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PSYC1010
CHAPTER 9: DEVELOPMENT
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Nature and Nurture:
The Enduring Developmental Question
 Developmental Psychology: branch of psychology looking
at patterns of growth & change occurring throughout life.
 Challenges previously prevailing view of infancy and adolescence
as only interesting periods of growth and change!
 Study of the interaction between the unfolding of biologically
predetermined patterns of behaviour and the constantly
changing, dynamic environment.
 Study of how our genetic background affects our behaviour
throughout our lives and whether our potential is limited by
our genetics.
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Nature and Nurture
 Rather than asking nature OR/VS. nurture, we now ask,
how and to what degree do environment and heredity
both produce their effects?
 Heredity = the influences based on the genetic makeup of
an individual that influence growth and development
throughout life.
 Environment = the influence of parents, siblings, family,
friends, schooling, nutrition, and all other experiences to
which a child is exposed.
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Characteristics Most Affected by Heredity
Physical
Characteristics
Intellectual
Characteristics
Emotional
Characteristics and
Disorders
Height
Memory
Shyness
Weight
Intelligence
Extraversion
Obesity
Age of language
acquisition
Emotionality
Tone of voice
Reading disability
Neuroticism
Blood pressure
Intellectual disabilities
Schizophrenia
Tooth decay
Anxiety
Athletic ability
Alcoholism
Firmness of
handshake
Age of death
Activity level
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Developmental Research Techniques
 Cross-sectional research compares people of different ages at
the same point in time.
 It provides information about differences in development between
different age groups.
 Longitudinal research traces the behaviour of one or more
participants over time as the participant ages.
 Assesses change in behaviour over time, unlike cross-sectional studies,
which assess differences among groups of people at one time.
 Sequential research combines cross-sectional and longitudinal
approaches by taking a number of different age groups and
examining them at several points in time.
 Makes up for limitations in cross-sectional and longitudinal research.
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The Basics of Genetics
 Conception = when a sperm cell penetrates an egg cell.
 The one-cell entity established at conception contains 23 pairs of
chromosomes (one set from the sperm & the other from the egg).
 Chromosomes = rod-shaped structures that contain the basic
hereditary information.
 Each chromosome contains thousands of genes.
 Genes = parts of the chromosomes through which genetic
information is transmitted.
 Composed of sequences of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), genes
are the biological equivalent of “software” that programs the future
development of all parts of the body’s hardware.
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The Basics of Genetics
 The child’s biological sex is determined by a particular
combination of genes. ** (assigned at birth)
 A child inherits an X chromosome from its mother and either an X
or a Y chromosome from its father.
 When it receives an XX combination, it is a female; with an XY
combination, it develops as a male.
 Male development is triggered by a single gene on the Y
chromosome, and without the presence of that specific gene, the
individual will develop as a female.
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Earliest Development
 Zygote: the new cell formed by the union of an egg and
sperm at the time of conception.
 The germinal period = first 2 weeks after conception where the
zygote increases to 100–150 cells within a week after fertilization.
 Embryo: developed zygote with a heart, a brain, and other
organs.
 Develops through an intricate, preprogrammed process of cell
division during the embryonic period (week 2 through week 8).
 By week 4, it has a rudimentary beating heart, brain, intestinal
tract, and several other organs.
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Earliest Development
 Fetus is a developing individual from 8 weeks after conception until
birth (the fetal period).
 Age of viability is the point at which a fetus can survive if born
prematurely (about prenatal age of 22 weeks).
 If born prematurely at this age, it can open and close its eyes;
suck; cry; look up, down, and around; and even grasp objects
placed in its hands.
 Preterm infants are those who are born before week 38.
 Because they have not been able to develop fully, they are at
higher risk for illness, future problems, and even death.
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Critical Periods of Development
 Before birth, a fetus passes through several sensitive periods,
which are times during development when specific events (or
stimuli) have their greatest impact.
 Certain developing systems are vulnerable to a mother’s use of
drugs, for instance, during certain sensitive periods before birth,
and less so before or after that sensitive period.
 Teratogens = legal and illegal drugs, alcohol, and radiation can
alter or harm the development of the unborn baby’s body or brain,
but the timing of exposure may determine both the significance of
the impact and which bodily systems are affected
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Teratogens Explored
 Examples of major teratogens:
Illness: Diseases that have a relatively minor effect on the mother
can have devastating consequences for a fetus if they are contracted
during the early part of a pregnancy.
