AP Psychology Unit 1: Interaction of Heredity & Environment Nature — Nurture: Genetical influences — Environmental influences - Both influence development Heritability: Measure of characteristics passed down from parents to offspring - 0[0%]→1[100%] Natural Selection: States that the fittest organisms pass their genes to the next generation - Darwin's theory Eugenics: Practice of selectively mating people for desirable hereditary traits Twin Studies: Investigate the roles of nature and nurture on traits & behaviors by comparing monozygotic twins and dizygotic twins Family(Adoption) Studies: Investigate the roles of nature and nurture on traits & behaviors by comparing adopted individuals to their biological & adoptive families Genetic Predisposition: Increased chance of an individual developing a disease due to their genes Mental Processes: Internal activities in our minds Mutation: Change in the DNA sequence, can be beneficial, harmful, or have no effect Traits: Characteristics of an organism - ex. Zebras have a famous trait, stripes The Nervous System: A system of nerves, that transmits signals all over the body Central Nervous System: Brain, Spinal Cord Peripheral Nervous System: Network of nerves that branch out from the spinal cord Somatic Nervous System: Voluntary(conscious) movements Autonomic Nervous System: Involuntary(automatic) movements Sympathetic Nervous System: Excitatory(arousal) - Fight-or-Flight Parasympathetic Nervous System: Inhibitory(calm) The Neuron: The unit that makes up the nervous system Glial Cells: Help/support neurons Parts of the Neuron 1. Dendrite: Receive signals 2. Soma: Cell body 3. Nucleus: Controls the neuron 4. Axon: Transfer signals 5. Schwann Cell: Produce myelin sheath 6. Myelin Sheath: Signal speed boost 7. Node of Ranvier: Recharge the signal, allowing it to travel further 8. Axon Terminal: Transfer signals to the next neuron Sensory(Afferent) Neurons: Receive signals Interneurons: Connect sensory & motor neurons Motor(Efferent) Neurons: Send signals Reflex Arc: Shows how a reflex works through the nervous system Synapse: Gap between neurons(axon terminals & dendrites) - Reuptake: Left-over neurons being taken back in All-or-Nothing Principle: The nerve will fire at the same intensity regardless of the starting 1. Resting Potential: State of non-stimulation & relaxation 2. Action Potential: Quick changes in membrane potential 3. Depolarization: Change membrane potential to positive 4. Repolarization: Change membrane potential back to negative 5. Refractory Period: Recovery period between action potentials 6. Resting Potential Threshold: Minimum amount of stimulus needed to cause a response Multiple Sclerosis: Lose abilities related to sensory/motor movement Myasthenia Gravis: Losing control of voluntary muscles Neurotransmitter Excitatory: Assist electrical signals Inhibitory: Prevent electrical signals Dopamine: Pleasure, motivation, motor functions Serotine: Mood Norepinephrine: Arousal, alertness Glutamate: Major excitatory, memory GABA: Major inhibitory Endorphins: Relieve pain, improve pleasure Substance P: Control of interaction between neurons & immune cells Acetylcholine: Muscle action/memory Hormones: Chemical messengers Adrenaline: Fight-or-Flight Leptin: Satiation(being full) Ghrelin: Hunger Melatonin: Sleep(circadian rhythm) Oxytocin: Assists in childbirth and bonding/affection Psychoactive Drugs Agonist: Pretend to be like other neurotransmitters Antagonist: Block neurotransmitters Reuptake Inhibitors: Delay/stop reuptake of a neurotransmitter Stimulants: ↑ Alertness, stimulation of NS, “euphoria”→decreased mood - Caffeine, Cocaine Depressants: Drowsiness, ↓ self awareness & control - Alcohol Hallucinogens(hallucinating): ↑ Relaxation, alters the perception of reality - Marijuana Opioids(Depressives): Quick “euphoria”, pain relief - Heroin Tolerance: Adjustment to the drug→Need to take higher amounts of drugs to feel effects Addiction: Need for the drug - Physical Dependence: Craving - Psychological Dependence: Cognitive Withdrawal Symptoms: Side effects when drug intake is discontinued The Brain Brain Stem - Medulla: Involuntary functions(ex. heartbeat, breathing) - Pons: Coordination - Reticular Formation: Arousal, activation(damage can cause coma) Cerebellum: Implicit/procedural memory, coordination, balance - ex. Riding a bicycle Limbic System Hippocampus: Memory, explicit, declarative learning