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Reported by ACI Committee 357
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ACI 357.3R-14
Guide for Design
and Construction of
Waterfront and Coastal
Concrete Marine
Structures
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ISBN: 978-0-87031-937-2
Copyright by the American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI. All rights reserved. This material
may not be reproduced or copied, in whole or part, in any printed, mechanical, electronic, film, or other
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The technical committees responsible for ACI committee reports and standards strive to avoid
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documents occasionally find information or requirements that may be subject to more than one
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ACI documents are requested to contact ACI via the errata website at http://concrete.org/Publications/
DocumentErrata.aspx. Proper use of this document includes periodically checking for errata for the most
up-to-date revisions.
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Guide for Design and Construction of Waterfront and Coastal Concrete Marine
Structures
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ACI 357.3R-14
Guide for Design and Construction of Waterfront and
Coastal Concrete Marine Structures
Reported by ACI Committee 357
Domenic D’Argenzio, Chair
Mike S. Brannan
Lewis J. Cook
Per Fidjestol*
Michael J. Garlich
Kare Hjorteset
George C. Hoff, Secretary
Mohammad S. Khan
Jorge L. Quiros Jr.
Karl-Heinz Reineck
Thomas E. Spencer
Paul G. Tourney
Steven W. G. Yee
Samuel X. Yao
*
Consulting Members
Sara B. Finlayson
James N. Reed
Deceased
CONTENTS
Waterfront and coastal concrete marine structures are exposed
to severe environmental conditions for which concrete is ideally
suited. These conditions include wind; waves, including seiches
and tsunamis; ice and ship impact; abrasion and impact from
floating debris; passing vessel effects; and seismic events. As many
of these structures are pile-supported, the seismic loading can be
critical and, therefore, a discussion of piles and their installation
is included in this guide. Also provided are the measures that can
be taken to minimize the undesirable effects of these environmental
factors and reduce the potential for serious problems.
This guide also defines waterfront and coastal concrete marine
structures, discusses materials that can be used to construct them,
describes potential durability issues and how to mitigate them, and
presents sustainability and serviceability requirements. Design
loads, analysis techniques, design methodology, and construction
considerations are also presented. Other topics include quality
control (QC), above-water and below-water inspection of these
structures, and repair of damaged structures. The materials,
processes, QC measures, and inspections described in this guide
should be tested, monitored, or performed as applicable only by
qualified individuals holding the appropriate ACI certifications or
equivalent.
CHAPTER 1—GENERAL, p. 2
1.1—Introduction, p. 2
1.2—Scope, p. 2
CHAPTER 2—NOTATION AND DEFINITIONS, p. 2
2.1––Notation, p. 2
2.2—Definitions, p. 3
CHAPTER 3—TYPES AND STRUCTURAL
CONFIGURATIONS OF CONCRETE MARINE
STRUCTURES, p. 4
3.1—General definition, p. 4
3.2—Functional classification, p. 4
3.3—Layout and operational terminology, p. 4
3.4—Structural configurations, p. 5
3.5—Application of concrete in marine structures, p. 5
3.6—Concrete marine structures in contemporary design
practice, p. 5
CHAPTER 4—MATERIALS, p. 5
4.1—General, p. 5
4.2—Cementitious materials, p. 5
4.3—Aggregates, p. 7
4.4—Water, p. 7
4.5—Chemical admixtures, p. 7
4.6—Concrete, p. 8
4.7—Fibers, p. 8
4.8—Deformed reinforcement, p. 8
Keywords: construction procedures; durability; inspection; marine structures; materials, quality control; serviceability; sustainability; structural
analysis; structural design.
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, and Commentaries are
intended for guidance in planning, designing, executing, and
inspecting construction. This document is intended for the use
of individuals who are competent to evaluate the significance
and limitations of its content and recommendations and who
will accept responsibility for the application of the material it
contains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and
all responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall
not be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom.
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract
documents. If items found in this document are desired by
the Architect/Engineer to be a part of the contract documents,
they shall be restated in mandatory language for incorporation
by the Architect/Engineer.
ACI 357.3R-14 was adopted and published October 2014.
Copyright © 2014, American Concrete Institute.
All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any
means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic or
mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in
writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
4.9—Prestressing systems, p. 10
4.10—Prestressing anchorages, p. 10
4.11—Prestressing ducts, p. 11
4.12—Grout for bonded prestressing tendons, p. 12
CHAPTER 5—DURABILTY, p. 12
5.1—General, p. 12
5.2—Exposure zones, p. 12
5.3—Marine durability problems, p. 13
5.4—Concrete mixture design considerations, p. 14
5.5—Protection against corrosion of reinforcement, p. 14
5.6—Abrasion resistance, p. 16
5.7—Service life prediction models, p. 17
CHAPTER 6—SUSTAINABILITY AND
SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS, p. 17
6.1—General, p. 17
6.2—Sustainability for waterfront and coastal concrete
structures, p. 17
6.3—Marine environments and their demands on waterfront and coastal structures, p. 18
6.4—Serviceability requirements, p. 19
6.5—Component replacement, p. 19
CHAPTER 7—LOADS, ANALYSIS, AND DESIGN, p.
19
7.1—Requirements and design criteria, p. 19
7.2—General requirements for loads, p. 19
7.3—Dead loads, p. 19
7.4—Vertical live loads, p. 19
7.5—Horizontal loads, p. 20
7.6—Ice loads, p. 20
7.7—Thermal loads, p. 20
7.8—Deformation loads, p. 21
7.9—Seismic loads, p. 21
7.10—Load combinations, p. 21
7.11—Design concepts, p. 21
7.12—Analysis, p. 23
7.13—Design of members, p. 24
7.14—Member design for seismic loads, p. 26
7.15 —Pile design, p. 26
7.16—Consideration of slope deformations, p. 28
CHAPTER 8—CONSTRUCTION
CONSIDERATIONS, p. 28
8.1—General, p. 28
8.2—Environmental and physical constraints, p. 29
8.3—Local construction experience and practice, p. 29
8.4—Construction staging and access, p. 29
8.5—Construction methods, p. 29
CHAPTER 9—QUALITY CONTROL AND
INSPECTION, p. 31
9.1—Introduction, p. 31
9.2—Quality control tests, p. 32
9.3—Inspection, p. 32
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CHAPTER 10—REPAIR, p. 35
10.1—General, p. 35
10.2—Strength and durability, p. 35
10.3—Above-water repairs, p. 35
10.4—Below-water repairs, p. 36
CHAPTER 11—REFERENCES, p. 37
APPENDIX A, p. 44
CHAPTER 1—GENERAL
1.1—Introduction
The use of properly designed, durable, and sustainable
concrete is an economical approach to the design of marine
structures. Except for some criteria in ACI 357R and specialized criteria in other ACI guides on durability, there are no
comprehensive guidelines or standards that cover the application of concrete in the marine environment for coastal
marine structures. Current building codes and ACI standards
do not address the requirements unique to the design of
these structures, with the exception of special applications
or requirements for piles and concrete durability. This guide
provides design guidance for the use of concrete for coastal
marine structures, and is intended to complement other
design manuals and guides used for this purpose.
1.2—Scope
This guide primarily covers marine structures used
for berthing marine vessels in protected harbors, and for
supporting the associated loads. Structures covered by this
guide include pile-supported platforms, bulkheads, and
gravity structures. It is not intended to cover marine structures such as gravity block walls, tunnels, breakwaters,
floating structures, or offshore platforms. Emphasis is placed
on special considerations for marine concrete and guidance for the design and construction of marine structures.
Because of the severe nature of the marine environment and
associated loading conditions, certain recommendations in
this report are intended to complement the requirements of
ACI 318.
Existing design guides are used for basic concepts, loadings, marine hardware, and other criteria that affect the use
of concrete in marine structures. There are some comprehensive manuals that cover functional and structural guidelines for the design of coastal marine structures (MILHDBK-1025 2006; BS 6349-1 to 8; Goda et al. 2009; EAU
2004; Ports, Customs and Free Zone Corporation 2007;
Werner 1998; FEMA P-55 2011.
CHAPTER 2—NOTATION AND DEFINITIONS
2.1––Notation
D = dead loads
E = earthquake loads
EI = flexural stiffness
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel
Ev = vertical seismic load
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
F
=
Fa =
H =
I
=
L
Lr
M
R
S
T
=
=
=
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=
W
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loads due to weight and pressure of fluids with
well-defined densities and controllable maximum
heights
flood load
loads due to weight and pressure of soil, water in
soil, or other materials
moment of inertia of an uncracked reinforced
concrete cross section
live loads
roof live load
moment
response modification factor, or rain load
snow load
cumulative effect of temperature, creep, shrinkage,
differential and settlement
wind load
distance between resultants of the internal compressive and tensile ties in strut-and-tie model
2.2—Definitions
ACI provides a comprehensive list of definitions through
an online resource, “ACI Concrete Terminology,” http://
www.concrete.org/Tools/ConcreteTerminology.aspx. The
definitions provided herein compliment that resource.
air gap—distance from the underside of the structures
deck to the datum high water level.
arctic structures—floating or fixed structures for exploration and production of oil and gas in ice-infested waters
above the Arctic Circle.
B-region—a portion of a member where the plane section
assumption of flexural theory can be applied.
barge-like structures—a floating vessel with vertical
walls and a near-rectangular plan; the bow and stern may be
raked or shaped as required.
batter action—the phenomenon that occurs if a horizontal
load is applied to a pair of piles connected in an A-frame
configuration; one that causes an axial compressive load in
the batter pile and a vertical tension load in the vertical pile
of the A-frame.
batter piles—piles with a receding upward slope of the
outer surface of the pile.
berm—a narrow shelf or ledge typically at the bottom of
a slope.
coastal structure—any facility built in close proximity
to the ocean.
D-region—The portion of a member within a distance h
from a force discontinuity or a geometric discontinuity.
earthquake-induced liquefaction—for soils, the process
of making or becoming a liquid.
fixed offshore structures—structures that are founded on
the seabed and obtain their stability from the vertical forces
of gravity.
floating structures—structures that are temporally, intermittently, or continuously afloat.
graving dock—another term for dry dock, which is a relatively narrow, long basin, into which a vessel can be floated
3
and the water pumped out, leaving the vessel supported on
blocks; used for building or repairing a vessel below the
waterline.
gravity structures—see fixed offshore structures.
marine growth—a term applied to biofouling organisms
that attach themselves to marine structures. The organisms
are classified as hard or soft fouling types. Hard (Calcareous) fouling organisms include barnacles, encrusting bryozoans, mollusks, polychaete and other tube worms, and
zebra mussels. Examples of soft (noncalcareous) fouling
organisms are seaweed, hydroids, algae, and biofilm “slime.”
Together, these organisms form a fouling community that
increases the drag forces on the structure from waves and
tides.
marine structure—any facility built to function in contact
with a body of water.
mudline—the top of the soil surface underlying a body
of water.
offshore concrete structures—fixed reinforced or
prestressed concrete, or both reinforced and prestressed
concrete structures, for service in deeper waters far from the
shoreline.
offshore terminal—facility built far from the shoreline
but connected to the shore by roadways or bridges.
p-delta analysis—analysis to quantify the changes in
ground shear or overturning moment, or through axial force
distribution at the base of a structural component, or all of
the above, due to a lateral displacement.
p-y analysis—Analysis to characterize the lateral load
behavior of a single embedded pile.
pier—a platform structure extending from the shore into
the sea for use as a landing place or promenade or to protect
or form a harbor.
pucher influence field charts—a series of contour
plots of influence surfaces for various plate and loading
geometries that can be used for deck design. For example,
local moments in the deck slab due to wheel loads can be
determined.
rip-rap—a loose assemblage of stones erected in water to
prevent erosion of a shoreline or foundation.
scour—Erosive action of moving water that removes
material, creates holes, or lowers the sea floor adjacent to
structures.
slipway—a sloping surface leading down to water on
which ships are built or repaired. Marine structures can be
moved to and from the water. Also called a marine railway
on where ships or vessels can be moved to and from the
water.
tidal fluctuations—the rise and fall of the water surface
from low tide to high tide levels
waterfront structure—any facility built along the edge
of a shoreline.
wharf—a structure built along, or at an angle from, the
shore for berthing ships to receive and discharge cargo and
passengers.
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
CHAPTER 3—TYPES AND STRUCTURAL
CONFIGURATIONS OF CONCRETE MARINE
STRUCTURES
3.1—General definition
The term “marine structure” is usually applied to facilities constructed at or near a river or seashore to perform the
functions associated with the activities such as transportation of cargo or people, shore protection, shipbuilding,
fishing, recreational, and military and research installations. Detached structures, while physically not connected
to the shore, retain close association with the shore in their
basic functions. An example would be detached breakwaters. Consequently, detached structures are usually treated
in the same way as shore-located or shore-connected facilities. With the growth and expansion of oil exploration
and production on the continental shelf, structures erected
in the sea for these purposes acquired the name “offshore
structures.” A true offshore structure is a facility structurally detached from the shore (a pipeline is not a structural
connection) and built to function independently from shorerelated activities with complete autonomy.
Based on this definition, offshore terminals, which are
sometimes built far from the shoreline to extend mooring
and berthing operations into deeper water, cannot be considered as true offshore structures because they are connected
to the shore by roadways or bridges. Historically, offshore
construction is a relatively recent development; the term
“marine structure” was applied to any facility built to function in contact with the seawater. With the appearance of
offshore structures as a distinctly different group, the term
“marine structure” was retained in engineering practice for
the remaining types of marine facilities. In this sense, marine
structures can be very broadly defined as “any structure built
to function in contact with the seawater, except offshore
structures.” The term “waterfront and coastal concrete
marine structure” is used in this guide to help differentiate
the difference from offshore marine structures. This guide
will primarily cover maritime structures used for berthing
ships and supporting uniform and transit loads. It is not
intended to cover all types of marine structures, including
gravity block walls, jetties, breakwaters, and other shore
protection structures. Refer to the Coastal Engineering
Manual of the Engineer Research and Development Department (ERDC 2002) of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers for
shore protection structures.
3.2—Functional classification
Most frequently, marine structures are defined by their
basic function. This classification comes naturally for all
types of structures because they are designed and constructed
for certain purposes. Marine structures built for nonmilitary
applications include seven general groups that can be most
readily identified in Table 3.2.
