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Sport Science in Atheletics
Thesis and Dissertations
2022-08
Effects of Eight Weeks Plyometric
Training On Selected Fitness Variable
On Sprinters In The Case of Bahir Dar
University Sport Academy U-17
Athletics Project
Maralem, Sisay
http://ir.bdu.edu.et/handle/123456789/13914
Downloaded from DSpace Repository, DSpace Institution's institutional repository
BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY
SPORT ACADEMY
SPORT SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
EFFECTS OF EIGHT WEEKS PLYOMETRIC TRAINING
ON SELECTED FITNESS VARIABLE ON SPRINTERS IN
THE
CASE
OF
BAHIR
DAR
UNIVERSITY
SPORT
ACADEMY U-17 ATHLETICS PROJECT
BY
MARALEM SISAY
AUGUST, 2022
BAHIR DAR, ETHIOPIA
BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY
SPORT ACADEMY
DEPARTMENT OF SPORT SCIENCE
Effect of Eight Weeks Plyometric Training on selected Fitness Variable on
sprinters in the case of Bahir Dar University Sport Academy U-17 Athletics
Project.
A Thesis Submitted to Department of Sport Science, Bahir Dar University in
The Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for The Degree of Master of
Science (MSc) In Athletics Coaching Regular Program
BY: MARALEM SISAY
ADVISOR: WONDIMAGEGN SHEWANGIZAW (Assistant Professor)
© 2014 MARALEM SISAY
AUGUST 2022 G.C
BAHIRDAR, ETHIOPIA
i
DECLARATION
I, hereby declare that the material contained within this research now
submitted to the Sports Academy of Bahir Dar University in partial
fulfillment for the award of Degree of master's in athletics Coaching is
entirely my work. I have followed all ethical principles of scholar in the
preparation, data collection, data analysis, and completion of this thesis.
Any materials accessed and utilized and ideas acquired in the process of
conducting this research have been cited and referenced. I confirm that I
have cited and referenced all sources used in this document.
Name_____________________________
Signature__________________________
Date______________________________
ii
BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY
SPORT ACADEMY
DEPARTMENT OF SPORT SCIENCE
APPROVAL OF THESIS FOR DEFENSE
I hereby certify that I have supervised read and evaluate this thesis
titled “effect of eight weeks plyometric training on selected fitness
variable on sprinters in the case of Bahir Dar university sport
academy u-17 athletics project” by Maralem Sisay prepared under
my guidance.
I recommend the thesis be submitted for oral
defense.
_____________________
Advisor name
________________
signature
_____________
date
_____________________
________________
_____________
Department head name
signature
date
iii
BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY
SPORT ACADEMY
DEPARTMENT OF SPORT SCIENCE
APPROVAL OF THESIS FOR DEFENSE RESULT
We hereby certify that we have examined this thesis entitled “effect of eight
weeks plyometric training on selected fitness variable on sprinters in the case of
Bahir Dar university sport academy u-17 athletics project” by Maralem Sisay We
hereby certify that the thesis is accepted for fulfilling the requirements for the
award of the degree of Masters of Science in Athletics Coaching.
Board of Examiners
_____________________
External examiners name
_____________________
Internal examiner‟s name
_____________________
Chair person‟s name
________________
signature
_____________
date
________________
_____________
signature
date
________________
_____________
signature
date
iv
DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to my Husband Semagne Yigizaw for his
constant moral and financial support throughout my educational
career and life. And also, I dedicated this thesis to my beloved
friends and people who contribute even a piece of advice,
appreciation, and moral support for conducting a successful thesis
and reach in this step.
v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Firstly, I would like to thank my advisor Wondimagegn Shewangizaw
(Assistant professor) for all of his help and support throughout my
Master‟s Thesis. I definitely appreciate the quick responses to my emails
at all hours of the day or night as well as your insight and openness to
discuss the various topics related to my thesis.
Secondly, would also like to thank my husband. Mum, Dad, my four
brothers Desalegn Sisay, Amare Sisay, Yabbal Sisay, and Esuyawkal
Sisay and for all the support and help that they have given me over my
life.
Thirdly, I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to my friends
Elsabet Birhanu, Gizachew Birhanu, Samuel Gashaw, and Diress
Endalew who gave me valuable support, advice, and encouragement,
which I never forget throughout my life.
I also earnestly appreciate in Bahir Dar sport academy athletics project
athletes, and coaches who took part in this study for their cooperation .
Finally, my thanks go to Mizan-Tepi University for the provision it gave
me in sponsoring the Master‟s program.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
DECLARATION ......................................................................................................................... I
APPROVAL OF THESIS FOR DEFENSE ............................................................................... II
APPROVAL OF THESIS FOR DEFENSE RESULT ............................................................. III
DEDICATION ........................................................................................................................... IV
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .......................................................................................................... V
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................ VI
LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... IX
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................... X
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ................................................................... XI
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. XII
CHAPTER ONE ..................................................................................................................... - 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. - 1 1.1. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY .................................................................................................- 1 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM .................................................................................................- 4 1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY .......................................................................................................- 5 1.3.1 General objective .................................................................................................... - 5 1.3.2 Specific objective..................................................................................................... - 5 1.4 HYPOTHESIS ........................................................................................................................- 6 1.6 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS........................................................................................- 7 CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................................... - 8 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ............................................................................. - 8 2.1 THE SPRINTS OR SHORT DISTANCE ...........................................................................................- 8 2.2 CONCEPT OF PLYOMETRIC TRAINING .......................................................................................- 9 2.3 THE SCIENCES OF PLYOMETRIC TRAINING FOR SPRINTING .............................................................- 10 2.4. PRINCIPLES OF PLYOMETRIC TRAINING ....................................................................................- 14 -
vii
2.5. Guidelines for plyometric training ........................................................................... - 15 2.5.1 Frequency of plyometric exercise .......................................................................... - 16 2.5.2 Volume of plyometric training ............................................................................... - 17 2.5.3 Duration of plyometric training ............................................................................. - 18 2.6. BENEFITS OF PLYOMETRIC TRAINING FOR YOUTHS .....................................................................- 18 2.7. PLYOMETRIC TRAINING'S EFFECTS ON FITNESS VARIABLES........................................................... - 19 2.7.1. Power .................................................................................................................. - 22 2.7.2. Speed ................................................................................................................... - 23 2.7.3 Agility ................................................................................................................... - 25 2.7.4. Speed Endurance ................................................................................................. - 29 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................ - 30 RESEARCH METHOD ....................................................................................................... - 30 3.1. RESEARCH DESIGN.............................................................................................................- 30 3.2. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY.................................................................................................- 31 3.3 . POPULATION, AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE ..............................................................................- 32 3.4. SOURCE OF DATA ..............................................................................................................- 32 3.5.DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT ........................................................................................... - 32 3.6. PROCEDURES FOR ADMINISTRATION OF TESTS ..........................................................................- 33 3.6.1. Explosive Leg Power (Standing Long Jump Test) ................................................... - 34 3.6.2. Speed (60-meter Speed Test)................................................................................ - 34 3.6 .3. Agility test (Illinois agility test) ............................................................................ - 35 3.6.4 Speed endurance test (250metre Endurance Test) ................................................ - 36 3.7.METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS................................................................................................ - 37 3.8.RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF INSTRUMENTS.............................................................................- 37 3.9.TRAINING PROTOCOL ..........................................................................................................- 38 3.10. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS.................................................................................................- 38 CHAPTER FOUR ................................................................................................................ - 39 RESULTS ............................................................................................................................. - 39 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ - 39 4.1. RESULTS OF THE STUDY .......................................................................................................- 39 CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................................................. - 44 5. 1 DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATION............................................................................ - 44 -
viii
5.1.1 Effects of plyometric training on power of U-17 sprinters. ..................................... - 44 5.1.2 Effects of plyometric training on speed of U-17 sprinters ...................................... - 45 5.1.3.Effects of plyometric training on agility of U-17 sprinters ...................................... - 46 5.1.4. Effects of plyometric training on speed endurance of U-17 sprinters .................... - 48 CHAPTER SIX ..................................................................................................................... - 49 CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION................................................................... - 49 6.1. CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................................. - 49 6.2 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY ...................................................................................................- 50 6.3. RECOMMENDATIONS .........................................................................................................- 50 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... - 51 APPENDIXES ...................................................................................................................... - 60 APPENDIX1 RESEARCHER’S EIGHT WEEKS PLYOMETRIC TRAINING
PROGRAM FOR SPRINTING. .......................................................................................... - 60 APPENDIX 2 FAMILIARIZATION OF THE TRAINING .............................................................................- 68 APPENDIX 3 STANDING LONG JUMP TEST ....................................................................................... - 69 APPENDIX 5: DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STUDY PARTICIPANTS ..........................................- 71 APPENDIX 6: PRE AND POST-TEST RESULTS ON POWER, SPEED, AGILITY, AND SPEED ENDURANCE ON PLYOMETRIC
TRAINING. .............................................................................................................................. - 72 -
APPENDIX 7: NORMATIVE DATA FOR THE STANDING LONG JUMP TEST AND ILLINOIS AGILITY RUN TEST FOR 16 TO
19 YEARS OLD .........................................................................................................................- 74 -
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2. 1 The intensity of various plyometric exercises. ............................................................. - 18 Table 3. 1 The study design layout ............................................................................................. - 31 Table 3. 2 Criterion measures (Selection of Tests) ........................................................................ - 33 Table 4. 1 Demographic characteristics of the participant ............................................................ - 39 Table 4. 2 power pre-and post- test ................................................................................................ - 40 Table 4. 3 pre-and post-training power test result mean difference in (meters) ............................ - 40 Table 4. 4 speed pre-and post- test results ................................................................................... - 41 Table 4. 5 pre-and post-training speed test result mean difference in(sec) ................................... - 41 Table 4. 6 Agility pre-and post- test result .................................................................................... - 42 Table 4. 7 pre-and post-training agility test results mean difference (second) .............................. - 42 Table 4. 8 speed endurance pre-and post- test result. ................................................................... - 43 Table 4. 9 pre-and post-training speed endurance test result mean difference
in(sec)............................................................................................................................................. - 43 -
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2. 1 Conceptually Theoretical Framework of Plyometric Training….- 22 figure 3. 1 Map of Bahir Dar city and Bahir Dar University ........................... - 32 Figure 3. 2 standing long jump test ................................................................... - 34 Figure 3. 3 60-meter speed test ......................................................................... - 35 Figure 3. 4 Illinois agility run test ..................................................................... - 36 Figure 3. 5 250-meter endurance test................................................................ - 37 -
xi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
AT: After Training
BT: Before training
CMJ: Countermovement jump
MD: Mean Deviation
PO: Post Test
PRT: Pre-Test
PT: Plyometric Training
SD: Standard Deviation
SPSS: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
SSC: Stretch short cycle
U-17: Under Seventeen
VJ: vertical jump
xii
Abstract
The objective of this study was to find out effect of eight-week
plyometric training on selected fitness variables on sprinters in the
case of Bahir Dar University sports academy under-17 athletics
project. The study applied a quantitative research approach and
quasi-experimental design to attain the intended objectives. For
this study, the researcher has selected all 20 male sprinters who
participated in Bahir Dar university sprinters as a sample by using
comprehensive sampling methods. The population was exposed to
two months of plyometric training that was given two days per
week for about eight consecutive weeks each lasting 4 5 t o 60
minutes for t h e pl y ome t ri c training in addition to the regular
training program. The fitness variables: Power, speed, agility, and
speed endurance were tested in the study. For the analysis, SPSS
software (version 23) was utilized. The gathered data was
analyzed using paired-samples T-tests, mean, and standard de
viation. The significant level of p<0.05 was considered. The
result shows after two months of plyometric training significant
mean differences were found in power (0.22, p<0.001), Speed
(0.73, p <0.001), agility (2.33, p<0.001), and speed endurance
(2.45, p<0.001). Based on this finding, it can be concluded that 8week plyometric training has a significant effect on power, agility,
and speed and speed endurance of sprinters.
Keywords plyometrics, sprinting, power, speed, agility, speed
endurance
-1-
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the study
Sprinting is the name given to short-distance running in which the runner
tries to maintain maximum speed for the whole race. Track events include 100
meters, 200 meters, 400 meters, 4×100 meters relay, and, 4×400 meters relay, as
well as hurdle races of 100 meters for women and 110 meters for men and for
both men and women, 400 meters. Professional sprinters take a crouched stance
on the starting blocks to begin the race (Holt, and Sarah 2004).
