S T U D E N T
L E A R N I N G
D E V E L O P M E N T
C E N T R E
Presentation skills
Presentation
skills
Jenny Eastwood
De Montfort University Library
Series editors: Anne Hilton and Sue Robinson
Originally sponsored by the ELI
©1995 De Montfort University. All rights reserved.
Contents
1
Introduction .........................................................................3
Objectives ...............................................................................................3
2
What is a presentation? .......................................................4
2.1 Characteristics of presentations.....................................................4
2.2 What presentations are not ............................................................5
2.3 Essential preparation .....................................................................6
3
Selecting the content for your presentation ......................8
3.1 Too many ideas? .............................................................................8
3.2 Too few ideas? ..............................................................................10
3.3 What does your audience need to know? ....................................10
3.4 Selecting your main idea ..............................................................12
3.5 The ‘rule of 3’ ...............................................................................14
4
Structuring your presentation ..........................................17
4.1 ‘Where do I begin?’ Introduction ................................................17
4.2 ‘Why should they listen to me?’ Motivation raisers ....................19
4.3 ‘What’s coming next?’ The outline of content ............................20
4.4 ‘Down to the nitty gritty.’ Main content, section by section ......21
4.5 ‘Reinforce your message.’ Recap each section ...........................22
4.6 ‘How do I change to a new subject?’ Making transitions ...........23
4.7 ‘How do I end?’ Conclusions .......................................................24
5
Visual, auditory and computer aids ..................................27
5.1 Visual aids .....................................................................................27
5.2 When should you use visual aids? ...............................................28
5.3 Some tips on preparing your visual aids ......................................30
5.4 Disadvantages of visual aids .........................................................31
5.5 Using handouts .............................................................................32
6
Preparing presentation notes ...........................................34
6.1 The written vs. the spoken word .................................................34
6.2 Perform – don’t read – your presentation ...................................34
6.3 Transforming a written report into a presentation ....................35
6.4 The language of presentations .....................................................36
6.5 Tips for making notes...................................................................37
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Personal preparation .........................................................40
7.1 Preliminary checklist ....................................................................40
7.2 Your audience ...............................................................................41
7.3 Rehearsal ......................................................................................42
7.4 Stage fright ...................................................................................42
8
Delivering your presentation ............................................44
8.1 Don’ts ...........................................................................................44
8.2 Dos ................................................................................................44
9
Handling questions ............................................................46
9.1 Why take questions? ....................................................................46
9.2 Types of question .........................................................................47
9.3 Handling questions ......................................................................48
9.4 The really awful question .............................................................50
10 Trouble-shooting ...............................................................53
10.1 ‘What if I run out of time?’ ..........................................................53
10.2 ‘What if I run out of material?’ ....................................................53
10.3 ‘What if I make some awful mistake when I’m half way ................
through?’ .......................................................................................54
11 Evaluating Presentations ..................................................56
12 Bibliography ......................................................................57
Appendix 1: Assessing a spoken presentation .....................................59
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1
Introduction
By the time you have worked through this package you will have all
the information necessary to develop and deliver a presentation to an
audience. You don’t need any previous experience of giving
presentations. All the information in this package assumes you are a
complete novice. You may, of course, skip any sections about which
you do already have information or experience.
Objectives
At the end of the study pack you should be able to:
• understand what presentations are, and what they are not
• know some of the advantages and disadvantages of
presentations
• design a good presentation using content from your own
subject area
• design and use appropriate visual aids
• understand the main principles of delivering presentations
• be able to improve your presentation skills with each
presentation.
This package is designed to allow you to work at your own pace,
experiment, make mistakes, and enjoy the experience of preparing and
delivering your presentation.
The activities along the way are designed to help you develop your
skills and understanding. Please do them in the order presented in the
workpack.
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2
What is a presentation?
2.1
Characteristics of presentations
Activity 1
What does the term ‘presentation’ mean to you? List some
characteristics of presentations.
a ................................................................................................................
b ................................................................................................................
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d ................................................................................................................
e ................................................................................................................
f .................................................................................................................
g ................................................................................................................
A presentation is a particular way of giving information.
There are, of course, many ways in which information is shared.
Presentations combine factual information with the personal
touch of a real person preparing the information for a particular
audience.
Presentations now form a part of many jobs. They are used for:
• training and updating
• keeping people informed
• impressing potential customers
• creating a forum for sharing information among workgroups.
They are also used in many diploma and degree courses to:
• foster students’ communication skills and abilities
• inform other students.
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Activity 2
Have you been part of the audience during a good presentation?
Why do you remember it? Can you identify the characteristics which
made it memorable?
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A good presentation usually has some – but seldom all! – of the
following characteristics:
• information is clear and easily understood
• the audience is led through an orderly sequence of ideas
• facts are represented visually in graphs or charts
• the presenter has a sense of humour or uses other techniques
to keep the audience interested
• the level of information presented is geared towards the needs
of the audience.
2.2
What presentations are not
Presentations are not:
• just getting someone to stand up and speak for a set amount of
time while the audience endures until the end
• just an opportunity for you to show how much you know
• just about entertaining your audience.
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2.3
Essential preparation
Presentations are a particular way of communicating with people and
of getting your message across. This requires some preliminary
thought and preparation.
Before you deliver your presentation there are four procedures you
must complete. These are detailed in the following sections. They are:
• selecting the content of your presentation
• structuring the presentation
• choosing your visual, auditory or other teaching aids
• preparing the notes you will use during your presentation
Time given to some personal preparation to deal with things like stage
fright will also pay off. More about this later!
Activity 3 – section 2 recap
a What is a presentation?
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b What are some characteristics of a good presentation?
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c
List some things a presentation is not. Add to this list from
your own experience.
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3
Selecting the content for your presentation
3.1
Too many ideas?
When you stand up in front of your audience, what will you tell them?
You only have a limited amount of time. You can’t tell them
everything you know! Presentations require you to choose carefully
what you will say. The following activities are designed to help you
select the content for your presentation.
Activity 4
What is the title or subject of your presentation?
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Now identify all the information you have available. This will include
things like class notes, readings and references, data sheets, graphs
and tables, information from text books, journals or papers,
illustrations, computer displays....
List all the information you have about your presentation topic. You
may wish (or need!) to use a separate page.