Amygdala: Emotions(ex. Fear, aggression) Thalamus: Charge of senses(except smell) Hypothalamus: Reward/pleasure center, homeostasis Pituitary Gland: Mastergland, in charge of other glands Cerebral Cortex Left & Right Hemispheres - Gazzaniga - Left: Related to logic, analytical thinking, and language processing - Right: Related to creativity, intuition, and holistic thinking Corpus Callosum: Bundle of nerve fibers that comment the left & right hemispheres, allowing communication Lobes of Cortex Frontal Lobe: Motor functions(ex.decision making, speaking, judgments, movement personality) - Prefrontal Cortex - Motor Cortex Parietal Lobe: Sensory perception - Somatosensory Cortex Temporal Lobe: Auditory(hearing) and memory - Auditory Cortex Occipital Lobe: Vision - Visual Cortex Association Areas: Area in the cerebral cortex that doesn't have a specific motor/sensory function - Help in linking the lobes Brain Plasticity: Brain’s ability to adapt and change Split-Brain Research: Research on left-right hemispheres not communicating Language Processing Wernicke's Area: Comprehend/interpret speech→Broca's Area: Produce speech Aphasia: Damage in language processing(ex. speech, misinterpretation) Contralateral Hemispheric Organization: Each hemisphere controls opposite sides of the body Research on the Brain CT/CAT: X-Ray PET: Glucose MRI: Magnetic fields & radio waves fMRI: Shows brain functions(blood flow) through MRI EEG: Electrical activity Lesioning: Destroyed brain tissues Sleep Consciousness: Awareness of internal and external stimuli Wakefulness: State of consciousness when a person can interact and engage in logical activities Sleep: State of relaxation determined by the state of consciousness Circadian Rhythm: The biological clock Jet Lag: Circadian rhythm disorder caused by a mismatch between time zones and external clock Shift Work: Work schedule that is outside the usual hours of work EEG Patterns: Measuring electrical activity in the brain→show as wavy lines written on paper Sleep Stages NREM(Non-Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep: Stages of sleep deeper than REM sleep(heart rate & body temp. decrease) Stage 1(Alpha→Theta): Low frequency, decrease in muscle tension & relaxed - Hypnogogic Sensations: Sensations felt by a person when between wakefulness and REM sleep Stage 2(Theta): Deep relaxation - Sleep spindles, K Complex waves Stage 3(Delta): Deep sleep REM(Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep(Stage 4): Paradoxical sleep, occurs in cycles every 60-90 minutes throughout the sleep period. REM Rebound: The body's way of trying to catch up on its REM sleep Dream Theories Activation-Synthesis Theory: The belief that we dream because the cerebral cortex has to make sense of the nerve impulses generated from the brainstem during sleep Memory Consolidation Theory: The belief that temporary memories →reactivated→long-term memory Restoration Theory: The belief that sleep is needed to restore the body and mind which have become depleted throughout the day Sleep Disorders Insomnia: Hard to fall asleep/stay asleep Narcolepsy: DIfficulty staying awake REM Sleep Behavior Disorder: Enacting dreams in real life Sleep Apnea: Difficulty breathing while sleeping - Obesity Somnambulism: Sleepwalking Sensation: Input received from sensory receptors, nervous system, and sensory organs Reception: Stimulation Transduction: Sensory info→neural info Transmission: Delivery from neural info→brain Absolute Threshold: Minimum stimulus that has to be present for the stimulus to be detected 50% of the time Subliminal Threshold: Stimulus that is unconsciously processed by the brain Priming Effect: Just-Noticeable Difference(Difference Threshold): Minimum difference in stimulus to detect change/difference Weber's Law: The size of the original stimulus determines the size of the difference threshold Sensory Adaptation: Reduced in sensitivity due to repeated stimulation - ex. Reduced sensitivity to a classroom’s smell after staying in the class for the entire morning Sensory Interaction: Interactions of senses and how they influence each other Synesthesia: One sense is activated by another The Eye Pupil: Let light in Lens: Bend light Iris: Adjust pupil(controls how much light enters) Cornea: Focuses/controls light entering, protects the eye Fovea: Responsible for sharp vision - ex. Detailed activities like reading Blind Spot: Area where