Drug use: Mothers who take illegal, physically addictive drugs run
the risk of giving birth to babies who are similarly addicted.
Alcohol use: Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) effects range
from mild to severe and include physical abnormalities, sensory
integration variables, learning disabilities, and/or behavioural
issues, which are incurable.
 There is no safe level of alcohol intake during pregnancy.
 Affects 9 out of 1000 babies born in Canada.
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List of Environmental Influences
Environmental Factor
Possible Effect on Prenatal Development
Rubella (German measles)
Blindness, deafness, heart abnormalities, stillbirth
Syphilis
Intellectual disability, physical deformities, maternal miscarriage
Addictive drugs
Low birth weight, addiction of infant to drug, with possible death
after birth from withdrawal
Nicotine
Premature birth, low birth weight and length
Alcohol
Intellectual disability, lower-than-average birth weight, small head,
limb deformities
Radiation from X-rays
Physical deformities, intellectual disability
Inadequate diet
Reduction in growth of brain, smaller-than-average weight and
length at birth
Mother’s age—younger than 18 at birth of
child
Premature birth, increased incidence of Down syndrome
Mother’s age—older than 35 at birth of child
Increased incidence of Down syndrome
DES (diethylstilbestrol)
Reproductive difficulties and increased incidence of genital cancer
in children of mothers who were given DES during pregnancy to
prevent miscarriage
AIDS
Possible spread of AIDS virus to infant; facial deformities; growth
failure
Accutane
Intellectual disability and physical deformities
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Reflexes
 Unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in
the presence of certain stimuli:
 Rooting reflex: Causes neonates to turn their heads toward
things that touch their cheeks (Ex. the mother’s nipple).
 Sucking reflex: Prompts infant to suck at things that touch its lips.
 Gag reflex: Clearing of throat.
 Startle reflex: A series of movements in which the infant flings
out its arms, fans its fingers, and arches its back in response to a
sudden noise.
 Babinski reflex: The baby’s toes fan out when the outer edge of
the sole of its foot is stroked.
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Ages indicate the time when 50% of children can perform each skill.
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Varies considerably. (e.g., 25% of children can walk well at age 11 months; and by 15
months, 90% of children are walking well.)
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Development driven by biological maturation & enhanced by active exploration of
environment, including cultural differences in activity levels.
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Attachment
Q - What does it mean to be attached?
Q- What contributes to our attachment to another person and
what gets in the way of attachment?
 Attachment = emotional bonds with another evidenced by
seeking closeness to the caregiver and displaying distress on
separation.
 Evolutionary advantageous to bond with those who feed you,
change your diapers, comfort you.
 Profound deprivation of attachment associated with cognitive
and emotional impairment.
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Attachment: Lorenz’s Imprinting
 Earliest studies of attachment were carried out by animal
ethologist Konrad Lorenz (1965).
 Focused on newborn goslings, who instinctively follow
their mother, the first moving object to which they are
exposed after birth.
 Found that goslings whose eggs were raised in an
incubator and who viewed him immediately after hatching
would follow his every movement, as if he were their
mother.
 He labeled this process imprinting, behaviour that takes
place during a critical period and involves attachment to
the first moving object that is observed.
+ Harlow’s Monkeys:
Food or Comfort?
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Studied infant rhesus monkeys (close genetic
relatives)
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Separated them from their mothers only hours
after birth.
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Placed them in cage with two fake mothers: one
wire mom, and one terrycloth mom.
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Would feed from wire mom, preferred contact
with cloth mom
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When frightened, they sought out contact
comfort of cloth mom.
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Bowlby on Attachment
 Infants must be biologically programmed to emit behavours
that trigger affectionate responses from caregivers (e.g.,
crying, clinging).
 Adults/caregivers must be biologically programmed to
respond to such behaviours with care and nurturance.
 The greater the responsiveness of the caregiver to the child’s
signals, the more likely the child will become securely attached.
 The infant plays just as active a role as the caregiver forming bonds.
 Reciprocity builds attachment = Infants who respond positively to a
caregiver produce more positive behaviour from caregiver, which in
turn produces an even stronger degree of attachment in the child.
