AP Psychology Unit 1: Interaction of Heredity &
Environment
Nature — Nurture: Genetical influences — Environmental influences
- Both influence development
Heritability: Measure of characteristics passed down from parents to offspring
- 0[0%]→1[100%]
Natural Selection: States that the fittest organisms pass their genes to the next generation
- Darwin's theory
Eugenics: Practice of selectively mating people for desirable hereditary traits
Twin Studies: Investigate the roles of nature and nurture on traits & behaviors by comparing
monozygotic twins and dizygotic twins
Family(Adoption) Studies: Investigate the roles of nature and nurture on traits & behaviors by
comparing adopted individuals to their biological & adoptive families
Genetic Predisposition: Increased chance of an individual developing a disease due to their
genes
Mental Processes: Internal activities in our minds
Mutation: Change in the DNA sequence, can be beneficial, harmful, or have no effect
Traits: Characteristics of an organism
- ex. Zebras have a famous trait, stripes
The Nervous System: A system of nerves, that transmits signals all over the body
Central Nervous System: Brain, Spinal Cord
Peripheral Nervous System: Network of nerves that branch out from the spinal cord
Somatic Nervous System: Voluntary(conscious) movements
Autonomic Nervous System: Involuntary(automatic) movements
Sympathetic Nervous System: Excitatory(arousal)
- Fight-or-Flight
Parasympathetic Nervous System: Inhibitory(calm)
The Neuron: The unit that makes up the nervous system
Glial Cells: Help/support neurons
Parts of the Neuron
1. Dendrite: Receive signals
2. Soma: Cell body
3. Nucleus: Controls the neuron
4. Axon: Transfer signals
5. Schwann Cell: Produce myelin sheath
6. Myelin Sheath: Signal speed boost
7. Node of Ranvier: Recharge the signal, allowing it to travel further
8. Axon Terminal: Transfer signals to the next neuron
Sensory(Afferent) Neurons: Receive signals
Interneurons: Connect sensory & motor neurons
Motor(Efferent) Neurons: Send signals
Reflex Arc: Shows how a reflex works through the nervous system
Synapse: Gap between neurons(axon terminals & dendrites)
- Reuptake: Left-over neurons being taken back in
All-or-Nothing Principle: The nerve will fire at the same intensity regardless of the starting
1. Resting Potential: State of non-stimulation & relaxation
2. Action Potential: Quick changes in membrane potential
3. Depolarization: Change membrane potential to positive
4. Repolarization: Change membrane potential back to negative
5. Refractory Period: Recovery period between action potentials
6. Resting Potential
Threshold: Minimum amount of stimulus needed to cause a response
Multiple Sclerosis: Lose abilities related to sensory/motor movement
Myasthenia Gravis: Losing control of voluntary muscles
Neurotransmitter
Excitatory: Assist electrical signals
Inhibitory: Prevent electrical signals
Dopamine: Pleasure, motivation, motor functions
Serotine: Mood
Norepinephrine: Arousal, alertness
Glutamate: Major excitatory, memory
GABA: Major inhibitory
Endorphins: Relieve pain, improve pleasure
Substance P: Control of interaction between neurons & immune cells
Acetylcholine: Muscle action/memory
Hormones: Chemical messengers
Adrenaline: Fight-or-Flight
Leptin: Satiation(being full)
Ghrelin: Hunger
Melatonin: Sleep(circadian rhythm)
Oxytocin: Assists in childbirth and bonding/affection
Psychoactive Drugs
Agonist: Pretend to be like other neurotransmitters
Antagonist: Block neurotransmitters
