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Edexcel IGCSE English Literature
To Kill a Mockingbird
Contents
To Kill a Mockingbird: Plot summary
To Kill a Mockingbird: Themes
To Kill a Mockingbird: Characters
To Kill a Mockingbird: Context
To Kill a Mockingbird: Writer's Methods and Techniques
To Kill a Mockingbird: Key Text Quotations
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To Kill a Mockingbird: Plot summary
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Plot summary
An important step in preparing for the exam is to thoroughly understand the plot of To Kill a Mockingbird.
Once you're familiar with the text, you will feel confident connecting key events to broader themes. Having
a deep understanding of the text will boost your confidence in finding relevant references to support your
responses.
Overview
First published in 1960, To Kill a Mockingbird was written by Harper Lee who grew up near Alabama, a state in
the south-eastern region of the US. Her father was a lawyer and unsuccessfully defended two AfricanAmerican men accused of murder. Since its publication, the novel has sold over 40 million copies. A year
after its publication, it won the Pulitzer Prize.
To Kill a Mockingbird is a bildungsroman and it is told through the eyes of the main character, Jean Louise
Finch, otherwise known as Scout, set during her childhood between the ages of five and eight. It depicts
life during the Great Depression in the 1930s in the fictional town of Maycomb, situated in the American
south, not far from Alabama town. Maycomb is described as a poor town with deep racial and societal
tensions.
The early part of the novel focuses on Scout’s childhood experiences growing up with her father Atticus
Finch, her brother, Jem and their housekeeper, Calpurnia. During the summer holidays, Jem and Scout play
with Dill, a neighbour’s nephew who comes to stay. The three of them become fascinated by a neighbour
called Arthur “Boo” Radley, who lives across the street and is said to have attacked his father with a pair of
scissors. Boo has been locked in the house ever since.
Atticus agrees to defend an African-American man called Tom Robinson who has been wrongfully
convicted of raping a white woman, Mayella Ewell. As soon as the community learns that he will be
defending a black man, the Finch family find themselves victims of discrimination. Atticus realises that the
case will likely be lost but feels morally compelled to take it on; through his decision to defend Tom and the
reactions that follow, Jem and Scout begin to understand the complex tensions within their community.
At the trial, it becomes clear that Tom Robinson did not rape Mayella, but that she tried to kiss him. This was
seen by her father who then beat Mayella and threatened to kill Tom. Despite the evidence, Tom is found
guilty and sent to prison. He later tries to escape and is shot dead. Mayella’s father, Bob Ewell, threatens to
take revenge on the Finches for Atticus representing Tom.
After the trial, Scout and Jem are walking back from a school Halloween pageant when they are attacked by
Bob Ewell. Jem suffers a broken arm. The attack happens at night but someone steps in to save them,
although the children can’t see who it is. In the struggle, Bob Ewell is stabbed and dies. When they arrive
home, they see the man who saved their lives: Boo Radley. Having been frightened of him for years, Scout
Finch finally realises that Boo is a good person.
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Chapter-By-Chapter Plot Summary
Chapters 1–3
Scout explains that her older brother, Jem, broke his arm but no explanation is given as to how it
happened
Scout outlines her family history, explaining that an ancestor of the Finch family left England due to
religious persecution
The reader learns that the Finches set up a family farm, but that Atticus and his brother left to study Law
and Medicine at university
The reader is introduced to Maycomb, a fictional southern town
Jem and Scout make friends with Dill, who is staying with his aunt in Maycomb for the summer
Together the children play games and act out theatrical performances
They become bored and they decide that they will try to lure out Boo Radley, a neighbour who is
rumoured to have been constrained to the house after stabbing his father with a pair of scissors
Dill convinces Jem to run over to the house and touch the Radleys’ door, after which Scout sees a brief
movement in the shutters
Scout has an eventful first few days day at school:
A classmate, Walter Cunningham, has no lunch or money to buy any and is scolded by the teacher,
Miss Caroline
Scout explains that Walter can’t afford lunch, but is punished by Miss Caroline
Atticus tells Scout that she should respect the Cunninghams, who lost all they had, except their farm, in
the Great Depression
Scout attacks Walter but Jem stops her and invites Walter to the Finch house for dinner
Scout is shocked by the way that Walter eats and the housekeeper, Calpurnia, scolds her
Chapters 4–8
On her way home from school, Scout finds gum in the tree outside Boo Radley’s house
In the days that follow, the children discover other items in the tree
They play outside and Jem, Scout and Dill decide to get in a tyre and roll it down a hill
Scout ends up in the Radley house and runs away
Afterwards, Jem retrieves the tyre and Scout realises that she has ripped her trousers
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Scout spends time with a neighbour, Miss Maudie Atkinson, who tells Scout that the rumours about Boo
Radley are not true
The children decide that they will put a note through Boo Radley’s door
When they get close to his house, they are caught by Atticus, who tells them to stop tormenting him
They try to look through the window of Boo Radley again and see a man:
He disappears and they run away and hear gunshots
The gunshots are said to have been fired at a black man who was on the Radleys’ property
The knothole in the tree is filled with cement by Nathan Radley, which upsets and confuses the children
Dill leaves after kissing Scout, and both Scout and Jem become terrified that Boo will come after them
in the night
Scout's ripped trousers are found mended on the fence
Miss Maudie’s house catches fire in the night, so all the neighbours leave their houses to help
Atticus notices that Scout is covered by a blanket and asks where she got it from
Chapters 9–11
Scout fights with a classmate who insults her father for defending black people
Atticus refuses to teach the children how to shoot, so Uncle Jack teaches them
Atticus emphasises the importance of not shooting mockingbirds, as they do no harm and make
beautiful birdsong
While passing by the Radley house, the children notice Tim, a neighbour's dog, acting strangely
They tell Calpurnia, and it's discovered that the dog is rabid
The sheriff asks Atticus to shoot the dog, which he does in one shot
Mrs Dunbose, the Finch’s neighbour, insults Atticus
Jem loses his temper and cuts off Mrs Dubose’s camellia flowers
As a punishment, he is forced by Atticus to read to her every day for a month
Jem finds out that Mrs Dubose was battling a morphine addiction, and the reading sessions served as a
distraction for her
She passes away, leaving Jem a box with a perfect camellia flower, which he throws into the fire
Chapters 12–17
Jem starts to spend less time with his sister and says she should act more like a girl
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Calpurnia takes Scout and Jem to her local church
They learn about Calpurnia's personal life and the preacher, Reverend Sykes, urges the congregation
to donate to Tom Robinson's family
When they return home, they are surprised to find Aunt Alexandra waiting for them on the front porch
Atticus returns home, and Aunt Alexandra moves in
Scout asks her father what rape is and is overheard by Aunt Alexandra, who learns that the children
heard about the case at Calpurnia’s church
As a result, Aunt Alexandra suggests that Calpurnia should no longer work for the Finches, but Atticus
refuses to let her go
When Scout and Jem go to bed, they find Dill hiding in their room, having run away from home
Dill is allowed to stay with the Finches and spends the summer with Scout
A group of men, including the sheriff, arrive at Atticus’s house, as they discuss their concerns about
Tom Robinson being lynched
The following evening, Atticus leaves in his car and the children follow him to the jail
They see a group of men standing in front of Atticus and run over to him
Scout diffuses the tense situation by talking to Mr Cunningham about Walter, after which the gang of
men leave
When the trail begins both Jem and Scout get seats with the black people in the viewing gallery
Bob Ewell is called to the stand states he saw his daughter being raped
