World of Animals Magazine: Rhinos, Gardens, and Electric Beasts

RHINOS: SEE THEM BEFORE THEY’RE GONE EXCLUSIVE HARLEQUIN PASSPORT COVER OFFER INSIDE! TM GARDEN SECRETS Discover bees’ favourite plants How to rescue hedgehogs Why birds need our help Recruit a ladybird army ELECTRIC ANIMALS EELS CRABS OKAPIS DASSIES ECHIDNAS The top 10 high-voltage creatures SHOULD WE GO VEGAN? Issue 059 ANIMAL BLUNDERS HOW CHIMPS BUILD NESTS TIME TO SAVE SOME ASS BOW TO THE SERPENT KING SPECIES THAT SHINE Get World Of Animals every week! Sign up for our free newsletter at www.animalanswers. co.uk/newsletter/ to receive amazing animal facts every Friday! Welcome Zara Gaspar Editor Follow us at… Lauren Debono-Elliot Senior Designer As a pescatarian and foodie, I was really interested to read about the meat and dairy industry this issue. The vegan debate (p.32) gave me a lot to think about. Charlie Ginger Production Editor Dotty and I oten pass donkeys on our walks, but I hadn’t appreciated just how important they are in the developing world. Learn about these vital animals on page 84. IR 3 things we learnt this issue... The king cobra is the longest venomous snake. An electric eel can discharge a 650-volt shock. Chimps build a new nest every night. @WorldAnimalsMag worldofanimalsmag Victoria Williams Staf Writer The duck-billed platypus has a cousin that’s every bit as strange and fascinating – allow me to introduce the egg-laying echidna of Australia (page 54). © Getty; billberryphotography With spring in full bloom, what better time of year to get out in the garden? In this issue, we discover the secrets to attracting wildlife to your yard and the beneits of creating a green haven. We’ll also be celebrating the wonders of our planet, from the animals that shine to the species that use electricity. We’ve even added in an animal blunders gallery for laughs! However, we mustn’t forget it’s not all fun. Sadly, we said goodbye to the last male northern white rhino last month, so this issue’s Explore the Earth features the best spots to see rhinos. We will also take a look at the vegan debate. Will it inspire you to adopt a meat-free diet? Let us know! Meet the team… 3 What’s inside... 06 Amazing animals 12 The shocking truth Discover the species that use electricity to survive 18 Garden secrets Find out how to attract wildlife to your back yard 24 19 fearsome king cobra facts Meet the world’s longest venomous snake 26 Conserving the Madagascan pochard How Durrell is helping to protect this rare diving duck 31 Strange relations Did you know the hyrax is related to the elephant? 32 The vegan debate Would going vegan help to save the planet? 38 Animal blunders The funniest things animals get up to in the wild 44 Let it shine! Admire the most incredible iridescent animals 52 Animal architects How do chimpanzees build their nests? 62 Animated animals How similar are animations to their real-life counterparts? Subscribe to WOA now 64 Explore the Earth: rhinos Head over to page 92 for great deals! The best spots across the globe to see these graceful unicorns 72 Wildlife of a black smoker Meet the inhabitants of hydrothermal vents 78 Okapis Uncover the mystery behind these forest giraffes 84 Conserving donkeys How can endangered wild donkeys be saved? 90 Behind the lens Ripan Biswas shows us how to photograph wildlife under starry skies 94 Readers’ Q&A 96 Bizarre: The piglet squid Meet the upside-down squid that always looks pleased to see you 98 Quiz NEXT ISSUE ON SALE 07/06/18 Test your animal knowledge! 84 54 All about the echidna Meet the wizards of Oz! THE IUCN RED LIST Throughout World of Animals you will see symbols like the ones you see here. These are from the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, the most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of animal species in the world. Here’s what they mean: EXTINCT EXTINCT IN THE WILD CRITICALLY ENDANGERED ENDANGERED VULNERABLE NEAR THREATENED LEAST CONCERN 4 44 “Ladybirds guzzle greenflies like there’s no tomorrow. Introducing these insects is a natural remedy” Page 18 Future PLC Richmond House, 33 Richmond Hill Bournemouth, Dorset, BH2 6EZ Editorial Editor Zara Gaspar zara.gaspar@futurenet.com 01202 586220 Senior Designer Lauren Debono-Elliot Production Editor Charlie Ginger Staff Writer Victoria Williams Group Editor-in-Chief James Hoare Senior Art Editor Duncan Crook Photographer James Sheppard Contributors Matt Ayres, Ripan Biswas, Ella Carter, Kirsty Cathrine, Sanne de Boer, Amy Grisdale, Laura Mears, Amy Pay, Mike Simpson Cover images Shutterstock, Frantisek Dulik, Getty, Anup Shah, NaturePL, Yukihiro Fukuda, Juan Carlos Vindas Photography Alamy, FLPA, Getty, Nature PL, Thinkstock, The Art Agency, Peter Scott, Sandra Doyle, Shutterstock, Ripan Biswas All copyrights and trademarks are recognised and respected Advertising Media packs are available on request Commercial Director Clare Dove clare.dove@futurenet.com Regional Advertising Director Mark Wright mark.wright@futurenet.com Account Manager Jagdeep Maan jagdeep.maan@futurenet.com 01225 687 353 International World of Animals is available for licensing. Contact the International department to discuss partnership opportunities International Licensing Director Matt Ellis matt.ellis@futurenet.com Subscriptions Email enquiries contact@myfavouritemagazines.co.uk UK orderline & enquiries 0344 848 2852 Overseas order line and enquiries +44 (0) 344 848 2852 Online orders & enquiries www.myfavouritemagazines.co.uk Head of subscriptions Sharon Todd Circulation Head of Newstrade Tim Mathers Production Head of Production Mark Constance Production Project Manager Clare Scott Advertising Production Manager Joanne Crosby Digital Editions Controller Jason Hudson Production Manager Vivienne Calvert Management Managing Director Aaron Asadi Commercial Finance Director Dan Jotcham Editorial Director Paul Newman Head of Art & Design Greg Whitaker COVER FEATURE Page 18 Printed by Wyndeham Peterborough, Storey’s Bar Road, Peterborough, Cambridgeshire, PE1 5YS Distributed by Marketforce, 5 Churchill Place, Canary Wharf, London, E14 5HU www.marketforce.co.uk Tel: 0203 787 9060 ISSN 2053-7727 We are committed to only using magazine paper which is derived from responsibly managed, certiied forestry and chlorine-free manufacture. The paper in this magazine was sourced and produced from sustainable managed forests, conforming to strict environmental and socioeconomic standards. The manufacturing paper mill holds full FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) certiication and accreditation All contents © 2018 Future Publishing Limited or published under licence. All rights reserved. No part of this magazine may be used, stored, transmitted or reproduced in any way without the prior written permission of the publisher. Future Publishing Limited (company number 2008885) is registered in England and Wales. Registered ofice: Quay House, The Ambury, Bath BA1 1UA. All information contained in this publication is for information only and is, as far as we are aware, correct at the time of going to press. Future cannot accept any responsibility for errors or inaccuracies in such information. You are advised to contact manufacturers and retailers directly with regard to the price of products/services referred to in this publication. Apps and websites mentioned in this publication are not under our control. We are not responsible for their contents or any other changes or updates to them. This magazine is fully independent and not afiliated in any way with the companies mentioned herein. If you submit material to us, you warrant that you own the material and/ or have the necessary rights/permissions to supply the material and you automatically grant Future and its licensees a licence to publish your submission in whole or in part in any/all issues and/or editions of publications, in any format published worldwide and on associated websites, social media channels and associated products. Any material you submit is sent at your own risk and, although every care is taken, neither Future nor its employees, agents, subcontractors or licensees shall be liable for loss or damage. We assume all unsolicited material is for publication unless otherwise stated, and reserve the right to edit, amend, adapt all submissions. 32 editor’s pick The vegan debate in this issue is of particular interest to me, and because of it I’ve decided to go meat free at least one day a week Future plc is a public company quoted on the London Stock Exchange (symbol: FUTR) www.futureplc.com Chief executive Zillah Byng-Thorne Non-executive chairman Peter Allen Chief inancial oficer Penny Ladkin-Brand Tel +44 (0)1225 442 244 5 The amazing world of animals 6 © Bragi Ingibergsson/Solent News/REX/Shutterstock The amazing world of animals This Icelandic horse looks like someone just told a great joke, but it’s demonstrating an action that’s rare among herbivorous mammals: yawning Horses regularly yawn, but it doesn’t always mean that they’re tired. Scientists have studied wild and domestic horses and think that yawns are triggered as a response to stress, excitement and changes in their social situation. Individual horses difer in how oten they yawn, but on average stallions appear to yawn much more oten. 7 © Nathan Prostamo/Solent News/REX/Shutterstock The amazing world of animals She may not know about the heart shape she’s creating, but this whale is well aware of the effort she’s putting into helping her offspring This whale showing her love is a mother migrating with her young calf. Each autumn, humpbacks can be seen making the journey between cold waters in the north to their warm breeding grounds in the Pacific Ocean. These whales have one of the longest migrations of any mammal, covering thousands of kilometres every year. 8 © Scott Osborne/Solent News/REX/Shutterstock The amazing world of animals Despite their best efforts, time is running out for the minnows caught in the huge beak of this hungry Australian pelican The Australian pelican has the longest recorded bill of any bird in the world, and it puts it to very good use. Large fish are grabbed with the tip of the bill and then thrown into the air before they’re swallowed, while an expandable throat pouch allows pelicans to scoop up several small fish at once and guzzle them down. 9 The amazing world of animals 10 There are edible parts somewhere under the carapace of a spider crab, so gulls are willing to deal with the pincers and the crunchy bits Even with their hard, spiny shells, spider crabs still look tasty to several predators, so they attach seaweed, algae and bits of shell to their bodies to try and camouflage themselves and avoid becoming somebody’s lunch. If they’re spotted they’ll wave their pincers above their heads to try and deter their attackers. Sadly for this crab, that method hasn’t worked. © Jim Moffett/Solent News/REX/Shutterstock The amazing world of animals 11 SHOCK HORROR! 10 animals that use electricity From the quirky platypus to the humble bee, a variety of animals use electricity to power up their wild lifestyles Words Matt Ayres 12 10 animals that use electricity Electric eels can produce a killer shock It’s probably the most famous animal to use electricity, but the electric eel isn’t an eel at all. This shocking river dweller belongs to the knifeish family and it lurks in the muddy waters of the Amazon and Orinoco basins of South America, where its electric abilities come in handy for navigating the murky environment. Electric eels are capable of producing more than 600 volts of electricity – that’s ive times the voltage of an average wall socket. Most of the ish’s body is dedicated to producing electricity, with only the front 20 per cent of its serpent-like anatomy containing vital organs. Most of this creature’s electrical output is expelled in low-voltage pulses, which are used to detect the world around it (electric eels are more or less blind, so they use their electrical abilities in a similar way to bats’ echolocation). It also uses its electricity to stun and kill smaller ish. On rare occasions, humans have drowned after being shocked by an electric eel, a jolt that is said to be strong enough to knock a horse off its feet. “Electric eels are capable of producing more than 600 volts” How electric eels hunt This fish is an expert at using electricity to its advantage When it spots prey an electric eel will discharge shocks of up to 650V. © Frank W Lane/FLPA Stunned by the shock, smaller fish are unable to escape the predator’s final lethal assault. 13 Shock horror! How a platypus uses its bill This evolutionary oddball employs electric receptors to find food underwater The platypus uses its bill to dig for food at the bottom of streams and ponds. The bill’s electroreceptors create a map in the platypus’ brain, showing it where live prey can be located. Platypuses find food using their electric bills The platypus is a truly bizarre creature. Not only are these Australian critters weird to look at with their duck-like bills and beaverlike tails (so odd, in fact, that the scientists who discovered them thought they were being tricked with an elaborate hoax), they’re also some of the only mammals to lay eggs. This 14 ability puts them into the monotreme family along with their cousins, the echidnas. But one of the platypus’ strangest quirks isn’t so obvious. For years, researchers were befuddled as to how the semiaquatic creatures ind their food underwater, particularly considering the fact that they close their eyes, ears and nostrils while swimming. By analysing the creature’s bill they realised that the platypus’ signature accessory isn’t just for show – the digging beak contains over 40,000 electrical receptors, which are used to detect the tiniest movements of prey and locate living creatures with remarkable accuracy. 10 animals that use electricity Studies have shown that sharks can detect an electric current as weak as one-billionth of a volt A shark’s sense of smell is incredibly acute, capable of snifing out a single teaspoon of blood in an area of water the size of a swimming pool. But incredible smelling abilities aren’t the shark’s only skill: they also use electricity to detect their prey, scoping out meals by using receptors on their heads. These receptors have a rather catchy name – ampullae of Lorenzini – and they’re key to the shark’s hunting strategy, allowing them to sense electricity 10,000 times more effectively than other animals. When a shark has determined that a meal must be nearby through its super © D. Parer &, E. Parer-Cook/Minden Pictures/FLPA; Getty/ Jonathan Bird; Pete Orelup; dennisvdw Sharks use electricity as a sixth sense scent, it will use its electrical sensors like a radar to scan the area until it locates the tiny electrical ields produced by all living creatures. It doesn’t matter whether the prey is buried in sand or hidden by rocks – by using electricity the shark leaves its victims with nowhere to hide. Oriental hornets possess built-in solar panels The only surface a gecko can’t stick to is Teflon. However, if water is applied then geckos can adhere to it Geckos cling to walls using static electricity It’s long been thought that geckos are able to climb vertical walls due to a phenomenon known as van der Waals forces, which involves intermolecular interactions between hairs on the lizard’s feet and the surface it’s walking on. However, in recent years some scientists have begun to question this theory, instead positing that the gecko’s spider-like abilities are actually caused by static electricity. Contact electrification could be at play: this would mean that when the gecko’s toe pads are stuck to the wall, they become positively charged with electricity, while the wall’s surface becomes negatively charged, keeping the reptile stuck to it. Think insects are boring? The oriental hornet serves as a reminder that mini beasts have more going on than most people realise. These wasplike creatures are particularly active when the Sun is at its most intense, which is an odd characteristic for hornets considering they usually sleep during the bright hours. By analysing its exoskeleton, scientists learned something remarkable: the oriental hornet’s brown and yellow stripes act as solar panels, converting the Sun’s energy into electricity. The brown stripes trap sunlight, while the yellow ones convert it into electric power. No one’s quite sure what the hornets use their electricity for. Some believe it aids their metabolism, some think it helps them to regulate their body temperature, and others believe the electrical boost might give their wing muscles extra power for flight. RIGHT This hornet occurs in Southeast Asia, North Africa, Madagascar, Israel and southern Europe 15 Shock horror! Bees and flowers communicate via electric signals As well as being able to use electricity, bees are also capable of learning and then passing on new skills We’ve known for a long time that bees are attracted to the bright colours and sweet smells of lower blooms, but it’s only relatively recently that scientists have learned of a less obvious method that lowers use to attract the pollinating insects: electricity. Flowers use electricity to communicate with bees about their nectar reserves, enabling the insects to choose the best plants to feed at. By emitting a negative charge when bees ly near, the positively charged bugs detect an electrical signal, which advertises the lower’s potential for food. How bees use electricity Co-evolution between bees and flowers has led to this amazing method of communication The electrical signal from a flower increases as a bee approaches it. 40 30 20 10 The signal is strongest when the bee lands on the flower and decreases when it leaves. 