Reuptake Inhibitors: Delay/stop reuptake of a neurotransmitter
Stimulants: ↑ Alertness, stimulation of NS, “euphoria”→decreased mood
- Caffeine, Cocaine
Depressants: Drowsiness, ↓ self awareness & control
- Alcohol
Hallucinogens(hallucinating): ↑ Relaxation, alters the perception of reality
- Marijuana
Opioids(Depressives): Quick “euphoria”, pain relief
- Heroin
Tolerance: Adjustment to the drug→Need to take higher amounts of drugs to feel effects
Addiction: Need for the drug
- Physical Dependence: Craving
- Psychological Dependence: Cognitive
Withdrawal Symptoms: Side effects when drug intake is discontinued
The Brain
Brain Stem
- Medulla: Involuntary functions(ex. heartbeat, breathing)
- Pons: Coordination
- Reticular Formation: Arousal, activation(damage can cause coma)
Cerebellum: Implicit/procedural memory, coordination, balance
- ex. Riding a bicycle
Limbic System
Hippocampus: Memory, explicit, declarative learning
Amygdala: Emotions(ex. Fear, aggression)
Thalamus: Charge of senses(except smell)
Hypothalamus: Reward/pleasure center, homeostasis
Pituitary Gland: Mastergland, in charge of other glands
Cerebral Cortex
Left & Right Hemispheres
- Gazzaniga
- Left: Related to logic, analytical thinking, and language processing
- Right: Related to creativity, intuition, and holistic thinking
Corpus Callosum: Bundle of nerve fibers that comment the left & right hemispheres, allowing
communication
Lobes of Cortex
Frontal Lobe: Motor functions(ex.decision making, speaking, judgments, movement
personality)
- Prefrontal Cortex
- Motor Cortex
Parietal Lobe: Sensory perception
- Somatosensory Cortex
Temporal Lobe: Auditory(hearing) and memory
- Auditory Cortex
Occipital Lobe: Vision
- Visual Cortex
Association Areas: Area in the cerebral cortex that doesn't have a specific motor/sensory
function
- Help in linking the lobes
Brain Plasticity: Brain’s ability to adapt and change
Split-Brain Research: Research on left-right hemispheres not communicating
Language Processing
Wernicke's Area: Comprehend/interpret speech→Broca's Area: Produce speech
Aphasia: Damage in language processing(ex. speech, misinterpretation)
Contralateral Hemispheric Organization: Each hemisphere controls opposite sides of the
body
Research on the Brain
CT/CAT: X-Ray
PET: Glucose
MRI: Magnetic fields & radio waves
fMRI: Shows brain functions(blood flow) through MRI
EEG: Electrical activity
Lesioning: Destroyed brain tissues
Sleep
Consciousness: Awareness of internal and external stimuli
Wakefulness: State of consciousness when a person can interact and engage in logical activities
Sleep: State of relaxation determined by the state of consciousness
Circadian Rhythm: The biological clock
Jet Lag: Circadian rhythm disorder caused by a mismatch between time zones and external
clock
Shift Work: Work schedule that is outside the usual hours of work
EEG Patterns: Measuring electrical activity in the brain→show as wavy lines written on paper
Sleep Stages
NREM(Non-Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep: Stages of sleep deeper than REM sleep(heart rate &
body temp. decrease)
Stage 1(Alpha→Theta): Low frequency, decrease in muscle tension & relaxed
- Hypnogogic Sensations: Sensations felt by a person when between wakefulness and
REM sleep
Stage 2(Theta): Deep relaxation
- Sleep spindles, K Complex waves
Stage 3(Delta): Deep sleep
REM(Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep(Stage 4): Paradoxical sleep, occurs in cycles every 60-90
minutes throughout the sleep period.