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By now you will have noticed that you know – or have access to –
potentially a huge amount of information relevant to your topic.
Note: If this is not true for you, turn immediately to the next page!
Strength and courage are now required.
You need to eliminate material, unless you intend to hand out pillows
as you begin your presentation and are prepared to continue talking
above the snores. The secret of selecting information for a
presentation is to give your audience just enough to stimulate and
inform.
Look critically at the list you made above. Be ruthless and identify
the following:
a Just enough background material to help the audience get
oriented to the topic.
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b Just enough information about your main topic to get your ideas
across.
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c
Just enough examples, illustrations or demonstrations to
support the point you are making.
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You will notice the spaces available for this activity are quite small!
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3.2
Too few ideas?
This is a less common problem than having too much information, but
it is obviously a barrier to giving an effective presentation.
If you find you are unable to list more than a couple of ideas for your
presentation topic, these are three likely causes.
a You’ve selected (or been allocated) a topic which doesn’t really
interest you.
Solution: Trade topics with a colleague, alter your assigned topic
to increase interest, discuss with your tutor.
b You have not yet begun to gather information about your topic.
Solution: Been to the library lately? Attended the lecture course?
Read the class notes and handouts?
c
The topic is itself too limited to warrant the amount of
presentation time allocated.
Solution: Major re-think required here. Discuss with your tutor if
yours is an assigned topic or consider alternative topics if you’ve
chosen this yourself.
A warning
Don’t just ignore your lack of information and hope everything will
somehow fall into place on the day. It won’t. Take positive action now
and avoid the inevitable trauma which results as you run out of
material after the first five minutes.
3.3
What does your audience need to know?
Activity 5
Who will be listening to your presentation? What, if anything, do they
know already about your topic? Answering these questions will help
you pitch the level of your presentation to suit your listeners. It is your
audience who should be the main factor influencing what your
presentation contains and what it does not.
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For example, taking the presentation topic you wrote above, list
briefly how you might change the content to make the topic suitable
for different audiences.
a Fresher students on your course
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b Professors in your department
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Local business people
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d Your fellow students
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e Your friends who have no knowledge of the field
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Content should change each time as you adapt your information to
what your audience needs to know, or would be interested in and
capable of understanding. In some cases you can anticipate a high
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level of preliminary knowledge about your topic. In other cases there
will be none.
So who will be in your audience? Tell them what they need to
know, not all you know.
3.4
Selecting your main idea
A good presentation should have one main idea, theme or argument.
This will, of course, be supplemented by quite a bit of additional
information, but you must identify a central idea to form the focus of
your presentation. If you don’t, you run the risk of trying to cover too
much in too little detail to be of interest to your listeners.
In addition, the time allocated for most presentations is only sufficient
for you to be able to explore one main idea in any detail. Unless you
really require your presentation content to cover a range of topics at a
superficial level, choose one idea to be the central topic. Eliminate
others which may be competing for precious time and space.
Activity 6
From the list below, identify those items which might qualify as main
ideas for a fifteen minute presentation:
a Attracting hedgehogs to your garden
b Everything I know about computing
c
Sixteen interesting acts of parliament
d
My flatmate’s table manners
e The development of the Trade Union Movement to 1992
f
Social skills for scientists
g Why some buildings fall down
h The modern American novel
i
Dutch elm disease in Britain and Europe
j
Practical tap-dancing
k Irish folksongs
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Activity 6 - solution
a, d (and b if you know very little about computing).
All the other topics are much too broad to form the focus of a short
presentation. You may be fascinated by acts of parliament, but you
can’t possibly talk about sixteen of them in fifteen minutes. Other
topics such as f and j are concerned with skill development and are
quite unsuited to a short presentation where the audience usually sits
and listens.
Look again at the list above. Most of the items are general topics
rather than main ideas. How could the topics be reworked to form
useful main ideas for a presentation?
From general topics to presentation ideas – suggested answers.
a Attracting hedgehogs to your garden. This is a concise enough area
to make an appropriate presentation idea.
b Everything I know about computing. Beware trying to present any
topic which includes the word ‘everything’. You must choose one
aspect from your vast knowledge and eliminate all the others.
c
Sixteen interesting acts of parliament. What is it which makes the
acts interesting? This could be the main idea, and short sections
from the acts which illustrate this could form the supporting
information in your presentation.
d My flatmate’s table manners. The topic is well enough defined to
be presentable – although the details of your flatmate’s table
manners may not!
e The development of the Trade Union Movement to 1992. You
must choose one aspect of Trade Union development – and one
which will interest your audience – and eliminate the rest.
f
Social skills for scientists. No-one can acquire skills by listening to
a short presentation. Presentations can only deliver information.
Skills require practice. So unless your presentation is to form only
an introduction to the idea of social skills for scientists, forget it.
g Why some buildings fall down. Another potentially inexhaustible
topic. Choose one building, or one main cause of building collapse,
and eliminate others.
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h The modern American novel. Choose a couple of characteristics of
modern American novels and one novel which illustrates these.
i
Dutch elm disease in Britain and Europe. You could focus on one
aspect of this disease – perhaps the rate at which it has spread –
for your presentation.
j
Practical tap-dancing. Do you think an audience could acquire any
tap-dancing skill in fifteen minutes spent listening? Even if you
managed to get them dancing...?
k Irish folksongs. Choose one or two characteristics of Irish
folksongs and one song which illustrates these. Forget all the other
Irish folksongs you know.
You will see that in nearly all cases, a presenter must select a main
idea from a wide choice of material. You can’t include all you know,
and you will have to eliminate many good ideas in order to present just
one of them effectively.
Activity 7
For the topic you have elected to present, write your main idea here:
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3.5
The ‘rule of 3’
Now you have your main idea, but of course you will need to illustrate,
explain and expand on it. You are going to have to select what
supporting or illustrative information you want your audience to know
about.
There seems to be a rule about audiences, no matter who they are or
what level of knowledge they have in the topic being presented, that
information is best understood and digested in chunks of three. Three
facts are relatively easily remembered, three points to support an
argument can be easily grasped.
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Let’s take an example from the list on page 12 to demonstrate this:
Main idea: ‘Attracting hedgehogs to your garden’.
Three aspects of the main idea:
• hedgehog-friendly garden design
• favourite food for hedgehogs
• hedgehog nest sites.