0 -10 0 20 This territorial fish is nocturnal and can grow to a maximum length of 22.5cm (8.9in) 40 60 80 100 120 Elephantnose ish scan the riverbed using electric currents That’s not a trunk hanging from the elephantnose fish’s face. Despite the confusing name, the facial appendage is actually an elongated chin known as a Schnauzenorgan. It’s used a bit like a metal detector, swept back and forth over the muddy African riverbed until a tasty morsel is found. This organ works by emitting an electrical field, which is modified when an object enters it. The clever fish can determine whether items it detects are alive or dead, enabling it to locate live prey. “Its chin is used a bit like a metal detector, swept over the riverbed” 16 10 animals that use electricity Stargazers can stun their prey with electric shocks Being able to shoot electricity from your eyes may sound like a superpower, but it’s how the stargazer hunts for its food. This rather ugly ish’s name refers to the fact that it has eyes on the top of its head. Some species of stargazer also have an electric organ in their eye muscles. The camoulaged ish hides in mud and uses its upward-gazing eyes to scan the area for potential meals. When a creature comes close enough the stargazer zaps it with a strong electric current, paralysing it before snapping it up in its ierce jaws. Spiders build electrically charged webs to catch insects Everyone knows that spider webs are sticky – it’s how the eight-legged predators catch flies and other bugs. Yet there’s more to the spider’s intricate creation; researchers have discovered that the arachnids conduct static electricity across the surface of their webs. This not only helps to ensnare small insects, it also actively attracts them. Bees and other flying insects produce a positive charge due to the fast movements of their wings, which causes them to naturally gravitate towards the electrostatic surface of a spider’s web. The web bends towards the insect as it approaches; its static surface causes it to change shape as charged objects approach, making it more difficult for flying bugs to evade their grisly fate. However, some scientists have suggested that the trick can backfire: by detecting the static surface of a web, insects may be alerted to a spider’s presence, helping them to avoid becoming ensnared and then eaten. Guiana dolphins track down fish using electricity Like sharks, Guiana dolphins have a remarkable sixth sense that relies on electricity. When they’re born the cetaceans have whiskers on their snouts. These eventually fall out to reveal electricitydetecting pores known as vibrissal crypts. Upon detecting an electrical field emitted by a fish, shrimp or another of the dolphin’s favourite foods, nerves carry the sensory information to the dolphin’s brain and allow it to locate the prey. It’s thought that other toothed whales may also have this ability. © Getty; Sumiko Scott; ullstein bild; atese; Jaim Simoes Oliveira The Guiana dolphin is found in waters along the Atlantic coasts of Central and South America, sometimes in groups of 20 or 30 17 GARDEN SECRETS Discover the secrets to attract a whole host of animals to the edge between our suburban lives and the vast open wilderness Words Amy Grisdale 18 Garden secrets Like humans, animals have speciic tastes and needs. Gardens provide food, water and shelter for an enormous number of animal species. Homeowners can pick and choose which creatures they would most like to attract based on what they would like to see and what animals are most in need. As more and more of the planet is swallowed up by concrete, let your back garden become a haven for animals that might struggle to survive elsewhere. “Animals have specific needs. Gardens provide food, water and shelter for an enormous number of species” BELOW Seven-spot ladybirds only live for one year but are able to eat over 5,000 aphids in that time Get ladybirds to do your gardening for you Allow nature to sort out your greenly infestation by granting ladybirds access to your greenery Aphids are sap-sucking bugs that cause plants to droop, grow incorrectly and even develop harmful mould. Tulips, tomatoes and strawberry plants can even succumb to viruses transmitted by aphids, but if you’re serious about gardening there’s an easy solution: ladybirds These little critters guzzle greenlies like there’s no tomorrow. Introducing these appealing insects is a natural remedy that would otherwise call for harmful chemicals like deltamethrin, a known toxin to humans and animals. Other than pesky insects like aphids, ladybirds like to eat the pollen of certain lowers. Plant marigolds, angelica and fennel to feed the ladybirds, and introduce cabbage and radishes as ‘decoy’ plants for the aphids to target until the ladybirds arrive in large enough numbers. These predatory beetles are able to pick up chemical cues from aphids, snifing out their alarm pheromone. They can even sense olfactory cues released by plants that are under attack by greenly. If you have an aphid infestation that is out of control or has leaked indoors, it is possible to order larval ladybirds from reputable online outlets. This should be a last resort, as ordering living creatures from the internet could be considered ethically questionable. © Shutterstock; Frantisek Dulik Everyone has a checklist when choosing a property. We all want the right number of bedrooms, a fully equipped kitchen and, of course, a garden. That patch of grass can serve as a summer playground, an outdoor restaurant and even a private tanning salon (for as long as the summer lasts). But your yard can serve a far greater purpose. There are countless simple methods that will enable you to turn your property into two homes – one for you and one for wildlife. 19 Garden secrets Awaken to the dawn chorus as songbirds ill the ields with tuneful whistling Attracting birds to your garden brings a lurry of colourful activity to the greenery, as well as giving wild animals a safe home The song inside each bird is hard-wired, and even birds raised in isolation somehow learn the lyrics to their species’ music. This means it is critically important for these animals to sing, and your garden can be their stage. Researchers have revealed that bird brains are comparable to those of humans. Our capability of learning language in infancy is very similar to how birds receive and interpret complex sounds. This remarkable feat of evolution is designed to attract mates in order to continue their lineage. Offering your garden as a feeding and nesting site provides shelter and safety for birds and allows them to thrive in an ever-increasing urban environment. Nest boxes and bird tables are all that are needed, and providing a wide range of bird-friendly foods ensures your garden visitors will return. “The song inside each bird is hard-wired. This means it is critically important for these animals to sing” Sow the seeds Cater to the bird species you’re most interested in sheltering in your garden Sunflower seeds are a fantastic allround food for birds like nuthatches. If possible, find sunflower hearts with the shells removed to prevent birds from injuring their beaks. 20 Goldfinches absolutely love exotic nyjer seeds and may take up permanent residence in your garden if you continue to provide their favourite food on a regular basis. High-fat peanuts are ideal food for woodpeckers. These should be shelled and unsalted in order to lure species like the beautifully coloured greater-spotted woodpecker. Mealworms come live or dried and are a favourite among birds, especially robins. Put them out in winter to help the birds get through the cold season. Steel-cut oats are an energy-packed treat for wrens. These tiny brown birds are some of the smallest in the UK and are frequent visitors to many people’s gardens. Garden secrets Let bats be low-cost insect exterminators Though creepy crawlies may be repulsive to some, many bats eat little else and keep the insect population under control Common pipistrelles emerge around 20 minutes after sunset. The most widespread bat in Europe hunts winged insects like lies and mosquitoes using echolocation. Their high-pitched chirps fall just within the human hearing range, and many garden- owners are unaware of the bats’ presence. You may choose to erect a bat box, but it isn’t necessary to house bats in your back yard. Pipistrelles roost in small groups in trees and small hollows, so it’s likely you already have a fully furnished bat cave. “Pipistrelles’ high-pitched chirps fall just within the human hearing range” © Getty Common pipistrelles have a wingspan of 20cm (7.9in) and weigh 3–8g (0.1–0.3oz) 21 Garden secrets Save the bees, save the world Bees pollinate an enormous number of plants that we humans rely on, but if we don’t take action soon they could disappear for good Honeybees can make 40 foraging lights every day, and a single bee can pollinate 2,000 lowers in a 24-hour period. They are able to follow their strong sense of smell towards rich sources of nectar hidden within lowers. As the bee enters, sticky pollen attaches to its legs and body. When it then visits another plant of the same species the pollen makes contact with a new stigma, allowing the plant to reproduce. Plants are in competition with one another. Flowers with the greatest nectar and most eye-catching colours attract the most insects. An estimated 75 per cent of crops humans cultivate would deplete in the case of bee extinction, so we owe them an awful lot. Luckily, there are a few ways we can thank them. Planting a wildlower meadow is a low-cost method of providing for bees in your garden. Bluebells, foxgloves and clovers are all great lowers to support them, and they all grow well without extensive gardening. Avoid pesticides at all costs, and try to keep your garden limited to mostly native plants, as exotic lowers may not be suitable for the pollinators on your property. “Planting a wildlower meadow is a lowcost method of providing for bees” 22 A worker bee will produce around 1/12th of a teaspoon of honey during its entire lifetime Garden secrets Help hedgehogs recover from a 50 per cent decline A hedgehog has around 5,000 spines on its back, with each one lasting for around a year In the absence of their native hedgerows, it’s up to us to provide these struggling mammals with a new home are perfect cover. Keeping a compost heap, piling up logs or even splashing out on a hedgehog house are all steps in the right direction. It’s also important to clear nets from the ground to prevent entanglement and provide escape routes from deep water. If you want to provide food, mealworms and dedicated hedgehog food are perfect options. Bread and milk cause dehydration, so plain water is more than enough. Five things you can do to attract animals to your garden Birds Whether you choose a two-metre (6.6-foot) monstrosity or make your own, a bird feeder provides for all avian visitors to your property. Put out a wide variety of seeds, nuts and fruit. Bees A few packets of seed mix and a patch of soil are all you need to make a miniature meadow. Use a fine mesh to stop birds from snatching up the seeds before they have time to grow. Hedgehogs Bird and small mammals Creating corridors for wildlife If you don’t live close to a natural prevents animals from getting stuck source of fresh water, provide a in one place and allows them to travel birdbath or ground-level dish of water. to find water, alternative food sources Not only can animals take a drink, but and reproductive partners. birds can bathe in times of drought. Birds and rodents Cats are popular pets, but they can have a devastating effect on fauna and have been known to drive species to extinction. Make sure your cat has a loud bell to announce its presence. © Jerzy Strzelecki; Getty; Sumiko Scott; Alexander Prechtl / EyeEm; It’s A Breeze Photography; Barbara Rich; Blerina Zela It only takes a hedgehog three months to rid the average UK garden of slugs – all they need is the opportunity. Hedgerows once snaked across the UK as natural barriers for livestock. However, since the rapid decline of the hedgehog’s namesake habitat, this spiny mammal is in desperate need of shelter from predators such as hawks. The good news is that doing less gardening is great for hedgehogs, as large hedges and bramble patches 23 19 Fearsome facts King cobra In the dense forests of southern Asia lives a huge, venomous snake with an even bigger reputation 1. Their hiss is more like a low growl 2. They’re famous for their bite Before striking, an aggravated king cobra will spread its hood and raise a third of its body off the ground so that it towers over whatever has upset it. It then emits a low growling sound like an angry dog by quickly exhaling and forcing a blast of air out through its respiratory tract. An air cyst called a tracheal diverticula in the tract acts as a resonating chamber to amplify the hiss. If a king cobra can’t scare off an enemy it will resort to biting, injecting up to a teaspoon and a half of venom. The dosage delivered makes up for the fact that the venom is less potent than that of some other species. It rapidly affects the nervous system, blurring vision and causing drowsiness and paralysis. A large dose of venom can kill a person in 30 minutes. 3. They’re snake-eating snakes While the true cobras all belong to the genus Naja, the king cobra is thought to be more closely related to mambas. It’s the sole member of the genus Ophiophagus, which is Greek for ‘snake-eating’. 4. They’re crowned with a pattern of scales The name ‘king cobra’ comes from the 11 large scales forming the image of a crown on top of the snake’s head. 5. The king cobra is the world’s longest venomous snake. Adults are usually three to four metres (9.8–13.1 feet) long, but lengths over 5.5 metres (18 feet) have been reported. 24 6. Babies are instantly deadly killers King cobra hatchlings measure around 45–55 centimetres (17.7–21.6 inches) long. They’re covered in a pattern of bands that fade as they grow. Although they can’t strike with the force of their parents, their venom is just as potent. 7. Prey gets swallowed whole Like all snakes, king cobras have very flexible jaws and are able to swallow prey larger than their own heads. The jaw bones are connected by stretchy ligaments, so the lower jaw can move much more freely than in other animals. King cobra 8. Females are dedicated mothers Almost all female egg-laying snakes abandon their clutches immediately, but the king cobra is different. A female will spend hours dragging leaves into a pile before laying 21–40 eggs (nests of 70 have been found). The clutch is covered with more leaves, which provide warmth as they decompose, then the mother settles down on top of the nest. She remains there for three months, going without food and defending her young. Then, just as they begin to hatch, she leaves. 9. Courageous predators hunt them Their venom makes them extremely dangerous, but there are predators brave enough to try and make a meal of king cobras. Crocodiles, colonies of army ants, civets and mongooses eat the young, and mongooses continue to hunt them into adulthood. They are able to do this as they’re resistant to the cobra’s venom due to an evolutionary quirk that means their cells are the wrong shape for the venom to latch onto. 10. In most snake species females grow to larger sizes than the males. Unusually, it’s the other way round in king cobras. 11. With such an effective hunting method and few natural predators, king cobras have an average lifespan in the wild of 17–20 years. 12. If you’re ever unlucky enough to ind yourself in the company of multiple king cobras then collective nouns probably won’t be on your mind, but in case you’re wondering, a group of cobras is called a quiver. 13. Not every bite from a cobra carries the chance of death – they’re capable of delivering a ‘dry bite’, biting with their fangs but not injecting any venom. 14. It’s not music that gets them moving With its impressive hood, the king cobra is the favourite among snake charmers. It can’t actually hear the music being played as it can only pick up vibrations in the ground and is deaf to sounds travelling through air, but it still dances to rhythm because it follows the movement of the instrument. 16. They’re most often found sliding along the ground, but king cobras will climb trees and even swim short distances in their pursuit of prey. 17. Unlike true cobras, king cobras are active during the day. At night they prefer to find a sheltered spot and tuck themselves away. 19. Living up to their scientiic 18. Male king cobras ight name, king cobras over females by wrestling, mostly eat other snakes. When twisting around each other and trying to pin their snakes aren’t available, they’ll turn opponent to the ground. to rodents, birds and other reptiles for food. There’s very little biting because they have Their slow metabolism means that a large meal involved a high resistance to their will keep them going for several months. own venom. 25 © Thinkstock; Getty; Matthijs Kuijpers; AFP Stringer; Malcolm Schuyl / Alamy 15. They’re not looking for a ight While they look ferocious, king cobras are actually very shy and try to avoid confrontation. They slither away at the sound of approaching humans and only attack if there’s no other option. Few people are ever bitten, and most victims are snake handlers. PROTECTING THE MADAGASCAR POCHARD The thick jungle of Madagascar holds many mysteries, and it hid a little group of ducks so well that everyone thought the species was gone for good Words Victoria Williams On a complex of four small, volcanic lakes in northwest Madagascar live 25 Madagascar pochards. These ducks don’t know it, but they’re the only wild members of one of the most endangered species on the planet and the focus of a determined conservation effort. Madagascar pochards are diving ducks endemic, unsurprisingly, to the African island of Madagascar. Females are fairly plain, but the males are easily identiied by their striking white eyes. These ducks are fairly sedentary and largely solitary, preferring to stay in one place and living alone or occasionally in a pair. While dabbling ducks feed on plants and invertebrates in shallow water, diving ducks head well below the surface to hunt for food. Some diving ducks catch ish, but Madagascar pochards live largely on aquatic insects. 26 © Getty; JR Leyland Protecting the Madagascar pochard 27 Protecting the Madagascar pochard Madagascar pochard, or Madagascar white-eye Aythya innotata class Aves territory Northern Madagascar diet Aquatic plants, insects, molluscs Lifespan Unknown, at least 8 years in captivity adult weight 650g (23oz) conservation status CRITICALLY ENDANGERED BELOW The captive breeding, led by programme manager Floriot Randrianarimangason, aims to restore the pochard population 28 Members of the genus Aythya, pochards are spread across the world, but the Madagascan species is the only one to occupy Sub-Saharan Africa and the indian ocean, so its disappearance would be a great loss to the biodiversity of the area. the rapid decline in their numbers throughout the last century has allowed them to duck under the radar more than once. Dr h. glyn Young is head of birds at Durrell Wildlife conservation trust and has been involved with the pochard since 1989, so he’s the perfect person to explain the species’ predicament. “the Madagascar pochard has only really been known from one area of Madagascar – Lake Alaotra, where it was described as common in the 1920s – but it has not been recorded at Alaotra since 1960. it was likely more widespread on the high plateau and in eastern Madagascar before the irst people came to the island but not recorded before the arrival of europeans. “the reason for the decline is unclear but must be considered to be from widespread habitat modiication following the arrival of humans (deforestation and siltation, conversion of shallow lakes to rice culture) and maybe natural climate change and aridiication. “Since the 1920s there has been widespread introduction of exotic ish species, including carp, which affect water quality, and cichlids, which have impacted biodiversity in the lakes. Siltation, pollution, exotic ish and ash from ires have generally made lakes and other wetlands poor places for waterbirds. “We irst became involved in 1989 when i went out to Madagascar at the invitation of ornithologist olivier Langrand, then of WWF Aires Protégées in Madagascar. With a partner from the Wildfowl & Wetlands trust (WWt) and two local university students, we spent most of two months scouring Alaotra by dugout canoe but found no pochards. “i established a long-term project on Madagascar’s endemic dabbling ducks (the Madagascar teal and Meller’s duck), which included establishing captive populations, undertaking research and establishing a ield programme within our local presence, Durrell Madagascar. “During this ield programme, which was effectively established around 1990, we continued to look for the pochard, especially following the somewhat enigmatic discovery of a single bird in 1991, and i spent further time at Alaotra in 2000.” everything then went quiet after the single male was caught, and the species was reclassiied on the iUcn red List as Possibly extinct as it was assumed to have died out. Years later, however, reports arrived of new sightings. glyn was one of the irst to hear of the pochard’s return. “With numerous publications on Madagascar’s wildfowl and a good international reputation, i was contacted in 2006 to identify the photos of wild pochards that conirmed ‘rediscovery’, and i was immediately lown out to assess the situation with the tiny population. With a colleague from WWt, i looked for further pochards Protecting the Madagascar pochard BELOW RIGHT Many Madagascan lakes are now unsuitable for the pochards because of human activity in north Madagascar in 2007, and in 2009 Durrell, the Peregrine Fund (who rediscovered the pochard) and the government of Madagascar invited WWt to join in establishing the project Saving the Madagascar Pochard.” At the time of their rediscovery, there were just nine adults and four ducklings. With such a small