handy. This section presents three popular frameworks: NIST SP 800-53, CIS Controls, and COBIT.
NIST SP 800-53
One of the standards that NIST has been responsible for developing is SP 800-53, Security and Privacy Controls for Information Systems and Organizations, currently in its fifth
revision (Rev. 5). It outlines controls that agencies need to put into place to be compliant with the Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS). It is worth noting that,
although this publication is aimed at federal government organizations, many other
organizations have voluntarily adopted it to help them better secure their systems.
Basically, SP 800-53 provides specific guidance on how to select security controls. It
prescribes a four-step process for applying controls:
1. Select the appropriate security control baselines.
2. Tailor the baselines.
3. Document the security control selection process.
4. Apply the controls.
The first step assumes that you have already determined the security categories (SCs)
of your information systems based on criticality and sensitivity of the information to
be processed, stored, or transmitted by those systems. SP 800-53 uses three SCs: low
impact, moderate impact, and high impact. If this sounds familiar, that’s because we
discussed this categorization earlier in this chapter when we covered the NIST RMF and
SP 800-60.
This exercise in categorizing your information systems is important because it enables
you to prioritize your work. It also determines which of the more than 1,000 controls
listed in SP 800-53 you need to apply to it. These controls are broken down into
20 families. Table 4-1 outlines the control categories that are addressed in SP 800-53, Rev. 5.
Let’s circle back to the example of the customer relationship management system we
used when discussing the NIST RMF. Recall that we determined that the CRM’s SC
was high because the impact of a loss of confidentiality was high. We can go through the
entire catalog of controls and see which of them apply to this hypothetical CRM. In the
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ID
Family
ID
Family
AC
Access Control
PE
Physical and Environmental
Protection
AT
Awareness and Training
PL
Planning
AU
Audit and Accountability
PM
Program Management
CA
Assessment, Authorization, and
Monitoring
PS
Personnel Security
CM
Configuration Management
PT
PII Processing and Transparency
CP
Contingency Planning
RA
Risk Assessment
IA
Identification and Authentication
SA
System and Services Acquisition
IR
Incident Response
SC
System and Communications
Protection
MA
Maintenance
SI
System and Information Integrity
MP
Media Protection
SR
Supply Chain Risk Management
Table 4-1 NIST SP 800-53 Control Categories
interest of brevity, we will only look at the first three controls (IR-1, IR-2, and IR-3) in
the Incident Response, or IR family. You can see in Table 4-2 how these controls apply
to the different SCs. Since the CRM is SC high, all three controls are required for it. You
can also see that IR-2 and IR-3 have control enhancements listed.
Let’s dive into the first control and see how we would use it. Chapter 3 of SP 800-53 is
a catalog that describes in detail what each security control is. If we go to the description
Control No.
Control Name
CONTROL ENHANCEMENT NAME
Control Baselines
Low
Mod.
High
IR-1
Policy and Procedures
X
X
X
IR-2
Incident Response Training
X
X
X
IR-2(1)
Simulated Events
X
IR-2(2)
Automated Training Environments
X
IR-2(3)
Breach
IR-3
Incident Response Testing
IR-3(1)
Automated Testing
IR-3(2)
Coordination with Related Plans
X
X
X
X
Table 4-2 Sample Mapping of Security Controls to the Three Security Categories in SP 800-53
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a. Develop, document, and disseminate to [Assignment: organization-defined
personnel or roles]:
1. [Selection (one or more): Organization-level; Mission/business process-level;
System-level] incident response policy that:
(a.) Addresses purpose, scope, roles, responsibilities, management
commitment, coordination among organizational entities, and
compliance; and
(b.) Is consistent with applicable laws, executive orders, directives, regulations,
policies, standards, and guidelines; and
2. Procedures to facilitate the implementation of the incident response policy
and associated incident response controls;
b. Designate an [Assignment: organization-defined official] to manage the
development, documentation, and dissemination of the incident response
policy and procedures; and
c. Review and update the current incident response:
1. Policy [Assignment: organization-defined frequency] and following
[Assignment: organization-defined events]; and
2. Procedures [Assignment: organization-defined frequency] and following
[Assignment: organization-defined events].
PART I
of the baseline IR-1 (Incident Response Policy and Procedures) control, we see that it
requires that the organization do the following:
Notice that there are assignments in square brackets in five of these requirements.
These are parameters that enable an organization to tailor the baseline controls to its own
unique conditions and needs. For example, in the first assignment (IR-1.a), we could
specify who receives the policies and procedures; in the second (IR-1.a.1), we could
specify the level(s) at which the incident response policy applies; in the third (IR-1.b),
we could identify the individual (by role, not name) responsible for the policy; and
in the last two assignments (IR-1.c.1 and IR-1.c.2), we could provide the frequency
and triggering events for policy and procedure reviews. This is all a “fill in the blanks”
approach to tailoring the controls to meet your organization’s unique conditions.
EXAM TIP You do not need to memorize the controls, control enhancements,
or assignments of NIST SP 800-53. We provide them here to illustrate how a
framework provides structure while still allowing you room to customize it.
CIS Controls
The Center for Internet Security (CIS) is a nonprofit organization that, among other
things, maintains a list of 20 critical security controls designed to mitigate the threat
of the majority of common cyberattacks. It is another example (together with NIST SP
800-53) of a controls framework. The CIS Controls, currently in Version 7.1, are shown
in Figure 4-4.
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Basic
Foundational
Organizational
1. Inventory and Control of
Hardware Assets
7. Email and Web Browser
Protections
12. Boundary Defense
17. Implement Security
Awareness and Training
2. Inventory and Control of
Software Assets
8. Malware Defenses
13. Data Protection
18. Application Software
Security
3. Continuous Vulnerability
Management
9. Limit and Control Network
Ports, Protocols, Services
14. Control Access Based on
Need to Know
19. Incident Response and
Management
4. Controlled Use of
Administrative Privileges
10. Data Recovery Capabilities
15. Wireless Access Control
20. Penetration Tests and Red
Team Exercises
5. Secure Configuration of
Hardware and Software
11. Secure Configuration of
Network Devices
16. Account Monitoring and
Control
6. Maintenance, Monitoring
and Analysis of Audit Logs
Figure 4-4 CIS Controls
Despite CIS’s use of the word “controls,” you should really think of these like the
20 families of controls in SP 800-53. Under these 20 controls, there are a total of
171 subcontrols that have similar granularity as those established by the NIST. For
example, if we look into control 13 (Data Protection), we can see the nine subcontrols
listed in Table 4-3.
Subcontrol
Title
IG1
IG2
IG3
13.1
Maintain an Inventory of Sensitive Information
X
X
X
13.2
Remove Sensitive Data or Systems Not Regularly
Accessed by Organization
X
X
X
13.3
Monitor and Block Unauthorized Network Traffic
13.4
Only Allow Access to Authorized Cloud Storage or
Email Providers
13.5
Monitor and Detect Any Unauthorized Use of
Encryption
13.6
Encrypt Mobile Device Data
13.7
Manage USB Devices
13.8
Manage System’s External Removable Media’s
Read/Write Configurations
X
13.9
Encrypt Data on USB Storage Devices
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Table 4-3 Data Protection Subcontrols Mapped to Implementation Groups
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PART I
The CIS recognizes that not every organization will have the resources (or face the
risks) necessary to implement all controls. For this reason, they are grouped into three
categories, listed next. While every organization should strive for full implementation,
this approach provides a way to address the most urgent requirements first and then
build on them over time.
• Basic These key controls should be implemented by every organization to
achieve minimum essential security.
• Foundational These controls embody technical best practices to improve an
organization’s security.
• Organizational These controls focus on people and processes to maintain and
improve cybersecurity.
A useful tool to help organizations match their implementation of controls to their
resource levels are implementation groups (IGs). Version 7.1 of the CIS controls describes
the following three IGs:
• Implementation Group 1 Small to medium-sized organizations with limited
IT and cybersecurity expertise whose principal concern is to keep the business
operational. The sensitivity of the data that they are trying to protect is low and
principally surrounds employee and financial information.
• Implementation Group 2 Larger organizations with multiple departments,
including one responsible for managing and protecting IT infrastructure. Small
organizational units. These organizations often store and process sensitive client
or company information and may have regulatory compliance burdens. A major
concern is loss of public confidence if a breach occurs.
• Implementation Group 3 Large organizations that employ security experts
with different specialty areas. Their systems and data contain sensitive information
or functions that are subject to regulatory and compliance oversight. Successful
attacks against these organizations can cause significant harm to the public welfare.
You can see in Table 4-3 how subcontrols can be mapped to these implementation groups.
This helps ensure that limited resources are focused on the most critical requirements.
COBIT 2019
COBIT 2019 (the name used to be an acronym for Control Objectives for Information
Technologies) is a framework for governance and management developed by ISACA
(which formerly stood for the Information Systems Audit and Control Association) and
the IT Governance Institute (ITGI). It helps organizations optimize the value of their IT
by balancing resource utilization, risk levels, and realization of benefits. This is all done
by explicitly tying stakeholder drivers to stakeholder needs to organizational goals (to
meet those needs) to IT goals (to meet or support the organizational goals). It is a holistic
approach based on six key principles of governance systems:
1. Provide stakeholder value
2. Holistic approach
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3. Dynamic governance system
4. Governance distinct from management
5. Tailored to enterprise needs
6. End-to-end governance system
Everything in COBIT is ultimately linked to the stakeholders through a series of
transforms called cascading goals. The concept is pretty simple. At any point in our IT
governance or management processes, we should be able to ask the question “why are we
doing this?” and be led to an IT goal that is tied to an enterprise goal, which is in turn tied
to a stakeholder need. COBIT specifies 13 enterprise and 13 alignment goals that take the
guesswork out of ensuring we consider all dimensions in our decision-making processes.
These two sets of 13 goals are different but related. They ensure that we are aligned
with the sixth principle of covering the enterprise end to end by explicitly tying enterprise
and IT goals in both the governance and management dimensions, which is the fourth
principle. These goals were identified by looking for commonalities (or perhaps universal
features) of a large set of organizations. The purpose of this analysis is to enable a holistic
approach, which is the second key principle in COBIT.
The COBIT framework includes, but differentiates, enterprise governance and
management. The difference between these two is that governance is a set of higher-level
processes aimed at balancing the stakeholder value proposition, while management is
the set of activities that achieve enterprise objectives. As a simplifying approximation,
you can think of governance as the things that the C-suite leaders do and management
as the things that the other organizational leaders do. Figure 4-5 illustrates how the
Business
Goals
Requirements
M
by
ed
m
r
rfo
Pe
Responsibility
Accountability
Chart
Key
Activities
ce Fo
r
an
rm
m
at
fo
u
er For outcome rity
Audited with
su
re
d
by
IT Goals
IT Processes
ea
to
in
wn
o
d
en
ok
Br
Information
Control
Outcome
Tests
Outcome
Measures
Derived
from
by
Control
Objectives
Audited with
rp
Fo
Performance
Indicators
Co
nt
ro
lle
d
Maturity
Models
Control
Design
Tests
Im
ple
me
nte
d
Based on
wi
th
Control
Practices
Figure 4-5 COBIT framework
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five governance and 35 management objectives defined by COBIT are organized into
five domains. Governance objectives all fall within the Evaluate, Direct and Monitor
(EDM) domain. Management objectives, on the other hand, fall into four domains:
Align, Plan and Organize (APO), Build, Acquire and Implement (BAI), Deliver, Service
and Support (DSS), and Monitor, Evaluate and Assess (MEA).
A majority of the security compliance auditing practices used today in the industry
are based off of COBIT. So if you want to make your auditors happy and pass your
compliance evaluations, you should learn, practice, and implement the control objectives
outlined in COBIT, which are considered industry best practices.
TIP Many people in the security industry mistakenly assume that COBIT
is purely security focused, when in reality it deals with all aspects of
information technology, security being only one component. COBIT is a set
of practices that can be followed to carry out IT governance, which requires
proper security practices.
Enterprise Architecture Frameworks
Organizations have a choice when attempting to secure their environment as a whole.
They can just toss in products here and there, which are referred to as point solutions
or stovepipe solutions, and hope the ad hoc approach magically works in a manner that
secures the environment evenly and covers all of the organization’s vulnerabilities. Most
organizations, particularly small and medium businesses, don’t start with a secure architecture. Instead, they focus on their core business, get just enough security to survive, and
adjust things as they grow. This organic growth model lends itself to short-term measures
that result in a “constantly putting out fires” approach. It is usually easier and cheaper
for senior management to approve money for a new security tool than to approve the
time, money, and business disruption needed to re-architect an information system to
properly secure it.
The second approach to securing an organization’s environment would be to define
an enterprise security architecture, allow it to be the guide when implementing solutions
to ensure business needs are met, provide standard protection across the environment,
and reduce the number of security surprises the organization will run into. The catch is
that if a company has been following the first ad hoc approach for a while, it can be very
challenging (and expensive) to rebuild its infrastructure without causing pain to a lot of
people. Although implementing an enterprise security architecture does not necessarily
promise pure utopia, it does tame the chaos and gets the security staff and organization
into a more proactive and mature mindset when dealing with security as a whole.
Developing an architecture from scratch is not an easy task. Sure, it is easy to draw a
big box with smaller boxes inside of it, but what do the boxes represent? What are the
relationships between the boxes? How does information flow between the boxes? Who
needs to view these boxes, and what aspects of the boxes do they need for decision making?
An architecture is a conceptual construct. It is a tool to help individuals understand a
complex item (such as an enterprise) in digestible chunks. An example of an architecture
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is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) networking model, an abstract model
used to illustrate the architecture of a networking stack. A networking stack within a
computer is very complex because it has so many protocols, interfaces, services, and
hardware specifications. But when we think about it in a modular framework (the OSI
seven layers), we can better understand the network stack as a whole and the relationships
between the individual components that make it up.
NOTE The OSI network stack will be covered extensively in Chapter 11.
An enterprise architecture encompasses the essential and unifying components of
an organization. It expresses the enterprise structure (form) and behavior (function).
It embodies the enterprise’s components, their relationships to each other, and their
relationships to the environment.
This section covers several different enterprise architecture frameworks. Each
framework has its own specific focus, but they all provide guidance on how to build
individual architectures so that they are useful tools to a diverse set of individuals. Notice
the difference between an architecture framework and an actual architecture. You use the
framework as a guideline on how to build an architecture that best fits your company’s
needs. Each company’s architecture will be different because companies have different
business drivers, security and regulatory requirements, cultures, and organizational
structures—but if each starts with the same architecture framework, then their architectures
will have similar structures and goals. It is similar to three people starting with a ranchstyle house blueprint. One person chooses to have four bedrooms built because they have
three children, one person chooses to have a larger living room and three bedrooms, and
the other person chooses two bedrooms and two living rooms. Each person started with
the same blueprint (framework) and modified it to meet their needs (architecture).
When developing an architecture, first the stakeholders need to be identified, the people
who will be looking at and using the architecture. Next, the views need to be developed,
which is how the information that is most important to the different stakeholders will be
illustrated in the most useful manner. The NIST developed a framework, illustrated in
Figure 4-6, that shows that companies have several different viewpoints. Executives need
to understand the company from a business point of view, business process developers
need to understand what type of information needs to be collected to support business
activities, application developers need to understand system requirements that maintain
and process the information, data modelers need to know how to structure data elements,
and the technology group needs to understand the network components required to
support the layers above it. They are all looking at an architecture of the same company;
it is just being presented in views that they understand and that directly relate to their
responsibilities within the organization.
An enterprise architecture enables you to not only understand the company from
several different views, but also understand how a change that takes place at one level will
affect items at other levels. For example, if there is a new business requirement, how is it
going to be supported at each level of the enterprise? What type of new information must
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External discretionary
and nondiscretionary
standard/requirements
Figure 4-6
NIST enterprise
architecture
framework
Business
architecture
Drives
Information
architecture
Feedback
Prescribes
Enterprise
discretionary and
non-discretionary
standards/
regulations
Information systems
architecture
Identifies
Data architecture
Supported by
Delivery systems architecture
hardware, software, communications
be collected and processed? Do new applications need to be purchased or current ones
modified? Are new data elements required? Will new networking devices be required?
An architecture enables you to understand all the things that will need to change just to
support one new business function.
The architecture can be used in the opposite direction also. If a company is looking to
do a technology refresh, will the new systems still support all of the necessary functions
in the layers above the technology level? An architecture enables you to understand
an organization as one complete organism and identify how changes to one internal
component can directly affect another one.
Why Do We Need Enterprise Architecture Frameworks?
As you have probably experienced, business people and technology people sometimes
seem like totally different species. Business people use terms like “net profits,” “risk universes,” “portfolio strategy,” “hedging,” “commodities,” and so on. Technology people
use terms like “deep packet inspection,” “layer three devices,” “cross-site scripting,” “load
balancing,” and so forth. Think about the acronyms techies like us throw around—TCP,
APT, ICMP, RAID, UDP, L2TP, PPTP, IPSec, and AES. We can have complete
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conversations between ourselves without using any real words. And even though business
people and technology people use some of the same words, they have totally different
meanings to the individual groups. To business people, a protocol is a set of approved
processes that must be followed to accomplish a task. To technical people, a protocol is
a standardized manner of communication between computers or applications. Business
and technical people use the term “risk,” but each group is focusing on very different risks
a company can face—market share versus security breaches. And even though each group
uses the term “data” the same, business people look at data only from a functional point
of view and security people look at data from a risk point of view.
This divide between business perspectives and technology perspectives not only can
cause confusion and frustration—it commonly costs money. If the business side of the
house wants to offer customers a new service, as in paying bills online, there may have
to be extensive changes to the current network infrastructure, applications, web servers,
software logic, cryptographic functions, authentication methods, database structures,
and so on. What seems to be a small change in a business offering can cost a lot of
money when it comes to adding up the new technology that needs to be purchased and
implemented, programming that needs to be carried out, re-architecting of networks,
and the like. It is common for business people to feel as though the IT department is
more of an impediment when it comes to business evolution and growth, and in turn
the IT department feels as though the business people are constantly coming up with
outlandish and unrealistic demands with no supporting budgets.
This type of confusion between business and technology people has caused organizations
around the world to implement incorrect solutions because they did not understand the
business functionality to technical specifications requirements. This results in having to
repurchase new solutions, carry out rework, and waste an amazing amount of time. Not
only does this cost the organization more money than it should have in the first place,
business opportunities may be lost, which can reduce market share. So we need a tool
that both business people and technology people can use to reduce confusion, optimize
business functionality, and not waste time and money. This is where business enterprise
architectures come into play. They allow both groups (business and technology) to view
the same organization in ways that make sense to them.
When you go to the doctor’s office, there is a poster of a skeleton system on one wall,
a poster of a circulatory system on the other wall, and another poster of the organs that
make up a human body. These are all different views of the same thing, the human
body. This is the same functionality that enterprise architecture frameworks provide:
different views of the same thing. In the medical field we have specialists (podiatrists,
brain surgeons, dermatologists, oncologists, ophthalmologists, etc.). Each organization is
also made up of its own specialists (HR, marketing, accounting, IT, R&D, management,
etc.). But there also has to be an understanding of the entity (whether it is a human body
or company) holistically, which is what an enterprise architecture attempts to accomplish.
Zachman Framework
One of the first enterprise architecture frameworks that was created is the Zachman
Framework, created by John Zachman. This model is generic, and is well suited to frame
the work we do in information systems security. A sample (though fairly simplified) representation is depicted in Table 4-4.
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Perspective
(Audience)
Data
Management
Data Stores
Information
Technological
(Engineers)
Implementation
(Technicians)
Enterprise
Functions
Programs
Systems Designs
Systems
Architectures
Business
Processes
Business Lines
Table 4-4 Zachman Framework for Enterprise Architecture
Data Models
Products
Conceptual
(Business Mgrs.)
Architectural
(System
Architects)
Assets and
Liabilities
Contextual
(Executives)
How
Networks
Network Nodes
and Links
System Interfaces
Distributed
Systems
Architectures
Logistics and
Communications
Organizations
Access Controls
Human Interfaces
Use Cases
Workflows
Partners, Clients,
and Employees
Who
Interrogatives
Business Locales
Where
Schedules
Network/ Security
Operations
Process Controls
Project Schedules
Master Calendar
Milestones and
Major Events
When
Strategies
Performance
Metrics
Process Outputs
Business Rule
Models
Business Plan
Business Strategy
Why
PART I
What
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The Zachman Framework is a two-dimensional model that uses six basic
communication interrogatives (What, How, Where, Who, When, and Why) intersecting
with different perspectives (Executives, Business Managers, System Architects, Engineers,
Technicians, and Enterprise-wide) to give a holistic understanding of the enterprise.
This framework was developed in the 1980s and is based on the principles of classical
business architecture that contain rules that govern an ordered set of relationships. One
of these rules is that each row should describe the enterprise completely from that row’s
perspective. For example, IT personnel’s jobs require them to see the organization in terms
of data stores, programs, networks, access controls, operations, and metrics. Though they
are (or at least should be) aware of other perspectives and items, the performance of their
duties in the example organization is focused on these items.
The goal of this framework is to be able to look at the same organization from different
viewpoints. Different groups within a company need the same information, but presented
in ways that directly relate to their responsibilities. A CEO needs financial statements,
scorecards, and balance sheets. A network administrator needs network schematics, a
systems engineer needs interface requirements, and the operations department needs
configuration requirements. If you have ever carried out a network-based vulnerability
test, you know that you cannot tell the CEO that some systems are vulnerable to timeof-check to time-of-use (TOC/TOU) attacks or that the company software allows
for client-side browser injections. The CEO needs to know this information, but in a
language she can understand. People at each level of the organization need information
in a language and format that are most useful to them.
A business enterprise architecture is used to optimize often fragmented processes (both
manual and automated) into an integrated environment that is responsive to change and
supportive of the business strategy. The Zachman Framework has been around for many
years and has been used by many organizations to build or better define their business
environment. This framework is not security oriented, but it is a good template to work with
because it offers direction on how to understand an actual enterprise in a modular fashion.
The Open Group Architecture Framework
Another enterprise architecture framework is The Open Group Architecture Framework
(TOGAF), which has its origins in the U.S. Department of Defense. It provides an
approach to design, implement, and govern an enterprise information architecture.
TOGAF is a framework that can be used to develop the following architecture types:
• Business architecture
• Data architecture
• Applications architecture
• Technology architecture
TOGAF can be used to create these individual architecture types through the use of its
Architecture Development Method (ADM). This method is an iterative and cyclic process
that allows requirements to be continuously reviewed and the individual architectures
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to be updated as needed. These different architectures can allow a technology architect
to understand the enterprise from four different views (business, data, application, and
technology) so she can ensure her team develops the necessary technology to work
within the environment and all the components that make up that environment and
meet business requirements. The technology may need to span many different types of
networks, interconnect with various software components, and work within different
business units. As an analogy, when a new city is being constructed, people do not just
start building houses here and there. Civil engineers lay out roads, bridges, waterways,
and zones for commercial and residential development. A large organization that has
a distributed and heterogeneous environment that supports many different business
functions can be as complex as a city. So before a programmer starts developing code,
the architecture of the software needs to be developed in the context of the organization
it will work within.
NOTE Many technical people have a negative visceral reaction to models
like TOGAF. They feel it’s too much work, that it’s a lot of fluff, is not directly
relevant, and so on. If you handed the same group of people a network
schematic with firewalls, IDSs, and virtual private networks (VPNs), they
would say, “Now we’re talking about security!” Security technology works
within the construct of an organization, so the organization must be
understood also.
Military-Oriented Architecture Frameworks
It is hard enough to construct enterprise-wide solutions and technologies for one organization—think about an architecture that has to span many different complex government agencies to allow for interoperability and proper hierarchical communication channels. This is where the Department of Defense Architecture Framework (DoDAF) comes
into play. When the U.S. DoD purchases technology products and weapon systems,
enterprise architecture documents must be created based upon DoDAF standards to
illustrate how they will properly integrate into the current infrastructures. The focus of
the architecture framework is on command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance systems and processes. It is not only important
that these different devices communicate using the same protocol types and interoperable software components but also that they use the same data elements. If an image
is captured from a spy satellite, downloaded to a centralized data repository, and then
loaded into a piece of software to direct an unmanned drone, the military personnel cannot have their operations interrupted because one piece of software cannot read another
software’s data output. The DoDAF helps ensure that all systems, processes, and personnel work in a concerted effort to accomplish its missions.
NOTE While DoDAF was developed to support mainly military missions,
it has been expanded upon and morphed for use in business enterprise
environments.
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When attempting to figure out which architecture framework is best for your
organization, you need to find out who the stakeholders are and what information they
need from the architecture. The architecture needs to represent the company in the
most useful manner to the people who need to understand it the best. If your company
has people (stakeholders) who need to understand the company from a business
process perspective, your architecture needs to provide that type of view. If there are
people who need to understand the company from an application perspective, your
architecture needs a view that illustrates that information. If people need to understand
the enterprise from a security point of view, that needs to be illustrated in a specific view.
So one main difference between the various enterprise architecture frameworks is what
type of information they provide and how they provide it.
Other Frameworks
Along with ensuring that we have the proper controls in place, we also want to have
ways to construct and improve our business, IT, and security processes in a structured and controlled manner. The security controls can be considered the “things,”
and processes are how we use these things. We want to use them properly, effectively,
and efficiently.
ITIL
ITIL (formerly the Information Technology Infrastructure Library) was developed in the
1980s by the UK’s Central Computer and Telecommunications Agency (which was subsumed in the late 1990s by the now defunct Office of Government Commerce). ITIL
is now controlled by AXELOS, which is a joint venture between the government of the
UK and the private firm Capita. ITIL is the de facto standard of best practices for IT
service management. ITIL was created because of the increased dependence on information technology to meet business needs. Unfortunately, as previously discussed, a natural
divide exists between business people and IT people in most organizations because they
use different terminology and have different focuses within the organization. The lack of
a common language and understanding of each other’s domain (business versus IT) has
caused many companies to ineffectively blend their business objectives and IT functions.
This improper blending usually generates confusion, miscommunication, missed deadlines, missed opportunities, increased cost in time and labor, and frustration on both the
business and technical sides of the house.
ITIL blends all parts of an organization using a four-dimensional model built around the
concept of value for the stakeholders. The dimensions in this model, illustrated in Figure 4-7,
are organizations and people, value streams and processes, information and technology, and
partners and suppliers. These exist in a broader context that is influenced by factors that can
be political, economic, social, technological, legal, or environmental. Effective organizations
must consider all four dimensions within their broader context when planning, developing,
and offering products and/or services if they are to provide value.
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Economical
Political
Organizations
and people
Information
and technology
PART I
Figure 4-7
ITIL
du
Pro cts
Environmental
Social
Value
Partners
and suppliers
Legal
d s e r vice
s
an
Value streams
and processes
Technological
Six Sigma
Six Sigma is a process improvement methodology. Its goal is to improve process quality
by using statistical methods of measuring operation efficiency and reducing variation,
defects, and waste. Six Sigma is being used in the security assurance industry in some
instances to measure the success factors of different controls and procedures. Six Sigma was
developed by Motorola with the goal of identifying and removing defects in its manufacturing processes. The maturity of a process is described by a sigma rating, which indicates
the percentage of defects that the process contains. While it started in manufacturing,
Six Sigma has been applied to many types of business functions, including information
security and assurance.
Capability Maturity Model
While we know that we constantly need to make our security program better, it is not
always easy to accomplish because “better” is a vague and nonquantifiable concept. The
only way we can really improve is to know where we are starting from, where we need
to go, and the steps we need to take in between. Every security program has a maturity
level, which could range from nonexistent to highly optimized. In between these two
extremes, there are different levels. An example of a Capability Maturity Model (CMM) is
illustrated in Figure 4-8. Each maturity level within this model represents an evolutionary
stage. Some security programs are chaotic, ad hoc, unpredictable, and usually insecure.
Some security programs have documentation created, but the actual processes are not taking place. Some security programs are quite evolved, streamlined, efficient, and effective.
EXAM TIP The CISSP exam puts more emphasis on CMM compared to ITIL
and Six Sigma because it is more heavily used in the security industry.
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Figure 4-8 Capability Maturity Model for a security program
Security Program Development
No organization is going to put all the previously listed items (NIST RMF, OCTAVE,
FAIR, ISO/IEC 27000, NIST CSF, NIST SP 800-53, CIS Controls, COBIT 2019,
Zachman Framework, ITIL, Six Sigma, CMM) into place. But it is a good toolbox
of things you can pull from, and you will find some fit the organization you work
in better than others. You will also find that as your organization’s security program
matures, you will see more clearly where these various standards, frameworks, and
management components come into play. While these items are separate and distinct, there are basic things that need to be built in for any security program and its
corresponding controls. This is because the basic tenets of security are universal no
matter if they are being deployed in a corporation, government agency, business,
school, or nonprofit organization. Each entity is made up of people, processes, data,
and technology, and each of these things needs to be protected.
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A security program should use a top-down approach, meaning that the initiation,
support, and direction come from top management; work their way through middle
management; and then reach staff members. In contrast, a bottom-up approach
refers to a situation in which staff members (usually IT) try to develop a security
program without getting proper management support and direction. A bottomup approach is commonly less effective, not broad enough to address all security
risks, and doomed to fail. A top-down approach makes sure the people actually
responsible for protecting the company’s assets (senior management) are driving the
program. Senior management are not only ultimately responsible for the protection
of the organization but also hold the purse strings for the necessary funding, have
the authority to assign needed resources, and are the only ones who can ensure
true enforcement of the stated security rules and policies. Management’s support is
one of the most important pieces of a security program. A simple nod and a wink
will not provide the amount of support required.
PART I
Top-Down Approach
The crux of CMM is to develop structured steps that can be followed so an
organization can evolve from one level to the next and constantly improve its processes
and security posture. A security program contains a lot of elements, and it is not fair to
expect every part to be properly implemented within the first year of its existence. And
some components, as in forensics capabilities, really cannot be put into place until some
rudimentary pieces are established, as in incident management. So if we really want our
baby to be able to run, we have to lay out ways that it can first learn to walk.
Putting It All Together
While the cores of these various security standards and frameworks are similar, it is
important to understand that a security program has a life cycle that is always continuing, because it should be constantly evaluated and improved upon. The life cycle of any
process can be described in different ways. We will use the following steps:
1. Plan and organize
2. Implement
3. Operate and maintain
4. Monitor and evaluate
Without setting up a life-cycle approach to a security program and the security
management that maintains the program, an organization is doomed to treat security
as merely another project. Anything treated as a project has a start and stop date, and
at the stop date everyone disperses to other projects. Many organizations have had good
intentions in their security program kickoffs, but do not implement the proper structure
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to ensure that security management is an ongoing and continually improving process.
The result is a lot of starts and stops over the years and repetitive work that costs more
than it should, with diminishing results.
The main components of each phase are provided here.
Plan and Organize:
• Establish management commitment.
• Establish oversight steering committee.
• Assess business drivers.
• Develop a threat profile on the organization.
• Carry out a risk assessment.
• Develop security architectures at business, data, application, and
infrastructure levels.
• Identify solutions per architecture level.
• Obtain management approval to move forward.
Implement:
• Assign roles and responsibilities.
• Develop and implement security policies, procedures, standards, baselines, and
guidelines.
• Identify sensitive data at rest and in transit.
• Implement the following blueprints:
• Asset identification and management
• Risk management
• Vulnerability management
• Compliance
• Identity management and access control
• Change control
• Software development life cycle
• Business continuity planning
• Awareness and training
• Physical security
• Incident response
• Implement solutions (administrative, technical, physical) per blueprint.
• Develop auditing and monitoring solutions per blueprint.
• Establish goals, SLAs, and metrics per blueprint.
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Operate and Maintain:
PART I
• Follow procedures to ensure all baselines are met in each implemented blueprint.
• Carry out internal and external audits.
• Carry out tasks outlined per blueprint.
• Manage SLAs per blueprint.
Monitor and Evaluate:
• Review logs, audit results, collected metric values, and SLAs per blueprint.
• Assess goal accomplishments per blueprint.
• Carry out quarterly meetings with steering committees.
• Develop improvement steps and integrate into the Plan and Organize phase.
Many of the items mentioned in the previous list are covered throughout this book.
This list is provided to show how all of these items can be rolled out in a sequential and
controllable manner.
Although the previously covered standards and frameworks are very helpful, they are
also very high level. For example, if a standard simply states that an organization must
secure its data, a great amount of work will be called for. This is where the security
professional really rolls up her sleeves, by developing security blueprints. Blueprints
are important tools to identify, develop, and design security requirements for specific
business needs. These blueprints must be customized to fulfill the organization’s security
requirements, which are based on its regulatory obligations, business drivers, and legal
obligations. For example, let’s say Company Y has a data protection policy, and its
security team has developed standards and procedures pertaining to the data protection
strategy the company should follow. The blueprint will then get more granular and lay
out the processes and components necessary to meet requirements outlined in the policy,
standards, and requirements. This would include at least a diagram of the company
network that illustrates the following:
• Where the sensitive data resides within the network
• The network segments that the sensitive data transverses
• The different security solutions in place (VPN, TLS, PGP) that protect the
sensitive data
• Third-party connections where sensitive data is shared
• Security measures in place for third-party connections
• And more…
The blueprints to be developed and followed depend upon the organization’s business
needs. If Company Y uses identity management, it needs a blueprint outlining roles,
registration management, authoritative source, identity repositories, single sign-on
solutions, and so on. If Company Y does not use identity management, it does not need
to build a blueprint for this.
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So the blueprint lays out the security solutions, processes, and components the
organization uses to match its security and business needs. These blueprints must
be applied to the different business units within the organization. For example, the
identity management practiced in each of the different departments should follow the
crafted blueprint. Following these blueprints throughout the organization allows for
standardization, easier metrics gathering, and governance. Figure 4-9 illustrates where
these blueprints come into play when developing a security program.
SECURITY EFFECTIVENESS
STRATEGIC ALIGNMENT
PERFORMANCE DASHBOARD
Compliance
Incident Response
Help Desk
Architecture Standards
Production Readiness
Change Control
Systems Development
Life Cycle
Specialized Architecture
Facilities
Security Strategy
and
Policy
Applications
Desired Risk Profile
PROCESS ENHANCEMENT
BUSINESS ENABLEMENT
Internal Network
Legal/Regulatory
Requirements
Project Management
IT
Strategies
Perimeter Network
Strategic
Business
Drivers
Privacy Blueprint
Identity Management Blueprint
Application Integrity Blueprint
Logging, Monitoring, and Reporting
Industry
and
Business
Standards
ISO/IEC
17799
TAILORED
BEST
PRACTICES
Systems and Network Infrastructure
Physical and Environmental
Information and Asset Baseline
Infrastructure Blueprint
Business Continuity Blueprint
Management Blueprint
SECURITY FOUNDATION
Figure 4-9 Blueprints must map the security and business requirements.
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PART I
To tie these pieces together, you can think of the NIST Cybersecurity Framework
that works mainly at the policy level as a description of the type of house you want to
build (ranch style, five bedrooms, three baths). The security enterprise framework is
the architecture layout of the house (foundation, walls, ceilings). The blueprints are the
detailed descriptions of specific components of the house (window types, security system,
electrical system, plumbing). And the control objectives are the building specifications
and codes that need to be met for safety (electrical grounding and wiring, construction
material, insulation, and fire protection). A building inspector will use his checklists
(building codes) to ensure that you are building your house safely. Which is just like how
an auditor will use his checklists (like NIST SP 800-53) to ensure that you are building
and maintaining your security program securely.
Once your house is built and your family moves in, you set up schedules and processes
for everyday life to happen in a predictable and efficient manner (dad picks up kids from
school, mom cooks dinner, teenager does laundry, dad pays the bills, everyone does yard
work). This is analogous to ITIL—process management and improvement. If the family
is made up of anal overachievers with the goal of optimizing these daily activities to be as
efficient as possible, they could integrate a Six Sigma approach where continual process
improvement is a focus.
Chapter Review
This chapter should serve at least two purposes for you. First, it familiarizes you with the
various frameworks you need to know to pass your CISSP exam. Though some of these
frameworks don’t fit neatly into one category, we did our best to group them in ways that
would help you remember them. So, we have risk management, information security,
enterprise architecture, and “other” frameworks. Within information security, we further
subdivided the frameworks into those that are focused on program-level issues and those
that are primarily concerned with controls. You don’t have to know every detail of each
framework to pass the exam, but you really should know at least one or two key points
about each to differentiate them.
The second purpose of this chapter is to serve as a reference for your professional
life. We focused our discussion on the frameworks that are most likely to show up in
your work places so that you have a desktop reference to which you can turn when
someone asks your opinion about one of these frameworks. While this second purpose
of the chapter should apply to the whole book, it is particularly applicable to this
chapter because frameworks are tools that don’t change very often (especially within an
organization), so you may become very familiar with the one(s) you use but a bit rusty
on the rest. Grouping them all in this chapter may help you in the future.
Quick Review
• A framework is a guiding document that provides structure to the ways in which
we manage risks, develop enterprise architectures, and secure all our assets.
• The most common risk management frameworks (RMFs) are the NIST RMF,
ISO/IEC 27005, OCTAVE, and FAIR.
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• The seven steps of the NIST RMF are prepare, categorize, select, implement,
assess, authorize, and monitor.
• Security controls in the NIST frameworks can be classified as common (if they
exist outside of a system and apply to multiple systems), system-specific (if they
exist inside a system boundary and protect only the one system), or hybrid
(if they are a combination of the other two).
• Risks in a risk management framework can be treated in one of four ways:
mitigated, accepted, transferred, or avoided.
• Operationally Critical Threat, Asset, and Vulnerability Evaluation (OCTAVE) is
a team-oriented risk management methodology that employs workshops and is
commonly used in the commercial sector.
• The Factor Analysis of Information Risk (FAIR) risk management framework is
the only internationally recognized quantitative approach to risk management.
• The most common information security program frameworks are ISO/IEC
27001 and the NIST Cybersecurity Framework.
• ISO/IEC 27001 is the standard for the establishment, implementation, control,
and improvement of the information security management system.
• The NIST Cybersecurity Framework’s official name is the “Framework for
Improving Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity.”
• The NIST Cybersecurity Framework organizes cybersecurity activities into five
higher-level functions: identify, protect, detect, respond, and recover.
• The most common security controls frameworks are NIST SP 800-53, the CIS
Controls, and COBIT.
• NIST SP 800-53, Security and Privacy Controls for Information Systems and
Organizations, catalogs over 1,000 security controls grouped into 20 families.