Sprinting is running over a short distance with a quick likely speed(Rawte et al.,
2021). To achieve a quick speed over a short distance sprinter wants appropriate
muscle strength, leg strength, and fine-tuned nervous system to pull the whole
thing together(Rawte et al., 2021). Countless athletic qualities enable sprinters to
run fast and that can be developed through varied training interventions. Past
research studies indicated significant relation between sprinting performance and
explosive power (Sofiene et al., 2016). Explosive power can be achieved through
plyometric exercises. Further, for successful sprinting performance leg muscle
power and vertical jump performance are considered critical elements (Scale &
Index, 2011), as well as daily activating conceptual tasks (kraemeret al., 2001).
Plyometric exercises are shown to boost jump performance in several sports.
These exercises combine strength with the speed of movement to produce power.
Plyometrics refers to exercises that are designed to enhance muscle, chiefly
through the use of jump training. Plyometric activity is a natural part of most
sports movements because they involve jumping, hopping, skipping, and
bounding. This training is a popular exercise for improving the performance of
various athletic activities, including those using sprinting (Tottori & Fujita,
2019).
-2-
Plyometric exercises will either be combined within a training program
(combination training) or will be used as standalone exercises. What‟s more,
plyometrics will be performed at various intensity levels; starting from lowintensity hops to high unilateral-intensity drills like bounding (alternating singleleg jumps for maximum horizontal distance). As so much because the lower
body is worried, plyometrics include the performance of various types of bodyweight jumping exercises, like the drop jump (DJ) or countermovement jump
(CMJ), alternate-leg bounding, hopping, and different SSC jumping exercises(De
Villarreal et al., 2012).
Fitness has vital implications for sports where the athlete performs numerous
explosive movements like jumping, sprinting, and changing pace and directions
during the sports activity (Akenhead & Ph, 2014). Thus, plyometric drills usually
involve stopping, starting, and changing directions in an explosive manner (
Gabbett et al., 2007). Several research studies have confirmed that plyometric
training can enhance muscle strength and power, speed, and agility (RamírezCampillo et al., 2014). Additionally, numerous studies have discovered positive
effects of short-term PT on jumping performance in basketball, soccer volleyball,
handball (Slimani M, et al2016), and short distance(Rawte et al., 2021). We
believe that plyometric training, besides increasing power (explosive force)
performance, can also increase the acceleration, strength endurance, and body
extremities of speed performance (Ramírez-Campillo et al., 2014).
Power is using force rapidly. A sprinter generates force when they push off the
starting line and move forward in a race. The faster they can sprint and run, as
well as jump off the starting line, the more power they can produce(Rahimi,
2014). Plyometric exercises are all about producing greater force quickly, or in
other words, more power (Chu, 1992; Siff & Verkhoshansky, 1993). Speed is
defined as the ability to move or to cover a distance in a very short time (Tottori
& Fujita, 2019). In many sports, sprint performance is important. Therefore, the
-3-
interest of successful athletes in learning basic skills in sprinting was high. To
develop successful and efficient sprint training strategies, a lot of training needs
to be done, as young athletes need to be exceptionally performing in all of their
sport‟s physical aspects (e.g., strength, stamina, and exercise techniques)(Tottori
& Fujita, 2019)(Bin Shamshuddin et al., 2020).
Agility is the capacity to change direction swiftly while maintaining a steady
body position without sacrificing speed, balance, or control(Alricsson, 2013).
Balance, coordination, strength, and speed were classed as agility components. It
is important for professional, recreational, and tactical athletes who need the
capacity to change sports or operate on all planes quickly. Improved agility
benefits include increased body stability during quick motion, increased
intramuscular control, and decreased risk of injury or re-injury in short-distance
athletes (Alricsson, 2013). Speed endurance is the ability of the athlete to
maintain high levels of speed for long periods of time (Field C 1991). In races
where speed endurance is of importance (200 meters. 4000 meters), good results
will be determined by the athlete‟s ability to maintain quality speed performance
throughout the race distance (Field C 1991). This is nothing startling and is the
knowledge that every sound coach uses when training athletes over these race
distances. Speed-endurance is the ability to prolong the amount of time wherever
a close to maximal speed can be maintained. (Jimson 2007)
Agility, speed, and explosive power are essential elements of physical fitness and
sports performance, with sprinting placing the most emphasis on these
elements(Taheri et al., 2014). Plyometric training can be a prerequisite for
coaches' and athletes' success (Taheri et al., 2014) concerned with sprinting
training still use plyometric exercises, there are few studies describing the
transfer of the training effects from PT within the horizontal plane to sprint
performance within the acceleration phases of a sprint (Donald et al 2013).
However, Ethiopian athletics especially long-distance running is one of the
-4-
foremost beloveds, oldest and historical events ranging from the shining success
of the surprise of all the barefooted, legendary Abebe Bikila won the title within
the hardest Marathon race for the primary time, in history that brought Olympic
medal to the land of Africa. Indeed, this was an achievement title expected in the
past compared with the other events, so short distance running (100, 200, and
400 meters) was not conducted research in this area the one in which many
athletes are included. By doing this in line with all the practice and challenges of
events in training; The researcher is going to apply the intervention to athletes to
see the effect on their performance.
Therefore, the main objective of the research was to examine effect of eightweeks plyometric training on selected fitness variables on sprinters focusing on
100, 200, and 400meters events in Bahir Dar university sports academy u-17
athletics project.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Plyometric exercises are the types of exercises that are mainly used to
develop athletes' speed which is mandatory for sprinting athlete performance.
According to the study, (Ross et al., 2001) Plyometric exercises are used to
activate the quick response and elastic properties of the major muscles in the
body which are highly required to perform an explosive type of movement such
as jumping and running. Today, most sports can benefit from the system of
plyometric training as a discrete training technique (Akhila & Kumar, 2021).
Given this importance, the coaches in the study area give less attention to fitness
training in general and plyometrics training in particular as per the researcher's
critical observation. There is no study conducted on Amhara regional state issue
before to test effect of plyometrics training on sprinters' fitness performance. for
instance, critical observational standpoint the researcher observed differences
between Amhara Region under -17 male athletics projects and Bahir Dar
university sport academy under -17 male athletics project. This difference was in
-5-
terms of time the best time of Amhara region athletics projects athletes in 100 m,
200m, and 400m was 11:10 seconds, 22 seconds, and 50 seconds respectively.
Whereas when you come to Bahir Dar university sport academy athletics project
athletes' best time was 11:30 seconds, 23 seconds, and 53:12 seconds
respectively. There is a high gap between the minima and the athlete's time
record due to this result, there is the problem of sprinting performance in
different fitness variables such as power, speed, agility, and speed endurance and
there is a lack of plyometric training
With regard to plyometric training on speed endurance as per the knowledge of
the researcher and a comprehensive review of literature, no research has been
conducted in our country Ethiopia, therefore the researcher was tried to
investigate the effect of plyometric training on selected fitness variable on
sprinters. Because Competition and time trials can be used in the development of
speed endurance (Gastin.2001; Mclellan 1981).
A study like this would benefit athletes, coaches,
physical
educators,
sport
scientists, researchers, and so on. Hence, this is also the source of inspiration
for the researcher which initiates him to investigate the pre-described issue to
fill the gap. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine effect of eightweek plyometric training on power, speed, agility, and speed endurance of
sprinters f in athletics project trains at Bahir Dar university sport academy.
1.3 Objective of the Study
1.3.1 General objective
The general objective of this study was to examine effect of eight-weeks
plyometric training on selected fitness variables on sprinters fin the case of
Bahir Dar university sport academy u-17 athletics project.
1.3.2 Specific objective
-6-
The specific objectives of this research were as follows:
1. To examine effect of eight-weeks plyometric training on power of sprinters
2. To determine effect of eight-weeks plyometric training on speed of
sprinters 3 To examine effect of eight-weeks plyometric training on agility of
sprinters 4. To examine effect of eight-weeks plyometric training on speed
endurance of sprinters
1.4 Hypothesis
The researcher has formulated the following hypotheses:
1 H1: Eight weeks o f Polymeric training might have a significant effect on
power of sprinters
2 H1: Eight weeks of Plyometric training might have a significant effect on
speed of sprinters
3 H1: Eight weeks of Plyometric training might have a significant effect on
agility of sprinters.
4 H1: Eight weeks of Plyometric training might have a significant effect on speed
endurance of sprinters.
1.5. Significances of the study
The research was identifying effect of eight-weeks plyometric training on
selected fitness variables of sprinters This research is significantly useful for the
following benefits:
 first draw the attention of coaches, sport professional, and athletes to
effects of eight-weeks plyometric training on power, agility, speed, and
speed endurance fitness tests for athletics projects trainees.
 Secondly, give information about the relevance of plyometric training to
improve the athlete‟s performance through a designed program.
 Third Used as a springboard for further investigation or who wish to
-7-
study the problem in greater depth.
1.6 Operational Definition of Terms.
Agility: - is the ability to accelerate, stabilize, and change directions swiftly
while maintaining appropriate posture(Sheppard & Young, 2006).
Plyometrics training: - Exercises are involving quick, powerful jumping
and movement (Asadia A .2013)
Power: - is the capacity to exert significant amounts of force quickly(Rahimi,
2014).
Speed endurance: - speed endurance is the capacity of the athlete to maintain
high levels of speed for long periods of time (Lee, Jimson 2007)
Speed: -is the ability to move or to cover a distance in a very short time
(Tottori & Fujita, 2019)
Sprinting: is running over a short distance in a limited period of time in
athletics sprints are races over short distances(Rawte et al., 2021).
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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 The Sprints or Short Distance
Sprinting is the name given to short-distance running in which the runner tries
to maintain maximum speed for the whole race. Track events include 100 meters,
200 meters, 400 meters, 4×100 meters relay, and, 4×400 meters relay, as well as
hurdle races of 100 meters for women and 110 meters for men and both men and
women, 400 meters. Professional sprinters take a crouched stance on the starting
blocks to begin the race (Holt, and Sarah 2004). They finally lean forward as the
race progresses and momentum builds, returning to an upright position. Athletes
remain in the same lane on the running track throughout the sprinting distance.
The man or woman who runs fastest and takes a minimum time over 100m, wins
the race. A common title for the winner is "the fastest man/woman in the
competition." Some sprint competitions begin in lanes so that each runner travels
the same distance (Holt, and Sarah 2004).
Sprinting is running over a short distance with a quick likely speed(Rawte et al.,
2021). To achieve a quick speed over a short distance sprinter wants appropriate
body shape muscle strength, leg strength, and fine-tuned nervous system to pull
the whole thing together(Rawte et al., 2021). Countless athletic qualities enable
sprinters to run fast and that can be developed through various training
interventions. Past research studies indicated significant relation between
sprinting performance and explosive power (Sofiene et al., 2016). Explosive
power can be achieved through plyometric exercises. Additionally, for successful
sprinting performance leg muscle power and vertical jump performance, are
considered critical elements (Scale & Index, 2011), as well as daily activating
conceptual tasks. (Tipton et al., 2007) declared that the sprint events covered
distances from sixty to four hundred meters this event relies primarily on the
improvement of power through anaerobic energy, the creatine phosphate systems
-9-
for energy. A sprint consists of a full-scale effort for a brief amount of your time
and it's the art of running as quickly as attainable. Power and coordination are the
essential ingredients within the production of speed. The short-distance races
consist of:
100m – The shortest running event in athletics, the 100m sprint requires the
athlete to start well, leaving the block with massive power and speed. Record
breakers‟ men: Usain Bolt (Jamaica) -9.58 sec at Berlin Olympic womenFlorece Griffith Joyner (USA)-10.49 sec. 16/07/1998
200m- As with the 100m, the 200m requires instant acceleration but it also needs
the stamina to preserve the speed for the duration of the race. Record breakers‟
men Usain Bolt (Jamaica) Women- Florence Griffith Joyner (USA) - 21.34 sec.
29/09/1988
400m – The distance of one circuit around the track, the 400m requires the whirs
to maintain enough stamina and energy to make a sprinting finish at the end of
the race (http://en. Talkathletics.co.UK)
2.2 Concept of Plyometric Training
Plyometric training increases the rate at which your muscles produce force.