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Table 3.2—Functional classification of marine
structures
Berthing and mooring facilities
Wave protection
Ship-building and ship repairs
Shore protection
Seawater crossings and canals
Navigation
Special structures
a) General cargo wharves and piers
b) Bulk cargo wharves and piers
c) Container terminals
d) Oil and liquid gas terminals
e) Roll-on, roll-off wharves
f) Passenger and ferry terminals
g) Mooring and turning dolphins
h) Single-point moorings*
i) Small craft slips
a) Breakwaters*
b) Wave deflection walls*
a) Graving docks*
b) Floating dry docks*
c) Slips
d) Travelifts
e) Piers
f) Outfitting berths
a) Armored slopes*
b) Embankments*
c) Groins*
d) Tidal barriers*
e) Concrete-filled slope protection
a) Bridges over waterways*
b) Underwater tunnels*
c) Locks*
a) Light towers
a) Tidal and wave power
generation
b) Recreational piers
c) Fishing piers
d) Floating plants and pump
stations*
e) Intakes and outfalls
f) Structures and reclaimed areas
for extension of land-based
operations (for example, airports,
recreational sports facilities, and
residential)
Not covered in this report.
*
3.3—Layout and operational terminology
Many important features of marine structures that may
affect their operational and design parameters are associated with the facility layout. Structures built along the shore
with continuous parallel waterfront and rear land operational
areas are called wharves. The terms “quay”, “quaywall”,
seawall”, and “dock” are also used to describe berthing/
mooring facilities constructed parallel to the shore, although
the term “wharf” is widely preferred by American marine
structural engineers.
Structures that extend into the seawater at some angle to
the shoreline are called piers. Narrow piers for roadways,
walkways, and pipe support are frequently referred to as
jetties. Large reclaimed areas that extended from the shoreline and have marginal wharves along the remaining three
waterfront sides are usually referred to as wide piers. In some
major ports, the term “berth” is used to describe a portion of
the waterfront allocated for handling of a single ship, while
the word “wharf” is reserved for a larger continuous section
of the waterfront constructed at a certain period of time. A
wharf may consist of several berths.
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
3.4—Structural configurations
All the terms for description of the functional and operational features of marine structures and their layout as
described in this guide can be used in the design documents
for a project. However, the content and flow of information
in the design documents should be defined on the basis of
structural classification. For example, a project task may be
described as the design of a passenger pier or an oil terminal.
However, the design procedure used to perform this task
will be either for a piled platform, sheet pile wall, or gravity
structure, depending on the structural configuration chosen
for the facility to be designed. A review of existing practice
shows that, on the most basic level, there are five structural
concepts used for design of marine structures (Fig 3.4):
1) Piled platforms
2) Bulkheads
3) Gravity structures
4) Rubble mounds
5) Floating structures
These five general groups can be used to create a substantial
number of specific structural configurations by combining
several structural concepts. For example, sheet pile cells are
gravity structures where the fill (providing the gravity-generated stability) is retained by bulkheads; relieving piled platforms are placed behind frontal gravity or bulkhead structures to reduce the lateral pressure from the deck surcharge
or crane loads; and bulkheads and rubble-mound dikes are
used to retain the fill at the rear of open piled wharves. The
design manual cannot address all possible varieties of structural types and configurations, but it can be made useful and
relatively concise if the design procedures for the five basic
concepts are considered.
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3.5—Application of concrete in marine structures
Concrete is widely used in the design of all functional
types of marine structures, as well as in all structural
concepts described in the previous sections. While steel
structures and steel components are also widely used in
marine construction, the general industry trend is to limit
the application of steel where possible due to the higher
durability of concrete in the marine environment. Concrete
is used for marine design in all of its traditional forms: castin-place, precast, prestressed, pretensioned, post-tensioned,
and in combinations of these. A recent design of a large pier
included cylinder concrete piles consisting of pretensioned,
prestressed sections assembled by post-tensioning, and pile
caps that included precast and cast-in-place sections. The
composite deck included pretensioned, prestressed planks
that served as the forms for cast-in-place topping. At the
same time, the prestressed planks were incorporated into the
structural design of the deck to create composite action in
bending.
Some of the major components of marine structures can be
made of steel. The most typical examples of the combined
application of concrete and steel are concrete decks on steelpile wharves, or steel-sheet pile bulkheads with a concrete
cap. Gravity structures, with the exception of sheet-pile
cells, are made of concrete. Concrete is almost exclusively
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5
used for armor units of rubble mound breakwaters, slope
protection, and wharf and pier deck structures.
3.6—Concrete marine structures in contemporary
design practice
The application of concrete for marine construction
began more than 100 years ago. During this period, a large
variety of structural configurations were created by marine
designers. At some stages of this process, certain concepts
were preferred over others. For example, concrete gravity
structures dominated in European design practice prior to
World War II, with most of the wharves built of concrete
blocks or of large caissons. The development of prestressed
concrete pile technology generated considerable growth in
the number of piled wharves. There appeared also a distinct
difference in the basic approach between designers of
American and European schools. In Europe, the traditional
approach, based on the idea that the main goal of design is to
achieve the most efficient use of structural materials, is still
very much alive. Because the design of marine structures is
greatly affected by the geotechnical conditions of the site,
this approach invariably leads to customizing or tailoring of
the design to better suit existing conditions. As a result, a
greater variety of structural configurations are created.
In contemporary American practice, the main goal almost
universally is to simplify the construction and to minimize
construction labor and equipment costs. Consequently, fewer
structural types are used and considerable effort is made to
increase the application of precast or modular components.
The open wharf on concrete piles is emerging as the most
popular type of concrete marine structure in the United
States. Precast concrete sheet pile bulkheads are widely used
as well.
CHAPTER 4—MATERIALS
4.1—General
This chapter discusses the materials used in waterfront
and coastal concrete structures. Selected references and
experience are included for background information. For
a more extensive discussion of concrete durability, refer to
ACI 201.2R.
4.2—Cementitious materials
4.2.1 Portland cement—Portland cements of Types I, II,
and III corresponding to ASTM C150/C150M are considered satisfactory for use in a marine environment. Blended
hydraulic cements conforming to ASTM C595/C595M
are also considered suitable by some authorities for use in
marine concrete. Other types of cement, such as ASTM
C1157/C1157M, are also in use in areas where other ASTM
cements are not available. These other cements should have
demonstrated performance in waterfront and coastal marine
structures and be approved by the owner. The tricalcium
aluminate (C3A) content in cement is important to protect
against sulfate attack and chloride-induced corrosion of
reinforcement. Higher C3A contents reduce the potential for
reinforcement corrosion by binding with chloride entering
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
Fig. 3.4—Typical sections of different marine structures.
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
4.3—Aggregates
Aggregates for marine structures should conform to ASTM
C33/C33M or ASTM C330/C330M. Both standards cover
fine and coarse aggregates. Lightweight aggregates (ASTM
C330/C330M) are often used in floating concrete structures
or to reduce dead load in structures. Use care selecting an
aggregate with an appropriate modulus and ultimate strain
capacity. The crushing strength, abrasion resistance, and
elastic modulus of aggregates are interrelated properties that
are greatly influenced by porosity. Aggregates from natural
sources are generally dense and strong and, therefore, are
seldom a limiting factor to the strength and elastic properties of concrete. With sedimentary rocks, the porosity varies
over a wide range, as will the crushing strength and related
characteristics. Additional guidance on aggregates and their
use can be found in ACI 221R.
The use of reactive aggregates should be avoided. The
potential for adverse alkalis in the cement or seawater and
silica in the aggregates should be evaluated (ACI 201.2R).
Marine sand and aggregates typically should not be used in
reinforced concrete. However, in regions where they are the
only aggregates available, such as in the Middle East, they
can be repeatedly washed to remove deleterious materials.
Additional information on aggregates is given in ACI 221R.
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4.4—Water
It is preferable to use fresh, clean, potable water in reinforced concrete for marine structures. However, seawater
has been used in concrete that does not contain any carbon
steel reinforcement or other metallic items. Water used for
curing, washing aggregates, and as mixing water should
conform to ASTM C1602/C1602M. ASTM C1602/C1602M
allows the use of potable water without testing and includes
methods for qualifying nonpotable sources of water with
consideration of effects on setting time and strength. Testing
frequencies are established to ensure continued monitoring
of water quality. ASTM C1602/C1602M includes optional
limits for chlorides, sulfates, alkalis, and solids in mixing
water that can be invoked if appropriate.
4.5—Chemical admixtures
4.5.1 General requirements—Chemical admixtures for
concrete may be used for concrete workability or to impart
special properties. All admixtures should be compatible
with selected concrete materials and other admixtures.
Storing, handling, and dispensing admixtures should follow
manufacturer’s recommendations. Detailed information on
chemical admixtures for use in concrete can be found in ACI
212.3R, Mailvaganam and Rixom (1999), Ramachandran
(2011), and Spiratos et al. (2003).
4.5.2 Admixtures for water reduction and setting time
modification—These admixtures should conform to ASTM
C494/C494M. Admixtures for use in producing flowing
concrete should conform to ASTM C1017/C1017M. The
various classifications for these types of admixtures are as
follows:
a) Type A—water-reducing admixtures
b) Type B—retarding admixtures
c) Type C—accelerating admixtures
d) Type D—water-reducing and retarding admixtures
e) Type E—water-reducing and accelerator admixtures
f) Type F— high-range water-reducing admixtures
g) Type G— high-range, water-reducing, and retarding
admixtures
4.5.3 Air-entraining admixtures—Concrete exposed to
freezing and thawing conditions should be air entrained.
ACI 201.2R gives recommended air contents for frost-resistant concrete. Air-entraining admixtures should conform to
ASTM C260/C260M.
4.5.4 Miscellaneous admixtures—There are a large
number of other chemical admixtures that can be used in
concrete. They include the following:
a) Gas-forming admixtures
b) Grouting admixtures
c) Extended set-control admixtures
d) Bonding admixtures
e) Pumping aids
f) Pigments
g) Flocculating admixtures
h) Fungicidal, germicidal, and insecticidal admixtures
i) Permeability-reducing admixtures
j) Chemical admixtures to reduce AAR expansion
k) Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures
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the concrete. Lower C3A contents help protect the concrete
against sulfate attack. Cement with a C3A content of 5 to 8
percent is typically recommended in a marine environment
to reduce steel corrosion (ACI 201.2R). Because sulfate
attack on marine structures is not common compared to
chloride ion attack, Type V portland cement generally is not
recommended for concrete in a marine environment because
of its low C3A content.
4.2.2 Mineral admixtures—Reductions in the permeability
of concrete, alkali-silica reactivity, and sulfate chemical
attack may be achieved by the use of fly ash (ACI 232.2R),
slag cement (ACI 233R), or silica fume (ACI 234R) as part
of the cementitious materials (Mehta and Monteiro 2006;
Malhotra and Mehta 2004). The use of fly ash or slag cement
can assist in the reduction of heat development in large
placements during hydration, reducing the risk of thermal
cracking. The use of fly ash (Malhotra and Ramezanianpour
1994) or silica fume (Holland 2005) can also mitigate the
effects of alkali-aggregate reactivity (AAR) and can be verified using ASTM C441/C441M and ASTM C311.
Fly ash is available as both Type F and Type C, depending
on the type of coal that it originated from; both types have
been used in waterfront and coastal concrete structures. Type
F fly ash is generally preferred because of durability benefits
in concrete in a marine environment. It is shown to have
more resistance to alkali-aggregate reactions and sulfate
attack than Type C fly ash (Malhotra and Ramezanianpour
1994).
Fly ash and other pozzolans should conform to ASTM
C618 and may be used in amounts recommended by ACI
211.4R. Slag is covered by ASTM C989/C989M. Silica
fume is used in concrete as a partial replacement or in addition to cement and should conform to ASTM C1240.
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
l) Anti-washout admixtures
m) Freeze-resistant admixtures
n) Hydration stabilizers
More detailed information on these admixtures can be
found in ACI 212.3R. Most of these miscellaneous admixtures are only used for special situations in waterfront and
coastal marine concrete structures. Of this list, the more
common applications include the use of corrosion-inhibiting admixtures, chemical admixtures to reduce AAR, and
permeability-reducing admixtures.
4.5.5 Nonstandard admixtures—Admixtures to be used in
concrete that do not conform to 4.5.1 and 4.5.2 should be
evaluated prior to use and approved by the project owner.
4.5.6 Admixture compatibility—If two or more admixtures
are used in concrete, their compatibility should be checked
and documented in accordance with ASTM C1679.
4.5.7 Chloride-containing admixtures—Calcium chloride or admixtures containing chloride from sources other
than impurities in admixture ingredients should not be used
in reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, in concrete
containing embedded aluminum, or in concrete cast against
stay-in-place galvanized steel forms.
4.6—Concrete
Concrete should be proportioned in accordance with
ACI 211.1, ACI 211.2, ACI 211.3R, ACI 211.4R, and ACI
211.5R. The recommended minimum 28-day cylinder
compressive strength is 5000 psi (35 MPa), although many
marine structures are constructed with concrete strengths
that exceed this value.
4.7—Fibers
4.7.1 Introduction—The use of fiber-reinforced concrete
or fiber-reinforced shotcrete may be permitted on some
construction projects. These fibers are typically steel or
polypropylene, but other polymeric type fibers are also available. A standard specification for fiber-reinforced concrete is
ASTM C1116/C1116M.
4.7.2 Steel fibers—Steel fibers can be used in concrete to
improve certain properties (refer to ACI 544.3R and ACI
544.4R), including:
a) Compressive ductility
b) Tensile strength and ductility/toughness
c) Shear strength and ductility
d) Crack control
e) Fatigue resistance
Actual properties will depend on the amount and type of
fiber used as described in ACI 544.1R. Steel fiber types are
defined by ASTM A820/A820M.
4.7.3 Polypropylene fibers—Polypropylene or other
synthetic fibers have been used to improve early crack resistance to drying shrinkage. They can also improve the resistance to spalling of concrete in fire that can occur in facilities
used in the loading and unloading of hydrocarbon products
(Hoff et al. 1997; Hoff 1998). Documented evidence of
satisfactory performance in a temperature range to which
the concrete will be exposed in service should be requested
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from the producer of the fibers. Documented evidence can
be provided by laboratory testing.
Not all types of polymer fiber provide the same level of
protection against spalling in fire. Discrete fibers are more
effective than fibrillated fibers (ACI 544.1R). Some research
has shown that the proportion of fiber required to prevent
spalling is greater in prestressed concrete than normally
reinforced concrete, and that the proportion increases with
the level of prestress.