Mayella has bruises on the right-side of her face, which would likely have been inflicted by someone
who is left-handed
It is discovered that Bob Ewell is left-handed
Chapters 18–25
Mayella is cross-examined by Atticus
Tom Robinson testifies that Mayella asked him to come and help him fix a door
He claims she tried to kiss him, and that her father saw this and threatened to kill him
Atticus delivers his closing remarks, arguing that there is no medical evidence to convict Tom and
suggests that Mayella was beaten by her father
Calpurnia tells Atticus that the children have not been at home, and Atticus is then told that they are in
the “colored balcony”
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Atticus finds them and tells them to go home, telling them they can come back after supper
Outside the court, Mr Dolphus Raymond offers Dill a sip from his brown bag, which Dill discovers is
Coca-Cola, not whisky
It becomes clear that Mr Raymond pretends to be an alcoholic rather than face persecution from the
community for having a black partner and mixed heritage children
Jem and Scout watch as the jury find Tom Robinson guilty
As Atticus walks out, the black members of Maycomb stand to demonstrate their respect for him
Jem says that he used to think that Maycomb was the best place in the world, but now he feels the
opposite
Miss Maudie points out that this case shows that some people tried to help and promote justice, such
as their father
Miss Stephanie runs to tell Aunt Alexandra that Bob Ewell has accosted Atticus
Atticus learns that Tom Robinson has been killed as he tried to escape prison
Chapters 26–31
Back at school, Scout is furious that Miss Gates preaches about the inhumanity of the Holocaust
Scout takes part in a Halloween pageant at the school, dressed as a ham
On their way home from the pageant, Jem and Scout hear someone following them; Jem tells Scout to
run, but her costume hinders her
Scout hears Jem being beaten and runs back to help
Suddenly, the attacker is pulled away and Scout sees a man carrying Jem to their house
Atticus calls the sheriff; Aunt Alexandra tells Scout that Jem has a broken arm and a few bumps on his
head
The man who carried Jem home is in the room, but Scout does not recognise him
The sheriff tells everyone that Bob Ewell has been stabbed
Scout relays what happened
The man in the comer looks at Scout and she realises that it is Boo Radley
Atticus suggests that they should allow the law to run its course, but the sheriff insists it was an
accident
The novel ends with Atticus reading one of Jem’s books to her and Scout declaring that: “Atticus was
right. One time he said you never really know a man until you stand in his shoes and walk around in them.
Just standing on the Radley porch was enough.”
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Sources:
Lee, H. (2010). To Kill a Mockingbird. Arrow Books.
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To Kill a Mockingbird: Themes
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Themes
Your English Literature exam question could be on any topic, but you can be well prepared by thinking
carefully about the important themes, or recurring ideas, in this Pulitzer Prize-winning novel. Having a good
understanding of the themes explored by author Harper Lee in To Kill a Mockingbird will help to ensure that
you can write a confident response, using evidence from across the text to support your argument.
Here are some of the key themes in To Kill a Mockingbird to think about:
Difference
Inside and outside
Childhood and adulthood
Justice and injustice
Education
Difference
In Harper Lee’s coming-of-age story, To Kill a Mockingbird, the author explores the varied attitudes people
hold toward those whom they perceive to be different. While racism and racial prejudice stand out as a
central theme through the story of Tom Robinson's unjust trial, the novel also addresses difference in its
handling of social norms, class and gender.
Knowledge and evidence:
The way in which Scout, Jem and Dill ostracise Boo Radley without ever having met him epitomises the
prejudice that permeates the town of Maycomb and its community:
The children have formed an opinion of Boo, based on what the townspeople say about him
The rumours about Boo’s mental state and the story of the attack on Mr Radley illustrates how
ignorance can lead to discrimination
Scout, Jem and Dill are drawn into the prejudice:
It fuels their fear until Boo becomes a monster in their minds, which dehumanises him:
In Chapter 1, Boo is described as a “malevolent phantom”
Boo is a socially isolated recluse, rarely leaving his house, but he tries to interact with the children by
leaving gifts for them in the tree:
His loneliness is symbolic of the isolation experienced by those experiencing discrimination
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As part of their moral education, Atticus tries to teach Scout and her brother Jem the importance of
empathy, although they are surrounded by prejudice at their school and within their community:
At school, Walter Cunningham is reprimanded for not having any lunch money:
Miss Caroline assumes that he has forgotten it rather than realising his family can’t afford to
give it to him
In this instance, Walter is discriminated against because his family is experiencing poverty
Scout tries to explain, but is punished for speaking out, foreshadowing the treatment of her
father when he defends Tom Robinson
When Walter Cunningham has dinner with the Finch family, Scout comments on the fact he pours syrup
on his food:
Calpurnia scolds Scout for passing comment on how he eats, reprimanding her for passing
judgement:
Despite how she is brought up, here Scout reveals her own prejudices on the basis of culture
and class
Scout describes Calpurnia as “something else” (Chapter 1):
Later in the novel, Scout is surprised to learn about Calpurnia’s private life:
This moment reinforces the significance of seeing others as individuals beyond their
occupation
Scout and Jem are victims of prejudice when their father behaves differently from others in their
Southern community when he volunteers to defend Tom Robinson:
Atticus knows they won’t win the case due to the deep-seated racism towards African American
people in Maycomb, Alabama, but he is determined to stand up for what he believes:
“In our courts, when it's a white man's word against a black man's, the white man always wins.”
(Atticus, Chapter 23)
In the course of the trial, we learn that Mayella tried to kiss Tom, then fabricated the rape, in part
because of societal pressures in Maycomb
Dolphus Raymond is an outcast in Maycomb because he has a black partner and mixed heritage
children:
He chooses to pretend to be an alcoholic rather than try to reason with a community steeped in
racism:
“they could never, ever, understand that I live like I do because that’s the way I want to live.”
(Dolphus, Chapter 20)
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The societal conventions in small town Maycomb that delineate black and white people as distinct and
separate are evident when Calpurnia brings Scout and Jem to her church:
Lula, one of the members of the black community and church congregation, asks why Calpurnia
has brought white children to the service
Here, there is a parallel between racism towards two innocent children because they are white, and
racism towards a wrongly convicted innocent man because he is black
Scout is portrayed as being different from other girls because she wears overalls and plays with the
boys:
The expectations of how girls and women should behave is another example of the rigid societal
norms in Maycomb county
Scout refuses to conform in the same way that Atticus refuses to accept the community’s views on
race
Families are also a motif for difference in the novel:
Within the Finch family, the character of Alexandra, who is happy to maintain the social norms, is
contrasted with Atticus Finch, who wishes to challenge them
This emphasises the conflict between tradition and advancement within both the Finch household
and the broader Maycomb community
Differences between families lead to distinct factions: the “Cunninghams don’t like the Ewells, and the
Ewells hate and despise the coloured folks.” (Jem, Chapter 23):
This illustrates the pervasive nature and absurdity of discrimination, from different races to people
with different surnames
At school the class discusses the treatment of Jewish people in Nazi Germany with Miss Gates
explaining, “Persecution comes from people who are prejudiced”, prefaced by the claim that
persecution doesn’t happen “here” (Chapter 26):
It is ironic that the class grasps the injustice of persecuting Jewish people yet fails to apply the
same logic to the treatment of individuals in Maycomb
Lee suggests hypocrisy is often prevalent where discrimination is rife
What is Lee’s intention?