It bridges the gap between strength and speed. Not like weight training which
operates on a concentric-eccentric sequence, plyometrics operates within the
reverse approach (Chimera et al., 2004). The eccentric phase, also known as
preload or pre-stretch, involves variable degrees of muscular lengthening.
Plyometrics are the icing on the cake they are the ingredients that will
dramatically increase your speed and power (Asadia .2013).
According to Delecluse et al., (1995) plyometric training is more effective in
improving performance due to the ability of subjects to use the elastic and neural
benefits of the stretch-shorting cycle (SSC). Thus, the effects of PT may differ
depending on subject characteristics like training level, gender, age, sports
- 10 -
activity, or familiarity with plyometric training. Other factors that seem to
determine the effectiveness of plyometric training are types of training, program
duration, and training volume. The information gathered within the gift review
recommends
that
pre-pubertal
amateur players
performing
plyometric
training with a frequency of two sessions per week had more beneficial
effects over ten Vs eight weeks compared to longer duration training programs
(Townsend et al., 2013).
A specific exercise program called plyometric training is necessary to
create muscles that can contract at their maximum capacity in the quickest
amount of time possible (Chu, 1992; Siff & Verkhoshansky, 1993). Plyometric
training is an additional outline o f fast, powerful movements, which lead to
the activation of the stretch-shortening cycle(Akhila & Kumar, 2021). This
training method was initiated about thirty years ago. The system of plyometric
training, as a separate training approach, will be applied effectively in most
sports nowadays(Akhila & Kumar, 2021). Plyometrics may be a valid and viable
training method to develop muscular strength, speed, and explosive power. One
principle factor in plyometric training is that the nervous system is trained to
respond to stimuli and to improve neuromuscular skills and muscular strength
coordination(Retief, 2004).
Plyometric training may be used to develop an athlete‟s power, increase the
response time from stationary, promote agility, and increase acceleration and
with that, final speed ((Retief, 2004). Sport-specific exercises, once combined
with plyometric training, are shown to effectively correspond with power
training ( R e t i e f , 2 0 0 4 ) . Recently, plyometric analysis has targeted the
positive effects of this training method on a variety of sports and the prevention
of injury (Slimani et al., 2016). It is, therefore, vital to incorporate plyometric
training in an exceedingly speed-conditioning program.
2.3 The sciences of plyometric training for sprinting
- 11 -
Improving sprint ability is beneficial to a variety of sports for a variety of
reasons, ranging from winning a race to giving players an advantage in sprint
duels by allowing them to reach the ball before their opponent (Aff & Errete,
2015), Due to the benefits of having more speed, a lot of research has been done
on how to improve sprint performance using a variety of training methods, such
as speed training, sprint drills, sprinting against resistances, weight training,
combined resistance and speed training, and plyometric training (PT) (Aff &
Errete, 2015). Plyometrics refers to exercises that are designed to enhance
muscle, chiefly through the use of jump training. Plyometric activity is a natural
part of most sports movements because they involve jumping, hopping, skipping,
and bounding. This training is a popular exercise for improving the performance
of various athletic activities, including those using sprinting (Tottori & Fujita,
2019).
The characteristic feature of plyometric exercise may be a lengthening (eccentric
contraction) of the muscle-tendon unit followed directly by a shortening or
concentric contraction, otherwise termed a stretch-shortening cycle (SSC). This
style of training, which involves dynamic SSC movements, has gained popularity
among athletes since it allows for the rapid development of high force
generation(Retief, 2004). This is achieved by utilizing exercises such as depth
jumps, exaggerated hops, bounds, and box drills. Plyometric movements are
more explosively performed, enabling the athlete to rapidly develop force and
mimic the actual athletic performance using dynamic SSC movements(Retief,
2004). The SSC is integral to plyometric exercise as a result it enhances the
ability of the muscle-tendon unit to create a maximal force within the shortest
amount of time.
The plyometric exercises used in a training program ought to match the
individual desires of the athlete about the characteristics of the sporting activity
- 12 -
in which they‟re involved. That is, to optimize transference to sports plyometric
exercises ought to reflect the sort of activity implicit in that sport, that is, the
principle of specificity. For instance, jumping exercises that were nonspecific to
running performance (i.e., vertical-type jump exercises) didn‟t cause any impact
on running speed (De Villarreal et al., 2012). When exercises were specific (e.g.,
speed bounding) to running performance, the training program had a positive
impact on running velocity (Rimmer et al,2000). Plyometric exercises will either
be combined among a training program (combination training) or are used as
standalone exercises.
Moreover, plyometrics is performed at various intensity levels, ranging from
low-intensity hops to high unilateral-intensity drills like bounding (alternating
single-leg jumps for maximum horizontal distance). As far as the lower body is
concerned, plyometrics include the performance of various types of bodyweight
jumping exercises, like the drop jump (DJ) or countermovement jump (CMJ),
alternate-leg bounding, hopping, and other SSC jumping exercises (De Villarreal
et al., 2012). Although athletes and coaches concerned with sprinting training
continue to use plyometric exercises (standing long jump, double–leg tuck jump,
double–leg speed jump, Double leg bound, Single leg tuck jump, single leg hop,
double leg hop, alternate leg bound, Single leg speed hop, and Sprint bound
(Rimmer & Sleivert, 2000), there are few studies describing the transfer of the
training effects from PT within the horizontal plane to sprint performance within
the acceleration phases of a sprint (Donald et al 2013) Lyttle et al., 1996).
A considerable amount of research has been undertaken to show the positive
effects of plyometrics on sprint performance. (Rimmer, and Sleivert 2000)
determine the effects of a sprint-specific plyometrics program on sprint
performance, an 8-week training study consisting of 15 training sessions was
conducted. In the study group, twenty-six male subjects completed the training.
A sprint group (N = 7) did sprints, whereas a plyometrics group (N = 10) did
- 13 -
sprint-specific plyometric activities. There was also a control group (N = 9) in
the study. Before (Pre) and after (Post) training, subjects ran sprints across 10and 40-meter distances. For the plyometrics group, significant decreases in times
occurred over the 0–10-m (Pre-Mean= 1.96 SD= 0.10 seconds, Post M=1.91 SD
0.08 seconds, p = 0.001) and 0–40-m (Pre-M=5 .63 SD= 0.18 seconds, Post M=
5.53 SD 0.20 seconds, p =0.001). A sprint-specific plyometrics program can
increase 40-meter sprint performance to the same level as normal sprint training,
presumably by reducing ground contact time.
According to (De Villarreal et al., 2012) determinate effects of plyometric
training on sprint performance. A meta-analysis. A total of 26 studies with a total
of 56 ES (effect size) met the inclusion criterion. Training volume for a
minimum of 10 weeks minimum of 15 sessions high-intensity program with 80
combined jumps per session appeared to optimize the probability of considerably
(p < 0.05) better improvement in sprint performance, according to ES analysis.
Using a combination of different types of plyometrics and training programs that
incorporate greater horizontal acceleration (i.e., sprint-specific plyometric
exercises, jumps with horizontal displacement) rather than just one type of jump
training (p < 0.05) would be recommended to optimize sprint enhancement.
(Rawte et al., 2021) see the effect of plyometric exercises on physical fitness
and sprinting performance among elite athletes. Forty elite male athletes, aged
16-18 years were selected as samples for this experimental study. All the selected
subjects were randomly assigned to the experimental group (n=20) and control
group (n=20). Standard tests were administered to both the experimental and
control groups on the first day and six weeks after the interventions for leg
muscular power, abdominal muscle strength, flexibility, anaerobic ability, 100 M
run, and 200 M run. The experimental group's subjects were then trained in
plyometric activities for 30 minutes each evening for a total of six weeks in the
study. During this time, the control group received no additional training. Data
- 14 -
were analyzed using paired „t-tests, independent „t-tests, and a descriptive
statistical method. The result of the within-group comparison showed significant
improvement in physical fitness and performance variables (p< 0.001) after six
weeks of plyometric exercise training. The control group, on the other hand,
improved significantly in flexibility, anaerobic capacity, and 200-meter sprint
ability (P<0.001).
However, no significant change was seen in leg muscle power, abdominal
muscle strength, and 100 M sprint after a controlled period of six weeks. Further,
the between-group comparison revealed a significant change in leg muscle
power, anaerobic capacity, and 100 M and 200 M sprint performance (P<0.001).
The findings of this study conclude that six weeks of plyometric exercise training
program may lead to improvement in physical fitness and performance among
elite sprinters. Additionally, earlier studies have indicated a decrease in sprint
time after plyometric exercises in soccer and tennis players (Chaabene, & Negra,
2017; Fernandez et al., 2016; Oxfeldt et al.,2019). Plyometric workouts have also
been shown to improve muscle strength, power, speed, and leaping performance
in various studies (Markovic, 2007; Diallo et al 2001; Impellizzeri et al., 2008;
Ramrez-Campillo et al., 2014; Arazi et al 2012). These fitness components are
essential for success in athletic events and our results are in line with previous
investigations.
2.4. Principles of plyometric training
For the athlete to surpass in athletics with measurable and predictable
results, it is vital to subject the athlete to a scientific plyometric training method,
which can prepare the athlete for the chosen event in athletics. The period of
systematic conditioning may take years and this had pointed out to the athlete
on a standard basis. The method of conditioning ought to consist of plyometric
training programs which specific objectives to attain. A successful training
program supported the subsequent specific principles (Martinez et al., 2012).
- 15 -
 Plyometric Exercises should b e
performed at 100 percent effort.
Plyometric training is an A lactic Energy System exercise.
 Full recovery should occur between sets.
 Plyometric exercises should be progressive in intensity. Begin with
straightforward exercises and develop in intensity and complexity.
 The skill and speed of performing a plyometric exercise are of great
importance. Stop before fatigue breaks down technique.
The key to plyometric exercise is to say the amortization phase (the landing and
pre-stretch phase) is as short as possible. This phase is important because the
Golgi Tendon Organ will take over and cancel out the function of the
Muscle Spindle if the loading period is too long. The shorter the amortization
phase, the greater the muscle spindle action and elastic response from the
muscle and also the nervous system. The amortization phase ought to be between
.003 to .005 seconds. The athlete should always react as if the ground is hot like
a frying pan. As shortly as ground contact time will increase, or fatigue is
noticed, it‟s time to stop the exercise(Davies et al., 2015) (Slimani et al., 2016).
Progress and development through the 5 degrees of intensity may be a long-term
proposition. The incorporation of low-impact exercises into the training program
for young athletes, for two to four years, represents the time required for the
progressive adaptation of the ligaments, tendons, and bones of the body (Branch,
2013).
2.5. Guidelines for plyometric training
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2.5.1 Frequency of plyometric exercise
The frequency of plyometric exercise is defined as the number of exercise
sessions that take place during the training. Also, it is the number of plyometric
training sessions per week depends on the client's goals. In addition, plyometrics
should not be performed more than two to three times per week unless you are
alternating days of upper and lower body plyometric drills.). On the other hand,
Wathen (2013) revealed that short-distance athletes may require only 2-3 sessions
pre-season. Recovery time from 48 to 72 hours between plyometric sessions is a
typical guideline when one is prescribing plyometrics. Generally, plyometric
training should be done two to three times per week for athletes (Andrew, 2011).
2.5.1.2. Intensity of plyometric training
In plyometrics, intensity refers to the amount of strain placed on muscles,
connective tissues, and joints. It is controlled by the type of training performed
and by the distance covered. The intensity of plyometric training is typically
classified as low, medium, or high. When high-intensity levels are reached by the
athlete, the volume should decrease. The intensity of plyometric drills ranges
from low-level skipping to depth jumps that apply significant stress to the agonist
muscles and joints. Therefore, these variables must be considered when
designing conditioning or rehabilitation programs (Himansu, 2012).
The intensity of plyometric training should be kept at a low level for those just
beginning a plyometric program. For instance, double leg jumps in place, double
leg standing jumps, and simple skips are appropriate for trainers. The intensity of
plyometric drills for the lower extremities has been related to foot contact, the
direction of jump, speed, jump height, and body weight (Andrew, 2011).
According to Chu (1992) in plyometrics, the intensity of training is controlled by
the type of exercise performed. The difficulty of the drill determines the intensity
level because the majority of plyometric exercises involve the athlete's body
weight.