there are no light-sensitive cells Visual Nerve/Optic Nerve: Transmits visual information to brain Retina: Converts light into electrical signals Cones: Detect color in light Rods: Detect movement in the dark Bipolar Cells: Pathway from photoreceptors →ganglion cells Ganglion Cells: Relay information from the retina to the brain Nearsightedness: Trouble seeing objects clearly from afar Farsightedness: Trouble seeing objects nearby Light Adaptation: Adjustment from dim light→bright light Dark Adaptation: Adjustment from bright light→dim light Color Trichromatic Theory: 3 types of receptors for color - red, green, and blue; combinations of these colors - AKA Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory Opponent-Process Theory: Cones’ connections with ganglion cells result in opponent colors(Explains why there are negative after-images) - Red-green - Blue-yellow - Black-white Afterimages: Perceiving image after you are not looking at the stimulus anymore Color Vision Deficiency: Color blindness - Dichromatism: Partial color blindness where only blue and green cones work - Monochromatism: Partial color blind where only one cone works Extra Problems with Vision Prosopagnosia: Disorder in which people are unable to recognize faces - Face blindness Blindsight: Ability of blind individuals being able to respond to visual stimuli unconsciously Dual Processing: Processing info through two routes: conscious & unconscious Audition Outer Ear: Collect sound waves - Pinna - External auditory canal Middle Ear: Transfer sound vibrations from tympanic membrane→inner ear - Malleus(Hammer) - Incus(Anvil) - Stapes(Stirrup) Inner Ear - Cochlea: Hearing - Semicircular Canals: Balance Sound Wavelength: Length of the wave Amplitude: Height of the wave Pitch: Measure of frequency Frequency Theory: The amount of neuron impulses sent to the brain depends on the frequency of sound we hear→measure of pitch Volley Theory: Multiple receptor cells combine to process ultra-high-frequency sounds Place Theory: Different parts of the basilar membrane detect different frequencies Sound Localization: The ability to tell the location of sound by the time it reaches the ear Monaural Cues: Different sound waves for each ear Binaural Cues: Location of sound according to horizontal axis - ex. Front, left, right - Interaural Level Difference - Interaural Timing Difference Hearing Loss Conduction Deafness: Problems with sound passing due to damage in the middle and/or outer ear Sensorineural Deafness: Damage in nerves associated with sound or damage in inner ear(hair cell) Cochlear Implants: Translate sounds→signals Olfaction Pheromones: Chemicals messengers for this system Olfactory System: Sense of smell Gustation: Taste - The basic tastes: Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, oleogustus(fatty) Taste Receptors Supertasters: More sensitive tasters, more taste buds Medium Tasters: Average ability to sense flavors Nontasters: Decreased or nearly no sense to flavors, fewer taste buds Somatosensation: Sensory receptors - Pressure: Tickle - Thermoception: Wetness - Nociception(pain): Itching Gate Control Theory: Mechanism of small nerve fibers sending pain signals to the brain Phantom Limb Sensation: Perception that amputated limb exists Vestibular Sense: Balance of parts of body, head movement - Semicircular Canals(In-ear, next to the cochlea): Fluid inside that keeps the balance (vestibular sense) Kinesthesis: Sense movement positions - ex. Actions with eyes closed AP Psychology Unit 2 Perception: Interpretation of sensory info Bottom-Up Processing: Sensory info interpretation Top-Bottom Processing: Known info is used for interpretation Perceptual Set: Tendency to perceive things as what's expected Schema: Representations/concepts that help with organizing info Gestalt Psychology - Max Wertheimer Closure: Closing(fill in) gaps to make a recognizable pattern Figure Ground: Perceiving objects as being in foreground/background Proximity: Perceiving objects in groups Similarity: Perceiving objects with similar characteristics as related Attention Selective Attention(Cocktail Party Effect): Focusing on particular stimulus out of other stimuli - ex. Focusing on one conversation when at a loud party Inattentional Blindness: When attention is focused on something, failing to see easily visible objects - ex. Failing to see the gorilla due to focusing on counting basketball