In To Kill a Mockingbird, Harper Lee depicts a society rife with prejudice, showcasing the detrimental
effects of discrimination in its various forms such as racism, sexism and classism
The novel also illuminates the inequality present in 1930s America and explores how adversity affects
the community
Through her narrative, Lee prompts readers to reflect on their own inconsistencies and highlights the
significance of tolerance and empathy
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Inside and outside
The motif of inside versus outside recurs throughout To Kill a Mockingbird, serving as a symbolic
representation of the rigid boundaries within Maycomb society, characterised by dichotomies such as
black and white, male and female, rich and poor.
Knowledge and evidence:
Atticus explains to his children that it is impossible to understand a person until “you climb inside his
skin and walk around in it”
However, inside and outside are shown to be separate in Maycomb:
Scout, Jem and Dill all play outside but are fascinated by what goes on inside the Radley house:
Scout recalls how it “drew [Dill] in like a moon draws water.” (Chapter 1)
Conversely, Boo Radley was once locked in a courthouse and remains confined to the inside of a house
but is seemingly curious about the outside world:
Scout says that Boo went out at night and “peeped in windows”
There are four notable symbols of the interplay between outside and inside: the Oak tree, the Finches’
porch, the fire at Miss Maudie’s house and Tom Robinson’s attempted escape from prison:
Boo Radley leaves gifts for the children inside a tree, allowing for an unspoken communication
between them:
Once the hole in the tree is filled with cement, the exchanges stop
Scout and Atticus speak on the porch, between the inside and the outside of the house, after her
first day at school:
This conversation marks the initial instance of Scout’s father offering her life advice to think
differently from those around her and establishes the foundation for their relationship
Atticus tells her, “You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point
of view.” (Chapter 3)
The fire at Miss Maudie’s happens inside, then everyone comes outside: “Looks like all of Maycomb
was out tonight, in one way or another.” (Atticus, Chapter 8):
Scout is given a blanket without knowing who put it on her shoulders, but the inference is that it
was Boo Radley
Tom Robinson attempts to flee from prison but is shot in the process, illustrating his inability to
transcend both metaphorical and physical barriers:
“They said he just broke into a blind raving charge at the fence and started climbing over”.
(Chapter 24)
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What is Lee’s intention?
Lee uses the themes of inside and outside to show how Maycomb society is divided and to illustrate
the drawbacks of thinking in simple terms
The novel implies that genuine understanding of others involves moving beyond existing categories by
exploring the areas in between them
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Remember to focus on why things happen in the novel rather than what happens – think about
Harper Lee's intentions and what she has aimed to convey through the themes that run throughout
the text. By selecting different examples of a theme from different points in the novel, you will be
able to evidence its relevance and discuss how ideas are developed throughout the narrative.
Childhood and adulthood
The novel deals with complex and adult issues such as discrimination and rape, but is narrated by Scout who
is almost six years old when the novel begins and almost nine years old at the end of the novel.
Knowledge and evidence:
The literary device of employing a child narrator enables Lee to depict Maycomb and its inhabitants
through the lens of a child's perspective:
“A day was twenty-four hours long but seemed longer” (Chapter 1)
Harper Lee makes Scout relatable because she displays her own fallibility and exposes her own biases,
which an adult narrator might be too self-aware to divulge:
“Miss Caroline, he’s a Cunningham” (Chapter 1)
The intrigue surrounding the Boo Radley house, shared by Scout, Jem and Dill, is understandable when
viewed through the perspective of children:
Their vivid imaginations symbolise how ignorance can lead to discrimination more generally
The narrative portrays how adults influence children, for good or bad, highlighting how prejudice can
become ingrained or overcome according to how young people are brought up:
Regarding Boo Radley, “Jem received most of his information from Stephanie Crawford.” (Chapter
1)
Meanwhile, Atticus is trying to bring his children up to be open-minded and fair: “Most people are
nice, Scout, when you finally see them” (Chapter 30)
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Scout's innocence and lack of understanding injects bathos and humour into tense situations:
When Atticus is confronted by a group of Maycomb men at the jail, Scout intervenes and strikes up
a conversation with Mr Cunningham about Walter's eating habits
When Jem and Scout are attacked by Mr Ewell, they are on their way home from a school
Halloween pageant, and Scout is dressed up as a ham:
Scout's naivety introduces moments of light-heartedness, offering readers respite while also
emphasising the absurdity of prejudice and violence
As Scout develops throughout the novel, the reader witnesses her increasing maturity as she begins to
understand that life is not as binary as she once thought:
At the start of the novel, she is afraid of Boo Radley – by the end she tells her father, “Atticus, he was
real nice” (Chapter 30)
When Scout first learns that her father will be defending Tom Robinson, she assumes he must be
wrong because of the way the rest of the community feels:
However, later on she recalls “I did not understand the subtlety of Tom’s predicament”
(Chapter 19)
What is Lee’s intention?
Through the perspective of a child narrator, Lee offers an honest portrayal of Maycomb with all its
complexities and problems
The children’s approach to Boo mirrors the rumours and ignorance that fuel prejudice in the adult
world, simultaneously revealing the absurdity of discrimination
The novel shows how attitudes can become ingrained, illustrating how easily children can be
influenced by the adults around them
Justice and injustice
The themes of justice and injustice run throughout To Kill a Mockingbird, anchored by the injustice of Tom
Robinson’s conviction for rape.
Knowledge and evidence:
Maycomb is sustained by a social hierarchy that breeds injustice and discrimination in several ways:
As epitomised by the trial of Tom Robinson, white people enjoy more credibility than black people,
purely on the basis of their skin colour
After Tom’s death, his widow, Helen, faces hardship and has to “walk nearly a mile out of her way” to
avoid the Ewells (Chapter 27)
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The stigmatisation of Boo Radley is based on rumours that he escaped criminal justice for
allegedly attacking Mr Radley
Dolphus Raymond also serves to highlight the injustice of Maycomb society; he is ostracised
because his partner is black, and his children are mixed heritage:
These instances of injustice underscore the novel's condemnation of societal norms and
biases
Although Tom Robinson is innocent, there is little hope that he will win the trial from the outset due to
the racist attitudes in Maycomb:
Atticus appeals to the jury to have integrity, but the reality is that “Tom was a dead man the minute
Mayella Ewell opened her mouth and screamed”
Bob Ewell does not face criminal justice for the apparent attack on Mayella
Poverty is a social issue in Maycomb: the Ewells live at the dump, Burris Ewell has a cootie in his hair
because he hasn’t washed, and the Cunninghams can’t afford to give Walter money for his school
lunch:
Lee reflects the injustice of economic hardship in the American south in the 1930s and highlights
the injustice of poverty and its impact on families, including children
Miss Caroline’s response lacks empathy and reveals her own prejudices
This is in contrast to Scout, who describes Burris as a “gentleman” despite his dirty appearance
The Finch siblings face punishment at home even when they believe their actions are justified:
Scout has “epic and one-sided” battles with Calpurnia (Chapter 1)
Scout receives a scolding for fighting with her cousin after he insults her father
Jem is told off for his "inexcusable" behaviour in cutting Mrs Dubose’s camellia flowers after she
speaks poorly of Atticus:
In these instances, Lee illustrates the idea that there is no good in retaliation
What is Lee’s intention?