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Bowlby’s Attachment Behavioural System
+ Assessing Attachment: The Strange Situation
 Used separation anxiety as a proxy or measure of attachment
 Sequence of events involving a child and their mother, where
the child’s reactions to the experimental situation vary
drastically, depending on their attachment to the mother:
 Securely attached: explore independently but returning to
their mother occasionally, exhibit distress when she leaves,
and go to her when she returns.
 Avoidant: do not cry when the mother leaves, avoid her
when she returns, as if they were indifferent to her.
 Ambivalent: display anxiety before separation and are
upset when the mother leaves, but they may show ambivalent
reactions to her return.
 Disorganized-disoriented: show inconsistent, contradictory
behaviour.
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Assessing Attachment
 The nature of attachment between children and their primary
caregivers has consequences for later development.
 Children you are securely attached at age 1:
 Tend to be more socially and emotionally competent, and
others find them more cooperative, capable, and playful.
 Show fewer psychological difficulties when they grow older
compared with avoidant and ambivalent youngsters.
 Tend to have more successful romantic relationships as
adults.
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Hazan & Shaver: Adult Attachment
 Infant attachment relationships lead to internal working
models about adult relationships.
 Securely attached children grow into well-adjusted adults with
positive schemas about relationships, solid sense of self worth.
 e.g. set healthy boundaries & expectations, not codependent
 Insecurely attached children struggle with adult relationships,
as their schemas are flawed, sense of self worth is inconsistent
or absent.
 e.g., have porous boundaries, low expectations, have enmeshed or
co-dependent relationships
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Adult Attachment Styles
WHICH ONE OF THESE BEST DESCRIBES YOU?
A. I am somewhat uncomfortable being close to others; I find it
difficult to trust them completely, difficult to allow myself to
depend on them. I am nervous when anyone gets too close, and
often, others want me to be more intimate than I feel comfortable
being.
B. I find it relatively easy to get close to others and am
comfortable depending on them and having them depend on me. I
don't worry about being abandoned or about someone getting too
close to me.
C. I find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like. I
often worry that my partner doesn't really love me or won't want to
stay with me. I want to get very close to my partner, and this
sometimes scares people away.
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Parenting Styles & Development
 Temperament = innate disposition that emerges early in life.
 A child’s temperament may in part bring about particular kinds of
parent-child rearing strategies.
 Children vary in their degree of resilience, the ability to
overcome circumstances that place them at high risk for
psychological or even physical harm.
 Thus, a child’s upbringing results from an interaction between
the parenting philosophy of parents, specific practices they use,
and the nature of their own and their child’s personalities.
 Q – Dr. Gopnik refers to parents as gardeners & carpenters.
Which type of parent(s) did you have?
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Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
 Erikson viewed developmental changes occurring throughout
life as a series of 8 stages of psychosocial development, of
which 4 occur during childhood.
 Psychosocial development = changes in our interactions and
understanding of one another as well as in our knowledge and
understanding of ourselves as members of society.
 Erikson suggests that passage through each of the stages
necessitates the resolution of a crisis or conflict.
 Each crisis is never resolved entirely, but it has to be resolved
sufficiently to equip us to deal with demands made in the next stage.
Erikson’s Stage Theory Illustrated
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1.
Erikson’s Stages
Trust versus mistrust: (Birth to 1 ½ years)
 The first stage, during which time infants develop feelings of trust or lack
of trust.
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Autonomy versus shame and doubt: (1 ½ to 3 years)
 The period during which, toddlers develop independence and autonomy
if exploration and freedom are encouraged, or shame and self-doubt if
they are restricted and overprotected.
3.
Initiative versus guilt : (3 to 6 years)
 The period in which children experience conflict between independence
of action and the sometimes-negative results of that action.
4.
Industry versus inferiority: (6 to 12 years)
 Last stage of childhood, during which children may develop positive
social interactions with others or may feel inadequate.
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Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Piaget suggested that children around the world proceed through
a series of four stages in a fixed order:
Cognitive Stage
Approximate Age
Range
Major Characteristics
Sensorimotor
Birth–2 years
Development of object permanence,
development of motor skills, little or no
capacity for symbolic representation
Preoperational
2–7 years
Development of language and symbolic
thinking, egocentric thinking
Concrete
operational
7–12 years
Development of conservation, mastery of
concept of reversibility
Formal operational
12 years–adulthood
Development of logical and abstract
thinking
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Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)
 Children’s understanding of the world is based primarily on
touching, sucking, chewing, shaking, manipulating objects.