passes. Change Blindness: Failing to notice change Binocular Cues Binocular Depth Cues: Cue that uses both(bi) eyes, used for knowing distance of objects and depth Retinal Disparity: Each eye having slightly different views - ex. Try focusing on a pencil that is placed in front of your nose, when you try closing each of your eyes one by one, you will notice retinal disparity. Monocular Cues Monocular Depth Cues: Cues that use one eye(mono) Relative Clarity: Objects that are sharp, clear are perceived closer than objects that are hazy, fuzzy Relative Size: Determining distance of object by comparing its size with other similar objects Texture Gradient: Determining distance by details, characteristics of objects Linear Perspective: When parallel converge more, they appear further away - ex. Interposition: Position of objects that show the distance, blocking objects are closer - ex. If the sun is covered by clouds, we know that clouds are closer to us than the sun Perceptual Constancy Top-Down Process: The brain sending info down to the senses Size Constancy: Perceiving things as same size even though they are further away Color Constancy: Perceiving things as the same color even though shading/lighting changes Shape Constancy: Perceiving things as the same shape even though the angles we see them as change Apparent Movement: Perceiving movement even though the object isn’t moving Stroboscopic Movement: Motion pics Phi Phenomenon: Successive motion of lights turning on & off Auto-Kinetic Effect: Staring at dot→Things slightly moving Concepts: Mental grouping of similar things Prototypes: Mental representation of a thing within a category Schema Assimilation: Adding new information into existing schemas, Jean Piaget Accommodation: Adjusting existing schemas according to the new information, Jean Piaget Problem-Solving Algorithm: Step-by-step method Heuristic: “Mental short-cut”, Large tasks→divided small tasks - Representativeness Heuristic: A heuristic that is based on how similar it is to existing mental categories - Availability Heuristic: A heuristic based on more available info Judgment Biases & False Cognitive Processes Mental Set: Approaching the situation the way it worked in the past - Functional Fixedness: Inability to use an object for a purpose it wasn’t made for Priming: An individual’s exposure to a certain stimulus influences sensitivity to another stimulus Framing: Judgments are made based on how the options are presented Gambler’s Fallacy: Expecting outcomes based on previous outcomes/events Sunk-Cost Fallacy: Continuing something due to already investing too much even though discontinuing would be better Executive Functions: Cognitive/mental skills that help individuals make better decisions & solve problems effectively Creativity: Thinking that develops original work, theories, techniques, or thoughts. - Divergent Thinking: Solution with multiple, unique ideas or solutions, FRQ - Convergent Thinking: Solution with established rules and logical reasoning, MCQ Three Basic Functions of Memory Encoding: Inputting info into storage Storage: Process of keeping info in memory Retrieval: Taking memory out of storage into consciousness(awareness) Types of Memory Explicit Memory: A type of memory that is consciously remembered(facts, events) - Episodic Memory: Memory of events(personal, specific etc) - Semantic Memory: Memory of general facts & information(ex. capital of South Korea) Implicit Memory: Information that people unconsciously recall - Procedural Memory: Memory to perform different actions and skills Prospective Memory: Memory of planned intentions(“I will be this”) Amnesia: Loss of memory Retrograde Amnesia: Losing old memories Anterograde Amnesia: Loss of ability to make new memories Infantile Amnesia: Inability to remember memories made as an infant Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Synaptic connections between neurons become stronger over time with repeated firing of neurons Memory Models Sensory Memory: Memory that stores sensory info briefly - Iconic Memory: Visual memory - Echoic Memory: Auditory memory Short-Term Memory(STM): Stores sensory memory temporarily - Memory Consolidation: STM→LTM through rehearsal & encoding Long-Term Memory(LTM): Storage of encoded info, practically unlimited space Multi-Store Model(MSM) - Automatic Processing: Info is automatically sent to LTM Working Memory Model: New explanation for