Activity 8
There are certainly many more aspects of your main idea you could
consider, but you won’t have time to cover them all. Select the three
which are most relevant, interesting or useful.
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What are three important aspects of or facts about your main idea
which you would like your audience to remember after you have
finished speaking?
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Activity 9 - section 3 recap
a How does your presentation topic differ from your main idea ?
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b What is the ‘rule of 3’?
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4
Structuring your presentation
Now that you have looked at your presentation topic, focused on a
main idea, and identified the three aspects of the main idea which you
would like your audience to understand, you can begin to develop the
structure of your presentation. What you need now are some fairly
foolproof fundamentals which make people listen and understand.
Build these into your presentation structure and success will be within
sight!
People listen and learn best when information is presented in a
familiar and logical format. Don’t frustrate your audience by starting
in the middle or by leaving out essential information. Structure your
presentation along the following lines:
• introduction
• motivation raiser
• outline of content
• main content – section by section
• recap
• transitions
• conclusion.
4.1
‘Where do I begin?’ Introduction
Your introduction should set the theme for your whole presentation. It
must allow the audience to focus on exactly what is to be covered
during the next few minutes.
Go back to your main idea. Make sure this is communicated to your
audience in the introduction. Do not elaborate or explain – that comes
later.
‘I’m going to talk about how you can attract hedgehogs into your
garden by designing a hedgehog-friendly environment, making
nest sites and supplying food.’
There’s your introduction. Now the audience knows what’s coming,
what to expect.
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Activity 10
Write your introduction below:
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4.2
‘Why should they listen to me?’ Motivation raisers
Unless your audience has been chain-ganged into attending, they will
already have at least a little interest in you and your topic. You do
need to ensure that they know what relevance your topic has for them,
and what, if anything, they will get out of listening.
• Tell them why they should listen.
• How does your topic affect them?
• What good will come of their listening?
• How do their and your interests coincide?
Appeal to their self interest:
e.g. ‘If you have hedgehogs in your garden they will eat many
garden pests....’
Engage their conservation awareness:
e.g. ‘Hedgehogs’ refuges are decreasing. Gardens form a very
important environment for hedgehogs...’
Engage their need to be involved:
e.g. ‘Just a few hedgehog-friendly gardens in an area are enough to
ensure survival...’
Activity 11
Write your motivation raiser here:
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4.3
‘What’s coming next?’ The outline of content
Your audience won’t know where your presentation is going unless
you tell them. And they want to know. So tell them what your
presentation will consist of. Help them to follow you.
‘I’ll first tell you about the types of garden best suited to hedgehogs
and how you can create a similar environment in your own
garden. Then I’ll talk about...’ etc.
In other words, you tell them what you are going to tell them!
Activity 12
How could you summarise your content outline for your audience?
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4.4
‘Down to the nitty gritty.’ Main content,
section by section
The bulk of your presentation will be taken up with giving your
audience the information and illustrations which pertain to your main
idea and supporting themes or information. This is the most important
aspect of your preparation and warrants close attention and planning.
There are some useful guidelines to help structure this part of the
presentation.
First, break up main sections into segments. You’ve already got a main
idea and three aspects of that idea organised. You may want to break
down the information even further in order to present it clearly and
logically. It also allows your audience to digest your information in bite
sized pieces. Remember the ‘rule of 3’ here too. Three subsections
under each main section are usually enough for an audience to handle
during a short presentation.
Present each segment with its details to your audience in the most
logical order. For example, in our presentation about hedgehogs, we
have already identified ‘hedgehog-friendly garden design’ as a
supporting idea. This can be further broken down, perhaps as follows:
Hedgehog-friendly garden design:
• hedgehogs’ favourite plants and shrubs
• adapting your garden fences
• hedgehog-safe garden ponds.
If your audience understands the main idea of your presentation, and
generally which aspects you will be covering, they are better able to
understand details and fine points of information now because you
have provided the context and background information. This draws
people in to learn more, you have their attention and co-operation.
Activity 13
Identify the main content of your presentation and break it up into
sections:
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4.5
‘Reinforce your message.’ Recap each section
Summarise what you have said at the end of each section, or
subsection, if this seems more logical so that:
• anyone whose attention has wandered or who has not quite
caught the gist of what you’ve been saying can move ahead to
the next section with you;
• you as the presenter are clear exactly what your message is in
each of the segments of your presentation.
Recaps can be done quickly and easily. Usually no more than a
sentence or two is required. For example:
‘So we have seen that increasing the amount of planting and
ground cover in your garden, making safe ponds and accessible
fences can increase the numbers of hedgehogs in your garden by
200%...’
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Activity 14
Practise writing a section recap here:
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4.6
‘How do I change to a new subject?’
Making transitions
Only you know where the next step is going to lead. Your audience has
not seen your notes, nor do they have the gift of second sight.
Therefore, if you want to take your audience with you when you
introduce a new theme, fact or argument, you need to help them
make a transition from one stage of your presentation to the next.
Be sure that you lead in to new aspects of your subject as well as
giving a quick and clear introduction when events are about to take a
turn. For example:
‘So we can see that, by making some simple alterations, we can
attract hedgehogs into the garden. But are there any disadvantages
associated with this?’
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4.7
‘How do I end?’ Conclusions
Ending a presentation is an aspect many people dread, yet it is one of
the easiest parts to prepare.
To conclude your presentation:
• restate your main idea
• recap the major points (with the most salient or interesting
supportive information or illustrations)
• sit down.
Activity 15
Write your ending here:
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Activity 16 – section 4 recap
a Identify the basic presentation structure.
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b Why should you tell your audience about your presentation
agenda?
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c
Why should you break content into segments?
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d What are the advantages of recapping for your audience?
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e How do you end a presentation?
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5
Visual, auditory and computer aids
In presentations, a picture is worth a thousand words.
Remember, your material is very familiar to you by now, perhaps too
familiar, but it is new to most of your audience. Research suggests that
we remember new information far better if we see it than if we only
hear it. Use this fact to help your audience really understand your
message, and consider what types of visual or other aids you might use
in your presentation.
Aids are basically of three types:
a visual: pictures, graphs, slides, OHPs, objects, handouts
b auditory: pre-recorded music, speech, sound effects
c
computer display: usually an enlarged computer screen.