4.8—Deformed reinforcement
4.8.1 Carbon steel bars—Deformed carbon steel reinforcing bars should conform to the requirements of ASTM
A615/A615M. This specification covers deformed and plain
carbon-steel bars for concrete reinforcements in cut lengths
and coils. Bars are of four minimum yield strength levels:
namely, 40,000, 60,000, 75,000, and 80,000 psi (280, 420,
520, and 550 MPa), designated as Grade 40, 60, 75, and
80 (Grade 280, 420, 520, and 550), respectively. Steel bars
containing alloy additions can be permitted if the resulting
product meets all other requirements of this specification.
The standard sizes and dimensions of deformed bars and
their number designations are given in ASTM A615/A615M.
Steel specimens should undergo tensile tests and conform
to required values of tensile strength, yield strength, and
elongation. Steel samples should also undergo deformation,
tension, and bend tests.
Welding of ASTM A615/A615M reinforcement should
be approached with caution because no specific provisions have been included to enhance its weldability. As the
carbon percentage content of steel rises, steel has the ability
to become harder and stronger through heat treating. The
steel, however, becomes less ductile through heat treating.
Regardless of the heat treatment, higher carbon content
reduces weldability. If steel is to be welded, a welding procedure suitable for the chemical composition and intended use
or service should be used. The use of AWS D1.4/D1.4M is
recommended, which describes the proper selection of filler
metals and preheat/interpass temperatures, as well as performance and procedure qualification requirements.
4.8.2 Low-carbon chromium bars—Low-carbon chromium bars have been used in waterfront and coastal structures where long-term service life was specified. The composition of these bars is such that corrosion is reduced.
These bars are covered by ASTM A1035/A1035M.
This specification covers low-carbon chromium steel bars,
deformed and plain, for concrete reinforcement in cut lengths
and coils. The standard sizes and dimensions of these bars
and their number designations are given in ASTM A1035/
A1035M. Bars are of two minimum yield strength levels:
100,000 and 120,000 psi (690 and 830 MPa), designated as
Grade 100 and 120 (Grade 690 and 830), respectively.
Designers should be aware that typical design standards
limit the design strength to 80,000 psi (550 MPa), except
for prestressing steel and spiral transverse reinforcement.
Members reinforced with bars with yield strengths that
are considerably above 80,000 psi (550 MPa) may exhibit
behavior that differs from that expected of conventional rein-
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
forced concrete members, or may require special detailing to
ensure adequate performance at service and factored loads.
The stress-strain behavior of these bars is different from the
ASTM A615/A615M bars in that there is no distinct yield
stress, although methods of defining it have been developed.
Information on the use of these bars in design can be found
in ACI ITG-6R for Grade 100 bars.
Welding of ASTM A1035/A1035M reinforcement should
be approached with caution because no specific provisions
have been included to enhance its weldability. If this steel is
to be welded, a welding procedure suitable for the chemical
composition and intended use or service should be used.
4.8.3 Low-alloy bars—ASTM A706/A706M for lowalloy bars may be specified if restrictive mechanical properties and chemical composition are required for compatibility
with controlled tensile property applications or to enhance
weldability.
Bars are of two minimum yield strength levels: 60,000
and 80,000 psi (420 and 550 MPa), designated as Grade 60
and 80 (Grade 420 and 550), respectively. Plain bars, in sizes
up to and including 2-1/2 in. (63.5 mm) in diameter can be
furnished in cut lengths under this specification. Reinforcing
bars up to and including 0.75 in. (19 mm) can be ordered in
coils.
ASTM A706/A706M limits the mechanical properties to
provide the desired yield/tensile properties for controlled
tensile property applications. This specification also limits
the chemical composition and carbon equivalent to enhance
the weldability of the material. If ASTM A706/A706M
steel is to be welded, a welding procedure suitable for the
chemical composition and intended use or service should be
used. The use of the latest edition of AWS D1.4/D1.4M is
recommended. This document describes the proper selection
of the filler metals, preheat/interpass temperatures, as well as
performance and procedure qualification requirements.
4.8.4 Other corrosion-resistant bars
4.8.4.1 Types of corrosion-resistant bars—A number of
other types of reinforcing bars that have had limited use for
corrosion resistance in waterfront and coastal concrete structures are:
a) Epoxy-coated
b) Glass fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)
c) Solid stainless steel
d) Stainless-clad
e) Hot-dip galvanized
4.8.4.2 Epoxy-coated bars—Epoxy coated bars are
covered by ASTM A775/A775M or ASTM A934/A934M.
These specifications cover both deformed and plain steel
reinforcing bars. The steel is blast-cleaned and coated with
a protective fusion-bonded epoxy coating by electrostatic
spray or other suitable method. Steel specimens typically
undergo deformation tests, holiday checks, bending tests,
and cathodic disbondment test. The specifications include
required values of coating thickness, continuity, flexibility,
and adhesion.
ASTM A934/A934M is applied to prefabricated reinforcing bar elements that have been prebent or shaped. If the
construction project requires epoxy-coated steel reinforcing
9
bars that should be able to sustain field bending or rebending,
the use of coated bars conforming to ASTM A775/A775M
may be considered. However, issues about using these
bars have occurred as indicated in 4.5.7. Suggested project
specifications provisions for epoxy-coated reinforcing bars
are presented by Gustafson (1999). Other organic coatings
may be used, provided they meet the requirements of these
specifications.
4.8.4.3 Solid stainless steel bars—Solid stainless steel
bars are covered by ASTM A1022/A1022M and ASTM
A276. These specifications cover stainless steel wire and
welded-wire reinforcement produced from hot-rolled stainless steel rod. The stainless steel wire is cold-worked, drawn
or rolled, plain (nondeformed), deformed, or a combination
of deformed and plain. It is used as concrete reinforcement
for applications requiring resistance to corrosion, controlled
magnetic permeability, or both. Common wire sizes and
dimensions are found in these specifications.
The chemical composition of the steel (stainless grade)
should be selected for suitability to the application involved
by agreement between the manufacturer and the purchaser.
Use ASTM A276 for chemical requirements.
Only austenitic and duplex stainless steels are usually
recommended for use as reinforcement in concrete because
of their high corrosion resistance. Austenitic stainless steels
have good general corrosion resistance, strength characteristics which can be improved by cold working, good
toughness and ductility properties at low temperatures, and
low magnetic permeability. Duplex stainless steels generally have a corrosion resistance greater than that of most
austenitic steels and are magnetic. Other stainless steels
with different chemical compositions than the series and
types mentioned previously may be used for less-restrictive
applications.
The Unified Numbering System (UNS), which is an alloy
designation system, is to be included with the type number
and noted in brackets—that is, austenitic stainless steels as
Type 304 (S30400), 304L (S30403), 316 (S31600), 316L
(S31603), 316N (S31651), 316LN (S31653), and duplex
stainless steel Types 2205 (S32205) and 329 (S32900).
4.8.4.4 Glass FRP bars—The performance of glass FRP
bars is typically defined by their longitudinal tensile strength
and elongation. From a tension test, a variety of data are
acquired that are needed for design purposes. Materialrelated factors that influence the tensile response of bars,
and that should therefore be reported, include the following:
constituent materials; void content; volume percent reinforcement; methods of fabrication; and fiber reinforcement
architecture. Much of this information can be obtained from
the manufacturer of the bars. Additional information is available in ACI 440.6.
ASTM D7205/D7205M test method determines the
quasi-static longitudinal tensile strength and elongation
properties of FRP matrix composite bars commonly used as
tensile elements in reinforced, prestressed, or post-tensioned
concrete. Properties, in the test direction, that may be
obtained from this test method include:
a) Ultimate tensile strength
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
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b) Ultimate tensile strain
c) Tensile chord modulus of elasticity
d) Stress-strain curve
The strength values provided by this method are shortterm static strengths that do not account for sustained static
or fatigue loading. Additional material characterization may
be required, especially for bars that are to be used under high
levels of sustained or repeated loading.
4.8.4.5 Galvanized reinforcement—Galvanized reinforcing bars are produced by hot-dip galvanizing in a bath of
molten zinc. The molten zinc reacts with the steel surface of
the bars to form stratified zinc-iron alloy layers that are metalurgically bonded to the steel. Galvanized reinforcing bars
have been used for more than 50 years and are the standard
method of protecting reinforcing steel in many countries.
Individual galvanized reinforcing bars are covered by
ASTM A767/A767M. Fabricated reinforcing steel bar
assemblies are covered by ASTM A123/A123M. ASTM
A123/A123M also covers the standard requirements for
hot-dip galvanized zinc coatings on iron and steel products made from rolled pressed and forged shapes, castings,
plates, bars, and strips that can also be used in waterfront and
coastal structures. ASTM A767/A767M requires post-treatment of the galvanized bar with a chromate solution, whereas
ASTM A123/A123M does not. Where ASTM A767/A767M
is specified, ASTM A123/A123M-certified material should
not be substituted without prior written approval from the
specifier.
Design codes treat carbon steel and galvanized steel the
same. The zinc coating on a galvanized piece of steel will add
5 to 7 percent to the original weight. The after-galvanizing
weight should be considered when scheduling transportation
of galvanized material to avoid over-loading trucks.
4.8.4.6 Stainless-clad bars—AASHTO M329M/M329
is a standard specification for these types of bars. Additional information and data for specifying these bars can be
obtained from the bar supplier and manufacturer.
4.8.4.7 Zinc and epoxy dual-coated steel reinforcing
bars—ASTM A1055/A1055M covers deformed and plain
steel reinforcing bars with a dual coating of zinc alloy and an
epoxy coating. The zinc alloy layer is applied by a thermal
spray coating method that is followed by an epoxy coating.
4.9—Prestressing systems
4.9.1 Introduction and definitions—Prestressing systems
can be either pretensioned or post-tensioned. Both systems
are used in waterfront and coastal structures. In a pretensioned structural element, the prestressing strands or bars
are tensioned prior to casting the section. Pretensioning is
normally performed at precasting plants. Post-tensioning
is defined as when the prestressing tendons are tensioned
after the concrete has been cast and has achieved a required
level of strength. Prestressed reinforcement used in waterfront and coastal structures can include single strands and
wires, multistrand tendons, and bars. The materials used in
these systems are similar and are described in the following
sections. Prestressing systems have been developed by
competitive companies and, although they may have
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different approaches and different preferences for some of
the materials, the end-results should comply with the project
specifications. More detailed information can be found in
the Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) Design Handbook
(PCI 2010), ACI 423.7, and PTI M50.3-12.
4.9.2 Single strands—ASTM A421/A421M covers two
types of uncoated, stress-relieved, round, high-carbon steel
wire commonly used in prestressed linear concrete construction. Type BA wire is used for applications in which coldend deformation is used for anchoring purposes (button
anchorage). Type WA wire is used for application in which
the ends are anchored by wedges and no cold-end deformation of the wire is involved (wedge anchorage). Additional
information on unbonded single-strand tendons is found in
PTI M10.2-00.
4.9.3 Multistrand tendons—ASTM A416/A416M and
ASTM A882/A882M are both applicable to multistrand
tendons.
ASTM A416/A416M covers two types and two grades
of seven-wire, uncoated steel strand for use in pretensioned and post-tensioned prestressed concrete construction. The two types of strand are low-relaxation and stressrelieved (normal-relaxation). Low-relaxation strand should
be regarded as the standard type. Stress-relieved (normalrelaxation) strand will not be furnished unless specifically
ordered, or by arrangement between purchaser and supplier.
Grades 1725 and 1860 (Grades 250 and 270) have minimum
ultimate strengths of 250 and 270 ksi (1725 and 1860 MPa),
respectively, based on the nominal area of the strand.
ASTM A882/A882M specification covers filled epoxycoated seven-wire prestressing steel strands. This specification also covers relaxation loss limits for filled epoxy-coated
strands. It covers ASTM A416/A416M low-relaxation
Grade 250 and Grade 270 seven-wire prestressing steel
strand with protective fusion-bonded epoxy coating applied
by the electrostatic deposition method, or other method that
will meet the coating requirements of the specification so
that the interstices of the seven wires are filled with epoxy to
minimize migration of corrosive media, either by capillary
action or other hydrostatic forces.
4.9.4 Prestressing bars—ASTM A722/A722M covers
uncoated high-strength steel bars intended for use in pretensioned and post-tensioned prestressed concrete construction
or in prestressed ground anchors. Bars are of a minimum
ultimate tensile strength level of 150 ksi (1035 MPa). Two
types of bars are included: Type I bar has a plain surface and
Type II bar has surface deformations.
4.10—Prestressing anchorages
For post-tensioned concrete, those parts of prestressing
anchorages—the wedge plate and anchor head—that transfer
the prestress load during service should be fabricated from
alloy steels or ductile iron that comply with project ductility
requirements as applicable for the service temperature. Other
materials—for example, cast iron—can be used for parts of
prestressing anchorages if performance satisfactory to the
designer is demonstrated by means of appropriate tests.
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Typically, once the prestressing ducts have been grouted, the
end-anchorages could be redundant.
4.11—Prestressing ducts
4.11.1 General––Ducts for grouted tendons should be
mortar-tight and nonreactive with concrete, prestressing
steel, grout, and corrosion inhibitor. Prestressing ducts can
be rigid or flexible and made of ferrous metal or polymeric
material. The choice of duct system is an important factor
in the durability of a post-tensioned tendon. Allowable duct
types should be stipulated in the contract specifications.
Some contract specifications require that the duct enclosures for prestressing steel be rigid ferrous metal, galvanized,
and mortar-tight; however, other rigid ducts as described in
this guide are also suitable. The rigid duct is used to take
advantage of the low tendon-to-duct friction inherent with
rigid duct. The rigid duct is stiff enough to eliminate horizontal wobble, but flexible enough to bend and meet the
required tendon profiles.
Ducts are generally described as:
a) Corrugated steel
b) Smooth, rigid steel pipe
c) Polymeric ducts
4.11.1.1 Corrugated steel—Ducts are spirally wound to
the necessary diameter from strip steel with a minimum
wall thickness of 26-gauge (0.45 mm) for ducts less than
2-5/8 in. (66 mm) diameter or 24-gauge (0.6 mm) for ducts
of greater diameter. The strip steel should be galvanized to
ASTM A653 with a coating weight of G90. Ducts should
be manufactured with welded or interlocking seams with
sufficient rigidity to maintain the correct profile between
supports during concrete placement. Ducts should also be
able to flex without crimping or flattening. Joints between
sections of duct and between ducts and anchor components
should be made with positive, metallic connections that
provide a smooth interior alignment with no lips or abrupt
angle changes.
4.11.1.2 Smooth, rigid steel pipe—Smooth steel pipes
should conform to ASTM A53/A53M, Grade B Schedule 40.
When required for curved tendon alignments—for example,
deviation saddles and similar—the pipe should be prefabricated to the required radius.