Lee highlights injustice in various forms to shed light on the unfairness of social inequality
Lee showcases the danger of being led by biases and highlights the importance of behaving with
empathy and kindness
Education
Education is a significant theme both in terms of formal teaching delivered at school and the learnings that
take place in the outside world.
Knowledge and evidence:
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Scout is dismayed that her teacher, Miss Caroline, is critical of the fact she has already been taught to
read, instead wanting her to learn according to the Dewey Decimal System:
Miss Caroline’s approach to education is based on rules and structures, much like Maycomb
society
It is also evidence that conformity is prioritised over individuality, an idea that continues through
the novel
Atticus suffers discrimination from his community as he does not conform to the prevailing racist views
When Scout and Jem go to church with Calpurnia, they are shocked that most of the congregation
can’t read:
Lee appears to be emphasise the importance of education as a means of social mobility
With some people unable to access education, the children (and the reader) are reminded of the
importance of empathy
Atticus is an important teacher in the novel, although he has never been to school:
Scout and Jem learn the importance of morality, open-mindedness and fairness from their father in
direct contrast to what Scout experiences in the classroom
What is Lee’s intention?
The portrayal of education in the novel shows the importance of thinking critically and individually in
order to change the world for the better
Harper Lee offers a critique of formal school-based education, implying that it is important for people
to question things and to learn from life experience beyond the classroom
Sources:
Lee, H. (2010). To Kill a Mockingbird. Arrow Books.
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To Kill a Mockingbird: Characters
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Characters
Authors of fiction construct characters to embody concepts, represent ideas and convey the key themes
they want to communicate. In To Kill a Mockingbird, Harper Lee employs characters to convey themes,
explore societal issues, and provide insight into human nature. Each character serves a distinct purpose,
adding depth and meaning to the novel.
Main characters
Scout (Jean Louise Finch)
Atticus Finch
Jem Finch
Boo Radley
Other characters
Calpurnia
Dill (Charles Baker Harris)
Bob Ewell
Mayella Ewell
Tom Robinson
Mrs Dubose
Aunt Alexandra
Miss Maudie Atkinson
Scout (Jean Louise Finch)
Scout Finch is the protagonist of the story who relays the events of the novel:
She is a retrospective narrator: the text is told by her as a child but is mediated by an adult
This adds a maturity and credibility to the events
By using the voice of a child, Lee is able to expose the injustices and absurdity of racism and
discrimination
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It also create pathos for the plight of Tom Robinson by interweaving her loss of innocence with his
mistreatment
Scout is intelligent and literate in contrast to her peers, who can only read and write in the “third grade”
She is precocious and unafraid of speaking her mind:
This leads to her being punished at school when she explains why Walter Cunningham does not
have his lunch money
However, this quality is shown to be important as it drives Scout to question the social norms that
the community in the southern town of Maycomb, Alabama accept and propagate
Scout understands that segregation does not espouse the American value of equality and realises this
hypocrisy
Scout is presented as a tomboy who defies gender stereotypes, choosing to wear “overalls” and
“britches” rather than dresses:
Even when she is in a dress, she wears her overalls underneath
She defies traditional gender roles with her rejection of feminine clothing, symbolising her
rebellious nature
Following the conventions of the bildungsroman genre, Scout is shown to mature and grow
throughout the text:
She embraces kindness and empathy epitomised by the evolution of her attitude towards Boo
Similar to her community, she first considers Boo an outcast, but by the end she realises that he is a
harmless, kind and vulnerable person:
This allows Lee to comment on Atticus’s parenting style, and the importance of it in educating his
children in empathy, kindness and tolerance
This may be seen as a Lee offering a wider critique of parenting and education as vital in
overcoming the ills of society
By the end of the text, Scout embodies these qualities, suggesting that Atticus has been
successful in raising her
Examiner Tips and Tricks
When studying English Literature, always remember that fictional characters in texts are not real;
they are constructs created by the author. Therefore, you should always think about what Harper Lee
was trying to achieve through her choice and presentation of the characters in To Kill a Mockingbird.
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Atticus Finch
Atticus is a lawyer and state representative who takes on the Tom Robinson case even though he knows
he will lose:
It causes him to be intimidated and shunned by others
He symbolises honour, bravery, heroism, intelligence and empathy and is the moral compass of
the text
Atticus rejects society’s prejudices even when it puts him in harm’s way and sets him apart from the rest
of the town:
For example, he calls Tom Robinson “respectable” in court and visits his wife after his death:
Through his empathy, he considers Tom Robinson an equal and not as the other, undermining
the idea of segregation
His shooting of the rabid dog becomes a motif for his attempt to eradicate racism in his
community
Atticus empathises with others, even though they do not do the same:
He helps Mr Cunningham with his legal affairs even though he cannot pay
He tells his children to hold their heads high and keep their fists down:
“No matter what anybody says to you, don’t let ‘em get your goat”
Lee uses Atticus to represent the qualities that will help make society a better place:
Walter Cunningham is welcomed into the Finch home for a meal, despite the difficult economic
situation of the time
Atticus employs Calpurnia and treats her well, despite prejudice towards black women:
He keeps her in employment during the Great Depression, when there were likely many white
women looking for work
Through his insistence that it is a sin kill a mockingbird, Atticus is presented as believing that innocence
should be protected:
He protects the vulnerable of the town by telling the children to leave Boo Radley alone, and by
representing Tom Robinson
Jem Finch
Jem is kind, mature and even tempered and is portrayed as a protective older brother to Scout:
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When he catches his sister fighting with Walter Cunningham, he reprimands her and invites him
round for dinner
This demonstrates the kindness and generosity of spirit he has learned from his father
Although all of the children are fascinated by Boo Radley, Jem demonstrates leadership in a number of
instances:
He takes charge of the idea to re-enact Boo's life, casting himself as the lead character
It is Jem who runs to the Radleys’ front porch to touch the front door
He protects Scout by telling her to run away during the Bob Ewell attack
Lee presents Jem as intelligent and thoughtful, but also emotional:
When Nathan Radley seals the tree hole where the children find gifts, Jem is upset
In a fit of anger, he cuts Mrs Dubose’s camellia flowers, signifying his desire to cut intolerance out
of his community:
After her death, he throws the flower she left for him into the fire