Activity 17
Which aids are likely to be most effective in your presentation?
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5.1
Visual aids
We are tuned in to visual images. Television , window displays,
publicity materials, book covers, advertising all deal in sophisticated
visual imagery and meanings. A great deal of information can be
communicated through the visual medium.
Visual aids can be used to enhance your message too. Visual
demonstrations are very effective in presenting numerical and
statistical data. Converting your message into a visual form can often
make the difference between your audience understanding you or
losing interest.
Visual communication can also be fast. If you show people rather than
tell them, you save time and communicate more effectively.
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5.2
When should you use visual aids?
a When you are presenting statistics or other numerical
data
Even dedicated mathematicians have trouble dealing with many
numbers presented auditorily. A lay audience will have even
greater difficulty.
So, do you have numerical data to present? Take it out and have a
look at it. Pages of numbers must be transformed into interesting
visuals.
How can you do this?
• Transform numbers into graphs, charts or diagrams.
• Eliminate all lists of numbers and complex tables.
• Pie charts and bar graphs are understood easily and can
communicate a great deal of complex information.
• Trends can be displayed by simple graphs.
Activity 18
Now select the forms of visual display most relevant to your numerical
data.
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b When you wish to present any new data your audience has
not seen before. Show your audience what you mean. A business
plan, for example, becomes meaningless when explained only in
words. Show your evidence, research, trends and eventual
outcome in visual form.
c
When you want to place a new interpretation on old data. If
you have discovered the chemical formula for turning lead into
gold, don’t just talk about it, show it. Your audience will want to
see how you have dealt with familiar data and come up with
exciting new developments.
d When people must see documented support for your
argument before they will believe it. It is no good arguing
verbally that the building you have just designed will be the most
energy efficient in the entire world. You may be persuasive, but
people will want to make a hard-nosed decision about whether or
not you are right. Show them the objective evidence for your
claims.
e When you must present more data than people can
remember. Ordinarily, you would want to avoid ever presenting
your audience with more data than they can recall immediately.
However, if you need to demonstrate a particular and complex
mathematical calculation, for example, in order to make your
point, a visual presentation of this type of information will be much
appreciated by your listeners.
f
When you are making comparisons. If you want your
audience to believe that Annie is taller than Jim, show them. If
whisky reduces the symptoms of the common cold better than
aspirin, show how. Comparisons of any type ask to be displayed
rather than explained.
g When your topic is an inherently visual one. Presenting topics
in design, art, cinema, television or any other medium where the
context is inherently visual will usually invite the use of visual
displays.
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Activity 19
Do any of the points on page 29 apply to your presentation?
(Be ruthlessly honest! It takes time to transform numerical or verbal
data into visual form, but good visual aids are worth the effort).
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5.3
Some tips on preparing your visual aids
a Make sure your aids are necessary. Can you manage without
your slide, OHP or display? Nothing detracts from a presentation
more than a series of irrelevant or unnecessary visual aids.
Think carefully about displaying words– for example, your section
headings – for your audience. It does not help understanding and
can result in a big yawn.
b Some visual aids are essential. For example, do you want to
show your audience how to tie a reef knot? What could be harder
to explain or easier to show by means of a slide diagram?
c
Encapsulate your presentation in a visual image. Is there one
single point you wish your audience to remember after you have
sat down? Can you communicate that point in a visual image?
Ideally you will use this during your presentation and perhaps
leave it displayed for your audience after you have finished. A
high-impact representation of your main idea will stay in your
audience’s minds.
d Make visuals clear and readable. Often a hand-drawn OHP is
easier and more interesting to look at than one which has been
professionally prepared.
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Beware of making OHPs from photocopies of printed pages. They
are seldom readable – particularly for people sitting at the back of
the room – and are usually dead boring to look at. Make sure
words are not too small to read, and do not have too many words,
diagrams or other information per slide.
e Use colour and variety. Colour is interesting and evokes an
emotional response from your audience. You can colour-code your
slides to signal topics within your presentation; blue for
background information, red for new data and green for
conclusions, for example. Be sure that the colours you choose will
show up against the background, and that your text will show up
most of all. For more information about choosing and using visual
aids, see Jay, A. (1986) Slide rules Video Arts.
Activity 20
List the visual aids you will use in your presentation:
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5.4
Disadvantages of visual aids
Preparation of visual and other aids to presentations can take up a
great deal of time and thought. Professionally prepared aids are often
expensive. When there are technical problems during a presentation it
is usually the visual aids which are affected – the OHP bulb burns out
or the slide projector won’t advance. This usually produces
catastrophe for the poor presenter.
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Some material may not be ideally suited to visual display and is best
left in the verbal medium. Material which is narrative or dramatic in
nature, intended to be inspirational, motivational or associated with
feelings may be best left to the spoken word. If you are building
morale, you don’t need charts and graphs.
5.5
Using handouts
Handouts are commonly misused in presentations. Presenters
distribute handouts to all members of the audience – and immediately
everyone’s attention is focused on the piece of paper rather than the
presenter.
Don’t make this mistake. Keep your audience with you and present all
your information verbally, visually or auditorily while maintaining their
full attention. Handouts can be useful as ‘leave behinds’ so people can
do further reading or thinking about your subject.
Activity 21 - section 5 recap
a When should you use visual or other aids?
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What are the disadvantages of using visual aids?
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6
Preparing presentation notes
You may wonder why there is whole section on this topic. Most
people, when faced with the task of delivering a presentation to an
audience, write out what they are going to say in full. This means, in
effect, that their presentation is the reading of a prepared speech.
However, reading a speech is not the best way to communicate with
an audience. In fact, most audiences find this one of the most boring
and exhausting experiences of all. So don’t read your speech. Make
notes from which you can extemporise and keep contact with the
people who are listening to you.
6.1
The written vs. the spoken word
Writing and speaking are two different methods of communicating.
Each has advantages and disadvantages in terms of the type and
quality of information which can be transmitted.
The written word allows time for the reader to consider the message.
When you are reading a document, you can go along at your own pace,
re-read bits of it and assimilate it at your own speed. So when you are
writing a speech, the temptation is to do the same – to include all the
relevant information you feel your audience will require, and read it
through for accuracy before delivering it.