4.11.1.3 Polymeric ducts—Polymeric ducts for posttensioning are corrosion-resistant. The plastic encapsulation of the prestressing steel acts as a seamless, water-tight
barrier to corrosive substances and extends the life of the
post-tensioning. With special details, some duct systems can
provide electric isolation of the tendon. Polymeric ducts are
available in high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and polypropylene. These plastics have lower friction than standard metal ducts. The lower friction may result in savings
of post-tensioning strands. In elements subjected to fatigue
loading—for example, from waves or other sources—
plastic duct improves the fatigue life of the tendon because
the plastic duct is a better friction partner than a steel duct.
Ducts can be round, oval, or flat. In smaller diameters, round
ducts can come in long coils, reducing the number of duct
splice locations. In larger diameters, round ducts come in
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straight, shippable lengths of 15 to 40 ft (4.5 to 12 m). Oval
ducts are available to facilitated installation in thin elements
such as webs of precast girders. Flat ducts, which accommodate a single layer of two to five strands, are frequently
used in thin elements such as slabs because this maximizes
the available tendon eccentricity. The choice of HDPE or
polypropylene will depend on installation temperatures. One
material handles better at low temperatures, while the other
handles better at high temperatures.
Plastic ducts made for post-tensioning are distinctly
different than the regular corrugated plastic pipe available
at the local hardware store. Tendon profiles usually include
curves. The stands will push against the duct toward the
inside of the curves. Post-tensioning ducts should have
sufficient wall thickness and flat sections between corrugations so that the strands will not rub through the duct during
post-tensioning. With regular corrugated plastic pipe, strand
can rub through the duct at high points of the corrugation
at the inside of tendon curves, resulting in loss of encapsulation and in higher friction if the strand starts rubbing
the concrete. Occasionally, smooth-walled plastic pipe is
used when bonding the prestressing steel to the concrete
is not required. For most applications, bonded tendons are
required. In this case, the profile of the corrugations and the
wall thickness of the post-tensioning duct should be such
that there is mechanical overlap of the grout in the corrugation rib and the concrete on the outside to achieve mechanical bond. Ducts can be spliced by a variety of methods,
including: fusion welding, mechanical couplers incorporating one or more gaskets to ensure that the ducts do not
leak, heat-shrink sleeves, threaded connectors, or a bell-andspigot detail that is made secure and watertight with duct
tape. Plastic duct, which should be well-supported, may
require a half-shell saddle at support locations to prevent
local dinting of the duct.
Corrugated plastic duct to be completely embedded in
concrete should be constructed from either polyethylene
or polypropylene. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is generally not permitted for use in concrete structures due to the
potential for long-term breakdown of the PVC and associated release of chlorides over the service life of the structure. The minimum acceptable radius of curvature should
be established by the duct supplier according to standard
test methods. Polyethylene duct should be fabricated from
resins meeting or exceeding the requirements of ASTM
D3350 with a cell classification of 344434C. Polypropylene
duct should be fabricated from resins meeting or exceeding
the requirements of ASTM D4101 with a cell classification
range of PP0340B44544 to PP0340B65884. The duct should
have a minimum material thickness of 0.079 in. + 0.010 in.
(2.0 mm + 0.25 mm). Ducts should have a white coating on
the outside or be of white material with ultraviolet stabilizers
added.
High-density polyethylene ducts have been used with
external tendons. As HDPE does not corrode in a chloride
environment, it is well suited for waterfront and coastal
concrete structures. High-density polyethylene smooth pipe
is available in different diameters, wall thickness, and phys-
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
ical and chemical properties. There is significant variability
in commonly available materials. It is essential that it has
satisfactory properties for handling, storage, installation, and
durability for the application. The color is normally black
from a small amount of carbon in the material that protects
against degradation from ultraviolet light. The wall thickness, diameter, and physical strength should be sufficient to
initially withstand grouting pressures. In the long term, it
should not deteriorate or split. Requirements should be in
accordance with AASHTO HB-17.
Unless otherwise specified, nominal internal area of the
duct for grouted tendons should be a minimum of 2-1/4
times the prestressing strand and 2-1/2 times for tendons
placed by the pull-through method. For tendons made up of
a single wire, bar, or strand, the duct diameter should be at
least 1/4 in. (6.35 mm) larger than the nominal diameter of
the wire, bar, or strand (ACI 301). Duct vents are usually
required on very long ducts and are typically located within
6 ft (1.8 m) of a high point in the duct profile. Vent holes
may also be placed at positions recommended by the posttensioning supplier.
4.12—Grout for bonded prestressing tendons
4.12.1 Types of grouts and general requirements—Grout
provides bond between the post-tensioning strands, tendons,
or bars and the concrete and also provides corrosion protection for them.
The minimum compressive strength of the grout, as
measured by cubes, should be 125 percent of the design
concrete compressive strength, as measured by cylinders in
order to have the grout strength match the concrete strength.
Guidance on grouts can be found in the Post-Tensioning
Institute (PTI) Grouting Specification PTI M55.1-12.
Grout should consist of portland cement and water; portland cement, sand, and water; or a 100 percent solids, twocomponent epoxy resin system. Epoxy grout has been used
in limited applications. Grout properties should be reviewed,
including differences in the coefficient of thermal expansion
and heat generation
4.12.2 Portland-cement grout—Cement for grouting operations should be Type I or Type II in accordance with ASTM
C150/C150M. Cement used in the work should be the same
as that on which selection of grout proportions was based.
Past success with grout for bonded tendons has been with
portland cement. A blanket endorsement of all cementitious
material (as defined in 4.2) for use with this grout may not
be appropriate because of a lack of experience or tests with
cementitious materials other than portland cement, as well
as concern that some cementitious materials might introduce
chemicals listed as harmful to tendons.
4.12.3 Water—Water should conform to 4.4.
4.12.4 Sand—Only large ducts with large void areas
should consider using finely graded sand in the grout. Sand,
if used, should conform to ASTM C144 except that gradation should be permitted to be modified as necessary to
obtain satisfactory workability.
4.12.5 Admixtures—Admixtures are generally used to
increase grout workability, reduce bleeding and shrinkage,
or provide expansion. This is especially desirable for
grouting of vertical tendons. Substances known to be
harmful to prestressing tendons, grout, or concrete are chlorides, fluorides, sulfites, and nitrates. Aluminum powder or
other expansive admixtures should produce an unconfined
expansion of 5 to 10 percent. Admixtures conforming to 3.5
and known to have no injurious effects on grout, steel, or
concrete should be permitted. The limitations on admixtures
in 3.5 also apply to grout. Calcium chloride should not be
used.
4.12.6 Epoxy grout—Epoxy grout should be moisture
insensitive and have a low exotherm to prevent overheating
of the epoxy.
CHAPTER 5—DURABILTY
5.1—General
Durability of concrete relates to its ability to resist weathering, freezing and thawing, chemical attack, reinforcement
corrosion, abrasion, or other deterioration processes. Good
concrete durability is essential for the improved sustainability of the structure. For a more extensive discussion of
concrete durability, refer to ACI 201.2R.
5.2—Exposure zones
For concrete structures in marine environments, durability
is generally considered to be a function of the zone of exposure. Four zones are commonly defined as in the following.
5.2.1 Submerged zone—Concrete is continuously covered
by seawater. It is typically defined as any element, or
portion thereof, that is located below mean lower low water
(MLLW). In areas with minimal tides, it is defined as that
portion of the element below mean sea level (MSL).
5.2.2 Tidal zone—Concrete is regularly wetted by tides.
This is typically any element, or portion thereof, that is located
between MLLW and mean higher high water (MHHW). In
areas with minimal tides, this would be defined as the area
located between MSL and mean high water (MHW).
5.2.3 Splash zone—Concrete is predominantly dry, but is
likely wetted by wave action and wind-driven spray.
5.2.4 Atmospheric zone—Concrete is not directly exposed
to seawater, but is exposed to ocean air and winds carrying
sea salts. The atmospheric zone is any portion of the waterfront structure above the splash zone.
For waterfront and coastal concrete structures, the most
critical corrosion problem is due to penetration of chloride
ions that are naturally present in seawater. Because the three
primary elements required for corrosion (chlorides, water,
and oxygen) are most abundant in the tidal and splash
zones, parts of the structure in these zones are most susceptible to damage. This has been confirmed by field surveys.
In the tidal and splash zones, chloride concentrations build
up because of alternating cycles of wetting and drying.
Therefore, more chloride ions are available to penetrate the
concrete than in submerged zones where concentration is
limited to the chloride content of seawater. In addition, more
oxygen is available in the tidal and splash zones than in the
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
submerged zone. The tidal and splash zones are considered
the most critical with regard to concrete durability.
5.3—Marine durability problems
Major types of durability problems that should be considered for coastal marine concrete structures include:
a) Chemical attack
b) Freezing-and-thawing damage
c) Corrosion of reinforcement
d) Abrasion
5.3.1 Chemical attack
5.3.1.1 Sulfate attack—Sulfate attack can occur on concrete
in seawater due to the presence of sulfates in seawater. Those
sulfates can occur naturally in the seawater, can come from
industrial sources dumping into the sea, or if concrete structures are placed on reclaimed coastal areas with foundations
below saline groundwater level. In the latter case, capillary
suction and evaporation may cause super-saturation and
crystallization in the concrete above ground. Another potential source of chemical attack is at-bulk handling facilities.
Sulfate attack has occurred in piles in a marine environment.
Although a low C3A content is usually recommended to
reduce sulfate attack, Type V cement is not recommended
for concrete in a typical marine environment. The principal
chemical attack on concrete in seawater comes from the
chloride ions and these can be captured, to some degree, by
the C3A. The reduced C3A content of Type V cement works
against mitigating the influence of chloride ions penetrating
the concrete. Where the waterfront and coastal concrete
structures are in areas where there is industrial pollution that
significantly increases the sulfate content of the seawater and
adjoining soils, the use of ASTM Type I, II, or III cements
combined with Class F fly ash, slag cement, or silica fume
will adequately protect against sulfate attack and provide
some protection against chloride in a marine environment.
Concrete containing silica fume and Type I cement has been
shown to be equivalent to Type V cement in sulfate environments (Rasheeduzzafar et al. 1990).
Delayed ettringite formation (DEF) is also a form of
chemical sulfate attack if the source of the sulfate ions is
internal (within the concrete) rather than external (in the
seawater) (Mehta and Monteiro 2006; Collepardi 1999).
Some instances of DEF in waterfront and coastal concrete
structures have been reported. It is known to occur if either
a gypsum-contaminated aggregate or cement containing
unusually high sulfate content has been used in the concrete
production. Some researchers believe that the problem
occurs principally in steam-cured concrete elements or if
the concrete internal temperature exceeds 175°F (80°C).
These higher temperatures can occur in large caissons cast
with low water-cement ratio (w/c) contents. ACI 301 recommends that the maximum temperature in mass concrete after
placement should not exceed 158°F (70°C).
The best protection against sulfate attack is a high-quality,
low-permeability concrete. Factors leading to low permeability are high cementitious content, use of supplementary
cementitious materials (fly ash, silica fume, ground blast-
13
furnace slag), low w/c, proper consolidation, and adequate
curing (Mehta and Monteiro 2006).
5.3.1.2 Alkali-aggregate reactivity—Alkali-aggregate
reactivity (AAR) is the reaction of alkalis from cement or
seawater with reactive siliceous aggregates. The resulting
reaction leads to expansion and cracking of the concrete,
which leads to reduced strength. Popouts and exudation
of a viscous alkali-silicate fluid are other manifestations of
the phenomena. The most important factors influencing the
phenomena are as follows (Mehta and Monteiro 2006):
a) The alkali content of the cement and the cement content
of the concrete;
b) The alkali-ion contribution from sources other than
portland cement, such as admixtures, salt-contaminated
aggregates, and penetration of seawater into the concrete;
c) The amount, size, and reactivity of the alkali-reactive
constituent present in the aggregate;
d) The availability of moisture to the concrete structure;
e) The ambient temperature.
For waterfront and coastal structures, there is little control
of items d) and e) in the previous list. The other three
items—a), b) and c)—can be addressed in the project specifications as follows:
a) Use low-alkali portland cement (less than 0.6 percent
equivalent Na2O);
b) If a low-alkali portland cement is not available or if the
cement content is high where the total amount of alkalis
in the concrete is elevated, replace a portion of the cement
with supplementary cementing materials (fly ash, silica
fume, and ground blast-furnace slag).
If beach sand or sea-dredged sand and gravel are to be
used, they should be washed, repeatedly if necessary, with
potable water to ensure that the total alkali content is less
than 5 lb/yd3 (3 kg/m3). Aggregates under consideration for
the concrete should be evaluated in accordance with ASTM
C1293. This test method is intended to evaluate the potential of an aggregate or combination of an aggregate with
pozzolan or slag to expand deleteriously due to any form of
AAR. The test duration is 1 year and evaluations of potential
aggregate sources should begin while the project is in the
planning stage. ASTM C1260 is often specified to determine
the reactivity of proposed aggregates but has been shown
to be overly conservative for a number of aggregate types
(Ideker et al. 2012). It is also very useful to visually examine
comparable in-service concrete made with the proposed
aggregate for indications of AAR distress. Preferably, that
concrete should be at least 5 years old.
5.3.2 Freezing-and-thawing damage––Deterioration of
concrete exposed to freezing conditions can occur if there is
sufficient internal moisture present that can freeze at the given
exposure conditions. Moisture can be from either an internal
or external source. Internal water is water that is already in
the pores of concrete that can be redistributed by thermodynamic conditions to provide a high enough degree of saturation at the point of freezing to cause damage. External water
is water entering the concrete from an external source such
as rainfall, water from maintenance activities, immersion in
seawater, and spray from wave action on or near the struc-
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
ture. Dry concrete, generally below approximately 75 to 80
percent internal relative humidity (RH), is normally immune
to damage from freezing.
Resistance to freezing and thawing of a concrete mixture is
substantially improved by incorporating entrained air voids
into the concrete (5.5.3). Additional guidance is provided in
ACI 201.2R.
5.3.3 Corrosion of reinforcement––Concrete provides
protection against corrosion of embedded steel because of
the highly alkaline environment provided by the portlandcement paste. Adequacy of protection depends on the amount
of concrete cover, concrete quality, construction details,
degree of exposure to chlorides (from concrete component
materials and the environment), and the service environment. Refer to Section 5.5, ACI 222R, and ACI 201.2R for
comprehensive treatment.