REM Rebound: The body's way of trying to catch up on its REM sleep
Dream Theories
Activation-Synthesis Theory: The belief that we dream because the cerebral cortex has to make
sense of the nerve impulses generated from the brainstem during sleep
Memory Consolidation Theory: The belief that temporary memories →reactivated→long-term
memory
Restoration Theory: The belief that sleep is needed to restore the body and mind which have
become depleted throughout the day
Sleep Disorders
Insomnia: Hard to fall asleep/stay asleep
Narcolepsy: DIfficulty staying awake
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder: Enacting dreams in real life
Sleep Apnea: Difficulty breathing while sleeping
- Obesity
Somnambulism: Sleepwalking
Sensation: Input received from sensory receptors, nervous system, and sensory organs
Reception: Stimulation
Transduction: Sensory info→neural info
Transmission: Delivery from neural info→brain
Absolute Threshold: Minimum stimulus that has to be present for the stimulus to be detected
50% of the time
Subliminal Threshold: Stimulus that is unconsciously processed by the brain
Priming Effect:
Just-Noticeable Difference(Difference Threshold): Minimum difference in stimulus to detect
change/difference
Weber's Law: The size of the original stimulus determines the size of the difference threshold
Sensory Adaptation: Reduced in sensitivity due to repeated stimulation
- ex. Reduced sensitivity to a classroom’s smell after staying in the class for the entire
morning
Sensory Interaction: Interactions of senses and how they influence each other
Synesthesia: One sense is activated by another
The Eye
Pupil: Let light in
Lens: Bend light
Iris: Adjust pupil(controls how much light enters)
Cornea: Focuses/controls light entering, protects the eye
Fovea: Responsible for sharp vision
- ex. Detailed activities like reading
Blind Spot: Area where there are no light-sensitive cells
Visual Nerve/Optic Nerve: Transmits visual information to brain
Retina: Converts light into electrical signals
Cones: Detect color in light
Rods: Detect movement in the dark
Bipolar Cells: Pathway from photoreceptors →ganglion cells
Ganglion Cells: Relay information from the retina to the brain
Nearsightedness: Trouble seeing objects clearly from afar
Farsightedness: Trouble seeing objects nearby
Light Adaptation: Adjustment from dim light→bright light
Dark Adaptation: Adjustment from bright light→dim light
Color
Trichromatic Theory: 3 types of receptors for color - red, green, and blue; combinations of
these colors
- AKA Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory
Opponent-Process Theory: Cones’ connections with ganglion cells result in opponent
colors(Explains why there are negative after-images)
- Red-green
- Blue-yellow
- Black-white
Afterimages: Perceiving image after you are not looking at the stimulus anymore
Color Vision Deficiency: Color blindness
- Dichromatism: Partial color blindness where only blue and green cones work
- Monochromatism: Partial color blind where only one cone works
Extra Problems with Vision
Prosopagnosia: Disorder in which people are unable to recognize faces
- Face blindness
Blindsight: Ability of blind individuals being able to respond to visual stimuli unconsciously
Dual Processing: Processing info through two routes: conscious & unconscious
Audition
Outer Ear: Collect sound waves
- Pinna
- External auditory canal
Middle Ear: Transfer sound vibrations from tympanic membrane→inner ear
- Malleus(Hammer)
- Incus(Anvil)
- Stapes(Stirrup)
Inner Ear
- Cochlea: Hearing
- Semicircular Canals: Balance
Sound
Wavelength: Length of the wave
Amplitude: Height of the wave
Pitch: Measure of frequency
Frequency Theory: The amount of neuron impulses sent to the brain depends on the frequency
of sound we hear→measure of pitch
Volley Theory: Multiple receptor cells combine to process ultra-high-frequency sounds
Place Theory: Different parts of the basilar membrane detect different frequencies
Sound Localization: The ability to tell the location of sound by the time it reaches the ear
Monaural Cues: Different sound waves for each ear
Binaural Cues: Location of sound according to horizontal axis
- ex. Front, left, right
- Interaural Level Difference
- Interaural Timing Difference
Hearing Loss
Conduction Deafness: Problems with sound passing due to damage in the middle and/or outer
ear
Sensorineural Deafness: Damage in nerves associated with sound or damage in inner ear(hair
cell)
Cochlear Implants: Translate sounds→signals
Olfaction
Pheromones: Chemicals messengers for this system
Olfactory System: Sense of smell
Gustation: Taste
- The basic tastes: Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, oleogustus(fatty)
Taste Receptors
Supertasters: More sensitive tasters, more taste buds
Medium Tasters: Average ability to sense flavors
Nontasters: Decreased or nearly no sense to flavors, fewer taste buds
Somatosensation: Sensory receptors
- Pressure: Tickle
- Thermoception: Wetness
- Nociception(pain): Itching
Gate Control Theory: Mechanism of small nerve fibers sending pain signals to the brain
Phantom Limb Sensation: Perception that amputated limb exists
Vestibular Sense: Balance of parts of body, head movement
- Semicircular Canals(In-ear, next to the cochlea): Fluid inside that keeps the balance
(vestibular sense)
Kinesthesis: Sense movement positions
- ex. Actions with eyes closed
AP Psychology Unit 2
Perception: Interpretation of sensory info
Bottom-Up Processing: Sensory info interpretation
Top-Bottom Processing: Known info is used for interpretation
Perceptual Set: Tendency to perceive things as what's expected
Schema: Representations/concepts that help with organizing info
Gestalt Psychology
- Max Wertheimer
Closure: Closing(fill in) gaps to make a recognizable pattern
Figure Ground: Perceiving objects as being in foreground/background
Proximity: Perceiving objects in groups
Similarity: Perceiving objects with similar characteristics as related
Attention
Selective Attention(Cocktail Party Effect): Focusing on particular stimulus out of other stimuli
- ex. Focusing on one conversation when at a loud party
Inattentional Blindness: When attention is focused on something, failing to see easily visible
objects
- ex. Failing to see the gorilla due to focusing on counting basketball passes.