But this is not how your audience will receive it.
The spoken word is instantaneous. It does not allow for time for
consideration by the listener before the next bit of the message is said.
Speech rattles along at the pace chosen by the speaker. The meaning
of the spoken word is also affected by the manner in which it is
delivered. You can add to the impact of what you say through your
facial expression, tone of voice, phrasing and emphasis.
So, if you write your presentation notes verbatim, you are working in
an entirely different medium from the one the audience will be
hearing.
6.2
Perform – don’t read – your presentation
Don’t worry! You do not have to be a trained actor to perform in front
of an audience. Performance in this context means using
extemporaneous speaking as the method of delivering your message,
rather than reading verbatim from prepared text.
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Extemporaneous speaking from notes gives you many advantages as a
presenter. Your eyes do not have to be glued to the page. You can see
your audience, and they can see you. This eye contact is very
important, and there will be more about it later. You are also able to
move around, to use spontaneous gestures and to come across as a
live, interesting individual rather than as a speech-reading robot.
Extemporaneous speech is also interactive. It is not a one-way
message from you to your audience. If you keep in touch with what
your audience is thinking and feeling through observing their
reactions, you can adjust your delivery to suit them. If they nod off,
you can wake them up again. If they are taking things too seriously,
you can make a joke.
A presentation is not a speech. It is an interactive exchange
between presenter and audience.
6.3
Transforming a written report into a presentation
What is the difference between the report you have written for your
tutor and the presentation of the same material for your class?
A report:
• uses formal language
• may contain long explanations
• may include many detailed examples
Because a reader can assimilate all this in his or her own time, this
style is quite appropriate for a written report.
Presentation style is different.
A presentation:
• uses everyday language
• contains edited information
• includes selected examples
Read on to find out how you can translate report-speak into
presentation-speak.
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6.4
The language of presentations
Good presentation language should:
• avoid jargon
• avoid long sentences
• use active, direct words
• be positive
• be concise
• be clear
• be human.
For more information see The Plain English Course Video Arts,
(video).
Activity 22
How would you translate the following language into good
presentation language, following the points above?
a Range of item difficulty is usually determined by selecting from a
number of ‘very easy’ to ‘very difficult’ items.
b The overlap of assessment of reading skill with children’s measures
of intelligence has often gone unnoticed.
c
Clarification of specific deficits will be undertaken.
d Evaluations must be carefully scrutinised for content which
exceeds the prerequisite requirements.
e This presentation will focus on the currently available methods of
evaluating organisational functioning.
f
As a result, it was decided that the viability of the project was such
that termination was the only option.
g It was found to be impossible to establish mutually-agreed
parameters to input to this situation.
h Several attempts have been made to provide an account of the
preliminary circumstances pertaining to this situation.
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Activity 22 – solution
a Some items are easy and some are difficult.
b Reading skills are related to intelligence.
c
We’ll define the problems.
d Look at tests carefully to see that they are testing what they should
test.
e I’m going to talk about ways of looking at organisations.
f
It wasn’t working so we called it off.
g We couldn’t get on.
h No-one knows how it really happened.
6.5
Tips for making notes
Audiences expect you to use notes. No one expects that a presenter
will have learned his or her entire script by heart. So don’t bother with
little index cards which some people suggest you can ‘conceal in your
hand’. This looks twee and you risk appearing surreptitious as you
peek at your notes. Also there is not enough space on a small card
to write more than a very few words.
a Write – don’t type – your notes. Typewritten notes are much
harder to read than handwritten ones. It’s also more difficult to get
a clear layout on your page. Typing takes time, which is wasted in
this instance as no one will be seeing your notes but you.
b Use A4 or similar size paper. You can get quite a bit of
information on a page, and also give yourself enough space so that
your eye can find your place quickly as you glance down at it. If
you try to put all your notes on one or two pages, you’ll easily get
lost. Spread them out, and take as many pages as you need.
c
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Use short words and phrases. Reduce your ideas to brief notes.
You don’t need to write in all the adjectives, pronouns and
prepositions you will use when you communicate the point to the
audience. All you need is enough information to remind you of the
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point you want to make, and those important sub-points you wish
to include.
d Use symbols. You can use symbols such as abbreviations, arrows,
underlinings, exclamation marks, colour codes and asterisks to
personalise your notes and to save time and space as you prepare
your material. If you have never done this before, you may think
that, on the day, you’ll forget what your symbols mean. Most can
be quite self evident, however.
You can also use a symbol to remind you when to change your
slides, to include a joke, to ask a rhetorical question (or a genuine
one) or to signal to yourself any other procedures required during
your presentation.
Activity 23
Can you devise a version of the above section in note/abbreviation
form?
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Activity 23 - a possible suggestion:
Making Notes - not necess. to learn by heart
• Don’t type – diffic. to read, wastes time
• Use A4 – space, easy see
• Short words – elim. adjs., advbs. etc.
• Symbols – ! * -> abbrevs.
Adapting the information into symbols and shorthand makes it easy
for the eye to run over an entire section of your presentation and to
take in the content which you want to communicate. You can see large
chunks of your material at a glance, allowing you to spend most of
your energies on your audience.
Activity 24 – section 6 recap
a What are the advantages of extemporaneous speaking?
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What can you do to prepare effective presentation notes?
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7
Personal preparation
Now you are nearly ready to deliver your presentation. There are just
a few things which you need to make sure of before you actually stand
up and speak.
7.1
Preliminary checklist
As a presenter, you need to have control over as much of the overall
setting and situation as you can. This means that you should be sure to
check some aspects of the presentation which are often organised by
someone else.
a Room layout. Will all your audience be able to see and hear you?
Will they be able to see your slides or OHPs? You must see the
room beforehand or make sure you have a plan or description of
the room before you arrive to present.
b Lighting. Never give a presentation with the house lights off. You
need to see your audience. There is nothing more relaxing for an
audience than to be in a dark, warm room. All their biological
mechanisms will say ‘sleep’. Be sure your audience is illuminated
in every way by your presentation.
c
Equipment. What will happen if the OHP bulb blows during your
presentation? Who is responsible for replacing it? Make sure that
slide projectors, computers and tape recorders are all working
before you begin. Ideally, you should know who is in charge of
fixing any technical hitches which might occur as well.
d Lectern. Do not use a lectern if you can avoid it. Place your notes
and other materials on a table positioned either between you and
your audience or, if you are brave enough, at your side. A lectern
forms a powerful barrier between you and your audience, whereas
a lower table is virtually insignificant.
e Standing or sitting? Always stand for a presentation. It is much
easier for your audience to see and hear you. It also puts you in the
position of authority and control – and you’ll need all the
psychological help you can get during your early career as a
presenter!