how short-term memory works - Working Memory: A type of short-term memory that stores information temporarily while completing cognitive tasks - Central Executive: HQ of the system - Phonological Loop: Hold auditory info for a short period - Visuospatial Sketchpad: Hold appearance and spatial info for a short period Effortful Processing: Encoding information through conscious attention and effort Types of Rehearsal Maintenance Rehearsal: Simple repetition of info maintaining in STM Elaborative Rehearsal: Making associations between the new info and old info Levels of Processing Model: Levels of information being encoded and stored in memory Structural Encoding: Encode based on visual(image, appearance), most shallow Phonemic Encoding: Encode based on sound, second shallow Semantic Encoding: Encode based on meaning, deep Mnemonic Devices: Memory techniques that help remember things Method of Loci: Using details in certain (familiar)locations to help memorize Chunking: Breaking information into smaller chunks(ex. phone numbers) Acronyms: Using first letters(ex. HOMES→Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior) Categories: Sorting things into groups Hierarchies: Ranking things based on a specific criteria Spacing Effect: Learning is more efficient when repeated in space-out sessions - Distributed Practice: Multiple short sessions over a long period - Massed Practice: Few sessions over a short period(cramming) Serial Position Effect: People remember info based on the location of it in a list - Primacy Effect: Recall the first few pieces of information best - Recency Effect: Recall end informations best Flashbulb Memories: Exiting/shocking events→immediate storage through mental “snapshots”(ex. car crashes right in front of you) Retrieval Recall: Retrieving information or events from the past without cues Recognition: Retrieve using cues Retrieval Cues: Stimuli that help people retrieve memories(sounds, smell, etc Context-Dependent Memory: Retrieval is improved when the environment is the same Mood-Congruent Memory: Retrieval is improved based on mood(bad mood→better retrieval for bad memories) State-Dependent Memory: Retrieval is improved when the state of encoding & retrieval are the same Helping Memory Testing Effect: Enhancement in retention by frequent testing Metacognition: The ability to control and be aware of your thoughts Forgetting Herman Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve Encoding Failure: STM failing to reach LTM Inadequate Retrieval: Insufficient cues or triggers available to help retrieve stored information from LTM - Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: When someone cannot recall a specific word but feels certain that they know it. Proactive Interference: Old info disturbs recall of new info(ex. doing an old phone password after changing the password) Retroactive Interference: New info disturbs recall of old info(ex. having a hard time playing flute after learning the violin) Psychodynamics: Events can be repressed(blocked from recalling)/falsely recalled - False Memory Syndrome: Recall of false autobiographical memories(memories of personally experienced events) - Repressed Memories: Memories that are unconsciously blocked from conscious awareness Susceptibility of Memory Constructive Memory: Using general knowledge to fill in gaps in memory Misinformation Effect: Exposure to expectation & leading questions can lead to the distortion of memory - Elizabeth Loftus Source Amnesia: When info is remembered but cannot recall the source of info - Imagination Inflation: Imagine something→more likely to believe it happened Intelligence General Intelligence: Measured by a g factor that refers to a single measurement related to all mental abilities - Charles Spearman L. L. Thurstone: Opposed the g factor, the Primary Mental Abilities(7 factors) Howard Gardner: Eight intelligences, explains the savant syndrome(autistic ppl who are genius at a specific thing) - Linguistic: Words, language-related - Logical-Mathematical: Numbers, logic, problem solving - Musical: Rhythm, sound, etc - Spatial: Visualizing - Body-Kinesthetic: Physical movement, coordination, sports - Intrapersonal: Self-awareness, reflection(self) - Interpersonal: Social skills, empathy(others) - Naturalistic: Nature, environment, out-door stuff Intelligence Quotient(IQ): Measurement of a person’s intelligence Mental Age: The level of