population, the remaining pochards were in desperate need of some help if they were to survive. the species was given legal protection, and a captive breeding programme was set up to boost their numbers. “in 2009, Durrell and WWt collected 24 eggs from wild pochards to establish a captive population at a purposebuilt facility in Antsohihy, Madagascar. the irst duckling bred by this population hatched in 2011, and we now hold 82 birds. A second facility, which can be visited and acts in part as an interpretation centre, was opened in Antsohihy in 2017 by the President of Madagascar and hrh Princess Anne (Durrell’s patron). Both facilities are staffed and managed on the ground by Durrell with local staff and a management team from Jersey and WWt.” thanks to the effort and dedication of all the organisations involved, things are looking up for the Madagascar pochard. the population should begin to grow soon, as ducks bred in captivity will be released onto the lakes to join their wild relatives. this is a crucial and exciting stage of the conservation plan, as glyn explains. “We are jointly planning with WWt the release of captive-bred pochards at Lake Soia in north Madagascar later this year. WWt and Durrell have undertaken a Darwin initiative-funded programme at Lake Soia in partnership “We spent most of two months scouring Alaotra by dugout canoe but found no pochards” © H G Young; Durrell RIGHT Male Madagascar pochards have distinctive white eyes, while females’ are brown 29 Protecting the Madagascar pochard Lake Alaotra is the largest lake in Madagascar and used to be teeming with rare and endangered animals © freevectormaps.com; NASA with the local communities – establishing Sustainable Management of the Lake Soia catchment Madagascar. the release will be very innovative and involve the use of loating aviaries on the lake to hold birds pre-release and let them acclimatise before they are allowed out. We plan to take freshly hatched ducklings from the captive facilities in Antsohihy to Lake Soia, where they will be reared and released around ledging. “Durrell and WWt will jointly undertake this very exciting project that will involve local people too. the captive-rearing facilities in Antsohihy will continue to breed birds for release and to maintain a safe captive population. hopefully people will visit the interpretation centre and learn about the project for many years.” the conservation project seems to be progressing well, and there are ambitious plans in place for the future. Saving the Madagascar Pochard has published an action plan for the species, and its foreword elegantly summarises the reason why so many people have put in so many hours trying to secure a stable future for a little population of ducks: “the Madagascar pochard project revives our hope for a better future for the unique and marvellous biodiversity of Madagascar.” “the release will be very innovative and involve the use of loating aviaries” 30 Escape to the lakes The Madagascar pochard is limited to just four volcanic lakes in the north of the island Madagascar Current range St range relation s King of the swingers The unlikelieST couSinS The hyrax would it comfortably in the footprint of its closest land-dwelling relative Rock hyRax Watching them scamper around their rocky habitat, it would be easy to assume that hyraxes are most closely related to rodents. The four species – the rock hyrax, the yellowspotted rock hyrax, the western tree hyrax and the southern tree hyrax – actually belong to the clade Paenungulata, which incredibly also includes the elephants and the sirenians (or ‘sea cows’). The ancestors of these hugely different species diverged from a common ancestor millions of years ago, with some heading for water while the rest stayed on land. Elephants found their niche by becoming the giants we know today, but hyraxes (also known as dassies) stayed small and kept themselves safe by hiding from danger between rocks. They look a little clumsy, but they’re able to climb trees in search of food. Despite their size difference, the two still have things in common; they both have thick pads on their feet and a pair of sharp teeth; they Procavia capensis have good hearing and complex communication; and they live in large herds. Up to 80 hyraxes can live together, taking turns to watch for trouble so that others can rest; they can’t thermoregulate fully so they’re active mostly in the morning and evening. When they call to each other they use over 20 distinct sounds, and scientists have discovered that the structure and order of the vocalisations is important – a rare trait among mammals. class Mammalia Territory Africa and the Middle East Diet Leaves, insects, fruit, bird eggs, lizards Lifespan 8–12 years adult weight 2.3–5.4kg (5–12lb) conservation Status LEAST CONCERN Afrotheria Paenungulata Different diets These relatives have very different diets. Hyraxes are omnivores, eating leaves, insects, bird eggs, fruit and even lizards, while elephants and sirenians are strictly herbivorous. From feet to lippers The legs of the common ancestor evolved into flippers and a tail in the sirenians, but the structure of the bones inside remains very similar to those in the feet of the elephants and hyraxes. Temperature control Elephants’ large ears and thick skin help them to avoid overheating, but hyraxes are furry and can’t control their temperature very well, so they have to avoid spending too much time in direct sunlight. © Mike Lane/Alamy; Getty/abadonian hyracoidea Procaviidae (hyrax) Sirenia Proboscidea elephantidae (elephant and mammoth) Branching out Paenungulata means ‘almost ungulates’. Ungulates are members of a large group of mammals including horses, giraffes, hippos, cows and sheep. Genetic analysis confirmed that sirenians, elephants and hyraxes are closer to each other than to the ungulates, which suggests that their clade was one of the first to diverge from the earliest placental mammals. Tethytheria Trichechidae (Sea cows) Dugongidae (Dugongs) 31 WARNING! Graphic images that readers may find upsetting Are meat and dairy destroying the planet and the animals within it? Amy Pay looks at the industries from the perspective of animals and the people whose livelihoods rely on them Words Amy Pay Something remarkable has happened in the food industry over the last few decades that shows no signs of stopping: the march of veganism. The meteoric surge in this relatively new way of eating isn’t the result of one single catalyst, but more the consequence of a number of factors. Nearly a third of British people have cut down their consumption of meat since a World Health Organisation report issued in late 2015 conirmed the links between eating processed meat and developing certain types of cancers. Another big driver behind the rise in veganism is the increased amount of information, and thereby public awareness, that has come about as a result of various documentaries and undercover reports into the realities of meat and dairy farming. When this is combined with the power of social media, celebrity vegans and global vegan campaigns, an incredibly strong mix develops into a compelling argument. Or does it? There are, after all, two sides to the story of veganism, and many meat eaters have posited numerous, similarly well-structured counter-arguments in support of their choice of diet. As with almost anything in life, there are pros and cons to both sides. 32 The vegan debate 10 reasons to go vegan Not sure what all the fuss is about when it comes to ditching meat and dairy? 1. Rearing livestock for consumption requires far more land, water and energy than is required to produce the equivalent amount of plant-based foods, such as grains and vegetables. 2. Animal agriculture is responsible for 18 per cent of greenhouse gas emissions. That’s more than the total emissions from all transport. 3. The meat industry and the ishing industry contribute highly to dead zones in oceans and water pollution. 4. Deforestation to make room for the many aspects of the meat and dairy industries is causing whole species to be wiped out around the world. 5. Commercial ishing is damaging millions of miles of coral, sea sponges and other unique habitats on the sealoor, giving its former inhabitants nowhere to call home. 6. Trawler ishing and other largescale ishing operations produce catastrophic levels of bycatch (nontarget species that get hauled up and killed in the process). Some estimate that global bycatch accounts for over 40 per cent of ish caught. 7. Half of every butchered cow ends up becoming by-product material or useless waste, so for the equivalent of one livestock cow in beef, another doesn’t get that far. 8. A varied vegan diet requires about one-third of the land that’s needed for the average Western meat-eater’s diet. 10. Adopting a plant-based diet can drastically reduce your risk of heart disease, Type 2 diabetes, cancer and obesity, plus it can lower your blood pressure and cholesterol levels. © Getty; Jenner Images 9. Roughly 80 per cent of antibiotics sold in the US are fed to livestock so that they can survive their oten cramped and dirty conditions, leading to antibiotic resistance. This mass of antibiotics passes on to the person who eats the livestock and into the animals’ faeces, eventually ending up in waterways, soil and the air, meaning we are becoming resistant too. 33 The vegan debate Animal farm We like to think that factory farming, where millions of animals are reared for meat in cramped, dark, dirty and miserable conditions, isn’t something that happens in the UK. However, a 2017 investigation revealed there are almost 800 mega farms like this in the UK, churning out millions of animals for the meat industry each year. So, while there are many farmers who do what they can to provide a good quality of life for their animals on open ields, a huge percentage of meat and dairy animals don’t have that luxury. Starting out While a dippy egg and soldiers might seem appealing, the things that happen in order for it to end up on your plate aren’t so palatable. To keep up with the demand for eggs, hatcheries have to produce millions of purposely skinny hens. If a hen gives birth to a female, this chick will become another egg-layer. If a hen gives birth to a male, he is deemed useless – too skinny for meat production and unable to lay eggs. As such, all male chicks of this kind (including organic and free range) are gassed in chambers, suffocated or minced alive in a macerator. Thankfully, this cruel practice may soon come to an end. United Egg Producers, an agricultural cooperation that represents virtually all egg producers in the US, has announced plans to stop culling male chicks by 2020. The alternative solution that it has proposed lies in using modern technology to determine the sex of an egg before it hatches, thereby preventing males from being born. While the ethics of such a process remain highly questionable, it is at least a step towards a less ruthless method of production. As for dairy calves, they are taken from their mothers in the irst two days after being born. They are fed a milk replacer while we get the mum’s milk for our own consumption. Dairy cows are then artiicially inseminated two to three months after giving birth to begin the whole process again, and this cycle continues until they are worn out and replaced by a younger female. Bake your own vegan chocolate chip cookies A simple recipe for delicious melt-in-your-mouth cookies that taste just as good as dairy versions Method: Ingredients: 320g plain lour 1 tsp baking powder 1 tsp ine table salt 225g Vitalite, pure or other dairy-free margarine 225g brown sugar 2 tsp vanilla extract 100g vegan chocolate, chopped into chips A splash of plant milk (soya, oat, almond) 34 • Preheat the oven to 180°C (160°C fan). • Combine the margarine and sugar in a large bowl. • Add the lour, baking powder and salt, then stir until well combined. • Add the vanilla extract and chocolate chips, then use your hands to work the mix into a dough ball. If it's a bit dry add a splash of vegan milk. • Roll out the dough on a loured surface until it is about 1cm thick. • Cut out whatever shape of cookie you want, then transfer it to a baking tray lined with baking paper, leaving 1cm between them. • Once you have used all of the dough, bake the cookies in the oven until they turn irm and start to go brown. This should take approximately 12 minutes, but the longer you leave them in, the crunchier they'll be, and vice versa. • Remove, allow to cool on a wire rack, and enjoy. The vegan debate Animals often suffer before they are killed Row upon row of recently killed pigs at a slaughterhouse According to Viva! (Vegetarians’ International Voice for Animals) there are nearly 300 licensed slaughterhouses in the UK. The majority of farm animals in them are killed by slitting the main arteries in their neck. However, practices vary in each slaughterhouse. Some ensure their staff take time to check the animals are unconscious before killing them so as to decrease their suffering. Others pay staff by the number of animals they kill. Rushed staff may not check so thoroughly, meaning some animals may not be unconscious when their throats are slit, and as such they have to endure the pain. Stunning is common in the UK as a way to make cows, sheep and pigs unconscious before slaughter, and it comes in many forms – all of which can cause pain and suffering. It can be done by administering a bolt to the skull to cause brain damage or a concussive blow, by gassing them, or by electrocuting them into a cardiac arrest (either using tongs to the head, prods, or by submerging them into an electriied water bath). It’s not always successful though, meaning that animals might be fully conscious during the ordeal or that they may still be able to feel while they are knifed, hanging upsidedown during blood draining or being skinned. No current method is fully effective in preventing this. Chickens, ducks, turkeys, geese and other birds farmed for their meat are also stunned, either by being shackled and having their heads submerged in electriied water baths or through electric shocks. If they raise their heads, they may not receive a proper stun, in which case they are The reality of overcrowded factory farming meant to be decapitated by hand, but some are missed and face the neck-cutter fully conscious. Once their necks are cut, they are drained and submerged in a scalding bath, a tub of hot water that quickly scalds the birds so that they are easier to pluck. Can you be a meat-eating animal lover? We put animals through all of this pain, suffering and distress for the sake of our own tastes, treating them as a commodity and only really thinking about what we fancy off a menu, rather than what the intelligent creature that’s now an ingredient has had to go through. Even the nicest, kindest farmers have to wave their animals off to slaughter. The truth of what has to happen to keep up with our demand for meat and dairy is unpalatable, and as more people ind out about it, the number of vegetarians and vegans increases. However, this isn’t to say that all people who eat meat are thereby indifferent to the needs and feelings of animals. Climate contributions The United Nations says that raising animals for food is “one of the top two or three most signiicant contributors to the most serious environmental problems”. No matter how many low-energy light bulbs we install in our homes, the amount of meat, eggs and dairy that we consume is holding us back from our eco goals. All along the processes that lead to meat or dairy end products there are detrimental effects on the planet. Deforestation To have somewhere to keep animals and grow the huge amounts of grain needed to keep them fed, vast areas of land have to be cleared. It happens all around the world, from the northern and eastern parts of America to the Amazon. Rainforest Concern estimate that for each pound of beef produced, 200 square feet (18.6 square metres) of rainforest land is destroyed. Clearing trees is a two-fold “Animal agriculture is responsible for 18 per cent of greenhouse gas emissions, more than the total from all transport” ©Mike Daines; Johan Jooste/Alamy The argument for removing calves from their mothers is that as young calves are highly susceptible to disease, it is safer for both parent and offspring to be separated. Farmers have also argued that the logistical problems presented by keeping calves and mothers together would be so insurmountable as to prove the death of the entire dairy industry and therefore spell the end of countless livelihoods across the world. Deforestation of rainforest land to make room for agricultural crops 35 The vegan debate problem; trees are good at absorbing greenhouse gases, but by cutting them down we lose this helping hand in our ight for a better climate. It’s not just the animals that need making room for. While we are used to thinking of soya as something that humans eat (such as in soya milk, soya beans and tofu), most of the soya grown globally is used to feed animals. Growing soya requires vast amounts of land, but as space is limited people are destroying some of our most precious ecosystems to make way. This mass deforestation destroys the habitats of many species, impacting on their entire ecosystem. Take the Cerrado in Brazil, which is the most biodiverse savannah region on Earth. It’s a wonderful haven of wildlife, home to around 60 vulnerable, endangered and critically endangered species. Sadly, it is shrinking faster than the Amazon because of the demand for land used in beef production, soya and other crops. With the land goes the animals that call it home. Even so, livestock farming is not entirely responsible for deforestation: logging is the main culprit. It is estimated that half of the world’s 223 most important sites for plant diversity are threatened by the industry, with over 1.2 million acres of forestland cleared every single day. be gathered and transported to them. The animals eat then excrete, releasing copious amounts of methane into the atmosphere. On average, 11 times more fossil fuels are released in the production of a calorie of animal protein than in one calorie of plant protein. Animal farming is the worst culprit for methane emissions and the cause of 65 per cent of global humanrelated nitrous-oxide emissions, both of which can be even more environmentally damaging than carbon dioxide. A study by Oxford University found that meat-eaters are twice as bad as vegetarians when it comes to their dietary greenhouse gas emissions per day and two and a half times worse than vegans. One study found that adopting veganism is more effective than switching from a normal car to a hybrid in terms of tackling your carbon footprint. However, a study by Robin White of Virginia Tech and Mary Beth Hall of the US Department of Agriculture has predicted that were the whole of the US to go vegan, the resulting 28 per cent decline in the nation’s agricultural greenhouse-gas emissions would only translate to a 2.6 per cent drop in its overall carbon output. While tackling the damaging effects farming has on the climate is imperative, it will not solve all of our problems. The carbon hoofprint What about us? Once animals move onto the cleared land, they need vast amounts of water and food every day, all of which has to One of the main arguments made against going vegan is that humans have evolved to become omnivores over Veganism in numbers $5.2 $11 198 3.5 40 168,500 130 987% billion billion Expected value of global meat-alternative market by 2020. The expected value of global non-dairy milk market by 2019. Workers picking soya from crops in Africa 36 Number of BILLION animals eaten people could per year by the live of the food average meatwe currently eating adult, feed to according to PETA. livestock. per cent of consumers try to include vegan aspects in every meal. people took part in Veganuary this January, with 