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7.2
Your audience
Your audience is the most important aspect of your presentation. It is
essential that you give them some preliminary consideration before
you begin.
Who are they?
In Section 2 we looked at what your audience needed to know, based
on your assessment of their previous knowledge of and interest in your
topic. But there are other characteristics of audiences which you must
also consider.
• Are they friends or foes?
• Can you be sure of a positive reception whatever your message,
or are you in a riskier position?
• Are they colleagues or clients?
• Do they know you well or are they strangers?
7.2.1 A familiar audience
You may find that your role-change from friend to presenter is a
difficult one for both you and your audience. This is often the
situation when students make presentations to their peers. Once you
are known in a particular role it is difficult to step out of it, even
briefly.
You may find the role-change is eased by referring to it in your
opening remarks. Using humour helps, too. For example:
‘You may think you know me as Susan Smith, but in fact I am also
an authority on the life cycle of the tree frog...’
7.2.2 An unfamiliar audience
Unless for some reason this audience is actively hostile, it is often
much easier to prepare for them than for an audience of people you
know. As you are new to each other, no-one will question your
authority to stand up and present your ideas. But you will have to
convince them – quickly – that you are worth listening to. They owe
you no loyalty and will waste no time in giving you the benefit of the
doubt. So best behaviour is required here – always.
Remember though, that whoever your audience is, they are just
ordinary people like you. And they will be willing you to succeed. Noone likes to be involved in a failed presentation either as audience or
presenter. Even if they are strangers they will give you support.
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7.3
Rehearsal
Yes, to deliver a good presentation you will need to rehearse. It is
essential to have a full run through in order to:
• co-ordinate speaking and visual aids
• identify problems before the big day
• be aware of the strengths and weaknesses of your material.
The temptation is always to think that everything will be all right. But
it usually isn’t, particularly if this is your first presentation, so run
through your stuff in front of friends, family or even a mirror.
If there is more than one person presenting, rehearsal is an absolute
must. You can’t just leave to chance who will speak when and how
long each will go on for.
7.4
Stage fright
Nervousness is an inevitable component of learning to give
presentations. If you have never spoken in front of an audience
before, it is worthwhile spending a little time coming to terms with
how you will be feeling on the day.
It helps to know that stage fright is really based on an irrational idea
that we won’t be able to measure up to some abstract but
immeasurably high standard of performance. Somewhere, we say to
ourselves, there are ‘perfect’ presenters, and my efforts will be
minuscule in comparison. You start to think only about what others
might think of your presentation skills, and, in the process, you forget
what the real purpose of your presentation is.
The following two points will help you deal with stage fright.
a Accepting stage fright. You are not alone! Everyone feels the
same way, at least initially. Admit you feel scared – to yourself –
but have the assurance that your preparation has been the best it
can be. Remember there are no ‘perfect’ presentations. There are
just competent, interesting and informative presentations. Yours
can be one of them.
b Thinking about why you are presenting. What is your
message? What information have you got which others might be
interested to hear? This is what to focus on, rather than the
superficial impression you might make.
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Activity 25 – section 7 recap
a What should you check beforehand to reduce the possibility of
technical hitches?
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b What characteristics of your audience should you consider before
your presentation?
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What are the advantages of rehearsing your presentation?
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d How can you handle stage fright?
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8
Delivering your presentation
This is your big moment. Before you actually open your mouth,
however, think about some the of ‘dos’ and ‘don’ts’ of presentation
delivery.
8.1
Don’ts
Anything which reduces audience involvement is a no-no. This means
that you must never do the following.
a Mumble – why speak at all if they can’t hear you?
b Gabble – time your delivery so that you can take it easy
c
Shout – you’ll sound angry and they’ll get annoyed.
d Be sarcastic – this is no way to deal with your nerves.
8.2
Dos
Focus on the positive aspects of keeping your listeners with you.
a Keep audience eye-contact – glance up and around regularly.
b Explain – be clear and logical.
c
Intrigue – pose interesting questions.
d Keep it personal – let them see and hear you.
e Dramatise – play up your strengths in material and style.
f
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Get people moving – ask for volunteers, build in demonstrations
they can do in their seats.
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Activity 26
Which ‘dos’ can you incorporate into your presentation?
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9
Handling questions
So you were thinking that you would just deliver your presentation
and sit down? No way. There will be some questions to answer, and if
your peers don’t ask them, your tutor inevitably will.
9.1
Why take questions?
Questions and answers are an important part of presentations. Why?
Let’s backtrack to the purpose of your presentation – to deliver
information to a particular audience. Questions are vital to you as a
presenter as an indication of how successful you were at your job.
Inviting questions points out many problems of omission or
uncertainty in what you have just said. And questions obviously give
you an opportunity to correct those problems on the spot.
Audience questions allow you to do the following.
a Clarify. You may think you have explained everything carefully,
but your audience may think otherwise. Questions allow you to
clear up any ambiguities.
b Add to your information. Now may be the time to tell people
who ask about some of that material you had to eliminate before
you prepared your presentation.
c
Ensure relevance to your audience. You have had the floor for
quite a while. Questions tell you whether you pitched your
material at the right level. Audience questions will tune you in
to their specific concerns.
d Empower your audience. We previously mentioned your
authority and control in the presentation. Now is a good time to
turn the tables. Your audience has been listening to you, now it’s
your turn to empower them to speak.
e Show your knowledge. Yes, being able to answer audience
questions shows that you have the security and knowledge to open
the situation up potentially to any question.
f
P
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Uncover disagreement. Straightforward questions and answers
are a better way of dealing with disagreement than ignoring it and
hoping it will go away. Your presentation may not have been
specially controversial, but even apparently neutral topics can
arouse reactions in audiences.
