PHARMACOLOGY RLE
WEEK 1
TOPICS
• Terms, definition, history of pharmacology
• Sources of drug and drug information
• Legal & ethical issues
o Controlled Substance Act
o Nurse Practice Act
o Other laws
• Pharmacodynamics/pharmacokinetics
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
• Define terms frequently used in pharmacology nursing
• Discuss the history of pharmacology
• Discuss the sources of drugs and drug information
• Discuss related legal and ethical issues associated with Pharmacology
• Discuss about Controlled Substance Act
• Discuss about the Nurse Practice Act
• Explain the mechanisms of Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
4 BASIC TERMS
1. DRUG -A drug is defined as any chemical that can affect living
processes.
Using this definition, virtually all chemicals can be considered
drugs, since, when exposure is sufficiently high, all chemicals will
have some effect on life. However, the focus here is primarily on
drugs that have therapeutic applications.
4 BASIC TERMS
2. PHARMACOLOGY - defined as the study of drugs and their
interactions with living systems.
Under this definition, pharmacology encompasses the study
of the physical and chemical properties of drugs as well as
their biochemical and physiologic effects
4 BASIC TERMS
3. CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY - defined as the study of drugs in
humans. This discipline includes the study of drugs in patients as well
as in healthy volunteers (during new drug development).
4. THERAPEUTICS - also known as pharmacotherapeutics, is defined as
the use of drugs to diagnose, prevent, or treat disease or to prevent
pregnancy. Alternatively, therapeutics can be defined simply as the medical
use of drugs
HISTORY OF PHARMACOLOGY
FOUNDATIONS OF PHARMACOLOGY
• Primitive men gather the knowledge of healing and medicines by observing the
nature, noticing the animals while ill and personal experience after consuming
plants and herbs as remedies.
• Ancient civilizations discovered that extracts from plants, animals, and minerals
had medicinal effects on body tissue. These discoveries became the foundation
of pharmacology.
Historical developments in Pharmacology
• PEN PSAO (2700 BC) It was the great herbal materia medica written in china.
• Kahun Papyrus (2000 BC) is an oldest Egyptian document containing
information about veterinary medicines and uterine diseases of women.
• Ebers papyrus (1550 BC) also an Egyptian document containing information
about number of diseases and 829 prescription where castor oil, opium like
drug are being used
• Hippocrates (460-375 BC) A Greek physician consider “father of Medicine”.
He was the first person who recognize disease as abnormal reaction of body.
He introduce use of metallic salts for the treatment of disease.
• Theophrastus
(380-287
BC)
a
great
philosopher
called
“father
of
Pharmacognosy”. He classified medicinal plants on the base of medicinal
characteristics.
• Dioscorides (AD 57) a Greek, produced one of the first Materia medica of
approximately 500 plants and remedies.
• Claudius Galen (AD 129–200) first attempted to consider the theoretical
background of pharmacology.
• Paracelsus (1493–1541) a Swiss scholar and alchemist, often considered
the “grandfather of pharmacology”. He introduces the use of chemicals for
treatment of disease.
• Valerius Cordus (1514-1544) He compiled the first pharmacopeia where he
described techniques for the preparation of drugs.
MODERN PHARMACOLOGY
Conversion of old medicines into the modern pharmacology start taking shape
following the introduction of animal experimentation and isolation of active
ingredients from plants.
• Francois Megendie (1783-1855) a first pharmacologist established the
foundation of modern pharmacology. He developed experiment to elucidate
the physiological processes and action of drugs on the body.
• Rudolph Buchheim (1820–1879) German pharmacologist a key figure in the
development of pharmacology, a who at the University of Dorpat, created the
first pharmacological institute.
• Frederich Sertürner, German pharmacist’s assistant, isolated morphine—the
first pure drug—in 1805
• Claude Bernard (1813-1878) considered Father of experimental Medicine.
He identifies the site of action of curare (arrow Poisoning)
• THOMAS ELLIOTT, a student of Langley, as the first one to propose the
concept of chemical neurotransmission in 1904, when he suggested that
adrenalin was secreted by the sympathetic nerves, which then produces the
effects of sympathetic stimulation
PAUL EHRLICH of Germany, while working on the immune response, proposed
that toxins and nutritive substances bind selectively to what he called “specific
receptor molecules” (side-chain theory).
He discovered arsphenamine (Salvarsan), the first drug treatment for
syphilis and initiated the concept of “chemotherapy”. He extended his
receptor theory to include chemicals used for treatment and called them
“chemoreceptors”.
• Oswald Schmiedeberg (1838–1921) “Founder of Pharmacology” established
pharmacology as an independent discipline. He start teaching Pharmacology in
University of Strasbourg (France).
• John Jacob Abel (1857-1938) founded first department of pharmacology in
USA in the University of Michigan in 1893. In 1897 he established
pharmacology department at Johns Hopkins University. Abel also co- founded
the Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics in 1909.