62 per cent staying vegan aterwards. Number of chickens that are saved from consumption by going vegan for five years. The increase in demand for vegetarian and vegan options on Just Eat’s website in 2017. Recent estimates claim that fisheries throw 6.8 million tons of unwanted sealife overboard The vegan debate Many vegans argue that farmers would need to reskill over time, picking up horticultural practices that were once more common. Fortunately, vegetables, cereals and fruits could be grown on land that’s currently used for meat production, so we have the space. As people alter their eating habits, farmers could adapt their practices. Is it all or nothing? © Getty; Lauri Patterson; Magone; Alamy; Ashley Cooper pics; Jeffrey Rotman; Chris Harris It’s more common now to hear of people moderating their meat and dairy intake but not completely scrapping it. The idea of eating meat from a factory-farmed pig is much harder to swallow than the thought of eating one that’s had a life running freely in ields. Small-scale organic farming can be good for the environment. It keeps soils fertilised, and often the presence of herds and roaming animals deters pests and predators. Due to the more controllable size of the group of animals, they can be fed off food waste rather than feed made from problematic crops, or in the case of cows and goats, provide a free lawn-cutting service. This style of smaller-scale, organic, non-factory farming seems like one of the few ways in which the industry can be more environmentally friendly. Unfortunately, this method wouldn’t keep pace with our soaring demand for meat and dairy given that it requires much more space per animal and a much slower turnover of product. Every little helps Avoiding animal products is one of the most obvious ways you can take a stand against animal cruelty and exploitation. You don’t have to go the whole hog though. Whether you opt for meat-free meals once a week or try to go vegan on weekdays, your swaps can have a huge impact on the number of animals you consume over the month. If we all adopt new habits we might be able to save many species and their habitats. thousands of years and that eating animals is good for us, providing us with essential nourishment that can’t be found in a plant-based diet. Meat and dairy are good sources of calcium, vitamin D, iron, vitamin B12, zinc and omega-3 fatty acids, all of which are harder for vegans to obtain from their diet. On top of this, there is also the argument that many people on low incomes would ind it incredibly dificult to source their required nutrients from a vegan diet. However, with careful planning and strategic, balanced eating you can be a healthy vegan without it taking a hit on your wallet, but it certainly requires more effort and thought to get things like protein and calcium into your diet. Studies have revealed proven links between meat and dairy consumption and a much-increased likelihood of developing cancer, heart disease, obesity and Type 2 diabetes. On a health level, it’s a case of whether the effort of going vegan is worth it for the reduced risk. Accidentally vegan Six tasty indulgences that you probably don’t know are vegan Peanut butter Aunt Bessie's bramley apple crumble Bourbon biscuits Earning a new living Some anti-vegan campaigners say that if farming were to stop there would be a lot less animals around. This is true in places where animal agriculture is visible, such as on hillsides in the country and in city farms. With this, there is the very real threat of mass unemployment that ending farming would present. With around 570 million farmers globally, the loss of such a vast industry would need to be replaced with expensive and time-consuming retraining programmes if mass unemployment, starvation and unrest were to be averted. That said, this is by no means impossible. Cadbury's Bournville Chilli heatwave Doritos *Please always check the ingredients before consuming these products as manufacturers are at liberty to change the ingredients within their products. The above products are listed as being vegan-friendly at the time of this feature going to print. Marzipan 37 ANIMAL BLUNDERS No matter how beautiful or majestic they are, no animal is immune to the odd mishap every now and again. This clumsy bunch is living proof Words Victoria Williams 38 Animal blunders Long-tailed ducks are migratory sea ducks. When the water isn’t frozen over they’re accomplished divers, reaching depths of 60 metres (197 feet), which is more than most other duck species. In order to achieve such an aquatic feat they use their wings to propel themselves downward. The sexes are easily distinguished as the males have the elongated tail feathers that give the species its name. © NaturePL; Markus Varesvuo Ducks are more graceful in water than on ice 39 Animal blunders © NaturePL; SCOTLAND: The Big Picture This ptarmigan didn’t quite land on its feet 40 Ptarmigans live on tundra and cold mountainsides in the Northern Hemisphere. During summer these game birds are a greyish brown, but come winter they moult and turn white to keep them camoulaged against their surroundings. While their feathers are well adapted to the snow, their claws don’t always provide enough grip on the ice. Animal blunders © NaturePL; Visuals Unlimited Raccoon kit gets to grips with climbing In a little while this kit will become very comfortable among the branches. Raccoons are active at night and rest during the day, often climbing until they’re safely above the ground. Female raccoons can build nests and raise their young in tree hollows, so kits have to be taught to use their claws to get down safely. 41 Animal blunders Grizzly bears begin to learn to ish at a young age, watching their mothers and then practising the skill themselves. When salmon head upstream to their mating grounds from the sea the bears lie in wait and try to catch them as they leap through the water. Unfortunately for the powerful mammals the ish are fast and slippery, so things don’t always go to plan, as this image proves. © NaturePL; Loic Poidevin Salmon can give bears the slip This male Japanese squirrel is willing to look a little foolish in his pursuit of a lady. He’s attempting to climb up a particularly fragile branch to mate with a female in oestrus, but he’s perhaps been a little ambitious. These squirrels are found only in a few areas of Japan, where the changing seasons trigger colour changes in their fur. 42 © NaturePL; Yukihiro Fukuda Risking it all for romance Hedgehogs can curl into a ball to protect themselves against attackers, but they can’t do much to save themselves from their own clumsiness. Yet despite the occasional stumble they’re surprisingly agile animals. Hedgehogs can swim well if they need to and even climb walls and fences. ©NaturePL; Klein & Hubert Far to fall when you’re small 43 LET IT SHINE! The animal kingdom is full of bright and brilliant colours, but iridescence takes things to the next level Words Victoria Williams In most species, organic compounds called pigments create their colours and patterns, but there are a few that do things differently: the iridescent animals. Iridescence is a phenomenon caused by the relection and refraction of light waves, producing shimmering colours that seem to change depending on the angle the surface is viewed from. Feathers, scales, fur and exoskeletons with complex structures can all generate this effect. When light hits them some waves are relected straight off the outer surface, while others travel deeper until they’re relected away by an inner layer. When these waves meet they can cancel each other out if their crests and troughs are out of sync (called destructive interference) or amplify each other to produce an unusually strong relection if they match up (constructive interference). Iridescence varies in its usefulness. Some animals rely on it in their quest to secure a mate, others have to avoid it getting them into trouble, and the rest don’t seem to notice it at all. Shimmering science The physics behind some animals’ manipulation of light 44 Destructive interference Constructive interference Cancellation Amplification Let it shine! Fiery feathers, fiery nature The only places to see the glimmer of the aptly named iery-throated hummingbird are the mountains of Panama and Costa Rica. Adults of both sexes look dark green from most angles, but catch them in the right light and a rainbow of shimmering colours appears as light waves are relected by tiny air bubbles on their feathers. This hummingbird has a temper as iery as its plumage, iercely defending mating territory during breeding season and guarding patches of lowers all year round. They extract nectar from lowers by piercing through to the centre with their long beaks or using holes left behind by birds from the Diglossa genus to reach it. Observer sees dull colour Observer sees black © Getty; Juan Carlos Vindas Observer sees bright colour 45 Let it shine! Centre of attention There are an unusually low number of females among the superb bird of paradise population, so males have to pull out all the stops in the competition to secure a mate. First, they prepare a dance loor, then they call to attract a female audience before starting to dance. While they dance their iridescent breast shield spreads out and their black cape is held up behind their head. The courting male hops in frenzied circles around any female interested enough to come close, clicking his tail feathers together to provide a rhythmical accompaniment. RIGHT The beautiful plumes of the bird of paradise are used as currency by some tribes in New Guinea “These Australian pigeons make their young very vulnerable by building their nests on or close to the ground” BELOW Both parents will care for their two glossy white or pink eggs 46 Avoiding the spotlight Despite the flamboyant bars of iridescent feathers on its wings, the brush bronzewing is highly secretive and timid. It does its best to avoid attention, only making the risky journey to look for water at dawn and dusk. For all the care they take making sure their rainbow streaks don’t give them away, these Australian pigeons make their young very vulnerable by building their nests on or close to the ground. Nests at ground level are easy for predators to find, and startled parents will regularly abandon eggs and chicks to their fate, resulting in a breeding success rate of less than ten per cent. Flashy but faithful As well as being striking to look at, the Nicobar pigeon is remarkable for being the closest living relative of a rather famous extinct bird: the dodo. It lives on the Nicobar Islands in the Indian Ocean, as well as on the Malay Archipelago, Palau and the Solomon Islands. It’s nomadic, with flocks commuting between the islands to search for fruit, seeds and nuts. Their flashy plumage might draw the eye of multiple suitors, but Nicobar pigeons are monogamous and mate for life. Unfortunately, they’re also attractive to people, and many are caught for food, decoration and the exotic pet trade. Let it shine! Prettier than it sounds The name ‘swamphen’ doesn’t conjure up images of the prettiest bird, but there are several species of purple swamphen (or gallinule) that sport rather impressive iridescent feathers. They live in wetlands, travelling mostly by swimming or wading because they’re weak liers – take-off is an awkward event, and landing is basically a controlled crash. When it comes to courtship, males don’t just rely on their impressive feathers; they collect reeds in their beaks, bow to nearby females and make a noise like a chuckle. “Take-off is an awkward event, and landing is a controlled crash” Dancing for their lives © Getty; PictureAhmed credit Syed / EyeEm; National Geographic Creative / Alamy; BIOSPHOTO; blickwinkel; Photononstop Coming in all sorts of colours and patterns, over 60 species of peacock spider brighten the Australian bush like miniscule decorations. They’re jumping spiders, so they catch prey by hunting and pouncing rather than spinning a web. Many iridescent animals seem to have little use for their shimmering colours, but peacock spiders know how to make the most of what they’ve got. The tiny males – just a few millimetres across – really put on a show to impress the dullbrown females, unfurling a bright flap from their abdomen, darting around and waving their fringed legs in a complex dance that can last up to 50 minutes. It’s not just their chance of fatherhood that rides on their performance; some females will kill and eat a suitor if they don’t enjoy the dance, or mate with him and then consume him. 47 Let it shine! The numerous layers within each scale create a complex wing structure that reflects light waves many times Iridescence on a small scale Because the Madagascan sunset moth is so colourful and lies during the day, it was initially thought to be a type of butterly. Butterlies and moths both have wings covered in microscopic scales, which are arranged in several layers, and each scale itself has multiple layers. All of these layers mean that waves of light are relected and ampliied many times, producing patterns of glittering colour. Pigments in the scales can combine with the iridescence to create even more shades or wings that appear completely different in colour from different angles. The Madagascan sunset moth is unusual because there is virtually no pigment in its wings; all perceived colour comes from light scattering and interference. Unlike other butterlies and moths its wing scales are curved, which allows for even more relection. While the caterpillar lacks the psychedelic patterns of the adult form, it has its own party trick; it’s been reported that consuming the silk it spins generates a drug-like high. 48 Let it shine! Human-made magniicence Captive Siamese ighting ish are popular in the aquarium trade because of their vibrant colours, but anyone venturing to see them in the wild is likely to be disappointed. In the loodplains, canals and rice paddies of the Mekong Basin in Southeast Asia, the ish – also known as bettas – are dull shades of brown, grey and green and have short ins. Wild bettas only display their colours when they’re agitated; selective breeding in captivity has produced the elegant ins and spectrum of bright hues that the species is known for. When they’re mating female bettas are much more impressed by movement than by colour – courting males will twist through the water around a potential mate and build ‘bubble nests’ by gulping at the surface for several hours. Whether they’re wild or captive, all Siamese ighting ish are highly territorial and become aggressive around others. It’s this ierce nature that has made them so well known, as watching them battle became a popular pastime in Asia and later further aield. RIGHT Forced to adapt to an ever-changing habitat, betta fish developed the ability to extract oxygen from air and water Golden moles have no external ears, their eyes don’t work and are covered by their skin, and they’re not even true moles. They belong to a different order of animals and are found only in subSaharan Africa, but the 21 golden mole species live very similar lives to the moles, digging and spending much of their time underground. Considering their fossorial lifestyle and complete blindness, it seems odd that they are the world’s only iridescent mammals. Scientists took fur samples from four species with blue or green iridescence and studied them under a microscope. It turned out that each hair was lattened, a feature that could have evolved because it made the animals more streamlined or because it was more eficient at repelling water. The iridescence is a side-effect created by the amount of light relecting off the large surface area of each lat hair. © Getty; DEA / DANI-JESKE; silversaltphoto.j.senosiain; RGB Ventures / SuperStock / Alamy; Minden Pictures Glistening by accident 49 Let it shine! Japan’s living jewel The jewel beetles make up one of the largest families of beetle in the world, with around 15,000 known species. The Japanese jewel beetle is one of these, and it certainly lives up to its name. Tiny ridges on the surface of its cuticle create the iridescence of many insects, but this beetle is perfectly smooth. It’s thought that the highly polarised light relecting from the wood-boring beetles helps them to identify other members of their species and ind mates. In Japanese the beetle is called ‘tamamushi’ and its elytra (the hardened cases on its hind wings) are highly prized by collectors. They’re sometimes used to make jewellery, and they decorate an elaborate miniature shrine known as the Tamamushi Shrine that dates back to the 6th or 7th century. Their changing colours gave rise to the phrase ‘tamamushiiro’, which translates as ‘tamamushi colour’ and is used to refer to a convoluted or ambiguous statement, oten describing the language of politicians. Masters of disguise Cuckoo wasps are parasites, laying eggs in the nests of bees and wasps and then allowing the unwitting hosts to raise their young just like the bird they’re named after. Their iridescence is produced by light refracting through spaces between the layers of cuticle that make up their exoskeleton, a feature that should hinder them in their sneaky business. Inside a burrow, however, there’s no light to create the colours, and the wasp mimics the scent of the residents to make itself virtually invisible. If they do get caught, these wasps curl up into a tight ball so that their hard exoskeleton protects them against bites and stings, so all a host can do is carry an intruder out. Should this happen the wasp will simply wait a while and then start the entire process over again. Sunlight in serpent form © BIOSPHOTO / Alamy; Shutterstock; Mark Brandon; Michel Gunther/Biosphoto/FLPA The two species of sunbeam snake, native to Southeast Asia, are among the very few reptiles to exhibit iridescence. The snakes spend most of their time hidden away below ground and emerge only at dusk and dawn to hunt small mammals, frogs and other snakes, which they kill by constriction as they’re not venomous. In the shadows the snakes appear brown or black on their dorsal side and white underneath, but their scales are highly iridescent – in the light of a sunrise or sunset one of the last things a sunbeam snake’s prey sees is a dazzling rainbow lash. 50 FEED YOUR MIND www.howitworksdaily.com Available from all good newsagents and supermarkets TM ON SALE NOW • SPEED DEMONS • BUILD THE ULTIMATE ROCKET • YOUR GENETIC CODE SCIENCE UP CLOSE INSIDE GADGETS COOLEST TECH ILLUSTRATIONS AMAZING FACTS BUY YOUR ISSUE TODAY Print edition available at www.myfavouritemagazines.co.uk Digital edition available at www.greatdigitalmags.com Available on the following platforms facebook.com/howitworks twitter.com/@howitworksmag Animal architects Building a chimp’s nest Common ChimpAnZEE Pan troglodytes Class Mammalia Territory Widespread throughout Africa Diet Fruit, leaves, stems, seeds, bark, insects, small mammals and bird eggs Lifespan 45 years Adult weight 31.8–59kg (70–130lb) Conservation Status ENDANGERED hygiene conscious Nests are built in diferent trees every day. It’s thought that this might be for hygiene reasons, avoiding a build-up of waste and parasites that could make them ill. We’re not the only primates to enjoy tucking ourselves up for a good night’s sleep; every day, chimpanzees and other great apes carefully construct nests to keep them safe and warm until morning. A chimp’s nest is much more like our own beds than the nests of other animals; it consists of a irm foundation, a springy ‘mattress’ layer and a soft top layer. Baby chimps sleep in their mother’s nest, but they must be taught this important skill when they’re weaned. Scientists now believe that high-quality sleep may have enabled humans to evolve How they build it Bedding down is no simple procedure for a chimp Setting the foundations All good nests need a strong, level base. If they can’t ind an