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9.2
Types of question
Not all questions from the audience will be straightforward seeking for
information. There are several reasons why people ask questions apart
from this! Being aware of the possibilities should make you better
able to handle different types of question as they arise.
a The genuine question. This is where the audience is simply
looking for additional information or clarification of your subject
matter.
b The competitive question. Some people feel they must compete
with the person in the spotlight or in authority. The question is an
attempt to challenge your authority – usually by attempting to
probe aspects of the subject you don’t know.
c
The member of the opposition. This is where the questioner
stands up and asks about something diametrically opposite to your
main theme.
d The relentless question. Some people never give up, and will be
unhappy with your answer no matter what you say. They are often
looking for a blank confirmation of their own views rather than a
genuine exchange of information or ideas.
e The limelight-stealing question. This is where a member of the
audience takes the chance to grab the attention of the group to
make a public statement of his or her own. The content of the
‘question’ has little or nothing to do with what you have just been
presenting.
Activity 27
How would you classify the following ‘questions’ using the list of
possibilities above?
a Could you tell me a little more about …?
..................................................................................................................
b I think you’re absolutely wrong about …
..................................................................................................................
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c
Are you familiar with the seminal work of …?
..................................................................................................................
d I don’t understand what you meant by …
..................................................................................................................
e Your presentation reminds me of …
..................................................................................................................
f
What authority have you to say this?
..................................................................................................................
g I can’t see any reason to accept your statement that …
..................................................................................................................
h I still don’t think you’ve answered my point about …
..................................................................................................................
i
Where did you get this information ?
..................................................................................................................
9.3
Handling questions
Now that you are aware of the potential nasties which may lie in wait
during question time, we can describe some possible ways to handle
them.
Handling direct and genuine questions should cause you little trouble.
Give what information you have, and if you do not know, say so. You
can follow up with an offer to find out if you can, and get back to the
questioner.
Handling the devious question is made easier by realising that you do
not have to accept the question as asked. Although we are strongly
conditioned to answer questions asked of us, you can rephrase the
question posed by an adversarial member of the audience. You take
back some of the power you have relinquished to the audience.
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For example, if asked question f above, you might respond,
‘I can see that you are interested in my sources and references. I
have a list of reference material which I will be happy to give you
when we have finished...’ etc.
Activity 28
How could you respond to some of the questions from Section 9.2?
a Could you tell me a little more about …?
..................................................................................................................
b I think you’re absolutely wrong about …
..................................................................................................................
c
Are you familiar with the seminal work of …?
..................................................................................................................
d I don’t understand what you meant by …
..................................................................................................................
e Your presentation reminds me of …
..................................................................................................................
f
What authority have you to say this?
..................................................................................................................
g I can’t see any reason to accept your statement that …
..................................................................................................................
h I still don’t think you’ve answered my point about …
..................................................................................................................
i
Where did you get this information?
..................................................................................................................
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Some general tips for handling any type of question:
a Listen carefully to what the questioner is saying. Above all,
don’t begin your answer before he or she has finished asking the
question, even if you think you know exactly what he or she is
going to ask.
b Clarify the question if you are unsure. Asking questions is a
skill as much as answering them. Not everyone is able to phrase his
or her question accurately, and often questioners are nervous
about speaking out, too.
c
Complement the questioner, particularly if he or she has asked
an interesting question. Avoid the patronising tone at all times,
though.
d Treat all questioners with respect. Some people will have
missed out on vital information presented. Don’t attempt to
humiliate them by pointing out that their question has been
answered by what has already been said.
e Relax. This is your topic and your opportunity to share it with
others.
f
Avoid getting drawn into a debate. Some questioners will try to
do this. End a potential debate by saying,
‘Now we'll have to move on to another question...’ etc.
Note: If there is a chairperson in charge of the proceedings, it is
her or his role to try to prevent debates and diatribes.
9.4
The ‘really awful question’
This is something which usually exists only in the minds of presenters.
Unless you have, in fact, a big gap in your knowledge or information,
there is no such thing as the ‘really awful question’. You either have a
reasonable grasp of your topic, or you don’t. If you do, there will still
be areas which you don’t know about or don’t fully understand. This
need be no source of shame or embarrassment.
If you do have large gaps in your knowledge, face up to these before
you present. Do not wait to be exposed by questioners or, worse still,
during your presentation itself.
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Activity 28
What questions do you anticipate from your audience after your
presentation?
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
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..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
Activity 29 – section 9 recap
a Why are questions an important aspect of presentations?
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
b What types of questions do audiences ask?
..................................................................................................................
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..................................................................................................................
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c
What are the basic strategies for handling questions?
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
d Why is there no such thing as the ‘really awful question’?
..................................................................................................................
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10 Trouble-shooting
Most first time presenters have a long list of worries and ‘what ifs’.
The next three sections deal with the most common worries.
10.1 ‘What if I run out of time?’
Most presentations have a strictly limited time allocation. If, in spite of
your rehearsal, you find you are running out of time, there are several
things you must do.
a Tell your audience that you have more material than you will be
able to cover in the time remaining.
b Apologise for your miscalculation of the time.
c
Quickly decide which parts of your presentation you will omit .
This requires bravery.
d Inform your audience of your decision. This need not be a big
production in itself, because you can say something like,
‘I’m sorry I seem to be running out of time. I will not now tell you
about the place of earthworms in the hedgehog diet, but I have
some information which interested people can collect at the end...’
etc.
The one thing not to do is carry on as if nothing were wrong. You will
be stopped by the chairperson, probably at a point which is much
more inconvenient than one you would have chosen for yourself!
10.2 ‘What if I run out of material?’
Again, rehearsal should have forewarned you of this in time for you to
add to your presentation content. However, if you do find yourself
running out of material, there are several things you can do.
a If you really do know your topic, you may be able to talk about it
without notes. Think of an aspect of your presentation topic which
you had eliminated in the early stages of preparation. Tell your
audience about this aspect.
b You can also tell your audience that you have completed your side
of the message, and that there will be plenty of time for questions
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in order for you to direct the remainder of the time to their
particular concerns.
Both of these strategies require a cool head and steady nerves. In
practice, running out of material is almost always avoidable by careful
preparation and rehearsal.
If you are in any doubt whether the quantity of your material is
sufficient to fill the time available, prepare extra but be aware that
you will need to use it only if you get through your main material too
quickly.