5.3.4 Abrasion resistance––The abrasion resistance of
concrete is typically defined as the ability of a surface to
resist being eroded by rubbing and friction. Erosion (attrition
and scraping) of concrete in waterfront and coastal marine
structures can occur due to the action of abrasive materials,
including ice and floating debris carried by or within the
seawater, and wear on concrete deck surfaces caused by
heavy-duty industrial vehicular traffic. Refer to Section 5.6,
ACI 210R, and ACI 201.2R for comprehensive treatment.
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5.4—Concrete mixture design considerations
To obtain workable and durable concrete for waterfront
and coastal concrete structures, pay attention to the following
characteristics of the concrete:
a) Water-cementitious materials ratio (w/cm)
b) Cement type
c) Air entrainment
d) Chloride content
5.4.1 Water-cementitious materials ratio—Because most
high-performance concrete mixtures that should be used
in waterfront and coastal concrete structures contain other
cementitious materials, a w/cm calculation should be considered in place of the traditional water-cement ratio (w/c)
(ACI 211.4R). The w/cm, like the w/c, should be calculated on a mass basis. The mass of water in a high-range
water-reducing admixture (HRWRA) should be included
in the w/cm. The relationship between w/cm and compressive strength, which has been identified in normal-strength
concrete, is valid for high-performance concrete as well. The
use of chemical admixtures and other cementitious materials
has been proven generally essential to producing workable
concrete with a low w/cm.
5.4.2 Portland cement—Type I, II, or III portland cements
(ASTM C150/C150M) or blended cements (ASTM C595/
C595M) should be used for marine concrete structures. Most
references no longer recommend minimum cement content,
but rather recommend cement type, minimum compressive strength, maximum w/cm, and the addition of chemical
admixture, mineral admixtures, or both, to achieve low
permeability and provide high-durability concrete.
5.4.3 Air entrainment—Entrained air provides for resistance to freezing and thawing. Freezing-and-thawing damage
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is caused by the development of pressure gradients of the
expansion from freezing water in the void system of cement
paste and aggregate. The amount of entrained air required is
shown in ACI 201.2R and varies with the maximum aggregate size specified for the mixture. It is important to consider
that resistance to freezing and thawing is not only dependent
on the absolute amount of entrained air, but also on the pore
size distribution and spacing. These are given in terms of
a calculated spacing factor, which can be evaluated based
on a petrographic analysis of the hardened concrete (ASTM
C856).
5.4.4 Chloride content—Chloride is a naturally occurring
chemical that can occur in aggregates, water, and admixtures.
Keeping the chloride content at zero in a concrete mixture is
nearly impossible. However, caution is advised in selecting
mixture materials. Do not intentionally add chloride to the
concrete mixture in the form of admixtures or mixing water.
Recommended maximum acid-soluble chloride content
for corrosion protection of a concrete mixture is found in
ACI 222R. Depending on a number of parameters associated with the concrete quality, materials, and environment,
the threshold value of chloride (Cl–) by mass of cement for
corrosion initiation has been reported to be 1.0 to 1.5 lb/yd3
(0.6 to 0.9 kg/m3). The average content of water-soluble
chloride in concrete is approximately 75 to 80 percent of the
acid-soluble chloride content in the same concrete. Issues
regarding limits on the allowable amounts of chloride ion in
concrete is one still under active debate.
5.5—Protection against corrosion of reinforcement
5.5.1 General—Corrosion of reinforcing and prestressing
steel is a major consideration in design and construction of waterfront and coastal marine structures. Concrete
normally provides a high degree of corrosion protection for
embedded reinforcement. Refer to ACI 222R, ACI 222.2R,
ACI 222.3R, and PTI M50.3-12 for a full description of the
corrosion process and methods for controlling it.
Measures that can be taken in reinforced concrete
construction to protect reinforcing steel against corrosion
can be divided into three categories (ACI 222R):
1. Design and construction practices that maximize the
protection afforded by portland-cement concrete;
2. Treatments that penetrate, or are applied on the surface
of, the reinforced concrete member to slow the entry of
chloride ions into the concrete;
3. Techniques that prevent corrosion of the steel reinforcement directly.
In Item 3, two approaches are possible—to use corrosionresistant reinforcing steel or to nullify the effects of chloride
ions on unprotected reinforcement.
5.5.2 Durability design—With careful design and good
construction practices, the protection provided by portlandcement concrete to embedded reinforcing steel can be optimized. It is the detailing, not the technical sophistication of
structural design, that determines the durability of a reinforced concrete member in a corrosive environment. The
provision of adequate drainage and a method of removing
drainage water from the structure are particularly important
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
(ACI 222.3R). In reinforced concrete structural members
exposed to chlorides and subjected to intermittent wetting,
the degree of protection against corrosion is determined
primarily by the depth of concrete cover to the reinforcing
steel and the permeability of the concrete. Estimates of the
increase in corrosion protection provided by an increase in
concrete cover have ranged between slightly more than a
linear relationship to as much as the square of the cover.
5.5.3 Recommended w/cm—In-place permeability is the
most important factor influencing durability of concrete in
waterfront and coastal environments. The most influential
parameter on concrete permeability is its w/cm. While w/
cm is an influential parameter affecting permeability, adding
supplemental cementitious materials, such as fly ash and
silica fume, can also substantially reduce permeability. A
maximum of 0.40 is recommended for all exposure zones
of the concrete, although most structures built today for a
waterfront and coastal marine environment use a w/cm less
than this.
5.5.4 Concrete cover—Concrete cover over the reinforcement provides protection against corrosion of the reinforcement. Corrosion protection by cover concrete is a function
of both the depth of concrete cover and w/cm. Increasing the
concrete cover increases the amount of time it takes for chloride or carbonation to penetrate deeper into the uncracked
concrete and reach the steel reinforcement.
Recommended minimum concrete cover (ACI 357R) over
principal reinforcement for structures in a waterfront and
coastal marine environment is shown in Table 5.5.4.
From a constructibility standpoint, it may not be practical to use variable reinforcement cover over the height
of the structure if a single bar extends over different exposure zones. Instead, consider using the most conservative
concrete cover value over these regions.
In concrete that is continuously submerged, the rate of
corrosion is controlled by the rate of oxygen diffusion,
which is not significantly affected by the concrete quality
or thickness of the concrete cover. Corrosion of embedded
reinforcing steel is rare in continuously submerged concrete
structures. In seawater, the permeability of concrete to chloride penetration is reduced by the precipitation of magnesium hydroxide.
Because of a greater risk of corrosion and concerns about
public safety, AASHTO HB-17 recommends 4 in. (100 mm)
of clear cover for reinforced concrete substructures that will
be exposed to seawater for over 40 years. Other protective
measures, such as those described in 5.5.5.1 through 5.5.5.6,
can be required to extend the service life.
Penetration of chloride ions can also occur through cracks
in concrete. However, correlation between cracking in hardened concrete and the onset of corrosion is not well defined.
Reports indicate that crack widths less than 0.01 in. (0.25
mm) are not large enough to induce corrosion (Beeby 1978).
5.5.5 Supplemental corrosion protection—In addition
to provisions for low permeability concrete and adequate
cover, supplemental corrosion protection products are being
used to protect waterfront and coastal marine concrete structures from corrosion. These include:
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15
Table 5.5.4—Recommended minimum concrete
cover over reinforcement
Zone
Cover over principal reinforcing
steel, in. (mm)
Atmospheric zone not subject to spray
2.0 (50)
Splash and atmospheric zone subject
to salt spray (tidal zone)
2.5 (65)
Submerged zone
2.0 (50)
a) Concrete surface coatings
b) Corrosion-resistant reinforcement
c) Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures
d) Physical-barrier admixtures
e) Supplementary cementitious materials
f) Cathodic protection
5.5.5.1 Coatings and sealers—Coatings and sealers
on concrete surfaces provide a barrier against seawater or
oxygen penetration, or a combination of both. They are not a
permanent solution and will require replacement as the structure ages. Coating selection depends on exact requirements
of the waterfront or coastal concrete structure and should
be resistant to the chemicals expected to be in contact with
the structure. Portland Cement Association (PCA) IS001T
(Portland Cement Association 1986) determines if a particular substance attacks concrete and what acceptable protection treatments are available.
Coatings should be tested to verify that they are acceptable for the intended service. The scale of testing should be
selected so that testing is representative of the conditions
experienced during long-term use. These include, but are
not limited to, effect of concrete creep and shrinkage, as
well as load and temperature-induced deformations. Coatings should be alkali-resistant as determined by approved
methods.
Proper preparation of the concrete surface to accept and
sustain the coating is essential for performance and longevity
of the coating. Manufacturers of protective coatings should
be consulted for information on bond, anchorage, and the
preparation of concrete surfaces, as well as the application of
their products. Additional guidance on surface preparation is
available in ICRI 310.2.
5.5.5.2 Corrosion-resistant reinforcing bars—Corrosionresistant reinforcing bars are described in 4.8.2 and 4.8.4.
Epoxy-coated reinforcement (ECR) has been used in concrete
in marine environments with moderate success (Kessler et
al. 1993; Sagüés et al. 1990, 1994). Published information
indicates that ECR has corroded in a marine environment
(Sagüés et al. 1990, 2001). Structures containing epoxycoated bars have also shown a higher incidence of concrete
surface cracking when compared to structures with bare
reinforcement (Litvan 1991; Transportation Research Board
1993) and coating adhesion loss (Pyc et al. 2000). However,
there have been significant improvements in the application of the epoxy to the bars and the quality control of bar
installation in the field since the early observations of their
performance. Fabrication and handling of ECR is covered
in ASTM D3963/D3963M. Epoxy-coated reinforcement is
available from many suppliers. More detailed information
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
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on ECR can be obtained from the Concrete Reinforcing
Steel Institute.
5.5.5.3 Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures—Corrosioninhibiting admixtures are chemical substances that decrease
the corrosion rate when present at a suitable concentration,
without significantly changing the concentration of any other
corrosion agent. They have been used in waterfront and
coastal structures and are available from multiple suppliers.
These admixtures act on the steel surface, either electrochemically (anodic, cathodic, or mixed-inhibitor) or chemically (chemical barrier) to inhibit chloride-induced corrosion above the accepted chloride-corrosion threshold level.
They may be used alone, with ECR, or with fly ash or silica
fume. Calcium nitrite is the most researched inorganic inhibitor and the most widely used. Organic compounds used in
admixtures to protect steel from chloride-induced corrosion
include alkanolamines and an aqueous mixture of amines
and fatty-acid esters. Organic amine-based compounds,
such as some amine salts and alkanolamine, are effective
corrosion inhibitors for steel in concrete if used in a posttreatment process for chloride-induced corrosion of steel in
concrete. Inorganic chemical compounds that protect steel
against chloride attack in a basic pH concrete environment
include borates, chromates, molybdates, nitrites, and phosphates. Additional information can be found in ACI 212.3R.
5.5.5.4 Physical-barrier admixtures—Physical-barrier
admixtures reduce the rate of ingress of corrosive agents
into the concrete. They have been used in waterfront and
coastal structures and are available from multiple suppliers.
Bitumen, silicates, and water-based organic admixtures
consisting of fatty acids, such as oleic acid; stearic acid; salts
of calcium oleate; and esters, such as butyloleate, are typically used in these types of admixtures. A liquid admixture
containing a silicate copolymer in the form of a complex,
inorganic, alkaline earth may also be effective in reducing
the permeability of concrete and providing protection. Additional information can be found in ACI 212.3R.
5.5.5.5 Supplementary cementitious materials—The
use of supplementary cementitious materials (fly ash, slag
cement, and silica fume), as described in 4.2.2, significantly decreases the permeability of concrete and, therefore,
increases the amount of time for chlorides to reach the reinforcement to initiate corrosion. Silica fume also increases
the compressive strength and provides high early strength.
Fly ash tends to react more slowly in the concrete, but at
later ages the concrete achieves equivalent strengths to
that of concrete without fly ash, but with improved durability. Fly ash is available as both Type F and Type C, but
concrete containing Type F has been shown to provide better
durability.
5.5.5.6 Cathodic protection—Cathodic protection is
being used to prevent corrosion of reinforcement of existing,
in-service marine structures. The use of cathodic protection measures in new construction is not well established.
The basic principle of cathodic protection is to arrest electrochemical corrosion by making the steel reinforcement a
cathode. Cathodic protection can be obtained using sacrificial
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anodes or impressed current systems. The reader is referred
to ASTM STP 1370, which deals specifically with cathodic
protection in seawater. It summarizes the criteria and philosophies for designing both sacrificial and impressed cathodic
protection systems for structures in seawater. Although
many commercial systems are available for both systems,
follow the supplier recommendations. Cathodic protection
cannot be used with bars having coatings or claddings.
5.6—Abrasion resistance
Abrasion resistance is the ability of concrete to resist
surface damage from rubbing or friction. For concrete
structures in the sea, ice, sand, and debris act as abrasion
media. Waterfront structures can also experience abrasion
from minor ship impacts and equipment operating on these
structures.
The abrasion of concrete is a progressive phenomenon.
Initially, the resistance to abrasion is related to the compressive strength of the wearing surface. The stronger the surface
concrete, the greater the abrasion resistance. However, as
softer paste wears away, the particles of fine and coarse
aggregate are exposed, and additional abrasion and impact
will cause some of these particles to be displaced, thus
exposing the next level of material. This additional degradation is more related to the paste-to-aggregate bond strength
and the relative hardness of the aggregate than to the
compressive strength of the concrete. In lightweight-aggregate structures, the aggregates themselves are worn away
along with the paste.
Abrasion resistance of concrete is a function of compressive strength, aggregate properties, finishing and curing
methods, and the ability of the concrete surface to resist
freezing-and-thawing damage. The loss of concrete surface
in waterfront and coastal structures is often a function of
direct abrasion, freezing and thawing, wetting and drying,
and chemical attack. Use of silica fume in the concrete has
been shown to develop more concrete strength and, subsequently, more abrasion-resistant concrete (Holland 2005).
ACI 201.2R recommends the following measures to improve
abrasion resistance.
5.6.1 Low w/cm at surface—Steps to lower the w/cm
include the use of water-reducing admixtures, mixture
proportions to reduce bleeding, timing of finishing operations that avoid the addition of water during troweling, and
vacuum dewatering.
5.6.2 Well-graded fine and coarse aggregates (meeting
ASTM C33/C33M)—The maximum size of coarse aggregate
should be chosen for optimum workability and minimum
water content. Optimal combined aggregate grading may
require the addition of an intermediate-sized aggregate.
5.6.3 Low-slump concrete—Use the lowest slump consistent with proper placement and consolidation as recommended in ACI 309R.