appropriate spot (like a fork in a tree), chimps break and bend branches until they’ve made a circular or triangular foundation. They are fussy about materials – they prefer certain species of branches most suited to the job. 52 Weaving the ‘mattress’ The next step is the most complicated. The chimps weave thinner branches covered with foliage into the structure to make a springy platform. They use their hands and feet to force the branches over and under each other until they’re secured in place. With practice, chimps become quick at this. Getting comfortable Once the main body of the nest is in place, it’s time to add a inal layer of comfort. Small branches, twigs and leaves are gathered to make the sleeping spot as sot and warm as possible. Chimps have even been observed using piles of foliage as a pillow on occasions. plenty of space An average chimp nest measures about 1.5m (4.9t) in length and just under 1m (3.3t) across. The chimpanzee’s nest Careful construction Night nests are made of expertly woven branches carefully lined with twigs and leaves. Daytime nap nests are made in a similar way but they’re much simpler. in the heights Chimpanzee’s night nests have been found as high as 45m (147.6t) above the ground in areas with a large number of predators. Watching and learning Young chimpanzees watch adults crating their nests to learn the process themselves. This social learning is vital – chimps raised without others of their species will lack this critical skill. Up high or down low Most nests are built up in the tree canopy, above predators that might be prowling around in the night, but a surprising number are constructed on the ground. Keeping pests away Not only does a nest provide somewhere comfy to sleep, it’s also been shown to help keep the sleeping chimpanzees warm and away from biting insects. Five facts about chimpanzees Chimpanzees sleep for about ten hours a night. Most of this time is spent in light sleep, but they go through several periods of REM (rapid eye movement) sleep, the phase where dreaming occurs and memories are consolidated. While they’re not as strong as many people believe, chimps are still about 1.5 times as strong as the average human relative to body size. Their muscle fibres are longer than ours, which enhances strength, but they are better suited to bursts of power. Skipping a step To save time and energy, many nest sites are re-used. When a group returns to an area, old foundations and shaped branches can be built upon again. no risk of falling Chimpanzees don’t have to worry about falling from the trees while they sleep – their nests are cup-shaped to hold them safely in place. Chimpanzees live in fissionfusion groups – large communities that frequently break off into subgroups and then reunite hours or days later. Males stay in the communities they were born into, while females tend to join new groups. © The Art Agency/Peter Scott; Getty; Anup Shah Baby chimps are close to their mothers, both physically and emotionally. They’re almost always touching, with babies clinging to the females when they are moving around and sleeping in their arms at night. Chimps are weaned at about four and a half years old. 53 All about echidnas 54 Echidnas Short-beaked echidna Tachyglossus aculeatus class Mammalia territory Australia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea diet Insects, including ants and termites Lifespan Up to 45 years adult weight 2–7kg (4.4–15.4Ib) conservation Status LEAST CONCERN All About echidnas If you thought the platypus was the weirdest animal Australia had to offer then think again – the echidna is just as peculiar, inside and out © Getty; Kristian Bell Words Victoria Williams 55 All about echidnas Underground, overground, waddling free From the moment of its arrival, the echidna is full of surprises It has the spines of a hedgehog, the snout of an anteater and the egg-laying abilities of a reptile, but the short-beaked echidna is not closely related to any of these animals. Besides the other species of echidna, its nearest relative is the platypus, another bizarre Australian native that looks like it’s been pieced together from parts of other creatures. This small, strange family makes up the monotremes, a group of mammals separated from marsupials and the other mammals by its lack of placenta – instead of giving birth to live young, offspring are laid in eggs. The monotremes scratching around Australia today evolved millions of years ago from an aquatic mammal more like a platypus than an echidna. Modern platypuses are still suited to life in the water, but echidnas adapted to life on land and only swim if it’s necessary. Echidnas prefer to keep to themselves. Outside of the breeding season they have a Short-beaked echidnas venture all over Australia, from forests to riverbanks 56 solitary lifestyle, although they’re not territorial and can live near others without any drama. They’re active day and night except for during the height of summer, emerging from underground burrows to search for their prey. Breaking into nests and rotting logs, they use their long tongues to scoff up to 40,000 ants, termites, larvae and other soil-dwelling invertebrates each day. Their short legs are excellent tools for digging and breaking wood, but they give the animals a slow, waddling gait. Faced with danger, running away isn’t a great option, so they dive into crevices too small for their attacker or curl up to engage their coat of spines for protection. The safest place for an echidna is in an underground burrow. This is where they rest in between foraging trips and where they hibernate. Hibernation begins as summer comes to a close and ends around June when the breeding season starts. Regardless of the time of year, echidnas have a lower body temperature than other mammals, and they’re fussy about their sleeping conditions – it has to be around 25 degrees Celsius (77 degrees Fahrenheit) for them to enter deep REM sleep. The search for a mate starts immediately after a male wakes from hibernation. Some females discover that they’re already pregnant, because males can wake earlier, sneak into their burrows and mate with them while they’re still in torpor. Others have more say in who they mate with; they’re followed constantly by a chain of suitors who will ight when she decides she’s ready to breed. Male platypuses have venom-illed spurs (potent enough to kill a small animal) on their hind legs that they can use during the breeding tournament. Male echidnas also have spurs, but they’ve lost their use as a weapon and instead seem to secrete a scented substance for communication. Echidnas Like most mammals, echidnas have three priorities in life: mate, eat and avoid being eaten The echidna is a bizarre animal to behold, and its lifestyle is equally unusual – from the way males court females to the way they ind food, this creature does things in its own special way. Love train When breeding season arrives, trains of males follow females around for days or even weeks so they’re in a prime position to fight over her when she’s ready to mate. Mother and baby Pregnant females get comfy in burrows ready to lay a single egg into their pouch and care for the tiny puggle when it hatches around ten days later. breaking and entering Short, strong legs, sharp claws and long tongues allow echidnas to rip open logs and force their way into anthills in their search for a meal. digging deep Not limited to the surface, echidnas can dig down to reach underground ant and termite nests and to escape from perilous situations. First encounters Echidnas have been baffling people for hundreds of years Echidnas spend a lot of their time underground in burrows Indigenous Australians have long been telling stories about echidnas, but the irst written account of the animal came from Captain William Bligh. Three years ater he survived the infamous mutiny on HMS Bounty, he was commanding the sloop HMS Providence on a botanical expedition when he stopped at Adventure Bay in Tasmania en route to Tahiti. His log from 7 February, 1792, reads, “An animal shot at Adventure Bay. It had a Beak like a Duck – a thick brown coat of Hair, through which the points of numerous Quills of an Inch long projected these very sharp – It was 14 inches long & walked about on 2 legs. Has very small Eyes & ive claws on each foot – Its mouth has a small opening at the end of the Bill & had a very small tongue.” (sic) Ship’s Oicer George Tobin was equally puzzled by the echidna, writing “the only animals seen were the kangaroo and a kind of sloth about the size of a roasting pig with a proboscis two or three inches in length… on the back were short quills like a porcupine”. © Gerry Pearce / Alamy; Getty; John White Photos; The Art Agency/Sandra Doyle Day in the life Self-defence Just like a hedgehog, an echidna can contract a large sheet of muscle across its back when confronted with danger, curling itself into a ball and raising its spines. 57 All about echidnas Inside the echidna Island life has given the echidna a unique niche to ill, and it’s adapted over many years to get the most from its habitat. It might look like a hedgehog from an alternative universe, but a closer look reveals a very different animal keen ears Echidnas have excellent hearing, which paired with their snouts’ sensitivity to vibrations allows them to detect their insect prey. Protective hairdo An echidna’s spines are modiied hairs around 5cm (2in) long. Surprisingly brainy Relative to their body size, echidnas have unusually large brains. Unconventional reproduction Female echidnas have a dual vagina with two openings. Males have four heads on their penises but only two are used at a time during mating – the other two shrink so they’re out of the way. tiny eyes Echidna eyes are very small and not very strong – their other senses are much more efective. blowing bubbles Digging means that echidnas oten get noses full of dirt, but they can clear them by blowing bubbles from their nostrils. Pouch Both male and female echidnas have a pouch on their underside. Females lay their eggs into this pouch and it’s where the young develop. They have no teats, so milk is excreted directly into the pouch for the puggle to lap up. completely toothless Echidnas have no teeth, instead using a hard pad on the roof of their mouth to break down food. extra sense Within an echidna’s snout are hundreds of electroreceptors able to detect natural electrical ields. 58 digger’s limbs Short limbs with large muscles give echidnas the greatest possible digging force. JUVeniLe inFancY Puggle hatching 0 days An echidna egg hatches ten to 11 days ater being laid. The newborn is about the size of a grape. eficient claws Strong claws allow echidnas to dig burrows and break into logs and anthills to secure a meal. keeping cosy 0–3 months The blind, hairless puggle stays in its mother’s pouch for two to three months, feeding on her milk. kicked out 3 months Once the puggle’s developing spines become irritating the female tucks it up in the burrow and leaves to forage. home alone 3–6 months For the next few months the mother ventures out to feed herself before returning to allow her young to suckle. MatUritY heading out 6 months Ater six months puggles have grown enough to be weaned and they begin to accompany their mother above ground. Slow growers 3 years + Echidnas grow slowly, reaching full size ater three to ive years and taking ive to 12 years to reach maturity. Echidnas Spineless Puggles hatch from their egg small, pink and hairless, before slowly growing fur and spines. insulating layer There’s a layer of fur between the spines to provide insulation, which is thicker in echidnas that live in cooler regions. Stuck at home Young puggles aren’t strong enough to leave the burrow, so they are cared for until they’ve grown. On the tip of the tongue Solitary life 3 years + Adult echidnas spend most of their time alone, foraging, sleeping, digging and, come winter, hibernating in burrows. breeding season 5 years + When they emerge from hibernation mature male echidnas will begin to search for and court potential mates. Laying eggs 5 years + 23 days ater mating, females lay a small, leathery egg into the pouch on their underside. Growing old 10 years + Echidnas live longer lives than other mammals of a similar size, probably due to their slow metabolism. Closest family As well as the short-beaked echidna, there’s also… Sir david’s longbeaked echidna This species is named ater beloved naturalist Sir David Attenborough. It’s the smallest member of the genus and is only found in the Cyclops Mountains in Western New Guinea. Only one specimen has ever been collected, and it’s considered to be Critically Endangered. Western longbeaked echidna The largest echidna occupies the western edge of New Guinea. Unlike the shortbeaked echidna, long-beaked species specialise in inding earthworms. The western longbeaked echidna is critically endangered, threatened by habitat loss and hunting. eastern longbeaked echidna The eastern longbeaked echidna’s range spreads across Western New Guinea and Papua New Guinea. Although deforestation in their habitat poses a serious threat, their classiication has improved from Critically Endangered to Vulnerable. ©The Art Agency/Sandra Doyle; Minden Pictures Skip the stomach Over the course of evolution, echidnas (and platypuses) have lost their stomachs. Instead, food goes straight from the throat to the intestines. cleaning claw A long claw on their second toe helps echidnas to clean between their spines. An echidna’s tongue can reach a length of about 18 centimetres (seven inches). Not only is it long, it’s also sticky and can move at high speed. A foraging echidna ires its tongue into insect nests to collect mouthfuls of unsuspecting prey. 59 All about echidnas The habitat of the echidna Echidnas are the most widely distributed of Australia’s native mammals, occupying deserts, forests, coasts and alpine regions. Part of the echidna’s longevity is attributed to its slow metabolism and low body temperature. It can’t sweat and doesn’t cope well with high temperatures so shelters during the hottest parts of the day and forages when it’s cooler. In summer, when temperatures can soar during daylight hours, echidnas become more active at night to avoid overheating and waddle to feeding sites at a quicker pace to reduce the time they spend in the open. Echidnas are only thinking of themselves and their young when they forage and dig burrows, but they inadvertently provide a valuable service for their habitat. Digging turns over the soil in the foraging area, which loosens it and mixes it with organic matter like leaf litter from the surface. As well as creating richer land, Echidnas in human culture The echidna is one of the most recognisable Australian species and has an important place in both traditional and modern culture. Alongside animals like kangaroos and the platypus, it’s come to be an icon of the island and has featured on postage stamps and as one of the mascots of the 2000 Sydney Olympics. Today, its image can be found on the reverse of the five-cent coin. Many people are familiar with Knuckles from Sonic the Hedgehog, but not everyone is aware that this character is actually an echidna. Australia’s dangers Short-beaked echidnas aren’t considered endangered, but it’s still not an easy life Forest ires The forests of Australia are oten dry and highly volatile, and frequent forest ires tearing through the trees and leaf litter threaten both the habitat and the lives of echidnas. drought Drought is another threat arising from Australia’s hot climate. Echidnas can’t walk far or fast, so inding suicient water can be tough when drinking holes dry up. Predators Although echidnas are protected by their spines, they’re not completely safe from predators – particularly brave or hungry cats, dogs, birds of prey and dingoes can catch and eat them. cars Hundreds of echidnas are killed yearly on the roads, as spines sadly provide no defence against cars. Warning signs are put up along stretches where the animals are most at risk. 60 turning the earth allows it to absorb more rainwater, reducing erosion and water runoff. This accidental work as an ecosystem engineer makes the echidna a highly valuable resident in a number of Australia’s habitats, especially as the other native animals that once performed this job are extinct or in decline. Short-beaked echidnas are currently classiied as Least Concerned on the IUCN Red List, and their population is thought to be stable. They’re protected by law and many live within protected areas, but there’s concern over the number killed and injured by vehicles. Echidnas don’t breed well in captivity, so the best hope for the species is conservation in situ, which entails protecting their habitats and warning drivers to keep an eye out for any wanderers on the roads. BELOW An echidna egg weighs just 380mg (0.01oz). The puggle will open the shell with a special egg tooth © Getty; Keiichi Hiki; Alamy; Minden Pictures Echidnas 61 AnimAted AnimAls When creating lovable characters, filmmakers often turn to the animal kingdom for inspiration. Features are exaggerated and they’re given impossible abilities, but the similarities to the real-life may surprise you Curious GeorGe Curious George first started capturing hearts and getting into trouble in 1941 in a series of books, but he climbed onto the big screen in 2006. George was brought to ‘the big city’ from Africa by The Man with the Yellow Hat, but there’s an ongoing debate over which species of African primate he is. George resembles a young chimpanzee and has no tail – a trait that separates apes from other primates – but he’s always referred to as a monkey. The only monkey without a tail is the Barbary macaque, native to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and Algeria. shrek 2 With their unlikely friendship and quotable lines, Donkey and Puss in Boots are right near the top of most people’s list of favourite characters from the Shrek films. Sadly, real cats and donkeys don’t deliver witty one-liners, but both animals are thought to be highly intelligent. Puss’ charming Spanish accent might not be as far-fetched either, as scientists think cats have regional dialects and accents and even change their vocalisations when they move in with a new owner. 