- 17 -
2.5.2 Volume of plyometric training
Throughout plyometric training, volume is typically expressed as the number of
foot contacts, sets, repetitions, and distance jumped. It can be suggested that a
gradual increase in volume is critical when using plyometrics as part of any
strength and conditioning program. Likewise, the training volume of lower-body
plyometrics is typically quantified as the number of feet contacted per exercise
session. Therefore, commonly 80–100-foot contacts per session are deemed
appropriate for the beginner, 100- 120 contacts of moderate-intensity contacts are
recommended for the intermediate athlete, and 120-140 contacts per training
session are recommended for advanced athletes (Potach & Chu, 2008). Soccer,
handball, basketball, short distance and youth athletes' sports might experience a
large number of ground contacts and conditioning coaches should not overload
athletes with an excessive amount of ground contacts (Lloyd and Oliver, 2014).
Based on the above recommendation, recording foot contacts or repetitions is
recommended as the most reliable method for quantifying volume, although the
definition of a single repetition must be clear for each exercise.
In addition, more recent recommendations suggest 80–100-foot contacts per
session for novice adult athletes, and up to 200-foot contacts of high-intensity
plyometrics for trained adult athletes (Chu & Myer, 2013). Volume can also be
expressed as a distance, as with plyometric bounding. Regarding this, an athlete
beginning a plyometric training program may start with a double leg bound for 30
meters (33 yards) per repetition but advance to 100 meters (109 yards) per
repetition for the same drill. Numerous studies indicate that plyometric training
programs with 200-foot contacts per training session, as well as programs with
lower volume, are effective at improving performance (de Villarreal et al., 2009).
Recent guidelines in research recommend that the number of foot contact times
should not be greater than 250 (NSCA, 2009). Lower body plyometric volumes
vary for athletes of different needs (i.e., client age and goals; resistance training,
- 18 -
and plyometric experience) and upper body plyometric volume is typically
expressed as the number of throws or catches per workout.
2.5.3 Duration of plyometric training
Duration refers to how long one performs an exercise. It is inversely related to
intensity. If the activity is more intense, the shorter the time needed to produce the
training effect and vice versa. The most common agreement on the duration of a
plyometric training session is 45 to 60 minutes (George et al., 2015).
2.6. Benefits of plyometric Training for Youths
Plyometric training ought to progress step by step from lower intensity to
higher intensity drills, particularly for individuals who lack a significant strength
training background (T. J. Gabbett et al., 2008). The training session can
consist of: warm-up exercises: 10-15 minutes together with stretching of
hamstrings, and mobility exercises of the lower limb. Also, stretching of the
biceps, triceps, shoulder, pectorals, and trunks are done. Slow skipping and
marching are included too. Plyometric training: 20-35 minutes including arm
(upper body) plyometric and lower body plyometric. Cooldown: ten minutes
together with slow jogging, walking, lying: down the backstretch, deep
breathing, and relaxation
Table 2. 1 The intensity of various plyometric exercises.
Exercise Type
Intensity
Depth jumps 32-48in (80-120cm)
high
Depth jumps 8-20in (20-50cm)
Bounding Exercise Sub maximum
Moderate
- 19 -
Depth jumps have a very powerful training effect so the volume of work should
be low, no more than 4 sets of 10 repetitions, 2-3 times per week for
advanced athletes, and 3 sets of 5-8 repetitions, 1-2 times per lower classes of
athletes (Gabbett et al., 2008). A two- or three- days rest between sessions will
allow full recovery of the musculoskeletal system and further enhance
adaptation.
The time it takes for muscular strength to be converted into speed
determines muscular power. A short, fast muscle contraction will be produced
higher energy than a slower and more powerful full counteraction. Increasing
muscular power by quickly converting muscular strength into speed gives
athletes the ability to perform movements that strength alone cannot allow
(Alricsson et al., 2001).
Plyometrics improves the athletes‟ ability to add force, faster. This ability
to generate maximal force can be transformed into a sport-specific power in
sports like martial arts, soccer, tens, volleyball, basketball, and athletics. This
can be achieved through plyometric exercises that repeatedly stimulate the
elasticity of muscles with movements that mimic the chosen sport
Plyometrics train an athlete to apply a set amount of force within a short
amount of your time.
Plyometrics converts maximal strength into quick,
powerful, and explosive movement. Plyometric movement, or drill, square
measure applied as sport-specific power by mimicking the movement patterns
of the sport, which enables the athlete to run faster, hit harder, throw farther,
react quicker, etc.( Gabbett et al., 2008)
2.7. Plyometric Training's Effects on Fitness Variables
standing long jump, sprint performance,
and agility tests square measure
normal used among research and applied settings to analyze the result of
plyometric training on the physical fitness of sprinting athletes(Slimani et al.,
2016). However, effective contextual improvement with plyometric training
needs information regarding the intervention and the kind of athletes
- 20 -
targeted(Slimani et al., 2016). Fitness improvements have vital implications on
athletics, as athletes perform numerous explosive movements like jumping,
turning, sprinting, and ever-changing pace and directions throughout the
competition(Slimani et al., 2016).
Thus, plyometric drills typically involve stopping, explosively beginning
associated with ever-changing directions (Gabbett et al., 2000). Though in those
sports, performance needs good aerobic capability for recovery once highintensity activity, several authors agree that it is an anaerobic capability that
determines success (Slimani et al., 2016). The capability to enhance performance
in athletes and recreationally trained individuals is the primary goal of sports
performance professionals.
Several research studies have confirmed that
plyometric training can enhance muscle strength and power, speed, and agility
(Ramírez-Campillo et al., 2014).
Additionally, numerous studies have discovered positive effects of short-term
PT on jumping performance in basketball, soccer volleyball, handball (Slimani
et al 2016), and short distance(Rawte et al., 2021). Plyometric training has been
shown to cause unique neurological adaptations such as greater motor unit
activation and less muscle growth than is typically seen after substantial
resistance strength training. Conceptually, PT is characterized by the operation
of the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) that develops throughout the transition
from a speedy eccentric muscle contraction (deceleration or a negative phase) to
a speedy concentric muscle contraction (acceleration or a positive phase)
(Bedoya et al., 2015; Makarku et al 2014; Michailidis et al 2013).
A considerable amount of research has been undertaken to show the positive
effects of plyometrics training on fitness for males. Hassan Almoslim (2016)
examined the effects of mixed plyometric sprint and combined plyometricresistance training on the fitness components in male students. 143 boys between
the ages of 18 and 22 were divided into 3 groups: a Control Group (CG, n = 48),
- 21 -
a Plyometric-Sprint Training (PST, n = 48), and a Plyometric-Resistance
Training (PRT, n = 47). For six weeks, the experimental groups exercised twice a
week for 40 minutes each time. Tests were conducted to evaluate body
composition, speed, power, and agility before and after training. Analysis
methods included paired t-tests and a nova.
The results of every part of this experiment demonstrated that the PST and PRT
considerably reduced mean values compared to the CG (P 0.05), However, the
PST substantially showed bigger reductions in mean difference values than the
PRT (P< 0.05) in the Illinois agility test and standing long jump. For
acceleration, speed, power, and agility, plyometric-resistance training (PRT) and
plyometric-sprint training (PST) regimens are helpful.
Agility, speed, and
explosive power are qualifying components of physical fitness and desirable
athletic performance, and play a key role in most sports, especially sprinter.
Plyometric training can be a prerequisite for coaches' and athletes' success
(Taheri et al., 2014).
Power
Speed endurance
Plyometric
training
Agility
Speed
- 22 -
Figure 2. 1 Conceptually Theoretical Framework of Plyometric Training
2.7.1. Power
Power is all about applying a force quickly. When a sprinter starts a race, they
generate force, pushing off the line and moving forward. The more power they
can generate, the faster they can jump off the line and the faster they can sprint
and run. Plyometric movements are all about exerting a force fast, or in other
words, generating more power.
Power
will
outline
because
of
the
combination
of
strength
and
speed(Stojanovic, 2015). In any sport, explosive movement is vital for
improving performance. In sports like sprinting volleyball, and basketball from
one face of the court or field to a different is a crucial part of winning and is
powerfully associated with strength in conjunction with the speed of movement.
It is the ability to generate and use muscular strength quickly (Thomas et al.,
2009). Stronger clients tend to be able to produce a greater amount of power
during the action. This has been seen with a boxer who can produce a fast
punch, which shows good strength, as well as power described as power, is the
rate at which work can be done, therefore power = work/time. The additional
work that is done in a given amount of time, the better the power. The runner out
of the blocks at the start of a race exerts great muscle power to overcome gravity
and body inertia to achieve maximum velocity. The sprinter‟s task as mentioned
is to drive or thrust downward and backward against the ground (Stojanovi &
Kosti, 2002). Plyometric jumps are fundamental exercises that boost an athlete's
power, agility, and vertical jump. This exercise has often be e n used as the
beginning movement to develop proficiency in the vertical jump, high jump,
long jump, and box jumps (Soundara and Pushparajan, 2010).
A considerable amount of research has been undertaken to show the positive
effects of plyometric training on power for sports performance (Thaqi A.,
- 23 -
Berisha, M., & Hoxha, S. 2020). and determine the effect of 12-week plyometric
training on the power-related factors of children aged 16 years old. The pre-and
post-test assessment results of the Standing long jump test (meter). the mean
(SD) values of the pre-test results of the Standing long jump (meter) tests results
of children in the plyometric were 1.58(22.16) meter respectively and the posttest mean (SD) values of 1.99(20.21) meter and pre to post-test Standing long
jump test (m or cm) p=000) were scored by children aged 16 years-old in the
plyometric training at the end of the 12th week. To see the effects of 12 weeks of
plyometric training on the power performance of the children aged 16 years-old
paired sample t-test was conducted. Based on the result of the analysis
statistically, a significant change (p<0.001). It has shown that the plyometric
exercises applied to children aged 16 years-old increase strength, acceleration,
and speed performance as well as power.
And another study Tottori and Fujita S,20019 Investigate The effect of 8-week
plyometric training on sprint performance in boys aged 9–12 years. standing long
jump test the results analyzed by Paired T-test on the effect of plyometric
training on power performance. Based on the result of the analysis statistically, a
significant change (p<0.001).
2.7.2. Speed
It is the ability to perform a movement within a short period of time(Bin
Shamshuddin et al., 2020). It has been shown that to enhance speed every athlete
must work on acceleration, starting ability, stride rate, speed endurance, and
stride length (Mackenzie, 2001). Speed is how quickly a body is moving or the
distance that is covered divided by the time it takes to cover that distance. Speed
is the rapid, explosive ability to travel a certain distance. Speed is important for a
variety of activities in sport and exercise, particularly sprinting and jumping
activities (Craig, 2004). Speed because the ability to maneuver the body or body
parts through a required range of motion within the quickest potential time.
Speed comprises reaction time, acceleration, maximum speed, and speed
- 24 -
endurance. Speed exercise is the action of sprinting over a short distance at or
nearby constant phase(Almoslim, 2016). It is utilized in several sports that
include running, normally as a method of rapidly accomplishing an objective or
avoiding or grasping a challenger.
Speed obviously surges the body‟s ability to cope with fatigue, and power,
improving the ability of the heart and muscle strength exercise regimen simple to
finish. It activates the production of a high level of growth hormone; this will
support you to be lean, strong, and healthy. Besides, it boosts testosterone levels;
men need ideal testosterone levels in their bodies which help to aid in mental and
physical energy, adding lean muscle, and reducing undesirable fat. In addition, it
also improves insulin sensitivity and permits hours of continued fat burn even
after the workout is finished. When this kind of exercise technique is joined with
plyometric training it will create a significantly greater drop in the acceleration
time and change of direction time (Almoslim, 2016). Plyometric training is used
to develop speed (Reduced reaction time makes athletes faster).
A considerable amount of research has been undertaken to show the positive
effects of plyometrics training on speed for sports performance. This study (Bin
Shamshuddin et al., 2020) Effects of 6 weeks Plyometric Training on Speed and
Agility among Recreational Football Players. The pre-and post-test assessment
results of the 20-meter run tests, the mean (SD) values of the pre-test results of
the 20 run meter tests results of players in the plyometric were 3.92(0.24) Sec
respectively and the post-test means (SD) values of 3.65(0.86) sec and pre to
post-test 20-meter run tests. The results analyzed by Paired T-test on the effect of
plyometric training on speed performance show an overall significant decrease
(P< 0.001) after plyometric training.