• L. Mayer Jones (1912-2002) regarded as father of modern veterinary
pharmacology. He authored first book of veterinary pharmacology
therapeutics in 1954.
OTTO LOEWI performed experiment where he used two frog hearts and showed
that when the vagus nerve of one heart was stimulated it releases a chemical
which slowed the rate of the first heart which was innervated, as well as the second
heart placed next to it even though its nerve was not stimulated.
• He called this chemical “vagus-stoff”. Loewi also showed that stimulation of
the sympathetic nerve released a different chemical, that he called
“accelerans-stoff”, which increased the heart rate.
• By 1930s scientists widely accepted that autonomic nerves released an
acetylcholine-like substance and an epinephrine-like substance with opposite
effects.
SIR HENRY DALE - made important contributions to the chemical theory of
synaptic neurotransmission. He coined the terms “adrenergic” and
“cholinergic” to describe the actions of autonomic and motor nerve fibres.
The discovery of Insulin 1921-1922
FREDERICK BANTING – a physician
CHARLES BEST – a graduate student of Banting
JJR MACLEOD– Professor of Physiology
JB COLLIP – a biochemist
Banting hypothesized that the pancreas released a substance that metabolized glucose.
Charles Best, performed experiments on dogs. They performed surgery on the pancreas and made
the dogs diabetic. They made extracts from pancreas and tried to treat the diabetic dogs by
injecting these extracts. However, their extracts did not work.
JB Collip, a biochemist, helped them to make extracts using more refined biochemical techniques
and the extracts started working. The first human trial with the extracts was done on a 14 year old
boy, Leonard Thompson, who had been diabetic since 1919 and weighed only 65 pounds. After
receiving the pancreatic extracts his symptoms improved dramatically and he started gaining
weight and recovered his health. His blood glucose levels became normal. This was as dramatic a
result as can be expected and it changed the treatment of diabetes practically overnight. The 1923
Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology was awarded to Frederick Banting and JJR Macleod, who in
turn gracefully acknowledge the contributions made by Charles Best and JB Collip and shared their
prize with them.
The discovery of penicillin
Penicillin was an accidental discovery, but one which still required observation and
thinking associated with a curious mind. If one reads only the title “How being a slob
helped Alexander Fleming discover penicillin” in a TIME article on 28 Sep 2016, one
would miss the first line in the article which describes him as one of the brightest
minds, and one may even
something great.
misinterpret that being a slob can help discover
The discovery of Penicillin
SIR ALEXANDER FLEMING was a bacteriologist working in London, England. Once he
left his lab for a two week vacation, without cleaning or covering the staphylococcal culture
dishes. When he returned, instead of discarding the dishes, he noticed that a mold had
fallen on one of the dishes and strangely enough there was a clear area around it where
the culture had not spread. This got him going and he identified the mold as penicillium
notatum, a common type that grows on bread. After more experiments, on 14th February
1929 he introduced penicillin obtained from the mold, as the first antibiotic. Surprisingly,
there was little excitement about the discovery at the time, probably because it had not yet
been shown to cure bacterial infections in humans or animals. Producing penicillin in large
amounts from the mold was beyond Fleming.
The Discovery of Penicillin
In 1935 HOWARD FLOREY, a professor of pathology at Oxford University and his
hiree, ERNST CHAIN, started a series of experiments with penicillin in mice and
showed it can cure infections.
Later they tried it in humans with the same results. It was produced on a large scale
in the US by several companies working together and proved a big life saver for
World War II soldiers with serious wound infections.
The 1945 Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology was awarded to Sir Alexander
Fleming, Ernst B Chain and Sir Howard Florey for their discovery of penicillin and
its curative effects in various infectious diseases.
SOURCES OF DRUGS
AND
DRUG INFORMATION
SOURCES OF DRUGS
Plants took up the major share of substances derived from natural resources. With
the evolution of technology, most drugs today are manufactured synthetically in
laboratories. Drugs are grouped into:
• Plant sources - the earliest plant source for drugs was the leaf, other
parts of plants (e.g., barks, fruits, roots, stem, wood, seeds, blossoms,
bulb etc.) were also later exploited for drug extraction.
• Animal sources - medicinal substances are derived from the animal’s
body secretions, fluid or glands. Insulin, heparin, adrenaline, thyroxin, cod
liver oil, musk, beeswax, enzymes, and antitoxins sera.
SOURCES OF DRUGS
• Microbial Sources -Some life-saving drugs have been historically derived
from microorganisms. Most of it are what we use now as antimicrobials.
• Marine source - Bioactive compounds from marine flora and fauna have
extensive past and present use in the prevention, treatment or cure of many
diseases. Coral, sponges, fish, and marine microorganisms produce
biologically potent chemicals with interesting anti-inflammatory, anti-viral, and
anticancer activity.