• The Center for Internet Security (CIS) Controls is a framework consisting of
20 controls and 171 subcontrols organized in implementation groups to address
any organization’s security needs from small to enterprise level.
• COBIT is a framework of control objectives and allows for IT governance.
• Enterprise architecture frameworks are used to develop architectures for specific
stakeholders and present information in views.
• Blueprints are functional definitions for the integration of technology into
business processes.
• Enterprise architecture frameworks are used to build individual architectures that
best map to individual organizational needs and business drivers.
• The most common enterprise architecture frameworks are the Zachman and
SABSA ones, but you should also be aware of TOGAF and DoDAF.
• Zachman Framework is an enterprise architecture framework, and SABSA is a
security enterprise architecture framework.
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PART I
• ITIL is a set of best practices for IT service management.
• Six Sigma is used to identify defects in processes so that the processes can be
improved upon.
• A Capability Maturity Model (CMM) allows for processes to improve in an
incremented and standard approach.
Questions
Please remember that these questions are formatted and asked in a certain way for a
reason. Keep in mind that the CISSP exam is asking questions at a conceptual level.
Questions may not always have the perfect answer, and the candidate is advised against
always looking for the perfect answer. Instead, the candidate should look for the best
answer in the list.
1. Which of the following standards would be most useful to you in ensuring your
information security management system follows industry best practices?
A. NIST SP 800-53
B. Six Sigma
C. ISO/IEC 27000 series
D. COBIT
2. What is COBIT and where does it fit into the development of information
security systems and security programs?
A. Lists of standards, procedures, and policies for security program development
B. Current version of ISO 17799
C. A framework that was developed to deter organizational internal fraud
D. Open standard for control objectives
3. Which publication provides a catalog of security controls for information
systems?
A. ISO/IEC 27001
B. ISO/IEC 27005
C. NIST SP 800-37
D. NIST SP 800-53
4. ISO/IEC 27001 describes which of the following?
A. The Risk Management Framework
B. Information security management system
C. Work product retention standards
D. International Electrotechnical Commission standards
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5. Which of the following is not true about Operationally Critical Threat, Asset and
Vulnerability Evaluation (OCTAVE)?
A. It is the only internationally recognized quantitative risk management framework.
B. It was developed by Carnegie Mellon University.
C. It is focused only on risk assessments.
D. It is a team-oriented risk management methodology that employs workshops.
6. What is a key benefit of using the Zachman Framework?
A. Ensures that all systems, processes, and personnel are interoperable in a
concerted effort to accomplish organizational missions
B. Use of the iterative and cyclic Architecture Development Method (ADM)
C. Focus on internal SLAs between the IT department and the “customers” it serves
D. Allows different groups within the organization to look at it from different
viewpoints
7. Which of the following describes the Center for Internet Security (CIS) Controls
framework?
A. Consists of over 1,000 controls, divided into 20 families, that are mapped to
the security category of an information system
B. Balances resource utilization, risk levels, and realization of benefits by
explicitly tying stakeholder needs to organizational goals to IT goals
C. Developed to determine the maturity of an organization’s processes
D. Consists of 20 controls divided into three groups to help organizations
incrementally improve their security posture
8. Which of the following is not one of the seven steps in the NIST Risk Management
Framework (RMF)?
A. Monitor security controls
B. Establish the context
C. Assess security controls
D. Authorize information system
9. The information security industry is made up of various best practices, standards,
models, and frameworks. Some were not developed first with security in mind,
but can be integrated into an organizational security program to help in its
effectiveness and efficiency. It is important to know of all of these different
approaches so that an organization can choose the ones that best fit its business
needs and culture. Which of the following best describes the approach(es) that
should be put into place if an organization wants to integrate a way to improve
its security processes over a period of time?
i. ITIL should be integrated because it allows for the mapping of IT service
process management, business drivers, and security improvement.
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iii. A Capability Maturity Model should be integrated because it provides distinct
maturity levels.
PART I
ii. Six Sigma should be integrated because it allows for the defects of security
processes to be identified and improved upon.
iv. The Open Group Architecture Framework should be integrated because it
provides a structure for process improvement.
A. i, iii
B. ii, iii, iv
C. ii, iii
D. ii, iv
Use the following scenario to answer Questions 10–12. You are hired as the chief information security officer (CISO) for a medium-size research and development company. Its
research file servers were recently breached, resulting in a significant loss of intellectual
property. The company is about to start a critical research project and wants to ensure
another breach doesn’t happen. The company doesn’t have risk management or information security programs, and you’ve been given a modest budget to hire a small team and
get things started.
10. Which of the following risk management frameworks would probably not be well
suited to your organization?
A. ISO/IEC 27005
B. NIST Risk Management Framework (RMF)
C. Operationally Critical Threat, Asset, and Vulnerability Evaluation (OCTAVE)
D. Factor Analysis of Information Risk (FAIR)
11. You decide to adopt the NIST Risk Management Framework (RMF) and are in
the process of categorizing your information systems. How would you determine
the security category (SC) of your research file servers (RFS)?
A. SCRFS = (probable frequency) × (probable future loss)
B. SCRFS = {(confidentiality, high),(integrity, medium),(availability, low)} = high
C. SCRFS = {(confidentiality, high),(integrity, medium),(availability, low)} = medium
D. SCRFS = Threat × Impact × Probability
12. When selecting the controls for the research file servers, which of the following
security control frameworks would be best?
A. NIST SP 800-53, Security and Privacy Controls for Information Systems and
Organizations
B. ISO/IEC 27002 code of practice for information security controls
C. Center for Information Security (CIS) Controls
D. COBIT 2019
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Answers
1. C. The ISO/IEC 27000 series is the only option that addresses best practices
across the breadth of an ISMS. NIST SP 800-53 and COBIT both deal with
controls, which are a critical but not the only component of an ISMS.
2. D. COBIT is an open framework developed by ISACA and the IT Governance
Institute (ITGI). It defines goals for the controls that should be used to properly
manage IT and ensure IT maps to business needs.
3. D. NIST Special Publication (SP) 800-53, Security and Privacy Controls for
Information Systems and Organizations, catalogs over 1,000 security controls.
ISO/IEC 27005 and NIST SP 800-37 both describe risk management
frameworks, while ISO/IEC 27001 is focused on information security
management systems (ISMSs).
4. B. ISO/IEC 27001 provides best practice recommendations on information
security management systems (ISMSs).
5. A. OCTAVE is not a quantitative methodology. The only such methodology for
risk management we’ve discussed is FAIR.
6. D. One of the key benefits of the Zachman Framework is that it allows
organizations to integrate business and IT infrastructure requirements in a
manner that is presentable to a variety of audiences by providing different
viewpoints. This helps keep business and IT on the same sheet of music. The
other answers describe the DoDAF (A), TOGAF (B), and ITIL (C).
7. D. There are 20 CIS controls and 171 subcontrols organized so that any
organization, regardless of size, can focus on the most critical controls and
improve over time as resources become available. The other answers describe
NIST SP 800-53 (A), COBIT 2019 (B), and Capability Maturity Model (C).
8. B. Establishing the context is a step in ISO/IEC 27005, not in the NIST RMF.
While it is similar to the RMF’s prepare step, there are differences between the
two. All the other responses are clearly steps in the NIST RMF process.
9. C. The best process improvement approaches provided in this list are Six Sigma
and Capability Maturity Model. The following outlines the definitions for all
items in this question:
• TOGAF Model and methodology for the development of enterprise
architectures, developed by The Open Group
• ITIL Processes to allow for IT service management, developed by the
United Kingdom’s Office of Government Commerce
• Six Sigma Business management strategy that can be used to carry out
process improvement
• Capability Maturity Model (CMM) Organizational development for
process improvement
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PART I
10. D. The Factor Analysis of Information Risk (FAIR) framework uses a quantitative
approach to risk assessment. As we discussed in Chapter 2, this approach requires
a lot more expertise and resources than quantitative ones. Since your organization
is just getting started with risk management and information security and your
resources are limited, this would not be a good fit.
11. B. The NIST RMF relies on the Federal Information Processing Standard
Publication 199 (FIPS 199) categorization standard, which breaks down a
system’s criticality by security objective (confidentiality, integrity, availability) and
then applies the highest security objective category (the “high water mark”) to
determine the overall category of the system.
12. A. Because you’re using the NIST RMF, NIST SP 800-53 is the best answer
because the two frameworks are tightly integrated. None of the other answers is
necessarily wrong; they’re just not as well suited as SP 800-53 for the given scenario.
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PART II
Asset Security
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
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Data Security
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CHAPTER
Assets
5
This chapter presents the following:
• Identification and classification of information and assets
• Information and asset handling requirements
• Secure resource provisioning
• The data life cycle
• Data compliance requirements
You don’t know what you’ve got till it’s gone.
—Joni Mitchell
An asset is, by definition, anything of worth to an organization. This includes people,
partners, equipment, facilities, reputation, and information. We already touched on the
importance of some of these assets when we addressed risk in Chapter 2. While every
asset needs to be protected, our coverage of the second CISSP domain in this chapter
and the next one focuses a bit more narrowly on protecting information assets. This is
because, apart from people, information is typically the most valuable asset to an organization. It lies at the heart of every information system, so precision focus on its protection
makes a lot of sense.
Information, of course, exists in context; it is acquired or created at a particular point
in time through a specific process and (usually) for a purpose. It moves through an
organization’s information systems, sometimes adding value to processes and sometimes
waiting to be useful. Eventually, the information outlives its utility (or becomes a liability)
and must be disposed of appropriately. We start off our discussion of asset security by
addressing two fundamental questions: “What do we have?” and “Why should we care?”
The first question is probably rather obvious, since we cannot protect that of which we’re
not aware. The second question may sound flippant, but it really gets to the heart of
how important an asset is to the organization. We’ve already tackled this (at least with
regard to data) in Chapter 4 in our discussion of the categorize step of the NIST Risk
Management Framework. Data and asset classification, as we will shortly see, is very
similar to the categorization we’ve already explored. Let’s get to it!
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EXAM TIP An information asset can be either the data, the device on which
it is stored and used, or both. In the exam, when you see the term asset by
itself, it typically means only the device.
Information and Assets
An asset can be defined as anything that is useful or valuable. In the context of products
and services, this value is usually considered financially: how much would someone pay
for it minus how much does the thing cost. If that value is positive, we call the thing an
asset. However, if that value is negative (that is, the thing costs more than what someone
would pay for it), then we call the thing a liability. Clearly, assets can be both tangible
things like computers and firewalls and intangible things like data or reputation. It is
important to narrow down the definition for purposes of the CISSP exam, so in this
domain, we consider assets as tangible things and we deal with data separately.
Information is a set of data items, placed in a context, and having some meaning.
Data is just an item. It could be the word “yes,” the time “9:00,” or the name “Fernando’s
Café” and, by itself, has no meaning. Put this data together in the context of an answer
to the question “Would you like to have coffee tomorrow morning?” and now we have
information. Namely, that we’ll be sharing a beverage tomorrow morning at a particular
place. Data processing yields information, and this is why we often use these two terms
interchangeably when talking about security issues.
Identification
Whether we are concerned with data security or asset security (or both), we first have
to know what we have. Identification is simply establishing what something is. When
you look at a computing device occupying a slot in your server rack, you may want to
know what it is. You may want to identify it. The most common way of doing this is by
placing tags on our assets and data. These tags can be physical (e.g., stickers), electronic
(e.g., radio frequency identification [RFID] tags), or logical (e.g., software license keys).
Using tags is critically important to establishing and maintaining accurate inventories of
our assets.
But what about data? Do we need to identify it and track it like we do with our more
tangible assets? The answer is: it depends. Most organizations have at least some data that
is so critical that, were it to become lost or corrupted or even made public, the impact
would be severe. Think of financial records at a bank, or patient data at a healthcare
provider. These organizations would have a very bad day indeed if any of those records
were lost, inaccurate, or posted on the dark web. To prevent this, they go to great lengths
to identify and track their sensitive information, usually by using metadata embedded in
files or records.
While it may not be critical (or even feasible) for many organizations to identify all
their information, it is critical to most of us to at least decide how much effort should
be put into protecting different types of data (or assets, for that matter). This is where
classification comes in handy.
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Classification
PART II
Classification just means saying that something belongs to a certain class. We could say,
for example, that your personnel file belongs to the class named “private” and that your
organization’s marketing brochure for the latest appliance belongs to the class “public.”
Right away, we would have a sense that your file has more value to your organization
than the brochure. The rationale behind assigning values to different assets and data is
that this enables an organization to gauge the amount of funds and resources that should
go toward protecting each class, because not all assets and data have the same value to
an organization. After identifying all important data, it should be properly classified. An
organization copies and creates a lot of data that it must maintain, so classification is an
ongoing process and not a one-time effort.
Data Classification
An important metadata item that should be attached to all our information is a classification level. This classification tag, which remains attached (and perhaps updated)
throughout the life cycle of the data, is important to determining the protective controls
we apply to the data.
Information can be classified by sensitivity, criticality, or both. Either way, the
classification aims to quantify how much loss an organization would likely suffer if the
information was lost. The sensitivity of information is commensurate with the losses to
an organization if that information was revealed to unauthorized individuals. This kind
of compromise has made headlines in recent years with the losses of information suffered
by organizations such as Equifax, Sina Weibo, and Marriott International. In each case,
the organizations lost trust and had to undertake expensive responses because sensitive
data was compromised.
The criticality of information, on the other hand, is an indicator of how the loss of the
information would impact the fundamental business processes of the organization. In
other words, critical information is that which is essential for the organization to continue
operations. For example, Code Spaces, a company that provided code repository services,
was forced to shut down in 2014 after an unidentified individual or group deleted its
code repositories. This data was critical to the operations of the company and, without
it, the corporation had no choice but to go out of business.
Once data is segmented according to its sensitivity or criticality level, the organization
can decide what security controls are necessary to protect different types of data.
This ensures that information assets receive the appropriate level of protection, and
classifications indicate the priority of that security protection. The primary purpose of
data classification is to indicate the level of confidentiality, integrity, and availability
protection that is required for each type of data set. Many people mistakenly only
consider the confidentiality aspects of data protection, but we need to make sure our
data is not modified in an unauthorized manner and that it is available when needed.
Data classification helps ensure that data is protected in the most cost-effective manner.
Protecting and maintaining data costs money, but spending money for the information
that actually requires protection is important. If you were in charge of making sure Russia
does not know the encryption algorithms used when transmitting information to and
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from U.S. spy satellites, you would use more extreme (and expensive) security measures
than you would use to protect your peanut butter and banana sandwich recipe from your
next-door neighbor.
Each classification should have separate handling requirements and procedures
pertaining to how that data is accessed, used, and destroyed. For example, in a corporation,
confidential information may be accessed only by senior management and a select few
trusted employees throughout the company. Accessing the information may require two
or more people to enter their access codes. Auditing could be very detailed and its results
monitored daily, and paper copies of the information may be kept in a vault. To properly
erase this data from the media, degaussing or overwriting procedures may be required.
Other information in this company may be classified as sensitive, allowing a slightly
larger group of people to view it. Access control on the information classified as sensitive
may require only one set of credentials. Auditing happens but is only reviewed weekly,
paper copies are kept in locked file cabinets, and the data can be deleted using regular
measures when it is time to do so. Then, the rest of the information is marked public.
All employees can access it, and no special auditing or destruction methods are required.
EXAM TIP Each classification level should have its own handling and
destruction requirements.
Classification Levels There are no hard and fast rules on the classification levels that
an organization should use. Table 5-1 explains the types of classifications available. An
organization could choose to use any of the classification levels presented in Table 5-1.
One organization may choose to use only two layers of classifications, while another
organization may choose to use four. Note that some classifications are more commonly
used for commercial businesses, whereas others are military classifications.
The following are the common levels of sensitivity from the highest to the lowest for
commercial business:
• Confidential
• Private
• Sensitive
• Public
And here are the levels of sensitivity from the highest to the lowest for military
purposes:
• Top secret
• Secret
• Confidential
• Controlled unclassified information
• Unclassified
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Organizations That
Would Use This
Definition
Example
Public
• Disclosure is not welcome,
• How many people are
Commercial
business
• Requires special precautions
• Financial information
• Details of projects
• Profit earnings and
Commercial
business
• Work history
• Human resources
Commercial
business
but it would not cause an
adverse impact to company
or personnel.
Sensitive
to ensure the integrity
and confidentiality of the
data by protecting it from
unauthorized modification
or deletion.
• Requires higher-thannormal assurance of
accuracy and completeness.
Private
• Personal information for
use within a company.
• Unauthorized disclosure
could adversely affect
personnel or the company.
Confidential
working on a specific
project
• Upcoming projects
forecasts
information
• Medical information
• For use within the
•
•
•
•
• Data is not sensitive or
• Computer manual and
Military
Controlled
unclassified
information
(CUI)
• Sensitive, but not secret.
• Information that cannot
• Health records
• Answers to test scores
Military
Secret
• If disclosed, it could cause
• Deployment plans for
Military
• If disclosed, it could cause
• Blueprints of new
Military
company only.
• Data exempt from disclosure
under the Freedom of
Information Act or other
laws and regulations.
• Unauthorized disclosure
could seriously affect a
company.
Unclassified
classified.
legally be made public.
serious damage to national
security.
Top secret
grave damage to national
security.
PART II
Classification
Trade secrets
Healthcare information
Programming code
Information that
keeps the company
competitive
Commercial
business
Military
warranty information
• Recruiting information
troops
• Unit readiness
information
weapons
• Spy satellite
information
• Espionage data
Table 5-1 Commercial Business and Military Data Classifications
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The classifications listed in Table 5-1 are commonly used in the industry, but there is a
lot of variance. An organization first must decide the number of data classifications that
best fit its security needs, then choose the classification naming scheme, and then define
what the names in those schemes represent. Company A might use the classification level
“confidential,” which represents its most sensitive information. Company B might use
“top secret,” “secret,” and “confidential,” where confidential represents its least sensitive
information. Each organization must develop an information classification scheme that
best fits its business and security needs.
EXAM TIP The terms “unclassified,” “secret,” and “top secret” are usually
associated with governmental organizations. The terms “private,” “proprietary,”
and “sensitive” are usually associated with nongovernmental organizations.
It is important to not go overboard and come up with a long list of classifications,
which will only cause confusion and frustration for the individuals who will use the
system. The classifications should not be too restrictive either, because many types of
data may need to be classified. As with every other issue in security, we must balance our
business and security needs.
Each classification should be unique and separate from the others and not have any
overlapping effects. The classification process should also outline how information is
controlled and handled through its life cycle (from creation to termination).
NOTE An organization must make sure that whoever is backing up classified
data—and whoever has access to backed-up data—has the necessary
clearance level. A large security risk can be introduced if low-level technicians
with no security clearance have access to this information during their tasks.
Once the scheme is decided upon, the organization must develop the criteria it will
use to decide what information goes into which classification. The following list shows
some criteria parameters an organization may use to determine the sensitivity of data:
• The usefulness of data
• The value of data
• The age of data
• The level of damage that could be caused if the data were disclosed
• The level of damage that could be caused if the data were modified or corrupted
• Legal, regulatory, or contractual responsibility to protect the data
• Effects the data has on security
• Who should be able to access the data
• Who should maintain the data
• Who should be able to reproduce the data
• Lost opportunity costs that could be incurred if the data were not available or
were corrupted
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Applications and sometimes whole systems may need to be classified. The applications
that hold and process classified information should be evaluated for the level of protection
they provide. You do not want a program filled with security vulnerabilities to process
and “protect” your most sensitive information. The application classifications should be
based on the assurance (confidence level) the organization has in the software and the
type of information it can store and process.
PART II
CAUTION The classification rules must apply to data no matter what format
it is in: digital, paper, video, fax, audio, and so on.
Asset Classification
Information is not the only thing we should classify. Consider that information must
reside somewhere. If a confidential file is stored and processed in the CEO’s laptop,
then that device (and its hard drive if it is removed) should also be considered worthy
of more protection. Typically, the classification of an asset (like a removable drive or a
laptop) used to store or process information should be as high as the classification of the
most valuable data in it. If an asset has public, sensitive, and confidential information,
then that asset should be classified as private (the highest of the three classifications) and
protected accordingly.
Classification Procedures
The following outlines the necessary steps for a proper classification program:
1. Define classification levels.
2. Specify the criteria that will determine how data is classified.
3. Identify data owners who will be responsible for classifying data.
4. Identify the data custodian who will be responsible for maintaining data and
its security level.
5. Indicate the security controls, or protection mechanisms, required for each
classification level.
6. Document any exceptions to the previous classification issues.
7. Indicate the methods that can be used to transfer custody of the information
to a different data owner.
8. Create a procedure to periodically review the classification and ownership.
Communicate any changes to the data custodian.
9. Indicate procedures for declassifying the data.
10. Integrate these issues into the security awareness program so all employees
understand how to handle data at different classification levels.
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Physical Security Considerations
We discuss data security in detail in Chapter 10. However, that data lives physically in
devices and printed documents, both of which require protection also. The main threats
that physical security components combat are theft, interruptions to services, physical
damage, compromised system and environment integrity, and unauthorized access. Real
loss is determined by the cost to replace the stolen items, the negative effect on productivity, the negative effect on reputation and customer confidence, fees for consultants
that may need to be brought in, and the cost to restore lost data and production levels.
Many times, organizations just perform an inventory of their hardware and provide value
estimates that are plugged into risk analysis to determine what the cost to the organization would be if the equipment were stolen or destroyed. However, the data held within
the equipment may be much more valuable than the equipment itself, and proper recovery mechanisms and procedures also need to be plugged into the risk assessment for a
more realistic and fair assessment of cost. Let’s take a look at some of the controls we can
use in order to mitigate risks to our data and to the media on which it resides.
Protecting Mobile Devices
Mobile devices are almost indispensable. For most of us, significant chunks of our personal and work lives are chronicled in our smartphones or tablets. Employees who use
these devices as they travel for work may have extremely sensitive company or customer
data on their systems that can easily fall into the wrong hands. This problem can be
mitigated to a point by ensuring our employees use company devices for their work, so
we can implement policies and controls to protect them. Still, many organizations allow
their staff members to bring their own devices (BYOD) to the workplace and/or use
them for work functions. In these cases, it is not only security but also privacy that should
receive serious attention.
There is no one-size-fits-all solution to protecting company, let alone personal, mobile
devices. Still, the following list provides some of the mechanisms that can be used to
protect these devices and the data they hold:
• Inventory all mobile devices, including serial numbers, so they can be properly
identified if they are stolen and then recovered.
• Harden the operating system by applying baseline secure configurations.
• Stay current with the latest security updates and patches.
• Ensure mobile devices have strong authentication.
• Register all devices with their respective vendors, and file a report with the
vendor when a device is stolen. If a stolen device is sent in for repairs after it is
stolen, it will be flagged by the vendor if you have reported the theft.
• Do not check mobile devices as luggage when flying. Always carry them on
with you.
• Never leave a mobile device unattended, and carry it in a nondescript carrying case.
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• Engrave the device with a symbol or number for proper identification.
• Back up all data on mobile devices to an organizationally controlled repository.
• Encrypt all data on a mobile device.
• Enable remote wiping of data on the device.
PART II
Tracing software can be installed so that your device can “phone home” if it is taken
from you. Several products offer this tracing capability. Once installed and configured,
the software periodically sends in a signal to a tracking center or allows you to track it
through a website or application. If you report that your device has been stolen, the
vendor of this software may work with service providers and law enforcement to track
down and return your device.
Paper Records
It is easy to forget that many organizations still process information on paper records.
The fact that this is relatively rare compared to the volume of their electronic counterparts is little consolation when a printed e-mail with sensitive information finds its way
into the wrong hands and potentially causes just as much damage. Here are some principles to consider when protecting paper records:
• Educate your staff on proper handling of paper records.
• Minimize the use of paper records.
• Ensure workspaces are kept tidy so it is easy to tell when sensitive papers are left
exposed, and routinely audit workspaces to ensure sensitive documents are not
exposed.
• Lock away all sensitive paperwork as soon as you are done with it.
• Prohibit taking sensitive paperwork home.
• Label all paperwork with its classification level. Ideally, also include its owner’s
name and disposition (e.g., retention) instructions.
• Conduct random searches of employees’ bags as they leave the office to ensure
sensitive materials are not being taken home.
• Destroy unneeded sensitive papers using a crosscut shredder, or consider
contracting a document destruction company.
Safes
An organization may have need for a safe. Safes are commonly used to store backup data
tapes, original contracts, or other types of valuables. The safe should be penetration resistant and provide fire protection. The types of safes an organization can choose from are
• Wall safe Embedded into the wall and easily hidden
• Floor safe Embedded into the floor and easily hidden
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• Chests Stand-alone safes
• Depositories Safes with slots, which allow the valuables to be easily slipped in
• Vaults Safes that are large enough to provide walk-in access
If a safe has a combination lock, it should be changed periodically, and only a small
subset of people should have access to the combination or key. The safe should be in a
visible location, so anyone who is interacting with the safe can be seen. It should also be
covered by a video surveillance system that records any activity around it. The goal is to
uncover any unauthorized access attempts. Some safes have passive or thermal relocking
functionality. If the safe has a passive relocking function, it can detect when someone
attempts to tamper with it, in which case extra internal bolts will fall into place to ensure
it cannot be compromised. If a safe has a thermal relocking function, when a certain
temperature is met (possibly from drilling), an extra lock is implemented to ensure the
valuables are properly protected.
Managing the Life Cycle of Assets
A life-cycle model describes the changes that an entity experiences during its lifetime.
While it may seem odd to refer to assets as having a “life,” the fact is that their utility
for (and presence within) organizations can be described with clear start and end points.
That is the lifetime of the asset within that organization (even if it gets refurbished and
used elsewhere). After the asset departs, its utility is oftentimes transferred to its replacement even if the new asset is different than the original in meaningful ways. That new
asset will, in turn, be replaced by something else, and so on.
The life cycle, which is shown in Figure 5-1, starts with the identification of a new
requirement. Whoever identifies the new requirement either becomes its champion or
Figure 5-1
The IT asset
life cycle
Replace or
Dispose
Business
Case
Operate &
Maintain
Create or
Acquire
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finds someone else to do so. The champion for this requirement then makes a business
case for it that shows that the existing assets are unable to satisfy this need. The champion
also explains why the organization really should get a new asset, which typically includes
a conversation about risks and return on investment (ROI). If the champion is successful,
senior management validates the requirement and identifies the needed resources (people,
money, time).
The validated requirement then goes to a change management board, giving the
different organizational stakeholders a say in what, how, and when the asset will be
acquired. This board’s goal is to ensure that this new asset doesn’t break any processes,
introduce undue risks, or derail any ongoing projects. In mature organizations, the change
management process also attempts to look over the horizon and see what the long-term
ramifications of this asset might be. After the board determines how to proceed, the new
asset is either developed in-house or acquired from a vendor.
The third phase of asset management is also the longest one: operation and maintenance
(O&M). Before the asset is put into operation, the IT and security operations teams
configure it to balance three (sometimes competing) goals: it must be able to do whatever
it was acquired to do, it must be able to do it without interfering or breaking anything
else, and it must be secure. This configuration will almost certainly need to change over
time, which is why we discuss configuration management in Chapter 20.
NOTE This initial part of the O&M phase is usually the most problematic
for a new asset and is a major driver for the use of an integrated product
team (IPT) such as DevOps, which we discuss in Chapter 24.
Eventually, the asset is no longer effective (in terms of function or cost) or required.
At this point, it moves out of O&M and is retired. This move, as you may have already
guessed, triggers another review by the change management board, because retiring the
asset is likely to have effects on other resources or processes. Once the process of retirement
is hashed out, the asset is removed from production. At this point, the organization needs
to figure out what to do with the thing. If the asset stored any data, the data probably
has to be purged. If the asset has any environmentally hazardous materials, it has to be
properly discarded. If it might be useful to someone else, it might be donated or sold. At
any rate, the loss of this asset may result in a new requirement being identified, which
starts the whole asset management life cycle again, as shown in Figure 5-1.
Ownership
In most cases, whoever makes the business case for an asset ultimately owns it, but this
is not always the case. Asset ownership, once the asset shows up and as long as it remains
in the organization, entails responsibility for the effective management of the asset over
its whole life cycle. Ownership in this sense is somewhat different than ownership in a
strictly legal sense. The legal owner of a server could be the corporation that buys it, while
the life cycle owner would be whatever employee or department is responsible for it on
a day-to-day basis.
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Inventories
One of the fundamental responsibilities for asset owners is to keep track of their assets.
Though the approaches to tracking hardware and software vary, they are both widely
recognized as critical controls. At the very least, it is very difficult to defend an asset that
you don’t know you have. As obvious as this sounds, many organizations lack an accurate
and timely inventory of their hardware and software.
Tracking Hardware
Seemingly, maintaining awareness of which devices are in your organization should be
an easier task than tracking your software. A hardware device can be seen, touched, and
bar-scanned. It can also be sensed electronically once it is connected to the network. If
you have the right tools and processes available, tracking hardware should not be all that
difficult, right? Not so fast. It turns out that the set of problems ranges from supply chain
security to insider threats and everything in between.
Let’s start with the basics. How do you ensure that a new device you’ve ordered is the
right one and free of back doors or piracy issues? There have been multiple reports in the
news media recently of confirmed or suspected back doors installed in hardware assets
by either manufacturers (e.g., pirated hardware) or by third parties (e.g., government
spy agencies) before the assets get to the organization that acquired them. In response
to these and other threats, the International Organization for Standardization published
ISO 28000:2007 as a means for organizations to use a consistent approach to securing
their supply chains. In essence, we want to ensure we purchase from trusted sources, use
a trusted transportation network, and have effective inspection processes to mitigate the
risk of pirated, tampered, or stolen hardware.
But even if we can assure ourselves that all the hardware we acquire is legitimate, how
would we know if someone else were to add devices to our networks? Asset monitoring
includes not only tracking our known devices but also identifying unknown ones that
may occasionally pop up in our enclaves. Examples that come to mind from personal
experience include rogue wireless access points, personal mobile devices, and even
(believe it or not) telephone modems. Each introduces unknown (and thus unmitigated)
risks. The solution is to have a comprehensive monitoring process that actively searches
for these devices and ensures compliance with your organization’s security policies.
In many cases, monitoring devices on the premises can be as simple as having a member
of the security or IT team randomly walk through every space in the organization looking
for things that are out of place. This becomes even more effective if this person does this
after work hours and also looks for wireless networks as part of these walks. Alternatively,
much of this monitoring can be done using device management platforms and a variety
of sensors.
Tracking Software
Obviously, we can’t just walk around and inventory our software. The unique challenges
of tracking software are similar to those of managing hardware, but with a few important
differences. Unlike hardware, software assets can be copied or installed multiple times.
This could be a problem from a licensing perspective. Commercial applications typically
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have limits on how many times you can install a single license. The terms of these licensing agreements vary wildly from single-use to enterprise-wide. It bears pointing out that
tracking what software is installed on which systems, and for which users, is an important
part of software asset management. Otherwise, you risk violating software licenses.
Using unlicensed software not only is unethical but also exposes an organization
to financial liability from the legitimate product vendors. This liability can manifest
in a number of ways, including having the organization reported to the vendor by a
disgruntled employee. It could also come up when certain software packages “phone
home” to the vendors’ servers or when downloading software patches and updates.
Depending on the number and types of licenses, this could end up costing significant
amounts of money in retroactive licensing fees.
Pirated software is even more problematic because many forms of it include back doors
installed by the pirates or are Trojan horses. Even if this were not the case, it would almost
certainly be impossible to update or patch this software, which makes it inherently more
insecure. Since no IT staff in their right mind would seriously consider using pirated
software as an organizational policy, its presence on a network would suggest that at least
some users have privileges that are being abused and to which they may not be entitled.
Another problem created by the fact that you can copy and install software on multiple
systems, apart from unlicensed or pirated software, is security. If you lose track of how
many copies of which software are on your systems, it is harder to ensure they are all
updated and patched. Vulnerability scanners and patch management systems are helpful
in this regard, but depending on how these systems operate, you could end up with
periods (perhaps indefinitely long) of vulnerability.
The solution to the software tracking problem is multifaceted. It starts with an
assessment of the legitimate application requirements of the organization. Perhaps
some users need an expensive photo editing software suite, but its provisioning should
be carefully controlled and only available to that set of users in order to minimize the
licensing costs. Once the requirements are known and broken down by class of user,
there are several ways to keep a handle on what software exists on which systems. Here
are some of the most widely accepted best practices:
• Application whitelisting A whitelist is a list of software that is allowed to
execute on a device or set of devices. Implementing this approach not only
prevents unlicensed or unauthorized software from being installed but also
protects against many classes of malware.
• Using Gold Masters A Gold Master is a standard image workstation or server
that includes properly configured and authorized software. Organizations may
have multiple images representing different sets of users. The use of Gold Masters
simplifies new device provisioning and configuration, particularly if the users are
not allowed to modify them.
• Enforcing the principle of least privilege If the typical users are not able
to install any software on their devices, then it becomes a lot harder for rogue
applications to show up in our networks. Furthermore, if we apply this approach,
we mitigate risks from a very large set of attacks.
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• Device management software Unified endpoint management (UEM) systems
allow you to fully and remotely manage most devices, including smartphones,
tablets, laptops, printers, and even Internet of Things (IoT) devices.
• Automated scanning Every device on your network should be periodically
scanned to ensure it is running only approved software with proper configurations.
Deviations from this policy should be logged and investigated by the IT or
security team.
Licensing Issues
Companies have the ethical obligation to use only legitimately purchased software
applications. Software makers and their industry representation groups such as The
Software Alliance (BSA) use aggressive tactics to target companies that use pirated
(illegal) copies of software.
Companies are responsible for ensuring that software in the corporate environment
is not pirated and that the licenses (that is, license counts) are being abided by. An
operations or configuration management department is often where this capability
is located in a company. Automated asset management systems, or more general
system management systems, may be able to report on the software installed
throughout an environment, including a count of installations of each. These counts
should be compared regularly (perhaps quarterly) against the inventory of licensed
applications and counts of licenses purchased for each application. Applications
that are found in the environment and for which no license is known to have been
purchased by the company, or applications found in excess of the number of licenses
known to have been purchased, should be investigated.
When applications are found in the environment for which the authorized
change control and supply chain processes were not followed, they need to be
brought under control, and the business area that acquired the application outside
of the approved processes must be educated as to the legal and information security
risks their actions may pose to the company. Many times, the business unit manager
would need to sign a document indicating he understands this risk and is personally
accepting it.
An application for which no valid business need can be found should be removed,
and the person who installed the application should be educated and warned that
future such actions may result in more severe consequences—like termination. This
may sound extreme, but installing pirated software is not only an ethical violation
but also both a liability risk and a potential vector for introducing malware.
Organizations that use or tolerate unlicensed products are sometimes turned in by
disgruntled employees as an act of revenge.
Companies should have an acceptable use policy (AUP) that indicates what software
users can install and informs users that the environment will be surveyed from time
to time to verify compliance. Technical controls should be emplaced to prevent
unauthorized users from being able to install unauthorized software in the environment.
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Secure Provisioning
The term “provisioning” is overloaded in the technology world, which is to say that it
means different actions to different people. To a telecommunications service provider,
it could mean the process of running wires, installing customer premises equipment,
configuring services, and setting up accounts to provide a given service (e.g., DSL). To
an IT department, it could mean the acquisition, configuration, and deployment of an
information system (e.g., a new server) within a broader enterprise environment. Finally,
to a cloud services provider, provisioning could mean automatically spinning up a new
instance of that physical server that the IT department delivered to us.
For the purpose of the CISSP exam, provisioning is the set of all activities required
to provide one or more new information services to a user or group of users (“new”
meaning previously not available to that user or group). Though this definition is
admittedly broad, it does subsume all that the overloaded term means. As you will see in
the following sections, the specific actions included in various types of provisioning vary
significantly, while remaining squarely within our given definition.
At the heart of provisioning is the imperative to provide these information services in a
secure manner. In other words, we must ensure that both the services and the devices on
which they rely are secure. We already discussed supply chain risks in asset acquisition in
Chapter 2. So, assuming you have a trusted supply chain, you would want to start with
a Gold Master image applied to your devices as soon as you receive them. Ideally, you
would then configure them according to the needs defined in the business and adapted
to whatever classes of user they will support. Finally, you scan for vulnerabilities (just to
be sure) and deploy it on the network. Easy, right?
Well, it gets a bit trickier when you deal with remote employees, which for many
organizations are an increasing portion of their workforce. Some of the added concerns
to consider are listed here:
PART II
A fundamental best practice in software asset management is to prevent users from
installing software and requiring them to submit a request for a system administrator to
do so instead. This allows the administrator to ensure the software is properly licensed
and added to the appropriate management systems. It also enables effective configuration
management across the enterprise.
Controlling the existing hardware and software on our networks should be a
precondition to provisioning new services and capabilities. To do otherwise risks making
an already untenable position even worse.
• Securely shipping the devices to users
• Securely sending credentials to users
• Requirements for virtual private network (VPN) connectivity
• Remote monitoring of whether or not the device is on the VPN
• Making remote configuration changes
• Multifactor authentication while the device is disconnected
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Obviously, the list of issues will very much depend on your particular situation. You
may not have any remote users but perhaps you have a data center or hosting provider who
owns the physical environment in which your assets reside. That presents its own set of
concerns you need to think through in terms of secure provisioning. Finally, and perhaps
inescapably, many of us have to consider unique issues when dealing with cloud assets.
Provisioning Cloud Assets
Generally, cloud provisioning is the set of all activities required to provide one or more new
cloud assets to a user or group of users. So what exactly are these cloud assets? As we will see
in Chapter 7, cloud computing is generally divided into three types of service: Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS). The
provisioning of each type of service presents its own set of issues.
When we are dealing with provisioning IaaS assets, our user population is limited to
the IT department. To see why this is true, we need only consider a noncloud (that is,
physical) equivalent: provisioning a new server or router. Because these assets typically
impact a large number of users in the organization, we must be very careful in planning
and testing their provisioning. Accordingly, these provisioning actions often require the
approval of the senior leadership or of the change control committee. Only a very small
group of IT personnel should be able to perform such provisioning.