5.6.4 Air content consistent with exposure conditions—In
addition to a detrimental effect on compressive strength, air
content levels can contribute to surface blistering and delamination if finishing operations are improperly timed.
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CHAPTER 6—SUSTAINABILITY AND
SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS
6.1—General
This chapter discusses both sustainability and serviceability requirements for waterfront and coastal concrete
marine structures. Serviceability requirements are generally
defined as those design requirements other than adequate
load-carrying capacity necessary for a structure to properly
perform its intended function.
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6.2—Sustainability for waterfront and coastal
concrete structures
6.2.1 General definitions for sustainability—Concrete is
by far the most used construction material in the world. It
is the predominant material for the construction of marine
structures and has been extensively used on many major
offshore oil and gas structures. The long-standing preference in selection and use of concrete in marine structures
recognizes its merits in sustainability with respect to other
materials in the adverse and harsh marine environment. It
is therefore imperative that the concrete used in these structures be designed and constructed to be sustainable.
The widely used definition for sustainability created by
the World Commission on Environment and Development
(1987) is:
...meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs.
The Construction Industry Institute (2008) offers a more
detailed and precise definition by identifying the various
aspects of a marine structure and includes economic, social,
and environmental considerations:
The process of planning, construction, operation,
and decommissioning of industrial capital projects that meets business financial objectives while
serving current and future social and environmental
needs.
ACI Committee 130, Sustainability, addresses all three
defined tenets of sustainability (environment, society,
economy). The Sustainable Concrete Guide, from the U.S.
Green Concrete Council, developed in association with ACI
Committee 130, provides the reader more detailed information on the following subjects and how they relate to
concrete sustainability (Schokker 2010a,b):
a) Materials
b) Production/transportation/construction
c) Structures in service
d) Rating systems/sustainability tools
e) Design/specifications/codes/regulations
f) Social issues
g) Education/certification
With respect to waterfront and coastal structures, Schokker
(2010a,b) addresses special areas sustainability focus:
a) Longevity and resilience
b) Life cycle assessment (LCA) and cradle-to-grave (or
cradle-to-cradle)
c) Corrosion resistance/durability
d) Low maintenance
e) Robustness for safety
f) Adaptable to changing climate
g) Repair
h) Stormwater management
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5.7—Service life prediction models
The phrase “service life” is often preferred over the term
“durability” because it is more definitive. Development of
mathematical models for prediction of the service life of
concrete has reached a state at which use of models should
routinely be considered by designers who need to achieve,
with the highest degree of reliability, the desired durability
or service life of the elements in a concrete structure.
The service life of a building component or material is the
period of time after installation––or in the case of concrete,
placement––during which all the properties exceed the
minimum acceptable values when routinely maintained.
Three types of service life have been defined in ACI 365.1R:
1. Technical service life is the time in service until a defined
unacceptable state is reached, such as spalling of concrete,
safety level below acceptable, or failure of elements.
2. Functional service life is the time in service until the
structure no longer fulfills the functional requirements or
becomes obsolete due to change in functional requirements,
such as the needs for increased clearance, higher axle and
wheel loads, or road widening.
3. Economic service life is the time in service until
replacement of the structure, or part of it, is economically
more advantageous than keeping it in service.
Design of reinforced concrete structures to ensure
adequate durability is a complicated process. Service life
depends on structural design and detailing, mixture proportioning, concrete production and placement, construction
methods, and maintenance. Also, changes in use, loading,
and environment are important. Because water or some other
fluid is involved in almost every form of concrete degradation, concrete permeability is important. Primary factors
that can limit the service life of reinforced concrete structures, as noted in previous sections, include the presence of
chlorides; carbonation; aggressive chemicals such as acids
and sulfates; freezing-and thawing cycling; and mechanical
loads such as fatigue, vibration, and local overloads.
Typically, service-life prediction models developed
usually focus on one primary degradation mechanism. The
principal degradation mechanism should be identified for
the exposure conditions of the structure before selecting a
prediction model. These models may be proprietary or in the
public domain. Mitchell and Frohnsdorff (2004) introduce
the types of service-life prediction models for concrete and
indicate how models can be used in almost every phase of
the design process to increase the probability of achieving
the intended service life for a concrete structure.
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
Stormwater management requirements are typically
already in place by design for most offshore structures and
can be adapted to marine structures.
6.2.2 Sustainability for waterfront and coastal concrete
structures—This guide does not explore all the ways and
means of sustainability for waterfront and coastal concretes
but reviews many of the considerations that are generally
addressed for these structures. Sustainability is built-in and
inherently important for waterfront and coastal concrete
structures because they are constructed to provide a specific
service that is related to a specific industry and usually
owned by a specific private or government entity. Specific
items that should be addressed for each project are:
a) Sustainable designs, components, or practices integrated during construction
b) Renewable energy sources used during construction
c) Methods being used to reduce the amount of waste
generated during construction
d) Construction waste being recycled into other materials
or used for other purposes
e) Sustainability considerations included in constructibility reviews
f) The designer and contractor have a method for measuring
metrics related to sustainability objectives on projects
A checklist for sustainable waterfront and coastal construction processes includes:
a) Site staging and logistics
b) Site waste management plan
c) Site erosion plan and control
d) Plan for post-construction site restoration
e) Exterior dust control and particulate control
f) Transportation planning, including using personnel
transit facilities
g) Water management
h) Alternatives for material deliveries
i) Lean construction
6.2.3 Goals to achieve sustainability of waterfront and
coastal concrete structures—The following four goals can
be achieved through careful application of existing concrete
technology and make for improved sustainability of waterfront and coastal structures:
6.2.3.1 Improving functionality—Increased functionality means a more efficient structure to serve its intended
purpose. Concrete allows great flexibility in structural
shapes and efficiency, both of which can result in a costeffective structure.
6.2.3.2 Ensuring longevity—The longer the service life
of an offshore or marine structure, the less need for repair
or replacement that would use more resources. Service life
in excess of 100 years is possible through proper material
selection, construction practices, and design.
6.2.3.3 Reducing use of resources—Concrete has the
potential for reusing many recycled materials, including
supplemental cementitious materials or reused aggregates
from crushed concrete. The use of these materials means
less material that ends up in landfills. Proper materials selection and design can result in significant improvement in the
long-term durability of concrete, which in turn results in a
reduced use of resources that would be required to replace
these structures.
6.2.3.4 Aesthetics—This aspect addresses the social
component of sustainability which, historically, is not a
typical consideration for waterfront and coastal structures.
However, because concrete can produce virtually any shape,
if applied to these types of structures, the result can be visually pleasing.
Not all waterfront and coastal structures can be easily
made into sustainable structures. There are several rating
systems available to evaluate how a potential project may
provide enhanced sustainability. In the United States, the
three most commonly used systems are:
1) Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
(LEED) (2012) from the United States Green Building
Council (USGBC)
2) GreenGlobes® (2012) from the Green Building Initiative (GBI)
3) National Green Building Standard (NAHB/ICC 2009)
ISO (ISO 13315-1) (2012) has also developed an environmental management system for concrete and concrete
structures.
6.3—Marine environments and their demands on
waterfront and coastal structures
6.3.1 General—Concrete structures exposed to constant
wetting and drying in saltwater, turbulent debris-filled
water, vessel impact, and structures in the path of ice flows
are a few examples of concrete marine structures required
to perform in unique and harsh exposure conditions. These
harsh conditions in which concrete marine structures exist
call for concrete performance requirements beyond those set
forth for most land-based structures.
6.3.2 Materials performance—In addition to sound
construction practices and performance criteria, particular
attention should be given to materials performance as set
forth in ACI 318 and Chapter 3.
6.3.3 Crack widths—Although a direct correlation
between concrete surface crack widths and corrosion of reinforcement has not been clearly established, control of crack
widths is considered desirable for structures located in saltwater or brackish water. ACI 224R recommends a maximum
surface crack width under service loads in seawater and
seawater-sprayed structures of 0.006 in. (0.15 mm) and also
provides guidance on calculation of expected crack widths.
The use of adequate concrete cover and good distribution of
reinforcing steel is also important.
6.3.4 Concrete cover—Selection of concrete cover
requirements (5.5.4) should consider areas of the structure
that may be subject to repeated impact and abrasion, such as
barge loading or unloading facilities. It may be desirable to
provide a sacrificial concrete layer so that cover required for
reinforcing protection is not lost due to operational impacts
and abrasion. Note that unreinforced concrete beyond the
required cover may crack, which can then lead to ingress of
the environment into the concrete. Other protective methods
are described in 5.5.5.
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
6.5—Component replacement
Some waterfront and coastal structures contain components such as fender systems and anchor rods for mooring
hardware for which periodic replacement is sometimes
necessary. The structure should be designed and detailed to
facilitate such maintenance activities.
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CHAPTER 7—LOADS, ANALYSIS, AND DESIGN
7.1—Requirements and design criteria
Normally, the owner/operator sets the operational requirements for the materials to be handled at the dock and gives
basic shape and size of the facility with budget limitations
from which the structural marine engineer can lay out and
design a facility. The structural marine engineer should
study a variety of alternatives to arrive at an efficient and
cost-effective design for the site conditions. Typical criteria
used in planning are the ship size, required ship draft, material handling methods used by operations, material handling
equipment, future expansion requirements, and utility
requirements. One standard set of such criteria provided
for Navy facilities includes location, exposure, orientation, overall dimensions, clearances, approaches, structure
types, utilities, and operational criteria. These detailed
Navy criteria are provided in United Facilities Criteria UFC
4-152-01 (2005) and UFC 4-150-06 (2010). Similar planning criteria should be sought from other clients by meeting
with the owners’/operators’ engineering, operational, and
maintenance personnel to determine functional requirements
for use in facility planning.
7.2—General requirements for loads
The following sections provide guidance in the determination of design loads for waterfront and coastal concrete
structures. Presently, there is no single unified code for the
design of piers, wharfs, and similar structures. Design loads
vary, depending on factors such as the structure’s location,
operational requirements, considerations for future usage,
and owner or operator directives. Design loads for the structure should be shown on the structural drawings. On the
structural drawings, the loads should be indicated in both
tabular form and printed directly on the areas of the structure where they apply. In place of specific load information,
United Facilities Criteria UFC 3-310-01 (2007) provides
load factors for the various loads, minimum uniformly
distributed and concentrated live loads, climatic loading
data, and earthquake loading data.
7.3—Dead loads
Dead loads consist of the self-weight of the entire structure, including permanent attachments such as mooring
hardware, permanent utility services, the empty weight of
storage sheds, tanks or other structures, and similar facilities.
7.4—Vertical live loads
7.4.1 General—A variety of vertical live loads may be
applied to waterfront and coastal concrete structures. Selection of design live load values should consider the possibility
of future changes in usage or equipment upgrades. Loads
should be developed in consultation with the facility owner.
7.4.2 Uniform live loads—Design values of uniform
vertical live loads may vary over a structure to reflect
differing usage of areas. Uniform loads should be placed on
the structure to maximize the effect on portions of the structure and on individual members.
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6.4—Serviceability requirements
6.4.1 Control of deflections—Many waterfront and coastal
structures are subject to both horizontal and vertical deflection. Because these deflections can affect operating conditions for equipment, they should be carefully evaluated for
each installation. The vertical deflection limits contained
in many design codes are primarily intended as an indirect
method to limit vibration. Because waterfront and coastal
structures are rarely occupied by people, these deflection criteria should be used with experienced engineering
judgment.
6.4.2 Vertical deflection—Waterfront and coastal structures
are generally designed for substantial vertical loadings due
to stored materials as well as moving equipment such as
trucks, cranes, forklifts, and rail traffic. Deflection criteria
in areas of truck or rail traffic can be found in Chapters 8
and 9 of AASHTO HB-17-02 or Chapter 8 of the American
Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association (AREMA) Manual for Railway Engineering (AREMA
2012).
Traffic speeds on waterfront and coastal structures are
usually less than 25 mph (40 kph) and, if driver/passenger
comfort is not a concern, more liberal deflection criteria than
specified by AASHTO HB-17-02 can be considered. Many
forklifts, travel lifts, and other material handling equipment,
however, may not be able to operate at maximum efficiency
and safety with deflections, which may be permissible
elsewhere.
Acceptable vertical deflection limits for operating equipment such as portal cranes, straddle lifts, forklifts, and
loaders are dependent on specific equipment design and
operation. Appropriate design values should be obtained
from the equipment supplier and reviewed with the facility
owner.
In selecting deflection criteria, consideration should be
given to potential changes in facility usage or types of equipment used over the life of the facility.
6.4.3 Lateral deflection—Lateral deflections of marine
structures may be caused by loads from berthing operations,
moored vessels, current and waves, wind, hydrodynamic
effects of passing vessels, and earthquakes as described
in 7.5, 7.6, and 7.9. The magnitude of lateral deflection is
dependent both on the structure configuration and its foundation/soil support system. Lateral deflections of the structure and their distribution along a facility could impact
equipment operation, particularly where crane runways, rail
trackage, or pipeways are present. Lateral deflections could
also cause spreading of crane runways. Acceptable limits for
lateral deflections should be established in consultation with
equipment suppliers and the facility owner or operator.
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7.4.3 Equipment loads—Material handling equipment
includes rail-mounted and mobile cranes and loaders/
unloaders, forklifts, straddle carriers and similar equipment,
conveyors, and pipelines. Loading information should be
obtained from the facility owner or the equipment manufacturer/supplier. Movable loads should be placed to maximize
their effect on components of the structure.
An impact factor of 20 percent is generally added to the
wheel loads of mobile equipment and the outrigger loads of
mobile cranes. For container and portal cranes, the United
Facilities Criteria UFC 4-152-01 (2005) applies a 25 percent
impact factor; however, other owners use a lower value determined in consultation with the crane supplier. The impact
factor is used for the design of deck slab, crane girders, and
pile caps, but is not applicable to the design of piles.
Truck wheel loads should be calculated in accordance
with AASHTO HB-17 using an impact factor of 15 percent.
Structural elements below the pile cap need not be designed
for impact.
A given section of rail track on a marine structure should
be designed for a maximum axle load. The maximum axle
load is related to the strength of the track, which is determined by the weight of the rails, density of the sleepers (if
any) and fixtures, train speed, amount of ballast (if any), and
strength of the supporting structure (for example, bridges). It
is desirable to optimize the track for a given load that can be
calculated in accordance with the American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association (AREMA)
Manual for Railway Engineering (AREMA 2012). The
minimum Cooper load from that manual should be an E-80.
Some railroads may design for a heavier load. A 20 percent
impact factor should be applied for design of slabs, beams,
and pile caps.