As the novel progresses, Jem is presented as more mature than Scout, choosing to isolate himself and
spend time reading instead of playing:
Jem’s introspection coincides with the beginning of the second part of the novel, bringing an end
to the age of innocence at the start
Jem’s adherence to rules evolves over time, suggesting an understanding of the complexity of
right and wrong:
During the midnight scene at the jail, he demonstrates a willingness to accept punishment
rather than betray his father's trust
Jem's character undergoes a profound shift following Tom Robinson's conviction:
The verdict shatters his faith in justice and exposes him to the harsh realities of prejudice and
hatred:
Struggling to comprehend the divisions within society, Jem grapples with disillusionment and
questions the inherent goodness of people
Despite this, like his father, he wants to become a lawyer so he can make a positive impact on
the world
Boo Radley
Although Boo Radley is rarely seen in the novel, the symbolism of his character is central to the novel
Boo is presented as being tormented by the children, who are fascinated by rumours that he stabbed
his father with scissors and has been confined to the house ever since:
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Described as a “malevolent phantom” by Scout at the beginning, it is Boo who saves her life with
an act of bravery and selflessness at the end:
As such, he symbolises innocence, kindness and the juxtaposition of hearsay and reality
He is ostracised by the community and stigmatised as an outsider to be feared and shunned as he
does not adhere to social norms:
He is a motif for those who are marginalised due to ignorance and rumour
He leaves gifts for the children in the hollow of a tree, suggesting he is benevolent and desires
friendship and human connection:
The tree is filled in with cement, signifying social barriers that keep people apart and hinder
understanding
After saving Scout and Jem from Bob Ewell, Lee presents Boo as gentle and vulnerable:
He asks to be taken home: “He almost whispered it, in the voice of a child afraid of the dark”
Scout’s realisation at the end of the novel that Boo seems “real nice” is symbolic of her evolution and
maturity:
This represents the novel’s central message that people should be treated fairly and not
discriminated against
Minor characters
Calpurnia
As the sole female presence in Scout's predominantly male household at the beginning of the novel,
Calpurnia serves as a strong role model for Scout:
She assumes the role of a teacher, imparting valuable life lessons to Scout and Jem, helping them
to understand the intricacies of racial and social divides
By introducing them to her congregation, Calpurnia allows them to experience an aspect of AfricanAmerican culture:
Scout and Jem’s visit to the church expands their horizons and enhances their comprehension of
social justice
Throughout the novel, Calpurnia exhibits strength of character and upholds admirable morals:
Like Atticus, Calpurnia refrains from passing judgement on others, reprimanding Scout for doing
so when she comments on Walter’s eating habits
In the era of segregation in the American south, Calpurnia exemplifies resilience and dignity:
Her portrayal epitomises the resilience of the black community during a time of pervasive
oppression
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Dill (Charles Baker Harris)
Dill is a playmate for Scout and Jem whose presence is associated with the school holidays, games and
adventures:
He symbolises the happiness and innocence of childhood in contrast to the complex issues Scout
and Jem later encounter
Although he is not from Maycomb, Dill is accepted into the community:
This contrasts with the experience of other characters such as Tom Robinson and Boo Radley
As children, Dill and Scout plan to marry when they are adults:
This alludes to a young understanding of accepted social norms and the impressionability of
children
Bob Ewell
Bob Ewell is the antagonist of the novel, epitomising racial hatred in the story:
Atticus reveals that Bob is responsible for his daughter’s injuries, having caught her trying to kiss
Tom Robinson because he is black:
As such, he symbolises racial hatred and is used by Lee to attack the grotesqueness of
segregation and racism in America
Bob Ewell is a foil of Atticus, whose racist attitudes and moral corruption set a bad example to his
children:
“As Judge Taylor banged his gavel, Mr Ewell was sitting smugly in the witness chair, surveying his
handiwork”
In attacking Mayella Ewell and trying to kill Scout and Jem, Bob represents the harm that hatred is able
to wreak:
The portrayal of him living at the dump is not only a commentary on poverty and class, but also on
the depravity of his attitudes
Mayella Ewell
Mayella Ewell is the oldest daughter of Bob Ewell and accuses Tom Robinson of raping her
As a character, she does not appear until Chapter 18 when she gives her testimony in court:
Despite her false accusation, Lee invites the reader to feel some sympathy for her due to her
miserable home circumstances
Tom Robinson
Tom Robinson, a black man, stands as a poignant symbol of the injustice that plagues Maycomb:
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Harper Lee depicts him as a hardworking family man wrongfully convicted of rape he did not
commit:
Tom’s portrayal as a compassionate and honest character challenges the dehumanising
stereotypes perpetuated by society
By describing the injustice of Tom’s fate, Lee forces readers to consider the prejudices ingrained within
the legal system and society at large:
His experience and subsequent death serve as a reminder of the devastating impact of racism and
the need for justice and equality
Mrs Dubose
Mrs Dubose is portrayed as a stark embodiment of the racial prejudices deeply ingrained within
Maycomb society
Jem does not want to be in her presence but Atticus makes Jem read to her as a punishment for cutting
her camelia flowers:
Their encounters with her expose the children to the harsh realities of racism and social injustice
They witness her illness and discomfort and learn about her history of addiction:
It becomes a pivotal moment in their moral education, emphasising the importance of
confronting prejudice and fostering empathy
Aunt Alexandra
Aunt Alexandra is portrayed as a traditional and conservative character:
She can be seen as the antithesis of her brother, Atticus
She embodies a rigid conception of femininity that stands in contrast to the more unconventional
roles embraced by characters like Calpurnia and Scout:
Her presence serves as a reminder of the societal expectations placed upon women in
Maycomb, highlighting the tensions between tradition and progress in the novel
Miss Maudie Atkinson
Miss Maudie Atkinson is one of the Finch’s neighbours in Maycomb
She is depicted as a kind and compassionate character and provides a source of comfort and
understanding for the children
She has progressive views that stand in contrast to the rest of Maycomb society
Sources:
Lee, H. (2010). To Kill a Mockingbird. Arrow Books.
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To Kill a Mockingbird: Context
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Context
Demonstrating an understanding of the relationship between To Kill a Mockingbird and its historical and
social context is crucial. However, it is very important that you do not include lots of historical information
about Harper Lee and the time in which the novel was written, just to show you know it. Instead, contextual
information should always be used to enhance your personal response by enriching your interpretation and
strengthening your argument.