Other studies work carried out by (Rimmer E, and Sleivert G, 2000) to determine
the effect of a sprint-specific plyometric intervention system on sprint-training
intervention. The plyometric group showed substantial decreases in time over the
- 25 -
sprint results at a distance of 10-m and 40-m (p = 0.001). And other studies have
also shown that plyometric training with a distance of 30 m and 40 m
respectively, as reported in (Comfort, et al2014, Hennessy, et al 2001],
influenced sprinting abilities.
Lundstrom C., & Ingraham S. (2017) Analyze the impact of plyometric and
explosive speed training (PLYO) on recreational marathon runners. In addition to
preparing for a marathon, 22 individuals (ages 18 to 23) were randomly assigned
to either PLYO or core training (CORE) for a weekly session over 12 weeks.
Performance indicators for sprinting, jumping, and distance running was assessed
before and after the intervention. The PLYO group performed better in the sprint
tests than the control group in the 200-m run (P 0.001), the 60-m speed test (P =
0.004), and the 30-m fly (P = 0.05). The stretch-shortening cycles that occur
during plyometric training are linked to improved sprint results. This study‟s
results illustrate the importance of achieving high strength rates to boost sprint
efficiency in short-distance athletes. (Delecluse et al., 1995) suggest that sprint
performance is characterized by 3 phases: (a) an initial acceleration phase (0 - 10
m), (b) a secondary acceleration phase (10 - 30 m), and (c) a maximal velocity
phase (after 30 m); with a duration of the second and third phases being highly
dependent on gender, age and a performance level. Women develop maximal
velocity at 25 - 35 m, untrained pre-pubertal boys at 20 - 30 m, whereas elite
male sprinters peak after 60 m.
2.7.3 Agility
A quick whole-body movement with a change in velocity or direction in
reaction to a stimulus" is a common definition of agility (Sheppard & Young,
2006). This may take several forms, from straightforward footwork actions to
moving the complete body within the other ways whereas running at a high
speed. Thus, agility has a speed component; however, it is not the most
important component of this ability. The fundamental definition of agility is
simply too simple, because it is currently thought to be way more advanced and
- 26 -
involving not solely speed is, but also balance, coordination, and also the ability
to react to a change in the environment (Plisk, 2008). What‟s more, acceleration
involved in the change of direction movements, which in turn underpin agility
performance, are therefore specific qualities and should be trained as
such(Sheppard & Young, 2006) Moreover, they suggest that agility is a
distinct physical trait that necessitates a high level of neuron -muscular
specialization to develop.
Agility refers to the ability to change direction quickly without losing
balance(Sheppard & Young, 2006). Roped ladders for fast-foot work, cones,
and poles for indicating turning places in a run, and belts or harnesses for help or
resistance training were among the items on the list. Exercises for agility had
best incorporated early within the training session when players are still
relatively fresh (Richard, 1970). A specific definition of agility is not yet
agreed upon by the sports science community. Agility has classically defined as
simply the ability to change direction rapidly (Rahimi and Behpur, 2005).
In recent publications, some authors have defined agility to include wholebody change of direction as well as rapid movement and direction change of
limbs. Even more confusing has been the introduction of the term „quickness
(Ross et al., 2001). This can be used interchangeably for both agility and change
of direction speed. Quickness has been known as a multi-planar or
multidirectional ability that mixes acceleration, explosiveness, and reactivates.
This definition suggests that quickness consists of psychological features and
physical reactive abilities and explosive acceleration.
If this is an identifiable
physical quality, then one might infer that quickness is a component of agility,
as the proposed definition (Millet et al., 2002). Deceleration or changing
direction are not included in the definition of quickness. Accessible writing, on
the other hand, covers abilities and tests that require changing directions and
considers these rapidity drills and tests to be acceptable (Kostic et al., 2000)
- 27 -
In addition, the term cutting has been used concerning a directional change
during a sprint movement (Nummela and Rusko, 1995). Cutting, unlike the
term rapidity, appears to apply exclusively to the part of a directional change
where the athlete's foot makes contact with the ground to initiate the change. In
1976, Chelladurai proposed a thorough definition of agility, noting that although
there was agreement on the importance of agility in many sports, there were
many varied definitions of agility. Furthermore, Chelladurai noted that none of
these definitions included appropriate recognition of the perceptual and decisionmaking components that are involved in several sports. The author defined
agility as simple, temporal (no spatial ambiguity, but temporal uncertainty),
spatial (no time uncertainty, but spatial uncertainty), or universal (no temporal
uncertainty, but spatial uncertainty) (temporal and spatial uncertainty) (Sheppard
et al., 2006).
Defining various forms of agility performance, such as simple, temporal,
spatial, and universal is within the writing. Specifically, movements the sprints
begin in athletics, which are considered agility tasks Could be described as
involving reaction time and velocity, as reaction time is defined as the minimum
time from the presentation of a stimulus to the onset of a response, with speed
being outlined because the ratio of amendment in position with relevancy time
(Elliott and Gordon, 1997). Simple, temporal, spatial, and universal agility, on
the other hand, provides a unique framework for comprehending the demands of
numerous sports when considered as part of a larger set of definitions. The term
"agility" has been used in most research on agility testing to describe any
dynamic sporting action that involves a change in body position (Bedoya et
al, .2015).
According to Sayers (2000), in sports that demand changes of direction, there is a
stronger need for specificity between sprinting and speed and agility training.
The biomechanics of straight-sprint acceleration phase training in sports, on the
- 28 -
other hand, is comparable to that proposed by Sayers (2000). A pronounced
forward lean and low center of gravity is an integral part of the acceleration in
sprinting for athletics (Francis, 1997; Mann, 1981), which is similar to that in
agility sports (Sayers, 2000). Sprinters are instructed to keep their visual
concentration low (looking downward) for a portion of the acceleration phase in
athletics (Francis, 1997), but here is an evident exception. Continuous visual
scanning of the court or playing field is a requirement of agility sports. In
addition, sprinters might purposefully accelerate under greater control, in that
they do not necessarily aim to achieve top speed as quickly as possible, but
favors a controlled acceleration (Francis, 1987).
Sprints are usually brief and vary in distance in most running sports. In these
sports, athletes would try to accelerate as much as possible in the shortest amount
of time. In a 100-meter sprint, but especially in a 200-meter sprint, the sprinter
accelerates for a major amount of the race, to reach top speed late in the race and
minimize the speed drop-off at the finish line. Although it is widely assumed
that elite sprinters accelerate for longer periods merely because their top speeds
are higher and take longer to reach, tactical guidance also includes controlling
acceleration so that top speed is reached at an optimal time for overall race
performance (Besier et al., 2001).
A considerable amount of research has been undertaken to show the positive
effects of plyometrics training on agility sports performance. (Chalachew L and
Asnakew A 2021) study the effect of 12 weeks of plyometric and strength
training on selected physical fitness variables in Ethiopia youth sports academy
female soccer players. The pre-and post-test assessment results of the Illinois
agility tests, the mean (SD) values of the pre-test results of the Illinois agility
tests results of players in the plyometric were 18.4(0.87) Sec respectively and the
post-test means (SD) values of 17.8(0.78) sec and pre to post-test Illinois agility
tests (sec) p=000 were scored by players in the plyometric training at the end of
- 29 -
the 12th week. To see the effects of 12 weeks of plyometric training on the agility
performance of the female soccer players, paired sample t-test was conducted.
Based on the result of the analysis statistically, a significant change (p<0.001).
Plyometric training improves agility, so you have to change position faster and
spend less time in contact with the ground.
2.7.4. Speed Endurance
speed endurance is the ability of the athlete to maintain high levels of speed for
long periods in races where speed endurance is of importance (200 meters. 4000
meters), good results will be determined by the athlete‟s ability to maintain
quality speed performance throughout the race distance (Field C 1991). Speedendurance is the ability to prolong the amount of time wherever a close to
maximal speed can be maintained (Francis et al., 2016). Athletes can maintain
their power and speed over time thanks to endurance. In order to maintain their
highest speeds and powers throughout the entirety of a run or all of a leap,
sprinters and jumpers need to have this endurance. So, speed endurance is
essential in any sprinter or jumper‟s training routine. The development of
muscular contraction coordination is accomplished by speed endurance.
Repetition techniques are utilized, covering distances between 60% and 120
percent of the racing distance, with a large number of sets, a low number of
repetitions per set, and an intensity greater than 85%. Speed endurance can be
used developed through competition and time trials (Gastin P 2001, Mclellan T.
And Skinner J. 1981)
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CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHOD
This section deals with the method and techniques of investigation used to
obtain evidence to answer the research hypothesis. This includes the subject of
the study, overall design of the study, data collection instrument, procedure,
study subjects, testing procedure, and data analysis techniques.
3.1. Research Design
The objective of this study was to investigate effect of eight-weeks plyometric
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training on power speed agility and speed endurance of Bahir Dar university
male sprinters. Depending on the nature and appropriateness of the pre and posttest data the research approach designed in this study was quasi-experimental
design since it helps to measure, assess, evaluate and analyze
effect of
plyometric training on the independent variable on the dependent variable
(power, speed, agility, and speed endurance.
Table 3. 1 The study design layout
Treatment
Plyometric exercise
Training weeks
8 weeks
Total duration
2 days/week
Duration/session
60 minutes
Intensity
Low, to High,
Training days
Tuesday and Saturday
Training time
Morning and afternoon
3.2. Description of the Study
The study was conducted in the Amhara region Capital city of Bahir Dar
located in West Gojjam Zone Ethiopia. Bahir Dar city is located in the
southwest part of Ethiopia, about 565 Km NW of Addis Ababa. The town has a
latitude and longitude of 11°36′N 37°23′E respectively and an elevation of 1,800
meters. Based on the 2007 national census conducted by the Central Statistical
Agency of Ethiopia (CSA), this town has a total population of 221,991, of
whom 108,456 are men and 113,535 women. Bahir Dar University was
Established in 1963.
- 32 -
Source Sewnet (2014).
figure 3. 1 Map of Bahir Dar city and Bahir Dar University
The plyometric training program was taken from (March 1, to April 28), 2014
for two consecutive months.
3.3 . Population, and sampling technique
The study was conducted by Bahir Dar university male u-17 sprinters. since the
research is experimental to monitor training as well as manage test
administrations and data analysis all 20 male athletes are taken. In this study,
the researcher has used comprehensive sampling techniques, t hi s is because
Ba hi r Dar university male short distance athletics project holds 2 0 athletes, and
then the researcher has used these athletes as a whole for experimental study
purposes.
Therefore, the sample population of this study included the entire
sprinters. at Bahir Dar university athletics project.
3.4. Source of Data
To Complete the study the researcher collected primary data from the sprinters
via performance tests. The data were collected from the samples through pre-test
and post-test. Secondary data was also collected from Amhara region‟s project
fitness record for comparison.
3.5.Data Collection instrument
Quantitative data were collected through the appropriate test measures. The
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researcher was used field tests to collect the data such as power (stand long jump
test), speed (60-meter Speed Test), agility (Illinois agility run test), and speed
endurance (250-meter Endurance test) tested by using standardized test items.
Further, the data for the field test had been collected two times: pre-training and
post-training. The data has been taken from one group in the same time situation
and by the same data collector. Before conducting the data, the trainees were in
the form to do warming-up exercises to prepare their bodies for the test. The tests
shall be conducted within the following order.
Table 3. 2 Criterion measures (Selection of Tests)
NO
Major variables to
Test items
Unit
measure
1
Power
Standing long jump
M(centimeter)
2
Speed
60-meter speed test
Second
3
Agility
Illinois agility run test
Second
4
speed endurance
Second
250-metre
Endurance
Test
3.6. Procedures for administration of tests
Data were collected first following the standard procedures. All the necessary
information about the study was explained to the participants primarily. Having
experts, instruments for measuring purposes, facilities, and sufficient warming up
exercises and other necessary data were collected by administering the
mentioned standard physical fitness test measures. Tests were administered in
proper sequences power (Stand long jump), speed (60meter Speed Test), Agility
(Illinois agility run test), and speed endurance (250 –meter endurance test) using
standardized equipment.
- 34 -
3.6.1. Explosive Leg Power (Standing Long Jump Test)
The standing long jump, commonly known as the broad jump, is a popular and
simple test of explosive leg strength.