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7.5—Horizontal loads
7.5.1 Berthing loads—Berthing loads depend on the
type of structure, ship characteristics, ship approach angle
and velocity, and the fender system characteristics. In the
absence of model testing or computer simulation analysis,
various design methods are usually used (UFC 4-152-01
2005; PIANC 2002; ICC 2010).
7.5.2 Mooring loads—Mooring loads depend on environmental conditions such as winds, currents, waves, layout
of mooring hardware, mooring line elasticity, and other
loads such as those caused by passing vessels and seiches,
depending on the local circumstances. Mooring loads are
generally classified as quasi-static loads or dynamic loads.
Computer simulation programs are available to predict
mooring loads. In many cases, mooring loads are determined
from past experience, or methods such as those presented in
UFC 4-150-03 (2005), PIANC (2002), or Sections 3103F.5
and 3105F of The California Building Code (ICC 2010).
Mooring hardware capacities should be marked on the structure to aid vessels in arranging mooring lines.
Ships may not remain moored once environmental conditions reach a certain limit. In such cases, it is quite common
for the ship to cast off the berth and return when conditions
improve. These critical conditions should be coordinated
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with the facility owner and set at a lower wind speed so
that excessive mooring loads are not used for design. The
vertical component of mooring loads is determined based
on the inclination of ship mooring lines at both high and low
water elevations and a ship’s draft.
7.5.3 Wind loads—Wind loads are usually calculated
based on local building code criteria. Other standards, such
as ASCE 7 (2010), are generally used if no local code is applicable. Wind loads act on the pier/wharf structure, as well as
on stored material, buildings, and movable equipment.
7.5.4 Horizontal live loads—A lateral live load of 10
percent of the vertical load is normally used for moving
vehicles and equipment. Bumper loads for crane runways
should be determined in consultation with the crane supplier.
7.5.5 Earth pressure loads—Earth pressure loads should
be obtained from the geotechnical engineer based on sitespecific soil information. For small projects where sitespecific information is not available, the geotechnical
engineer may use soil and earth pressure parameters in
accordance with UFC 3-220-01N (2005).
7.5.6 Environmental loads—Structures may be subject
to current and wave loading. Chapter 5 of ASCE 7 (2010)
provides methods of computing wave loads and current
loads on piles and walls.
7.5.7 Backwater or passing vessel loads—Ship-induced
backwater loads on a moored vessel due to a passing vessel
may be significant. Predictive equations based on a combination of theory and observations have been proposed by
Hochstein and Adams (1989) for quantifying the environmental effects of ship passages through restricted, icecovered channels. In addition to natural channel flow, the
forces considered include ship-induced backwater, propeller
jet, and surface-wave-related flows. Guidance on evaluating
these effects may be found in a summary report by Wuebben
(1995) of a number of studies done on the Great Lakes. The
equations developed are used to model forces created by
vessels transiting through open water and in an extended
navigation season if an extensive ice cover is present. Additional guidance in determining passing vessel effects are
included in Section 3103F.5.5 of the California Building
Code (ICC 2010), with reference to methods developed by
Kriebel (2005) and Wang (1975).
7.6—Ice loads
Ice loads include the weight of accumulated ice on the
structure and also the forces exerted by floating ice. Information on computing ice forces are found in UFC 4-152-01
(2005).
7.7—Thermal loads
Thermal loads due to temperature change can be
computed using established methods (ACI 207.2R). The
effect of thermal forces that build up in the structure due to
fluctuations in temperature may be more critical from those
measured at the time of construction. For piers and wharves,
the large body of adjacent water has a substantial moderating
effect on the exterior of a structure. Large elements, particularly those cast with a low w/c or high cement content, may
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
21
reach internal temperatures substantially higher than the
surrounding water temperature, later exposing the element
to thermal stress. The effect will be even less for ballasted
deck construction. However, unballasted decks may see a
large temperature differential through depth. Solid-type
piers and wharves and floating structures are less likely to be
affected by temperature variations.
Typically, decks of pile-supported structures will be
subjected to temperature differential. However, because
the axial stiffness of the deck elements will be much higher
than the flexural stiffness of piles, the deck will expand or
contract with little to no restraint from piles and will subject
the piles to bending moments and shear forces. For narrow
marginal wharves, because the short inboard piles may offer
some restraint, they should be analyzed. Batter piles should
be located so as not to restrain thermal motion. They are
usually located in the middle portion of a long structure.
strength level earthquake (SLE), each with differing performance expectations. These are often referred to as Level
1 and Level 2 earthquakes, respectively. The OBE should
be survived with only minor nonstructural damage and no
loss of serviceability to the structure. The SLE should be
survived with controlled and repairable damage. Structures
can remain in service following the OBE event with only
minor repairs and minimal interruption of operations. In
the SLE, the structure should not collapse, but may sustain
damage requiring repair prior to resuming normal operations.
Damage should be limited to areas that can be inspected and
overall structure deformations should not preclude a return
to normal service within a relatively short time.
Seismic loads should include the effects of potential soil
liquefaction and slope instability. Kinematic loading due to
ground deformation associated with liquefaction and cyclic
degradation of soils near piles should be considered.
7.8—Deformation loads
7.8.1 General requirements—Deformation loads are those
loads occurring from shrinkage and creep of the concrete.
Estimations of creep and drying shrinkage should be based
on the most probable values of such effects in-service. The
value of concrete creep coefficient for use in the design
should be that for ambient temperature determined in accordance with ASTM C512/C512M.
7.8.2 Shrinkage—Open pier and wharf decks, which are
usually constructed from concrete components, are subject
to forces resulting from shrinkage of concrete from the
curing process. Shrinkage loads are similar to temperature
loads in the sense that both are self-straining effects. For long
continuous open piers and wharves and their approaches,
shrinkage load is significant and should be considered.
However, for pile-supported pier and wharf structures, the
effect is not as critical as it may seem at first because over
the long time period in which the shrinkage takes place, the
soil surrounding the piles will slowly yield and relieve the
forces on the piles caused by the shrinking deck. The PCI
Design Handbook (PCI 2010) is recommended for shrinkage
design.
7.8.3 Creep—Creep, which is also a material-specific
internal load similar to shrinkage and temperature, is relevant
only in prestressed and post-tensioned concrete construction. The creep effect is also referred to as rib shortening
and should be evaluated using the PCI Design Handbook
(PCI 2010).
7.10—Load combinations
It is recommended to proportion piers and wharves to safely
resist the load combinations as represented in Appendix A as
extracted from Section 1605.3.2 of the California Building
Code (ICC 2010) and the International Building Code (ICC
2012). The designer should analyze each component of the
structure and the foundation elements for all the applicable
combinations. Appendix A lists the load factors to be used
for each combination and the percentage of unit stress applicable for service load combinations.
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7.9—Seismic loads
Determination of seismic loads can be based on local
building code provisions and other sources such as ASCE 7,
The California Building Code (ICC 2010), or UFC 4-152-01
(2005). For larger projects, site-specific studies and criteria
are usually prepared. The seismic hazard level for design,
such as the specified return period for the design earthquakes, should be defined by the owner in consultation with
the engineer.
Seismic loads are often divided into two levels of intensity, such as an operating basis earthquake (OBE) and
7.11—Design concepts
7.11.1 Introduction—Generally, the design concepts for
waterfront and coastal concrete structures are similar to
those applied for onshore structures, but some additional
special features apply to marine structures. Among these
are corrosion and the type of foundation support, including
vertical or batter piles considerations.
7.11.2 Corrosion—In the marine environment, corrosion
is a particularly important design consideration for construction materials and methods for addressing this issue are
described in detail in 5.5. Some practical considerations
follow.
7.11.2.1 Reinforced/prestressed concrete—Typical codes
(ACI 318, The California Building Code [ICC 2010],
AASHTO HB-17, and International Code Council [ICC]
[ICC 2012]) require 28-day strength of 5000 psi (34.4 MPa)
and a maximum w/cm of 0.40. Local requirements may
vary but should never be less stringent than this. The use of
supplementary cementitious materials and corrosion-inhibiting admixtures, as described in Chapter 4, are helpful in
reducing the corrosion potential.
7.11.2.2 Concrete cover—Generally, the greater the
concrete cover over the reinforcing steel, the longer the
service life of the concrete, because it takes longer for deleterious materials to reach the reinforcing bars and initiate
corrosion. In current practice, a typical amount of concrete
cover over the principal reinforcing bars is 3 in. (75 mm).
7.11.2.3 Reinforcing steel—There are several alternatives
to carbon steel reinforcing bars that can be considered to
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
minimize corrosion. These include the use of galvanized,
stainless, epoxy-coated, glass FRP, and low carbon-chromium bars. These are described in 4.8.
7.11.2.4 Structural steel—In most cases steel is coated or
galvanized, and is not normally used as a basic structural
component, except for piles, minor structures, and utilities.
If the structural steel or reinforced/prestressed concrete is
below the waterline, cathodic protection is an option (UFC
4-150-02 2011).
7.11.3 Types of piles to meet structural requirements—
Piles are described by their predominant material—steel,
concrete (or cement and other materials), or timber. Piles
made entirely of steel are usually H-sections or unfilled pipe;
however, other steel members can be used. Normal concrete
piles used in waterfront and coastal structures are conventionally reinforced concrete piles and prestressed concrete
piles. Timber piles are typically tree trunks that are peeled,
sorted to size, and driven into place. The timber is usually
treated with preservatives.
7.11.3.1 Steel piles—Steel piles are used where structural
ductility is needed for structures such as isolated breasting/
docking dolphins, mooring and breasting piles with high
flexural stresses, and where corrosion environment is not
a concern. Single monopile dolphins can be constructed of
large-diameter steel tubular sections that vary in thickness to
match the moment curve of loads on the pile. Large-diameter steel pipe piles with concrete or steel cap structures may
be used to minimize the surface exposed to corrosion effects.
7.11.3.2 Concrete piles—Concrete piles offer high load
capacity and good protection in marine environments
without protective coatings. Precast concrete piles classification covers both conventionally reinforced concrete piles
and prestressed concrete piles. Both types can be formed
by casting, spinning (centrifugal casting), slip-forming, or
extrusion and are made in various cross-sectional shapes
such as triangular, square, octagonal, and round. Some piles
are cast with a hollow core. Precast concrete piles should
be designed and manufactured to withstand handling and
driving stresses in addition to service loads.
Prestressed concrete piles are constructed using steel rods,
strands, or wires under tension. The prestressing steel is
typically enclosed in wire spirals or ties. Prestressed piles
can either be pre- or post-tensioned. Pretensioned piles are
usually cast full length in permanent casting beds. With
proper pile connectors cast into the pretensioned piles, long
piles may be assembled on-site from shorter sections that are
easier to ship, handle, and drive. These savings may offset
the cost of the connectors.
Post-tensioned piles are usually manufactured in sections
that are then assembled to the required pile lengths in the
manufacturing plant or on the job site and then post-tensioned
to the required stress. The length of piles assembled in the
manufacturing plant is often dictated by the transportation
method used to deliver those piles. Often, the post-tensioned
piles are large-diameter cylinder piles with large momentsof-inertia. Additional information on the design, manufacture, and installation of concrete piles is found in ACI 543R.
7.11.3.3 Timber piles—Timber piles are typically used
where short piles with light loads are needed in marine
structures. Timber piles are generally less expensive but
require higher maintenance. Timber piles may be used in
areas where the soils are highly aggressive and marine borer
attack is minimal to nonexistent.
7.11.3.4 Plumb or batter piles—Piers and wharves are
often designed using a combination of plumb (vertical) and
battered (inclined) piles. Plumb piles are generally used to
resist vertical loads, although they may also be used to carry
lateral loads in bending. Battered piles may be introduced at
suitable locations in the structure to provide lateral stiffness
and resistance in the two principal directions. Battered piles
are appropriate for structures where the battered piles are
intended to remain elastic for all loadings, but are usually
not appropriate for earthquake loading where inelastic
behavior is desired as vertical displacements are introduced
into the structure that cannot be identified using a linear
elastic analysis. If inelastic seismic behavior is desired,
plumb piles will usually provide better seismic performance
than battered piles. However, if battered piles are used, a
displacement-based seismic design approach is recommended, and the piles, pile-to-deck connection, and the deck
should be designed for all force, displacement, and compatibility demands.
7.11.3.5 Pile testing program—For unusually adverse
soil conditions or for large projects with a large number
of piles, close communication between the structural and
geotechnical engineers during pile-driving, use of a test pile
program, and use of a dynamic pile driving analyzer (PDA)
for selected piles should be considered. Local codes may
require actual static load testing instead of a PDA.
7.11.4 Special considerations
7.11.4.1 Air gap—Air gap is the distance from the underside of the deck to the datum high water level. The datum
normally used for waterfront structures is mean lower low
water (MLLW), mean sea level (MSL), or mean low water
(MLW). Using this datum allows easy reference to dock
construction clearances during construction, utility clearances, and ship deck elevations for operational considerations. This dimension depends on the exposure of the pier
or wharf to the wave climate, current forces on structure,
tidal variations, sea bottom conditions, height of the ship’s
deck, and type of ship-to-pier transfer facilities. The air
gap should consider flood elevations and maximum river
stages to keep the dock out of flood plains or design for
flood current loads. Typical air gap values for sheltered piers
and wharves in Hawaii are in the 1 to 5 ft (0.3 to 1.5 m)
range, those on the West Coast of North America are in the
7 to 10 ft (2.1 to 3.0 m) range, and those on East Coast of
North America are in the 7 to 15 ft (2.1 to 4.6 m) range.
New recreation piers in exposed locations on the West Coast
have air gaps of approximately 30 ft (9 m). There have been
several instances where exposed recreation piers have been
completely demolished due to an inadequate air gap.
7.11.4.2 Water level during construction—Design should
consider the water levels during construction for cut-off pile
elevation, and installing and stripping concrete forms. Site
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elevation and fill requirements should be considered in the
project cost when setting the structure elevation.
7.12—Analysis
7.12.1 Computer analysis and modeling—Commercial
software is available to model a typical structure section
composed of piles, beams, and pile caps. It is important to
provide enough nodes in each structural component to allow
for sufficient distribution of mass when computing dynamic
mode shapes for seismic analysis.
Depending on the type of response expected in the various
components of the structure, either gross or effective section
properties should be assigned to individual components. For
example, under vertical loading alone, the piles supporting
a deck may not experience significant flexural stresses and
a gross EI is appropriate. However, under seismic loading,
the same pile may possibly be cracked over a significant
proportion of its length. In such a case, an effective EI (for
example, 40 to 60 percent) should be assigned to the pile.