SOURCES OF DRUGS
• Minerals sources - (both metallic and non-metallic minerals) have been used
as drugs since ancient times. Our body requires trace elements of minerals in
order to maintain homeostasis.
• Synthetic/Chemical derivative- A synthetic drug is produced using chemical
synthesis, which rearranges chemical derivatives to form a new compound.
The synthetic sources of drugs evolved with human skills in the laboratory
and advanced knowledge and understanding of phytochemical investigation
• Semi-synthetic Sources - Semi-synthetic drugs are neither completely
natural nor completely synthetic.
They are a hybrid and are generally made by chemically modifying
substances that are available from natural source to improve its
potency, efficacy and/or reduce side effects.
In semi-synthetic drugs, the nucleus of drug obtained from natural
source is kept intact but the chemical structure is altered.
• Biosynthetic sources (genetically engineered drugs) – (also known as
Recombinant DNA Technology) - This is relatively a new field which is being
developed by mixing discoveries from molecular biology, recombinant DNA
technology,
DNA alteration,
gene
splicing,
immunology,
and
immune
pharmacology.
Drugs developed using living organisms with the help of biotechnology
or genetic engineering are known as biologics, biopharmaceuticals,
recombinant DNA expressed products, bioengineered, or genetically
engineered drugs
DRUG INFORMATION
Also known as medication information, or drug informatics. It is the discovery,
use, and management of information in the use of medications.
• Drug information covers the gamut from identification, cost, and
pharmacokinetics to dosage and adverse effects.
• It also include information about the body, health, or diseases in order
to better utilize the drug information.
Drug information sources is traditionally
classified in three different categories:
1. Primary
2. Secondary
3. tertiary
PHARMACOPHOEIA -a book describing drugs, chemicals, and medicinal
preparations especially : one issued by an officially recognized authority and
serving as a standard. It is a book of collection of all drugs identified
EXAMPLE:
EP – European Pharmacopoeia
BP – British Pharmacopoeia
JP - Japanese Pharmacopoeia
Safe medication administration is more than just a nursing task; it is a process
involving several members of the health care team, as well as legal, ethical,
social, and cultural issues.
• The primary focus of effective medication administration by all health
professionals is patient safety.
CONTROLLED SUBSTANCE ACT
Controlled Substances
Drug or other substances regulated under the Federal Controlled Substances Act
to prevent illicit abuse.
Drugs are categorized according to a substance’s medical use, potential for
abuse, and safety or dependence liability by designated schedules, I-V.
Controlled Substances Act of 1970
The Controlled Substances Act (CSA) – Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse
Prevention and Control Act of 1970 – is the federal U.S. drug policy under which the
manufacture, importation, possession, use and distribution of certain
narcotics, stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, anabolic steroids, and
other chemicals is regulated. It places all substances which were, in some
manner, regulated under existing federal law into one of five schedules
The Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) implements the CSA and may
prosecute violators of these laws at both the domestic and international
level.
Individuals who order, handle, store, and distribute controlled substances
must be registered with the DEA to perform these functions.
They must maintain accurate inventories, records and security of the
controlled substances.
The Nurse Practice Act
The nurse practice Act was developed/formulated by the legislative bodies
for the purpose of protecting the public by regulating the practice of nursing.
• It protect the public from incompetent nursing practice
• It protect the public from discriminatory or questionable employment
practice.
For this, a professional and registered nurse is responsible and accountable
in making decision and practicing nursing according to his/her educational
background and experience.
• The Nurse practice Act provides nurses the framework as to the
scope of practice they may perform.
• It provides nurses the guidelines by which nurses can perform
skills and services.
• It put in place the educational, behavioral standards as well as
examination standards for nurses to protect the public.
• It provides boundaries of independent nursing action
Pharmacokinetics
and
Pharmacodynamics
Other Laws
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the Philippines, formerly the Bureau
of Food and Drugs (BFAD /ˈbiːfæd/; 1982–2009), is a health regulatory agency
under the Department of Health created on 1963 by Republic Act No. 3720,
amended on 1987 by Executive Order 175 otherwise known as the “Food, Drugs
and Devices, and Cosmetics Act”, and subsequently reorganized by Republic Act
No. 9711 otherwise known as “The Food and Drug Administration Act of 2009”.
FDA agency is responsible for licensing, monitoring, and regulation of cosmetics,
drugs,
foods,
household
hazardous
products,
medical
devices
and
electromagnetic radiation emitting devices, pesticides, tobacco and related
products, and vaccines for safety, efficacy, and quality in the Republic of the
Philippines.
END OF TOPIC
References:
Sources of Drugs
by Pharmapproach | November 10, 2020 in Pharmacology. Retrieved from
https://www.pharmapproach.com/sources-of-drugs/