Change Blindness: Failing to notice change
Binocular Cues
Binocular Depth Cues: Cue that uses both(bi) eyes, used for knowing distance of objects and
depth
Retinal Disparity: Each eye having slightly different views
- ex. Try focusing on a pencil that is placed in front of your nose, when you try closing
each of your eyes one by one, you will notice retinal disparity.
Monocular Cues
Monocular Depth Cues: Cues that use one eye(mono)
Relative Clarity: Objects that are sharp, clear are perceived closer than objects that are hazy,
fuzzy
Relative Size: Determining distance of object by comparing its size with other similar objects
Texture Gradient: Determining distance by details, characteristics of objects
Linear Perspective: When parallel converge more, they appear further away
-
ex.
Interposition: Position of objects that show the distance, blocking objects are closer
- ex. If the sun is covered by clouds, we know that clouds are closer to us than the sun
Perceptual Constancy
Top-Down Process: The brain sending info down to the senses
Size Constancy: Perceiving things as same size even though they are further away
Color Constancy: Perceiving things as the same color even though shading/lighting changes
Shape Constancy: Perceiving things as the same shape even though the angles we see them as
change
Apparent Movement: Perceiving movement even though the object isn’t moving
Stroboscopic Movement: Motion pics
Phi Phenomenon: Successive motion of lights turning on & off
Auto-Kinetic Effect: Staring at dot→Things slightly moving
Concepts: Mental grouping of similar things
Prototypes: Mental representation of a thing within a category
Schema
Assimilation: Adding new information into existing schemas, Jean Piaget
Accommodation: Adjusting existing schemas according to the new information, Jean Piaget
Problem-Solving
Algorithm: Step-by-step method
Heuristic: “Mental short-cut”, Large tasks→divided small tasks
- Representativeness Heuristic: A heuristic that is based on how similar it is to existing
mental categories
- Availability Heuristic: A heuristic based on more available info
Judgment Biases & False Cognitive Processes
Mental Set: Approaching the situation the way it worked in the past
- Functional Fixedness: Inability to use an object for a purpose it wasn’t made for
Priming: An individual’s exposure to a certain stimulus influences sensitivity to another
stimulus
Framing: Judgments are made based on how the options are presented
Gambler’s Fallacy: Expecting outcomes based on previous outcomes/events
Sunk-Cost Fallacy: Continuing something due to already investing too much even though
discontinuing would be better
Executive Functions: Cognitive/mental skills that help individuals make better decisions &
solve problems effectively
Creativity: Thinking that develops original work, theories, techniques, or thoughts.