62 Animated Animals FindinG nemo kunG Fu PAndA Marlin the clownish, Dory the royal blue tang and Crush the sea turtle team up to search for Nemo in the much-loved Pixar ilm, and it’s possible to see all three species swimming over the Great Barrier Reef. Dory’s forgetfulness has landed her all on her own, but tangs are social ish and like to swim in pairs or groups. It’s true that clownish hide from danger in anemones, but Marlin would probably have transformed into a female ater his partner’s death rather than remaining a concerned father. The popularity of these characters had worrying real-world consequences, as many clownish and blue tangs were taken from the wild to satisfy the new demand for the species as pets. At the start of Kung Fu Panda, Po is an aspiring but incompetent martial artist. When a villain threatens the land, Po is accidentally selected as the chosen one who must become a kung fu master and face him. Despite their solitary lifestyle and peaceful nature, giant pandas are capable of fighting. Males compete over females, barking, lunging and swatting at each other, and all pandas can use their strong limbs and jaws to defend themselves. They’re able to stand up on their back legs for a short time, but their considerable weight means they’d never be able to stay upright for long enough to master even the most basic kung fu move. There’s little chance of chickens planning and building like the heroes of the classic Aardman film, but they’re certainly less bird-brained than most people imagine. Chickens – including young chicks – have been shown to be capable of logical reasoning, simple arithmetic and geometry, and they have a perception of time. Adults make at least 24 different vocalisations hAPPy Feet The star of Happy Feet is Mumble, an emperor penguin unable to sing but with a talent for tapdancing. All the other chicks begin to develop the unique ‘heartsong’ they’ll use to ind a mate, while Mumble’s parents worry about his future. Courtship between emperor penguins does involve singing, as well as bowing and swinging their heads as pairs produce mating calls, their duets sometimes lasting for several hours. Emperor penguins mate for life, and when males return from the sea each year a female will use her partner’s unique song to locate him. and also communicate with visual cues, so their conversations are pretty complex. If chickens ever did plot an escape, we might not know about it until it’s too late because they’re masters of deceit – males court quietly when rivals are nearby so no one comes to steal their mate, and they’ll make food-related calls to attract females to them. © Photo 12 / Alamy; Ariadne Van Zandbergen; Entertainment Pictures; Juniors Bildarchiv GmbH; gerard lacz; Everett Collection Inc; Minden Pictures; J Hayward; Moviestore collection Ltd; Warner Bros./Kobal/REX/Shutterstock ChiCken run 63 Explore the Earth RHINO WATCH Now is the time to pack your bags and set off on an expedition to meet some of the world’s largest and most endangered animals in their natural habitat Words Laura Mears 64 Rhino watch Travel into rhino range In yet another tragic reminder of humanity’s ability to wipe out wildlife, Sudan, the last male northern white rhino, was sadly put down in March 2018. His passing brings into sharp focus the impact poaching and habitat destruction has had on one of the world’s most unique mammals. Only ive species of rhino remain, two in Africa and three in Asia, and all of them are under threat. Thankfully, conservation eforts are helping to bolster the remaining populations, and there’s never been a better time to see this work in action. For an upliting insight into conservation success, make your way to southern Africa, where white rhinos thrive. Alternatively, for a chance to see the last few members of a critically endangered species, travel to Java in search of the elusive Javan rhino. From the dusty bush of the Kruger National Park to the swampy wetlands of Way Kambas, there is a rhino holiday to suit everyone. Map key 1 Kruger National Park 2 Garamba National Park 3 Way Kambas National Park 4 Ujung Kulon National Park 5 Kaziranga National Park Indian rhino Black rhino These small African rhinos can be recognised by the distinctive point on their front lip. The population crashed to fewer than 2,500 individuals in the 1990s but has since rebounded. White rhino Larger and more numerous than black rhinos, white rhinos have a square lip. Intense conservation has pushed the population into the tens of thousands, making this only one of two non-endangered rhino species, the other being the Indian rhino. Travel guide When to go Javan rhino Javan rhinos were once found in India and Vietnam, but there are only around 70 left, all restricted to the Indonesian island of Java. This the most critically endangered of all the rhino species that remain. Sumatran rhino This is the smallest rhino species in the world. Once numerous across Asia, this twohorned species is now found only in Sumatra and Borneo. Try visiting South Africa’s Kruger Park in winter. Vegetation dries out between June and August, making the wildlife a lot easier to spot. How to get there You can hop on a plane and ly out to Africa or Asia to see rhinos living wild, or alternatively you can spot white rhinos at Longleat Safari Park in the UK. What the weather will do Animals tend to cluster together during the dry season as they all head towards water holes. Even so, you may prefer to make an autumn or winter trip when it’s cooler. What to take A pair of well worn-in walking shoes are essential. It’s also advisable to pack weatherproof layers, hats, sunglasses and sun cream too. What you’ll see Rhinos are some of the largest living land animals on the planet and some of the most endangered. Visit these gentle giants before it’s too late. 65 © freevectormaps.com; Em Campos; Getty; Westend61 Also known as the greater onehorned rhino, this species once numbered fewer than 200. There are now more than 3,000 in India and Nepal. Breaking barriers to save Africa’s endangered rhino Only 5,000 black rhinos remain in the wild and their status is Critically Endangered. Victims of aggressive poaching, their numbers plummeted at the end of the 20th century, leaving the population severely dented. Numbers are now climbing thanks to conservation efforts, but poachers still pose a threat. One of the best places to see them is the Lewa Wildlife Conservancy in Kenya. They’ve championed rhino conservation since 1984, transforming a population of just 15 into a thriving community. In 2014, they removed the fence with their neighbouring 66 Borana Conservancy, giving their rhinos 93,000 acres of safe space within which to roam. Incredibly, the conservancy has witnessed no rhino poaching for three years. Dotted with lodges and camps, the conservancy welcomes visitors, investing tourism funds back into conservation that helps to support rhinos and other endangered species. During your visit you’ll also have the chance to spot the conservancy’s 74 southern white rhinos, the largest population of Grevy’s zebra in Kenya, hundreds of elephants, 25 lions, a pack of wild dogs, 13 cheetahs and ten leopards. Conservation of rhinos not only saves the species but also preserves large areas of land, providing much-needed protection for Africa’s wildlife. Rhino watch 5 amazing facts about rhinos Nose horn The name ‘rhinoceros’ literally means ‘nose horn’ in Greek. Two species have one horn and three species have two horns. Hulking herbivores Depending on the species, rhinos can weigh between 600–2,700 kilograms (1,322.8–5,952.5 pounds) and grow to a length of 3.4 metres (11 feet). Homemade sunscreen Rhinos coat their skin in mud to protect it from bites and burns. They also live together with birds called oxpeckers that help to keep their skin clean by eating parasites. Black and white We call the African rhinos ‘black’ and ‘white’ but both are actually grey. White rhinos were originally called ‘wide’ rhinos for their square front lip. No predators The thick skin, dangerous horn and fast speed of adult rhinos make them a formidable foe for any carnivore. Depending on the species they can run at over 50 kilometres (31.1 miles) per hour. In the late 19th century there were fewer than 100 southern white rhinos left in the wild – they were so scarce that many feared they were extinct. Fortunately, years of intensive conservation efforts have brought them back from the edge. Today, they number in the tens of thousands. However, they are not out of the woods yet, and the species still faces immense pressure from poachers and habitat destruction. Even so, if you want to see what conservation can do for endangered animals, this species should be top of your travel list. For a chance to see them in their natural habitat, head to one of their four home countries: South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe and Kenya. South Africa’s Kruger National Park is home to over 10,000 white rhinos. Rides in the south of this 4.7-million-acre site often involve rhino sightings. The park recommends the dry season for visits as animals congregate around watering holes and are therefore often easier to spot, but you can go at any time, driving yourself or joining a tour. Switch off your engine when you get to a watering hole and take the time to absorb savannah life. © Getty; Mikael Drackner; Chris Minihane The species that came back from the brink 67 Explore the Earth The world’s smallest rhino The world’s smallest rhino species is also one of the most endangered. There are fewer than 100 Sumatran rhinos left in the wild. With hairy skin, they share close ancestry with the woolly rhinos that roamed the ancient Earth, and they can be very hard to ind. Declared extinct in Malaysia in 2015, the best place to see them is at one of Indonesia’s National Parks: Bukit Barisan Selatan, Gunung Leuser or Way Kambas. Here, anti-poaching units protect these vital rhinos. Trained by the International Rhino Foundation, they disarm traps, stop poachers and protect the environment from illegal logging. Sumatran rhinos can be challenging to spot in the wild because they live in low-lying forests with dense plant life. They also travel alone, wandering far from their neighbours as they roam through the undergrowth. A trip to ind them won’t disappoint wildlife enthusiasts though; Sumatran rhinos share their home with many charismatic species, including Asian elephants, gibbons and tigers. The inal charge of Java’s rhinos? This is not only the most endangered rhino species, but it’s also one of the most endangered land mammals on the planet – there are only around 70 Javan rhinos left in the wild. There’s only one place to go if you want to see one, for the remaining population are making their last stand in the Ujung Kulon National Park in Indonesia. They browse in the tropical rainforest and are easily identiied by their single horn and armour-like skin. And, like their Sumatran counterparts, they live under heavy guard – the International Rhino Foundation rhino protection units watch them around the clock. The park is a UNESCO world heritage site and an area of outstanding natural beauty. It’s home to the now infamous Krakatoa volcano, which claimed 36,000 lives in 1883. The unique habitat is a must-visit for wildlife enthusiasts, offering the chance to see leopards, wild dogs, orangutans, gibbons and leaf monkeys. 68 Rhino watch Asia’s conservation success story With the mythical-sounding Latin name Rhinoceros unicornis, these elusive creatures roam the wet grasslands of India and Nepal. If you’re lucky you might even spot one swimming. A popular destination for wildlife tourism is the Kaziranga National Park in India. It’s a world heritage site offering safety to around two-thirds of the one-horned rhino population. The best time to visit is between November and April. © Getty; Ibrahim Suha Derbent; Jacek Kadaj; Alain Compost/Biosphoto/FLPA Also known as the Indian rhino, the greater one-horned rhino is the largest in the world, but like other rhino species, they faced a crisis in their recent history. Numbers dipped below 200 in the late 20th century, but intense conservation has stabilised the population. There are now more than 3,500 individuals in the wild. If you’re heading to Asia, this is the rhino species you’re most likely to see. 69 Explore the Earth Conservation close to home A face-to-face encounter with a wild rhino is an experience few could ever forget, but we can’t all make a trip into the bush. Luckily, there are lots of opportunities to see rhinos closer to home. As part of the conservation effort, zoos across the world care for endangered rhinos. In the UK three specialist centres look after Indian rhinos and seven house black rhinos, making critical contributions to ongoing breeding programmes. Folly Farm in Pembrokeshire has three black rhinos, Dakima, Manyara and Nkosi, while Chester Zoo has a whole crash, including three calves born in the past two years. Chester also care for a pair of Indian rhinos, Beni and Asha and Edinburgh Zoo has a male Indian rhino called Bertus. For the full safari experience, West Midland Safari Park has a ‘Wild Asia’ enclosure, complete with Indian rhinos, Philippine spotted deer and swamp deer. The last of their kind The two rhinos that you see in this picture are the last of their kind. Najin (right) and Fatu (left) are the only northern white rhinos left in the world. Until recently, the pair lived with the last remaining male, Sudan, at the Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Kenya, but in March of this year the sanctuary made the dificult decision to put him to sleep. At the age of 45, Sudan suffered from many age-related health problems. This tragic conservation story stands in stark contrast to the fate of the southern white rhino in South Africa. 70 Poaching decimated both subspecies, but while the southern white rhino bounced back, their northern cousins did not. Now the only hope to save them is using in vitro fertilisation with frozen sperm. Najin and Fatu live under 24-hour armed guard, but their enclosure is open to the public during the day and the conservancy welcomes visitors. The non-proit organisation pours money from tourism back into conservation, helping to secure the future of other endangered species, like Grevy’s zebra and Jackson’s hartebeest. Rhino watch Top tips for seeing roaming rhinos Rise and shine Rhinos get up before the Sun and stay active ater dusk to avoid the midday heat. Match their daily patterns for the best chance of a sighting. Become a tracker Channel your inner wildlife tracker and look out for signs. Male rhinos trample the grass, leaving distinctive wet patches on the ground. Pick a national park Rhinos are safest within the boundaries of national parks. For the best chance to come face-to-face with one of these ancient beasts look for protected areas that focus on rhino conservation. Rhinos can charge when threatened and they move fast. If you get into trouble don’t try to run. Moving sideways, get behind a big tree and climb up. Otherwise drop to the loor. Who to travel with Find the world’s most endangered rhinos deep within national parks Budget Etosha National Park Family Go2Africa etoshanationalpark. co.za go2africa.com /holiday-types/krugerfamily-holiday Etosha Camping Safari From around £250 (approx. $200) per person excluding lights. Kruger Park Family Safari From £465 (approx. $650) per person excluding lights. Luxury Natural World Safaris naturalworldsafaris.com/ holidays/asia/india Rhinos, Temples and Tigers of India From £3,245 (approx. $4,560) per person excluding lights. Scan the bushes Rhinos are surprisingly stealthy for such large animals. Remain vigilant for shadows or signs of movement and scan your eyes let and right across the undergrowth. © Getty; Gavin Haskell / Alamy; TONY KARUMBA; Lost Horizon Images Stay safe 71 The wildlife of the black smoker 72 The wildlife of the black smoker Forget everything you thought you knew about the ocean and take a trip to a weird and wondrous ecosystem like no other Words Ella Carter sea. Surrounding them is one of the most unique communities of animals on the planet. Flashes of colour, lurries of activity and a complex food web are not supported by the life-giving sunlight that we are used to on the surface but by the nutrients that seep from within the centre of the Earth. Welcome to the shadows of the hydrothermal vents. When looking at a world map of vent locations it’s easy to see how they track the borders of tectonic plates Active Unconfirmed © Getty; Universal History Archive Deep at the bottom of the ocean, in pitch blackness, under crushing pressure and swimming in a cocktail of toxic chemicals lourishes an oasis of alien life. The biomass equivalent to a rainforest, out of the bleak silty plains of the ocean loor suddenly rise giant chimneys that spew billows of superheated water into the freezing 73 The wildlife of the black smoker Life in the vents A surprising array of animals form this incredible ecosystem The creatures that live around hydrothermal vents are highly adapted to their unique environment, and the discovery of these vents back in 1977 forced scientists to re-evaluate life on Earth as they knew it. Arguably the most important life form in this ecosystem is the bacteria, which are thought to be some of the oldest organisms on the planet. When a new vent system forms the bacteria is the irst to arrive, producing a slimy substance known as a bioilm that helps other larvae attach to the sealoor and provides essential food. Mussels, clams and other ilter feeders take sustenance from this, and then higher predators like octopuses and deep-sea ish arrive to feast on the spoils. The bacteria use the hydrogen sulphide that spews from the chimneys as food, and as they do this they produce sugars and other substances that can sustain the other creatures around the vents. This makes them the primary producers of the vent food web, occupying the same niche that plants do on land. Shrimps Rimicaris exoculata Oten illing the niche of a tubeworm, vents across the Atlantic appear to have shrimp, whereas Paciic vents have tubeworms. Bacteria The microorganisms that support the vent communities are able to survive in the temperature gradients that exist between the super-hot water that billows from the chimneys at over 400°C (752°F) and the chilly deep-sea water of just 2°C (35.6°F). Deep-sea vent octopus Vulcanoctopus hydrothermalis Another ghostly white predator of the vents, this octopus is well placed for living among colossal tubeworms and hunting the plentiful mussels. They are specially adapted to life here, lacking ink sacs (they have no predators) and having a protective skin over their eyes. Squat lobster Munidopsis spinosa Although they resemble lobsters, these crustaceans are more closely related to hermit crabs and aren’t true lobsters at all. Oten found living in huge swarming colonies near the vents, the squat lobster is known to engage in a feeding frenzy on the super-nutritious bacterial bioilm. Yeti crab Kiwa tyleri Sometimes afectionately known as the ‘hof crab’ thanks to its hairy-looking chest, this crab was irst discovered living on hydrothermal vents in the South Paciic. The crab’s hairs host colonies of the life-giving sulphur-ixing bacteria, which the crab can harvest for food. 74 Despite reaching 400°C (752°F), the water at hydrothermal vents doesn’t boil as it’s under so much pressure in the deep ocean. Riftia tubeworm Ritia pachyptila Growing up to 2.4m (7.8t) long and living on vents in the Paciic Ocean, giant tubeworms have a hard chitinous exterior that protects them from both the harsh conditions and lurking predators. The worms never leave this case, and inside their bodies, instead of organs, the cavity is full of symbiotic bacteria. Mussels and shrimps survive on bacterial sustenance, which is the primary producer at vent communities, replacing green plants in sunlit environments Zoarcid fish Thermarces cerberus Pale, slow and stealthy, these ish cruise the vents looking for a feast. At 60cm (23.6in) long they are some of the top predators of the hydrothermal vent community and will eat anything from giant tubeworms to crabs and mussels, although their hunting technique is lethargic – there are no high-speed chases here! Giant white clams Calyptogena magniica These bivalves look like clams from the outside, but inside they have no organs and are instead full of bacteria! ©The Art Agency/Peter Scott Mussels Bathymodiolus thermophilus Full of symbiotic bacteria, mussels can also ilter feed nutrients from the water 75 The wildlife of the black smoker How vent ecosystems work How does life manage to lourish in the darkest depths of the world’s oceans? Formed in areas of tectonic activity, hydrothermal vent ecosystems are found around the edges of tectonic plates and sea volcanoes. Thanks to the superheated water mixing with the deeper, chilly ocean water, temperatures can luctuate wildly. The heavy metals and toxic chemicals that are also emitted mean that animals need to be tough to lourish in such extreme environments. So how does such resilient life begin? Once a vent has formed, larvae from the species at other vents hitch a ride on the currents until they happen upon a new vent colony. As soon as bacterial production takes hold, the vent can start to lourish. Once more species set up home at the vent, the predators can begin to arrive. These too could arrive as larvae, settling in the relative safety and plentiful food of the vent community until they’re large enough to hunt. Hydrothermal vents have an expiration date, and just as quickly as they are formed they will begin to shut down. A slight change in seismic activity can shift the molten lava that heats the vents, cutting off the low of superheated water, which in turn means that the bacteria can’t continue making food from the chemicals (a process called chemosynthesis) and support the rest of the vent animals. When vents are in the process of shutting down scavengers such as siphonophores will often move in. ABOVE The intense heat released from deep-sea vents accounts for around 20 per cent of the world’s heat loss How hydrothermal vents work The key to sustaining this amazing life comes from the centre of the Earth The ‘black smoker’ vents are black because of the dissolved iron sulphide in the water. The tall ‘chimneys’ are built as mineral deposits solidify when they hit the cold water. Some vents with weaker and cooler lows are called ‘cold seeps’. These ecosystems have a similar makeup to the smokers but with a slightly longer lifespan and less intense activity. White smokers are white due to the dissolved deposits of silicon, calcium, and barium, which give the water a pale white colour. Cold seawater trickles down through cracks in the seabed, seeping through the rocks and dissolving all kinds of nutrients and minerals as it goes. Like steam in a kettle, as the immense pressure builds the water is forced upwards. It breaks through weak points in the Earth’s crust, most oten around plate boundaries or areas of tectonic activity. Water gets superheated by the molten lava at the centre of the Earth. It can reach temperatures upwards of 400ºC (752ºF). 