PaaS is similar to IaaS in terms of organizational impact, but oftentimes has a
more limited scope. A platform, in this context, is typically a service such as a web or
database management service. Though the IT team typically handles the provisioning, in
some cases someone else in the organization may handle it. Consider, for example, the
case of a development (intranet-only) web service that is being provisioned to test a web
application that a team of coders is developing. Depending on the scope, context, and
accessibility, this provisioning could be delegated to any one of the developers, though
someone in IT would first constrain the platform to ensure it is accessible only to that team.
Finally, SaaS could be provisioned by a larger pool of users within the constraints
established by the IT team in accordance with the organizational policy. If a given group
of users is authorized to use the customer relationship management (CRM) system, then
those users should be able to log into their accounts and self-provision that and any other
applications to which they are authorized.
As you can see, the provisioning of cloud assets should be increasingly more controlled
depending on the organizational impact and the risk profile of the specific asset. The key
to secure provisioning is carefully setting up the cloud computing environment so that
properly configured applications, platforms, and infrastructure are rapidly available to
authorized users when and where they need them. After all, one of the benefits of cloud
computing is the promise of self-service provisioning in near real time.
Asset Retention
Assets typically remain in use until they are no longer required, they become obsolete, or
their O&M costs exceed their value to the organization. If they are no longer required,
they may still be retained for some time in anticipation of future needs or perhaps for
emergency use. Asset retention should be a deliberate decision that is documented and
periodically revisited. Ideally, this is done as part of the change management process to
ensure the retained (and no longer in use) assets don’t pose undue risks.
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Suppose your organization has a policy of refreshing laptops for its workforce every
three years. After the latest refresh, you end up with a dozen laptops that are no longer
required. Someone suggests you keep them around in case of an emergency, so you do. A
couple of refresh cycles later, you end up with dozens of laptops (some of them potentially
unable to run modern software) clogging up your storage spaces. This is a problem for at
least four reasons. Firstly, you’ve run out of storage space. Secondly, there is a risk of theft
since nobody is paying much attention to the laptops in the closet. Thirdly, they may no
longer work when that emergency finally happens and you decide to pull them out and
use them. Finally, and perhaps most seriously, unless they were properly decommissioned,
they could have sensitive data in their disk drives that nobody is aware of.
Your asset retention decision-making should consider the fact that your asset life cycle
may differ from its manufacturer’s intended one. Original equipment manufacturers
(OEMs) sell a particular product only for a specific period of time, typically one to three
years. After that, they’ll move on to the next version or may stop making it altogether.
Either way, the product is no longer sold. OEMs will, however, continue to support their
product after this point for some time, usually another three to six years. Replacement
parts may still be sold and customer support resources will remain available to registered
owners. End-of-life (EOL) for an asset is that point in time when its OEM is neither
manufacturing nor sustaining it. In other words, you can’t send it in for repairs, buy
spare parts, or get technical assistance from the OEM. The risk in using assets after
their announced EOL is that hardware failures will be much more difficult to address at
reasonable costs.
There is a related term, end-of-support (EOS), which is sometimes also called endof-service-life (EOSL), that means that the manufacturer is no longer patching bugs or
vulnerabilities on the product. Typically, manufacturers will continue issuing patches
after a product reaches EOL for another few years. Sometimes, however, EOL and EOS
coincide. Either way, we face significant risk after the product reaches EOS because
whatever vulnerabilities are discovered will remain unpatched, meaning the asset is much
more likely to be exploited.
Whether the business needs change or the asset reaches EOL or EOS, eventually it’s
time to retire it, which may drive a new business case. Before throwing an asset in the
recycling bin, however, we need to properly decommission it.
Decommissioning Assets
Once an asset has reached the end of its useful life in your organization, it’s important to
follow a thorough process to decommission it. Decommissioning is the set of all activities
required to permanently remove an existing asset from an operational environment. In a
way, it is the opposite of provisioning.
The specific tasks required to decommission assets vary greatly depending on what
the asset is. However, there are some overarching thoughts to consider before pulling the
proverbial plug. These include the following:
• Decommission only within the change management process. The only way to minimize
the risk of unintended (adverse) consequences when you pull the plug is to ensure
that everyone who may have a stake in the asset is part of the decision.
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• Ensure that the asset is no longer in use. It may seem obvious, but there may
be unknown users (or uses) of the asset that were never properly documented.
You’d hate to pull the plug, only to find out you killed a critical business
process.
• Review the impact on data retention. We’ll discuss data retention later in this
chapter, but you have to ensure that there isn’t any data in the asset (and only in
that asset) that needs to be preserved.
• Securely wipe any data on the asset. It seems like just about every asset has
the potential to hold sensitive data in nonvolatile memory or disk. Be sure you
understand the persistent data storage capabilities in the asset, and you wipe
them.
• Safely dispose of the hardware. Many assets have hazardous components such as
lithium batteries that require special handling. Don’t just toss that old computer
into the dumpster before checking for environmental or safety hazards first.
Data Life Cycle
The data life cycle differs from the asset life cycle in some important ways. First, it usually doesn’t cost anything to acquire most of the data our organizations use. Sure, there
are notable exceptions, but, overall, we don’t really have to demonstrate the ROI or get
the chief financial officer (CFO) to agree that we need to know what each customer buys
on an e-commerce site. (Actually, a CFO should be justifiably worried if that data is
not being collected.) Another significant difference is that we can share our data with as
many others as we’d like without losing it. Finally, data tends to be archived rather than
disposed of when it is no longer immediately useful. Sure, we can put a workstation in a
storage room in case we need it later, but this is the exception rather than the norm when
dealing with tangible assets.
There are a number of data life-cycle models out there. The one we will use for our
discussion is fairly simple but still effective when considering the changing nature of data
and the security implications of those dynamics. At a macro level, we can divide the life
of our data into six phases: acquisition, storage, use, sharing, archival, and destruction,
as shown in Figure 5-2.
Data Acquisition
Generally speaking, data is acquired by an organization in one of three ways: collected
directly, copied from elsewhere, or created from scratch. Collection is possible when an
organization has sensors in an environment of interest. For example, an e-commerce
site has a web server that can collect the IP address of visitors and what page referred
them to the site. The application server can further collect the identity of each customer,
which products they explored, and what they eventually bought. All this data can be
enhanced by buying customer data from ad agencies and having it copied into a local
data store. Finally, the marketing department can analyze all that data and create reports
and forecasts.
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Figure 5-2
The data
life cycle
Acquisition
Storage
PART II
Destruction
Use
Archival
Sharing
Data Collection
We must ensure that the data we collect, particularly when it is personal in nature, is
necessary for our jobs. Generally speaking, organizations should collect the least amount
of private personal data required for the performance of their business functions. In
many cases, this is not a matter of choice but of law. As of 2020, over 128 countries have
enacted privacy protection laws that affect organizations within their jurisdictions. It is
important to note that privacy protections vary widely among countries. The European
Union is one of the most restrictive regions with respect to privacy, while China effectively has no restrictions, and therefore no real privacy protections. The United States has
very few restrictions on the collection of private data by nongovernmental organizations
at the national level, but has states such as California with protections similar to those of
the EU. The point is that you have to be aware of the specific privacy laws that pertain to
the places in which your organization stores or uses its data. This is particularly important when you outsource services (which may require access to your data) to third parties
in a different country.
Apart from applicable laws and regulations, the types of personal data that your
organization collects, as well as its life-cycle considerations, must be a matter of explicit
written policy. Your privacy policy needs to cover your organization’s collection, use,
disclosure, and protection of employee and client data. Many organizations break their
privacy policy into two documents: an internal document that covers employee data, and
an external document that covers customer information. At a minimum, you want to
answer the following questions when writing your policy:
• What personal data is collected (e.g., name, website visits, e-mail messages, etc.)?
• Why do we collect this data and how do we use it (e.g., to provide a service,
for security)?
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• With whom do we share this data (e.g., third-party providers, law enforcement
agencies)?
• Who owns the collected data (e.g., subject, organization)?
• What rights does the subject of this data have with regard to it (e.g., opt out,
restrictions)?
• When do we destroy the data (e.g., after five years, never)?
• What specific laws or regulations exist that pertain to this data
(e.g., HIPAA, GDPR)?
Data Storage
After data is acquired, but before it can be used, it must be stored somewhere. There are
also other steps we must take to make the information useful. Typically, we attach both
system metadata (e.g., author, date/time of creation, and permissions) and business process metadata (e.g., classification, project, and owner) to it. Finally, the data is indexed
to facilitate searching and assigned to one or more data stores. In smaller organizations,
much of this process is invisible to the user. All that person knows is that when they
create a contact in the CRM system, an order in the purchasing system, or a ticket in
the workflow system, the entry is magically available to everyone in the organization
who needs to access the information. In larger organizations, the process needs to be
carefully architected.
Finally, there are policy controls that we have to apply. For instance, we have to encrypt
credit card numbers and certain other personally identifiable information (PII) wherever
Where in the World Is My Data?
Data location can be a particularly important issue, especially when dealing with
personal, healthcare, or national security data. As we discussed in Chapter 3, some
countries have data localization laws that require certain types of data to be stored
and processed in that country (examples include China and Russia). Other countries have enacted data sovereignty laws that stipulate that anyone who stores or processes certain types of data (typically personal data on their citizens), whether or not
they do so locally, must comply with those countries’ laws. Meeting these requirements can be impossible without data classification. It can also be either enabled or
hindered by cloud services. Used properly, cloud service providers can help ensure
data localization requirements are met by restricting certain classifications of data to
a region or even a specific country. If, on the other hand, data location is not considered when architecting a cloud solution, it is very likely that sensitive data will
end up in some random location at some point, potentially causing no shortage of
headaches (and perhaps legal and financial liability) to its owners.
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we store them. We also have to implement strict controls on who gets to access sensitive
information. Additionally, we may have to provide some sort of rollback capability to
revert data to a previous state, particularly if users or processes may be able to corrupt it.
These and many other important considerations must be deliberately addressed as we
store the data and not as an afterthought.
Data Retention
PART II
There is no universal agreement on how long an organization should retain data. Legal
and regulatory requirements (where they exist) vary among countries and business
sectors. What is universal is the need to ensure your organization has and follows a
documented data retention policy. Doing otherwise is flirting with disaster, particularly when dealing with pending or ongoing litigation. It is not enough, of course, to
simply have a policy; you must ensure it is being followed, and you must document this
through regular audits.
NOTE When outsourcing data storage, it is important to specify in the
contract language how long the storage provider will retain your data
after you stop doing business with them and what process they will use to
eradicate your data from their systems.
A very straightforward and perhaps tempting approach would be to look at the
lengthiest legal or regulatory retention requirement imposed on your organization and
then apply that timeframe to all your data retention. The problem with this approach
is that it will probably make your retained data set orders of magnitude greater than it
needs to be. Not only does this impose additional storage costs, but it also makes it more
difficult to comply with electronic discovery (e-discovery) orders. When you receive an
e-discovery order from a court, you are typically required to produce a specific amount of
data (usually pretty large) within a given timeframe (usually very short). Obviously, the
more data you retain, the more difficult and expensive this process will be.
A better approach is to segregate the specific data sets that have mandated retention
requirements and handle those accordingly. Everything else should have a retention
period that minimally satisfies the business requirements. Commonly, different business
units within medium and large organizations have different retention requirements.
For instance, a company may want to keep data from its research and development
(R&D) division for a much longer period than it keeps data from its customer service
division. R&D projects that are not particularly helpful today may be so at a later date,
but audio recordings of customer service calls probably don’t have to hang around for
several years.
NOTE Be sure to get buy-in from your legal counsel when developing or
modifying data retention and privacy policies.
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Developing a Retention Policy
At its core, every data retention policy answers three fundamental questions:
• What data do we keep?
• How long do we keep this data?
• Where do we keep this data?
Most security professionals understand the first two questions. After all, many of us
are used to keeping tax records for three years in case we get audited. The “what” and
the “how long” are easy. The last question, however, surprises more than a few of us. The
twist is that the question is not so much about the location per se, but rather the manner
in which the data is kept at that location. In order to be useful to us, retained data must
be easy to locate and retrieve.
Think about it this way. Suppose your organization had a business transaction
with Acme Corporation in which you learned that Acme was involved in the sale of
a particular service to a client in another country. Two years later, you receive a thirdparty subpoena asking for any data you may have regarding that sale. You know you
retain all your data for three years, but you have no idea where the relevant data may
be. Was it an e-mail, a recording of a phone conversation, the minutes from a meeting,
or something else? Where would you go looking for it? Alternatively, how could you
make a case to the court that locating and providing the data would be too costly for
your organization?
What Data We Retain There are many reasons to retain data. Among the more common
ones are data analysis (to plot trends and make predictions), historical knowledge (how
did we deal with this in the past?), and regulatory requirements. Again, legal counsel
must be involved in this process to ensure all legal obligations are being met. Beyond
these obligations, there will be specific information that is important to the business for
a variety of reasons. It is also worth considering what data might be valuable in light of
business arrangements, partnerships, or third-party dealings.
The decision to retain data must be deliberate, specific, and enforceable. We want to
keep only the data that we consciously decide to keep, and then we want to ensure that
we can enforce that retention. Importantly, there should be a way for us to ensure that
data that should not be retained is promptly and properly disposed of. If this sounds
painful, we need only consider the consequences of not getting this process right. Many
companies have endured undue hardships because they couldn’t develop, implement,
and enforce a proper retention policy. Among the biggest challenges in this realm is the
balance between business needs and employee or customer privacy.
How Long We Retain Once upon a time, there were two main data retention longevity
approaches: the “keep nothing” camp and the “keep everything” camp. As the legal
processes caught up with modern computer technology, it became clear that (except
in very limited cases) these approaches were not acceptable. For starters, whether they
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Data Retention in the Age of Big Data
PART II
The term big data refers to collections of data that exhibit five characteristics:
volume, velocity, variety, veracity, and value. Volume refers to the sheer size of
the data collection, which exceeds what can reasonably be stored in traditional
systems like a regular data server or a conventional database management system.
Velocity describes the high speed with which new data is added, while variety
means that the data is not all in the same format or even concerning the same
things. Because the data comes from a multitude of sources, its veracity is difficult
to establish, but we oftentimes deal with this by looking for trends and clusters
rather than individual data points. Finally, there is an expectation that all this data
adds value to our organizations, which justifies the costs of storing and processing
it in the first place.
This last point is the crux of data retention in the age of big data: just because
we can keep every data point from every business unit and occasionally get valuable
insights is not sufficient reason to keep the data. It is far easier (and way more cost
effective) to develop a retention policy that allows us to build big data stores as
needed, but does so in a way that balances risks, costs, and value. Are there privacy
or confidentiality issues concerning any of the data? Could any data create a legal
liability for the organization? Is any of the data likely to be subject to e-discovery? If
so, how difficult would it be to comply with an e-discovery order?
Apart from any legal or regulatory concerns, there’s also the practical one of
deciding what data is useful and what is just taking up storage space. Even if the
price tag of storage doesn’t seem excessive now, left unchecked, we can get there
quicker than expected if we keep pumping data in. And when we get there, how
would we go about removing the data we no longer want or need?
This all underscores the importance of being deliberate about building our big
data stores and having policies and procedures that support valid organizational
requirements, while mitigating risks at a reasonable cost.
retained nothing or everything, organizations following one of these extreme approaches
found out it was difficult to defend themselves in lawsuits. The first group had nothing
with which to show due diligence, for instance, while those in the second group had
too much information that plaintiffs could use against them. So what is the right data
retention policy? Ask your legal counsel. Seriously.
There are myriads of statutory and regulatory retention requirements, which vary
from jurisdiction to jurisdiction (sometimes even within the same country). There are
also best practices and case law to consider, so we won’t attempt to get too specific here.
Still, Table 5-2 provides some general guidelines sufficient to start the conversation with
your attorneys.
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Type of Data
General Period of Retention
Business documents (e.g., meeting minutes)
7 years
Invoices
5 years
Accounts payable and receivable
7 years
Human resource files
7 years (for employees who leave) or 3 years (for
candidates who were not hired)
Tax records
3 years after taxes were paid
Legal correspondence
Permanently
Table 5-2 Typical Retention Periods for Different Types of Data
How We Retain Data In order for retained data to be useful, it must be accessible in
a timely manner. It really does us no good to have data that takes an inordinate (and
perhaps prohibitive) amount of effort to query. To ensure this accessibility, we need to
consider various issues, including the ones listed here.
• Taxonomy A taxonomy is a scheme for classifying data. This classification
can be made using a variety of categories, including functional (e.g., human
resources, product development), chronological (e.g., 2020), organizational
(e.g., executives, union employees), or any combination of these or other categories.
• Classification The sensitivity classification of the data determines the
controls we place on it both while it is in use and when it gets archived. This is
particularly important because many organizations protect sensitive information
while in use, but not so much after it goes into the archives.
• Normalization Retained data comes in a variety of formats, including word
processing documents, database records, flat files, images, PDF files, video, and
so on. Simply storing the data in its original format is not sufficient in any but
the most trivial cases. Instead, we need to develop tagging schemas that make the
data searchable.
• Indexing Retained data must be searchable if we are to quickly pull out specific
items of interest. The most common approach to making data searchable is to
build indexes for it. Many archiving systems implement this feature, but others
do not. Either way, the indexing approach must support the likely future queries
on the archived data.
Ideally, archiving occurs in a centralized, regimented, and homogenous manner. We
all know, however, that this is seldom the case. We may have to compromise in order to
arrive at solutions that meet our minimum requirements within our resource constraints.
Still, as we plan and execute our retention strategies, we must remain focused on how we
will efficiently access archived data many months or years later.
E-Discovery
Discovery of electronically stored information (ESI), or e-discovery, is the process
of producing for a court or external attorney all ESI pertinent to a legal proceeding.
For example, if your company is being sued for damages resulting from a faulty product,
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the plaintiff ’s attorney could get an e-discovery order compelling you to produce all
e-mail between the QA team and senior executives in which the product’s faults are discussed. If your data retention policy and procedures are adequate, e-discovery should not
require excessive efforts. If, on the other hand, you have been slack about retention, such
an order could cripple the organization.
The Electronic Discovery Reference Model (EDRM) identifies eight steps, though
they are not necessarily all required, nor are they performed in a linear manner:
2. Preservation of this data to ensure it is not accidentally or routinely destroyed
while complying with the order.
PART II
1. Identification of data required under the order.
3. Collection of the data from the various stores in which it may be.
4. Processing to ensure the correct format is used for both the data and its metadata.
5. Review of the data to ensure it is relevant.
6. Analysis of the data for proper context.
7. Production of the final data set to those requesting it.
8. Presentation of the data to external audiences to prove or disprove a claim.
Electronic Discovery Reference Model
Processing
Preservation
Information
Governance
Identification
Review
Production
Presentation
Collection
Analysis
Volume
Relevance
(Source: EDRM; www.edrm.net)
Data Use
After data is acquired and stored, it will spend much of its time being used. That is to say
it will be read and modified by a variety of users with the necessary access level. From a
security perspective, this stage in the data life cycle presents the most challenges in terms
of ensuring confidentiality, integrity, and availability. You want the information available,
but only to the right people who should then be able to modify it in authorized ways.
Consistency is also an issue with regard to policy and regulatory compliance. As the
information is used and aggregated, it may trigger requirements that must be automatically
enforced. For example, a document that refers to a project using a code word or name
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may be unclassified and freely available, but if that word/name is used in conjunction
with other details (a place, purpose, or team members’ names), then it would make the
entire document classified. Changes in the information as it is in use must be mapped to
the appropriate internal policies, and perhaps to regulations or laws.
Data Maintenance
As data is being used, we have to ensure that it remains accurate and internally consistent.
Suppose that Sally is a salesperson in our organization. She meets a prospective customer
named Charlie and enters his contact information and other details into a CRM system.
E-mails are exchanged, meetings are scheduled, and documents are filed with Charlie’s
data. One day, Charlie gets a promotion and moves to corporate headquarters. Just like
that, his title, phone number, and address all change. How do we ensure that we update
this data and that we do it across the entire organization? Sure, the CRM piece is easy, but
what about the myriad of other places in which the now obsolete data exists? We need to
have a plan for maintaining the accuracy of data that is being used and may be critical to
our business processes.
We must also consider what happens when the data is incorrect when it is first
acquired. There was a recent story in the news about a police clerk who incorrectly
entered the personal information of a convicted murderer who had just been transferred
to his station. The information was actually that of an innocent citizen who had,
earlier that day, applied for a permit. The erroneous information was shared across the
country with local, national, and even private organizations. By the time the error was
discovered, there was no way to globally correct the entry. To this day, that innocent man
is periodically denied employment or services because some system shows that he is a
convicted murderer. For most of our organizations, this scenario would likely result in
hefty fines or a major lawsuit unless we had an effective way to maintain our data.
Another case for data maintenance deals with corruption and inconsistencies. For
instance, if we have multiple data stores for performance or reliability purposes, we must
ensure that modifications to the data are replicated. We also need to have mechanisms
for automatically resolving inconsistencies, such as those that would occur from a server
having a power outage after data has been modified but before it has been replicated.
This is particularly important in very dynamic systems that have rollback capabilities.
Data Sharing
Gone are the days when any of us could accomplish anything significant solely on our
own. Virtually every organization in the world, particularly those with information systems, is part of a supply chain. Information sharing is a key enabler of modern supply
chains. Without it, we wouldn’t be able to log into our systems (especially if you have
a third-party identity management service like Google or Facebook), send or receive
e-mail, or sell widgets online (it’s hard to sell something without sharing payment card
information with a payment processor).
While we all have some data sharing requirements imposed by our IT infrastructure,
we also willingly share data with others for specific business reasons. For example, an
e-commerce site will almost certainly partner with a digital advertising firm to drum up
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PART II
business and with a logistics company to deliver tangible goods. It may also partner with
other companies that offer complementary goods or services and collect referral fees from
each other. There are many other reasons to share data, but the important concept here is
that this sharing needs to be deliberate. If you share the wrong data, or do so in the wrong
way, you could lose competitive advantage or even break the law.
To avoid data sharing nightmares, be sure to involve all the necessary staff (business,
IT, security, legal) in the conversation early. Discuss the business need to share data and
restrict that data to the minimum essential to satisfy that need. Document the agreement
in a legally binding contract that’s been approved by your legal counsel. This agreement
needs to specify the obligations of each party with regard to the entire shared data life
cycle. For example, what data will be shared, how it will be stored and used by each party,
with whom it may be shared, how it will be archived and for how long, and, finally, when
and how it will be destroyed.
Data Archival
The data in our systems will likely stop being used regularly (or at all) at some point.
When this happens, but before we get rid of it, we probably want to retain it for a variety of reasons. Maybe we anticipate that it will again be useful at a later time, or maybe
we are required to keep it around for a certain period of time, as is the case with certain
financial information. Whatever the reason for moving this data off to the side, the fact
that it is no longer regularly used could mean that unauthorized or accidental access and
changes to it could go undetected for a long time if we don’t implement appropriate
controls. Of course, the same lack of use could make it easier to detect this threat if we
do have the right controls.
Another driver for retention is the need for backups. Whether we’re talking about
user or back-end backups, it is important to consider our risk assessment when deciding
which backups are protected and how. To the extent that end-user backups are performed
to removable disk drives, it is difficult to imagine a scenario in which these backups
should not be encrypted. Every major operating system provides a means to perform
automatic backups as well as encrypt those backups. Let’s take advantage of this.
This all leads us to the question of how long we need to retain data. If we discard it too
soon, we risk not being able to recover from a failure or an attack. We also risk not being
able to comply with e-discovery requests or subpoenas. If we keep the data for too long,
Backup vs. Archive
The terms backup and archive are sometimes used interchangeably. In reality, they
have different meanings that are best illustrated using the life-cycle model described
in this section. A data backup is a copy of a data set currently in use that is made for
the purpose of recovering from the loss of the original data. Backup data normally
becomes less useful as it gets older.
A data archive is a copy of a data set that is no longer in use, but is kept in case it
is needed at some future point. When data is archived, it is usually removed from its
original location so that the storage space is available for data in use.
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we risk excessive costs as well as increased liabilities. The answer, once again, is that this
is all part of our risk management process and needs to be codified in policies.
Data Destruction
Sooner or later, every organization will have to dispose of data. This usually, but not
always, means data destruction. Old mailboxes, former employee records, and past financial transactions are all examples of data sets that must, at some point, be destroyed.
When this time comes, there are two important issues to consider: that the data does in
fact get destroyed, and that it is destroyed correctly. When we discuss roles and responsibilities later in this chapter, we’ll see who is responsible for ensuring that both of these
issues are taken care of.
A twist on the data destruction issue is when we need to transfer the data to another
party and then destroy it on our data stores. For instance, organizations hosting services
for their clients typically have to deal with requests to do a bulk export of their data
when they migrate to another provider. Companies sometimes sell accounts (e.g., home
mortgages) to each other, in which case the data is transferred and eventually (after the
mandatory retention period) destroyed on the original company’s systems.
No matter the reason, we have to ensure that the data is properly destroyed. How this
is done is, again, tied to our risk management. The bottom line is that the data must be
rendered sufficiently difficult for an adversary to recover so that the risk of such recovery
is acceptable to our organization. This is not hard to do when we are dealing with
physical devices such as hard disk drives that can be wiped, degaussed, or shredded (or
all of these in particularly risk-adverse organizations such as certain government entities).
Data destruction can be a bit more complicated when we deal with individual files (or
parts thereof ) or database records (such as many e-mail systems use for mailbox storage).
Further complicating matters, it is very common for multiple copies of each data item
to exist across our information systems. How can you ensure that all versions are gone?
The point is that the technical details of how and where the data is stored are critical to
ensuring its proper destruction.
Data Remanence
Even when policies exist (and are enforced and audited) to ensure the protection of
privacy, it is possible for technical issues to threaten this privacy. It is a well-known fact
that most data deletion operations do not, in fact, erase anything; normally, they simply
mark the memory as available for other data, without wiping (or even erasing) the original data. This is true not only of file systems but also of databases. Since it is difficult to
imagine a data store that would not fit in either of these two constructs, it should be clear
that simply “deleting” data will likely result in data remanence issues.
NOTE NIST Special Publication 800-88, Revision 1, Guidelines for Media
Sanitization (December 2014), describes the best practices for combating
data remanence.
Let’s consider what happens when we create a text file using the File Allocation Table
(FAT) file system. Though this original form of FAT is antiquated, its core constructs
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Root Directory
Figure 5-3
Writing a text
file to disk
Story1.txt
161
803
Story2.txt
163
714
Ricin.txt
222
0.663
PART II
FAT
0
162
EOF
164
EOF
0
0
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
Disk
165
164
163
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
The Lion an
from sleep b
Rising up an
kill him, who
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. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
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. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
(e.g., disk blocks, free block list/table, file metadata table) are also found at the heart of
all other modern file systems. Its simplicity makes it a wonderful training tool for the
purpose of explaining file creation and deletion.
Suppose we type up the famous Aesop fable titled “The Lion and the Mouse” in a
text editor and save it to disk. The operating system will ask us for a filename, which will
be Story2.txt for this example. The system will then check the File Allocation Table for
available blocks on which to store the text file. As shown in Figure 5-3, the system creates
a directory entry for the file containing the name (Story2.txt), location of the first block
(163), and the file size in bytes (714). In our simplistic example, each block is 512 bytes
in size, so we’ll need two of them. Fortunately, block 164 is right next to the start block
and is also free. The system will use the entry for block 163 (the first block of the file)
to point to the next block containing it (164). This allows files to occupy discontinuous
blocks if the disk is heavily fragmented. That chain of blocks could be quite long if the
file was big enough and we didn’t run out of disk space first. In our simple example,
however, we just need two blocks, so block 164 is the final one in use and gets a special
label of EOF to denote the end of the file.
Suppose we decide to delete the file. Instead of cleaning up the table, the FAT file
system will simply replace the first character of the filename in the directory table with
a reserved character (shown in Figure 5-4 as a question mark) to indicate that the file
was deleted. The starting block will be preserved in the directory, but the corresponding
entries in the File Allocation Table are zeroed out to show that those blocks are available
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Root Directory
Figure 5-4
Deleting a file
Story1.txt
161
803
?tory2.txt
163
714
Ricin.txt
222
0.663
FAT
0
162
EOF
0
0
0
0
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
Disk
165
164
163
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
The Lion an
from sleep b
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. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
for other files. As you can see in Figure 5-4, the contents of the file on the disk remain
intact. This is why data remanence is such a big problem: because file systems almost
never securely wipe data when deleting files.
At some point, however, users will create new files and save them to disk, which
could result in our original data being partly or completely overwritten. This is shown
in Figure 5-5. In this case, the new file requires only one block of disk space because
it only contains the text “Hello World!” Suppose the user calls this file “hello.txt” and
the system stores it in block 163, which used to be the start block for the previous
Story2.txt file. That block will be overwritten with the new file’s content and almost
certainly padded with empty characters to fill out the block. The next block, however,
contains the remainder of the deleted file, so partial contents are still available to anyone
with the right recovery tools. Note also that the original file’s metadata is preserved in the
directory table until that block is needed for another file.
This example, though simplistic, illustrates the process used by almost every file
system when creating and deleting files. The data structures may be named differently
in modern versions of Windows, Linux, and macOS, but their purpose and behavior
remain essentially the same. In fact, many databases use a similar approach to “deleting”
entries by simply marking them as deleted without wiping the original data.
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Root Directory
Figure 5-5
Partially
overwriting
a file
?tory2.txt
163
805
hello.txt
163
12
PART II
FAT
0
162
EOF
EOF
0
0
0
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
Disk
164
163
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
“You ridicul
to help you,
of your favo
a Mouse to
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
Hello World
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
165
To counter data remanence, it is important to identify procedures for ensuring that
private data is properly removed. Generally speaking, there are four approaches to
eliminating data remanence:
• Overwriting Overwriting data entails replacing the 1’s and 0’s that represent it
on storage media with random or fixed patterns of 1’s and 0’s in order to render the
original data unrecoverable. This should be done at least once (e.g., overwriting the
medium with 1’s, 0’s, or a pattern of these), but may have to be done more than
that. For many years the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) standard 5220.22-M
required that media be overwritten seven times. This standard has since been
superseded. DoD systems with sensitive information must now be degaussed.
• Degaussing This is the process of removing or reducing the magnetic field
patterns on conventional disk drives or tapes. In essence, a powerful magnetic force
is applied to the media, which results in the wiping of the data and sometimes the
destruction of the motors that drive the platters. While it may still be possible to
recover the data, it is typically cost prohibitive to do so.
• Encryption Many mobile devices take this approach to quickly and securely
render data unusable. The premise is that the data is stored on the medium in
encrypted format using a strong key. To render the data unrecoverable, the system
simply needs to securely delete the encryption key, which is many times faster
than deleting the encrypted data. Recovering the data in this scenario is typically
computationally infeasible.
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• Physical destruction Perhaps the best way to combat data remanence is to
simply destroy the physical media. The two most commonly used approaches to
destroying media are to shred it or expose it to caustic or corrosive chemicals that
render it unusable. Another approach is incineration.
Data Roles
The data life cycle and, just as importantly, its protection, is driven by responsible and
accountable individuals within each organization. We’ve already seen how data breaches
can wreak havoc on otherwise successful companies and even drive them (or their key
leaders) out of business. While this is not an exhaustive list, the following sections describe
some of the key responsibilities by role when it comes to protecting data.
Data Controllers
Data controllers decide why and how different types of data will be processed. These are
the senior managers that set policies with regard to the management of the data life cycle,
particularly with regard to sensitive data such as personal data. Once these controllers set
the policy, it is up to the rest of the organization to abide by it.
Data Owners
Data owners are responsible for the life cycle management of a set of data. Among the
responsibilities of the data owners are data classification and the approval of disclosure
requests. The data owners, therefore, indirectly or directly decide who gets access to specific
data. This is particularly important given that these individuals typically are senior managers within the organization. In reality, the majority of these decisions should be codified
in formal written policies. Any exceptions to policy should be just that—exceptions—and
must be properly documented.
Data Custodians
It is good and well to have policies addressing the life cycle of your data, but someone
needs to implement them at the technical level. These individuals are the data custodians, who are responsible for controlling access to the data, implementing the required
security controls, and ensuring that both the data and manner in which it is used can be
audited. Data custodians also participate in the change management process for all matters pertaining to the data life cycle.
Data Processors
The group of users best positioned to protect (or compromise) data consists of those who
deal with that data on a routine basis: data processors. These individuals can be found in a
variety of places within the organization depending on what particular data is of concern.
The critical issue here is that these individuals understand the boundaries of what acceptable behavior is and (just as importantly) know what to do when data is accidentally or
intentionally handled in a manner that does not conform to applicable policies. The
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best ways to address this issue are through training and auditing. On the one hand, data
processors must be properly trained to handle their duties and responsibilities. On the
other hand, there must be routine inspections to ensure their behavior complies with all
applicable laws, regulations, and policies.
Data Subjects
PART II
All personal data concerns a real individual. The person about whom the data is concerned is the data subject. While data subjects are seldom involved in the organizational
data life cycle, we all have a solemn duty to protect them and their privacy as we use their
data for our own purposes. Respect for the data subjects is foundational to ensuring the
protection and privacy of their data.
Chapter Review
Protecting assets, particularly information, is critical to any organization and must be
incorporated into the comprehensive risk management process described in Chapter 2.
This protection will probably require different controls at different phases in the data life
cycle, so it is important to consider phase-specific risks when selecting controls. Rather
than trying to protect all information equally, our organizations need classification standards that help us identify, handle, and protect data according to its sensitivity and criticality. We must also consider the roles played by various people in the organization. From
the senior executives to the newest and most junior member of the team, everyone who
interacts with our information has (and should understand) specific responsibilities with
regard to protecting our assets.
A key responsibility is the protection of privacy of personal information. For various
legal, regulatory, and operational reasons, we want to limit how long we hold on to
personal information. There is no one-size-fits-all approach to data retention, so it is
incumbent on the organization’s leadership to consider a multitude of factors when
developing privacy and data retention policies. These policies, in turn, should drive riskbased controls, baselines, and standards applied to the protection of our data. A key
element in applying controls needs to be the proper use of strong cryptography.
Quick Review
• Data goes through a life cycle that starts with its acquisition and ends with
its disposal.
• Each phase of the data life cycle requires different considerations when assessing
risks and selecting controls.
• New information is prepared for use by adding metadata, including
classification labels.
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• Ensuring the consistency of data must be a deliberate process in organizations
that use data replication.
• Cryptography can be an effective control at all phases of the data life cycle.
• The data retention policy drives the timeframe at which data transitions from the
archival phase to the disposal phase of its life cycle.
• Information classification corresponds to the information’s value to the organization.
• Each classification should have separate handling requirements and procedures
pertaining to how that data is accessed, used, and destroyed.
• Senior executives are ultimately responsible to the shareholders for the successes
and failures of their corporations, including security issues.
• The data owner is the manager in charge of a specific business unit and is
ultimately responsible for the protection and use of a specific subset of information.
• Data owners specify the classification of data, and data custodians implement and
maintain controls to enforce the set classification levels.
• The data retention policy must consider legal, regulatory, and operational
requirements.
• The data retention policy should address what data is to be retained, where, how,
and for how long.
• Electronic discovery (e-discovery) is the process of producing for a court or
external attorney all electronically stored information (ESI) pertinent to a legal
proceeding.
• Normal deletion of a file does not permanently remove it from media.
• NIST SP 800-88, Revision 1, Guidelines for Media Sanitization, describes the
best practices for combating data remanence.
• Overwriting data entails replacing the 1’s and 0’s that represent it on storage
media with random or fixed patterns of 1’s and 0’s to render the original data
unrecoverable.
• Degaussing is the process of removing or reducing the magnetic field patterns on
conventional disk drives or tapes.
• Privacy pertains to personal information, both from your employees and your
customers.
• Generally speaking, organizations should collect the least amount of private
personal data required for the performance of their business functions.
• Mobile devices are easily lost or stolen and should proactively be configured
to mitigate the risks of data loss or leakage.
• Paper products oftentimes contain information that deserves controls
commensurate to the sensitivity and criticality of that information.
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Questions
Please remember that these questions are formatted and asked in a certain way for a reason.
Keep in mind that the CISSP exam is asking questions at a conceptual level. Questions may
not always have the perfect answer, and the candidate is advised against always looking for
the perfect answer. Instead, the candidate should look for the best answer in the list.
1. Which of the following statements is true about the data life cycle?
B. Most data must be retained indefinitely.
C. The data life cycle begins with its acquisition/creation and ends with its
PART II
A. The data life cycle begins with its archival and ends with its classification.
disposal/destruction.
D. Preparing data for use does not typically involve adding metadata to it.
2. Ensuring data consistency is important for all the following reasons, except
A. Replicated data sets can become desynchronized.
B. Multiple data items are commonly needed to perform a transaction.
C. Data may exist in multiple locations within our information systems.
D. Multiple users could attempt to modify data simultaneously.
3. Which of the following makes the most sense for a single organization’s
classification levels for data?
A. Unclassified, Secret, Top Secret
B. Public, Releasable, Unclassified
C. Sensitive, Controlled unclassified information (CUI), Proprietary
D. Proprietary, Trade Secret, Private
4. Which of the following is the most important criterion in determining the
classification of data?
A. The level of damage that could be caused if the data were disclosed
B. The likelihood that the data will be accidentally or maliciously disclosed
C. Regulatory requirements in jurisdictions within which the organization is
not operating
D. The cost of implementing controls for the data
5. Who bears ultimate responsibility for the protection of assets within the
organization?
A. Data owners
B. Cyber insurance providers
C. Senior management
D. Security professionals
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6. During which phase or phases of the data life cycle can cryptography be an
effective control?
A. Use
B. Archival
C. Disposal
D. All the above
7. A transition into the disposal phase of the data life cycle is most commonly
triggered by
A. Senior management
B. Insufficient storage
C. Acceptable use policies
D. Data retention policies
8. Information classification is most closely related to which of the following?
A. The source of the information
B. The information’s destination
C. The information’s value
D. The information’s age
9. The data owner is most often described by all of the following except
A. Manager in charge of a business unit
B. Ultimately responsible for the protection of the data
C. Financially liable for the loss of the data
D. Ultimately responsible for the use of the data
10. Who has the primary responsibility of determining the classification level for
information?
A. The functional manager
B. Senior management
C. The owner
D. The user
11. If different user groups with different security access levels need to access the
same information, which of the following actions should management take?
A. Decrease the security level on the information to ensure accessibility and
usability of the information.
B. Require specific written approval each time an individual needs to access the
information.
C. Increase the security controls on the information.
D. Decrease the classification label on the information.
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12. What should management consider the most when classifying data?