10.3 ‘What if I make some awful mistake when I’m half
way through?’
It is quite likely that you will make mistakes in your first presentations.
Some favourite mistakes of new presenters are:
• dropping notes
• inadvertently missing out sections of your material
• getting pages in the wrong order
• finding a vital visual aid – or other material – is missing
• getting off the topic.
When you make a mistake during your presentation, follow this
formula:
a Acknowledge the mistake to the audience. For example:
‘I’ve just realised I have missed out the section on hedgehog mating
procedures.’
b Apologise – very briefly:
‘Sorry!’
c
Tell the audience what you are about to do to rectify the mistake:
‘I’ll just go back and cover those important points, then go on to
hedgehog family life.’
There’s really no problem about making mistakes – unless you try to
pretend they didn’t happen. Acknowledge them, rectify them and
move on!
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Activity 30 – section 10 recap
a What can you do to avoid running over time or running out of
material?
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
b What steps can you take if you do run over time?
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
c
What steps can you take if you run out of material?
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
d What is the standard procedure to follow when you make a
mistake during your presentation?
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11 Evaluating presentations
Being assessed on the merits of your presentation definitely adds to
the excitement of the occasion. Being aware of the ways in which
presentations can be assessed alerts you to some of the criteria your
tutors or peers may be looking for. You can then prepare your
presentation style and materials with these in mind.
You must know the specific criteria which are being applied to your
presentation, however, and ideally have had the opportunity to discuss
these with your tutors.
At the back of this unit, you will find some assessment forms used for
student presentations at De Montfort University and elsewhere.
Activity 31
a What are the assessment criteria which are common to most
forms?
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
b Which unusual criteria did you notice?
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
c
How do these forms compare with the criteria on which you will
be assessed?
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12 Bibliography
Want to know more about presentation skills? Here is a list of media
and books on the topic.
Media
Making your case. Video Arts. (Shows how to present and support an
argument or point of view, giving information and presenting data.)
Ready, steady, go! Video Arts. (How to prepare for your presentation,
and how to deliver it.)
Can we please have that the right way round? Video Arts. (How to
choose, prepare and use audio visual aids in presentations)
The public speaking consultant. BBC film.
Effective presentation. British Institute of Management (supplied by
Video Arts).
Discovering presentations. Interactive video, 1991, British
Telecommunications plc (distributed by Longman Group UK).
Books
Bell, G. (1989) Secrets of successful speaking and business
presentations. Heinemann.
Booth, V. (1985) Communication in science: writing and speaking.
Cambridge University Press.
Brandt, R. (1990) Flip charts: how to draw them and how to use them.
Pfeffer.
Campbell, J. (1990) Speak for yourself: a practical guide to speaking
with confidence. BBC Books.
Hamlin, S. (1988) How to talk so people listen. Thorsons.
Hargie, O. (1992) Handbook of communication skills. Routledge.
Hughes, J. (1992) People skills. Macmillan.
Hughes, V. & Weller, D. (1992) Self-presentation skills. Macmillan.
Irving, J. & Smith, N. (1986) Core skills in communication.
Macmillan.
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Janner, G. (1989) Complete presentation skills. Business Books.
Jay, A. (1986) Slide rules. Video Arts. (Companion booklet to the film
Can we please have that the right way round?)
Leeds, D. (1991) Powerspeak: The complete guide to public speaking
and presentation. Piatkus.
Mandell, S. (1988) Effective presentation skills. Kogan Page.
Stammell, B. (1990) Communication skills. Macmillan.
Smith, T. C. (1991) Making successful presentations: self-teaching
guide. 2nd edition Wiley.
Stevens, M. (1987) How to improve your presentation skills. Kogan
Page.
Turk, C. (1985) Effective speaking. Spon.
Zimmer, M. (1987) Effective presentation. Sphere.
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Appendix 1: Assessing a spoken presentation
Use this form to either assess yourself after a presentation or as ‘Peer’
assessment by asking the group or part of the group to fill the form in
as you give the presentation.
Name ........................................................................................................
Course ......................................................................................................
Topic .........................................................................................................
Date ..........................................................................................................
Rate the content of the talk by circling: 1 – poor, 2 – OK,
3 – excellent. Use the comments box to remind yourself how to
improve or give advice for improvement.
1
Overall Content
Introduction: did it
• grab audience attention? .........................................1
2
3
• make connection between audience and topic?.....1
2
3
• describe the specific purpose? ................................1
2
3
• say where questions are accepted? .........................1
2
3
• state main sub-topics ...............................................1
2
3
• clearly signal each sub-topic ...................................1
2
3
• have no extraneous content (padding)? ..................1
2
3
• have smooth transitions? .........................................1
2
3
• have clear supporting material? ..............................1
2
3
• have a logical pattern? .............................................1
2
3
• sum up the message of the talk? .............................1
2
3
• have a clearly organised finish? ...............................1
2
3
• allow questions? .......................................................1
2
3
• deal with questions clearly and quickly? ................1
2
3
Main presentation: did it
Conclusion: did it
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Comments
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2
Personal Delivery
Voice: did you
• make sure everyone could hear? .............................1
2
3
• control the pace (Not too fast/ slow)? .....................1
2
3
• speak clearly? ...........................................................1
2
3
• convey confidence and control? ..............................1
2
3
• sound spontaneous & relaxed? ...............................1
2
3
• not read out from notes? .........................................1
2
3
• avoid being too familiar (using slang etc.)?.............1
2
3
• maintain good relaxed posture? ..............................1
2
3
• establish and keep eye contact? ..............................1
2
3
• face the audience? ...................................................1
2
3
• look as if you were enjoying the talk? .....................1
2
3
• avoid distinctive mannerisms or habits? .................1
2
3
• refer only occasionally to notes? .............................1
2
3
• make sure the room had equipment you needed? .1
2
3
• make sure everyone could see? ...............................1
2
3
• use well selected examples? ....................................1
2
3
• bring them in at appropriate points? ......................1
2
3
• remove them as soon as finished with? ..................1
2
3
• not talk facing away?................................................1
2
3
• use appropriate and clear hand-outs? .....................1
2
3
Body Language: did you
Visual aids: did you
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3
Overall effect
Confidence ...............................................................................................
Rapport .....................................................................................................
Knowledge of subject ..............................................................................
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