- Divergent Thinking: Solution with multiple, unique ideas or solutions, FRQ
- Convergent Thinking: Solution with established rules and logical reasoning, MCQ
Three Basic Functions of Memory
Encoding: Inputting info into storage
Storage: Process of keeping info in memory
Retrieval: Taking memory out of storage into consciousness(awareness)
Types of Memory
Explicit Memory: A type of memory that is consciously remembered(facts, events)
- Episodic Memory: Memory of events(personal, specific etc)
- Semantic Memory: Memory of general facts & information(ex. capital of South Korea)
Implicit Memory: Information that people unconsciously recall
- Procedural Memory: Memory to perform different actions and skills
Prospective Memory: Memory of planned intentions(“I will be this”)
Amnesia: Loss of memory
Retrograde Amnesia: Losing old memories
Anterograde Amnesia: Loss of ability to make new memories
Infantile Amnesia: Inability to remember memories made as an infant
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Synaptic connections between neurons become stronger over
time with repeated firing of neurons
Memory Models
Sensory Memory: Memory that stores sensory info briefly
- Iconic Memory: Visual memory
- Echoic Memory: Auditory memory
Short-Term Memory(STM): Stores sensory memory temporarily
- Memory Consolidation: STM→LTM through rehearsal & encoding
Long-Term Memory(LTM): Storage of encoded info, practically unlimited space
Multi-Store Model(MSM)
- Automatic Processing: Info is automatically sent to LTM
Working Memory Model: New explanation for how short-term memory works
- Working Memory: A type of short-term memory that stores information temporarily
while completing cognitive tasks
- Central Executive: HQ of the system
- Phonological Loop: Hold auditory info for a short period
- Visuospatial Sketchpad: Hold appearance and spatial info for a short period
Effortful Processing: Encoding information through conscious attention and effort
Types of Rehearsal
Maintenance Rehearsal: Simple repetition of info maintaining in STM
Elaborative Rehearsal: Making associations between the new info and old info
Levels of Processing Model: Levels of information being encoded and stored in memory
Structural Encoding: Encode based on visual(image, appearance), most shallow
Phonemic Encoding: Encode based on sound, second shallow
Semantic Encoding: Encode based on meaning, deep
Mnemonic Devices: Memory techniques that help remember things
Method of Loci: Using details in certain (familiar)locations to help memorize
Chunking: Breaking information into smaller chunks(ex. phone numbers)
Acronyms: Using first letters(ex. HOMES→Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior)
Categories: Sorting things into groups
Hierarchies: Ranking things based on a specific criteria
Spacing Effect: Learning is more efficient when repeated in space-out sessions
- Distributed Practice: Multiple short sessions over a long period
- Massed Practice: Few sessions over a short period(cramming)
Serial Position Effect: People remember info based on the location of it in a list
- Primacy Effect: Recall the first few pieces of information best
- Recency Effect: Recall end informations best
Flashbulb Memories: Exiting/shocking events→immediate storage through mental
“snapshots”(ex. car crashes right in front of you)
Retrieval
Recall: Retrieving information or events from the past without cues
Recognition: Retrieve using cues
Retrieval Cues: Stimuli that help people retrieve memories(sounds, smell, etc
Context-Dependent Memory: Retrieval is improved when the environment is the same
Mood-Congruent Memory: Retrieval is improved based on mood(bad mood→better retrieval
for bad memories)
State-Dependent Memory: Retrieval is improved when the state of encoding & retrieval are the
same
Helping Memory
Testing Effect: Enhancement in retention by frequent testing
Metacognition: The ability to control and be aware of your thoughts
Forgetting
Herman Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
Encoding Failure: STM failing to reach LTM
Inadequate Retrieval: Insufficient cues or triggers available to help retrieve stored information
from LTM
- Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: When someone cannot recall a specific word but feels
certain that they know it.