Purpose: To measure the explosive power of the legs
Equipment required: tap measure to measure distance jumped, non-slip floor
for takeoff, and soft-landing area preferred. Commercial long jump landing mats
are also available.
sources: http;//www.topendsports.com
Figure 3. 2 standing long jump test
Procedure: The athlete stands behind a line marked on the ground with feet
slightly apart.

A two-foot take-off and landing are used, with the swinging of the arms
and bending of the knees to provide forward drive.

The subject attempts to jump as far as possible, landing on both feet
without falling backward. Three attempts are allowed. (Tottori & Fujita,
2019).
3.6.2. Speed (60-meter Speed Test)
Testing and measurement are the means of collecting information upon which
subsequent. performance evaluation and decisions are made in the analysis, we
need to bear in mind the.
- 35 -
Figure 3. 3 60-meter speed test
Adopted from Robert Wood (2008)
Objective: - To monitor the development of the sprint athlete's acceleration and
pick up to a full flight.
Required Resources: -To undertake this test, you will require a: Flat non-slip
surface, a Stopwatch, and an assistant.
How to conduct the test: -This test requires the athlete to sprint as fast as
possible over 60 meters
 The athlete warm-up for 10 minutes
 The assistant marks out a 60-meter straight section on the track with
cones
 The assistant gives the command “GO” and starts the stopwatch
 The athlete sprints as fast as possible over the 60 meters
 The assistant stops the stopwatch as the athlete's torso crosses the
finishing line and records the time
 The test is conducted 3 times
 The assistant uses the fastest recorded time to assess the athlete's
performance.
 Target population: sprint athletes and other sports in which speed over a
similar distance is important. (Robert Wood,2008)
3.6 .3. Agility test (Illinois agility test)
Objective: To monitor the development of the athlete's speed and agility
Required Resources: -A flat non-slip surface, measuring tape, 8 cones, a
stopwatch, Assistant will be used to conduct the test. The course measures 10m
in length and 5m in width.
- 36 -
Adopted from Davis et al (2000)
Figure 3. 4 Illinois agility run test
Testing procedure: -This test requires the athlete to run the line's route in the
diagram below as fast as possible.
 The athlete warms up for 10 minutes
 The assistant sets up the course as detailed in the diagram
 The athlete lies face down on the floor at the “Start” cone the assistant
gives the command “GO” and starts the stopwatch.
 The athlete jumps to her feet and negotiates the course around the
cones following the
 The assistant stops the stopwatch and records the time when the
athlete passes the “Finish” cone.
 Three successful trials will be completed
 Finally, the assistant uses the fastest recorded time.
3.6.4 Speed endurance test (250metre Endurance Test)
Speed endurance for short-distance athletes can measure with a 250-meter
endurance test.
Objective: To measure the development of the sprint athletes' speed endurance
performance.
- 37 -
Required resources
To undertake this test, you will require:
• 400-meter track – 250-meter marked section
• Stopwatch
• Assistant.
How to conduct the test
• The athlete undertakes a 250-meter run from a standing start
• The assistant records the time for the athlete to complete 250 meters.
Figure 3. 5 250-meter endurance test.
Adopted from Mackenzie B (2005) 101 Performance Evaluation Test
Target Group: This test is suitable for sprinters.
3.7.Methods of data analysis
The data was gathered from experimental methods. Pre-test and post-test result
on explosive leg power, speed, agility, and speed endurance has been taken by
using a field test. The collected data were analyzed by using SPSS software
(version 23). Descriptive statistics (arithmetic mean, standard deviation,) and
inferential statistics (Paired, SamplesT-test) were used for data analysis. The
results were displayed using tables
3.8.Reliability and Validity of instruments
The reliability of a test was assured by establishing efficient and necessary
equipment, and reliability of a test and trainee‟s reliability. To ensure the
uniformity and reliability of the testing technique the investigator had a number
- 38 -
of practice sessions in the testing procedures with the guidance of the respective
experts. The investigator took all the measurements for the study with the
assistance of a professional expert.
3.9.Training Protocol
The plyometric exercise was given to the experimental group for eight weeks a
total of two days per week, namely Tuesday afternoon at 11:00-12:00 and
Saturday morning at 2:00-3:00, each lasting 60 minutes. A total of 16 days would
be given for training sessions in which 60 minutes 15 minutes for warm-up, 35
minutes for plyometric exercises, and 10 minutes for cool-down were allotted for
each session. These plyometric exercises were given to the research participants
for eight weeks. These include depth jump drop jump standing long jump double
–leg tuck jump, double–leg speed jump, Double leg bound, Single leg tuck jump,
single leg hop, double leg hop, alternate leg bound, Single leg speed hop, and
Sprint bound. according to previous studies (Rimmer E, and Sleivert G, 2000).
Specifically, sprint-specific training (i.e., bounding) has been shown to have a
positive effect on sprint velocity (Tottori & Fujita, 2019).
3.10. Ethical Considerations
The study was conducted in such a way that ethical issues were properly
addressed. After having letters of permission from Bahir Dar university sports
academy for ethical approval, the researcher has been going to Bahir Dar
university sport academy athletics project. Next, the researcher has contact with
the parents and coaches for permission. Then after agreeing with the concerned
participants, the researchers also introduced the objectives and purposes of the
study.
- 39 -
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with the presentation and analysis of the data collected
through the Experimental method pre-test and post-test results of power,
speed, agility, and speed endurance for individual sprinters.
from the
researcher had used a quasi-experimental research method to get fertile data.
4.1. Results of the study
Table 4. 1 Demographic characteristics of the participant
N
20
Sex
Age(year)
Height(m)
Mean
S. D
Mean
16.75
0.44
1.66
Male
S.
D
0.05
Weight(kg)
Training
Mean
Experience (In
years)
S. D Mean S. D
53.10
3.49
2 years 1.38
- 40 -
Key N=number of athletes, SD= standard deviation
As shown in the table, the participants were 20 male Bahir Dar university sports
academy under 17 sprinters. The average age of participants was M=16.75 years
(SD = 0.44) height (mean = 1.66, SD =0.05) and weight (M = 53.10 SD = 3.49),
and training experience for is 2 years, which indicated that the athletes started
their regular training after entering the project.
Table 4. 2 power pre-and post-test.
Paired samples statistics‟
Variables
N
Mean
SD
Power PT
20
1.7455
.07430
POT
20
1.9700
.14604
. Key: PT=pre- test, POT=post- test, N=number of athletes, SD= standard
deviation.
Test results in table 4.2 reveal the pre-and post-test assessment results of the
standing long jump tests. As indicated in the table, the mean (SD) values of the
pre-test results of the standing long jump tests results of the athlete in the
plyometric training were 1.75(0.07) meters and the post-test 1.97 (0.15) meters
were scored by athletes in the plyometric training at the end of the 8 th week.
Table 4. 3 pre-and post-training power test result mean difference in (meters)
Paired samples Test (paired difference)
Variable
N
MD
SD
T
DF
P
- 41 -
Power
20
-.2245
.125347
-8.010
19
000
PT -POT
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. Key: PT=pre -test, POT=post-test,
MD = mean difference, SD= standard deviation., T= t calculates, DF= degree of
freedom
A paired sample t-test was conducted to examine the difference between the pretest result and post-test result of power. A significant difference was found
between the two test results; t (19) =-8.010, p< 0. 001. As shown in the above
table post-test (mean=1.97) result is greater than the pre-test result (mean=1.75).
The result suggests that plyometric exercise for two months brings observable
improvement in male trainees‟ power performance with a .0.22m increment.
Table 4. 4 speed pre-and post-test results
Paired samples statistics‟
Variable
Speed PT
N
20
POT
20
Mean
8.1500
Std. Deviation
.45523
7.4165
.46744
Key: PT=pre-test, POT=post-test, N=number of athletes SD= standard deviation.
Test results in table 4.4 reveal the pre-and post-test assessment results of the 60meter Speed Tests. As indicated in the table, the mean (SD) values of the pre-test
results of the 60meter Speed Test results of an athlete in plyometric training were
8.15 (0.46) Sec. The posttest 7.42(0.47) sec were scored by athletes in the
plyometric training at the end of the 8th week.
Table 4. 5 pre-and post-training speed test result mean difference in(sec)
Paired samples Test (paired difference)
Variable
N
MD
SD
T
DF
P
- 42 -
Speed: PT-
20
.73350
.45759
7.169
19
000
POT
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. Key: PT=pre- test, POT=post-test, MD
= mean difference, SD= standard deviation, T= t calculates, DF= degree of freedom.
A paired sample t-test was conducted to examine the difference between the pretest result and the post-test result of a 60-meter speed test. A significant
difference was found between the two test results; t (19) =7.169, p< 0.001. As
shown in the above table post-test (mean=7.42 sec) result is less than the pre-test
result (mean=8.15sec). The result suggests that plyometric exercise for two
months brings observable improvement in male trainee‟s speed performance with
a 0.73-second decrement.
Table 4. 6 Agility pre-and post-test results
Paired samples statistics‟
Variable
N
Agility PT
20
Mean
19.3960
S. D
1.04828
POT
20
17.068
.97572
Key: PT=pre-test, POT=post-test, N=number of athletes, SD= standard deviation,
Test results in table 4.6 reveal the pre-and post-test assessment results of the
Illinois agility tests. As indicated in the table, the mean (SD) values of the pretest results of the Illinois agility tests results of the athlete in the plyometric
training were 19.40(1.05) Sec. The posttest 17.07 (0.98) sec were scored by
athletes in the plyometric training at the end of the 8 th week.
Table 4. 7 pre-and post-training agility test results mean difference (second)
Paired samples Test (paired difference)
Variable
N
MD
SD
T
DF
P
- 43 -
Agility: PT
20
2.32800
.43959
23.684
19
000
- POT
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. Key: PT=pre-test, POT=pos- test,
MD = mean difference, SD= standard deviation., T= t calculates, DF= degree of
freedom. A paired sample t-test was conducted to examine the difference between
the pre-test and post-test mean results of the Illinois agility run test. A significant
difference was found between the two test results; t (19) = 23.684, p< 0.001. As
shown in the above table post-test (mean= 17.07) result is less than the pretest
result (mean=19.40). The result suggests that plyometric exercise for two months
brings observable improvement in male trainees‟ agility performance with a 2.33second decrement.
Table 4. 8 speed endurance pre-and post- test result.
Paired samples statistics‟
Variable
N
Mean
Speed endurance PT
20
35.6260
POT
SD
3.05855
33.175
3.16158
. Key: PT=pre-test, POT=pos- test, N=number of athletes. SD= standard deviation.
Test results in table 4.8 reveal the pre-and post-test assessment results of the ‟250meter Endurance Test. As indicated in the table, the mean (SD) values of the pretest results of the‟250-meter Endurance tests results of the athlete in the
plyometric training were 35.63(3.05) Sec and the post-test 33.18 (3.16) sec were
scored by athletes in the plyometric training at the end of the 8 th week.
Table 4. 9 pre-and post-training speed endurance test result mean
difference(sec)
Paired samples Test (paired difference)
Variable
N MD
SD
T
DF
P
- 44 -
Speed endurance
PT-POT
20
2.44850
1.56495
6.997
19
000
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. Key: PT=pre-test, POT=post-test
MD = mean difference, SD= standard deviation., T= t calculates DF= degree of
freedom,
A paired sample t-test was conducted to examine the difference between the pretest and post-test mean results of the 250-speed endurance run test. A significant
difference was found between the two test results; t (19) =7.041 p< 0.001. As
shown in the above table post-test (mean= 33.18) result is less than the pretest
result (mean=35.63). The result suggests that plyometric exercise for two months
brings observable improvement in male trainees‟ agility performance with a 2.45second decrement.
CHAPTER FIVE
5. 1 DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATION
This study aimed to examine effect of eight-week plyometric training on power,
speed, agility, and speed endurance on sprinters in the case of Bahir Dar
university sport academy under -17 athletics project. Based on the finding of the
study, plyometric training has a significant appositive effect on power speed
agility, and speed endurance in a short distance.