A. The type of employees, contractors, and customers who will be accessing
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PART II
the data
B. Availability, integrity, and confidentiality
C. Assessing the risk level and disabling countermeasures
D. The access controls that will be protecting the data
13. Which of the following requirements should the data retention policy address?
A. Legal
B. Regulatory
C. Operational
D. All the above
14. Which of the following is not addressed by the data retention policy?
A. What data to keep
B. For whom data is kept
C. How long data is kept
D. Where data is kept
15. Which of the following best describes the mitigation of data remanence by a
physical destruction process?
A. Replacing the 1’s and 0’s that represent data on storage media with random or
fixed patterns of 1’s and 0’s
B. Converting the 1’s and 0’s that represent data with the output of a cryptographic
function
C. Removing or reducing the magnetic field patterns on conventional disk drives
or tapes
D. Exposing storage media to caustic or corrosive chemicals that render it unusable
16. Which of the following best describes the mitigation of data remanence by a
degaussing destruction process?
A. Replacing the 1’s and 0’s that represent data on storage media with random or
fixed patterns of 1’s and 0’s
B. Converting the 1’s and 0’s that represent data with the output of a cryptographic
function
C. Removing or reducing the magnetic field patterns on conventional disk drives
or tapes
D. Exposing storage media to caustic or corrosive chemicals that render it unusable
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17. Which of the following best describes the mitigation of data remanence by an
overwriting process?
A. Replacing the 1’s and 0’s that represent data on storage media with random or
fixed patterns of 1’s and 0’s
B. Converting the 1’s and 0’s that represent data with the output of a cryptographic
function
C. Removing or reducing the magnetic field patterns on conventional disk drives
or tapes
D. Exposing storage media to caustic or corrosive chemicals that render it
unusable
Answers
1. C. Although various data life-cycle models exist, they all begin with the creation or
acquisition of the data and end with its ultimate disposal (typically destruction).
2. B. Although it is typically true that multiple data items are needed for a
transaction, this has much less to do with the need for data consistency than do
the other three options. Consistency is important because we oftentimes keep
multiple copies of a given data item.
3. A. This is a typical set of classification levels for government and military
organizations. Each of the other options has at least two terms that are
synonymous or nearly synonymous.
4. A. There are many criteria for classifying data, but it is most important to focus
on the value of the data or the potential loss from its disclosure. The likelihood of
disclosure, irrelevant jurisdictions, and cost considerations should not be central
to the classification process.
5. C. Senior management always carries the ultimate responsibility for the organization.
6. D. Cryptography can be an effective control at every phase in the data life cycle.
During data acquisition, a cryptographic hash can certify its integrity. When
sensitive data is in use or in archives, encryption can protect it from unauthorized
access. Finally, encryption can be an effective means of destroying the data.
7. D. Data retention policies should be the primary reason for the disposal of most
of our information. Senior management or lack of resources should seldom,
if ever, be the reason we dispose of data, while acceptable use policies have little,
if anything, to do with it.
8. C. Information classification is very strongly related to the information’s value
and/or risk. For instance, trade secrets that are the key to a business’s success
are highly valuable, which will lead to a higher classification level. Similarly,
information that could severely damage a company’s reputation presents a high
level of risk and is similarly classified at a higher level.
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9. C. The data owner is the manager in charge of a specific business unit, and is
ultimately responsible for the protection and use of a specific subset of information.
In most situations, this person is not financially liable for the loss of his or her data.
10. C. A company can have one specific data owner or different data owners who
have been delegated the responsibility of protecting specific sets of data. One
of the responsibilities that goes into protecting this information is properly
classifying it.
PART II
11. C. If data is going to be available to a wide range of people, more granular security
should be implemented to ensure that only the necessary people access the data and
that the operations they carry out are controlled. The security implemented can
come in the form of authentication and authorization technologies, encryption, and
specific access control mechanisms.
12. B. The best answer to this question is B, because to properly classify data, the data
owner must evaluate the availability, integrity, and confidentiality requirements of
the data. Once this evaluation is done, it will dictate which employees, contractors,
and users can access the data, which is expressed in answer A. This assessment will
also help determine the controls that should be put into place.
13. D. The data retention policy should follow the laws of any jurisdiction within
which the organization’s data resides. It must similarly comply with any
regulatory requirements. Finally, the policy must address the organization’s
operational requirements.
14. B. The data retention policy should address what data to keep, where to keep it,
how to store it, and for how long to keep it. The policy is not concerned with
“for whom” the data is kept.
15. D. Two of the most common approaches to destroying data physically involve
shredding the storage media or exposing it to corrosive or caustic chemicals.
In certain highly sensitive government organizations, these approaches are used
in tandem to make the risk of data remanence negligible.
16. C. Degaussing is typically accomplished by exposing magnetic media (such as
hard disk drives or magnetic tapes) to powerful magnetic fields in order to change
the orientation of the particles that physically represent 1’s and 0’s.
17. A. Data remanence can be mitigated by overwriting every bit on the storage
medium. This is normally accomplished by writing all 0’s, or all 1’s, or a fixed
pattern of them, or a random sequence of them. Better results can be obtained by
repeating the process with different patterns multiple times.
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CHAPTER
Data Security
6
This chapter presents the following:
• Data states
• Data security controls
• Data protection methods
Data is a precious thing and will last longer than the systems themselves.
—Tim Berners-Lee
Having addressed assets in general in the previous chapter, we now turn our attention to
specific ways in which we go about protecting one of our most precious assets: data. One
of the facts that makes securing data so difficult is that it can seemingly flow and rest
anywhere in the world, literally. Even that virtual sticky note on your home computer’s
desktop reminding you to pick up some milk can be backed up automatically and its
contents stored almost anywhere in the world unless you take steps to control it. The
same issue arises, though with more significant consequences, when we consider data in
our organizations’ IT systems.
Clearly, the manner in which we protect our data depends on where it is and what it
is doing (or having done to it). That sticky note on your desktop has different security
implications than a confidential message being transmitted between two government
organizations. Part of the decision deals with the data classification we discussed in
Chapter 5, but another part deals with whether the data is just sitting somewhere,
moving between places, or actively being worked on. These are the data states, and they
determine what security controls make sense over time.
Data Security Controls
As described in Chapter 5, which types of controls should be implemented per classification depends upon the level of protection that management and the security team have
determined is needed. The numerous types of controls available are discussed throughout
this book. But some considerations pertaining to sensitive data and applications are common across most organizations:
• Strict and granular access control for all levels of sensitive data and programs
• Encryption of data while stored and while in transit
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• Auditing and monitoring (determine what level of auditing is required and how
long logs are to be retained)
• Separation of duties (determine whether two or more people must be involved
in accessing sensitive information to protect against fraudulent activities; if so,
define and document procedures)
• Periodic reviews (review classification levels, and the data and programs that
adhere to them, to ensure they are still in alignment with business needs; data
or applications may also need to be reclassified or declassified, depending upon
the situation)
• Backup and recovery procedures (define and document)
• Change control procedures (define and document)
• Physical security protection (define and document)
• Information flow channels (where does the sensitive data reside and how does it
traverse the network)
• Proper disposal actions, such as shredding, degaussing, and so on (define and
document)
• Marking, labeling, and handling procedures
Clearly, this is not an exhaustive list. Still, it should be a good start as you delve into
whatever specific compliance requirements apply to your organization. Keep in mind that
the controls that constitute adequate data protections vary greatly between jurisdictions.
When it comes to compliance, always be sure to consult your legal counsel.
Data States
Which controls we choose to use to mitigate risks to our information depend not only on
the value we assign to that information but also on the dynamic state of that information.
Generally speaking, data exists in one of three states: at rest, in motion, or in use. These
states and their interrelations are shown in Figure 6-1. The risks to each state are different
in significant ways, as described next.
Figure 6-1
The states of data
Data in
motion
Data in
use
Data at
rest
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Data at Rest
PART II
Information in an information system spends most of its time waiting to be used. The
term data at rest refers to data that resides in external or auxiliary storage devices, such
as hard disk drives (HDDs), solid-state drives (SSDs), optical discs (CD/DVD), or even
on magnetic tape. A challenge with protecting data in this state is that it is vulnerable,
not only to threat actors attempting to reach it over our systems and networks but also
to anyone who can gain physical access to the device. It is not uncommon to hear of
data breaches caused by laptops or mobile devices being stolen. In fact, one of the largest
personal health information (PHI) breaches occurred in San Antonio, Texas, in September 2009 when an employee left unattended in his car backup tapes containing PHI on
some 4.9 million patients. A thief broke into the vehicle and made off with the data. The
solution to protecting data in such scenarios is as simple as it is ubiquitous: encryption.
Every major operating system now provides means to encrypt individual files or entire
volumes in a way that is almost completely transparent to the user. Third-party software
is also available to encrypt compressed files or perform whole-disk encryption. What’s
more, the current state of processor power means that there is no noticeable decrease in
the performance of computers that use encryption to protect their data. Unfortunately,
encryption is not yet the default configuration in any major operation system. The
process of enabling it, however, is so simple that it borders on the trivial.
Many medium and large organizations now have policies that require certain
information to be encrypted whenever it is stored in an information system. While
typically this applies to PII, PHI, or other regulated information, some organizations are
taking the proactive step of requiring whole-disk encryption to be used on all portable
computing devices such as laptops and external hard drives. Beyond what are clearly
easily pilfered devices, we should also consider computers we don’t normally think of
as mobile. Another major breach of PHI was reported by Sutter Health of California
in 2011 when a thief broke a window and stole a desktop computer containing the
unencrypted records on more than 4 million patients. We should resolve to encrypt all
data being stored anywhere, and modern technology makes this easier than ever. This
approach to “encrypt everywhere” reduces the risk of users accidentally storing sensitive
information in unencrypted volumes.
NOTE NIST Special Publication 800-111, Guide to Storage Encryption
Technologies for End User Devices, provides a good, if somewhat dated (2007),
approach to this topic.
Data in Motion
Data in motion is data that is moving between computing nodes over a data network such
as the Internet. This is perhaps the riskiest time for our data: when it leaves the confines
of our protected enclaves and ventures into that Wild West that is the Internet. Fortunately, encryption once again rises to the challenge. The single best protection for our
data while it is in motion (whether within or without our protected networks) is strong
encryption such as that offered by Transport Layer Security (TLS version 1.2 and later)
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or IPSec. We will discuss strong (and weak) encryption in Chapter 8, but for now you
should be aware that TLS and IPSec support multiple cipher suites and that some of
these are not as strong as others. Weaknesses typically are caused by attempts to ensure
backward compatibility, but result in unnecessary (or perhaps unknown) risks.
NOTE The terms data in motion, data in transit, and data in flight are all
used interchangeably.
By and large, TLS relies on digital certificates (more on those in Chapter 8) to certify
the identity of one or both endpoints. Typically, the server uses a certificate but the client
doesn’t. This one-way authentication can be problematic because it relies on the user to
detect a potential impostor. A common exploit for this vulnerability is known as a manin-the-middle (MitM) attack. The attacker intercepts the request from the client to the
server and impersonates the server, pretending to be, say, Facebook. The attacker presents
to the client a fake web page that looks exactly like Facebook and requests the user’s
credentials. Once the user provides that information, the attacker can forward the log-in
request to Facebook and then continue to relay information back and forth between the
client and the server over secure connections, intercepting all traffic in the process. A
savvy client would detect this by noticing that the web browser reports a problem with
the server’s certificate. (It is extremely difficult for all but certain nation-states to spoof
a legitimate certificate.) Most users, however, simply click through any such warnings
without thinking of the consequences. This tendency to ignore the warnings underscores
the importance of security awareness in our overall efforts to protect our information
and systems.
Another approach to protecting our data in motion is to use trusted channels between
critical nodes. Virtual private networks (VPNs) are frequently used to provide secure
connections between remote users and corporate resources. VPNs are also used to
securely connect campuses or other nodes that are physically distant from each other. The
trusted channels we thus create allow secure communications over shared or untrusted
network infrastructure.
Data in Use
Data in use is the term for data residing in primary storage devices, such as volatile
memory (e.g., RAM), memory caches, or CPU registers. Typically, data remains in primary storage for short periods of time while a process is using it. Note, however, that
anything stored in volatile memory could persist there for extended periods (until power
is shut down) in some cases. The point is that data in use is being touched by the CPU
or ALU in the computer system and will eventually go back to being data at rest, or end
up being deleted.
As discussed earlier, data at rest should be encrypted. The challenge is that, in most
operating systems today, the data must be decrypted before it is used. In other words,
data in use generally cannot be protected by encrypting it. Many people think this is
safe, the thought process being, “If I’m encrypting my data at rest and in transit already,
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why would I worry about protecting it during the brief period in which it is being used
by the CPU? After all, if someone can get to my volatile memory, I probably have bigger
problems than protecting this little bit of data, right?” Not really.
Various independent researchers have demonstrated effective side-channel attacks
against memory shared by multiple processes. A side-channel attack exploits information
that is being leaked by a cryptosystem. As we will see in our discussion of cryptology in
Chapter 8, a cryptosystem can be thought of as connecting two channels: a plaintext
channel and an encrypted one. A side channel is any information flow that is the electronic
by-product of this process. As an illustration of this, imagine yourself being transported
in the windowless back of a van. You have no way of knowing where you are going, but
you can infer some aspects of the route by feeling the centrifugal force when the van
makes a turn or follows a curve. You could also pay attention to the engine noise or the
pressure in your ears as you climb or descend hills. These are all side channels. Similarly,
if you are trying to recover the secret keys used to encrypt data, you could pay attention
to how much power is being consumed by the CPU or how long it takes for other
processes to read and write from memory. Researchers have been able to recover 2,048bit keys from shared systems in this manner.
But the threats are not limited to cryptosystems alone. The infamous Heartbleed
security bug of 2014 demonstrated how failing to check the boundaries of requests to
read from memory could expose information from one process to others running on
the same system. In that bug, the main issue was that anyone communicating with the
server could request an arbitrarily long “heartbeat” message from it. Heartbeat messages
are typically short strings that let the other end know that an endpoint is still there
and wanting to communicate. The developers of the library being used for this never
imagined that someone would ask for a string that was hundreds of characters in length.
The attackers, however, did think of this and in fact were able to access crypto keys and
other sensitive data belonging to other users.
More recently, the Meltdown, Spectre, and BranchScope attacks that came to light
in 2018 show how a clever attacker can exploit hardware features in most modern
CPUs. Meltdown, which affects Intel and ARM microprocessors, works by exploiting
the manner in which memory mapping occurs. Since cache memory is a lot faster than
main memory, most modern CPUs include ways to keep frequently used data in the
faster cache. Spectre and BranchScope, on the other hand, take advantage of a feature
called speculative execution, which is meant to improve the performance of a process by
guessing what future instructions will be based on data available in the present. All three
implement side-channel attacks to go after data in use.
So, how do we protect our data in use? The short answer is, we can’t, at least for now.
We can get close, however, by ensuring that our systems decrypt data at the very last
possible moment, ideally as it gets loaded into the CPU registers, and encrypt it as it
leaves those registers. This approach means that the data is encrypted even in memory,
but it is an expensive approach that requires a cryptographic co-processor. You may
encounter it if you work with systems that require extremely high security but are in
places where adversaries can put their hands on them, such as automated teller machines
(ATMs) and military weapon systems.
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A promising approach, which is not quite ready for prime time, is called homomorphic
encryption. This is a family of encryption algorithms that allows certain operations
on the encrypted data. Imagine that you have a set of numbers that you protect with
homomorphic encryption and give that set to me for processing. I could then perform
certain operations on the numbers, such as common arithmetic ones like addition and
multiplication, without decrypting them. I add the encrypted numbers together and
send the sum back to you. When you decrypt them, you get a number that is the sum of
the original set before encryption. If this is making your head hurt a little bit, don’t worry.
We’re still a long ways from making this technology practical.
Standards
As we discussed in Chapter 1, standards are mandatory activities, actions, or rules that
are formally documented and enforced within an organization. Asset security standards
can be expensive in terms of both financial and opportunity costs, so we must select
them carefully. This is where classification and controls come together. Since we already
know the relative value of our data and other information assets and we understand
many of the security controls we can apply to them, we can make cost-effective decisions about how to protect them. These decisions get codified as information asset
protection standards.
The most important concept to remember when selecting information asset protection
standards is to balance the value of the information with the cost of protecting it. Asset
inventories and classification standards will help you determine the right security controls.
Scoping and Tailoring
One way to go about selecting standards that make sense for your organization is to
adapt an existing standard (perhaps belonging to another organization) to your specific
situation. Scoping is the process of taking a broader standard and trimming out the irrelevant or otherwise unwanted parts. For example, suppose your company is acquired by
another company and you are asked to rewrite some of your company’s standards based
on the ones the parent company uses. That company allows employees to bring their own
devices to work, but that is not permitted in your company. You remove those sections
from their standard and scope it down to your size. Tailoring, on the other hand, is when
you make changes to specific provisions so they better address your requirements. Suppose your new parent company uses a particular solution for centralized backup management that is different from the solution your company has been using. As you modify
that part of the standard to account for your platform, you are tailoring it to your needs.
Data Protection Methods
As we have seen, data can exist in many forms and places. Even data in motion and data
in use can be temporarily stored or cached on devices throughout our systems. Given
the abundance of data in the typical enterprise, we have to narrow the scope of our data
protection to the data that truly matters. A digital asset is anything that exists in digital
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form, has intrinsic value to the organization, and to which access should be restricted in
some way. Since these assets are digital, we must also concern ourselves with the storage
media on which they reside. These assets and storage media require a variety of controls
to ensure data is properly preserved and that its integrity, confidentiality, and availability
are not compromised. For the purposes of this discussion, “storage media” may include
both electronic (disk, optical discs, tape, flash devices such as USB “thumb drives,” and
so on) and nonelectronic (paper) forms of information.
The operational controls that pertain to digital assets come in many flavors. The first
are controls that prevent unauthorized access (protect confidentiality), which, as usual,
can be physical, administrative, and technical. If the company’s backup tapes are to be
properly protected from unauthorized access, they must be stored in a place where only
authorized people have access to them, which could be in a locked server room or an
offsite facility. If storage media needs to be protected from environmental issues such
as humidity, heat, cold, fire, and natural disasters (to maintain availability), the media
should be kept in a fireproof safe in a regulated environment or in an offsite facility that
controls the environment, so it is hospitable to data processing components.
Companies may have a digital asset library with a librarian in charge of protecting
its resources. If so, most or all of the responsibilities described in this chapter for the
protection of the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of media fall to the librarian.
Users may be required to check out specific resources from the library, instead of having
the resources readily available for anyone to access them. This is common when the
library includes licensed software. It provides an accounting (audit log) of uses of assets,
which can help in demonstrating due diligence in complying with license agreements and
in protecting confidential information (such as PII, financial/credit card information,
and PHI) in libraries containing those types of data.
Storage media should be clearly marked and logged, its integrity should be verified,
and it should be properly erased of data when no longer needed. After a large investment
is made to secure a network and its components, a common mistake is to replace old
computers, along with their hard drives and other magnetic storage media, and ship the
obsolete equipment out the back door along with all the data the company just spent so
much time and money securing. This puts the information on the obsolete equipment
and media at risk of disclosure and violates legal, regulatory, and ethical obligations of
the company. Thus, overwriting (see Figure 6-2) and secure overwriting algorithms are
required. Whenever storage media containing highly sensitive information cannot be
cleared or purged, physical destruction must take place.
When storage media is erased (cleared of its contents), it is said to be sanitized. In
military/government classified systems terms, this means erasing information so it is not
readily retrievable using routine operating system commands or commercially available
forensic/data recovery software. Clearing is acceptable when storage media will be reused
in the same physical environment for the same purposes (in the same compartment of
compartmentalized information security) by people with the same access levels for that
compartment.
Not all clearing/purging methods are applicable to all storage media—for example,
optical media is not susceptible to degaussing, and overwriting may not be effective when
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Figure 6-2 Overwriting storage media to protect sensitive data
dealing with solid-state devices. The degree to which information may be recoverable by
a sufficiently motivated and capable adversary must not be underestimated or guessed at
in ignorance. For the highest-value digital assets, and for all data regulated by government
or military classification rules, read and follow the rules and standards.
The guiding principle for deciding what is the necessary method (and cost) of data
erasure is to ensure that the enemies’ cost of recovering the data exceeds the value of the
data. “Sink the company” (or “sink the country”) information has value that is so high
that the destruction of the storage devices, which involves both the cost of the destruction
and the total loss of any potential reusable value of the storage media, is justified. For
most other categories of information, multiple or simple overwriting is sufficient. Each
organization must evaluate the value of its digital assets and then choose the appropriate
erasure/disposal method.
Chapter 5 discussed methods for secure clearing, purging, and destruction of electronic
media. Other forms of information, such as paper, microfilm, and microfiche, also
require secure disposal. “Dumpster diving” is the practice of searching through trash at
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homes and businesses to find valuable information that was simply thrown away without
being first securely destroyed through shredding or burning.
Atoms and Data
PART II
A device that performs degaussing generates a coercive magnetic force that reduces
the magnetic flux density of the storage media to zero. This magnetic force is what
properly erases data from media. Data is stored on magnetic media by the representation of the polarization of the atoms. Degaussing changes this polarization
(magnetic alignment) by using a type of large magnet to bring it back to its original
flux (magnetic alignment).
Digital Asset Management
Digital asset management is the process by which organizations ensure their digital assets
are properly stored, well protected, and easily available to authorized users. While specific
implementations vary, they typically involve the following tasks:
• Tracking (audit logging) who has custody of each digital asset at any given
moment. This creates the same kind of audit trail as any audit logging activity—
to allow an investigation to determine where information was at any given time,
who had it, and, for particularly sensitive information, why they accessed it. This
enables an investigator to focus efforts on particular people, places, and times if a
breach is suspected or known to have happened.
• Effectively implementing access controls to restrict who can access each
asset to only those people defined by its owner and to enforce the appropriate
security measures based on the classification of the digital asset. Certain types of
media, due to their sensitivity and storage media, may require special handling.
As an example, classified government information may require that the asset
may only be removed from the library or its usual storage place under physical
guard, and even then may not be removed from the building. Access controls
will include physical (locked doors, drawers, cabinets, or safes), technical (access
and authorization control of any automated system for retrieving contents
of information in the library), and administrative (the actual rules for who is
supposed to do what to each piece of information). Finally, the digital media may
need to change format, as in printing electronic data to paper, and still needs to
be protected at the necessary level, no matter what format it is in. Procedures
must include how to continue to provide the appropriate protection. For
example, sensitive material that is to be mailed should be sent in a sealable inner
envelope and only via a courier service.
• Tracking the number and location of backup versions (both onsite and
offsite). This is necessary to ensure proper disposal of information when
the information reaches the end of its lifespan, to account for the location
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and accessibility of information during audits, and to find a backup copy of
information if the primary source of the information is lost or damaged.
• Documenting the history of changes. For example, when a particular version
of a software application kept in the library has been deemed obsolete, this fact
must be recorded so the obsolete version of the application is not used unless that
particular obsolete version is required. Even once no possible need for the actual
asset remains, retaining a log of the former existence and the time and method of
its deletion may be useful to demonstrate due diligence.
• Ensuring environmental conditions do not endanger storage media. If you
store digital assets on local storage media, each media type may be susceptible
to damage from one or more environmental influences. For example, all types
are susceptible to fire, and most are susceptible to liquids, smoke, and dust.
Magnetic storage media are susceptible to strong magnetic fields. Magnetic and
optical media are susceptible to variations in temperature and humidity. A media
library and any other space where reference copies of information are stored must
be physically built so all types of media will be kept within their environmental
parameters, and the environment must be monitored to ensure conditions do not
range outside of those parameters. Media libraries are particularly useful when
large amounts of information must be stored and physically/environmentally
protected so that the high cost of environmental control and media management
may be centralized in a small number of physical locations and so that cost is
spread out over the large number of items stored in the library.
• Inventorying digital assets to detect if any asset has been lost or improperly
changed. This can reduce the amount of damage a violation of the other protection
responsibilities could cause by detecting such violations sooner rather than later,
and is a necessary part of the digital asset management life cycle by which the
controls in place are verified as being sufficient.
• Carrying out secure disposal activities. Disposal activities usually begin at the
point at which the information is no longer valuable and becomes a potential
liability. Secure disposal of media/information can add significant cost to media
management. Knowing that only a certain percentage of the information must
be securely erased at the end of its life may significantly reduce the long-term
operating costs of the company. Similarly, knowing that certain information must
be disposed of securely can reduce the possibility of a storage device being simply
thrown in a dumpster and then found by someone who publicly embarrasses
or blackmails the company over the data security breach represented by that
inappropriate disposal of the information. The business must take into account
the useful lifetime of the information to the business, legal, and regulatory
restrictions and, conversely, the requirements for retention and archiving when
making these decisions. If a law or regulation requires the information to be kept
beyond its normally useful lifetime for the business, then disposition may involve
archiving—moving the information from the ready (and possibly more expensive)
accessibility of a library to a long-term stable and (with some effort) retrievable
format that has lower storage costs.
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• Internal and external labeling of each piece of asset in the library should include
• Date created
• Retention period
• Classification level
• Who created it
• Date to be destroyed
• Name and version
Digital Rights Management
So, how can we protect our digital assets when they leave our organizations? For example,
if you share a sensitive file or software system with a customer, how can you ensure that
only authorized users gain access to it? Digital Rights Management (DRM) refers to a set
of technologies that is applied to controlling access to copyrighted data. The technologies
themselves don’t need to be developed exclusively for this purpose. It is the use of a technology that makes it DRM, not its design. In fact, many of the DRM technologies in use
today are standard cryptographic ones. For example, when you buy a Software as a Service
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(SaaS) license for, say, Office 365, Microsoft uses standard user authentication and authorization technologies to ensure that you only install and run the allowed number of copies
of the software. Without these checks during the installation (and periodically thereafter),
most of the features will stop working after a period of time. A potential problem with this
approach is that the end-user device may not have Internet connectivity.
An approach to DRM that does not require Internet connectivity is the use of product
keys. When you install your application, the key you enter is checked against a proprietary
algorithm and, if it matches, the installation is activated. It might be tempting to equate
this approach to symmetric key encryption, but in reality, the algorithms employed are
not always up to cryptographic standards. Since the user has access to both the key and
the executable code of the algorithm, the latter can be reverse-engineered with a bit of
effort. This could allow a malicious user to develop a product-key generator with which
to effectively bypass DRM. A common way around this threat is to require a one-time
online activation of the key.
DRM technologies are also used to protect documents. Adobe, Amazon, and Apple
all have their own approaches to limiting the number of copies of an electronic book
(e-book) that you can download and read. Another approach to DRM is the use of
digital watermarks, which are embedded into the file and can document details such as
the owner of the file, the licensee (user), and date of purchase. While watermarks will
not stop someone from illegally copying and distributing files, they could help the owner
track, identify, and prosecute the perpetrator. An example technique for implementing
watermarks is called steganography.
Steganography
Steganography is a method of hiding data in another media type so the very existence
of the data is concealed. Common steps are illustrated in Figure 6-3. Only the sender
and receiver are supposed to be able to see the message because it is secretly hidden
Figure 6-3
Main components
of steganography
Select carrier
file.
Choose a medium to
transfer the file
(e-mail, website).
Choose a method
of steganography.
Sending a
steganographic
message
Embed message
in carrier file, and
if possible,
encrypt it.
Choose a program
to hide message in
carrier file.
Communicate the
chosen method to
receiver via a different
channel.
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in a graphic, audio file, document, or other type of media. The message is often just
hidden, and not necessarily encrypted. Encrypted messages can draw attention because
the encryption tells the bad guy, “This is something sensitive.” A message hidden in a
picture of your grandmother would not attract this type of attention, even though the
same secret message can be embedded into this image. Steganography is a type of security
through obscurity.
Steganography includes the concealment of information within computer files. In
digital steganography, electronic communications may include steganographic coding
inside of a document file, image file, program, or protocol. Media files are ideal for
steganographic transmission because of their large size. As a simple example, a sender
might start with an innocuous image file and adjust the color of every 100th pixel to
correspond to a letter in the alphabet, a change so subtle that someone not specifically
looking for it is unlikely to notice it.
Let’s look at the components that are involved with steganography:
• Carrier A signal, data stream, or file that has hidden information (payload)
inside of it
• Stegomedium The medium in which the information is hidden
• Payload The information that is to be concealed and transmitted
A method of embedding the message into some types of media is to use the least
significant bit (LSB). Many types of files have some bits that can be modified and not
affect the file they are in, which is where secret data can be hidden without altering the
file in a visible manner. In the LSB approach, graphics with a high resolution or an
audio file that has many different types of sounds (high bit rate) are the most successful
for hiding information within. There is commonly no noticeable distortion, and the
file is usually not increased to a size that can be detected. A 24-bit bitmap file will have
8 bits representing each of the three color values, which are red, green, and blue. These
8 bits are within each pixel. If we consider just the blue, there will be 28 different values
of blue. The difference between 11111111 and 11111110 in the value for blue intensity
is likely to be undetectable by the human eye. Therefore, the least significant bit can be
used for something other than color information.
A digital graphic is just a file that shows different colors and intensities of light. The
larger the file, the more bits that can be modified without much notice or distortion.
Data Loss Prevention
Unless we diligently apply the right controls to our data wherever it may be, we should
expect that some of it will eventually end up in the wrong hands. In fact, even if we do
everything right, the risk of this happening will never be eliminated. Data loss is the flow of
sensitive information, such as PII, to unauthorized external parties. Leaks of personal information by an organization can cause large financial losses. The costs commonly include
• Investigating the incident and remediating the problem
• Contacting affected individuals to inform them about the incident
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• Penalties and fines to regulatory agencies
• Contractual liabilities
• Mitigating expenses (such as free credit monitoring services for affected individuals)
• Direct damages to affected individuals
In addition to financial losses, a company’s reputation may be damaged and individuals’
identities may be stolen.
The most common cause of data breach for a business is a lack of awareness and
discipline among employees—an overwhelming majority of all leaks are the result
of negligence. The most common forms of negligent data breaches occur due to the
inappropriate removal of information—for instance, from a secure company system
to an insecure home computer so that the employee can work from home—or due to
simple theft of an insecure laptop or tape from a taxi cab, airport security checkpoint, or
shipping box. However, breaches also occur due to negligent uses of technologies that are
inappropriate for a particular use—for example, reassigning some type of medium (say,
a page frame, disk sector, or magnetic tape) that contained one or more objects to an
unrelated purpose without securely ensuring that the media contained no residual data.
It would be too easy to simply blame employees for any inappropriate use of
information that results in the information being put at risk, followed by breaches.
Employees have a job to do, and their understanding of that job is almost entirely based
on what their employer tells them. What an employer tells an employee about the job
is not limited to, and may not even primarily be in, the “job description.” Instead, it
will be in the feedback the employee receives on a day-to-day and year-to-year basis
regarding their work. If the company in its routine communications to employees and
its recurring training, performance reviews, and salary/bonus processes does not include
security awareness, then employees will not understand security to be a part of their job.
The more complex the environment and types of media used, the more communication
and training that are required to ensure that the environment is well protected. Further,
except in government and military environments, company policies and even awareness
training will not stop the most dedicated employees from making the best use of up-todate consumer technologies, including those technologies not yet integrated into the
corporate environment, and even those technologies not yet reasonably secured for
the corporate environment or corporate information. Companies must stay aware of
new consumer technologies and how employees (wish to) use them in the corporate
environment. Just saying “no” will not stop an employee from using, say, a personal
smartphone, a USB thumb drive, or webmail to forward corporate data to their home
e-mail address in order to work on the data when out of the office. Companies must
include in their technical security controls the ability to detect and/or prevent such
actions through, for example, computer lockdowns, which prevent writing sensitive
data to non-company-owned storage devices, such as USB thumb drives, and e-mailing
sensitive information to nonapproved e-mail destinations.
Data loss prevention (DLP) comprises the actions that organizations take to prevent
unauthorized external parties from gaining access to sensitive data. That definition has
some key terms. First, the data has to be considered sensitive, the meaning of which we
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spent a good chunk of the beginning of this chapter discussing. We can’t keep every
single datum safely locked away inside our systems, so we focus our attention, efforts,
and funds on the truly important data. Second, DLP is concerned with external parties.
If somebody in the accounting department gains access to internal R&D data, that is
a problem, but technically it is not considered a data leak. Finally, the external party
gaining access to our sensitive data must be unauthorized to do so. If former business
partners have some of our sensitive data that they were authorized to get at the time
they were employed, then that is not considered a leak either. While this emphasis on
semantics may seem excessive, it is necessary to properly approach this tremendous threat
to our organizations.
EXAM TIP The terms data loss and data leak are used interchangeably by
most security professionals. Technically, however, data loss means we do
not know where the data is (e.g., after the theft of a laptop), while data leak
means that the confidentiality of the data has been compromised (e.g.,
when the laptop thief posts the files on the Internet).
The real challenge to DLP is in taking a holistic view of our organization. This
perspective must incorporate our people, our processes, and then our information. A
common mistake when it comes to DLP is to treat the problem as a technological one.
If all we do is buy or develop the latest technology aimed at stopping leaks, we are
very likely to leak data. If, on the other hand, we consider DLP a program and not a
project, and we pay due attention to our business processes, policies, culture, and people,
then we have a good fighting chance at mitigating many or even most of the potential
leaks. Ultimately, like everything else concerning information system security, we have to
acknowledge that despite our best efforts, we will have bad days. The best we can do is
stick to the program and make our bad days less frequent and less bad.
General Approaches to DLP
There is no one-size-fits-all approach to DLP, but there are tried-and-true principles that
can be helpful. One important principle is the integration of DLP with our risk management processes. This allows us to balance out the totality of risks we face and favor controls that mitigate those risks in multiple areas simultaneously. Not only is this helpful in
making the most of our resources, but it also keeps us from making decisions in one silo
with little or no regard to their impacts on other silos. In the sections that follow, we will
look at key elements of any approach to DLP.
Data Inventories It is difficult to defend an unknown target. Similarly, it is difficult
to prevent the leaking of data of which we are unaware or whose sensitivity is unknown.
Some organizations try to protect all their data from leakage, but this is not a good
approach. For starters, acquiring the resources required to protect everything is likely
cost prohibitive to most organizations. Even if an organization is able to afford this level
of protection, it runs a very high risk of violating the privacy of its employees and/or
customers by examining every single piece of data in its systems.
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A good approach is to find and characterize all the data in your organization before
you even look at DLP solutions. The task can seem overwhelming at first, but it helps
to prioritize things a bit. You can start off by determining what is the most important
kind of data for your organization. A compromise of these assets could lead to direct
financial losses or give your competitors an advantage in your sector. Are these healthcare
records? Financial records? Product designs? Military plans? Once you figure this out,
you can start looking for that data across your servers, workstations, mobile devices,
cloud computing platforms, and anywhere else it may live. Keep in mind that this data
can live in a variety of formats (e.g., database management system records or files) and
media (e.g., hard drives or backup tapes). If your experience doing this for the first time
is typical, you will probably be amazed at the places in which you find sensitive data.
Once you get a handle on what is your high-value data and where it resides, you can
gradually expand the scope of your search to include less valuable, but still sensitive,
data. For instance, if your critical data involves designs for next-generation radios, you
would want to look for information that could allow someone to get insights into those
designs even if they can’t directly obtain them. So, for example, if you have patent filings,
FCC license applications, and contracts with suppliers of electronic components, then
an adversary may be able to use all this data to figure out what you’re designing even
without direct access to your new radio’s plans. This is why it is so difficult for Apple
to keep secret all the features of a new iPhone ahead of its launch. Often there is very
little you can do to mitigate this risk, but some organizations have gone as far as to file
patents and applications they don’t intend to use in an effort to deceive adversaries as to
their true plans. Obviously, and just as in any other security decision, the costs of these
countermeasures must be weighed against the value of the information you’re trying
to protect. As you keep expanding the scope of your search, you will reach a point of
diminishing returns in which the data you are inventorying is not worth the time you
spend looking for it.
NOTE We cover the threats posed by adversaries compiling public
information (aggregation) and using it to derive otherwise private
information (inference) in Chapter 7.
Once you are satisfied that you have inventoried your sensitive data, the next step is to
characterize it. We already covered the classification of information earlier in this chapter,
so you should know all about data labels. Another element of this characterization is
ownership. Who owns a particular set of data? Beyond that, who should be authorized
to read or modify it? Depending on your organization, your data may have other
characteristics of importance to the DLP effort, such as which data is regulated and how
long it must be retained.
Data Flows Data that stays put is usually of little use to anyone. Most data will move
according to specific business processes through specific network pathways. Understanding
data flows at this intersection between business and IT is critical to implementing DLP.
Many organizations put their DLP sensors at the perimeter of their networks, thinking
that is where the leakages would occur. But if that’s the only location these sensors are
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placed, a large number of leaks may not be detected or stopped. Additionally, as we
will discuss in detail when we cover network-based DLP, perimeter sensors can often be
bypassed by sophisticated attackers.
A better approach is to use a variety of sensors tuned to specific data flows. Suppose
you have a software development team that routinely passes finished code to a quality
assurance (QA) team for testing. The code is sensitive, but the QA team is authorized
to read (and perhaps modify) it. However, the QA team is not authorized to access
code under development or code from projects past. If an adversary compromises the
computer used by a member of the QA team and attempts to access the source code
for different projects, a DLP solution that is not tuned to that business process will
not detect the compromise. The adversary could then repackage the data to avoid your
perimeter monitors and successfully extract the data.
Data Protection Strategy The example just described highlights the need for a
comprehensive, risk-based data protection strategy. The extent to which we attempt to
mitigate these exfiltration routes depends on our assessment of the risk of their use.
Obviously, as we increase our scrutiny of a growing set of data items, our costs will grow
disproportionately. We usually can’t watch everything all the time, so what do we do?
Once we have our data inventories and understand our data flows, we have enough
information to do a risk assessment. Recall that we described this process in detail in
Chapter 2. The trick is to incorporate data loss into that process. Since we can’t guarantee
that we will successfully defend against all attacks, we have to assume that sometimes our
adversaries will gain access to our networks. Not only does our data protection strategy
have to cover our approach to keeping attackers out, but it also must describe how we
protect our data against a threat agent that is already inside. The following are some key
areas to consider when developing data protection strategies:
• Backup and recovery Though we have been focusing our attention on data
leaks, it is also important to consider the steps to prevent the loss of this data due
to electromechanical or human failures. As we take care of this, we need to also
consider the risk that, while we focus our attention on preventing leaks of our
primary data stores, our adversaries may be focusing their attention on stealing
the backups.
