COGNITIVE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Cognitive Psychology - focuses on principle that human conditions is understood in more scientific method - Algorithms Information sensations > emotions, memories > thoughts We are all have our own internal processes and interpretation of things Personal Constructs George Kelly - Letting one of own perceptions Personal Construct Theory - Metatheory - Anticipate events by the meanings or interpretations they place on those events - Behavior is shaped by interpretation or construction of the world - Every construction is open to revision or replacement; we have the capability to revise that we think that is weak interpretation that we hold to Personal Construct Theory begins with a fundamental postulate states that “ a person’s processes are psychologically channelized by the ways in which he anticipates events” Kelly’s Philosophical Position - Person as Scientist > like scientists, people ask questions, formulate hypothesis, test them, conclusions, and try to predict future events - Scientist as Person SALVADOR - > scientist can also be seen as people and their pronouncements should regarded with same skepticism Constructive Alternativism > all of our interpretations of the universe are subjects to revision or replacements Personal Construct Theory We exist in the real world but our behavior is shaped gradually by our interpretation or construction in this world, the way we interpret it is always open for revisions Construct system - unique pattern we use to see the world Construct - an intellectual hypothesis that we devise and use to interpret or explain life events A person’s processes are psychologically channelized by the ways in which he anticipated events - Our actions, our belief systems is affected by how we anticipate - Hope for humanity 11 Corollaries - Construction corollary. We anticipate future events according to our interpretations of recurrent events. Construing refers to placing an interpretation upon an event. Since a new event will not occur exactly as a past event, our anticipation involves interpreting what the new event will be like. Example: behaviorism - Individuality Corollary. People have different experiences and - ● ● ● ● therefore construe events in different ways Example: Alfred Adler Subjective Perceptions Organization Corollary. We organize our personal construct as a hierarchical system. Each person characteristically evolves, for his convenience in anticipating events, a construction system embracing ordinal relationships between constructs. Example: Maslow’s Hierarchy Dichotomy Corollary. All personal constructs are dichotomous, we construe events in an either/or manner Choice Corollary. We choose the alternative in a dichotomized construct that we see as extending our range of future choices. A person chooses for himself that alternative in a dichotomized construct through which he anticipates the greater possibility for extension and definition of his system. Range Corollary. Constructs are limited to a particular range of convenience, that is, they are not relevant to all situations Example: Clearly, the construct tall vs. short is limited to certain types of discrete, physical objects. Experience Corollary. We continually revise our personal construct as a result of experience. As we apply constructs in our efforts to predict what happens in our lives, we sometimes experience unexpected outcomes. As a result, we reconstruct our constructs, and learn from our experiences. In other words, man-the-scientist is by SALVADOR ● ● ● ● ● definition a work in process, and that process is ongoing. Modulation Corollary. Not all new experiences lead to a revision of personal constructs. To the extent that constructs are permeable they are subject to change through experience. Concrete or impermeable constructs resist modification regards your experience Fragmentation Corollary. Our behavior is sometimes inconsistent because our construct system can readily admit incompatible elements. A person may successively employ a variety of construction subsystems which are inferentially incompatible with each other. Commonality Corollary. To the extent that we have had experiences similar to others, our personal constructs tend to be similar to the construction systems of the people. To the extent that one person employs a construction of experience which is similar to that employed by another, his psychological processes are similar to those of the other person. This corollary is important for interpersonal relations. Sociality Corollary. We are able to communicate with others because we can construe their constructions. We not only observe the behavior of others, we also interpret what that behavior means to them.To the extent that one person construes the construction processes of another, he may play a role in a social process involving the other person. COGNITIVE/SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Julian Rotter Social Learning Theory 1. Humans interact with their meaningful environment 2. Human personality is learned 3. Personality has a basic unit 4. Motivation is goal directed 5. People are capable of anticipating behavior Predicting specific behaviors ➢ Behavior Potential > every behavior has a potential ➢ Expectancy (general/specific) > expectation in some reinforcement will be given in a particular situations; subjectively held by a person, its not determine by an individual history of reinforcement > Generalized Expectancy learned through previous experiences with the particular response and are based on belief that will be rewarded > the tendency that a behavior is generalized based on random circumstances and considers the status of present needs. Needs - described as any behavior or set of behavior that people see as moving them in direction of a specific goals > Specific Expectancy - it determines the amount of effort to put in that goals; ➢ Reinforcement value > what’s important to you, might not important to me ● Psychological Situations > part of external and internal world to which a persons is responding; what could be a psychological SALVADOR factors that could have been affecting your behavioral potential Maladaptive Behavior - Any persistent behavior that fails to move a person closer to a desired goal - Combination of high need value and low freedom of movement; overall expectations of being reinforce by performing behavior which are directed towards satisfying a need Locus of Control - Internal Locus of Control > a belief that reinforcement is brought about by our own behavior > HIGH INTERNAL LOCUS OF CONTROL - tendency to have responsibility on your own behavior - External Locus of Control > a belief that reinforcement is under the control of other people, fate, or luck > HIGH EXTERNAL LOCUS OF CONTROL - tendency to blame others for what happened in your life Cognitive Affective Personality Theory Walter Mischel - Human behavior - mostly a function of the situations (original belief) - Recognized the importance of relatively permanent cognitive-affective units - COntinues to recognize the apparent inconsistency of some behaviors Cognitive Affective Personality System Consistency paradox - Both lay people and professionals tend to believe that behavior is quite consistent, research suggests that it is not someone traits are consistent over time Person-Situation Interaction - Behavior is best predicted from an understanding of the person, the situation, and the interaction between person and situation > inconsistencies in behavior: NOT due solely to the situation > inconsistent behaviors reflect stable patterns of variation within a person DISPOSITIONAL AND TRAIT THEORY Trait - an enduring personality characteristics that describes or determine tan individual behavior across a range of situations; manifestation of a quality that said to be stable in a situations Trait theory research method Nomothetic (quantitative) - generalized people; - uses objective knowledge; - Uses numerical data or data that can be categorized Ideographic (qualitative) - Focuses on recognition of uniqueness - Uses subjective experiences - Based on uniqueness of individual Psychology of the Individual Gordon Allport - Emphasized the uniqueness of the individual - Expressed their individuality - Uses idiographic approach SALVADOR - No theory is completely comprehensive; eclectic approach Personality - The dynamic organization within the individual of those psychosocial systems that determine his characteristic behavior and thought - Dynamic - personality is not static; personality has an evolution - Organization - personality come together in intricate ways; many parts that can be connected to each other - Psychosocial - physical and psychological; influence of other people - Determine - personality is proactive; causes our to behave in a particular way - Characteristic - implies our uniqueness of how we behave and thoughts that make us who we are. - Personality does something to us and to other people; human beings are both product and a process and it continuous Structure of Personality Proprium - Central experiences of central awareness “only close to personality” - Things that important to us; include conscience, values, it exist in the periphery of our personality - This is not the whole personality of a person Personal Disposition - General characteristic held common in people - Can be inferred statistically like eysencks’ theory & 5 factor authors - Personal Disposition - research to study individuals Peculiar to the individual Three trait theory - Traits appears in levels 1. Level of personal disposition (CACESE) - Cardinal traits > outstanding trait > example: don romatiko; mother teresa - Central Traits > less dominating characteristics around which a person's life focuses > intelligent, anxious, - Secondary Traits > less descriptive but appears with some regularity > example: not anxious most of the time, only anxious when speaking in front of the crowd 2. Motivational and Stylistic Dispositions - Motivational Dispositions > strongly felt and derived from basic needs and drives > initiate actions - Stylistic Dispositions > the manner in which the individuals behave > it is the STYLE Theory of Motivation - Many older theories of personality believed that they did not allow for possibilities of growth - A useful theory of a personality it shapes an environment and causes it to react to them - People are motivated by present events rather than past events SALVADOR Functional Autonomy - Some, but not all, human motives are functionally independent from the original motive responsible for the behavior - Example; you want to start in exercising to lose weight but eventually even though you lose weight, you enjoy exercising; the motivation you have is functionally autonomous - What begins a one motives may grow into new one that is historically continuous with the original but functionally autonomous by it Process that are not functionally autonomous - Functional autonomy is not an explanation for all human motivation 1. Biological drives (eating, breathing, sleeping) 2. Motives directly linked to the reduction of basic drives 3. Reflex actions such as eye blinking 4. Constitutional equipment (physique, intelligence and temperament) 5. Habits in the process of being formed 6. Patterns of behavior that require reinforcement 7. Sublimations that can be tied to childhood sexual desires 8. Neurotic pathological symptoms 16 Personality Factors Theory Raymond B. Cattell - Reduce the number of personality traits by means of statistical analysis, factor analysis - Uses Standardized test Factor Analysis - Statistical method that organized the variables into smaller number or clusters - Surface traits - observable traits that controlled by underlying source traits; day to day observable traits - Source traits - underlying characteristics inferred from the intercorrelation under the surface traits 16 PF Sources of Data (LQ, Tayo?) - These 3 sources of data must be integrated to capture a full complexity of a whole personality Life data - one’s life records Questionnaire data - information gathered from the interview Test data - informative that obtain from objective testing situations PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGIST Robert McCrae OCEAN (THE FIVE FACTOR MODEL) - The acronym OCEAN is often used to recall Costa and McCrae’s five factors, or the Big Five personality traits: Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (Boundless, n.d.). Openness to Experience (inventive/curious vs. consistent/cautious) ● This trait includes appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, curiosity, and variety of experience. Conscientiousness (efficient/organized vs. easy-going/careless) ● This trait refers to one’s tendency toward self-discipline, dutifulness, competence, thoughtfulness, and achievement-striving (such as goal-directed behavior). ● It is distinct from the moral implications of “having a conscience;” instead, this trait focuses on the amount of deliberate intention and thought a person puts into his or her behavior. Extraversion (outgoing/energetic vs. solitary/reserved) ● Not surprisingly, people who score high on both extraversion and openness are more likely to participate in adventure and risky sports due to their curious and excitement-seeking nature Agreeableness (friendly/compassionate vs. cold/unkind) ● This trait measures one’s tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others. ● It is also a measure of a person’s trusting and helpful nature and whether that person is generally well-tempered or not. Neuroticism (sensitive/nervous vs. secure/confident) SALVADOR ● ● also refers to an individual’s degree of emotional stability and impulse control. High neuroticism is characterized by the tendency to experience unpleasant emotions, such as anger, anxiety, depression, or vulnerability. In order to evaluate the cross-cultural application of the Five-Factor Model (FFM), Robert McCrae has suggested that we need to address the issue in three ways. 1. TRANSCULTURAL ANALYSES - look for personality factors that transcend culture. In other words, personality factors that are universal, or common to all people 2. INTRACULTURAL ANALYSES - look at the specific expression of traits within a culture. 3. INTERCULTURAL ANALYSES - compare trait characteristics between cultures. SALVADOR