5.1.1 Effects of plyometric training on power of U-17 sprinters.
The finding of the study showed that plyometric training has an effect on
power. The result suggests that power increase from pre to post-test after
plyometric training‟ M=1.75 SD=0.07and M=1.97 SD =0.15 respectively and the
result of the mean difference was 0.22 and p < 0.001. The result suggests that
significantly improved. This indicates that Eight weeks of Plyometric training
has a positive significant effect on power in sprinters. Hence the researcher
accepted hypothesis H1.1 0.05 level of confidence. Similar results were found in
- 45 -
previous studies that agreed with this finding study (Tottori N and Satoshi Fujita
S,20019) The effect of 8-week plyometric training on sprint performance in boys
aged 9–12 years. standing long jump test the results analyzed by Paired T-test on
the effect of plyometric training on power performance. Based on the result of
the analysis statistically, a significant change (p<0.001).
(Lundstrom C. & Ingraham S .2017) standing long jump test the results analyzed
by Paired T-test on the effect of plyometric training on power performance show
an overall significant increase (P< 0.005) after plyometric training. plyometric
training is an effective method for improving power performance of shortdistance athletes. another (Thaqi A., Berisha, M., & Hoxh S. 2020) study
conducted on the effect 12 of plyometric training reported increases in the
change in power (increase in power performance and length).
Implications: The main aim of this study was to examine effect of eight weeks
plyometric training on power of sprinters in the case of Bahir Dar university
sport academy u-17 athletics project. Based on the result of the study plyometric
training have a positive significant effect on power performance of sprinters.
Plyometric training is used to develop power. So, these training methods are
suggested to sprinters and coaches for improving sprinting performances. thus,
athletes and coaches concerned with sprinting training continue to use plyometric
exercises ( Bounding, horizontal jump) (Rimmer & Sleivert, 2000)
5.1.2 Effects of plyometric training on speed of U-17 sprinters
The finding of the study showed that plyometric training has an effect on speed.
The result suggests that speed performance increases and time decrease from pre
to post-test after plyometric training‟ M=8.15 SD=0.46 and M=7.42 SD =0.47
respectively and the result of the mean difference was 0.73 and p < 0.001. The
result suggests that significantly decreases. This indicates that Eight weeks of
Plyometric training has a positive significant effect on speed in sprinters. Hence
the researcher accepted hypothesis H1.2 0.05 level of confidence. Similar results
- 46 -
were found in previous studies that agreed with this finding (Lundstrom C. &
Ingraham S .2017) 60-meter run test the results analyzed by Paired T-test on the
effect of plyometric training on speed performance show an overall significant
decrease (P< 0.005) after plyometric training. This study‟s results illustrate the
importance of achieving high strength rates to boost sprint efficiency in sprint
athletes. Other studies work carried out by (Rimmer E, and Sleivert G 2000)
determine the effect of a sprint-specific plyometric intervention system on sprinttraining intervention. At 10-m and 40-m distances, the plyometric group
demonstrated significant time reductions over the sprint group (p = 0.001)
And other studies have also shown that plyometric training with a distance of 30
m and 40 m respectively, as reported in (Comfort et al 2014) and, (Hennessy L,
Kilty J 2001), influenced sprinting abilities. Stretch-shortening cycles are
associated with improved sprint results during plyometric training.
Implication: - The main aim of this study was to determine effect of eight weeks
of plyometric training on speed sprinters in the case of Bahir Dar university sport
academy u-17 athletics project. Based on the result of the study plyometric
training have a positive significant effect on speed performance of sprinters.
Plyometric training is used to develop speed (Reduced reaction time makes
athletes faster). So, these training methods are suggested to sprinters and coaches
for improving sprinting performances. thus, athletes and coaches concerned with
sprinting training continue to use plyometric exercises ( Bounding, horizontal
jump) (Rimmer & Sleivert, 2000)
5.1.3.Effects of plyometric training on agility of U-17 sprinters
The finding of the study showed that plyometric training has an effect on
agility. The result suggests that agility performance increases and time decreased
from pre to post-test after plyometric training‟ M=19.40 SD=1.05 and M=17.07
SD =0.98 respectively and the result of the mean difference was 2.33 and p <
0.001. The result suggests that significantly decreases. This indicates that Eight
weeks of Plyometric training has a positive significant effect on agility in
- 47 -
sprinters.
Hence the researcher accepted hypothesis H1.3 0.05 level of
confidence. Similar results were found in previous studies that agreed with this
finding (Chalachew L and Aschenaki T.,2021) see the effects of 12 weeks of
plyometric training on the agility performance of the female soccer players,
paired sample t-test was conducted. Based on the result of the analysis
statistically, a significant change (p<0.001).
The study concluded plyometric training for improving agility in young male
soccer players. In this study, the participants were male short-distance athletes
and the result was a similar improvement in the athletes‟ agility performance.
According to Mirzaei and Norasteh, (2014), effects of six weeks of depth jump
vs. countermovement jump training on the sand on muscle soreness and
performance, there was a significant effect of jumping training or plyometric
training on the agility level of athletes.
This study backed up one of the findings of the current study. Plyometric
exercises help you change positions more quickly and make less contact with
the ground. Plyometrics improves agility to make you a faster athlete.
Implication: -The main aim of this study was to examine effect of eight weeks
plyometric training on agility on sprinters in the case of Bahir Dar university
sport academy u-17 athletics project. Based on the result of the study plyometric
training have a positive significant effect on agility performance of sprinters.
plyometric training improves reaction time, so you have to change position faster
and spend less time in contact with the ground. thus, athletes and coaches can
plan 8 weeks with twice-a-week training sessions as in this study's Coaches
protocol. These results will benefit athletes, coaches sport professional physical
trainees in the search to refine regular training routines and develop athletes'
speed and agility performance before any competition (Bin Shamshuddin et al.,
2020).
- 48 -
5.1.4. Effects of plyometric training on speed endurance of U-17
sprinters
The finding of the study showed that plyometric training has an effect on speed
endurance. The result suggests that speed endurance performance increases and
time decrease from pre to post-test after plyometric training‟ M=35.66 SD=3.06
and M=33.18 SD =3.16 respectively and the result of the mean difference was
2.45 and p < 0.001. The result suggests that significantly decreases. This
indicates that Eight weeks of Plyometric training has a positive significant effect
on speed endurance in sprinters. Hence the researcher accepted hypothesis H1.4
0.05 level of confidence. The result proved that plyometric training is an
effective method for improving the speed endurance performance of sprinters
Implication: - The main aim of this study was to examine effect of eight weeks
plyometric training on speed endurance on sprinters in the case of Bahir Dar
university sport academy u-17 athletics project. Based on the result of the study
plyometric training have a positive significant effect on speed endurance
performance of sprinters. plyometric training is used to develop speed endurance.
thus, athletes and coaches can plan 8 weeks with twice-a-week training sessions
as in this study's Coaches protocol. These results will benefit athletes, coaches
sport professional physical trainees in the search to refine regular training
routines and develop athletes' speed endurance performance before any
competition.
- 49 -
CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION
6.1. Conclusions
Based on the major findings and results of this study, the following points
were stated as a conclusion
 Eight weeks of Polymeric training has a significant effect on t he power
of sprinters.
 Eight weeks of Plyometric training has a significant effect on the speed
of sprinters.
- 50 -
 Eight weeks of Plyometric training has a significant effect on the agility
of sprinters.
 Eight weeks of Plyometric training might have a significant effect speed
endurance of sprinters.
 In general, plyometric training is accepted over several days or weeks (6–
12 weeks), at a training frequency of 1–3 sessions per week, and at a
maximal to near-maxi mal intensity(Ramirez-Campillo et al., 2020)
indicated that in future research, specific dose-response relationships
following PLY should be identified. An interesting direction in this
research is determining the minimum duration of PLY.
6.2 Limitation of the Study
The following limitations were encountered by the researcher while conducting
this study. First, the number of the sample is too little because for this reason the
researcher was used all samples so there are heterogeneous variable events and it
was having an effect on the result of the study. Second The subjects were not
always able to exercise at the same time of the day, because they were busy
preparing for the mid-year examination. The subjects had to exercise when they
were able to fit it into their schedule. Sometimes the exercise sessions took place
in the early morning, and at other times it was in the late afternoon. Third and
time.
6.3. Recommendations
 As plyometric training was found to have a positive impact on developing
fitness (power speed, agility, and speed endurance) performance, for
concerned sprinters and coaches are highly recommend to include the
scientific method of plyometric training in their training sessions.
- 51 -
 Short distance coaches should emphasize plyometric exercise to improve
fitness performance rather than training in traditional methods or
devoting the majority of their time solely to competition.
 Coaches also recommend raising trainers' awareness of the importance of
plyometric exercises to improve the fitness performance of sprinters.
 For the finding of this study, the researcher used a small number of the
sample (only one group not the control group) and heterogeneous
variable (100-meter 200- meter and 400-meter) events. Therefore, other
researchers should conduct a study by using a large number population
and a homogenous variable event.
 T h e study was conducted for eight weeks and only on male athletes. If
the researchers have interested to conduct on the same issue the
researcher recommends them to conduct the same for a long duration
and also on female project trainees.
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(http://en. Talkathletics.co.UK
APPENDIXES
March
15
min
Warming
up
*Walking, jogging,
and running
Tuesday
37
min
Main
activity
* Synchronized
m o v e m e n t of
hand leg, armStretching
 double-leg
tuck jump

Double-leg
speed jump
Low
Rest b/n set
Contents
Rest b/n rep
Phase
5
min
-
-
-
-
10
min
-
-
-
-
13
min
7
2
10 sec
20
sec
2
min
13
min
7
2
10sec
20
sec
2min
Activity
duration in
repetition
Time
(min)
set
Day
repetition
Week
Intensity
Month
Duration
Appendix1 Researcher‟s Eight Weeks plyometric Training Program for sprinting.