• Data life cycle Most of us can intuitively grasp the security issues at each of the
stages of the data life cycle. However, we tend to disregard securing the data as it
transitions from one stage to another. For instance, if we are archiving data at an
offsite location, are we ensuring that it is protected as it travels there?
• Physical security While IT provides a wealth of tools and resources to help
us protect our data, we must also consider what happens when an adversary
just steals a hard drive left in an unsecured area, as happened to Sentara Heart
Hospital in Norfolk, Virginia, in August 2015.
• Security culture Our information systems users can be a tremendous control
if properly educated and incentivized. By developing a culture of security within
our organizations, we not only reduce the incidence of users clicking on malicious
links and opening attachments, but we also turn each of them into a security
sensor, able to detect attacks that we may not otherwise be able to.
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• Privacy Every data protection policy should carefully balance the need to
monitor data with the need to protect our users’ privacy. If we allow our users
to check personal e-mail or visit social media sites during their breaks, would our
systems be quietly monitoring their private communications?
• Organizational change Many large organizations grow because of mergers
and acquisitions. When these changes happen, we must ensure that the data
protection approaches of all entities involved are consistent and sufficient. To do
otherwise is to ensure that the overall security posture of the new organization is
the lesser of its constituents’ security postures.
Implementation, Testing, and Tuning All the elements of a DLP process that we
have discussed so far (i.e., data inventories, data flows, and data protection strategies)
are administrative in nature. We finally get to discuss the part of DLP with which most
of us are familiar: deploying and running a toolset. The sequence of our discussion
so far has been deliberate in that the technological part needs to be informed by the
other elements we’ve covered. Many organizations have wasted large sums of money on
so-called solutions that, though well-known and highly regarded, are just not suitable for
their particular environment.
Assuming we’ve done our administrative homework and have a good understanding
of our true DLP requirements, we can evaluate products according to our own criteria,
not someone else’s. The following are some aspects of a possible solution that most
organizations will want to consider when comparing competing products:
• Sensitive data awareness Different tools will use different approaches to
analyzing the sensitivity of documents’ contents and the context in which they are
being used. In general terms, the more depth of analysis and breadth of techniques
that a product offers, the better. Typical approaches to finding and tracking
sensitive data include keywords, regular expressions, tags, and statistical methods.
• Policy engine Policies are at the heart of any DLP solution. Unfortunately,
not all policy engines are created equal. Some allow extremely granular control
but require obscure methods for defining these policies. Other solutions are less
expressive but are simple to understand. There is no right answer here, so each
organization will weigh this aspect of a set of solutions differently.
• Interoperability DLP tools must play nicely with existing infrastructure,
which is why most vendors will assure you that their product is interoperable.
The trick becomes to determine precisely how this integration takes place. Some
products are technically interoperable but, in practice, require so much effort to
integrate that they become infeasible.
• Accuracy At the end of the day, DLP solutions keep your data out of the hands
of unauthorized entities. Therefore, the right solution is one that is accurate in its
identification and prevention of incidents that result in the leakage of sensitive
data. The best way to assess this criterion is by testing a candidate solution in an
environment that mimics the actual conditions in the organization.
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Once we select a DLP solution, the next interrelated tasks are integration, testing, and
tuning. Obviously, we want to ensure that bringing the new toolset online won’t disrupt
any of our existing systems or processes, but testing needs to cover a lot more than that.
The most critical elements when testing any DLP solution are to verify that it allows
authorized data processing and to ensure that it prevents unauthorized data processing.
Verifying that authorized processes are not hampered by the DLP solution is fairly
straightforward if we have already inventoried our data and the authorized flows. The
data flows, in particular, will tell us exactly what our tests should look like. For instance,
if we have a data flow for source code from the software development team to the QA
team, then we should test that it is in fact allowed to occur by the new DLP tool. We
probably won’t have the resources to exhaustively test all flows, which means we should
prioritize them based on their criticality to the organization. As time permits, we can
always come back and test the remaining, and arguably less common or critical, processes
(before our users do).
Testing the second critical element, that the DLP solution prevents unauthorized
flows, requires a bit more work and creativity. Essentially, we are trying to imagine the
ways in which threat agents might cause our data to leak. A useful tool in documenting
these types of activities is called the misuse case. Misuse cases describe threat actors and
the tasks they want to perform on the system. They are related to use cases, which are
used by system analysts to document the tasks that authorized actors want to perform
on a system. By compiling a list of misuse cases, we can keep a record of which data
leak scenarios are most likely, most dangerous, or both. Just like we did when testing
authorized flows, we can then prioritize which misuse cases we test first if we are resource
constrained. As we test these potential misuses, it is important to ensure that the DLP
system behaves in the manner we expect—that is to say, that it prevents a leak and doesn’t
just alert to it. Some organizations have been shocked to learn that their DLP solution
has been alerting them about data leaks but doing nothing to stop them, letting their
data leak right into the hands of their adversaries.
NOTE We cover misuse cases in detail in Chapter 18.
Finally, we must remember that everything changes. The solution that is exquisitely
implemented, finely tuned, and effective immediately is probably going to be ineffective
in the near future if we don’t continuously monitor, maintain, and improve it. Apart
from the efficacy of the tool itself, our organizations change as people, products, and
services come and go. The ensuing cultural and environmental changes will also change
the effectiveness of our DLP solutions. And, obviously, if we fail to realize that users
are installing rogue access points, using thumb drives without restriction, or clicking
malicious links, then it is just a matter of time before our expensive DLP solution will
be circumvented.
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Mobile
device
Internet
DLP appliance
Perimeter
firewall
Workstation
Data
server
DLP policy
server
Mobile
device
Figure 6-4 Network DLP
Network DLP
Network DLP (NDLP) applies data protection policies to data in motion. NDLP products are normally implemented as appliances that are deployed at the perimeter of an
organization’s networks. They can also be deployed at the boundaries of internal subnetworks and could be deployed as modules within a modular security appliance. Figure 6-4
shows how an NDLP solution might be deployed with a single appliance at the edge of
the network and communicating with a DLP policy server.
DLP Resiliency
Resiliency is the ability to deal with challenges, damage, and crises and bounce back
to normal or near-normal condition in short order. It is an important element of
security in general and of DLP in particular.
Assume your organization’s information systems have been compromised (and it
wasn’t detected): What does the adversary do next, and how can you detect and deal
with that? It is a sad reality that virtually all organizations have been attacked and
that most have been breached. A key differentiator between those who withstand
attacks relatively unscathed and those who suffer tremendous damage is their
attitude toward operating in contested environments. If an organization’s entire
security strategy hinges on keeping adversaries off its networks, then it will likely
fail catastrophically when an adversary manages to break in. If, on the other hand,
the strategy builds on the concept of resiliency and accounts for the continuation
of critical processes even with adversaries operating inside the perimeter, then the
failures will likely be less destructive and restoration may be much quicker.
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From a practical perspective, the high cost of NDLP devices leads most organizations
to deploy them at traffic choke points rather than throughout the network. Consequently,
NDLP devices likely will not detect leaks that don’t traverse the network segment on which
the devices are installed. For example, suppose that an attacker is able to connect to a
wireless access point and gain unauthorized access to a subnet that is not protected by an
NDLP tool. This can be visualized in Figure 6-4 by supposing that the attacker is using
the device connected to the WAP. Though this might seem like an obvious mistake, many
organizations fail to consider their wireless subnets when planning for DLP. Alternatively,
malicious insiders could connect their workstations directly to a mobile or external storage
device, copy sensitive data, and remove it from the premises completely undetected.
The principal drawback of an NDLP solution is that it will not protect data on devices
that are not on the organizational network. Mobile device users will be most at risk,
since they will be vulnerable whenever they leave the premises. Since we expect the ranks
of our mobile users to continue to increase into the future, this will be an enduring
challenge for NDLP.
Endpoint DLP
Endpoint DLP (EDLP) applies protection policies to data at rest and data in use. EDLP
is implemented in software running on each protected endpoint. This software, usually
called a DLP agent, communicates with the DLP policy server to update policies and
report events. Figure 6-5 illustrates an EDLP implementation.
EDLP allows a degree of protection that is normally not possible with NDLP. The
reason is that the data is observable at the point of creation. When a user enters PII on
DLP
agent
Mobile
device
DLP
agent
Internet
Perimeter
firewall
Workstation
DLP
agent
DLP
agent
Data
server
DLP policy
server
Mobile
device
Figure 6-5 Endpoint DLP
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the device during an interview with a client, the EDLP agent detects the new sensitive
data and immediately applies the pertinent protection policies to it. Even if the data is
encrypted on the device when it is at rest, it will have to be decrypted whenever it is in
use, which allows for EDLP inspection and monitoring. Finally, if the user attempts to
copy the data to a non-networked device such as a thumb drive, or if it is improperly
deleted, EDLP will pick up on these possible policy violations. None of these examples
would be possible using NDLP.
The main drawback of EDLP is complexity. Compared to NDLP, these solutions require
a lot more presence points in the organization, and each of these points may have unique
configuration, execution, or authentication challenges. Additionally, since the agents must
be deployed to every device that could possibly handle sensitive data, the cost could be much
higher than that of an NDLP solution. Another challenge is ensuring that all the agents
are updated regularly, both for software patches and policy changes. Finally, since a pure
EDLP solution is unaware of data-in-motion protection violations, it would be possible for
attackers to circumvent the protections (e.g., by disabling the agent through malware) and
leave the organization blind to the ongoing leakages. It is typically harder to disable NDLP,
because it is normally implemented in an appliance that is difficult for attackers to exploit.
Hybrid DLP
Another approach to DLP is to deploy both NDLP and EDLP across the enterprise.
Obviously, this approach is the costliest and most complex. For organizations that can
afford it, however, it offers the best coverage. Figure 6-6 shows how a hybrid NDLP/EDLP
deployment might look.
DLP
agent
Mobile
device
DLP
agent
Internet
DLP appliance
Perimeter
firewall
Workstation
DLP
agent
DLP
agent
Data
server
DLP policy
server
Mobile
device
Figure 6-6 Hybrid NDLP/EDLP
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Cloud Access Security Broker
Figure 6-7
Two common
approaches to
implementing
CASBs: proxy
and API
PART II
The DLP approaches described so far work best (or perhaps only) in traditional network
environments that have a clearly defined perimeter. But what about organizations that
use cloud services, especially services that employees can access from their own devices?
Whatever happens in the cloud is usually not visible (or controllable) by the organization. A cloud access security broker (CASB) is a system that provides visibility and security
controls for cloud services. A CASB monitors what users do in the cloud and applies
whatever policies and controls are applicable to that activity.
For example, suppose a nurse at a healthcare organization uses Microsoft 365 to take
notes when interviewing a new patient. That document is created and exists only in the
cloud and clearly contains sensitive healthcare information that must be protected under
HIPAA. Without a CASB solution, the organization would depend solely on the nurse
doing the right things, including ensuring the data is encrypted and not shared with any
unauthorized parties. A CASB could automatically update the inventory of sensitive
data, apply any labels in the document’s metadata for tracking it, encrypt it, and ensure
it is only shared with specific authorized entities.
Most CASBs do their work by leveraging one of two techniques: proxies or application
programming interfaces (APIs). The proxy technique places the CASB in the data path
between the endpoint and the cloud service provider, as shown on the left in Figure 6-7.
For example, you could have an appliance in your network that automatically detects
user connection requests to a cloud service, intercepts that user connection, and creates
a tunnel to the service provider. In this way, all traffic to the cloud is routed through the
CASB so that it can inspect it and apply the appropriate controls.
CASB
Cloud
Service
API
CASB
Proxy
CASB in Proxy Mode
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But what if you have remote users who are not connected to your organization through
a VPN? What about staff members trying to access the cloud services through a personal
device (assuming that is allowed)? In those situations, you can set up a reverse proxy. The
way this works is that the users log into the cloud service, which is configured to immediately
route them back to the CASB, which then completes the connection back to the cloud.
There are a number of challenges with using proxies for CASBs. For starters, they
need to intercept the users’ encrypted traffic, which will generate browser alerts unless the
browsers are configured to trust the proxy. While this works on organizational computers,
it is a bit trickier to do on personally owned devices. Another challenge is that, depending
on how much traffic goes to cloud service providers, the CASB can become a choke point
that slows down the user experience. It also represents a single point of failure unless
you deploy redundant systems. Perhaps the biggest challenge, however, has to do with
the fast pace of innovation and updates to cloud services. As new features are added and
others changed or removed, the CASB needs to be updated accordingly. The problem is
not only that the CASB will miss something important but that it may actually break a
feature by not knowing how to deal with it properly. For this reason, some vendors such
as Google and Microsoft advise against using CASBs in proxy mode.
The other way to implement CASBs is by leveraging the APIs exposed by the service
providers themselves, as you can see on the right side of Figure 6-7. An API is a way to
have one software system directly access functionality in another one. For example, a
properly authenticated CASB could ask Exchange Online (a cloud e-mail solution) for
all the activities in the last 24 hours. Most cloud services include APIs to support CASB
and, better yet, these APIs are updated by the vendors themselves. This ensures the CASB
won’t break anything as new features come up.
Chapter Review
Protecting data assets is a much more dynamic and difficult prospect than is protecting
most other asset types. The main reason for this is that data is so fluid. It can be stored in
unanticipated places, flow in multiple directions (and to multiple recipients) simultaneously, and end up being used in unexpected ways. Our data protection strategies must
account for the various states in which our data may be found. For each state, there are
multiple unique threats that our security controls must mitigate.
Still, regardless of our best efforts, data may end up in the wrong hands. We want
to implement protection methods that minimize the risk of this happening, alert us
as quickly as possible if it does, and allow us to track and, if possible, recover the data
effectively. We devoted particular attention to three methods of protecting data that you
should remember for the exam and for your job: Digital Rights Management (DRM),
data loss/leak prevention (DLP), and cloud access security brokers (CASBs).
Quick Review
• Data at rest refers to data that resides in external or auxiliary storage devices, such
as hard drives or optical discs.
• Every major operating system supports whole-disk encryption, which is a good
way to protect data at rest.
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• Data in motion is data that is moving between computing nodes over a data
network such as the Internet.
• TLS, IPSec, and VPNs are typical ways to use cryptography to protect data
in motion.
• Data in use is the term for data residing in primary storage devices, such as volatile
memory (e.g., RAM), memory caches, or CPU registers.
• Scoping is taking a broader standard and trimming out the irrelevant or otherwise
unwanted parts.
• Tailoring is making changes to specific provisions in a standard so they better
address your requirements.
• A digital asset is anything that exists in digital form, has intrinsic value to the
organization, and to which access should be restricted in some way.
• Digital asset management is the process by which organizations ensure their digital
assets are properly stored, protected, and easily available to authorized users.
• Steganography is a method of hiding data in another media type so the very
existence of the data is concealed.
• Digital Rights Management (DRM) refers to a set of technologies that is applied
to controlling access to copyrighted data.
• Data leakage is the flow of sensitive information to unauthorized external parties.
• Data loss prevention (DLP) comprises the actions that organizations take to
prevent unauthorized external parties from gaining access to sensitive data.
• Network DLP (NDLP) applies data protection policies to data in motion.
• Endpoint DLP (EDLP) applies data protection policies to data at rest and
data in use.
• Cloud access security brokers (CASBs) provide visibility and control over user
activities on cloud services.
Questions
Please remember that these questions are formatted and asked in a certain way for a reason.
Keep in mind that the CISSP exam is asking questions at a conceptual level. Questions may
not always have the perfect answer, and the candidate is advised against always looking for
the perfect answer. Instead, the candidate should look for the best answer in the list.
1. Data at rest is commonly
A. Using a RESTful protocol for transmission
B. Stored in registers
C. Being transmitted across the network
D. Stored in external storage devices
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2. Data in motion is commonly
A. Using a RESTful protocol for transmission
B. Stored in registers
C. Being transmitted across the network
D. Stored in external storage devices
3. Data in use is commonly
A. Using a RESTful protocol for transmission
B. Stored in registers
C. Being transmitted across the network
D. Stored in external storage devices
4. Which of the following best describes an application of cryptography to protect
data at rest?
A. VPN
B. Degaussing
C. Whole-disk encryption
D. Up-to-date antivirus software
5. Which of the following best describes an application of cryptography to protect
data in motion?
A. Testing software against side-channel attacks
B. TLS
C. Whole-disk encryption
D. EDLP
6. Which of the following is not a digital asset management task?
A. Tracking the number and location of backup versions
B. Deciding the classification of data assets
C. Documenting the history of changes
D. Carrying out secure disposal activities
7. Which data protection method would best allow you to detect a malicious insider
trying to access a data asset within your corporate infrastructure?
A. Digital Rights Management (DRM)
B. Steganography
C. Cloud access security broker (CASB)
D. Data loss prevention (DLP)
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8. What term best describes the flow of data assets to an unauthorized external party?
A. Data leakage
B. Data in motion
C. Data flow
D. Steganography
1. D. Data at rest is characterized by residing in secondary storage devices such as
disk drives, DVDs, or magnetic tapes. Registers are temporary storage within the
CPU and are used for data storage only when the data is being used.
PART II
Answers
2. C. Data in motion is characterized by network or off-host transmission. The
RESTful protocol, while pertaining to a subset of data on a network, is not as
good an answer as option C.
3. B. Registers are used only while data is being used by the CPU, so when data is
resident in registers, it is, by definition, in use.
4. C. Data at rest is best protected using whole-disk encryption on the user workstations
or mobile computers. None of the other options apply to data at rest.
5. B. Data in motion is best protected by network encryption solutions such as TLS,
VPN, or IPSec. None of the other options apply to data in motion.
6. B. The classification of a data asset is determined by the asset owner before it
starts being managed. Otherwise, how would the manager know how to handle
it? All other answers are typically part of digital asset management.
7. C. Cloud access security brokers (CASBs) provide visibility and control over user
activities on cloud services. Provided the asset in question is in the cloud, this
would be your best option. Data loss prevention (DLP) systems are primarily
concerned with preventing unauthorized external parties from gaining access to
sensitive data.
8. A. Data leakage is the flow of sensitive information to unauthorized external
parties.
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Security Architecture
and Engineering
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Chapter 9
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CHAPTER
System Architectures
7
This chapter presents the following:
• General system architectures
• Industrial control systems
• Virtualized systems
• Cloud-based systems
• Pervasive systems
• Distributed systems
Computer system analysis is like child-rearing; you can do grievous damage,
but you cannot ensure success.
—Tom DeMarco
As we have seen in previous chapters, most systems leverage other systems in some way,
whether by sharing data with each other or by sharing services with each other. While each
system has its own set of vulnerabilities, the interdependencies between them create a new
class of vulnerabilities that we must address. In this chapter, we look at ways to assess and
mitigate the vulnerabilities of security architectures, designs, and solution elements. We’ll
do this by looking at some of the most common system architectures. For each, we classify components based on their roles and the manner in which they interact with others.
Along the way, we’ll look at potential vulnerabilities in each architecture and also at the
manner in which these vulnerabilities might affect other connected components.
General System Architectures
A system is a set of things working together in order to do something. An architecture
describes the designed structure of something. A system architecture, then, is a description
of how specific components are deliberately put together to perform some actions. Recall
from the Chapter 4 discussion of TOGAF and the Zachman Framework that there are
different perspectives or levels of abstraction at which a system architecture can be presented depending on the audience. In this chapter, we present what TOGAF would call
application architectures. In other words, we describe how applications running in one
or more computing devices interact with each other and with users.
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Client-Based Systems
Let’s start with the simplest computing system architecture, the one that ruled the early
days of personal computing. Client-based systems are embodied in applications that execute entirely on one user device (such as a workstation or smartphone). The software is
installed on a specific computer, and we can use it with no network connectivity. To be
clear, the application may still reach out for software patches and updates or to save and
retrieve files, but none of its core features require any processing on a remote device.
Examples of these are the text and graphic applications that ship with almost every operating system. You could save documents on remote servers, but even with no networking
the app is fully functional.
One of the main vulnerabilities of client-based systems is that they tend to have weak
authentication mechanisms (if they have them at all). This means an adversary who gains
access to the application would be able to also access its data on local or even remote
data stores. Furthermore, this data is usually stored in plaintext (unless the underlying
operating system encrypts it), which means that even without using the application, the
adversary could read its data with ease.
Server-Based Systems
Unlike client-based systems, server-based systems (also called client/server systems) require
that two (or more) separate applications interact with each other across a network connection in order for users to benefit from them. One application (the client) requests
services over a network connection that the other application (the server) fulfills. Perhaps
the most common example of a server-based application is your web browser, which is
designed to connect to a web server. Sure, you could just use your browser to read local
documents, but that’s not really the way it’s meant to be used. Most of us use our browsers
to connect two tiers, a client and a server, which is why we call it a two-tier architecture.
Generally, server-based systems are known as n-tier architectures, where n is a
numerical variable that can assume any value. The reason for this is that most of the
time only the development team would know the number of tiers in the architecture
(which could change over time) even if to the user it looks like just two. Consider the
example of browsing the Web, which is probably a two-tier architecture if you are reading
a static web page on a small web server. If, on the other hand, you are browsing a typical
commercial site, you will probably be going through many more tiers. For example,
your client (tier 1) could be connecting to a web server (tier 2) that provides the static
HTML, CSS, and some images. The dynamic content, however, is pulled by the web
server from an application server (tier 3) that in turn gets the necessary data from a backend database (tier 4). Figure 7-1 shows what this four-tier architecture would look like.
As you can imagine by looking at Figure 7-1, there are multiple potential security
issues to address in a server-based architecture. For starters, access to each tier needs
to be deliberately and strictly controlled. Having users authenticate from their clients
makes perfect sense, but we must not forget that each of the tiers needs to establish and
maintain trust with the others. A common way to ensure this is by developing access
control lists (ACLs) that determine which connections are allowed. For example, the
database management system in Figure 7-1 might be listening on port 5432 (the default
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Figure 7-1
A typical four-tier
server-based
system
Tier 1
Client
Tier 2
Web
Tier 3
Application
Tier 4
Database
10
10101
010
Firefox
Apache
PHP
PostgreSQL
• Block traffic by default between any components and allow only the specific set
of connections that are absolutely necessary.
• Ensure all software is patched and updated as soon as possible.
• Maintain backups (ideally offline) of all servers.
• Use strong authentication for both clients and servers.
• Encrypt all network communications, even between the various servers.
• Encrypt all sensitive data stored anywhere in the system
• Enable logging of all relevant system events, ideally to a remote server.
PART III
port for PostgreSQL, a popular open-source database server), so it makes perfect sense for
the application server on tier 3 to connect to that port on the database server. However, it
probably shouldn’t be allowed to connect on port 3389 and establish a Remote Desktop
Protocol (RDP) session because servers don’t normally communicate this way.
The following are some other guidelines in securing server-based systems. Keep in
mind, however, that this list is by no means comprehensive; it’s just meant to give you
food for thought.
Database Systems
Most interactive (as opposed to static) web content, such as that in the example four-tier
architecture we just looked at, requires a web application to interact with some sort of
data source. You may be looking at a catalog of products on an e-commerce site, updating customer data on a customer relationship management (CRM) system, or just reading a blog online. In any case, you need a system to manage your product, or customer,
or blog data. This is where database systems come in.
A database management system (DBMS) is a software system that allows you to
efficiently create, read, update, and delete (CRUD) any given set of data. Of course, you
can always keep all the data in a text file, but that makes it really hard to organize, search,
maintain, and share among multiple users. A DBMS makes this all easy. It is optimized
for efficient storage of data, which means that, unlike flat files, it gives you ways to
optimize the storage of all your information. A DBMS also provides the capability to
speed up searches, for example, through the use of indexes. Another key feature of a
DBMS is that it can provide mechanisms to prevent the accidental corruption of data
while it is being manipulated. We typically call changes to a database transactions, which
is a term to describe the sequence of actions required to change the state of the database.
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A foundational principle in database transactions is referred to as their ACID properties,
which stands for atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability. Atomicity means that
either the entire transactions succeeds or the DBMS rolls it back to its previous state (in
other words, clicks the “undo” button). Suppose you are transferring funds between two
bank accounts. This transaction consists of two distinct operations: first, you withdraw
the funds from the first account, and then you deposit the same amount of funds into
the second account. What would happen if there’s a massive power outage right after the
withdrawal is complete but before the deposit happens? In that case, the money could
just disappear. If this was an atomic transaction, the system would detect the failure and
put the funds back into the source account.
Consistency means that the transaction strictly follows all applicable rules (e.g., you
can’t withdraw funds that don’t exist) on any and all data affected. Isolation means that if
transactions are allowed to happen in parallel (which most of them are), then they will be
isolated from each other so that the effects of one don’t corrupt another. In other words,
isolated transactions have the same effect whether they happen in parallel or one after
the other. Finally, durability is the property that ensures that a completed transaction is
permanently stored (for instance, in nonvolatile memory) so that it cannot be wiped by
a power outage or other such failure.
Securing database systems mainly requires the same steps we listed for securing serverbased systems. However, databases introduce two unique security issues you need to
consider: aggregation and inference. Aggregation happens when a user does not have the
clearance or permission to access specific information but she does have the permission
to access components of this information. She can then figure out the rest and obtain
restricted information. She can learn of information from different sources and combine
it to learn something she does not have the clearance to know.
The following is a silly conceptual example. Let’s say a database administrator does
not want anyone in the Users group to be able to figure out a specific sentence, so he
segregates the sentence into components and restricts the Users group from accessing it,
as represented in Figure 7-2. However, Emily can access components A, C, and F. Because
she is particularly bright, she figures out the sentence and now knows the restricted secret.
Component A
Component B
Component C
Component D
The
chicken
wore
funny
red
culottes
Component E
Component F
Figure 7-2 Because Emily has access to components A, C, and F, she can figure out the secret
sentence through aggregation.
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To prevent aggregation, the subject, and any application or process acting on the
subject’s behalf, needs to be prevented from gaining access to the whole collection,
including the independent components. The objects can be placed into containers,
which are classified at a higher level to prevent access from subjects with lower-level
permissions or clearances. A subject’s queries can also be tracked, and context-dependent
access control can be enforced. This would keep a history of the objects that a subject
has accessed and restrict an access attempt if there is an indication that an aggregation
attack is underway.
EXAM TIP Aggregation is the act of combining information from separate
sources. The combination of the data forms new information, which
the subject does not have the necessary rights to access. The combined
information has a sensitivity that is greater than that of the individual parts.
PART III
The other security issue is inference, which is the intended result of aggregation. The
inference problem happens when a subject deduces the full story from the pieces he
learned of through aggregation. This is seen when data at a lower security level indirectly
portrays data at a higher level.
EXAM TIP Inference is the ability to derive information not explicitly
available.
For example, if a clerk were restricted from knowing the planned movements of troops
based in a specific country but did have access to food shipment requirement forms and
tent allocation documents, he could figure out that the troops were moving to a specific
place because that is where the food and tents are being shipped. The food shipment and
tent allocation documents were classified as confidential, and the troop movement was
classified as top secret. Because of the varying classifications, the clerk could access and
ascertain top-secret information he was not supposed to know.
The trick is to prevent the subject, or any application or process acting on behalf of
that subject, from indirectly gaining access to the inferable information. This problem
is usually dealt with in the development of the database by implementing content- and
context-dependent access control rules. Content-dependent access control is based on the
sensitivity of the data. The more sensitive the data, the smaller the subset of individuals
who can gain access to the data.
Context-dependent access control means that the software “understands” what actions
should be allowed based upon the state and sequence of the request. So what does that
mean? It means the software must keep track of previous access attempts by the user
and understand what sequences of access steps are allowed. Content-dependent access
control can go like this: “Does Julio have access to File A?” The system reviews the ACL
on File A and returns with a response of “Yes, Julio can access the file, but can only read
it.” In a context-dependent access control situation, it would be more like this: “Does
Julio have access to File A?” The system then reviews several pieces of data: What other
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access attempts has Julio made? Is this request out of sequence of how a safe series of
requests takes place? Does this request fall within the allowed time period of system
access (8 a.m. to 5 p.m.)? If the answers to all of these questions are within a set of
preconfigured parameters, Julio can access the file. If not, he can’t.
If context-dependent access control is being used to protect against inference attacks,
the database software would need to keep track of what the user is requesting. So Julio
makes a request to see field 1, then field 5, then field 20, which the system allows, but
once he asks to see field 15, the database does not allow this access attempt. The software
must be preprogrammed (usually through a rule-based engine) as to what sequence and
how much data Julio is allowed to view. If he is allowed to view more information, he
may have enough data to infer something we don’t want him to know.
Obviously, content-dependent access control is not as complex as context-dependent
access control because of the number of items that need to be processed by the system.
Some other common attempts to prevent inference attacks are cell suppression,
partitioning the database, and noise and perturbation. Cell suppression is a technique used
to hide specific cells that contain information that could be used in inference attacks.
Partitioning the database involves dividing the database into different parts, which makes
it much harder for an unauthorized individual to find connecting pieces of data that can
be brought together and other information that can be deduced or uncovered. Noise and
perturbation is a technique of inserting bogus information in the hopes of misdirecting
an attacker or confusing the matter enough that the actual attack will not be fruitful.
Often, security is not integrated into the planning and development of a database.
Security is an afterthought, and a trusted front end is developed to be used with the
database instead. This approach is limited in the granularity of security and in the types
of security functions that can take place.
A common theme in security is a balance between effective security and functionality.
In many cases, the more you secure something, the less functionality you have. Although
this could be the desired result, it is important not to excessively impede user productivity
when security is being introduced.
High-Performance Computing Systems
All the architectures we’ve discussed so far in this chapter support significant amounts
of computing. From high-end workstations used for high-resolution video processing to
massive worldwide e-commerce sites supporting hundreds of millions of transactions per
day, the power available to these systems today is very impressive indeed. As we will see
shortly, the use of highly scalable cloud services can help turbo-charge these architectures,
too. But what happens when even that is not enough? That’s when we have to abandon
these architectures and go for something altogether different.
High-performance computing (HPC) is the aggregation of computing power in ways
that exceed the capabilities of general-purpose computers for the specific purpose of
solving large problems. You may have already encountered this architecture if you’ve read
about supercomputers. These are devices whose performance is so optimized that, even
with electrons traveling at close to the speed of light down their wires, engineers spend
significant design effort to make those wires even a few inches shorter. This is partially
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PART III
achieved by dividing the thousands (or tens of thousands) of processors in a typical
system into tightly packed clusters, each with its own high-speed storage devices. Large
problems can be broken down into individual jobs and assigned to the different clusters
by a central scheduler. Once these smaller jobs are completed, they are progressively
put together with other jobs (which, in turn, would be a job) until the final answer
is computed.
While it may seem that most of us will seldom (if ever) work with HPC, the move
toward big data analytics will probably drive us there sooner rather than later. For this
reason, we need to be at least aware of some of the biggest security challenges with HPC.
The first one is, quite simply, the very purpose of HPC’s existence: efficiency. Large
organizations spend millions of dollars building these custom systems for the purpose of
crunching numbers really fast. Security tends to slow down (at least a little) just about
everything, so we’re already fighting an uphill battle. Fortunately, the very fact that
HPC systems are so expensive and esoteric can help us justify the first rule for securing
them, which is to put them in their own isolated enclave. Complete isolation is probably
infeasible in many cases because raw data must flow in and solutions must flow out at
some point. The goal would be to identify exactly how those flows should happen and
then force them through a few gateways that can restrict who can communicate with the
HPC system and under what conditions.
Another way in which HPC systems actually help us secure them is by following
some very specific patterns of behavior during normal operations: jobs come in to the
schedulers, which then assign them to specific clusters, which then return results in a
specific format. Apart from some housekeeping functions, that’s pretty much all that
happens in an HPC system. It just happens a lot! These predictable patterns mean that
anomaly detection is much easier than in a typical IT environment with thousands of
users each doing their own thing.
Finally, since performance is so critical to HPC, most attacks are likely to affect it
in noticeable ways. For this reason, simply monitoring the performance of the system
will probably reveal nefarious activities. This noticeable impact on performance, as we
will see shortly, affects other, less-esoteric systems, like those that control our factories,
refineries, and electric grids.
Industrial Control Systems
Industrial control systems (ICS) consist of information technology that is specifically
designed to control physical devices in industrial processes. ICS exist on factory floors
to control conveyor belts and industrial robots. They exist in the power and water infrastructures to control the flows of these utilities. Because, unlike the majority of other
IT systems, ICS control things that can directly cause physical harm to humans, safety
must be paramount in operating and securing them. Another important consideration is
that, due to the roles these systems typically fulfill in manufacturing and infrastructure,
maintaining their “uptime” or availability is critical. For these two reasons (safety and
availability), securing ICS requires a slightly different approach than that used to secure
traditional IT systems.
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EXAM TIP Safety is the paramount concern in operating and securing
industrial control systems.
The term industrial control system actually is an umbrella term covering a number
of somewhat different technologies that were developed independently to solve different
problems. The term encompasses programmable logic controllers (PLCs) that open or
close valves, remote terminal units (RTUs) that relay readings and execute commands,
and specialized databases called data historians that capture all process data for analysis.
ICS, with all its technologies, protocols, and devices, can generally be divided into two
solution spaces:
• Controlling physical processes that take place in a (more or less) local area.
This involves what are called distributed control systems (DCS).
• Controlling processes that take place at multiple sites separated by significant
distances. This is addressed through supervisory control and data acquisition
(SCADA).
We’ll delve into both of these solution spaces shortly.
NOTE A good resource for ensuring ICS safety, security, and availability
is NIST Special Publication 800-82, Revision 2, Guide to Industrial Control
Systems (ICS) Security, discussed further later in this section.
Another umbrella term you may see is operational technology (OT), which includes
both ICS and some traditional IT systems that are needed to make sure all the ICS
devices can talk to each other. Figure 7-3 shows the relationship between these terms.
Note that there is overlap between DCS and SCADA, in this case shown by the PLC,
which supports both types of systems. Before we discuss each of the two major categories
of ICS, let’s take a quick look at some of the devices, like PLCs, that are needed to make
these systems work.
Figure 7-3
Relationship
between
OT terms
OT
ICS
DCS
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Devices
There are a lot of different types of devices in use in OT systems. Increasingly, the lines
between these types are blurred as different features converge in newer devices. However,
most OT environments will have PLCs, a human-machine interface (HMI), and a data
historian, which we describe in the following sections. Please note that you don’t need
to memorize what any of the following devices do in order to pass the CISSP exam.
However, being familiar with them will help you understand the security implications of
ICS and how OT and IT systems intertwine in the real world.
Programmable Logic Controller
PART III
When automation (the physical kind, not the computing kind to which we’re accustomed)
first showed up on factory floors, it was bulky, brittle, and difficult to maintain. If, for
instance, you wanted an automatic hammer to drive nails into boxes moving through
a conveyor belt, you would arrange a series of electrical relays such that they would
sequentially actuate the hammer, retrieve it, and then wait for the next box. Whenever
you wanted to change your process or repurpose the hammer, you would have to suffer
through a complex and error-prone reconfiguration process.
Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are computers designed to control
electromechanical processes such as assembly lines, elevators, roller coasters, and nuclear
centrifuges. The idea is that a PLC can be used in one application today and then easily
reprogrammed to control something else tomorrow. PLCs normally connect to the
devices they control over a standard serial interface such as RS-232, and to the devices that
control them over Ethernet cables. The communications protocols themselves, however,
are not always standard. The dominant protocols are Modbus and EtherNet/IP, but this
is not universal. While this lack of universality in communications protocols creates
additional challenges to securing PLCs, we are seeing a trend toward standardization
of these serial connection protocols. This is particularly important because, while early
PLCs had limited or no network connectivity, it is now rare to see a PLC that is not
network-enabled.
PLCs can present some tough security challenges. Unlike the IT devices with which
many of us are more familiar, these OT devices tend to have very long lifetimes. It’s
not unusual for production systems to include PLCs that are ten years old or older.
Depending on how the ICS was architected, it may be difficult to update or patch the
PLCs. When you couple this difficulty with the risk of causing downtime to a critical
industrial process, you may understand why some PLCs can go years without getting
patched. To make things worse, we’ve seen plenty of PLCs using factory default passwords
that are well documented. While modern PLCs come with better security features, odds
are that an OT environment will have some legacy controllers hiding somewhere. The
best thing to do is to ensure that all PLC network segments are strictly isolated from all
nonessential devices and are monitored closely for anomalous traffic.
Human-Machine Interface
A human-machine interface (HMI) is usually a regular workstation running a proprietary
supervisory system that allows operators to monitor and control an ICS. An HMI normally has a dashboard that shows a diagram or schematic of the system being controlled,
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Tank 1
10 %
Valve 1
Closed
Tank 2
85 %
Tank 3
40 %
Valve 2
Closed
Delivery
Valve 2
Closed
Pump 1
off
Pump 2
off
Figure 7-4 A simplified HMI screen
the readings from whatever sensors the system has in place, and buttons with which to
control your actuators. Figure 7-4 shows a simplified HMI screen for a small fuel distribution system. Each of the three tanks shows how much fuel it contains. Three valves
control the flow of fuel between the tanks, and all three are closed. If the operator wanted
to move fuel around, she would simply click the CLOSED button, it would change to
OPEN, and the fuel would be free to move. Similarly, clicking the OFF button on the
pumps would turn them on to actually move the fuel around.
Another feature of HMIs is alarm monitoring. Each sensor (like those monitoring
tank levels in our example) can be configured to alarm if certain values are reached. This
is particularly important when it comes to the pressure in a pipeline, the temperature in
a tank, or the load on a power line. HMIs usually include automation features that can
automatically instruct PLCs to take certain actions when alarm conditions are met, such
as tripping breakers when loads are too high.
HMIs simplify the myriad of details that make the ICS work so that the operators are not
overwhelmed. In the simple example in Figure 7-4, Pump 1 would typically have a safety
feature that would prevent it from being open unless Valve 1 and/or Valve 2 were open and
the capacity in Tank 3 was not 100 percent. These features are manually programmed by
the plant staff when the system is installed and are periodically audited for safety. Keep in
mind that safety is of even more importance than security in OT environments.