intellectual development to general age Chronological Age: The actual number of years that you have lived Intelligence Tests: Test of a person’s mental abilities numerically - Alfred Binet - IQ = (Mental Age)/(Chronological Age) × 100 Psychometrics: A field of psychology that deals with measuring attributes Standardization: Making something the same for all(ex. standardized tests mean tests that are conducted and scored under the same conditions) - Flynn Effect: Phenomenon which explains that IQ increases by generations Poverty Discrimination: Prejudices and biases towards people based on their socioeconomic status Types of Tests Achievement Tests: Measurement of an individual’s knowledge or skills in a specific area(ex. AP, driving license test) Aptitude Tests: Measurement to predict an individual’s future performance(ex. SAT) Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale(WAIS): The most widely used intelligence test Validity & Reliability Validity: How well something measures what it is supposed to measure, accuracy(ex. an AP psychology test would have AP psychology questions) - Construct Validity: The ability of a study to measure what it aims to measure(ex. school tests measure your current ability in STEM subjects) - Predictive Validity: The ability of a study to measure future outcomes(ex. the SAT test measures a student’s performance in college Reliability: How similar the outcome of a study is even when it is redone, consistency(ex. the same person takes a test multiple times in different formats, the scores are similar) - Test-Retest Reliability: The consistency of outcomes over multiple tests taken - Split-Half Reliability: Show outcomes are similar by splitting the questions of a test in two halves and comparing results Extremes Low: Lower end of intelligence and mental abilities - Not always intellectual disability - Down Syndrome: Extra copy of chromosomes→intellectual disability, facial features High: Higher end of intelligence and mental abilities - Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Expectations→reality - Stereotype Lift/Threat - Self-Efficacy: A person's belief in their ability to complete a task or achieve a goal. Stereotype Stereotype Threat: Assuming negative things just by an individual’s features or background, like race, gender, cultural group, etc Stereotype Lift: A boost in certain performance when informed about a positive stereotype of that certain feature Intelligence Mindsets Fixed Mindset: Belief that an individual’s abilities & intelligence cannot be changed Growth Mindset: Belief that an individual’s abilities & intelligence can be developed through effort and learning AP Psychology Unit 3: Development and Learning Developmental Psychology: Focusing on human growth and changes across the lifespan, including physical, cognitive, social, intellectual, perceptual, personality and emotional growth. Continuous Development: Development and changes in individuals occur gradually (i.e. mobility) Discontinuous Development: Development as taking place in specific steps or stages (sudden changes) Prenatal Development 1. Zygote: Fertilized eukaryotic cell (2 week period) 2. Embyro: The developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the 2nd month 3. Fetus: The developing human organism form 9 weeks after conception to birth Teratogens & Maternal Illness Teratogens: Substance that interferes with normal fetal development and causes congenital disabilities. (Drugs, Alcohol, chemicals and toxic substances) Maternal Illness - Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: A wide range of physical, behavioral, and cognitive impairments that occur due to alcohol exposure before birth Infancy & Childhood Fine Motor Skills: The ability to make movements using the small muscles in our hands and wrists. Gross Motor Skills: Require whole body movement and which involve the large muscles of the body to perform everyday functions. (i.e. standing, walking, running, jumping, sitting upright at the table) Reflexes: - Rooting Reflex: Basic survival instinct; tendency for an infant to move its mouth toward any object that touches its cheek - Sucking Reflex: Tendency for an infant to suck any object that enters its mouth - Grasping Reflex: Involuntary grasping in response to anything that touches the palm of the hand - Moro Reflex: The outstretching of the arms and legs in response to a loud noise or a