This section will explore these contexts, which will help inform your reading of the text:
Segregation and racism
The Civil Rights Movement
The Southern States
The Great Depression
Gender
Segregation and racism
In the century preceding To Kill a Mockingbird, events unfolded that resulted in profound discrimination
against African-American people:
Slavery was not abolished in America until 1865:
After emancipation, most formerly enslaved people did not have money or property
Black people faced economic hardship and experienced much lower standards of living than
white people
From around 1880–1900, many American states established Jim Crow Laws which enforced racial
segregation:
It meant black and white people had separate schools, restaurants and public spaces
Although black people fought in both World Wars, segregation in the US army was not ended until
1948
The unemployment rate was higher for black people; in 1933 it was double the rate of
unemployment for white people
During this period, citizens were required to pay poll taxes to be able to vote, yet the majority of
African-American people could not afford to do this:
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This allowed some racist politicians to remain in power
Standards in schools for black children were lower in general than in schools for white children:
In many cases, they lacked basic facilities and resources, and employed teachers with lower
qualifications and salaries compared to those schools for white students
Calpurnia's church serves as a community hub where children learn basic literacy and
numeracy skills
It highlights the lack of educational opportunities available to African-American children
Churches became a source of support for the African-American community:
Calpurnia's church signifies a place where people could find solace and solidarity in the face of
injustice
The Civil Rights Movement
The Civil Rights Movement was a social and political movement from the 1940s to the end of 1960s and
aimed to secure equal rights for African-American people
From 1950, there were several organisations dedicated to furthering African American rights, such as
the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP):
In 1954, the NAACP were able to win a court case, Brown vs Board of Education, which led to the
integration of schools, meaning that black children and white children could be taught together:
Although this case mandated integration in schools, it did not happen in practice until at least
1965
Before the publication of To Kill a Mockingbird, the Civil Rights Movement gained momentum:
In 1955, Martin Luther King led the Montgomery Bus Boycott, which raised awareness of
discrimination and led to greater support for equal rights
In 1957, in Little Rock (in the American south) nine black students were prevented from entering a
school by the Governor of Arkansas:
The scenes of violence and intimidation were broadcast on television, highlighting the
challenges faced by African-American people
However, the black community had yet to obtain many rights in practice; for example, there
were still barriers to voting into the 1960s
The issue of racial discrimination is of central importance in To Kill a Mockingbird:
It critiques the injustice of treating people differently on the basis of the colour of their skin
Through Atticus’s promotion of fairness, empathy and kindness, Lee suggests how society should
change for the better
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The Southern States
The traditional values in the Southern States of America were typically more socially conservative than
in the north:
This can be evidenced by the fact that the Civil Rights Act of 1957 was not enforced in the south
By 1965, the President and Congress had passed a civil rights act and a voting rights act, both of which
aimed to end segregation and voter suppression:
Many politicians from the south vehemently tried to stop these acts from passing:
Harper Lee chooses to set the novel in the fictional southern town of Maycomb, not far from
Alabama
Shocking misconceptions emerged; for example, that black people were more capable of harsh
crimes, such as rape:
This was a reason for numerous lynchings in the 1930s
Black people were excluded from being on juries until 1935; however, in practice they were not allowed
on juries in the Southern States:
In the Scottsboro trails of 1931 (held in Alabama), nine African-American teenagers were convicted
of raping two white women by an all-white jury
This case is often cited as an example of injustice, as there was little evidence and eight of them
were sentenced to death:
Tom Robinson’s wrongful conviction for rape mirrors this case and therefore can be seen as a
criticism of its injustice
The use of guns was widespread in the Southern States in the 1930s:
For many, it signified masculinity, violence and individualism
When Atticus Finch reluctantly shoots a rabid dog, it turns out that he is a good marksman
The fact that Atticus eschews guns demonstrates that he rejects violence and individualistic
values:
Harper Lee attacks the idea that violence is inherent in courage and heroism
Atticus’s restraint and tenacity are often more courageous traits
Generally, the Southern States had more traditional and puritanical attitudes towards sex, violence,
race, religion and community:
For example, Bob Ewell is appalled by his daughter's association with an African-American man
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The Southern States were less attractive to immigrants and communities were often very tight-knit:
This perpetuated conservative attitudes and the tendency for some to be less hospitable to
minority groups
The Klu Klux Klan (KKK) originated in the Southern States and comprised a racist terror group of white
people:
They stopped black people from voting or having interracial marriages through the threat of
violence
The Klu Klux Klan became prominent from 1910 and had grown by the 1930s, the period during
which To Kill a Mockingbird is set
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Examiners typically do not award marks for contextual details that do not link with the central focus
of your exam question. Always make sure that the context you reference is relevant. For instance,
when examining the racism directed towards Tom Robinson, as a black man, referencing the
historical context of the Jim Crow laws and segregation can help shed light on Harper Lee's intended
message for her readers.
The Great Depression
The Great Depression began in 1929 after the New York stock market crash:
It was a huge economic downturn, during which people lost jobs and money, and poverty became
pervasive
Some groups, such as farmers, black people and women, suffered the impact of the failing
economy more than other groups
Farmers began to lose money, which led to government interventions as part of the New Deal:
This poverty is represented through the Cunninghams’ hardship
The economic challenges of the Great Depression further entrenched racial segregation and inequity:
Maycomb is characterised by the fact that “there is nothing to buy and no money to buy it with”:
Through the economic setting, Lee suggests poverty fosters heightened competition,
animosity and suspicion
Many black people were relegated to low-wage, unskilled positions and encountered discrimination in
housing:
New Deal initiatives frequently marginalised their needs:
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This is reflected in the character of Calpurnia who says that the African-American community
should not have brought gifts to Atticus because “times are too hard”
The Great Depression widened economic disparities and had the largest impact on the working class:
Lee explores social class through the Cunningham family’s inability to pay for legal services and
school lunch
Also through her portrayal of the Ewells who live at the dump
President Roosevelt created the New Deal programs, which tried to increase employment in 1934:
These initiatives are referenced when Mr Cunningham does not want WPA work, as there is no one
to look after his farm
Gender
During this period, there was a reversion to traditional gender roles in the United States after World War
I:
Most New Deal programs did not allow women to join as men were considered the main earners
Many women had to marry in order to have financial security:
Scout and Dill’s plans to marry suggests that they understand it is a social norm
Many believed that a woman’s role was in the domestic sphere:
Calpurnia is responsible for the household chores, and Aunt Alexandra moves in with Atticus and
the children to help care of the family:
However, Aunt Alexandra is shown to uphold traditional values of gender far more than Atticus,
who lets Scout play with the boys and wear overalls
A traditional view of femininity was commonplace during the 1930s in terms of how women should
dress and behave:
Lee presents Scout Finch as subverting these expectations in a town where most women are
described as “like soft teacakes with frostings of sweat and sweet talcum”
The view that women should not engage in politics or have a voice in important matters was
commonplace:
Although American women could vote from 1920, they remained under-represented in
government
In most states, women were unable to sit on juries until the 1960s:
In teaching Scout and Jem to read, and educating them about values and morals, Atticus
demonstrates the equal treatment of his children, regardless of their gender
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In the years following World War II, there was a notable emphasis on feminism as many women sought
equality:
Lee was writing during the second-wave feminist movement, which emerged in the late 1950s
and early 1960s and advocated for gender equality:
Her depiction of Scout as the protagonist defies gender stereotypes
Sources:
It promotes the idea that girls possess the same adventurous spirit and capabilities as boys
Lee, H. (2010). To Kill a Mockingbird. Arrow Books.
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To Kill a Mockingbird: Writer's Methods and Techniques
Writer’s Methods and Techniques
Literary devices are the different ways in which a writer creates meaning. Authors spend a long time
deciding how they want to structure their narratives and what narrative techniques they will use in order to
impact their readers.
Think: how has Harper Lee structured To Kill a Mockingbird and what did she want to achieve? What are the
literary techniques she uses and what effect do they have? In order to achieve the highest marks in your
exam, you will need to discuss the text as a whole, picking out key examples to provide evidence to support
your points.
We will explore Harper Lee’s use of:
Structure and narrative voice
Bildungsroman
Symbolism and motifs
Setting
Structure and narrative voice
In To Kill a Mockingbird, the story is narrated through the eyes of a child, Scout Finch. Her narrative is divided
into two parts but is circular; the text ends just after her brother Jem’s arm has been broken, linking it back
to the beginning when Scout recalls his injury and the events that led to it.