76 The wildlife of the black smoker Other denizens of the deep Here are some other members of this surprising ocean ecosystem Green sulphur bacteria These amazing bacteria live around the vents and are able to utilise the weak radioactive glow that’s emitted from rock that is generated by geothermal activity. Dandelion siphonophore Related to jellyish, this scavenger is actually a community of organisms. They are seen as a sign of the vent slowing down. Scaly foot snail Instead of a calcium-based shell like most snails, this unique snail makes a shell out of iron sulphide. It even has iron plates that protrude from its foot. Sea cucumber Copepod Vents also feature plankton. Copepods are microscopic creatures that oten live within other species, taking advantage of the bacteria that provides food. 77 © Getty; Universal History Archive; Dorling Kindersley; T. Light Found at vents in the Paciic and Indian oceans, sea cucumbers are related to starish. This hardy species has evolved to cope with the intense conditions. The African unicorn OKAPI Okapia johnstoni Class Mammalia Territory Central, northern and eastern DR of Congo Diet Leaves, fruit, shoots, ferns, buds and fungi Lifespan 15–30 years Adult weight Females: 225–349kg (495–769.4lb) Males: 200–300kg (441–661.4Ib) Conservation Status ENDANGERED 78 THE AFRICAN UNICORN One of the world’s most elusive animals, the okapi is so rarely seen in the wild that for a long time it was thought to be a myth Words Sanne de Boer between 1995 and 2007. Due to their shy nature there is currently no reliable estimate on their numbers. Even before it was considered endangered, the okapi has always been exceptionally good at hide and seek; so good in fact that the striking creature was thought to be a local myth by the Western world until 1901. To colonisers, rumour of their existence was based entirely on stories told by local inhabitants, and without any documentation or proof they might as well have been a fairytale. With their deep brown, almost plum-coloured coat, pale faces, large eyes and striped behinds, it’s easy to see why they might have been seen as too fantastical to be real. © Jurgen & Christine Sohns/FLPA Feast your eyes on the mysterious okapi, as it might be the closest you’ll ever get to seeing this striking creature. Not only does their unique rear-end provide them with the perfect camoulage, mimicking the light seeping through the jungle foliage, but they are also incredibly rare. The okapi is only found among dense jungle forestry in a select area of the DR of Congo and has been driven to the edge of extinction by the threats to their habitat, as well as hunting for bushmeat and the consequences of local warfare. Despite recent efforts to protect and celebrate the okapi, like making it the national animal of the DR of Congo, the population fell by more than 40 per cent 79 The African unicorn Keeping a low profile turned them into myths The mysterious okapi piqued the interest of intrepid Western explorers As in any great fairytale, the story of how the Western world came to know of the okapi’s existence starts in a mystical, awe-inspiring land. Okapis are found in older rainforests with high canopies, such as the forests of the Aruwimi, Nepoko and Ituri basins. The Ituri forest captured the imagination of explorers such as Henry Morton Stanley, whose gruelling journey through the dense foliage and monstrous trees inspired him to coin the term ‘the Dark Continent’. It is said Stanley was the irst to catch a glimpse of the okapi in its endemic habitat, but it was Sir Harry Hamilton Johnston who made it his mission to prove the existence of the ‘jungle zebra’. Johnston, who immersed himself in African culture and spoke several African languages, had met with Stanley previously and learned of the elusive creature. When Johnston aided in returning a group of kidnapped Pygmy locals to their home in the Ituri Forest, they also described the animal to him. Johnston was able to obtain strips of okapi skin, which he sent back to the British Museum for examination, but any expeditions to ind the creature alive were fruitless. Through the help of British soldiers, Johnston later received two skulls and a complete skin of an okapi, as well as discovering they had cloven hoofs. Johnston developed his irst full sketch of the animal in 1901 and helped prove that the okapi’s closest relative was the giraffe. The name johnstoni was added to the full Latin name of the okapi in honour of the famous explorer and zoologist. The okapi’s reddish-brown coat provides it with a useful layer of camouflage as it wanders through forests in search of food 80 The African unicorn The okapi’s tongue is more than just a fun party trick – it’s a clever adaptation to their habitat Their tongues are prehensile Without opposable thumbs, okapis rely on their tongues Like their close relative the giraffe, the okapi has some interesting table manners. While they lack their cousin’s long neck, their taste for tall foliage – and how they get hold of it – is the same. Their prehensile tongue can curl around the trickiest of leaves and they have quite a bit of muscle power. Not only that, their tongues are also among the longest in the animal kingdom to help them reach tall leaves. An average adult okapi’s tongue is between 35–45.7 centimetres (13.8–18 inches) long, meaning they are longer in proportion to their body than the tongue of a giraffe. This handy feature also enables an okapi to lick its own ears! With that kind of power, tough jungle flora is no match for the okapi. The length of their tongue is an example of how well adapted they are to their extreme environment. In the dense, dark jungles they call home, trees are incredibly old and their branches and leaves grow tall. However, their tongues are useful for more than just grabbing hold of food; they are also used for grooming and communicating with others. For instance, the courtship ritual between two okapis is initiated by circling, sniffing and licking each other. keeping an ear out Large ears enable okapis to listen out for their main predator: leopards. Should one get too close an okapi can mete out a lethal kick. Think you know the okapi? Think again! They have extremely good hearing As suggested by their long, cone-shaped ears, hearing is the first line of defence for the okapi. They have poor sight, but in the darkness of the jungle hearing a predator is more useful than seeing them. They use scent glands to mark their territory Okapis secrete a tar-like substance from glands on their feet to mark their territory, but they will also spray urine or rub their necks against trees to make their presence known to others. Waterproof coat An okapi’s shiny redbrown coat isn’t just aesthetically pleasing – its oily consistency helps to keep it dry in the rain. Follow the leader While scientists aren’t certain, they believe the white markings on an okapi’s lower legs help others to follow it through forests. © Getty; Gleb Ivanov; GlobalP; Anolis01; blickwinkel / Alamy; DBI Studio They are the oficial national animal of the DR of Congo The okapi is a national symbol in the DR of Congo and even appears on Congolese bank notes. It also features on some stamps in the west African state of Guinea-Bissau. 81 The African unicorn “It was Sir Harry Johnston who made it his mission to prove the existence of the ‘jungle zebra’” Okapi’s may appear to be slow-moving grazers, but they can reach a top speed of 60kph (37.3mph) They have some interesting diet choices © Getty; wrangel The clay that okapis eat provides them with essential nutrients With a taste for over 100 different types of plant and fungi and the stomach to tolerate hardy or even poisonous foods, the okapi has an interesting diet to say the least. They will eat anything from leaves and berries to twigs and mushrooms and consume between 20–27 kilograms (44–59.5 pounds) of vegetation every day. However, the strangest and least-appetising element of their daily nutrition has to be clay. The okapi eats a particular kind of red clay for the same reason humans would take vitamin tablets or protein shakes: it offers them vital nutrients they 82 can’t get from their plant-based diet. These include important salts, something that’s dificult to ind in plants. They treat this clay, which is found in the riverbeds of rust-coloured rivers such as the Ituri, as a supplement of sorts. In captivity okapis are often given salt blocks to fulil this requirement, and feeding them the appropriate diet can prove to be quite a challenge for zookeepers. However, that’s not the strangest thing they eat. Even in the densely forested jungle they call home, the okapi will resort to eating burned wood and bat guano (droppings) to form a wholesome diet. DID YOU KNOW? When Johnston irst sent strips of striped okapi skin back to the British Museum scientists mistakenly announced the discovery of a new species of zebra. DISCOVER THE PAST! w w w.h i s t o r y a n s w e r s .c o.u k Available from all good newsagents and supermarkets ON SALE NOW Julius Caesar's rise ● Victorian asylums ● Charlemagne's empire ● Building the Big Apple CRUCIAL EVENTS ILLUSTRATIONS GREATEST BATTLES KEY PEOPLE PAST CULTURES BUY YOUR ISSUE TODAY Print edition available at www.myfavouritemagazines.co.uk Digital edition available at www.greatdigitalmags.com Available on the following platforms facebook.co.uk/AllAboutHistory twitter.com/AboutHistoryMag Time to save some ass TIME TO SAVE SOME ASS When we think of endangered animals, donkeys don’t tend to come to mind, and this lack of understanding now means that many wild donkeys face extinction. It’s time to help these unassuming ungulates before it’s too late Words Charlie Ginger In a world illed with all manner of bright and bizarre animals it is all too easy to forget the less exotic yet no less important creatures that live alongside us. The donkey is one such neighbour, its dull-coloured coat and quiet munching drawing little attention from passersby. Yet the role of the humble donkey shouldn’t be underestimated. Without them parts of the developing world would grind to a halt. Thanks to the use of DNA analysis, scientists are now conident that the wild asses of North Africa are in fact the ancestors of all modern-day domestic donkeys. The original progenitor is believed to have been the Nubian ass, although it is likely that many subspecies played a part in establishing what is today a global population of 44 million donkeys, 5.4 million of which reside in China. According to archaeological indings, the many potential uses of a donkey became apparent to humans over 4,000 years ago, with donkey bones unearthed at 84 © Getty; Justin Okoye / EyeEm Time to save some ass 85 Time to save some ass ABOVE Donkeys are used for a range of tasks in the developing world, from lugging heavy loads and water to transporting tourists El-Omari, an ancient site in Upper Egypt. These patient equids were relied upon as the main mode of transport in ancient Egypt and across the north of the continent, as well as being used to haul goods and draw water. The irresistible march of the Roman Empire from the 3rd century BCE onwards eventually took donkeys out of Africa and the Middle East and transported them into their burgeoning territories further abroad. Trudging along the Silk Road, donkeys eventually found their way into Europe, where the inhabitants put them to work cultivating vineyards and turning water and grain mills. However, they didn’t set hoof on British soil until Claudius’ invasion in 43 CE, and they wouldn’t reach the Americas until the 15th century. By the 1860s only Australasia remained for the docile donkey to conquer (with the chilly exception of Antarctica, which they have wisely avoided to date), but in 1866 their global tour was completed as racehorse owner and businessman Thomas Elder began importing them. While the developed world has since replaced pack mules with automobiles and trains, much of the developing world is still heavily reliant on donkeys for a range of jobs that would otherwise be almost impossible to do. Yet while domestic donkeys do not face the same threats, their wild cousins are now confronted by the very real prospect of extinction. So how has this dire situation come about? We spoke to Alex Mayers, head of programmes at The Donkey Sanctuary, a charity established in 1969 and based in Devon in the UK, about why donkeys are now trotting towards the abyss. “Donkeys are often perceived as not being of the same status as other animals; they’re widely portrayed as stubborn or comic igures,” explained Alex. “Far from these popular perceptions, donkeys are the silent servants of communities around the world. “There is a lack of understanding of the economic, cultural and social beneits that donkeys bring to communities, and this means they are often taken for granted and their welfare not taken into consideration. For example, evidence shows that women often rely on working animals to do tasks they would otherwise How you can help ABOVE Studies have shown that donkeys are capable of independent thinking and will never do anything they deem unsafe There are many things we can all do to help save the world’s donkeys Donate It is easy to make a donation on The Donkey Sanctuary Website. Just £3 ($4) covers the cost of caring for a donkey for half a day, while £5 ($7) funds a visit from the farrier. Wild donkeys by numbers 96 km Distance at which a donkey’s bray can be heard (59.7mi). 86 25 5,000 YEARS The approximate number of donkeys cared for by The Donkey Sanctuary. How far back a donkey can remember. 8.4 50 570 million KPH Estimated current population of African wild ass. donkeys in Ethiopia, the world’s largest population. Top speed of an African wild ass (equivalent to 31mph). Volunteer From caring for the donkeys to raising money or helping out with jobs at The Donkey Sanctuary office, if you have some spare time you could make a real difference to a donkey in need. Give a donkey a home If you have the room, time and dedication, rehoming a donkey can be an incredibly rewarding option. They require around an acre of space and access to shelter. Other endangered equids Albino This striking mule is native to the island of Asinara, off the northwest coast of Sardinia, Italy. It is thought that they may be the descendants of donkeys imported from Egypt. Andalusian A popular one with holidaymakers, the Andalusian donkey population hit a new low of just 749 in 2013. Efforts are being made to ensure they work less in a bid to save them. have to do themselves, including collecting water and transporting goods. By empowering women to be economically active donkeys also increase the community status of women.” A disregard in some quarters for the welfare of donkeys has resulted in two particular species now confronting an uncertain future. “The African wild ass is currently classiied as Critically Endangered. The main threats to this species are illegal hunting for their meat, hides and fat, which is believed to have medicinal uses, as well as competition with humans and livestock over water and pasture use,” Alex revealed. The Asian wild ass, on the other hand, is classiied as Near Threatened, but while it is not quite in the same position as its African cousin, having a global population of around 28,000, it is in decline. “The main causes of decline are hunting, limited access to drinking water and forage, and potential interbreeding with domestic donkeys,” said Alex. So what is The Donkey Sanctuary doing to help them? “The Donkey Sanctuary’s mission is to transform the quality of life for donkeys, mules and people worldwide through greater understanding, collaboration and support, and by promoting lasting, mutually life-enhancing relationships,” Alex told us. “Improving welfare and conditions for working donkeys through advocacy and education not only has the beneit of ensuring the creatures have a better life but also supports the communities in which they live. By demonstrating the positive impact donkeys have on human health and happiness, the charity aims to transform their status and transform negative attitudes.” While The Donkey Sanctuary is no doubt the bestplaced organisation to ight a continued campaign aimed at securing donkeys the conditions and recognition that they deserve, they face a daunting task, one not helped by the demand in China for donkey-hide gelatin. Considered by many to be a miraculous ‘elixir’, it is made by boiling donkey skin, and the surging demand for this product has resulted in the Chinese donkey population crashing from 11 to 5.4 million, followed by a sharp rise in the number of donkeys being stolen and then slaughtered in Africa in order to make ejiao, as it is known in China. Marketed as a cure for ageing and infertility, a 250gram (8.8-ounce) box of ejiao can cost from $180 (approximately £127) upwards. Initially, the potential proit “While the developed world has replaced pack mules with automobiles and trains, much of the developing world is still reliant on donkeys for a range of jobs” © Getty; David Baileys; Jeff Attaway; NaturePL/Roger Powell Time to save some ass Despite being gentle, docile creatures, it’s believed donkeys possess a bite force in the region of 400psi Baudet de Poitou These stocky mules were once the engine of French agriculture and viewed as a symbol of wealth. It’s believed they’ve been in France since Caesar pacified Gaul in 54 BCE. Woolly Paramo Found at elevations as high as 5,000 metres (16,404 feet), these fluffy donkeys were introduced to South America by European settlers. © Picture credit Balkan A herd of 120 of these rare donkeys is kept in the Zasavica Reserve in northern Serbia to produce pule cheese, the most expensive in the world at £406 ($576) per pound. 