 Children have relatively very little competence in representing
the environment by using images, language, or symbols.
 Infants lack object permanence: the awareness that objects and
people continue to exist even if they are out of sight.
 Object permanence is critical development during the
sensorimotor stage.
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Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years)
 The most important development at this stage is use of language.
 Children develop internal representational systems that allow
them to describe people, events, and and feelings.
 Use egocentric thought, a way of thinking in which the child
views the world entirely from his or her own perspective.
 They think that everyone shares their own perspective and
knowledge (theory of mind)
 They are unable to understand the principle of conservation:
that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement/physical
appearance of objects.
Illustration of Piaget’s Conservation Task
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Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 12 years)
 The beginning of this stage is marked by mastery of the
principle of conservation.
 Some aspects of conservation (such as conservation of weight
and volume) are not fully understood for several years.
 Children develop the ability to think in a more logical manner,
begin to overcome some of the egocentrism.
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 This stage produces a new kind of thinking, which is abstract,
formal, and logical.
 Thinking is no longer tied to just events that are observed in the
environment, able to make use of logical techniques to resolve
problems.
 Formal operational thought emerges during the teenage years but
is only used infrequently.
 According to Piaget, many individuals never reach this stage at all
(studies show that only 40 to 60% of college students and adults
fully reach it, and as low as 25% in the general population).
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Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive Development:
Considering Culture
 Cognitive development occurs as a result of social interactions
in which children work with others to solve problems.
 Through such interactions, children’s cognitive skills increase, and
they gain the ability to function intellectually on their own.
 Children’s cognitive abilities increase when they encounter
information that falls within their zone of proximal development
 ZPD = The level at which a child can almost, but not fully,
comprehend or perform a task on his or her own.
 When children receive information that falls within the ZPD, they
can increase their understanding or master a new task.
 Achieved through use of scaffolding of learning.
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5.
Erikson’s Stages
Identity versus role confusion (Adolescence)
 Adolescents try to determine their own identity (who they are, what
their roles are, and what they are capable of).
 Confusion over the most appropriate role to follow in life can lead to
lack of a stable identity, adoption of a peer group norms.
6.
Intimacy versus isolation (post-adolescence to early 30s)
 This stage focuses on developing close relationships with others.
 Difficulties during this stage result in feelings of loneliness and a
fear of such relationships vs. successful resolution results in
forming intimate relationships.
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Erikson’s Stages
7.
Generativity versus stagnation (Middle adulthood)
 Generativity = ability to contribute to one’s family, community,
work, society, & assist the development of the younger generation.
 Success results in a person feeling positive about the continuity of
life; difficulties lead a person to feeling inconsequential.
8.
Ego-integrity versus despair (Late adulthood)
 At this stage, people reflect on their life’s successes and failures.
 Success is signified by a sense of ego-integrity, accomplishment;
difficulties result in regret over failures, missed opportunities.
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Adulthood
 Emerging adulthood: The period beginning in the late teenage
years and extending into the mid-20s)
 During this period, people are no longer adolescents, but they
haven’t fully taken on the responsibilities of adulthood either.
 Instead, they’re still engaged in determining who they are and what
their life and career paths should be.
 Early adulthood begins around age 20 and lasts until age 40-45
 Middle adulthood begins at 45 and continues until around age 65.
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Adulthood: New Realities
 High school education is insufficient, need many years of
education to compete in job market.
 Little job security, lower job satisfaction reported.
 Marrying later (and less, overall). Approximately 40% of first
marriages in Canada end in divorce.
 Fewer women having children, and those women who are
having them, are having them later in life.
 Q - What impact do these changes on the applicability of
Erikson’s stages?
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Social Changes in Late Adulthood
 Different perspectives on this, but dependent on social
support and financial stability.
 Disengagement Theory: Aging can produce a gradual withdrawal
from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels.
 Provides opportunity for increased reflection and decreased emotional
investment in people beyond their immediate circle.
 Activity Theory: people who age most successful are those who
maintain their interests, activities, and level of social interaction
they experienced during middle adulthood.
Q - Putting on your critical lens, what does this theory ignore?