By beginning with Jem’s broken arm, Harper Lee creates a sense of intrigue:
The circular structure may also be used to reflect the patterns of behaviour in the southern town of
Maycomb, Alabama
It is a place where discrimination and prejudice repeat themselves in different forms through
different generations
The opening also foreshadows violence and fracture, which permeate the community:
Scout is almost six years old when the novel begins and almost nine years old when it ends
By using a child narrator, Lee is able to deal with complex and adult issues through the eyes of a
child:
This has the effect of highlighting the absurdity of racism and other forms of discrimination,
especially when injected with humour
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Scout’s point of view serves as an unfiltered lens through which the events in the town of Maycomb
unfold:
Due to her young age, she inadvertently reveals her own prejudices and hypocrisies in a way that a
more self-aware adult narrator would not
Through this unguarded narration, Harper Lee is able to show how fallible human beings are, and
how easily children can be impacted by the beliefs and values of those around them
This highlights the importance of Atticus as a moral guide:
He does not conform to societal norms in Maycomb and it is this refusal that shapes his
children’s attitudes
Bildungsroman
Novels described as part of the Bildungsroman genre follow the main character’s growth, not only in terms
of age, but also in terms of moral and psychological development. The word Bildungsroman comes from a
German word meaning “novel of education”.
The reader is introduced to Scout as a young child and follows her development over a three-year
period across two parts:
In Part 1 of the novel, the chapters are characterised by: childhood adventures and friendships, a
fascination with the Radley house and the importance of Atticus’s character and moral outlook
Complex themes are present in the first half of the narrative, though its focus is on the innocence of
childhood, magnified by a sense of nostalgia:
“Somehow, it was hotter back then” (Chapter 1)
By the end of Part 1, Jem and Scout start to face the reality of their fractured community:
They discover their father will be representing Tom Robinson in court, a black man accused of
raping a white woman, Mayella Ewell
Due to Atticus's refusal to conform to Maycomb's attitudes and their racial prejudices, they
become targets of discrimination
Part 1 continues to reveal more conflict in contrast to the emphasis on play and curiosity at the
beginning:
This marks a gradual shift away from an age of innocence
Part 2 opens with a description of Jem’s adolescent moods and “maddening air of wisdom” (Chapter
12):
The action is shaped by Tom Robinson’s trial and its aftermath
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Scout's psychological growth is exemplified by her perception of Boo Radley, which undergoes a
complete transformation:
She first describes him as a "malevolent phantom” but at the close of the novel she states he
was “real nice”
Symbolism and motifs
Harper Lee uses symbols and motifs to enrich the narrative and add layers of meaning to strengthen the
messages within the novel.
Nature is a common motif:
When Scout and Jem receive air rifles for Christmas, they are told never to shoot a mockingbird as
they are harmless and make beautiful song:
The mockingbird comes to symbolise innocence and virtue, qualities to be valued rather than
destroyed
The title foreshadows the death of Tom Robinson; he is shot despite being an innocent man
Scout draws a parallel between harming Boo, who is innocent and gentle, and the act of killing a
mockingbird: "Well, it'd be sort of like shootin' a mockingbird, wouldn't it?" (Chapter 10)
The symbolism of birds is also used through the family’s surname, Finch; finches are harmless birds that
symbolise joy in Native American culture:
Atticus Finch emphasises the importance of kindness and empathy in a community where hatred
and prejudice are rife
Finches are also small, which makes them vulnerable to birds of prey
Atticus is vulnerable to attack from the Maycomb mob, and Scout and Jem are attacked by Bob
Ewell
The mad dog, Tim Johnson, can be seen as a motif of the widespread racism and prejudice within
Maycomb:
Atticus's decision to shoot the dog epitomises his determination to confront injustice and protect
the community from the effects of racism
Jem cuts the flowers off Mrs Dubose’s camellia bush in a fit of anger having “stood as much guff” about
Atticus defending Tom Robinson as he can bear (Chapter 11):
Physically cutting the plant alludes to cutting racism out of the community
The flower heads are gone, but roots of the plant remain, just as the roots of racism remain
embedded in Maycomb society
Light and dark are also important symbols throughout the narrative:
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After shooting the dog, Atticus stands under the street light
When Scout pushes past the mob at the jail to get to her father, she moves into a “circle of light” to
where he is:
The association of Atticus with light alludes to him being a symbol of hope and enlightenment
The moon is a motif for innocence and purity:
Boo Radley is associated with moonlight, which adds to the sense of mystery surrounding him
He is said to come out at night under the light of the moon and his house draws the children like
“the moon draws the water”
When the children see a figure move, the Radley’s porch is “bathed in moonlight” (Chapter 6)
Buildings in Maycomb are used symbolically:
The Radley house juts out and has weather-beaten shingles, closed shutters and doors:
It is a motif of isolation and difference
While the courthouse should be a place that upholds justice, it is where Atticus encounters the
mob, and where Tom Robinson is found guilty:
The courthouse symbolises institutionalised racism
Scout and Jem’s school should be a place of advancement and education:
However, the teaching is based on conformity rather than individuality
The attitudes within it are a microcosm of those prevalent within the broader community
The Ewells live in a makeshift home in the dump:
It epitomises their low position in the social hierarchy, emphasising their poverty and
marginalisation
Setting
To Kill a Mockingbird is set in the 1930s during the Great Depression in a fictional town called Maycomb, in
America’s deep south.
Setting the story during a time of the Great Depression allows Harper Lee to explore the impacts of
economic hardship on American society
According to the Jim Crow laws, racial segregation was still legal during the period the novel is set and
was written:
The historical context allows Harper Lee to bring social inequalities to the fore
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Maycomb is described as “a tired old town” where people moved slowly “because there was nowhere
to go” (Chapter 1):
This is a metaphor for the hopelessness of the community and the lack of advancement
The Courthouse is described as sagging:
It is perhaps a symbol of the weight of the negative attitudes on the society, which prevents
justice
At the beginning, action is focused on the Finch house; the children have boundaries between which
they are allowed to play:
The confined setting symbolises the narrow scope of their world, which gradually expands as they
mature and their perspectives broaden
For Boo Radley, his world is even smaller and the setting for his life is largely inside his house:
At the end of the novel, he goes outside and the reader has a description of what he looks like for
the first time:
When Scout properly meets Boo, she realises he is not someone to be feared and that her
ignorance was what created her fear
This conveys one of the most important messages of the novel
Examiner Tips and Tricks
While it is important to include evidence from the text to support your analysis of Lee’s methods and
techniques, it is much better to use short, impactful quotes than to include long quotations.
Additionally, you should always make sure that they are fully integrated into your sentences.
Sources:
Lee, H. (2010). To Kill a Mockingbird. Arrow Books.
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To Kill a Mockingbird: Key Text Quotations
Key Quotations
The examiners’ report notes that candidates do not have to use exact quotations and that “examples can
be specific references to specific episodes in the novel studied or paraphrased quotations”. Quotations
are also a helpful way to demonstrate a thorough knowledge of events and moments in the text.
Below, you'll find definitions and analyses of some important quotes, grouped according to the following
themes:
Difference
Inside and outside
Childhood and adulthood
Justice and injustice
Education
Difference
Difference is a central theme in To Kill a Mockingbird. Throughout the novel, Lee explores a variety of ways in
which people who are perceived as different are marginalised, including due to their race, gender and
class.