- 61 -
8 min
15
min
Warming
up
40
min
Main
activity
Saturday
8 min
Cooling
down
exercise for leg and
hand stretching
*Walking jogging
running
*Harmonized
movement for hand
and leg stretching
 double leg
tuck jump
 Double leg
speed jump
 Standing
long jump
jogging easy
Low
exercise for leg and
hand stretching
Warming
up
* Walking, jogging,
and running
*Synchronized
movement of hand
leg, arm- Stretching
Tues
day
35
min
Main
activity
13
min
13
min
11
min
5
min
3
min
8
2
20 sec
7
2
20 sec
8
2
20 sec
20sec 2
min
20
2min
sec
20
2
sec
min
5 min
-
-
-
-
10
min
-
-
-
-
9 min
8
2
15 sec
Double leg speed
jump
Single leg tuck jump
9 min
6
3
15 sec
9 min
8
2
15sec
Scissor jump
6 min
6
2
15 sec
15
sec
15
sec
15
sec
15
sec
1
min
1
min
1
min
1
min
jogging easy
exercise for leg and
hand stretching
*Walking jogging
3 min
7 min
double leg tuck jump
Mod
erate
Two
10min
15
Warming
2
min
Rest b/n set
15
min
20
sec
Rest b/n rep
Contents
10 sec
Set
Phase
3
Repetition
March
Time
(min)
6
Duration
Day
Week
Intensity
Month
11
min
3
min
5
min
5
min
10
min
Activity
duration in
repetition
One
 Standing
long jump
jogging easy
5 min
- 62 -
March
3
15 sec
9 min
6
3
15 sec
9 min
8
2
15sec
 Scissor jump
6 min
7
2
15sec
Cooling
down
jogging easy
exercise for leg and
hand stretching
3 min
7 min
Time Phase
(min)
Contents
15
min
Three
9 min
15
min
1
min
1
min
1
min
15
Sec
1
min
Warming *Walking, jogging,
up
and running
5
min
-
-
-
-
*Synchronized
m o v e m e n t of
hand leg, armStretching
 double-leg
bound
 single-leg
jump
 double-leg
speed jump
 single-leg
bound
jogging easy
10
min
-
-
-
-
9
min
9
min
9
min
9
min
4
min
5
min
5
min
10
8
2
15 sec
8
2
15 sec
7
2
15 sec
6
2
15 sec
Tuesday
36
min
15
sec
15
sec
15
sec
Rest b/n set
Day
6
Rest b/n rep
Week
9 min
Main
activity
exercise for leg and
hand stretching
Warming *Walking jogging
up
running
*Harmonized
High
Activity
duration in
repetition
Month
Mod
erate
set
10
min
Main
activity
10
min
repetition
35
min
running
*Harmonized
movement for hand
and leg stretching
 double-leg
tuck jump
 Double leg
speed jump
 Single leg
tuck jump
Duration
Satur
day
up
Intensity
min
15sec 1
Min
15
1
sec
min
15sec 1
min
15
1
sec
min
- 63 -
Day
Time Phase
(min)
March
15
min
Tuesday
35
min
Four
8 min
15
min
Saturday
Warming *Walking, jogging,
up
and running
*Synchronized
m o v e m e n t of hand
leg, arm- Stretching
Main
activity
4
15 sec
8
2
15 sec
8
3
15 sec
8
2
15 sec
Contents
Intensity
Month Week
6
 Drop jump
 Single leg
speed hop
 Alternative leg
bound
 Standing long
jump
jogging easy
exercise for leg and
hand stretching
Warming *Walking jogging
running
up
*Harmonized
movement for hand
and leg stretching
5
min
10
min
High 9
min
9
min
9
min
9
min
4
min
5
min
5
min
10
min
10sec 1
min
10
1
sec
min
10
1
sec
min
10
sec
Rest b/n set
exercise for leg and
hand stretching
9
min
9
min
9
min
9
min
5
min
3
min
Activity
duration in
repetition
Rest b/n rep
8 min Cooling
down
High
set
Main
activity
repetition
36
min
min
Duration
Saturday
movement for hand
and leg stretching
 double-leg
bound
 single-leg
jump
 double-leg
speed jump
 single-leg
hop
jogging easy
-
-
-
-
-
-
8
3
15 sec
6
4
15sec
6
4
15 sec
8
2
15 sec
10
1
sec
min
10sec 1min
10
sec
10
sec
1
min
1
min
high
 Single leg
speed hop
 Alternative leg
bound
 Standing long
jump
-jogging easy
-exercise for leg and
hand stretching
15
min
April
Tuesday
35
min
 Depth jump
 Single leg hop
 Alternative leg
bound
 Drop jump
Five
8 min
15
min
Saturday
35
min
15sec
8
2
15 sec
8
3
15 sec
7
4
15 sec
Contents
Warming *Walking, jogging,
up
and running
*Synchronized
m o v e m e n t of hand
leg, arm- Stretching
Main
activity
3
jogging easy
exercise for leg and
hand stretching
Warming *Walking jogging
up
running
*Harmonized
movement for hand
and leg stretching
Main
 Depth jump
activity
 Single leg hop
5
min
10
min
High 9
min
9
min
9
min
9
min
3
min
5
min
5
min
10
min
10sec 1
min
10
1
sec
min
10
1
sec
min
10
1
sec
min
Rest b/n set
Time Phase
(min)
8
Rest b/n rep
Day
Intensity
Month Week
9
min
9
min
9
min
9
min
5
min
3
min
Activity
duration in
repetition
8 min Cooling
down
 Drop jump
Set
Main
activity
repetition
35
min
Duration
- 64 -
-
-
-
-
-
-
10
sec
10
sec
10
sec
10sec
1
min
1
min
1
min
1
min
8
2
15 sec
8
3
15sec
8
3
15 sec
7
3
15 sec
High 9
8
min
9
8
min
3
15 sec
3
15 sec
10sec 1
min
10
1
sec
min
Cooling
down
Alternative leg
bound
9
8
min
3
15 sec
10
sec
1
min

Drop jump
9
8
min
5
min
3
min
2
15sec
10
sec
1
min
jogging easy
exercise for leg and
hand stretching
Rest b/n rep
Rest b/n set
Contents
set
Time Phase
(min)
Repetition
Day
Warming *Walking, jogging,
up
and running
*Synchronized
m o v e m e n t of hand
leg, arm- Stretching
5
min
10
min
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
 Alternative leg
bound
 Standing long
jump
 Alternative
leg stair bound
 Counter
monument
jump
jogging easy
High 9
min
9
min
9
min
9
min
6
4
15 sec
6
4
15sec
6
4
15 sec
6
3
15 sec
High 9min 8
3
15sec
9
min
9
6
4
15 sec
6
4
15 sec
Intensity
Month Week
15
min
April
Tuesday
35
min
Six
8 min
15
min
Saturday
35
min
Main
activity
exercise for leg and
hand stretching
Warming *Walking jogging
running
up
*Harmonized
movement for hand
and leg stretching
Main
Alternative leg bound
activity
Standing long jump
Alternative leg stair
Duration
8 min

Activity
duration in
repetition
- 65 -
10sec 1
min
10
1min
sec
10
1
sec
min
10sec 1
min
3
min
5
min
5
min
10
min
10
sec
10
sec
10
1
min
1
min
1
9
min
5
min
3
min
7
exercise for leg and
hand stretching
Contents
15
min
Tuesday
35
min
April
Warming Walking, jogging, and
up
running
Synchronized
m o v e m e n t of hand
leg, arm- Stretching
Main
activity
 Single leg
speed hop
 Alternative leg
bound
 Depth jump
 Sprint bound
Seven
8 min
15
min
Saturday
35
min
jogging easy
exercise for leg and
hand stretching
Warming Walking jogging
up
running
Harmonized movement
for hand and leg
stretching
Main
 Depth jump
activity
 Single leg
speed hop
 Alternative leg
bound
 Sprint bound
5
min
10
min
min
10
sec
1
min
Rest b/n set
Time Phase
(min)
15 sec
sec
Rest b/n rep
Day
Intensity
Month Week
3
Activity
duration in
repetition
Counter monument
jump
jogging easy
set
min
Repetition
8 min Cooling
down
bound
Duration
- 66 -
-
-
-
-
-
-
High 9
min
9
min
9
min
9
min
3
min
5
min
5
min
10
min
8
3
15 sec
6
4
15 sec
8
4
15 sec
6
4
15 sec
High 9
min
9
min
9
min
9
min
8
3
15sec
7
2
15 sec
8
4
15 sec
8
3
15 sec
10sec 1
min
10sec 1min
10
sec
10
sec
1
min
1
min
10
sec
10
sec
10
sec
10sec
1
min
1
min
1
min
1
min
- 67 -
jogging easy
Day
April
Time
(min)
Phase
Contents
15
min
Warming *Walking, jogging,
up
and running
*Synchronized
m o v e m e n t of hand
leg, arm- Stretching
Tuesday
35
min
Main
activity
 Depth jump
 Sprint bound
Eight
8 min
15
min
Saturday
35
min
 Alternative leg
bound
 Standing long
jump
jogging easy
exercise for leg and
hand stretching
Warming *Walking jogging
running
up
*Harmonized
movement for hand
and leg stretching
Main
 Depth bound
activity
 Sprint bound
 Alternative leg
bound
 Standing long
jump
Rest b/n set
Week
Intensity
Month
Activity
duration in
repetition
Rest b/n rep
exercise for leg and
hand stretching
Set
5
min
3
min
Repetition
Cooling
down
Duration
8 min
5
min
-
-
-
10
min
-
-
-
15
sec
15
sec
15
sec
15sec
15
sec
15
sec
15
sec
15
sec
1
min
1min
15
sec
15
sec
15
sec
15
sec
15
sec
15
sec
15
sec
15
sec
1
min
1
min
1
min
1
min
Moderate 9
min
9
min
9
min
9
min
3
min
5
min
5
min
10
min
6
4
6
3
8
2
8
2
Moderate 9
min
9
min
9
min
9
min
6
3
6
3
8
2
6
3
1
Min
1
min
- 68 -
8 min Cooling
down
jogging easy
exercise for leg and
hand stretching
Appendix 2 Familiarization of the training
5
min
3
min
- 69 -
Appendix 3 Standing long jump test
- 70 -
Appendix 4 Profile of participants
ID
No
Name
Age
Height(m) Weight(kg)
Training
experience
- 71 -
A
1.62
49
1.67
B
1.67
60
2
17
1.64
1.65
C
1.66
1.64
3
17
49
1.63
D
1.64
1.65
54
4
17
1.64
E
1.66
1.66
5
17
55
F
1.65
1.63
54
1.65
6
17
G
1.64
1.65
52
7
17
1.80
H
1.59
1.64
50
8
16
1.67
I
1.66
1.65
9
17
52
1.64
J
53
1.65
1.70
10
17
1.64
K
1.65
55
7
1.79
11
17
1.67
L
1.66
53
1.64
12
17
1.65
17
M
1.80
61
1.66
13
17
1.63
N
1.59
49
1.64
14
16
1.64
O
17
1.67
52
1.66
15
1.65
P
17
1.65
52
1.65
16
1.65
17
Q
16
1.64
55
1.80
1.59
18
R
17
1.70
47
1.67
1.65
19
S
17
1.64
55
1.64
20
T
17
1.79
55
1.70
1.64
1.79
1.67
1.64of the study participants
Appendix 5: Demographic characteristics
1.65
1.66
1.63
1.64
1.64
1.66
1.65
1.65
1.65
1
16
1
2
3
1
2
2
2
4
2222
222
2
3
4
2
2
2
4
2
4
0
0
0
0
- 72 -
Age (Year)
Mean
Height(m)
Weight(kg)
Training
S. D
Mean
S. D Mean
S. D
Experience (In the
year)
Mean
S. D
0.44
1.66
0.05
3.49
2 years
53.10
1.37649
9
16.75
Appendix 6: Pre and Post-test results on power, speed, agility, and speed
endurance on plyometric training.
- 73 -
ID
Name
ID
n
n
Pre-test
60-meter speed(sec)
Post-test
Pre-test
Post-test
1
A
1.70
1.75
7.89
7.12
2
B
1.80
1.85
8.57
7.87
3
C
1.85
2.20
7.46
6.50
4
D
1.84
2.30
7.82
6.60
5
E
1.83
2.00
7.89
6.54
6
F
1.80
2.00
7.46
7.26
7
G
1.79
1.95
8.09
7.28
8
H
1.76
1.96
8.47
7.50
9
I
1.80
1.88
8.39
7.98
10
J
1.70
2.05
8.55
7.45
11
K
1.75
1.82
8.11
7.60
12
L
1.85
2.15
7.72
7.40
13
M
1.64
1.95
8.67
7.59
14
N
1.63
1.80
9.01
8.20
15
O
1.71
1.85
8.32
7.75
16
P
170
1.88
7.72
7.98
17
Q
1.60
1.88
7.18
7.40
18
R
1.72
1.95
8.10
7.45
19
S
1.74
1.96
8.00
7.66
20
T
1.70
2.20
7.58
7.20
Name
Agility Illinois test(sec)
250 speed endurance(sec)
- 74 -
Pre-test
Post- test
Pre-test
Post- test
1
A
19.04
16.80
2
B
19.14
16.20
3
C
19.36
15.56
4
D
19.20
17.15
5
E
19.20
16.55
6
F
18.00
16.50
7
G
20.50
16.54
8
H
18.84
16.23
9
I
19.02
16.88
10
J
20.25
18.33
11
K
`18.49
16.29
12
L
18.23
15.67
34.84
32.88
13
M
19.74
17.53
34.43
34.33
14
N
19.59
16.87
43.43
38.70
15
O
19.57
17.00
37.25
37.07
16
P
19.25
16.98
35.16
32.03
17
Q
21.00
18.00
40.13
37.33
18
R
22.00
19.53
35.00
34.86
19
S
19,50
17.25
36.05
35.69
20
T
20.00
18.50
37.15
36.50
38.41
36.13
30.23
32.78
13
27.04
9
32.26
29.81
10
32.73
28.30
10
30.01
11
30.08
9
33.14
13
32.05
9
35.33
10
34.00
35.11
32.01
36.17
36.54
34.10
38.54
30.37
Appendix 7: Normative data for the standing long jump test and Illinois Agility
Run Test for 16 to 19 years old
- 75 -
The following table is for 15- to 16-year-old athletes
Gender
Excellent
Above
Average
Below
Average
Male
>2.01m
Female >1.66m
2.00-1.86m
1.65-1.56m
Poor
Average
1.85-
1.75-
1.76m
1.65m
1.55-
1.45-
1.46m
1.35m
1.66m
< 1.35
D.A. Chu; Explosive Power and Strength; Human Kinetics; 1996
Gender
Normative data of Illinois Agility Run Test for 16 to 19 years old
Excellent
Above
Average
Below
Poor
average
Male
Female
<15,2sec
<17.0sce
Source: Davis et al 2000
Average
15,2-16.1
16.2-18.1
18.2-19.3
sec
sec
sec
17.0-17.9
18.0-21.7
21.8-23.0
sec
sec
>19.3 sec
>23.0sec