Technically, securing an HMI is mostly the same as securing any IT system. Keep in
mind that this is normally just a regular workstation that just happens to be running
this proprietary piece of software. The challenge is that, because HMIs are part of
mission-critical industrial systems where safety and efficiency are paramount, there can be
significant resistance from OT staff to making any changes or taking any actions that can
compromise either of these imperatives. These actions, of course, could include the typical
security measures such as installing endpoint detection and response (EDR) systems,
scanning them for vulnerabilities, conducting penetration tests, or even mandating unique
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credentials for each user with strong authentication. (Imagine what could happen if the
HMI is locked, there is an emergency, and the logged-in user is on a break.)
Data Historian
PART III
As the name suggests, a data historian is a data repository that keeps a history of everything seen in the ICS. This includes all sensor values, alarms, and commands issued, all
of which are timestamped. A data historian can communicate directly with other ICS
devices, such as PLCs and HMIs. Sometimes, a data historian is embedded with (or at
least running on the same workstation as) the HMI. Most OT environments, however,
have a dedicated data historian (apart from the HMI) in a different network segment.
The main reason for this is that this device usually communicates with enterprise IT
systems for planning and accounting purposes. For example, the data historian in our
fuel system example would provide data on how much fuel was delivered out of Tank 3.
One of the key challenges in securing the data historian stems from the fact that
it frequently has to talk to both PLCs (and similar devices) and enterprise IT systems
(e.g., for accounting purposes). A best practice when this is required is to put the data
historian in a specially hardened network segment like a demilitarized zone (DMZ)
and implement restrictive ACLs to ensure unidirectional traffic from the PLCs to the
historian and from the historian to the enterprise IT systems. This can be done using
a traditional firewall (or even a router), but some organizations instead use specialized
devices called data diodes, which are security hardened and permit traffic to flow only in
one direction.
Distributed Control System
A distributed control system (DCS) is a network of control devices within fairly close proximity that are part of one or more industrial processes. DCS usage is very common in
manufacturing plants, oil refineries, and power plants, and is characterized by decisions
being made in a concerted manner, but by different nodes within the system.
You can think of a DCS as a hierarchy of devices. At the bottom level, you will find
the physical devices that are being controlled or that provide inputs to the system. One
level up, you will find the microcontrollers and PLCs that directly interact with the
physical devices but also communicate with higher-level controllers. Above the PLCs
are the supervisory computers that control, for example, a given production line. You can
also have a higher level that deals with plant-wide controls, which would require some
coordination among different production lines.
As you can see, the concept of a DCS was born from the need to control fairly
localized physical processes. Because of this, the communications protocols in use are
not optimized for wide-area communications or for security. Another byproduct of this
localized approach is that DCS users felt for many years that all they needed to do to
secure their systems was to provide physical security. If the bad guys can’t get into the
plant, it was thought, then they can’t break our systems. This is because, typically, a
DCS consists of devices within the same plant. However, technological advances and
converging technologies are blurring the line between a DCS and a SCADA system.
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Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
While DCS technology is well suited for local processes such as those in a manufacturing plant, it was never intended to operate across great distances. The supervisory control
and data acquisition (SCADA) systems were developed to control large-scale physical
processes involving nodes separated by significant distances. The main conceptual differences between DCS and SCADA are size and distances. So, while the control of a power
plant is perfectly suited for a traditional DCS, the distribution of the generated power
across a power grid would require a SCADA system.
SCADA systems typically involve three kinds of devices: endpoints, backends, and
user stations. A remote terminal unit (RTU) is an endpoint that connects directly to
sensors and/or actuators. Though there are still plenty of RTUs in use, many RTUs have
been replaced with PLCs. The data acquisition servers (DAS) are backends that receive all
data from the endpoints through a telemetry system and perform whatever correlation or
analysis may be necessary. Finally, the users in charge of controlling the system interact
with it through the use of the previously introduced human-machine interface (HMI),
the user station that displays the data from the endpoints and allows the users to issue
commands to the actuators (e.g., to close a valve or open a switch).
One of the main challenges with operating at great distances is effective communications,
particularly when parts of the process occur in areas with limited, spotty, or nonexistent
telecommunications infrastructures. SCADA systems commonly use dedicated cables
and radio links to cover these large expanses. Many legacy SCADA implementations rely
on older proprietary communications protocols and devices. For many years, this led this
community to feel secure because only someone with detailed knowledge of an obscure
protocol and access to specialized communications gear could compromise the system.
In part, this assumption is one of the causes of the lack of effective security controls on
legacy SCADA communications. While this thinking may have been arguable in the
past, today’s convergence on IP-based protocols makes it clear that this is not a secure
way of doing business.
ICS Security
The single greatest vulnerability in ICS is their increasing connectivity to traditional
IT networks. This has two notable side effects: it accelerates convergence toward standard
protocols, and it exposes once-private systems to anyone with an Internet connection.
NIST SP 800-82 Rev. 2 has a variety of recommendations for ICS security, but we highlight some of the most important ones here:
• Apply a risk management process to ICS.
• Segment the network to place IDS/IPS at the subnet boundaries.
• Disable unneeded ports and services on all ICS devices.
• Implement least privilege through the ICS.
• Use encryption wherever feasible.
• Ensure there is a process for patch management.
• Monitor audit trails regularly.
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IT DMZ
IT network
Public
server
Enterprise
server
OT DMZ
OT network
OT data
historian
PLC
Internet
Work
station
HMI
Figure 7-5 A simplified IT/OT environment
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PART III
Let’s look at a concrete (if seriously simplified) example in Figure 7-5. We’re only
showing a handful of IT and OT devices, but the zones are representative of a real
environment. Starting from the right, you see the valves and pumps that are controlled
by the PLC in the OT network. The PLC is directly connected to the HMI so that the
PLC can be monitored and controlled by the operator. Both the PLC and the HMI are
also connected (through a firewall) to the OT data historian in the OT DMZ. This is so
that everything that happens in the OT network can be logged and analyzed. The OT
data historian can also communicate with the enterprise server in the IT network to pass
whatever data is required for planning, accounting, auditing, and reporting. If a user, say,
in the accounting department, wants any of this data, he would get it from the enterprise
server and would not be able to connect directly to the OT data historian. If a customer
wanted to check via the Internet how much fuel they’ve been dispensed, they would log
into their portal on the public server and that device would query the enterprise server
for the relevant data.
Note that each segment is protected by a firewall (or data diode) that allows only
specific devices in the next zone to connect in very restrictive ways to get only specific
data. No device should ever be able to connect any further than one segment to the left
or right.
Network segmentation also helps mitigate one of the common risks in many OT
environments: unpatched devices. It is not rare to find devices that have been operating
unpatched for several years. There are many reasons for this. First, ICS devices have
very long shelf lives. They can remain in use for a decade or longer and may no longer
receive updates from the manufacturer. They can also be very expensive, which means
organizations may be unwilling or unable to set up a separate laboratory in which to
test patches to ensure they don’t cause unanticipated effects on the production systems.
While this is a pretty standard practice in IT environments, it is pretty rare in the OT
world. Without prior testing, patches could cause outages or safety issues and, as we know,
maintaining availability and ensuring safety are the two imperatives of the OT world.
So, it is not all that strange for us to have to live with unpatched devices. The solution
is to isolate them as best as we can. At a very minimum, it should be impossible for
ICS devices to be reachable from the Internet. Better yet, we control access strictly
from one zone to the next, as discussed previously. But for unpatched control devices,
we have to be extremely paranoid and surround them with protective barriers that are
monitored continuously.
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EXAM TIP The most important principle in defending OT systems is to isolate
them from the public Internet, either logically or physically.
Virtualized Systems
If you have been into computers for a while, you might remember computer games that
did not have the complex, lifelike graphics of today’s games. Pong and Asteroids were what
we had to play with when we were younger. In those simpler times, the games were 16-bit
and were written to work in a 16-bit MS-DOS environment. When our Windows operating systems moved from 16-bit to 32-bit, the 32-bit operating systems were written to
be backward compatible, so someone could still load and play a 16-bit game in an environment that the game did not understand. The continuation of this little life pleasure
was available to users because the OSs created virtual environments for the games to run
in. Backward compatibility was also introduced with 64-bit OSs.
When a 32-bit application needs to interact with a 64-bit OS, it has been developed
to make system calls and interact with the computer’s memory in a way that would only
work within a 32-bit OS—not a 64-bit system. So, the virtual environment simulates a
32-bit OS, and when the application makes a request, the OS converts the 32-bit request
into a 64-bit request (this is called thunking) and reacts to the request appropriately.
When the system sends a reply to this request, it changes the 64-bit reply into a 32-bit
reply so the application understands it.
Today, virtual environments are much more advanced. Virtualized systems are those that
exist in software-simulated environments. In our previous example of Pong, the 16-bit
game “thinks” it is running on a 16-bit computer when in fact this is an illusion created
by a layer of virtualizing software. In this case, the virtualized system was developed to
provide backward compatibility. In many other cases, virtualization allows us to run
multiple services or even full computers simultaneously on the same hardware, greatly
enhancing resource (e.g., memory, processor) utilization, reducing operating costs, and
even providing improved security, among other benefits.
Virtual Machines
Virtual machines (VMs) are entire computer systems that reside inside a virtualized environment. This means that you could have a legitimate Windows workstation running within
a Linux server, complete with automatic updates from Microsoft, licensed apps from any
vendor, and performance that is virtually indistinguishable (pun intended) from a similar
Windows system running on “bare metal.” This VM is commonly referred to as a guest that
is executed in the host environment, which, in our example, would be the Linux server.
Virtualization allows a single host environment to execute multiple guests at once, with
multiple VMs dynamically pooling resources from a common physical system. Computer
resources such as RAM, processors, and storage are emulated through the host environment.
The VMs do not directly access these resources; instead, they communicate with a
hypervisor within the host environment, which is responsible for managing system resources.
The hypervisor is the central program that controls the execution of the various guest operating
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Figure 7-6
The hypervisor
controls virtual
machine
instances.
Virtual Machine 1
Virtual Machine 2
Application
Application
Operating system
Operating system
Hypervisor
Hardware
CPU
Memory
Disk
systems and provides the abstraction level between the guest and host environments, as
shown in Figure 7-6.
There are two types of hypervisors. A type 1 hypervisor runs directly on hardware or
“bare metal” and manages access to it by its VMs. This is the sort of setup we use in server
rooms and cloud environments. Examples of type 1 hypervisors are Citrix/Xen Server and
VMware ESXi. A type 2 hypervisor, on the other hand, runs as an application on an OS.
This allows users, for example, to host a Windows VM in their macOS computer. Type 2
hypervisors are commonly used by developers and security researchers to test their work
in a controlled environment or use applications that are not available for the host OS.
Examples of type 2 hypervisors are Oracle VM VirtualBox and VMware Workstation.
Hypervisors allow you to have one computer running several different operating
systems at one time. For example, you can run a system with Windows 10, Linux, and
Windows 2016 on one computer. Think of a house that has different rooms. Each OS gets
its own room, but each shares the same resources that the house provides—a foundation,
electricity, water, roof, and so on. An OS that is “living” in a specific room does not
need to know about or interact with another OS in another room to take advantage of
the resources provided by the house. The same concept happens in a computer: Each
OS shares the resources provided by the physical system (memory, processor, buses, and
so on). The OSs “live” and work in their own “rooms,” which are the guest VMs. The
physical computer itself is the host.
Why would we want to virtualize our machines? One reason is that it is cheaper than
having a full physical system for each and every operating system. If they can all live on
one system and share the same physical resources, your costs are reduced immensely. This
is the same reason people get roommates. The rent can be split among different people,
and all can share the same house and resources. Another reason to use virtualization is
security. Providing to each OS its own “clean” environment to work within reduces the
possibility of the various OSs negatively interacting with each other.
Furthermore, since every aspect of the virtual machine, including the contents of its disk
drives and even its memory, is stored as files within the host, restoring a backup is a snap.
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All you have to do is drop the set of backed-up files onto a new hypervisor and you will
instantly restore a VM to whatever state it was in when the backup was made. Contrast
this with having to rebuild a physical computer from backups, which can take a lot longer.
On the flip side of security, any vulnerability in the hypervisor would give an attacker
unparalleled and virtually undetectable (pun not intended) power to compromise the
confidentiality, integrity, or availability of VMs running on it. This is not a hypothetical
scenario, as both VirtualBox and VMware have reported (and patched) such vulnerabilities
in recent years. The takeaway from these discoveries is that we should assume that any
component of an information system could be compromised and ask ourselves the
questions “how would I detect it?” and “how can I mitigate it?”
Containerization
As virtualization matured, a new branch called containerization emerged. A container
is an application that runs in its own isolated user space. Whereas virtual machines
have their own complete operating systems running on top of hypervisors and share
the resources provided by the bare metal, containers sit on top of OSs and share the
resources provided by the host OS. Instead of abstracting the hardware for guest OSs,
container software abstracts the kernel of the OS for the applications running above
it. This allows for low overhead in running many applications and improved speed in
deploying instances, because a whole VM doesn’t have to be started for every application.
Rather, the application, services, processes, libraries, and any other dependencies can be
wrapped up into one unit.
Additionally, each container operates in a sandbox, with the only means to interact
being through the user interface or application programming interface (API) calls. The
big names to know in this space are Docker on the commercial side and Kubernetes as the
open-source alternative. Containers have enabled rapid development operations because
developers can test their code more quickly, changing only the components necessary in
the container and then redeploying.
Securing containers requires a different approach than we’d take with full-sized VMs.
Obviously, we want to harden the host OS. But we also need to pay attention to each
container and the manner in which it interacts with clients and other containers. Keep in
mind that containers are frequently used in rapid development. This means that, unless
you build secure development right into the development team, you will likely end up
with insecure code. We’ll address the integration of development, security, and operations
staff when we discuss DevSecOps in Chapters 24 and 25, but for now remember that it’s
really difficult to secure containers that have been developed insecurely.
NIST offers some excellent specific guidance on securing containers in NIST
SP 800-190, Application Container Security Guide. Among the most important
recommendations in that publication are the following:
• Use container-specific host OSs instead of general-purpose ones to reduce attack
surfaces.
• Only group containers with the same purpose, sensitivity, and threat posture on
a single host OS kernel to allow for additional defense in depth.
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• Adopt container-specific vulnerability management tools and processes for images
to prevent compromises.
• Use container-aware runtime defense tools such as intrusion prevention systems.
Microservices
PART III
A common use of containers is to host microservices, which is a way of developing software
where, rather than building one large enterprise application, the functionality is divided
into multiple smaller components that, working together in a distributed manner, implement all the needed features. Think of it as a software development version of the old
“divide and conquer” approach. Microservices are considered an architectural style rather
than a standard, but there is broad consensus that they consist of small, decentralized, individually deployable services built around business capabilities. They also tend to be loosely
coupled, which means there aren’t a lot of dependencies between the individual services.
As a result, microservices are quick to develop, test, and deploy and can be exchanged
without breaking the larger system. For many business applications, microservices are also
more efficient and scalable than monolithic server-based architectures.
NOTE Containers and microservices don’t have to be used together. It’s just
very common to do so.
The decentralization of microservices can present a security challenge. How can you
track adversarial behaviors through a system of microservices, where each service does one
discrete task? The answer is log aggregation. Whereas microservices are decentralized, we
want to log them in a centralized fashion so we can look for patterns that span multiple
services and can point to malicious intent. Admittedly, you will need automation and
perhaps data analytics or artificial intelligence to detect these malicious events, but you
won’t have a chance at spotting them unless you aggregate the logs.
Serverless
If we gain efficiency and scalability by breaking up a big service into a bunch of microservices, can we gain even more by breaking up the microservices further? The answer, in
many cases, is yes, because hosting a service (even a micro one) means that you have to
provision, manage, update, and run the thing. So, if we’re going to go further down this
road of dividing and conquering, the next level of granularity is individual functions.
Hosting a service usually means setting up hardware, provisioning and managing
servers, defining load management mechanisms, setting up requirements, and running
the service. In a serverless architecture, the services offered to end users, such as compute,
storage, or messaging, along with their required configuration and management, can
be performed without a requirement from the user to set up any server infrastructure.
The focus is strictly at the individual function level. These serverless models are designed
primarily for massive scaling and high availability. Additionally, from a cost perspective,
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they are attractive, because billing occurs based on what cycles are actually used versus
what is provisioned in advance.
Integrating security mechanisms into serverless models is not as simple as ensuring
that the underlying technologies are hardened. Because visibility into host infrastructure
operations is limited, implementing countermeasures for remote code execution or
modifying access control lists isn’t as straightforward as it would be with traditional server
design. In the serverless model, security analysts are usually restricted to applying controls
at the application or function level and then keeping a close eye on network traffic.
As you probably know by now, serverless architectures rely on the capability to
automatically and securely provision, run, and then deprovision computing resources
on demand. This capability undergirds their economic promise: you only pay for exactly
the computing you need to perform just the functions that are required, and not a
penny more. It is also essential to meet the arbitrary scalability of serverless systems. This
capability is characteristic of cloud computing.
Comparing Server-Based, Microservice,
and Serverless Architectures
A typical service houses a bunch of functions within it. Think of a very simple
e-commerce web application server. It allows customers to log in, view the items that
are for sale, and place orders. When placing an order, the server invokes a multitude of
functions. For instance, it may have to charge the payment card, decrease inventory,
schedule a shipment, and send a confirmation message. Here’s how each of these three
architectures handle this.
Server-based implementations provide all services (and their component functions)
in the same physical or virtual server that houses the monolithic web application.
The server must always be available (meaning powered on and connected to the
Internet). If there’s a sudden spike in orders, you better hope you have enough
bandwidth, memory, and processing power to handle it. If you don’t, you get to
build a new server from scratch and either replace the original server with a beefier
one or load-balance between the two. Either way, you now have more infrastructure
to keep up and running.
Microservices can be created for each of the major features in the web application:
view items and place orders. Each microservice lives in its own container and gets
called as needed. If you see that spike in orders, you deploy a new container (in
seconds), perhaps in a different host, and can destroy it when you no longer need
it. Sure, you’ll need some supervisory process to figure out when and how to spin
up new containers, but at least you can dynamically respond to increased demands.
Serverless approaches would decompose each service into its fundamental
functions and then dynamically provision those functions as needed. In other
words, there is never a big web application server (like in the server-based approach)
or even a microservice for order processing that is up and running. Instead, the
charge_payment_card function is invoked in whatever infrastructure is available
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whenever a card needs to be processed. If that function is successful, it invokes the
decrease_inventory function, again, in whatever infrastructure is available, and so
on. After each function terminates, it simply evaporates so that no more resources
are consumed than are absolutely needed. If there’s a sudden spike in demand,
the orchestrator spins up whatever additional resources are needed to run as many
functions as are required.
Server-based
Microservices
Serverless
Client
Client
Client
Web server
Web Server
Database
Charge
purchase
card
View
items
App server
Web server
PART III
Web server
Place
order
Database
Database
Decrease
inventory
DB
DB
Cloud-Based Systems
If you were asked to install a brand-new server room for your organization, you would
probably have to clear your calendar for weeks (or longer) to address the many tasks that
would be involved. From power and environmental controls to hardware acquisition,
installation, and configuration to software builds, the list is long and full of headaches.
Now, imagine that you can provision all the needed servers in minutes using a simple
graphical interface or a short script and that you can get rid of them just as quickly when
you no longer need them. This is one of the benefits of cloud computing.
Cloud computing is the use of shared, remote computing devices for the purpose of
providing improved efficiencies, performance, reliability, scalability, and security. These
devices are usually based on virtual machines running on shared infrastructure and can
be outsourced to a third-party cloud service provider (CSP) on a public cloud or provided
in-house on a private cloud. If you don’t feel comfortable sharing infrastructure with
random strangers (though this is done securely), there is also a virtual private cloud (VPC)
model in which you get your own walled garden inside an otherwise public cloud.
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Generally speaking, there are three models for cloud computing services:
• Software as a Service (SaaS) The user of SaaS is allowed to use a specific
application that executes on the CSP’s environment. Examples of SaaS are
Microsoft 365 and Google Apps, which you use via a web interface but someone
else provisions and maintains everything for you.
• Platform as a Service (PaaS) In this model, the user gets access to a computing
platform that is typically built on a server operating system. An example of this
would be spawning an instance of Windows Server 2019 to provide a web server.
The CSP is normally responsible for configuring and securing the platform,
however, so the user normally doesn’t get administrative privileges over the
entire platform.
• Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) If you want full, unfettered access to (and
responsibility for securing) a cloud-based VM, you would want to use the IaaS
model. Following up on the previous example, this would allow you to manage
the patching of the Windows Server 2019 instance. The catch is that the CSP
has no responsibility for security; it’s all on you.
If you are a user of IaaS, you probably won’t do things too differently than you already
do to secure your systems. The only exception is that you wouldn’t have physical access
to the computers if a CSP hosts them. If, on the other hand, you use SaaS or PaaS, the
security of your systems will almost always rely on the policies and contracts that you
put into place. The policies will dictate how your users interact with the cloud services.
This would include the information classification levels that would be allowed on those
services, terms of use, and other policies. The contracts will specify the quality of service
and what the CSP will do with or for you in responding to security events.
CAUTION It is imperative that you carefully review the terms of service when
evaluating a potential contract for cloud services and consider them in the
context of your organization’s security. Though the industry is getting better
all the time, security provisions are oftentimes lacking in these contracts
at this time.
Software as a Service
SaaS is pervasively used by most enterprises. According to some estimates, the average
company uses nearly 2,000 unique cloud services for everything from writing memos to
managing their sales pipeline. The whole idea is that, apart from a fairly small amount of
allowed customization, you just pay for the licenses and the vendor takes care of making
sure all your users have access to the software, regardless of where they are.
Given the popularity of SaaS solutions, cloud service providers such as Microsoft,
Amazon, Cisco, and Google often dedicate large teams to securing all aspects of their
service infrastructure. Increasingly, however, most security incidents involving SaaS
occur at the data-handling level, where these infrastructure companies do not have the
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responsibility or visibility required to take action. For example, how could the CSP be
held liable when one of your employees shares a confidential file with an unauthorized
third party?
So, visibility is one of our main concerns as security professionals when it comes to
SaaS. Do you know what assets you have and how they are being used? The “McAfee
2019 Cloud Adoption and Risk Report” describes the disconnect between the number
of cloud services that organizations believe are being accessed by their users and the
number of cloud services that are actually being accessed. The discrepancy, according to
the report, can be several orders of magnitude. As we have mentioned before, you can’t
protect what you don’t know you have. This is where solutions like cloud access security
brokers (CASBs) and data loss prevention (DLP) systems can come in very handy.
NOTE We already covered CASBs and DLP systems in Chapter 6.
PART III
Platform as a Service
What if, instead of licensing someone else’s application, you have developed your own
and need a place to host it for your users? You’d want to have a fair amount of flexibility
in terms of configuring the hosting environment, but you probably could use some help
in terms of provisioning and securing it. You can secure the app, for sure, but would like
someone else to take care of things like hardening the host, patching the underlying OS,
and maybe even monitoring access to the VM. This is where PaaS comes in.
PaaS has a similar set of functionalities as SaaS and provides many of the same benefits in
that the CSP manages the foundational technologies of the stack in a manner transparent
to the end user. You simply tell your provider, “I’d like a Windows Server 2019 with
64 gigabytes of RAM and eight cores,” and, voilà, there it is. You get direct access to a
development or deployment environment that enables you to build and host your own
solutions on a cloud-based infrastructure without having to build your own infrastructure.
PaaS solutions, therefore, are optimized to provide value focused on software development.
PaaS, by its very nature, is designed to provide an organization with tools that interact
directly with what may be its most important asset: its source code.
At the physical infrastructure, in PaaS, service providers assume the responsibility of
maintenance and protection and employ a number of methods to deter successful exploits
at this level. This often means PaaS providers require trusted sources for hardware, use
strong physical security for its data centers, and monitor access to the physical servers
and connections to and from them. Additionally, PaaS providers often enhance their
protection against distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks using network-based
technologies that require no additional configuration from the user.
While the PaaS model makes a lot of provisioning, maintenance, and security problems
go away for you, it is worth noting that it does nothing to protect the software systems
you host there. If you build and deploy insecure code, there is very little your CSP will be
able to do to keep it protected. PaaS providers focus on the infrastructure on which the
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service runs, but you still have to ensure that the software is secure and the appropriate
controls are in place. We’ll dive into how to build secure code in Chapters 24 and 25.
Infrastructure as a Service
Sometimes, you just have to roll up your sleeves, get your hands dirty, and build your
own servers from the ground up. Maybe the applications and services you have developed require your IT and security teams to install and configure components at the OS
level that would not be accessible to you in the PaaS model. You don’t need someone to
make platforms that they manage available to you; you need to build platforms from the
ground up yourself. IaaS gives you just that. You upload an image to the CSP’s environment and build your own hosts however you need them.
As a method of efficiently assigning hardware through a process of constant assignment
and reclamation, IaaS offers an effective and affordable way for organizations to get all
of the benefits of managing their own hardware without incurring the massive overhead
costs associated with acquisition, physical storage, and disposal of the hardware. In
this service model, the vendor provides the hardware, network, and storage resources
necessary for the user to install and maintain any operating system, dependencies, and
applications they want. The vendor deals with all hardware issues for you, leaving you to
focus on the virtual hosts.
In the IaaS model, the majority of the security controls (apart from physical ones) are
your responsibility. Obviously, you want to have a robust security team to manage these.
Still, there are some risks that are beyond your control and for which you rely on your
vendor, such as any vulnerabilities that could allow an attacker to exploit flaws in hard
disks, RAM, CPU caches, and GPUs. One attack scenario affecting IaaS cloud providers
could enable a malicious actor to implant persistent back doors for data theft into baremetal cloud servers. A vulnerability either in the hypervisor supporting the visualization of
various tenant systems or in the firmware of the hardware in use could introduce a vector
for this attack. This attack would be difficult for the customer to detect because it would
be possible for all services to appear unaffected at a higher level of the technology stack.
Though the likelihood of a successful exploit of this kind of vulnerability is quite
low, defects and errors at this level may still incur significant costs unrelated to an actual
exploit. Take, for example, the 2014 hypervisor update performed by Amazon Web
Services (AWS), which essentially forced a complete restart of a major cloud offering,
the Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2). In response to the discovery of a critical security flaw
in the open-source hypervisor Xen, Amazon forced EC2 instances globally to restart to
ensure the patch would take correctly and that customers remained unaffected. In most
cases, though, as with many other cloud services, attacks against IaaS environments are
possible because of misconfiguration on the customer side.
Everything as a Service
It’s worth reviewing the basic premise of cloud service offerings: you save money by only
paying for exactly the resources you actually use, while having the capacity to scale those
up as much as you need to at a moment’s notice. If you think about it, this model can
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apply to things other than applications and computers. Everything as a Service (XaaS)
captures the trend to apply the cloud model to a large range of offerings, from entertainment (e.g., television shows and feature-length movies), to cybersecurity (e.g., Security as
a Service), to serverless computing environments (e.g., Function as a Service). Get ready
for the inevitable barrage of <fill-in-the-blank> as a Service offerings coming your way.
Cloud Deployment Models
By now you may be a big believer in the promise of cloud computing but may be wondering, “Where, exactly, is the cloud?” The answer, as in so many questions in our field, is
“It depends.” There are four common models for deploying cloud computing resources,
each with its own features and limitations:
PART III
• A public cloud is the most prevalent model, in which a vendor like AWS owns
all the resources and provides them as a service to all its customers. Importantly,
the resources are shared among all customers, albeit in a transparent and secure
manner. Public cloud vendors typically also offer a virtual private cloud (VPC) as
an option, in which increased isolation between users provides added security.
• A private cloud is owned and operated by the organization that uses its services.
Here, you own, operate, and maintain the servers, storage, and networking
needed to provide the services, which means you don’t share resources with
anyone. This approach can provide the best security, but the tradeoff might be
higher costs and a cap on scalability.
• A community cloud is a private cloud that is co-owned (or at least shared) by a
specific set of partner organizations. This approach is commonly implemented
in large conglomerates where multiple firms report to the same higher-tier
headquarters.
• A hybrid cloud combines on-premises infrastructure with a public cloud, with a
significant effort placed in the management of how data and applications leverage
each solution to achieve organizational goals. Organizations that use a hybrid
model often derive benefits offered by both public and private models.
Pervasive Systems
Cloud computing is all about the concentration of computing power so that it may be
dynamically reallocated among customers. Going in the opposite conceptual direction,
pervasive computing (also called ubiquitous computing or ubicomp) is the concept that
small (even tiny) amounts of computing power are spread out everywhere and computing is embedded into everyday objects that communicate with each other, often with
little or no user interaction, to do very specific things for particular customers. In this
model, computers are everywhere and communicate on their own with each other, bringing really cool new features but also really thorny new security challenges.
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Embedded Systems
An embedded system is a self-contained computer system (that is, it has its own processor,
memory, and input/output devices) designed for a very specific purpose. An embedded
device is part of (or embedded into) some other mechanical or electrical device or system.
Embedded systems typically are cheap, rugged, and small, and they use very little power.
They are usually built around microcontrollers, which are specialized devices that consist
of a CPU, memory, and peripheral control interfaces. Microcontrollers have a very basic
operating system, if they have one at all. A digital thermometer is an example of a very
simple embedded system; other examples of embedded systems include traffic lights and
factory assembly line controllers. As you can see from these examples, embedded systems
are frequently used to sense and/or act on a physical environment. For this reason, they
are sometimes called cyber-physical systems.
The main challenge in securing embedded systems is that of ensuring the security
of the software that drives them. Many vendors build their embedded systems around
commercially available microprocessors, but they use their own proprietary code that
is difficult, if not impossible, for a customer to audit. Depending on the risk tolerance
of your organization, this may be acceptable as long as the embedded systems are
standalone. The problem, however, is that these systems are increasingly shipping with
some sort of network connectivity. For example, some organizations have discovered that
some of their embedded devices have “phone home” features that are not documented.
In some cases, this has resulted in potentially sensitive information being transmitted
to the manufacturer. If a full audit of the embedded device security is not possible, at a
very minimum, you should ensure that you see what data flows in and out of it across
any network.
Another security issue presented by many embedded systems concerns the ability to
update and patch them securely. Many embedded devices are deployed in environments
where they have no Internet connectivity. Even if this is not the case and the devices
can check for updates, establishing secure communications or verifying digitally signed
code, both of which require processor-intensive cryptography, may not be possible on
a cheap device.
Internet of Things
The Internet of Things (IoT) is the global network of connected embedded systems. What
distinguishes the IoT is that each node is connected to the Internet and is uniquely
addressable. By some accounts, this network is expected to reach 31 billion devices by
2025, which makes this a booming sector of the global economy. Perhaps the most visible aspect of this explosion is in the area of smart homes in which lights, furnaces, and
even refrigerators collaborate to create the best environment for the residents.
With this level of connectivity and access to physical devices, the IoT poses many
security challenges. Among the issues to address by anyone considering adoption of IoT
devices are the following:
• Authentication Embedded devices are not known for incorporating strong
authentication support, which is the reason why most IoT devices have very poor
(if any) authentication.
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• Encryption Cryptography is typically expensive in terms of processing power
and memory requirements, both of which are very limited in IoT devices. The
fallout of this is that data at rest and data in transit can be vulnerable in many
parts of the IoT.
• Updates Though IoT devices are networked, many vendors in this fast-moving
sector do not provide functionality to automatically update their software and
firmware when patches are available.
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Perhaps the most dramatic illustration to date of what can happen when millions of
insecure IoT devices are exploited by an attacker is the Mirai botnet. Mirai is a malware
strain that infects IoT devices and was behind one of the largest and most effective botnets
in recent history. The Mirai botnet took down major websites via massive DDoS attacks
against several sites and service providers using hundreds of thousands of compromised
IoT devices. In October 2016, a Mirai attack targeted the popular DNS provider Dyn,
which provided name resolution to many popular websites such as Airbnb, Amazon,
GitHub, HBO, Netflix, PayPal, Reddit, and Twitter. After taking down Dyn, Mirai left
millions of users unable to access these sites for hours.
Distributed Systems
A distributed system is one in which multiple computers work together to do something.
The earlier section “Server-Based Systems” already covered a specific example of a fourtier distributed system. It is this collaboration that more generally defines a distributed
system. A server-based system is a specific kind of distributed system in which devices in
one group (or tier) act as clients for devices in an adjacent group. A tier-1 client cannot
work directly with the tier-4 database, as shown earlier in Figure 7-1. We could then
say that a distributed system is any system in which multiple computing nodes, interconnected by a network, exchange information for the accomplishment of collective tasks.
Not all distributed systems are hierarchical like the example in Figure 7-1. Another
approach to distributed computing is found in peer-to-peer systems, which are systems
in which each node is considered an equal (as opposed to a client or a server) to all
others. There is no overarching structure, and nodes are free to request services from any
other node. The result is an extremely resilient structure that fares well even when large
numbers of nodes become disconnected or otherwise unavailable. If you had a typical
client/server model and you lost your server, you’d be down for the count. In a peer-topeer system, you could lose multiple nodes and still be able to accomplish whatever task
you needed to. Clearly, not every application lends itself to this model, because some
tasks are inherently hierarchical or centralized. Popular examples of peer-to-peer systems
are file sharing systems like BitTorrent, anonymizing networks like The Onion Router
(TOR), and cryptocurrencies like bitcoin.
One of the most important issues in securing distributed systems is network
communications, which are essential to these systems. While the obvious approach
would be to encrypt all traffic, it can be challenging to ensure all nodes are using
cryptography that is robust enough to mitigate attacks. This is particularly true when the
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system includes IoT or OT components that may not have the same crypto capabilities
as traditional computers.
Even if you encrypt all traffic (and you really should) in a distributed system, there’s still
the issue of trust. How do we ensure that every user and every node is trustworthy? How
could you tell if part of the system was compromised? Identity and access management
is another key area to address, as is the ability to isolate users or nodes from the system
should they become compromised.
NOTE We will discuss identity and access management (IAM) in Chapter 16.
Edge Computing Systems
An interesting challenge brought about by the proliferation of IoT devices is how to
service them in a responsive, scalable, and cost-effective manner. To understand the problem, let’s first consider a server-based example. Suppose you enjoy playing a massively
multiplayer online game (MMOG) on your web browser. The game company would
probably host the backend servers in the cloud to allow massive scalability, so the processing power is not an issue. Now suppose all these servers were provisioned in the eastern
United States. Gamers in New York would have no problem enjoying the game, but
those in Japan would probably have noticeable network latency issues because every one
of their commands would have to be sent literally around the world to be processed by
the U.S. servers, and then the resulting graphics sent back around the world to the player
in Japan. That player would probably lose interest in the game really quickly. Now, suppose that the company kept its main servers in the United States but provisioned regional
servers, with one of them in, say, Singapore. Most of the commands are processed in
the regional server, which means that the user experience of players in Japan is a lot better, while the global leaderboard is maintained centrally in the United States. This is an
example of edge computing.
Edge computing is an evolution of content distribution networks (CDNs), which were
designed to bring web content closer to its clients. CDNs helped with internationalization
of websites but were also very good for mitigating the effects of DDoS attacks. Edge
computing is a distributed system in which some computational and data storage assets are
deployed close to where they are needed in order to reduce latency and network traffic.
As shown in Figure 7-7, an edge computing architecture typically has three layers: end
devices, edge devices, and cloud infrastructure. The end devices can be anything from
smart thermometers to self-driving cars. They have a requirement for processing data in
real time, which means there are fairly precise time constraints. Think of a thermal sensor
in one of your data centers and how you would need to have an alarm within minutes
(at most) of it detecting rising or excessive heat.
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Global
cloud
services
Data center - West
Data center - East
Edge
device
Fire
alarms
Thermal
sensors
Door
sensors
Fire
alarms
Thermal
sensors
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Door
sensors
Edge
device
Figure 7-7 A sample edge computing architecture for facility management
To reduce the turnaround time for these computing requirements, we deploy edge
devices that are closer to, and in some cases embedded within, the end devices. Returning
to the thermometer example, suppose you have several of these devices in each of your
two data centers. You also have a multitude of other sensors such as fire alarms and door
sensors. Rather than configuring an alarm to sound whenever the data center gets too
hot, you integrate all these sensors to develop an understanding of what is going in the
facility. For example, maybe the temperature is rising because someone left the back
door open on a hot summer day. If it keeps going up, you want to sound a door alarm,
not necessarily a temperature alarm, and do it while there is still time for the cooling
system to keep the ambient temperature within tolerance. The sensors (including the
thermometer) would send their data to the edge device, which is located near or in
the same facility. This reduces the time needed to compute solutions and also provides
a degree of protection against network outages. The determination to sound the door
alarm (and when) is made there, locally, at the edge device. All (or maybe some of ) the
data from all the sensors at both data centers is also sent to the global cloud services
infrastructure. There, we can take our time and run data analytics to discover useful
patterns that could tell us how to be more efficient in how we use our resources around
the world.
NOTE As increased computing power finds its way into IoT devices, these
too are becoming edge devices in some cases.
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Chapter Review
Central to securing our systems is understanding their components and how they interact
with each other—in other words, their architectures. While it may seem that architectural
terminology overlaps quite a bit, in reality each approach brings some unique challenges
and some not-so-unique challenges. As security professionals, we need to understand
where architectures are similar and where they differ. We can mix and match, of course,
but must also do so with a clear understanding of the underlying issues. In this chapter,
we’ve classified the more common system architectures and discussed what makes them
unique and what specific security challenges they pose. Odds are that you will encounter
devices and systems in most, if not all, of the architectures we’ve covered here.
Quick Review
• Client-based systems execute all their core functions on the user’s device and
don’t require network connectivity.
• Server-based systems require that a client make requests from a server across
a network connection.
• Transactions are sequences of actions required to properly change the state of
a database.
• Database transactions must be atomic, consistent, isolated, and durable (ACID).
• Aggregation is the act of combining information from separate sources and is
a security problem when it allows unauthorized individuals to piece together
sensitive information.
• Inference is deducing a whole set of information from a subset of its aggregated
components. This is a security problem when it allows unauthorized individuals
to infer sensitive information.
• High-performance computing (HPC) is the aggregation of computing power in
ways that exceed the capabilities of general-purpose computers for the specific
purpose of solving large problems.
• Industrial control systems (ICS) consist of information technology that is specifically
designed to control physical devices in industrial processes.
• Any system in which computers and physical devices collaborate via the exchange
of inputs and outputs to accomplish a task or objective is an embedded or cyberphysical system.
• The two main types of ICS are distributed control systems (DCS) and supervisory
control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems. The main difference between
them is that a DCS controls local processes while SCADA is used to control
things remotely.