87 Time to save some ass An average-sized donkey can carry 50kg (110.2Ib) on its back or double its own body weight over even ground ABOVE In South America donkeys are farmed for their milk, a commodity that even Pope Francis himself has confirmed he drank as a child AfricAn WilD ASS Equus africanus © Getty; KorradolYamsattham; CHRISTIAN MIRANDA / Stringer class Mammalia 88 Territory Eritrea and Ethiopia (possibly some remain in Djibouti, Sudan, Somalia and Egypt) Diet Leaves, bark and grass lifespan 25–30 years Adult weight 80–480kg (176.4–1,058Ib) conservation Status CRITICALLY ENDANGERED generated from selling ‘spare’ donkeys incentivised African owners to sell them, but as their herd depleted and farmers began to refrain from parting with their donkeys thefts rocketed. In a bid to tackle a burgeoning problem, various African governments have imposed a range of measures, some more effective than others. The Tanzanian Government moved to ban the slaughter and export of donkeys in 2017, a policy that has restored the cost of a donkey to a normal price and therefore curbed incidents of theft. Uganda, Botswana, Niger, Burkina Faso and Mali have also imposed the same rules. However, the Kenyan authorities have taken an opposite approach, opening three slaughterhouses to date that are believed to process 500 donkeys a day, dispatching them with a bolt to the head. This is a decision they’ve stood by despite public outrage. Thankfully, similar public disgust managed to close a slaughterhouse recently opened in Ethiopia. While numerous organisations are loudly appealing to both Chinese and African governments, there doesn’t yet seem to be any sign of a decline in the demand for this devastating product. The fact that donkey hides manage to enter the Chinese market from countries as far-lung as Brazil, Colombia (where police in one region have begun a ‘Guard Your Donkey’ campaign) and Mexico makes it even harder to track down those responsible and apprehend them. This is not only catastrophic for donkeys; it is also having a crippling effect on many people’s livelihoods. In November 2016, the inhabitants of Naberera village in northern Tanzania awoke to ind their entire herd of donkeys had been stolen, a single act of theft that instantly deprived them of their mode of transport for both themselves and their crucial water supply. Fortunately, the picture is brighter in Europe, a continent that has worked hard in recent decades to introduce some of the most stringent animal rights laws in the world. In a further step in the right direction the European Parliament voted on 14 March of this year to prevent the deregulation of animal welfare post Brexit. It is an announcement that The Donkey Sanctuary warmly welcomes. “The recent vote by EU ministers in Brussels is a positive step to ensure animal welfare standards will be adhered to following Brexit, assuming the framework is approved by the UK Government,” explained Valentina Riva, advocacy manager at The Donkey Sanctuary. “The charity is part of the Brexit Task Force within the Eurogroup for Animals and has been working at a national level to ensure there are no reductions in animal welfare standards when Britain leaves the EU, and we will continue to play a role.” As well as being part of the political conversation, The Donkey Sanctuary also promotes the highest standards of donkey welfare by sharing its knowledge and expertise with animal welfare professionals around the world. In April the charity launched its new professional text book, The Clinical Companion of the Donkey, at the World Equine Veterinary Association Congress in Beijing. Focusing on all aspects of donkey health and welfare, the text book demonstrates the charity’s commitment to promoting best practice to all those who work with and care for donkeys, concentrating on the differences in the equine species that are unique to the donkey. It aims to help professionals globally to support donkey and mule owners in preventing disease, as well as supporting clinicians in diagnosing and treating sick donkeys. It can now only be hoped that the global community can cooperate effectively to ensure that donkeys have a secure future. For too long humanity has willingly used and abused these sweet-natured, patient ungulates, using them in mines and warzones, riding them on sun-lit beaches and trekking them through arid wastelands. Now it is time for their sacriices and immense value to be recognised before it’s too late. If the ruthless demand for donkey products can be stemmed then their may come a day when a donkey can cast us a glance that relects the immortal words of Eeyore: “Thanks for noticing me.” E • FREE SU Available from all good newsagents and supermarkets SOURC RE E VERY IS DE LEARN TO INSPIRE www.dphotographer.co.uk WN DO LOA ON SALE NOW Essential ingredients of landscapes > Macro > Creative Portraits LANDSCAPE TIPS SHOOTING ADVICE WILDLIFE PHOTOS PORTRAIT GUIDES CAMERA REVIEWS BUY YOUR ISSUE TODAY Print edition available at www.myfavouritemagazines.co.uk Digital edition available for iOS and Android Available on the following platforms facebook.com/DigitalPhotographerUK twitter.com/DPhotographer The 2018 WildlifePhoto.com Contest Series is now open for entries The contest series is made up of three separate photo contests: Wildlife Portraits, Habitats and Landscapes, and Animal Behaviour. The final deadline for the 2018 contest is 31 December 2018, and there are some exciting new prizes up for grabs this year, including a luxury African safari for two and the chance to have your photo displayed at a winners’ exhibition in New York City! BEHIND LENS Guide to the galaxy THE When it comes to snapping wildlife under the stars, award-winning nature photographer Ripan Biswas is never afraid to try something new I took this photo in a village in Cooch Behar. A crystal-clear sky is not always available in the time of the monsoon here, so I have to wait for a perfect cloudless night when the Milky Way is clearly visible. I used a Nikon D750 camera body, which has excellent low-light performance and image quality and a unique lens – the Laowa 15mm. This is a fully manual lens so it doesn’t have any electrical connection to the camera body. It has a focus ring and an aperture ring that is adjusted manually by rotating the rings. Except for my camera and lens, I used a sturdy tripod, a cable releaser and a lash with diffuser. This year I found three to four Theobald’s ranid frogs in the swamp where I generally shoot macro shots of insects and amphibians. When night falls these frogs start croaking. Previously I’d shot this frog with my normal Tamron 90mm macro lens, so for a change I tried my 15mm 1:1 macro lens. I approached silently, placed my camera in position and set a 30-second shutter speed. First I pressed the shutter with a cable releaser to get rid of any kind of shake. This time I set the lens on f8 and focused on the frog. The lash was in my other hand, which I ired by pressing the test button. 90 This took me two to three seconds, after which I rotated both the focus ring to ininity and the aperture ring to f4, which is the maximum aperture of the lens. For the rest of the shoot my camera stayed on the latter setting. I used iso 2000 for this shot. This is how both the frog and the Milky Way both stayed in sharp focus. Ripan Biswas WWW.RIPANBISWAS.COM I come from the small village of Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India. I have a master’s in environmental science and I’m presently teaching in a school. Ever since my childhood nature has always inspired me. The life and death of a grasshopper, the flashing green hue of a bee-eater, the sound of dry leaves on a forest floor in spring – it’s always kept me enthralled. When it came to photography, I had no option but to choose nature photography, which I began in 2008. My pictures are published in various national and international magazines, and I have received many national and international awards in wildlife photography competitions. Recently I was awarded overall winner at a wildlife photo competition run by Will Burrard Lucas. Location: Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India Camera used: Nikon D750 (15mm Laowa lens) Guide to the galaxy Life from dawn to dusk Nature’s miniature members are easily snapped with the right camera Frog and reflection A Theobald’s ranid frog examines the world around it while sitting on aquatic vegetation. Spiderlings emerge These spiderlings are making their first journey out into their unknown surroundings. Tips for the amateur photographer 01 Get to know your subjects and their habitat by spending as much time as you can with them. It’s also vital to know where and when to find the Milky Way; there are some apps that can help. 02 Learn the techniques of longexposure photography and don’t be afraid to get down to ground/ water level. 03 Get creative, mix things up, experiment with new ideas and camera settings and plan a shot before going out into the field. © Ripan Biswas Sunrise ants The red weaver ants in this image are marching in search of food. 91 TM Subscription offer Free gift worth £21 Subscribe today & receive a free passport cover Expiry date 30th June 2018 This attractive faux leather travel wallet is hand finished and features 5x small slip-pockets and 1x large slip-pocket. The outer is covered with Harlequin’s beautiful “Savannah” print. Never miss an issue Delivered to your home Get the biggest savings 13 issues a year, and you’ll be sure to get every single one Free delivery of every issue, direct to your doorstep Get your favourite magazine for less by ordering direct TM Subscription offer Pick the subscription that’s right for you MOST FLEXIBLE GREAT VALUE Subscribe and save 20% One year subscription 4 Automatic renewal – never miss an issue 4 Pay by Direct Debit 4 Great offers, available world-wide 4 One payment, by card or cheque Recurring payment of £26 every six months saving 20% A simple one-off payment ensures you never miss an issue for one full year. That’s 13 issues, direct to your doorstep Name of bank Instruction to your Bank or Building Society to pay by Direct Debit Originator’s reference 7 6 8 1 9 5 UK £51.90 (saving 20% on the retail price) Europe €78.64 USA $96.75 Rest of the world $87.08 Pay by card or cheque Address of bank Pay by Credit or Debit card Mastercard Visa Amex Card number Postcode Account Name Expiry date Account no Sort Code Please pay Future Publishing Ltd Direct Debits from the account detailed in this instruction subject to the safeguards assured by the Direct Debit guarantee. I understand that this instruction may remain with Future Publishing Ltd and, if so, details will be passed on electronically to my Bank/Building Society. Banks & Building Societies may not accept Direct Debit instructions for some types of account Pay by Cheque Signature Signature Date I enclose a cheque for £ Made payable to Future Publishing LTD Date Your information Name Address Telephone number Mobile number Email address Postcode Please post this form to n Please tick if you want to receive any communications from Future and its group companies containing news, special offers and product information. Future Publishing Ltd, 3 Queensbridge, The Lakes, Northampton, NN4 7BF, United Kingdom Order securely online www.myfavouritemagazines.co.uk/WOAMAY18 Speak to one of our friendly customer service team Call 0344 848 2852 These offers will expire on 30th June 2018 Please quote code WOAMAY18 Terms and conditions: Gift offer only available to new UK subscribers. Prices and savings quoted are compared to buying full-priced UK print issues. You will receive 13 issues a year. You can write to us or call us to cancel your subscription within 14 days of purchase. Your subscription is for the minimum term specified and will expire at the end of the current term. Payment is non- refundable after the 14 day cancellation period unless exceptional circumstances apply. Your statutory rights are not affected. Gift is subject to availability. Please allow up to 60 days for the delivery of your gift. In the event of stocks being exhausted we reserve the right to replace with items of similar value. For full terms and conditions please visit: http://bit.ly/magterms. Offer ends 30th June 2018. Animal answers Xxxxxxxxxxxxx Send your animal questions to us at: questions@animalanswers.co.uk Most frogs only have teeth on the upper jaw Do frogs bite? Almost all species of adult frogs have two kinds of teeth that can only be found on the upper jaw. Known as maxillary teeth, they are tiny, usually cone-shaped protrusions that occur around the rim of the mouth. Vomerine teeth, meanwhile, project from the roof of the mouth. Both types of teeth are useful for holding prey that a frog has pulled into its mouth. A few species do have sharper teeth that might help in catching food, but only one known species has teeth-like structures on the lower jaw. Because of these dental limitations most adult frogs do not chomp on what they are eating, although they might bite in self-defence. Tadpoles have teeth, but these are used for rasping off thin layers of plant material rather than biting. Toads do not have teeth of any kind. Are porcupines and hedgehogs related? Although porcupines and hedgehogs both have prickly backs, they are not biologically related. Porcupines are rodents, like mice and rats, while hedgehogs are relatives of shrews and moles. Furthermore, the spiny defences of these animals are only superficially similar. The prickles on a hedgehog are much shorter than a porcupine’s quills, which can be up to 51 centimetres (20 inches) long. While hedgehogs can roll up their bodies for protection, porcupines will revert to shaking their quills and stamping their feet to intimidate predators. If this fails they will charge backwards in self-defence. Contrary to popular belief, porcupines do not fire their quills, although they can shed any that lodge in an attacker’s flesh. Both are native to parts of Africa, Asia and continental Europe, and porcupines also occur in North America. Hedgehogs are usually seen on the ground, where they hunt for invertebrates. Porcupines, however, can climb trees and are herbivores. Follow us at... 94 Predators beware! Porcupine quills act like miniature spears. Porcupine quills are much longer than a hedgehog’s prickles. Porcupines are vegetarian, whereas hedgehogs will eat meat. Unlike hedgehogs, porcupines have feet adapted to climbing. @WorldAnimalsMag worldofanimalsmag Animal answers Which cat breeds are hypoallergenic? No species of cat is guaranteed to be totally hypoallergenic, but a few breeds are less likely to cause an extreme reaction. Most people who have an allergy to cats react to cat dander or the protein Fel d 1. Dander is the cat equivalent of dandruff: lakes of dry cat skin or hair. Fel d 1, meanwhile, is in cat saliva and is the most potent cause of cat allergies. All cats shed dander but some breeds produce more than others. Bengal, Burmese, Siamese and Sphynx are among the breeds that tend to shed less. Similarly, not all cat breeds carry the same concentration of Fel d 1 in their spittle. Siberian and Balinese cats, for example, are less likely to have you reaching for antihistamines if they lick you. “Bengal, Burmese, Siamese and Sphynx are among the breeds that tend to shed less” Science iction writers often use blood that isn’t red to emphasise the extraterrestrial nature of aliens in their stories. However, you don’t have to go into space to ind species with blue or green blood. Among the former here on Earth are octopuses and squids, while the name of Papua New Guinea’s green-blooded skink speaks for itself. Human blood is red because it contains the oxygencarrying molecule haemoglobin. Blue-blooded octopuses use haemocyanin instead of haemoglobin because it keeps working at extreme temperatures. The chemical responsible for the green-blooded skink’s peculiar shade of plasma is biliverdin, a by-product of the breakdown of haemoglobin. The ocellated iceish is another oddity where blood colour is concerned; it has neither haemoglobin nor haemocyanin in its blood, which therefore has no colour. How do butterlies ly? When they are actively flying, rather than gliding, butterflies rapidly move their forewings in a figure-of-eight pattern. This creates small differences in air pressure around the wings that produce forward momentum. Rather than flying in a straight line like birds, butterflies flit up and down. Studies of air movements around the wings have indicated that this is due to turbulence created by the wings and could help butterflies avoid predators. Scientists believe that a butterfly’s wings are much larger than they need to be to support its weight in the air. Big wings, however, might attract mates or improve manoeuvrability. A butterfly’s wings work like those of an airplane © Getty; Brian Lasenby; RootBangna; Farinosa; NexTser Why do some animals have blue blood? Q. Can mosquitoes smell danger? Find out at… animalanswers.co.uk Bizarre! The smiling squid that looks like a pig Deep water is home to a host of odd and sinister-looking creatures, but in the murky depths of the Atlantic swims a creature that’s definitely more comical than creepy Banded piglet squid Helicocranchia pfefferi Class Cephalopoda territory North Atlantic and Paciic oceans, possibly worldwide diet Unknown lifespan 18 months adult weight Unknown Conservation status © NaturePL; David Shale DATA DEFICIENT They’ve got built-in lamps They inflate like a balloon Piglet squid live over 100 metres (328 feet) below the surface of the sea where the water is murky and dark. However, they can still be seen through the gloom because they have a photophore (lightproducing organ) under each eye. This squid doesn’t always look like a happy balloon. Its body is usually narrow, but it has the ability to ill itself with water so that it bobs through the ocean like a beach ball. They can shoot water out of their snout They’re constantly smiling They are upside-down swimmers The ‘snout’ is created by the unusual position of the squid’s siphon. The siphon is a muscular tube that serves lots of functions: it can be used for respiration, discharging waste and even squirting out a jet of water for propulsion. There’s a permanent grin on the barred piglet squid’s face. Disappointingly, it’s not because it’s really happy all the time – the smile is just a line of pigmentation on its largely translucent skin. Compared to other cephalopods, the piglet squid swims upside down. This odd angle causes its tentacles to fall in such a way that they look like an unruly mop of hair. 96 DISCOVER THE UNIVERSE w w w. spaceanswe r s.com Available from all good newsagents and supermarkets TM ON SALE NOW Mission to Mars > Are we alone? > Quark Stars > Climate change > Make a discovery EXPLORATION SOLAR SYSTEM DEEP SPACE FUTURE TECH ASTRONOMY BUY YOUR ISSUE TODAY Print edition available at www.myfavouritemagazines.co.uk Digital edition available at www.greatdigitalmags.com Available on the following platforms facebook.com/AllAboutSpaceMagazine twitter.com/spaceanswers Animal trivia Test your animal knowledge 1. WIZARDS OF OZ 3. KING COBRAS Which animal is the nearest relative to the echidna? How long does it take for a large dose of king cobra venom to kill a human? a. 30 minutes b. 1 hour c. 10 minutes d. 5 minutes 2. MEET THE RHINOS 4. LET IT SHINE! Can you name these rhino species? Name the iridescent animal a. b. c. d. a. b. c. d. 5. THE SHOCKING TRUTH a. b. © Getty; Encyclopaedia Britannica/UIG; Dorling Kindersley; Pascal Vuylsteker; Christine Ferdinand; Photononstop / Alamy “My ‘nose’ is used like a metal detector.” Shark Match the animal to the correct phrase c. d. “I have built-in solar panels.” Electric eel “I’m capable of producing 650 volts of electricity.” Oriental hornet e. “I use electricity as a sixth sense.” “I ind food using electricity to detect the movements of my prey.” Platypus Elephantnose ish Answers 1. The platypus 2. a. Javan rhino b. Indian rhino c. White rhino d. Black rhino 3. a. 30 minutes 4. a. Peacock spider b. Madagascan sunset moth c. Fiery-throated hummingbird d. Siamese ighting ish 5. a. Elephantnose ish b. Oriental hornet c. Electric eel d. Shark e. Platypus 98 9000 9021

World of Animals Magazine: Rhinos, Gardens, and Electric Beasts

Related documents

Products

Support

World of Animals Magazine: Rhinos, Gardens, and Electric Beasts

Related documents

Add this document to collection(s)

Add this document to saved

Suggest us how to improve StudyLib