Paired quotation
“As you grow older, you’ll see white men cheat black men every day of your life, but let me tell
you something and don’t you forget it—whenever a white man does that to a black man, no
matter who he is, how rich he is, or how fine a family he comes from, that white man is trash” –
Atticus, Chapter 23
“I think there's just one kind of folks. Folks" – Scout, Chapter 23
Meaning and context
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The first quote is spoken by Atticus Finch following his defence of Tom Robinson, expressing his
frustration with the prevailing racism
The second quote is spoken by Scout after the trial, setting her apart from most others in her
community who see people as segregated
Analysis
In the first quote, Atticus emphasises that good morals are worth more than money:
The fact he likens racist people to trash links to Lee’s presentation of Bob Ewell as living at the
dump
The second quote contrasts with the prevalent attitudes in Maycomb county by suggesting that all
people are in fact equal
Paired quotation
“He ain't company, Cal, he's just a Cunningham” – Scout, Chapter 3
“Hush your mouth! Don't matter who they are, anybody sets foot in this house's yo' comp'ny, and
don't you let me catch you remarkin' on their ways like you was so high and mighty!” – Calpurnia,
Chapter 3
Meaning and context
The first quote is spoken by Scout to Calpurnia after Jem has invited Walter Cunningham over to the
Finch household for food
The second quote is Calpurnia’s response to Scout
Analysis
In these quotes, Calpurnia scolds Scout and reminds her about how she should treat others
Calpurnia suggests that Scout should be ashamed for treating Walter Cunningham differently:
She suggests that Scout should treat everyone with dignity and without prejudice
Inside and outside
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The theme of the inside and the outside enables Lee to explore division and the danger of applying binary
thought to complexities of community and human nature. Through the metaphor of walls and spaces, she
explores the impact of and the social barriers in Maycomb, including some people choosing to live apart
rather than face rejection from an intolerant society. The binary nature of inside and outside may also allude
to the dangers of viewing the world through a series of simplistic opposites such as black people and white
people, same and other, male and female.
Paired quotation
“Inside the house lived a malevolent phantom. People said he existed, but Jem and I had never
seen him” – Scout, Chapter 1
“If there's just one kind of folks, why can't they get along with each other? …I think I'm beginning
to understand why Boo Radley's stayed shut up in the house all this time. It's because he wants to
stay inside” – Jem, Chapter 23
Meaning and context
The first quote occurs at the start of the novel, in Chapter 1, setting the tone for the mystery surrounding
Boo Radley and foreshadowing his importance in the novel:
Narrated by Jean Louise “Scout” Finch, it reveals a childlike fascination with a person who has
become a monster in her mind due to the rumours she has heard
The second quote is spoken by Jem after Tom Robinson has been wrongfully convicted of the rape of
Mayella Ewell:
In contrast to the Finch siblings’ perception of Boo at the start of the novel, this marks a dramatic
change:
Both Jem and Scout understand that the real source of fear is the discrimination around them,
not a harmless, reclusive man
Analysis
In the first quote, the metaphor “a malevolent phantom” dehumanises Boo, epitomising how
ignorance and hearsay can build unfounded fear and prejudice
By describing Boo as “malevolent”, it reveals that Scout has already decided that Boo is bad, even
though she has “never seen him”:
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Here, Lee seems to be suggesting that people make value judgements about others without
knowing or understanding them
The use of the word “phantom” is also revealing:
A phantom is something that can cause dread and fear, but it also means something “without
substance”:
By choosing this term, Lee highlights both the fear surrounding the mysterious Boo, but also
the fact that there is no substance to the idea that he is dangerous or evil
The only reason that Scout thinks badly of Boo is because of rumours she has heard
The second quote makes it clear that Jem has matured and understood the intolerance of Maycomb
society and why some may prefer to stay outside it:
In Jem’s realisation that people are “all alike” Lee seems to be criticising the absurdity of treating
people differently on the basis of their ethnicity, gender, class or age
Examiner Tips and Tricks
It is best to use short quotes in your answers, making sure they form part of your argument, rather
than including a long quote just to show that you have learnt it.
Childhood and adulthood
By using a child narrator, Harper Lee is able to present the events of the story from a young person’s
viewpoint, highlighting the impact of adults’ prejudices on children and revealing the ridiculousness of
racism and other forms of discrimination.
"I hope and pray I can get Jem and Scout through it without bitterness, and most of all, without
catching Maycomb's usual disease" – Atticus, Chapter 9
Meaning and context
This quote is from Atticus during a conversation with his brother, Jack Finch, about bringing up Jem and
Scout
Analysis
It is clear that Atticus understands how perceptive children are, and the importance of adults being
honest with them:
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He realises the impact adults can have on children and is determined to bring them up with good
values
In referring to intolerance as “Maycomb’s usual disease” Lee presents prejudice as something that spreads
and is an ill of society
Justice and injustice
Harper Lee explores justice in terms of the literal injustice of Tom Robinson's trial and wrongful conviction; in
so doing, she highlights the wrongs of institutional racism. However, the novel also explores how injustice
permeates wider society, evidenced here in the classroom and casual conversation.
“We are a democracy” – Miss Gates, Chapter 26
“I heard her [Miss Gates] say it’s time somebody taught ’em a lesson, they were gettin‘ way
above themselves, an’ the next thing they think they can do is marry us” – Scout, Chapter 26
“In our courts, when it’s a white man’s word against a black man’s, the white man always wins.
They’re ugly, but those are the facts of life” – Atticus, Chapter 23
Meaning and context
The first quote is an exchange between Scout and Miss Gates in the class at school, after the trial of
Tom Robinson
In the second quote, Scout talks about what she heard Miss Gates say about African-American people
In the third quote, Atticus talks about the injustice of the Tom Robinson case as a microcosm of racial
prejudice on a larger scale
Analysis
In class, Miss Gates espouses the idea of equality for all, implying that it is value upheld in American
society
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The outward views of Miss Gates contrast with her true beliefs, as evidenced when Scout recalls what
she heard her teacher say privately:
This serves to highlight societal hypocrisy; here Lee criticises the idea of segregation, enforced by
the Jim Crow laws, suggesting that it is un-American:
Miss Gates's implication that "it's time somebody taught 'em a lesson" hints at violence as a
means of control
The third quote highlights the injustice in the courts and the failure of the legal system to provide a fair
trial to all, regardless of race:
The fact that the jury convict Tom without looking him in the eye supports this argument:
Through this, Lee exposes the unfairness of Jim Crow Laws and draws attention to the plight of
African American people, perhaps to increase support for the Civil Rights Movement
Education
Harper Lee presents education as a way of making society better, but not through formal schooling. Scout
and Jem’s intelligence and thoughtfulness are shown to be a result of what they have learned from Atticus,
not from their teachers at school. From this point of view, Lee offers a critique of formal education in
focusing on following a system rather than teaching good values, morality and fairness.
“I’m just trying to tell you the new way they’re teachin‘ the first grade, stubborn. It’s the Dewey
Decimal System... Miss Caroline caught me writing and told me to tell my father to stop teaching
me.” – Scout, Chapter 2
Meaning and context
In this quote, Scout tells Atticus how she has been told off at school for knowing how to read, as her
learning does not comply with the Dewey Decimal System
Analysis
This demonstrates that education and society often stymy individuality:
The fact that students “won't learn to write until … the third grade” further suggests that this system
undermines progress and individuality
Teachers often symbolise a society’s values
In this instance, the classroom could be argued to represent society in Maycomb, Alabama where
conformity wins over individuality and intolerance wins over tolerance
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Sources:
Lee, H. (2010). To Kill a Mockingbird. Arrow Books.
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