• ICS should always be logically or physically isolated from public networks.
• Virtualized systems are those that exist in software-simulated environments.
• Virtual machines (VMs) are systems in which the computing hardware has been
virtualized for the operating systems running in them.
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• Containers are systems in which the operating systems have been virtualized for
the applications running in them.
• Microservices are software architectures in which features are divided into multiple
separate components that work together in a distributed manner across a network.
• Containers and microservices don’t have to be used together but it’s very
common to do so.
• In a serverless architecture, the services offered to end users can be performed
without a requirement to set up any dedicated server infrastructure.
• Cloud computing is the use of shared, remote computing devices for the purpose of
providing improved efficiencies, performance, reliability, scalability, and security.
• Software as a Service (SaaS) is a cloud computing model that provides users access
to a specific application that executes in the service provider’s environment.
• Platform as a Service (PaaS) is a cloud computing model that provides users
access to a computing platform but not to the operating system or to the virtual
machine on which it runs.
• Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) is a cloud computing model that provides users
unfettered access to a cloud device, such as an instance of a server, which includes
both the operating system and the virtual machine on which it runs.
• An embedded system is a self-contained, typically ruggedized, computer system
with its own processor, memory, and input/output devices that is designed for a
very specific purpose.
• The Internet of Things (IoT) is the global network of connected embedded systems.
• A distributed system is a system in which multiple computing nodes, interconnected
by a network, exchange information for the accomplishment of collective tasks.
• Edge computing is a distributed system in which some computational and data
storage assets are deployed close to where they are needed in order to reduce
latency and network traffic.
Questions
Please remember that these questions are formatted and asked in a certain way for a
reason. Keep in mind that the CISSP exam is asking questions at a conceptual level.
Questions may not always have the perfect answer, and the candidate is advised against
always looking for the perfect answer. Instead, the candidate should look for the best
answer in the list.
1. Which of the following lists two foundational properties of database transactions?
A. Aggregation and inference
B. Scalability and durability
C. Consistency and performance
D. Atomicity and isolation
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2. Which of the following is not true about containers?
A. They are embedded systems.
B. They are virtualized systems.
C. They commonly house microservices.
D. They operate in a sandbox.
3. What is the term that describes a database attack in which an unauthorized user is
able to combine information from separate sources to learn sensitive information
to which the user should not have access?
A. Aggregation
B. Containerization
C. Serialization
D. Collection
4. What is the main difference between a distributed control system (DCS) and
supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)?
A. SCADA is a type of industrial control system (ICS), while a DCS is a type
of bus.
B. SCADA controls systems in close proximity, while a DCS controls physically
distant ones.
C. A DCS controls systems in close proximity, while SCADA controls physically
distant ones.
D. A DCS uses programmable logic controllers (PLCs), while SCADA uses remote
terminal units (RTUs).
5. What is the main purpose of a hypervisor?
A. Virtualize hardware resources and manage virtual machines
B. Virtualize the operating system and manage containers
C. Provide visibility into virtual machines for access control and logging
D. Provide visibility into containers for access control and logging
6. Which cloud service model provides customers direct access to hardware,
the network, and storage?
A. SaaS
B. PaaS
C. IaaS
D. FaaS
7. Which cloud service model do you recommend to enable access to developers to
write custom code while also providing all employees access from remote offices?
A. PaaS
B. SaaS
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C. FaaS
D. IaaS
8. Which of the following is not a major issue when securing embedded systems?
A. Use of proprietary code
B. Devices that “phone home”
C. Lack of microcontrollers
D. Ability to update and patch them securely
9. Which of the following is true about edge computing?
A. Uses no centralized computing resources, pushing all computation to the edge
B. Pushes computation to the edge while retaining centralized data management
D. Is an evolution of content distribution networks
Use the following scenario to answer Questions 10–12. You were just hired as director of
cybersecurity for an electric power company with facilities around your country. Carmen is the director of operations and offers to give you a tour so you can see the security
measures that are in place on the operational technology (OT).
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C. Typically consists of two layers: end devices and cloud infrastructure
10. What system would be used to control power generation, distribution, and
delivery to all your customers?
A. Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)
B. Distributed control system (DCS)
C. Programmable logic controller
D. Edge computing system
11. You see a new engineer being coached remotely by a more senior member of the
staff in the use of the human-machine interface (HMI). Carmen tells you that
senior engineers are allowed to access the HMI from their personal computers at
home to facilitate this sort of impromptu training. She asks what you think of
this policy. How should you respond?
A. Change the policy. They should not access the HMI with their personal
computers, but they could do so using a company laptop, assuming they also
use a virtual private network (VPN).
B. Change the policy. ICS devices should always be isolated from the Internet.
C. It is acceptable because the HMI is only used for administrative purposes and
not operational functions.
D. It is acceptable because safety is the fundamental concern in ICS, so it is best
to let the senior engineers be available to train other staff from home.
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12. You notice that several ICS devices have never been patched. When you ask why,
Carmen tells you that those are mission-critical devices, and her team has no way
of testing the patches before patching these production systems. Fearing that
patching them could cause unexpected outages or, worse, injure someone, she
has authorized them to remain as they are. Carmen asks whether you agree. How
could you respond?
A. Yes. As long as we document the risk and ensure the devices are as isolated
and as closely monitored as possible.
B. Yes. Safety and availability trump all other concerns when it comes to
ICS security.
C. No. You should stand up a testing environment so you can safely test the
patches and then deploy them to all devices.
D. No. These are critical devices and should be patched as soon as possible.
Answers
1. D. The foundational properties of database transactions are atomicity, consistency,
isolation, and durability (ACID).
2. A. Containers are virtualized systems that commonly (though not always) house
microservices and run in sandboxes. It would be highly unusual to implement
a container as an embedded system.
3. A. Aggregation happens when a user does not have the clearance or permission
to access specific information, but she does have the permission to access
components of this information. She can then figure out the rest and obtain
restricted information.
4. C. The main difference is that a DCS controls devices within fairly close proximity,
while SCADA controls large-scale physical processes involving nodes separated
by significant distances. They both can (and frequently use) PLCs, but RTUs are
almost always seen in SCADA systems.
5. A. Hypervisors are almost always used to virtualize the hardware on which virtual
machines run. They can also provide visibility and logging, but these are secondary
functions. Containers are the equivalents of hypervisors, but they work at a higher
level by virtualizing the operating system.
6. C. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) offers an effective and affordable way for
organizations to get all the benefits of managing their own hardware without the
massive overhead costs associated with acquisition, physical storage, and disposal
of the hardware.
7. A. Platform as a Service (PaaS) solutions are optimized to provide value focused
on software development, offering direct access to a development environment
to enable an organization to build its own solutions on the cloud infrastructure,
rather than providing its own infrastructure.
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8. C. Embedded systems are usually built around microcontrollers, which are
specialized devices that consist of a CPU, memory, and peripheral control
interfaces. All the other answers are major issues in securing embedded systems.
9. D. Edge computing is an evolution of content distribution networks, which
were designed to bring web content closer to its clients. It is a distributed system
in which some computational and data storage assets are deployed close to where
they are needed in order to reduce latency and network traffic. Accordingly, some
computing and data management is handled in each of three different layers: end
devices, edge devices, and cloud infrastructure.
10. A. SCADA was designed to control large-scale physical processes involving nodes
separated by significant distances, as is the case with electric power providers.
12. A. It is all too often the case that organizations can afford neither the risk of
pushing untested patches to ICS devices nor the costs of standing up a testing
environment. In these conditions, the best strategy is to isolate and monitor the
devices as much as possible.
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11. B. It is a best practice to completely isolate ICS devices from Internet access.
Sometimes this is not possible for operational reasons, so remote access through
a VPN could be allowed even though it is not ideal.
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CHAPTER
Cryptology
8
This chapter presents the following:
• Principles of cryptology
• Symmetric cryptography
• Asymmetric cryptography
• Public key infrastructure
• Cryptanalytic attacks
Three can keep a secret, if two of them are dead.
—Benjamin Franklin
Now that you have a pretty good understanding of system architectures from Chapter 7,
we turn to a topic that is central to protecting these architectures. Cryptography is the
practice of storing and transmitting information in a form that only authorized parties
can understand. Properly designed and implemented, cryptography is an effective way
to protect sensitive data throughout its life cycle. However, with enough time, resources,
and motivation, hackers can successfully attack most cryptosystems and reveal the information. So, a more realistic goal of cryptography is to make obtaining the information
too work intensive or time consuming to be worthwhile to the attacker.
Cryptanalysis is the name collectively given to techniques that aim to weaken or
defeat cryptography. This is what the adversary attempts to do to thwart the defender’s
use of cryptography. Together, cryptography and cryptanalysis comprise cryptology. In
this chapter, we’ll take a good look at both sides of this topic. This is an important
chapter in the book, because we can’t defend our information systems effectively without
understanding applied cryptology.
The History of Cryptography
Cryptography has roots in antiquity. Around 600 b.c., Hebrews invented a cryptographic
method called atbash that required the alphabet to be flipped so each letter in the original
message was mapped to a different letter in the flipped, or shifted, message. An example
of an encryption key used in the atbash encryption scheme is shown here:
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
ZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
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If you want to encrypt the word “security” you would instead use “hvxfirgb.” Atbash
is an example of a substitution cipher because each character is replaced with another
character. This type of substitution cipher is referred to as a monoalphabetic substitution
cipher because it uses only one alphabet, whereas a polyalphabetic substitution cipher uses
multiple alphabets.
TIP
Cipher is another term for algorithm.
Around 400 b.c., the Spartans used a system of encrypting information in which
they would write a message on a sheet of papyrus (a type of paper) that was wrapped
around a staff (a stick or wooden rod), which was then delivered and wrapped around a
different staff by the recipient. The message was only readable if it was wrapped around
the correct size staff, which made the letters properly match up, as shown in Figure 8-1.
When the papyrus was not wrapped around the staff, the writing appeared as just a
bunch of random characters. This approach, known as the scytale cipher, is an example
of a transposition cipher because it relies on changing the sequence of the characters to
obscure their meaning. Only someone who knows how to rearrange them would be able
to recover the original message.
Later, in Rome, Julius Caesar (100–44 b.c.) developed a simple method of shifting
letters of the alphabet, similar to the atbash scheme. He simply shifted the alphabet by
three positions. The following example shows a standard alphabet and a shifted alphabet.
The alphabet serves as the algorithm, and the key is the number of locations it has been
shifted during the encryption and decryption process.
• Standard alphabet:
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
• Cryptographic alphabet:
DEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABC
As an example, suppose we need to encrypt the message “MISSION
ACCOMPLISHED.” We take the first letter of this message, M, and shift up three
locations within the alphabet. The encrypted version of this first letter is P, so we write
Figure 8-1
The scytale
was used by
the Spartans
to decipher
encrypted
messages.
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that down. The next letter to be encrypted is I, which matches L when we shift three
spaces. We continue this process for the whole message. Once the message is encrypted,
a carrier takes the encrypted version to the destination, where the process is reversed.
• Original message:
MISSION ACCOMPLISHED
• Encrypted message:
PLVVLRQ DFFRPSOLVKHG
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Today, this technique seems too simplistic to be effective, but in the time of Julius
Caesar, not very many people could read in the first place, so it provided a high level of
protection. The Caesar cipher, like the atbash cipher, is an example of a monoalphabetic
cipher. Once more people could read and reverse-engineer this type of encryption process,
the cryptographers of that day increased the complexity by creating polyalphabetic ciphers.
In the 16th century in France, Blaise de Vigenère developed a polyalphabetic
substitution cipher for Henry III. This was based on the Caesar cipher, but it increased
the difficulty of the encryption and decryption process. As shown in Figure 8-2, we have a
message that needs to be encrypted, which is SYSTEM SECURITY AND CONTROL.
We have a key with the value of SECURITY. We also have a Vigenère table, or algorithm,
which is really the Caesar cipher on steroids. Whereas the Caesar cipher used a single
shift alphabet (letters were shifted up three places), the Vigenère cipher has 27 shift
alphabets and the letters are shifted up only one place.
So, looking at the example in Figure 8-2, we take the first value of the key, S, and
starting with the first alphabet in our algorithm, trace over to the S column. Then we
look at the first character of the original message that needs to be encrypted, which is S,
and go down to the S row. We follow the column and row and see that they intersect
on the value K. That is the first encrypted value of our message, so we write down K.
Then we go to the next value in our key, which is E, and the next character in the
original message, which is Y. We see that the E column and the Y row intersect at the
cell with the value of C. This is our second encrypted value, so we write that down.
We continue this process for the whole message (notice that the key repeats itself, since
the message is longer than the key). The result is an encrypted message that is sent
to the destination. The destination must have the same algorithm (Vigenère table) and the
same key (SECURITY) to properly reverse the process to obtain a meaningful message.
The evolution of cryptography continued as countries refined it using new methods,
tools, and practices with varying degrees of success. Mary, Queen of Scots, lost her life in the
16th century when an encrypted message she sent was intercepted. During the American
Revolutionary War, Benedict Arnold used a codebook cipher to exchange information on
troop movement and strategic military advancements. By the late 1800s, cryptography was
commonly used in the methods of communication between military factions.
During World War II, encryption devices were used for tactical communication,
which drastically improved with the mechanical and electromechanical technology
that provided the world with telegraphic and radio communication. The rotor cipher
machine, which is a device that substitutes letters using different rotors within the
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Vigenére Table
Repeated
key
SECURITY
SYSTEMSE
SECURITY
CURITYAN
SECURITY
DCONTROL
KCUNVULCUYTCKGTLVGQHKZHJ
Key: SECURITY
Original message:
SYSTEM SECURITY AND CONTROL
Encrypted message:
KCUNVULCUYTCKGTLVGQHKZHJ
Figure 8-2 Polyalphabetic algorithms were developed to increase encryption complexity.
machine, was a huge breakthrough in military cryptography that provided complexity
that proved difficult to break. This work gave way to the most famous cipher machine in
history to date: Germany’s Enigma machine. The Enigma machine had separate rotors,
a plug board, and a reflecting rotor.
The originator of the message would configure the Enigma machine to its initial settings
before starting the encryption process. The operator would type in the first letter of the
message, and the machine would substitute the letter with a different letter and present it
to the operator. This encryption was done by moving the rotors a predefined number of
times. So, if the operator typed in a T as the first character, the Enigma machine might
present an M as the substitution value. The operator would write down the letter M on
his sheet. The operator would then advance the rotors and enter the next letter. Each time
a new letter was to be encrypted, the operator would advance the rotors to a new setting.
This process was followed until the whole message was encrypted. Then the encrypted
text was transmitted over the airwaves, most likely to a German U-boat. The chosen
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PART III
substitution for each letter was dependent upon the rotor setting, so the crucial and secret
part of this process (the key) was the initial setting and how the operators advanced the
rotors when encrypting and decrypting a message. The operators at each end needed to
know this sequence of increments to advance each rotor in order to enable the German
military units to properly communicate.
When computers were invented, the possibilities for encryption methods and devices
expanded exponentially and cryptography efforts increased dramatically. This era brought
unprecedented opportunity for cryptographic designers to develop new encryption
techniques. A well-known and successful project was Lucifer, which was developed at IBM.
Lucifer introduced complex mathematical equations and functions that were later
adopted and modified by the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) to establish the U.S.
Data Encryption Standard (DES) in 1976, a federal government standard. DES was
used worldwide for financial and other transactions, and was embedded into numerous
commercial applications. Though it was cracked in the late 1990s and is no longer
considered secure, DES represented a significant advancement for cryptography. It was
replaced a few years later by the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), which continues
to protect sensitive data to this day.
Cryptography Definitions and Concepts
Encryption is a method of transforming readable data, called plaintext, into a form that
appears to be random and unreadable, which is called ciphertext. Plaintext is in a form
that can be understood either by a person (a document) or by a computer (executable
code). Once plaintext is transformed into ciphertext, neither human nor machine can
properly process it until it is decrypted. This enables the transmission of confidential
information over insecure channels without unauthorized disclosure. When sensitive
data is stored on a computer, it is usually protected by logical and physical access controls. When this same sensitive information is sent over a network, it no longer has the
advantage of these controls and is in a much more vulnerable state.
Plaintext
Encryption
Ciphertext
Decryption
Plaintext
A system or product that provides encryption and decryption is referred to as a
cryptosystem and can be created through hardware components or program code in an
application. The cryptosystem uses an encryption algorithm (which determines how
simple or complex the encryption process will be), keys, and the necessary software
components and protocols. Most algorithms are complex mathematical formulas that
are applied in a specific sequence to the plaintext. Most encryption methods use a secret
value called a key (usually a long string of bits), which works with the algorithm to
encrypt and decrypt the text.
The algorithm, the set of rules also known as the cipher, dictates how enciphering and
deciphering take place. Many of the mathematical algorithms used in computer systems
today are publicly known and are not the secret part of the encryption process. If the
internal mechanisms of the algorithm are not a secret, then something must be: the key.
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A common analogy used to illustrate this point is the use of locks you would purchase
from your local hardware store. Let’s say 20 people bought the same brand of lock. Just
because these people share the same type and brand of lock does not mean they can now
unlock each other’s doors and gain access to their private possessions. Instead, each lock
comes with its own key, and that one key can open only that one specific lock.
In encryption, the key (also known as cryptovariable) is a value that comprises a large
sequence of random bits. Is it just any random number of bits crammed together? Not
really. An algorithm contains a keyspace, which is a range of values that can be used
to construct a key. When the algorithm needs to generate a new key, it uses random
values from this keyspace. The larger the keyspace, the more available values that can be
used to represent different keys—and the more random the keys are, the harder it is for
intruders to figure them out. For example, if an algorithm allows a key length of 2 bits,
the keyspace for that algorithm would be 4, which indicates the total number of different
keys that would be possible. (Remember that we are working in binary and that 22 equals
4.) That would not be a very large keyspace, and certainly it would not take an attacker
very long to find the correct key that was used.
A large keyspace allows for more possible keys. (Today, we are commonly using key
sizes of 128, 256, 512, or even 1,024 bits and larger.) So a key size of 512 bits would
provide 2512 possible combinations (the keyspace). The encryption algorithm should use
the entire keyspace and choose the values to make up the keys as randomly as possible. If a
smaller keyspace were used, there would be fewer values to choose from when generating
a key, as shown in Figure 8-3. This would increase an attacker’s chances of figuring out
the key value and deciphering the protected information.
Keys
Keyspace
Keyspace
Keys
Figure 8-3 Larger keyspaces permit a greater number of possible key values.
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Encrypted message
askfjaoiwenh220va8fjsdnv jaksfue92v8ssk
Intruder obtains the
message but its encryption
makes it useless to her.
askfjaoiwenh220va8fjsdnv jaksfue92v8ssk
PART III
Intruder
Figure 8-4 Without the right key, the captured message is useless to an attacker.
If an eavesdropper captures a message as it passes between two people, she can view
the message, but it appears in its encrypted form and is therefore unusable. Even if this
attacker knows the algorithm that the two people are using to encrypt and decrypt their
information, without the key, this information remains useless to the eavesdropper, as
shown in Figure 8-4.
Cryptosystems
A cryptosystem encompasses all of the necessary components for encryption and decryption to take place. Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) is just one example of a cryptosystem.
A cryptosystem is made up of at least the following:
• Software
• Protocols
• Algorithms
• Keys
Cryptosystems can provide the following services:
• Confidentiality Renders the information unintelligible except by authorized
entities.
• Integrity Ensures that data has not been altered in an unauthorized manner
since it was created, transmitted, or stored.
• Authentication Verifies the identity of the user or system that created the
information.
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• Authorization Provides access to some resource to the authenticated user
or system.
• Nonrepudiation Ensures that the sender cannot deny sending the message.
As an example of how these services work, suppose your boss sends you an e-mail
message stating that you will be receiving a raise that doubles your salary. The message is
encrypted, so you can be sure it really came from your boss (authenticity), that someone
did not alter it before it arrived at your computer (integrity), that no one else was able to
read it as it traveled over the network (confidentiality), and that your boss cannot deny
sending it later when he comes to his senses (nonrepudiation).
Different types of messages and transactions require higher or lower degrees of one
or all of the services that cryptography methods can supply. Military and intelligence
agencies are very concerned about keeping information confidential, so they would
choose encryption mechanisms that provide a high degree of secrecy. Financial
institutions care about confidentiality, but they also care about the integrity of the data
being transmitted, so the encryption mechanism they would choose may differ from
the military’s encryption methods. If messages were accepted that had a misplaced
decimal point or zero, the ramifications could be far reaching in the financial world.
Legal agencies may care most about the authenticity of the messages they receive. If
information received ever needed to be presented in a court of law, its authenticity would
certainly be questioned; therefore, the encryption method used must ensure authenticity,
which confirms who sent the information.
NOTE If David sends a message and then later claims he did not send it,
this is an act of repudiation. When a cryptography mechanism provides
nonrepudiation, the sender cannot later deny he sent the message
(well, he can try to deny it, but the cryptosystem proves otherwise).
The types and uses of cryptography have increased over the years. At one time,
cryptography was mainly used to keep secrets secret (confidentiality), but today we
use cryptography to ensure the integrity of data, to authenticate messages, to confirm
that a message was received, to provide access control, and much more.
Kerckhoffs’ Principle
Auguste Kerckhoffs published a paper in 1883 stating that the only secrecy involved
with a cryptography system should be the key. He claimed that the algorithm should be
publicly known. He asserted that if security were based on too many secrets, there would
be more vulnerabilities to possibly exploit.
So, why do we care what some guy said almost 140 years ago? Because this debate
is still going on. Cryptographers in certain sectors agree with Kerckhoffs’ principle,
because making an algorithm publicly available means that many more people can view
the source code, test it, and uncover any type of flaws or weaknesses. It is the attitude
of “many heads are better than one.” Once someone uncovers some type of flaw, the
developer can fix the issue and provide society with a much stronger algorithm.
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But not everyone agrees with this philosophy. Governments around the world create
their own algorithms that are not released to the public. Their stance is that if a smaller
number of people know how the algorithm actually works, then a smaller number of people
will know how to possibly break it. Cryptographers in the private sector do not agree with
this practice and do not commonly trust algorithms they cannot examine. It is basically the
same as the open-source versus compiled software debate that is in full force today.
The Strength of the Cryptosystem
PART III
The strength of an encryption method comes from the algorithm, the secrecy of the key,
the length of the key, and how they all work together within the cryptosystem. When
strength is discussed in encryption, it refers to how hard it is to figure out the algorithm
or key, whichever is not made public. Attempts to break a cryptosystem usually involve
processing an amazing number of possible values in the hopes of finding the one value
(key) that can be used to decrypt a specific message. The strength of an encryption
method correlates to the amount of necessary processing power, resources, and time
required to break the cryptosystem or to figure out the value of the key.
Breaking a cryptosystem can be accomplished by a brute-force attack, which means trying
every possible key value until the resulting plaintext is meaningful. Depending on the
algorithm and length of the key, this can be an easy task or one that is close to impossible. If
a key can be broken with an Intel Core i5 processor in three hours, the cipher is not strong
at all. If the key can only be broken with the use of a thousand multiprocessing systems over
1.2 million years, then it is pretty darned strong. The introduction of commodity cloud
computing has really increased the threat of brute-force attacks.
The goal when designing an encryption method is to make compromising it too
expensive or too time consuming. Another name for cryptography strength is work
factor, which is an estimate of the effort and resources it would take an attacker to
penetrate a cryptosystem.
Even if the algorithm is very complex and thorough, other issues within encryption
can weaken encryption methods. Because the key is usually the secret value needed to
actually encrypt and decrypt messages, improper protection of the key can weaken the
encryption. Even if a user employs an algorithm that has all the requirements for strong
encryption, including a large keyspace and a large and random key value, if she shares her
key with others, the strength of the algorithm becomes almost irrelevant.
Important elements of encryption are to use an algorithm without flaws, use a large key
size, use all possible values within the keyspace selected as randomly as possible, and protect
the actual key. If one element is weak, it could be the link that dooms the whole process.
One-Time Pad
A one-time pad is a perfect encryption scheme because it is considered unbreakable if
implemented properly. It was invented by Gilbert Vernam in 1917, so sometimes it is
referred to as the Vernam cipher.
This cipher does not use shift alphabets, as do the Caesar and Vigenère ciphers discussed
earlier, but instead uses a pad made up of random values, as shown in Figure 8-5. Our
plaintext message that needs to be encrypted has been converted into bits, and our one-time
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Hello Mom,
I’ve dropped out of
school and decided
to travel. Please
send money.
One-time pad
Message
Ciphertext
Hello Mom,
I’ve dropped out of
school and decided
to travel. Please
send money.
Ciphertext
One-time pad
Message
Figure 8-5 A one-time pad
pad is made up of random bits. This encryption process uses a binary mathematic function
called exclusive-OR, usually abbreviated as XOR.
XOR is an operation that is applied to 2 bits and is a function commonly used in
binary mathematics and encryption methods. When combining the bits, if both values
are the same, the result is 0 (1 XOR 1 = 0). If the bits are different from each other, the
result is 1 (1 XOR 0 = 1). For example:
Message stream:
1
Keystream:
0
Ciphertext stream: 1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
So in our example, the first bit of the message is XORed to the first bit of the one-time
pad, which results in the ciphertext value 1. The second bit of the message is XORed with
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the second bit of the pad, which results in the value 0. This process continues until the
whole message is encrypted. The result is the encrypted message that is sent to the receiver.
In Figure 8-5, we also see that the receiver must have the same one-time pad to decrypt
the message by reversing the process. The receiver takes the first bit of the encrypted
message and XORs it with the first bit of the pad. This results in the plaintext value. The
receiver continues this process for the whole encrypted message until the entire message
is decrypted.
The one-time pad encryption scheme is deemed unbreakable only if the following
things are true about the implementation process:
PART III
• The pad must be used only one time. If the pad is used more than one time, this
might introduce patterns in the encryption process that will aid the eavesdropper
in his goal of breaking the encryption.
• The pad must be at least as long as the message. If it is not as long as the message,
the pad will need to be reused to cover the whole message. This would be the
same thing as using a pad more than one time, which could introduce patterns.
• The pad must be securely distributed and protected at its destination. This is a very
cumbersome process to accomplish, because the pads are usually just individual
pieces of paper that need to be delivered by a secure courier and properly guarded
at each destination.
• The pad must be made up of truly random values. This may not seem like a difficult
task, but even our computer systems today do not have truly random number
generators; rather, they have pseudorandom number generators.
NOTE Generating truly random numbers is very difficult. Most systems use
an algorithmic pseudorandom number generator (PRNG) that takes as its
input a seed value and creates a stream of pseudorandom values from it.
Given the same seed, a PRNG generates the same sequence of values. Truly
random numbers must be based on natural phenomena such as thermal
noise and quantum mechanics.
Although the one-time pad approach to encryption can provide a very high degree of
security, it is impractical in most situations because of all of its different requirements.
Each possible pair of entities that might want to communicate in this fashion must
receive, in a secure fashion, a pad that is as long as, or longer than, the actual message.
This type of key management can be overwhelming and may require more overhead than
it is worth. The distribution of the pad can be challenging, and the sender and receiver
must be perfectly synchronized so each is using the same pad.
EXAM TIP The one-time pad, though impractical for most modern
applications, is the only perfect cryptosystem.
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One-Time Pad Requirements
For a one-time pad encryption scheme to be considered unbreakable, each pad in
the scheme must be
• Made up of truly random values
• Used only one time
• Securely distributed to its destination
• Secured at sender’s and receiver’s sites
• At least as long as the message
Cryptographic Life Cycle
Since most of us will probably not be using one-time pads (the only “perfect” system)
to defend our networks, we have to consider that cryptography, like a fine steak, has a
limited shelf life. Given enough time and resources, any cryptosystem can be broken,
either through analysis or brute force. The cryptographic life cycle is the ongoing process
of identifying your cryptography needs, selecting the right algorithms, provisioning the
needed capabilities and services, and managing keys. Eventually, you determine that your
cryptosystem is approaching the end of its shelf life and you start the cycle all over again.
How can you tell when your algorithms (or choice of keyspaces) are about to go stale?
You need to stay up to date with the cryptologic research community. They are the best
source for early warning that things are going sour. Typically, research papers postulating
weaknesses in an algorithm are followed by academic exercises in breaking the algorithm
under controlled conditions, which are then followed by articles on how it is broken in
general cases. When the first papers come out, it is time to start looking for replacements.
Cryptographic Methods
By far, the most commonly used cryptographic methods today are symmetric key cryptography, which uses symmetric keys (also called secret keys), and asymmetric key cryptography, which uses two different, or asymmetric, keys (also called public and private keys).
Asymmetric key cryptography is also called public key cryptography because one of its keys
can be made public. As we will see shortly, public key cryptography typically uses powers
of prime numbers for encryption and decryption. A variant of this approach uses elliptic
curves, which allows much smaller keys to be just as secure and is (unsurprisingly) called
elliptic curve cryptography (ECC). Though you may not know it, it is likely that you’ve
used ECC at some point to communicate securely on the Web. (More on that later.)
Though these three cryptographic methods are considered secure today (given that you
use good keys), the application of quantum computing to cryptology could dramatically
change this situation. The following sections explain the key points of these four methods of encryption.
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Symmetric Key Cryptography
PART III
In a cryptosystem that uses symmetric key cryptography, the sender and receiver use two
instances of the same key for encryption and decryption, as shown in Figure 8-6. So the
key has dual functionality in that it can carry out both encryption and decryption processes. Symmetric keys are also called secret keys, because this type of encryption relies on
each user to keep the key a secret and properly protected. If an intruder were to get this
key, he could decrypt any intercepted message encrypted with it.
Each pair of users who want to exchange data using symmetric key encryption must
have two instances of the same key. This means that if Dan and Iqqi want to communicate,
both need to obtain a copy of the same key. If Dan also wants to communicate using
symmetric encryption with Norm and Dave, he needs to have three separate keys, one
for each friend. This might not sound like a big deal until Dan realizes that he may
communicate with hundreds of people over a period of several months, and keeping
track and using the correct key that corresponds to each specific receiver can become
a daunting task. If 10 people needed to communicate securely with each other using
symmetric keys, then 45 keys would need to be kept track of. If 100 people were going
to communicate, then 4,950 keys would be involved. The equation used to calculate the
number of symmetric keys needed is
N(N – 1)/2 = number of keys
The security of the symmetric encryption method is completely dependent on how
well users protect their shared keys. This should raise red flags for you if you have ever
had to depend on a whole staff of people to keep a secret. If a key is compromised, then
all messages encrypted with that key can be decrypted and read by an intruder. This
is complicated further by how symmetric keys are actually shared and updated when
necessary. If Dan wants to communicate with Norm for the first time, Dan has to figure
out how to get the right key to Norm securely. It is not safe to just send it in an e-mail
Figure 8-6
When using
symmetric
algorithms,
the sender and
receiver use
the same key
for encryption
and decryption
functions.
Symmetric encryption uses the same keys.
Encrypt
message
Message
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Decrypt
message
Message
Message
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Symmetric Key Cryptosystems Summary
The following outlines the strengths and weaknesses of symmetric key algorithms.
Strengths:
• Much faster (less computationally intensive) than asymmetric systems.
• Hard to break if using a large key size.
Weaknesses:
• Requires a secure mechanism to deliver keys properly.
• Each pair of users needs a unique key, so as the number of individuals
increases, so does the number of keys, possibly making key management
overwhelming.
• Provides confidentiality but not authenticity or nonrepudiation.
Examples:
• Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
• ChaCha20
message, because the key is not protected and can be easily intercepted and used by
attackers. Thus, Dan must get the key to Norm through an out-of-band method. Dan can
save the key on a thumb drive and walk over to Norm’s desk, or have a secure courier
deliver it to Norm. This is a huge hassle, and each method is very clumsy and insecure.
Because both users employ the same key to encrypt and decrypt messages, symmetric
cryptosystems can provide confidentiality, but they cannot provide authentication or
nonrepudiation. There is no way to prove through cryptography who actually sent a
message if two people are using the same key.
If symmetric cryptosystems have so many problems and flaws, why use them at all?
Because they are very fast and can be hard to break. Compared with asymmetric systems,
symmetric algorithms scream in speed. They can encrypt and decrypt relatively quickly
large amounts of data that would take an unacceptable amount of time to encrypt and
decrypt with an asymmetric algorithm. It is also difficult to uncover data encrypted
with a symmetric algorithm if a large key size is used. For many of our applications that
require encryption, symmetric key cryptography is the only option.
The two main types of symmetric algorithms are block ciphers, which work on blocks
of bits, and stream ciphers, which work on one bit at a time.
Block Ciphers
When a block cipher is used for encryption and decryption purposes, the message is
divided into blocks of bits. These blocks are then put through mathematical functions,
one block at a time. Suppose you need to encrypt a message you are sending to your
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mother and you are using a block cipher that uses 64 bits. Your message of 640 bits is
chopped up into 10 individual blocks of 64 bits. Each block is put through a succession
of mathematical formulas, and what you end up with is 10 blocks of encrypted text.
Message
110011 110101
001011 111010
111100 110101
110101 101000
Second block
of plaintext
Third block
of plaintext
100101
110101
100101
100101
101000
101010
Encryption
Encryption
Encryption
010011
101010
010101
101100
101010
001011
First block
of ciphertext
Second block
of ciphertext
Third block
of ciphertext
001010 011010
101000 110101
Message
PART III
Did you know
that Dave dropped
out of college and
joined the circus?
He asked his mom
for money to buy
a tiger, but she
only sent enough
to buy the stripes!
First block
of plaintext
You send this encrypted message to your mother. She has to have the same block
cipher and key, and those 10 ciphertext blocks go back through the algorithm in the
reverse sequence and end up in your plaintext message.
A strong cipher contains the right level of two main attributes: confusion and diffusion.
Confusion is commonly carried out through substitution, while diffusion is carried out by
using transposition. For a cipher to be considered strong, it must contain both of these
attributes to ensure that reverse-engineering is basically impossible. The randomness of
the key values and the complexity of the mathematical functions dictate the level of
confusion and diffusion involved.
In algorithms, diffusion takes place as individual bits of a block are scrambled, or
diffused, throughout that block. Confusion is provided by carrying out complex
substitution functions so the eavesdropper cannot figure out how to substitute the right
values and come up with the original plaintext. Suppose you have 500 wooden blocks
with individual letters written on them. You line them all up to spell out a paragraph
(plaintext). Then you substitute 300 of them with another set of 300 blocks (confusion
through substitution). Then you scramble all of these blocks (diffusion through
transposition) and leave them in a pile. For someone else to figure out your original
message, they would have to substitute the correct blocks and then put them back in the
right order. Good luck.
Confusion pertains to making the relationship between the key and resulting
ciphertext as complex as possible so the key cannot be uncovered from the ciphertext.
Each ciphertext value should depend upon several parts of the key, but this mapping
between the key values and the ciphertext values should seem completely random to
the observer.
Diffusion, on the other hand, means that a single plaintext bit has influence over
several of the ciphertext bits. Changing a plaintext value should change many ciphertext
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values, not just one. In fact, in a strong block cipher, if one plaintext bit is changed, it
will change every ciphertext bit with the probability of 50 percent. This means that if one
plaintext bit changes, then about half of the ciphertext bits will change.
A very similar concept of diffusion is the avalanche effect. If an algorithm follows
strict avalanche effect criteria, this means that if the input to an algorithm is slightly
modified, then the output of the algorithm is changed significantly. So a small change to
the key or the plaintext should cause drastic changes to the resulting ciphertext. The ideas
of diffusion and avalanche effect are basically the same—they were just derived from
different people. Horst Feistel came up with the avalanche term, while Claude Shannon
came up with the diffusion term. If an algorithm does not exhibit the necessary degree
of the avalanche effect, then the algorithm is using poor randomization. This can make
it easier for an attacker to break the algorithm.
Block ciphers use diffusion and confusion in their methods. Figure 8-7 shows a
conceptual example of a simplistic block cipher. It has four block inputs, and each block
is made up of 4 bits. The block algorithm has two layers of 4-bit substitution boxes called
Message (plaintext)—YX
1 0 1 1
Key determines
which S-boxes
are used
and how.
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
0 0 0 1
S-box
S-box
S-box
S-box
S-box
S-box
S-box
S-box
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 1
0 0 0 1
1 1 0 0
Lookup table
1. XOR bit with
1 then 0
2. XOR result
with 0,1,1
3. XOR result
with 1,0
4. XOR result
with 0,0
Encrypted message (ciphertext)—B9
Figure 8-7 A message is divided into blocks of bits, and substitution and transposition functions
are performed on those blocks.
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S-boxes. Each S-box contains a lookup table used by the algorithm as instructions on how
the bits should be encrypted.
Figure 8-7 shows that the key dictates what S-boxes are to be used when scrambling
the original message from readable plaintext to encrypted nonreadable ciphertext. Each
S-box contains the different substitution methods that can be performed on each block.
This example is simplistic—most block ciphers work with blocks of 32, 64, or 128 bits
in size, and many more S-boxes are usually involved.
Stream Ciphers
PART III
As stated earlier, a block cipher performs mathematical functions on blocks of bits. A
stream cipher, on the other hand, does not divide a message into blocks. Instead, a stream
cipher treats the message as a stream of bits and performs mathematical functions on each
bit individually.
When using a stream cipher, a plaintext bit will be transformed into a different
ciphertext bit each time it is encrypted. Stream ciphers use keystream generators, which
produce a stream of bits that is XORed with the plaintext bits to produce ciphertext, as
shown in Figure 8-8.
NOTE This process is very similar to the one-time pad explained earlier. The
individual bits in the one-time pad are used to encrypt the individual bits
of the message through the XOR function, and in a stream algorithm the
individual bits created by the keystream generator are used to encrypt the
bits of the message through XOR also.
In block ciphers, it is the key that determines what functions are applied to the plaintext
and in what order. The key provides the randomness of the encryption process. As stated
earlier, most encryption algorithms are public, so people know how they work. The secret
to the secret sauce is the key. In stream ciphers, the key also provides randomness, so that
the stream of bits that is XORed to the plaintext is as random as possible. This concept
Figure 8-8
With stream
ciphers, the bits
generated by
the keystream
generator are
XORed with
the bits of
the plaintext
message.