sudden change in the environment Depth Perception: Ability to see objects in three dimensions, including their size and how far away they are from you Critical Period(sensitive period): The time during which a given behavior is especially susceptible to; the development and maturation of functional properties of the brain, its “plasticity,” is strongly dependent on experience or environmental influences. Imprinting - Konrad Lorenz: “Imprinting Theory”, Animal imprinting, when young animals learn to identify their parents, biological or otherwise. Adolescence Adrenarche: An early stage in sexual maturation, Increase in production of androgens by the adrenal cortex Gonadarche: Activation of the gonads by the pituitary hormones FSH-LH Menarche: First menstrual bleed Spermarche: First sperm production Menopause: Menstrual periods stop permanently, can no longer get pregnant. Sexual Characteristics Primary: Primary sex characteristics are developed and present at birth, including sexual organs Secondary: Secondary sex characteristics are when an organism enters puberty & sexual maturity Gender & Sexual Orientation Sex: About a person’s body(biological) Gender: About who you feel yourself to be Sexual Orientation: About to whom you’re attracted sexually Cognitive Development Jean Piaget - Schema: a cognitive framework or concept that helps organize information - Assimilation: Process of integrating new ideas or concepts into understanding and practice while aligning them with existing ideas and practices - Accommodation: Involves transforming older ideas and concepts into new and entirely different ones based on the experience of new information Sensorimotor Stage(0→2 yrs) - Object Permanence: You know that an object or person still exists even when they are hidden and you can’t see or hear them. - Stranger Anxiety: is manifested by crying when an unfamiliar person approaches. Preoperational Stage(2→6 yrs) - Animism: The belief that objects have lifelike qualities and are, therefore, capable of having feelings, intentions, and emotions. - Conservation: Knowing that a quantity doesn’t change if it’s been altered - Reversibility: The idea that actions, thoughts, or things can be reversed - Egocentrism: Someone's inability to understand that another person's view or opinion may differ. - Theory of Mind: The ability to understand and appreciate that other beings have thoughts, feelings, and intentions. Concrete Operational Stage(7→11 yrs) - Understanding of Conservation and Reversibility Logical thinking(mathematics): analyzing a situation or problem using reason and coming up with potential solutions. Formal Operational Stage(12+ yrs)(when adolescence begins) - Abstract thinking(systematic reasoning) - Moral reasoning - Deductive thinking Social Learning: Focus on social and cultural environment in development - Lev Vygotsky Zone of Proximal Development -The ability to learn, divided into amounts of scaffolding needed Scaffolding (help/adult guidance) Zone of actual development: can do alone Zone of proximal development: can do with help Out of reach zone: cannot do Intelligence & Development Crystallized Intelligence: facts, knowledge, skills, and understanding acquired through experience over time Fluid Intelligence: The ability to think abstractly, reason quickly, and solve problems independently of prior knowledge. Dementia: the loss of cognitive functioning such as- thinking, remembering, and reasoning Alzheimer's Disease: A chronic brain disease that progressively deteriorates an individual’s memory, cognitive abilities, and personality. Language Development & Verbal Communication Phonemes: The most basic sound (simple) Morphemes: The most basic sounds with meanings in it(ex. ed, s) Semantics: Comprehension of words by looking at their logical structures Syntax: Order of words → sentence structure Nonverbal Gestures: Communications not involving words but through body language, facial expressions, and movements. Development of Verbal Communication 1. Cooing - “Ooh” and “Aah” 2. Babbling Stage - “Ma”, “da”, or “um” 3. One-word Stage - “milk”(meaning ‘i want milk’) 4. Two-word Stage - “want milk” Telegraphic Speech: At about age 2, when entering the two-word stage, they start to arrange words using one verb and one noun only(ex. give food) Overgeneralization: Concluding grammar broadly/not specific enough(ex. There are many fishes. Many persons are there.)