Proactive Interference: Old info disturbs recall of new info(ex. doing an old phone password
after changing the password)
Retroactive Interference: New info disturbs recall of old info(ex. having a hard time playing
flute after learning the violin)
Psychodynamics: Events can be repressed(blocked from recalling)/falsely recalled
- False Memory Syndrome: Recall of false autobiographical memories(memories of
personally experienced events)
- Repressed Memories: Memories that are unconsciously blocked from conscious
awareness
Susceptibility of Memory
Constructive Memory: Using general knowledge to fill in gaps in memory
Misinformation Effect: Exposure to expectation & leading questions can lead to the distortion
of memory
- Elizabeth Loftus
Source Amnesia: When info is remembered but cannot recall the source of info
- Imagination Inflation: Imagine something→more likely to believe it happened
Intelligence
General Intelligence: Measured by a g factor that refers to a single measurement related to all
mental abilities
- Charles Spearman
L. L. Thurstone: Opposed the g factor, the Primary Mental Abilities(7 factors)
Howard Gardner: Eight intelligences, explains the savant syndrome(autistic ppl who are
genius at a specific thing)
- Linguistic: Words, language-related
- Logical-Mathematical: Numbers, logic, problem solving
- Musical: Rhythm, sound, etc
- Spatial: Visualizing
- Body-Kinesthetic: Physical movement, coordination, sports
- Intrapersonal: Self-awareness, reflection(self)
- Interpersonal: Social skills, empathy(others)
- Naturalistic: Nature, environment, out-door stuff
Intelligence Quotient(IQ): Measurement of a person’s intelligence
Mental Age: The level of intellectual development to general age
Chronological Age: The actual number of years that you have lived
Intelligence Tests: Test of a person’s mental abilities numerically
- Alfred Binet
- IQ = (Mental Age)/(Chronological Age) × 100
Psychometrics: A field of psychology that deals with measuring attributes
Standardization: Making something the same for all(ex. standardized tests mean tests that are
conducted and scored under the same conditions)
-
Flynn Effect: Phenomenon which explains that IQ increases by generations
Poverty Discrimination: Prejudices and biases towards people based on their
socioeconomic status
Types of Tests
Achievement Tests: Measurement of an individual’s knowledge or skills in a specific area(ex.
AP, driving license test)
Aptitude Tests: Measurement to predict an individual’s future performance(ex. SAT)
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale(WAIS): The most widely used intelligence test
Validity & Reliability
Validity: How well something measures what it is supposed to measure, accuracy(ex. an AP
psychology test would have AP psychology questions)
- Construct Validity: The ability of a study to measure what it aims to measure(ex. school
tests measure your current ability in STEM subjects)
- Predictive Validity: The ability of a study to measure future outcomes(ex. the SAT test
measures a student’s performance in college
Reliability: How similar the outcome of a study is even when it is redone, consistency(ex. the
same person takes a test multiple times in different formats, the scores are similar)
- Test-Retest Reliability: The consistency of outcomes over multiple tests taken
- Split-Half Reliability: Show outcomes are similar by splitting the questions of a test in
two halves and comparing results
Extremes
Low: Lower end of intelligence and mental abilities
- Not always intellectual disability
- Down Syndrome: Extra copy of chromosomes→intellectual disability, facial features
High: Higher end of intelligence and mental abilities
- Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Expectations→reality
- Stereotype Lift/Threat
- Self-Efficacy: A person's belief in their ability to complete a task or achieve a goal.
Stereotype
Stereotype Threat: Assuming negative things just by an individual’s features or background,
like race, gender, cultural group, etc
Stereotype Lift: A boost in certain performance when informed about a positive stereotype of
that certain feature
Intelligence Mindsets
Fixed Mindset: Belief that an individual’s abilities & intelligence cannot be changed
Growth Mindset: Belief that an individual’s abilities & intelligence can be developed through
effort and learning
AP Psychology Unit 3: Development and Learning
Developmental Psychology: Focusing on human growth and changes across the lifespan,
including physical, cognitive, social, intellectual, perceptual, personality and emotional growth.
Continuous Development: Development and changes in individuals occur gradually (i.e.
mobility)
Discontinuous Development: Development as taking place in specific steps or stages (sudden
changes)
Prenatal Development
1. Zygote: Fertilized eukaryotic cell (2 week period)
2. Embyro: The developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through
the 2nd month
3. Fetus: The developing human organism form 9 weeks after conception to birth
Teratogens & Maternal Illness
Teratogens: Substance that interferes with normal fetal development and causes congenital
disabilities. (Drugs, Alcohol, chemicals and toxic substances)
Maternal Illness
- Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: A wide range of physical, behavioral, and cognitive
impairments that occur due to alcohol exposure before birth
Infancy & Childhood
Fine Motor Skills: The ability to make movements using the small muscles in our hands and
wrists.