Keystream
generator
Plaintext message
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1
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
XOR
Ciphertext message
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Key
Keystream
generator
Keystream
generator
Keystream
Plaintext
Keystream
Ciphertext
Encrypt
Key
Plaintext
Decrypt
Figure 8-9 The sender and receiver must have the same key to generate the same keystream.
is shown in Figure 8-9. As you can see in this graphic, both the sending and receiving
ends must have the same key to generate the same keystream for proper encryption and
decryption purposes.
Initialization Vectors
Initialization vectors (IVs) are random values that are used with algorithms to ensure
patterns are not created during the encryption process. They are used with keys and do
not need to be encrypted when being sent to the destination. If IVs are not used, then
two identical plaintext values that are encrypted with the same key will create the same
ciphertext. Providing attackers with these types of patterns can make their job easier in
breaking the encryption method and uncovering the key. For example, if we have the
plaintext value of “See Spot run” two times within our message, we need to make sure
that even though there is a pattern in the plaintext message, a pattern in the resulting
ciphertext will not be created. So the IV and key are both used by the algorithm to provide more randomness to the encryption process.
A strong and effective stream cipher contains the following characteristics:
• Easy to implement in hardware Complexity in the hardware design makes it
more difficult to verify the correctness of the implementation and can slow it down.
• Long periods of no repeating patterns within keystream values Bits generated
by the keystream are not truly random in most cases, which will eventually lead to
the emergence of patterns; we want these patterns to be rare.
• A keystream not linearly related to the key If someone figures out the keystream
values, that does not mean she now knows the key value.
• Statistically unbiased keystream (as many zeroes as ones) There should be no
dominance in the number of zeroes or ones in the keystream.
Stream ciphers require a lot of randomness and encrypt individual bits at a time. This
requires more processing power than block ciphers require, which is why stream ciphers
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are better suited to be implemented at the hardware level. Because block ciphers do not
require as much processing power, they can be easily implemented at the software level.
Asymmetric Key Cryptography
Asymmetric systems use two different keys
for encryption and decryption purposes.
Figure 8-10
An asymmetric
cryptosystem
Public
key
Private
key
Encrypt
message
Message
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PART III
In symmetric key cryptography, a single secret key is used between entities, whereas in
public key systems, each entity has different, asymmetric keys. The two different asymmetric keys are mathematically related. If a message is encrypted by one key, the other
key is required in order to decrypt the message. One key is called public and the other
one private. The public key can be known to everyone, and the private key must be known
and used only by the owner. Many times, public keys are listed in directories and databases of e-mail addresses so they are available to anyone who wants to use these keys
to encrypt or decrypt data when communicating with a particular person. Figure 8-10
illustrates the use of the different keys.
The public and private keys of an asymmetric cryptosystem are mathematically related,
but if someone gets another person’s public key, she should not be able to figure out the
corresponding private key. This means that if an eavesdropper gets a copy of Bob’s public
key, she can’t employ some mathematical magic and find out Bob’s private key. But if
someone gets Bob’s private key, then there is big trouble—no one other than the owner
should have access to a private key.
If Bob encrypts data with his private key, the receiver must have a copy of Bob’s
public key to decrypt it. The receiver can decrypt Bob’s message and decide to reply to
Bob in an encrypted form. All the receiver needs to do is encrypt her reply with Bob’s
public key, and then Bob can decrypt the message with his private key. It is not possible
to encrypt and decrypt using the same key when using an asymmetric key encryption
technology because, although mathematically related, the two keys are not the same key,
as they are in symmetric cryptography. Bob can encrypt data with his private key, and the
receiver can then decrypt it with Bob’s public key. By decrypting the message with Bob’s
Decrypt message
with different key
Message
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public key, the receiver can be sure the message really came from Bob. A message can be
decrypted with a public key only if the message was encrypted with the corresponding
private key. This provides authentication, because Bob is the only one who is supposed
to have his private key. However, it does not truly provide confidentiality because anyone
with the public key (which is, after all, public) can decrypt it. If the receiver wants to
make sure Bob is the only one who can read her reply, she will encrypt the response with
his public key. Only Bob will be able to decrypt the message because he is the only one
who has the necessary private key.
The receiver can also choose to encrypt data with her private key instead of using
Bob’s public key. Why would she do that? Authentication—she wants Bob to know that
the message came from her and no one else. If she encrypted the data with Bob’s public
key, it does not provide authenticity because anyone can get Bob’s public key. If she uses
her private key to encrypt the data, then Bob can be sure the message came from her and
no one else. Symmetric keys do not provide authenticity, because the same key is used
on both ends. Using one of the secret keys does not ensure the message originated from
a specific individual.
If confidentiality is the most important security service to a sender, she would encrypt
the file with the receiver’s public key. This is called a secure message format because it can
only be decrypted by the person who has the corresponding private key.
If authentication is the most important security service to the sender, then she would
encrypt the data with her private key. This provides assurance to the receiver that the only
person who could have encrypted the data is the individual who has possession of that
private key. If the sender encrypted the data with the receiver’s public key, authentication
is not provided because this public key is available to anyone.
Encrypting data with the sender’s private key is called an open message format
because anyone with a copy of the corresponding public key can decrypt the message.
Confidentiality is not ensured.
Each key type can be used to encrypt and decrypt, so do not get confused and think
the public key is only for encryption and the private key is only for decryption. They
both have the capability to encrypt and decrypt data. However, if data is encrypted with
a private key, it cannot be decrypted with a private key. If data is encrypted with a private
key, it must be decrypted with the corresponding public key.
An asymmetric algorithm works much more slowly than a symmetric algorithm,
because symmetric algorithms carry out relatively simplistic mathematical functions on
the bits during the encryption and decryption processes. They substitute and scramble
(transposition) bits, which is not overly difficult or processor intensive. The reason it is
hard to break this type of encryption is that the symmetric algorithms carry out this type
of functionality over and over again. So a set of bits will go through a long series of being
substituted and scrambled.
Asymmetric algorithms are slower than symmetric algorithms because they use much
more complex mathematics to carry out their functions, which requires more processing
time. Although they are slower, asymmetric algorithms can provide authentication and
nonrepudiation, depending on the type of algorithm being used. Asymmetric systems
also provide for easier and more manageable key distribution than symmetric systems and
do not have the scalability issues of symmetric systems. The reason for these differences
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Asymmetric Key Cryptosystems Summary
The following outlines the strengths and weaknesses of asymmetric key algorithms.
Strengths:
• Better key distribution than symmetric systems.
• Better scalability than symmetric systems.
• Can provide authentication and nonrepudiation.
Weaknesses:
Examples:
• Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA)
• Elliptic curve cryptography (ECC)
• Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA)
PART III
• Works much more slowly than symmetric systems.
• Mathematically intensive tasks.
is that, with asymmetric systems, you can send out your public key to all of the people
you need to communicate with, instead of keeping track of a unique key for each one of
them. The “Hybrid Encryption Methods” section later in this chapter shows how these
two systems can be used together to get the best of both worlds.
TIP Public key cryptography is asymmetric cryptography. The terms can be
used interchangeably.
Table 8-1 summarizes the differences between symmetric and asymmetric algorithms.
Diffie-Hellman Algorithm
The first group to address the shortfalls of symmetric key cryptography decided to attack
the issue of secure distribution of the symmetric key. Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman worked on this problem and ended up developing the first asymmetric key agreement algorithm, called, naturally, Diffie-Hellman.
To understand how Diffie-Hellman works, consider an example. Let’s say that Tanya and
Erika would like to communicate over an encrypted channel by using Diffie-Hellman. They
would both generate a private and public key pair and exchange public keys. Tanya’s software
would take her private key (which is just a numeric value) and Erika’s public key (another
numeric value) and put them through the Diffie-Hellman algorithm. Erika’s software
would take her private key and Tanya’s public key and insert them into the Diffie-Hellman
algorithm on her computer. Through this process, Tanya and Erika derive the same shared
value, which is used to create instances of symmetric keys.
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Attribute
Symmetric
Asymmetric
Keys
One key is shared between two or
more entities.
One entity has a public key, and the
other entity has the corresponding
private key.
Key
exchange
Out-of-band through secure
mechanisms.
A public key is made available to
everyone, and a private key is kept
secret by the owner.
Speed
The algorithm is less complex and faster.
The algorithm is more complex
and slower.
Use
Bulk encryption, which means encrypting
files and communication paths.
Key distribution and digital signatures.
Security
service
provided
Confidentiality.
Confidentiality, authentication, and
nonrepudiation.
Table 8-1 Differences Between Symmetric and Asymmetric Systems
So, Tanya and Erika exchanged information that did not need to be protected
(their public keys) over an untrusted network, and in turn generated the exact same
symmetric key on each system. They both can now use these symmetric keys to
encrypt, transmit, and decrypt information as they communicate with each other.
NOTE The preceding example describes key agreement, which is different
from key exchange, the functionality used by the other asymmetric algorithms
that will be discussed in this chapter. With key exchange functionality, the
sender encrypts the symmetric key with the receiver’s public key before
transmission.
The Diffie-Hellman algorithm enables two systems to generate a symmetric key
securely without requiring a previous relationship or prior arrangements. The algorithm
allows for key distribution, but does not provide encryption or digital signature
functionality. The algorithm is based on the difficulty of calculating discrete logarithms
in a finite field.
The original Diffie-Hellman algorithm is vulnerable to a man-in-the-middle attack,
because no authentication occurs before public keys are exchanged. In our example,
when Tanya sends her public key to Erika, how does Erika really know it is Tanya’s public
key? What if Lance spoofed his identity, told Erika he was Tanya, and sent over his key?
Erika would accept this key, thinking it came from Tanya. Let’s walk through the steps of
how this type of attack would take place, as illustrated in Figure 8-11:
1. Tanya sends her public key to Erika, but Lance grabs the key during transmission
so it never makes it to Erika.
2. Lance spoofs Tanya’s identity and sends over his public key to Erika. Erika now
thinks she has Tanya’s public key.
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Figure 8-11
A man-in-themiddle attack
against a
Diffie-Hellman
key agreement
S1
S2
Tanya
PART III
Lance
S1
S2
3. Erika sends her public key to Tanya, but Lance grabs the key during transmission
so it never makes it to Tanya.
4. Lance spoofs Erika’s identity and sends over his public key to Tanya. Tanya now
thinks she has Erika’s public key.
5. Tanya combines her private key and Lance’s public key and creates symmetric
key S1.
6. Lance combines his private key and Tanya’s public key and creates symmetric
key S1.
7. Erika combines her private key and Lance’s public key and creates symmetric
key S2.
8. Lance combines his private key and Erika’s public key and creates symmetric
key S2.
9. Now Tanya and Lance share a symmetric key (S1) and Erika and Lance share
a different symmetric key (S2). Tanya and Erika think they are sharing a key
between themselves and do not realize Lance is involved.
10. Tanya writes a message to Erika, uses her symmetric key (S1) to encrypt the
message, and sends it.
11. Lance grabs the message and decrypts it with symmetric key S1, reads or modifies
the message and re-encrypts it with symmetric key S2, and then sends it to Erika.
12. Erika takes symmetric key S2 and uses it to decrypt and read the message.
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The countermeasure to this type of attack is to have authentication take place before
accepting someone’s public key. The basic idea is that we use some sort of certificate to
attest the identity of the party on the other side before trusting the data we receive from
it. One of the most common ways to do this authentication is through the use of the RSA
cryptosystem, which we describe next.
RSA
RSA, named after its inventors Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman, is a public key algorithm that is the most popular when it comes to asymmetric algorithms. RSA
is a worldwide de facto standard and can be used for digital signatures, key exchange,
and encryption. It was developed in 1978 at MIT and provides authentication as well as
key encryption.
The security of this algorithm comes from the difficulty of factoring large numbers
into their original prime numbers. The public and private keys are functions of a pair
of large prime numbers, and the necessary activity required to decrypt a message from
ciphertext to plaintext using a private key is comparable to factoring a product into two
prime numbers.
NOTE A prime number is a positive whole number whose only factors
(i.e., integer divisors) are 1 and the number itself.
One advantage of using RSA is that it can be used for encryption and digital signatures.
Using its one-way function, RSA provides encryption and signature verification, and the
inverse direction performs decryption and signature generation.
RSA has been implemented in applications; in operating systems; and at the hardware
level in network interface cards, secure telephones, and smart cards. RSA can be used as a
key exchange protocol, meaning it is used to encrypt the symmetric key to get it securely to
its destination. RSA has been most commonly used with the symmetric algorithm AES.
So, when RSA is used as a key exchange protocol, a cryptosystem generates a symmetric
key to be used with the AES algorithm. Then the system encrypts the symmetric key
with the receiver’s public key and sends it to the receiver. The symmetric key is protected
because only the individual with the corresponding private key can decrypt and extract
the symmetric key.
Diving into Numbers Cryptography is really all about using mathematics to scramble
bits into an undecipherable form and then using the same mathematics in reverse to put the
bits back into a form that can be understood by computers and people. RSA’s mathematics
are based on the difficulty of factoring a large integer into its two prime factors. Put on your
nerdy hat with the propeller and let’s look at how this algorithm works.
The algorithm creates a public key and a private key from a function of large prime
numbers. When data is encrypted with a public key, only the corresponding private key
can decrypt the data. This act of decryption is basically the same as factoring the product
of two prime numbers. So, let’s say Ken has a secret (encrypted message), and for you to
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be able to uncover the secret, you have to take a specific large number and factor it and
come up with the two numbers Ken has written down on a piece of paper. This may
sound simplistic, but the number you must properly factor can be 22048 in size. Not as
easy as you may think.
The following sequence describes how the RSA algorithm comes up with the keys in
the first place:
1. Choose two random large prime numbers, p and q.
2. Generate the product of these numbers: n = pq. n is used as the modulus.
3. Choose a random integer e (the public key) that is greater than 1 but less than
(p – 1)(q – 1). Make sure that e and (p – 1)(q – 1) are relatively prime.
5. The public key = (n, e).
6. The private key = (n, d).
PART III
4. Compute the corresponding private key, d, such that de – 1 is a multiple of
(p – 1)(q – 1).
7. The original prime numbers p and q are discarded securely.
We now have our public and private keys, but how do they work together?
If someone needs to encrypt message m with your public key (e, n), the following
formula results in ciphertext c:
c = me mod n
Then you need to decrypt the message with your private key (d), so the following formula
is carried out:
m = cd mod n
In essence, you encrypt a plaintext message by multiplying it by itself e times (taking
the modulus, of course), and you decrypt it by multiplying the ciphertext by itself d times
(again, taking the modulus). As long as e and d are large enough values, an attacker will
have to spend an awfully long time trying to figure out through trial and error the value
of d. (Recall that we publish the value of e for the whole world to know.)
You may be thinking, “Well, I don’t understand these formulas, but they look simple
enough. Why couldn’t someone break these small formulas and uncover the encryption
key?” Maybe someone will one day. As the human race advances in its understanding
of mathematics and as processing power increases and cryptanalysis evolves, the RSA
algorithm may be broken one day. If we were to figure out how to quickly and more easily
factor large numbers into their original prime values, all of these cards would fall down,
and this algorithm would no longer provide the security it does today. But we have not hit
that bump in the road yet, so we are all happily using RSA in our computing activities.
One-Way Functions A one-way function is a mathematical function that is easier to
compute in one direction than in the opposite direction. An analogy of this is when you
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drop a glass on the floor. Although dropping a glass on the floor is easy, putting all the
pieces back together again to reconstruct the original glass is next to impossible. This
concept is similar to how a one-way function is used in cryptography, which is what the
RSA algorithm, and all other asymmetric algorithms, are based upon.
The easy direction of computation in the one-way function that is used in the RSA
algorithm is the process of multiplying two large prime numbers. If I asked you to
multiply two prime numbers, say 79 and 73, it would take you just a few seconds to
punch that into a calculator and come up with the product (5,767). Easy. Now, suppose
I asked you to find out which two numbers, when multiplied together, produce the value
5,767. This is called factoring and, when the factors involved are large prime numbers,
it turns out to be a really hard problem. This difficulty in factoring the product of large
prime numbers is what provides security for RSA key pairs.
As explained earlier in this chapter, work factor is the amount of time and resources
it would take for someone to break an encryption method. In asymmetric algorithms,
the work factor relates to the difference in time and effort that carrying out a one-way
function in the easy direction takes compared to carrying out a one-way function in the
hard direction. In most cases, the larger the key size, the longer it would take for the
adversary to carry out the one-way function in the hard direction (decrypt a message).
The crux of this section is that all asymmetric algorithms provide security by using
mathematical equations that are easy to perform in one direction and next to impossible
to perform in the other direction. The “hard” direction is based on a “hard” mathematical
problem. RSA’s hard mathematical problem requires factoring large numbers into their
original prime numbers.
Elliptic Curve Cryptography
The one-way function in RSA has survived cryptanalysis for over four decades but eventually will be cracked simply because we keep building computers that are faster. Sooner
or later, computers will be able to factor the products of ever-larger prime numbers in
reasonable times, at which point we would need to either ditch RSA or figure out how to
use larger keys. Anticipating this eventuality, cryptographers found an even better trapdoor in elliptic curves. An elliptic curve, such as the one shown in Figure 8-12, is the set
of points that satisfies a specific mathematical equation such as this one:
y2 = x3 + ax + b
Elliptic curves have two properties that are useful for cryptography. The first is that
they are symmetrical about the X axis. This means that the top and bottom parts of the
curve are mirror images of each other. The second useful property is that a straight line
will intersect them in no more than three points. With these properties in mind, you can
define a “dot” function that, given two points on the curve, gives you a third point on the
flip side of it. Figure 8-12 shows how P dot Q = R. You simply follow the line through
P and Q to find its third point of intersection on the curve (which could be between
the two), and then drop down to that point R on the mirror image (in this case) below
the X axis. You can keep going from there, so R dot P gives you another point that is
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Figure 8-12
Elliptic curve
Q
PART III
P
R=P+Q
somewhere to the left and up from Q on the curve. If you keep “dotting” the original
point P with the result of the previous “dot” operation n times (for some reasonably large
value of n), you end up with a point that is really hard for anyone to guess or brute-force
if they don’t know the value of n. If you do know that value, then computing the final
point is pretty easy. That is what makes this a great one-way function.
An elliptic curve cryptosystem (ECC) is a public key cryptosystem that can be described
by a prime number (the equivalent of the modulus value in RSA), a curve equation, and a
public point on the curve. The private key is some number d, and the corresponding public
key e is the public point on the elliptic curve “dotted” with itself d times. Computing the
private key from the public key in this kind of cryptosystem (i.e., reversing the one-way
function) requires calculating the elliptic curve discrete logarithm function, which turns
out to be really, really hard.
ECC provides much of the same functionality RSA provides: digital signatures, secure
key distribution, and encryption. One differing factor is ECC’s efficiency. ECC is more
efficient than RSA and any other asymmetric algorithm. To illustrate this, an ECC key of
256 bits offers the equivalent protection of an RSA key of 3,072 bits. This is particularly
useful because some devices have limited processing capacity, storage, power supply, and
bandwidth, such as wireless devices and mobile telephones. With these types of devices,
efficiency of resource use is very important. ECC provides encryption functionality,
requiring a smaller percentage of the resources compared to RSA and other algorithms,
so it is used in these types of devices.
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Quantum Cryptography
Both RSA and ECC rely on the difficulty of reversing one-way functions. But what if we
were able to come up with a cryptosystem in which it was impossible (not just difficult)
to do this? This is the promise of quantum cryptography, which, despite all the hype, is
still very much in its infancy. Quantum cryptography is the field of scientific study that
applies quantum mechanics to perform cryptographic functions. The most promising
application of this field, and the one we may be able to use soonest, provides a solution
to the key distribution problem associated with symmetric key cryptosystems.
Quantum key distribution (QKD) is a system that generates and securely distributes
encryption keys of any length between two parties. Though we could, in principle, use
anything that obeys the principles of quantum mechanics, photons (the tiny particles that
make up light) are the most convenient particles to use for QKD. It turns out photons
are polarized or spin in ways that can be described as vertical, horizontal, diagonal left
(–45o), and diagonal right (45o). If we put a polarized filter in front of a detector, any
photon that makes it to that detector will have the polarization of its filter. Two types
of filters are commonly used in QKD. The first is rectilinear and allows vertically and
horizontally polarized photons through. The other is a (you guessed it) diagonal filter,
which allows both diagonally left and diagonally right polarized photons through. It
is important to note that the only way to measure the polarization on a photon is to
essentially destroy it: either it is blocked by the filter if the polarizations are different or
it is absorbed by the sensor if it makes it through.
Let’s suppose that Alice wants to securely send an encryption key to Bob using QKD.
They would use the following process.
1. They agree beforehand that photons that have either vertical or diagonal-right
polarization represent the number zero and those with horizontal or diagonal-left
polarization represent the number one.
2. The polarization of each photon is then generated randomly but is known to Alice.
3. Since Bob doesn’t know what the correct spins are, he’ll pass them through filters,
randomly detect the polarization for each photon, and record his results. Because
he’s just guessing the polarizations, on average, he’ll get half of them wrong,
as we can see in Figure 8-13. He will, however, know which filter he applied to
each photon, whether he got it right or wrong.
4. Once Alice is done sending bits, Bob will send her a message over an insecure
channel (they don’t need encryption for this), telling her the sequence of
polarizations he recorded.
5. Alice will compare Bob’s sequence to the correct sequence and tell him which
polarizations he got right and which ones he got wrong.
6. They both discard Bob’s wrong guesses and keep the remaining sequence of bits.
They now have a shared secret key through this process, which is known as key
distillation.
But what if there’s a third, malicious, party eavesdropping on the exchange? Suppose
this is Eve and she wants to sniff the secret key so she can intercept whatever messages
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Figure 8-13
Key distillation
between Alice
and Bob
Alice’s bit
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
Alice’s basis
+
+
×
+
×
×
×
+
+
×
×
×
+
×
+
+
Alice’s polarization
Bob’s filter
Bob’s measurement
Shared secret key
0
1
0
1
PART III
Alice and Bob encrypt with it. Since the quantum state of photons is destroyed when
they are filtered or measured, she would have to follow the same process as Bob intends
to and then generate a new photon stream to forward to Bob. The catch is that Eve (just
like Bob) will get 50 percent of the measurements wrong, but (unlike Bob) now has to
guess what random basis was used and send these guesses to Bob. When Alice and Bob
compare polarizations, they’ll note a much higher error rate than normal and be able to
infer that someone was eavesdropping.
If you’re still awake and paying attention, you may be wondering, “Why use the
polarization filters in the first place? Why not just capture the photon and see how
it’s spinning?” The answer gets complicated in a hurry, but the short version is that
polarization is a random quantum state until you pass the photon through the filter and
force the photon to “decide” between the two polarizations. Eve cannot just re-create the
photon’s quantum state like she would do with conventional data. Keep in mind that
quantum mechanics are pretty weird but lead to unconditional security of the shared key.
Now that we have a basic idea of how QKD works, let’s think back to our discussion
of the only perfect and unbreakable cryptosystem: the one-time pad. You may recall that
it has five major requirements that largely make it impractical. We list these here and
show how QKD addresses each of them rather nicely:
• Made up of truly random values Quantum mechanics deals with attributes of
matter and energy that are truly random, unlike the pseudo-random numbers we
can generate algorithmically on a traditional computer.
• Used only one time Since QKD solves the key distribution problem,
it allows us to transmit as many unique keys as we want, reducing the temptation
(or need) to reuse keys.
• Securely distributed to its destination If someone attempts to eavesdrop on
the key exchange, they will have to do so actively in a way that, as we’ve seen, is
pretty much guaranteed to produce evidence of their tampering.
• Secured at sender’s and receiver’s sites OK, this one is not really addressed by
QKD directly, but anyone going through all this effort would presumably not
mess this one up, right?
• At least as long as the message Since QKD can be used for arbitrarily long key
streams, we can easily generate keys that are at least as long as the longest message
we’d like to send.
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Now, before you get all excited and try to buy a QKD system for your organization,
keep in mind that this technology is not quite ready for prime time. To be clear,
commercial QKD devices are available as a “plug and play” option. Some banks in
Geneva, Switzerland, use QKD to secure bank-to-bank traffic, and the Canton of Geneva
uses it to secure online voting. The biggest challenge to widespread adoption of QKD at
this point is the limitation on the distance at which photons can be reliably transmitted.
As we write these lines, the maximum range for QKD is just over 500 km over fiberoptic wires. While space-to-ground QKD has been demonstrated using satellites and
ground stations, drastically increasing the reach of such systems, it remains extremely
difficult due to atmospheric interference. Once this problem is solved, we should be able
to leverage a global, satellite-based QKD network.
Hybrid Encryption Methods
Up to this point, we have figured out that symmetric algorithms are fast but have some
drawbacks (lack of scalability, difficult key management, and provide only confidentiality).
Asymmetric algorithms do not have these drawbacks but are very slow. We just can’t seem
to win. So we turn to a hybrid system that uses symmetric and asymmetric encryption
methods together.
Asymmetric and Symmetric Algorithms Used Together
Asymmetric and symmetric cryptosystems are used together very frequently. In this hybrid
approach, the two technologies are used in a complementary manner, with each performing a different function. A symmetric algorithm creates keys used for encrypting bulk
data, and an asymmetric algorithm creates keys used for automated key distribution. Each
algorithm has its pros and cons, so using them together can be the best of both worlds.
When a symmetric key is used for bulk data encryption, this key is used to encrypt the
message you want to send. When your friend gets the message you encrypted, you want
him to be able to decrypt it, so you need to send him the necessary symmetric key to use to
decrypt the message. You do not want this key to travel unprotected, because if the message
were intercepted and the key were not protected, an eavesdropper could intercept the
message that contains the necessary key to decrypt your message and read your information.
If the symmetric key needed to decrypt your message is not protected, there is no use in
encrypting the message in the first place. So you should use an asymmetric algorithm to
encrypt the symmetric key, as depicted in Figure 8-14. Why use the symmetric key on the
message and the asymmetric key on the symmetric key? As stated earlier, the asymmetric
algorithm takes longer because the math is more complex. Because your message is most
likely going to be longer than the length of the key, you use the faster algorithm (symmetric)
on the message and the slower algorithm (asymmetric) on the key.
How does this actually work? Let’s say Bill is sending Paul a message that Bill wants
only Paul to be able to read. Bill encrypts his message with a secret key, so now Bill
has ciphertext and a symmetric key. The key needs to be protected, so Bill encrypts the
symmetric key with an asymmetric key. Remember that asymmetric algorithms use private
and public keys, so Bill will encrypt the symmetric key with Paul’s public key. Now Bill has
ciphertext from the message and ciphertext from the symmetric key. Why did Bill encrypt
the symmetric key with Paul’s public key instead of his own private key? Because if Bill
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Message and key will be sent to receiver.
Symmetric key
encrypted with an
asymmetric key
Receiver decrypts
and retrieves the
symmetric key,
then uses this
symmetric key to
decrypt the
message.
Message encrypted
with symmetric key
PART III
Figure 8-14 In a hybrid system, the asymmetric key is used to encrypt the symmetric key, and the
symmetric key is used to encrypt the message
encrypted it with his own private key, then anyone with Bill’s public key could decrypt it
and retrieve the symmetric key. However, Bill does not want anyone who has his public
key to read his message to Paul. Bill only wants Paul to be able to read it. So Bill encrypts
the symmetric key with Paul’s public key. If Paul has done a good job protecting his private
key, he will be the only one who can read Bill’s message.
Paul receives Bill’s message, and Paul uses his private key to decrypt the symmetric
key. Paul then uses the symmetric key to decrypt the message. Paul then reads Bill’s very
important and confidential message that asks Paul how his day is.
Symmetric
key
Decrypts with Paul’s
private key
Paul reads Bill’s
message.
Symmetric
key
Encrypted with Paul’s
public key
Message
Message
Decrypts with
symmetric key
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Bill
Encrypted with the
symmetric key
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Now, when we say that Bill is using this key to encrypt and that Paul is using that key
to decrypt, those two individuals do not necessarily need to find the key on their hard
drive and know how to properly apply it. We have software to do this for us—thank
goodness.
If this is your first time with these issues and you are struggling, don’t worry. Just
remember the following points:
• An asymmetric algorithm performs encryption and decryption by using public
and private keys that are related to each other mathematically.
• A symmetric algorithm performs encryption and decryption by using a shared
secret key.
• A symmetric key is used to encrypt and/or decrypt the actual message.
• Public keys are used to encrypt the symmetric key for secure key exchange.
• A secret key is synonymous with a symmetric key.
• An asymmetric key refers to a public or private key.
So, that is how a hybrid system works. The symmetric algorithm uses a secret key that
will be used to encrypt the bulk, or the message, and the asymmetric key encrypts the
secret key for transmission.
To ensure that some of these concepts are driven home, ask these questions of yourself
without reading the answers provided:
1. If a symmetric key is encrypted with a receiver’s public key, what security
service(s) is (are) provided?
2. If data is encrypted with the sender’s private key, what security service(s) is (are)
provided?
3. If the sender encrypts data with the receiver’s private key, what security services(s)
is (are) provided?
4. Why do we encrypt the message with the symmetric key?
5. Why don’t we encrypt the symmetric key with another symmetric key?
Now check your answers:
1. Confidentiality, because only the receiver’s private key can be used to
decrypt the symmetric key, and only the receiver should have access to this
private key.
2. Authenticity of the sender and nonrepudiation. If the receiver can decrypt the
encrypted data with the sender’s public key, then she knows the data was encrypted
with the sender’s private key.
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3. None, because no one but the owner of the private key should have access to it.
Trick question.
4. Because the asymmetric key algorithm is too slow.
5. We need to get the necessary symmetric key to the destination securely, which can
only be carried out through asymmetric cryptography via the use of public and
private keys to provide a mechanism for secure transport of the symmetric key.
Session Keys
PART III
A session key is a single-use symmetric key that is used to encrypt messages between two
users during a communication session. A session key is no different from the symmetric
key described in the previous section, but it is only good for one communication session
between users.
If Tanya has a symmetric key she uses to always encrypt messages between Lance
and herself, then this symmetric key would not be regenerated or changed. They would
use the same key every time they communicated using encryption. However, using
the same key repeatedly increases the chances of the key being captured and the secure
communication being compromised. If, on the other hand, a new symmetric key were
generated each time Lance and Tanya wanted to communicate, as shown in Figure 8-15,
it would be used only during their one dialogue and then destroyed. If they wanted to
communicate an hour later, a new session key would be created and shared.
1.
2.
3.
Session key
Encrypted with
Tanya’s public
key
Tanya
4.
Lance
5.
Session key
1) Tanya sends Lance her public key.
2) Lance generates a random session key and encrypts it using Tanya’s public key.
3) Lance sends the session key, encrypted with Tanya’s public key, to Tanya.
4) Tanya decrypts Lance’s message with her private key and now has a copy of the session key.
5) Tanya and Lance use this session key to encrypt and decrypt messages to each other.
Figure 8-15 A session key is generated so all messages can be encrypted during one particular
session between users.
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A session key provides more protection than static symmetric keys because it is valid
for only one session between two computers. If an attacker were able to capture the
session key, she would have a very small window of time to use it to try to decrypt
messages being passed back and forth.
In cryptography, almost all data encryption takes place through the use of session
keys. When you write an e-mail and encrypt it before sending it over the wire, it is
actually being encrypted with a session key. If you write another message to the same
person one minute later, a brand-new session key is created to encrypt that new message.
So if an eavesdropper happens to figure out one session key, that does not mean she has
access to all other messages you write and send off.
When two computers want to communicate using encryption, they must first go
through a handshaking process. The two computers agree on the encryption algorithms
that will be used and exchange the session key that will be used for data encryption. In a
sense, the two computers set up a virtual connection between each other and are said to
be in session. When this session is done, each computer tears down any data structures it
built to enable this communication to take place, releases the resources, and destroys the
session key. These things are taken care of by operating systems and applications in the
background, so a user would not necessarily need to be worried about using the wrong
type of key for the wrong reason. The software will handle this, but it is important for
security professionals to understand the difference between the key types and the issues
that surround them.
CAUTION Private and symmetric keys should not be available in cleartext.
This may seem obvious to you, but there have been several implementations
over time that have allowed for this type of compromise to take place.
Unfortunately, we don’t always seem to be able to call an apple an apple. In many
types of technology, the exact same thing can have more than one name. For example,
symmetric cryptography can be referred to as any of the following:
• Secret key cryptography
• Session key cryptography
• Shared key cryptography
• Private key cryptography
We know the difference between secret keys (static) and session keys (dynamic), but
what is this “shared key” and “private key” mess? Well, using the term “shared key” makes
sense, because the sender and receiver are sharing one single key. It’s unfortunate that the
term “private key” can be used to describe symmetric cryptography, because it only adds
more confusion to the difference between symmetric cryptography (where one symmetric
key is used) and asymmetric cryptography (where both a private and public key are used).
You just need to remember this little quirk and still understand the difference between
symmetric and asymmetric cryptography.
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Integrity
Cryptography is mainly concerned with protecting the confidentiality of information. It
can also, however, allow us to ensure its integrity. In other words, how can we be certain
that a message we receive or a file we download has not been modified? For this type of
protection, hash algorithms are required to successfully detect intentional and unintentional unauthorized modifications to data. However, as we will see shortly, it is possible
for attackers to modify data, recompute the hash, and deceive the recipient. In some
cases, we need a more robust approach to message integrity verification. Let’s start off
with hash algorithms and their characteristics.
Hashing Functions
PART III
A one-way hash is a function that takes a variable-length string (a message) and produces
a fixed-length value called a hash value. For example, if Kevin wants to send a message
to Maureen and he wants to ensure the message does not get altered in an unauthorized
fashion while it is being transmitted, he would calculate a hash value for the message and
append it to the message itself. When Maureen receives the message, she performs the
same hashing function Kevin used and then compares her result with the hash value sent
with the message. If the two values are the same, Maureen can be sure the message was not
altered during transmission. If the two values are different, Maureen knows the message
was altered, either intentionally or unintentionally, and she discards the message.
The hashing algorithm is not a secret—it is publicly known. The secrecy of the oneway hashing function is its “one-wayness.” The function is run in only one direction,
not the other direction. This is different from the one-way function used in public key
cryptography, in which security is provided based on the fact that, without knowing a
trapdoor, it is very hard to perform the one-way function backward on a message and
come up with readable plaintext. However, one-way hash functions are never used in
reverse; they create a hash value and call it a day. The receiver does not attempt to reverse
the process at the other end, but instead runs the same hashing function one way and
compares the two results.
EXAM TIP Keep in mind that hashing is not the same thing as encryption;
you can’t “decrypt” a hash. You can only run the same hashing algorithm
against the same piece of text in an attempt to derive the same hash or
fingerprint of the text.
Various Hashing Algorithms
As stated earlier, the goal of using a one-way hash function is to provide a fingerprint of
the message. If two different messages produce the same hash value, it would be easier for
an attacker to break that security mechanism because patterns would be revealed.
A strong one-hash function should not provide the same hash value for two or more
different messages. If a hashing algorithm takes steps to ensure it does not create the same
hash value for two or more messages, it is said to be collision free.
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Algorithm
Description
Message Digest 5 (MD5) algorithm
Produces a 128-bit hash value. More complex
than MD4.
Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA)
Produces a 160-bit hash value. Used with Digital
Signature Algorithm (DSA).
SHA-1, SHA-256, SHA-384, SHA-512
Updated versions of SHA. SHA-1 produces a
160-bit hash value, SHA-256 creates a 256-bit
value, and so on.
Table 8-2 Various Hashing Algorithms Available
Strong cryptographic hash functions have the following characteristics:
• The hash should be computed over the entire message.
• The hash should be a one-way function so messages are not disclosed by their
values.
• Given a message and its hash value, computing another message with the same
hash value should be impossible.
• The function should be resistant to birthday attacks (explained in the upcoming
section “Attacks Against One-Way Hash Functions”).
Table 8-2 and the following sections quickly describe some of the available hashing
algorithms used in cryptography today.
MD5 MD5 was created by Ron Rivest in 1991 as a better version of his previous
message digest algorithm (MD4). It produces a 128-bit hash, but the algorithm is subject
to collision attacks, and is therefore no longer suitable for applications like digital
certificates and signatures that require collision attack resistance. It is still commonly
used for file integrity checksums, such as those required by some intrusion detection
systems, as well as for forensic evidence integrity.
SHA SHA was designed by the NSA and published by the National Institute of Standards
and Technology (NIST) to be used with the Digital Signature Standard (DSS), which is
discussed a bit later in more depth. SHA was designed to be used in digital signatures and
was developed when a more secure hashing algorithm was required for U.S. government
applications. It produces a 160-bit hash value, or message digest. This is then inputted
into an asymmetric algorithm, which computes the signature for a message.
SHA is similar to MD5. It has some extra mathematical functions and produces a
160-bit hash instead of a 128-bit hash, which initially made it more resistant to collision
attacks. Newer versions of this algorithm (collectively known as the SHA-2 and SHA-3
families) have been developed and released: SHA-256, SHA-384, and SHA-512. The
SHA-2 and SHA-3 families are considered secure for all uses.
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Attacks Against One-Way Hash Functions
A strong hashing algorithm does not produce the same hash value for two different messages. If the algorithm does produce the same value for two distinctly different messages,
this is called a collision. An attacker can attempt to force a collision, which is referred
to as a birthday attack. This attack is based on the mathematical birthday paradox that
exists in standard statistics. Now hold on to your hat while we go through this—it is a
bit tricky:
How many people must be in the same room for the chance to be greater than
even that another person has the same birthday as you?
Answer: 253
This seems a bit backward, but the difference is that in the first instance, you are
looking for someone with a specific birthday date that matches yours. In the second
instance, you are looking for any two people who share the same birthday. There is a
higher probability of finding two people who share a birthday than of finding another
person who shares your birthday. Or, stated another way, it is easier to find two matching
values in a sea of values than to find a match for just one specific value.
Why do we care? The birthday paradox can apply to cryptography as well. Since any
random set of 23 people most likely (at least a 50 percent chance) includes two people
who share a birthday, by extension, if a hashing algorithm generates a message digest
of 60 bits, there is a high likelihood that an adversary can find a collision using only
230 inputs.
The main way an attacker can find the corresponding hashing value that matches
a specific message is through a brute-force attack. If he finds a message with a specific
hash value, it is equivalent to finding someone with a specific birthday. If he finds two
messages with the same hash values, it is equivalent to finding two people with the same
birthday.
The output of a hashing algorithm is n, and to find a message through a brute-force
attack that results in a specific hash value would require hashing 2n random messages.
To take this one step further, finding two messages that hash to the same value woul