Gross Motor Skills: Require whole body movement and which involve the large muscles of the
body to perform everyday functions. (i.e. standing, walking, running, jumping, sitting upright at
the table)
Reflexes:
- Rooting Reflex: Basic survival instinct; tendency for an infant to move its mouth toward
any object that touches its cheek
- Sucking Reflex: Tendency for an infant to suck any object that enters its mouth
- Grasping Reflex: Involuntary grasping in response to anything that touches the palm of
the hand
- Moro Reflex: The outstretching of the arms and legs in response to a loud noise or a
sudden change in the environment
Depth Perception: Ability to see objects in three dimensions, including their size and how far
away they are from you
Critical Period(sensitive period): The time during which a given behavior is especially
susceptible to; the development and maturation of functional properties of the brain, its
“plasticity,” is strongly dependent on experience or environmental influences.
Imprinting
- Konrad Lorenz: “Imprinting Theory”, Animal imprinting, when young animals learn to
identify their parents, biological or otherwise.
Adolescence
Adrenarche: An early stage in sexual maturation, Increase in production of androgens by the
adrenal cortex
Gonadarche: Activation of the gonads by the pituitary hormones FSH-LH
Menarche: First menstrual bleed
Spermarche: First sperm production
Menopause: Menstrual periods stop permanently, can no longer get pregnant.
Sexual Characteristics
Primary: Primary sex characteristics are developed and present at birth, including sexual organs
Secondary: Secondary sex characteristics are when an organism enters puberty & sexual
maturity
Gender & Sexual Orientation
Sex: About a person’s body(biological)
Gender: About who you feel yourself to be
Sexual Orientation: About to whom you’re attracted sexually
Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget
- Schema: a cognitive framework or concept that helps organize information
- Assimilation: Process of integrating new ideas or concepts into understanding and
practice while aligning them with existing ideas and practices
- Accommodation: Involves transforming older ideas and concepts into new and entirely
different ones based on the experience of new information
Sensorimotor Stage(0→2 yrs)
- Object Permanence: You know that an object or person still exists even when they are
hidden and you can’t see or hear them.
- Stranger Anxiety: is manifested by crying when an unfamiliar person approaches.
Preoperational Stage(2→6 yrs)
- Animism: The belief that objects have lifelike qualities and are, therefore, capable of
having feelings, intentions, and emotions.
- Conservation: Knowing that a quantity doesn’t change if it’s been altered
- Reversibility: The idea that actions, thoughts, or things can be reversed
- Egocentrism: Someone's inability to understand that another person's view or opinion
may differ.
- Theory of Mind: The ability to understand and appreciate that other beings have
thoughts, feelings, and intentions.
Concrete Operational Stage(7→11 yrs)
-
Understanding of Conservation and Reversibility
Logical thinking(mathematics): analyzing a situation or problem using reason and
coming up with potential solutions.
Formal Operational Stage(12+ yrs)(when adolescence begins)
- Abstract thinking(systematic reasoning)
- Moral reasoning
- Deductive thinking
Social Learning: Focus on social and cultural environment in development
- Lev Vygotsky
Zone of Proximal Development
-The ability to learn, divided into amounts of scaffolding needed
Scaffolding (help/adult guidance)
Zone of actual development: can do alone
Zone of proximal development: can do with help
Out of reach zone: cannot do
Intelligence & Development
Crystallized Intelligence: facts, knowledge, skills, and understanding acquired through
experience over time
Fluid Intelligence: The ability to think abstractly, reason quickly, and solve problems
independently of prior knowledge.
Dementia: the loss of cognitive functioning such as- thinking, remembering, and reasoning
Alzheimer's Disease: A chronic brain disease that progressively deteriorates an individual’s
memory, cognitive abilities, and personality.
Language Development & Verbal Communication
Phonemes: The most basic sound (simple)
Morphemes: The most basic sounds with meanings in it(ex. ed, s)
Semantics: Comprehension of words by looking at their logical structures
Syntax: Order of words → sentence structure
Nonverbal Gestures: Communications not involving words but through body language, facial
expressions, and movements.
Development of Verbal Communication
1. Cooing
- “Ooh” and “Aah”
2. Babbling Stage
- “Ma”, “da”, or “um”
3. One-word Stage
- “milk”(meaning ‘i want milk’)
4. Two-word Stage
- “want milk”
Telegraphic Speech: At about age 2, when entering the two-word stage, they start to arrange
words using one verb and one noun only(ex. give food)
Overgeneralization: Concluding grammar broadly/not specific enough(ex. There are many
fishes. Many persons are there.)