Priestley et al. (1996) provides guidance on the choice of
effective parameters.
7.12.2 p-y analysis—Where necessary, it is recommended
that p-y analysis be performed to include the effects of the
soil-pile interaction. Software for performing p-y analysis
is commercially available. If advanced nonlinear programs
are used, then it is possible to directly model a sufficient
length of pile in the ground supported laterally by nonlinear
soil springs representing the p-y curves. For further discussion, refer to Priestley et al. (1996), POLB (2012), Strom
and Ebeling (2001), Anderson et al. (2008), Chapter 31F of
the California Building Code (ICC 2010), and ACI SP-295
(Ospina et al. 2013).
7.12.3 P-delta analysis—If piers and wharves are
supported on very slender piles, the use of a P-delta analysis
rather than standard pile interaction diagrams may produce
more optimal pile designs, resulting in more economical
structures. Many of the commercially available analysis
software will do an automatic iterative analysis to check
P-delta stability. If using P-delta analysis, the pile demand
should be checked against the unreduced pile capacity rather
than the pile interaction diagrams available from many pile
producers. The effect of pile prestress should be included in
calculating pile capacity.
7.12.4 Analysis for normally occurring loads—Linear
elastic analysis is most often used for vertical loads and
normally occurring lateral loads, such as wind, current,
waves, ice, berthing, mooring, and service-level earthquakes. Member properties are assumed elastic, and spring
supports are assigned linear stiffness values. Normal rules
regarding positioning loads to produce worst effects in
continuous beams and slabs are followed. An analysis of
deck slab systems may be performed independently of the
global computer model using Pucher influence field charts
(Libby and Perkins 1975) or commercially available plate
analysis software.
7.12.5 Seismic analysis using force-based approach—
Until recently, most seismic analysis on marine structures
has been done using a force-based method adopting the
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23
provisions of AASHTO HB-17 or the International Code
Council (ICC) (ICC 2012). In both of these codes, an elastic
force on the structure is calculated by the use of pseudostatic or response spectrum analysis. The elastic forces are
then reduced by Rs to account for the member yielding
to dissipate the earthquake energy. Prescriptive detailing
requirements should be used to ensure members and connections have adequate ductility.
Ferritto (1997) incorporated lessons learned from previous
earthquakes such as Loma Prieta in 1989 and Kobe in 1995
to expand on the AASHTO criteria that existed at that time
to the resulting updated AASHTO seismic criteria available
(AASHTO HB-17-02). Ferritto (1997) uses a two-level,
force-based approach, and lists Rs for various types of pier
construction. The method also offers guidance on issues
specific to piers and wharves such as pile-soil interaction,
liquefaction, pile-to-cap connections, as well as the performance of various types of piles such as reinforced concrete,
prestressed concrete, and pipe piles. Ferritto (1997) specifically prohibits the use of batter piles in wharf structures
“unless special design provisions are made to reliably
demonstrate that batter piles have the strength and ductility
at the pile cap to perform under design loading conditions.”
This prohibition was based on experience from the 1989
Loma Prieta earthquake and the 1993 Guam earthquake,
where the batter piles failed at the pile to cap connection in
shear. A case study using a static push-over analysis indicated that batter piles can potentially fail in a brittle manner.
7.12.6 Seismic analysis using displacement-based
approach—In 1999, the U.S. Navy in conjunction with
the California State Lands Commission (CSLC), issued a
publication, TR-2103-SHR (Ferritto et al. 1999 [V. 1 and
2]; Priestley 2000 [V. 3]). This new publication builds on
TR-2069 (Ferritto 1997) and takes seismic design to a
new level, using displacement methods. This publication
has been further updated and adopted into code as part of
Chapter 31F (California State Lands Commission), Marine
Oil Terminals, and California Building Code (ICC 2010).
The basic premise of TR-2103 as stated is as follows.
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
The primary purpose of the analyses will be to
determine the maximum displacements expected
under the design level earthquake. The primary
purpose of design is to ensure that these displacements are compatible with the design performance
Limit State.
To accomplish the above, TR-2103 offers detailed recommendations with regard to the following criteria:
a) Performance objectives
b) Specification of ground motion
c) Specification of analysis procedures
d) Evaluation of possible failure modes
e) Definition of damage mechanisms
f) Development of allowable response limits such as
strains, ductility, and drifts
g) Evaluation of economics
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
Fig. 7.13.1a—Frame with B- and D-regions.
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h) Reliability analysis associated with definition of seismic
intensity and structural performance
Using a displacement design approach affords the designer
a much better appreciation of structural performance and,
in many cases, results in a more economical structure than
when using the force-based method. The design effort is
similar if not simpler than the force-based method once the
engineer is familiar with the procedures.
The use of batter piles (Ferritto et al. 1999; Priestley 2000)
is strongly discouraged. The California Building Code (ICC
2010) provides some guidance in evaluating the performance
of a structure that contains batter piles. Although vertical
pile systems are generally more economical for piers (in
some situations, using the methods available in Ferritto et al.
[1999] and Priestley [2000]), it is possible to achieve a reliable batter pile design by using a ductile pile to cap tension
connection, such as sleeving a short length of the reinforcing
bar at the top of the pile to allow ductile yielding. As the
yielding connection creates a pole-vaulting effect around
the compression pile, it is essential to detail the structure to
accommodate the vertical displacement. Further discussion
is provided in 7.13.
7.13—Design of members
7.13.1 Design codes and design strengths of materials—
The member design, other than seismic and the design
strengths of the materials, follows accepted codes and
commission reports such as ACI 318, AASHTO HB-17, the
International Code Council (ICC 2012), Eurocode 2 (2005),
CEB-FIP Model Code (2010/2012), or FIP-Commission 3
(1999).
The design concepts for evaluating the strengths of
members or assessing the ultimate limit state (ULS) of
members in most of the aforementioned codes follow
a sectional approach, meaning that the section effects
evaluated in the analysis (for example, moments, normal
forces, shear forces, and torsional moments) are individually checked. For each of these section effects, the design
strength should exceed the values calculated for the factored
loads.
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Design models using the aforementioned sectional
methods do not typically address the discontinuity regions,
which are often the location for damages and failures as
described by IABSE (1991a,b) and ACI 318, Appendix A.
Strut-and-tie models are often used for these regions of the
structure. Currently, several of the aforementioned codes
have incorporated the design with strut-and-tie models.
A B-region is any portion of a member in which the plane
section assumptions of flexural theory can be applied, and
the relevant code section for flexural or shear design may be
used. Figure 7.13.1a(a) shows a frame where the B-regions
are identified and may be differentiated from the discontinuity regions (D-regions) marked in gray. For simplicity, it
is assumed that a D-region extends to a length of the member
depth h on both sides of the discontinuity. It is noticeable
that in this case, the D-regions prevail and that obviously
their thorough design is highly important. The moment
diagram in Fig. 7.13.1a(b), for example, indicates that the
results of the analysis do not address the discontinuities the
D-regions, but it is applicable to design of the B-regions near
the middle of members.
The discontinuity regions (D-regions) may occur for
different reasons. In regions with no changes in the section
dimensions, abrupt changes may occur in the frame geometry—for example, at knee joints—and Fig. 7.13.1b(a) shows
some typical geometrical discontinuities. Locally applied
forces due to either point loads or prestressing anchors cause
statical discontinuities, as shown in Fig. 7.13.1b(b). There
are also many cases where both occur simultaneously, and
Fig. 7.13.1b(c) shows three typical cases of geometrical and
statical discontinuities.
7.13.2 Design of B-regions—Member design for
B-regions for waterfront and coastal concrete structures is
identical to the design for other structures. Member strength
in B-regions for bending, shear, and axial loads is computed
using the aforementioned accepted codes and then compared
with the member demands due to factored ultimate loads to
ensure that strength exceeds the demand.
In the case of the flexural design, the properties and nominal
capacities of concrete sections of various shapes, containing
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Fig. 7.13.1b—Typical discontinuity regions (D-regions).
25
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
Fig. 7.13.2—Truss model in B-region with transition to D-regions (fib Bulletin No. 16 2002).
various amounts of reinforcement and prestressing and
subjected to combined axial forces and moments, may
be calculated using the principles given in the codes (for
example, in ACI 318-11, Chapter 10).
If elements are allowed to yield under high demands from
earthquakes, it is necessary to determine the moment-curvature behavior of critical sections where plastic hinges form.
Where such moment-curvature analysis is used, the properties of the cover concrete, the confining effect of the lateral
reinforcement on the core concrete, and the strain-hardening
behavior of the reinforcing steel should be considered. Using
these relationships, a complete moment-curvature relationship can be generated to the point if failure is reached. From
this information and estimates of the plastic hinge length,
the rotation capacity of a given section can be computed
and compared with the rotation demands obtained from
nonlinear analysis. This is discussed in Ferritto et al. (1999).
The shear design in B-regions may be performed
according to ACI 318, Appendix A. However, note that this
leads to relatively conservative results compared with those
from other international codes (for example, Eurocode 2
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[2005] or FIP-Commission 3 [1999]). However, there may
be a conflict with the design of the D-region in Appendix A
of ACI 318. This deficiency may be overcome by completely
designing the member with B- and D-regions with strut-andtie models. In the B-region, this leads to a truss model, as
shown in Fig. 7.13.2, which exhibits a consistent transition
to the D-regions of the end support and at midspan. The
shear design then determines the strut angle θ, as shown for
the shear design of ACI 318 in Example 5 of ACI SP-208
(Reineck and Novak 2002) and in ACI SP-273 (Reineck
and Novak 2011). From the truss model, the amount of stirrups and the stresses in the struts can be determined. More
explanations can be found in ACI 445R, fib (Fédération
of Internationale du Béton) Bulletin No. 16 (fib 2002), the
report by Joint ACI-ASCE Committee 445 (1998), and ACI
SP-17(11).
7.13.3 Design of D-regions—The design of a D-region
starts with determining the reactions for the given loads. In
the case of D-regions adjacent to B-regions, as shown in Fig.
7.13.2, the inner forces at the end of the B-regions represent
the reactions for the D-region. The lengths of the D-regions
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
in Fig. 7.13.2 are longer than the depth z of the member, as
defined in ACI 318, Appendix A, and as is assumed in Fig.
7.13.1b.
The elements of a strut-and-tie model are the struts as
resultants of either parallel or fan-shaped compression stress
fields, the ties as resultants of the forces of concentrated or
distributed reinforcement, and the nodes connecting ties and
struts
Finding an appropriate strut-and-tie model is a challenging step and there are several methods. Further explanations on modeling can be found in Schlaich et al. (1987),
Schäfer (1999), and Reineck (1996). Guidance is also given
by the many examples presented in ACI SP-208 (Reineck
and Novak 2002), ACI SP-273 (Reineck and Novak 2011),
fib Bulletin No. 16 (fib 2002), and fib Bulletin No. 61 (fib
2011), whereby, especially in later designs, problems occurring in practice were dealt with. A D-region relevant to
marine structures is presented in 7.15.2.
7.13.4 Design for serviceability—Service load stresses are
limited to control cracking of the tension zone, thereby safeguarding the reinforcement against corrosion. In many cases,
particularly where relatively high live loads from container
storage are involved, serviceability requirements will most
likely govern the design. Other factors to be considered in
the serviceability design are freezing-and-thawing conditions, additives and cement replacement used in the concrete
mixture, and use of other corrosion-prevention measures
such as chemical inhibitors or corrosion-resistant reinforcement (refer to 4.5.4 and 4.8, respectively). Other serviceability design considerations are given in Chapter 6.
7.14—Member design for seismic loads
Seismic design is approached differently for the Level 1
(OBE) and Level 2 (SLE) seismic events. For the Level 1
(OBE) event, structures are required to resist loads elastically. A response spectrum dynamic analysis is generally
performed, and the resulting member loads are treated similarly to other load combinations with regard to member
strength, as discussed in the previous section. This ensures
that inelastic response and structure damage is minimized,
and that the structure is available for use immediately
following the event. Serviceability and reinforced concrete
crack control checks are generally not required for this event
because it is assumed that this loading will occur only a few
times during the life of the structure.
For the Level 2 (SLE) seismic event, however, strength
is usually considered to be of lesser concern than ductility
and displacement capacity. Significant repairable structural
damage and loss of use during the repair period is considered
acceptable as long as collapse of the structure is prevented.
A complete discussion of member design for seismic loads
is found in Priestley et al. (1996).
7.15 —Pile design
7.15.1 General—The successful design of a concrete pile
foundation involves intimate knowledge of the relevant
geotechnical and structural design requirements, pile manufacture and transportation details, and pile installation proce-
dures. Suitable piles can be damaged by improper installation, and inspection and control of the pile installation are
essential to producing a satisfactory foundation. ACI 543R
covers pile design in detail.
Piles supporting marine structures are often slender
elements. Under seismic loads, vertical piles can be subject
to significant moments and displacements, whereas batter
piles can be subjected to very high axial loads. Consideration of these effects, careful detailing of the pile-to-superstructure connection, and careful modeling of the pile/soil
interaction are essential for adequate performance during
extreme seismic events. A complete discussion of member
design is found in Ferritto et al. (1999).
Usually, it is desirable to limit anticipated damage in piles
to areas above the mud line, which can be readily accessed
and repaired after an earthquake. This type of behavior can
be obtained by strengthening the pile section at points of
maximum bending below the mud line and at the point of
connection between the piles and the superstructure, thus
forcing inelastic action to occur only at accessible points.
For prestressed concrete piles, mild reinforcement can be
added below the mud line to increase flexural capacity and
restrict plastic hinging to desired locations.
It should be noted that forcing plastic hinging to occur
above the mud line and below the point of pile/superstructure connection will tend to increase the shear demand on the
pile, an issue that should be addressed in the design.
7.15.2 Pile-to-deck connections—Pile-to-cap connections
are critical D-regions. Ferritto et al. (1999) critically discuss
the common details shown in Fig. 7.15.2a, and concludes
that bent dowels should not be used. The two proposals for
the detailing shown in Fig. 7.15.2a are obviously discussed
for opening moments, that is, tension on the bottom of the
right beam. For closing moments, the detail shown in Fig.
7.15.2a(a) cannot transfer the moment because no reinforcement connects the tensile forces of the pile and the beam.
The detail in Fig. 7.15.2a(b) provides such reinforcement,
but would rely on the lap splice on top, which will not work
due to the short length of overlap and the missing transverse
reinforcement.
The requirements for closing moments follow from the
strut-and-tie model shown in Fig. 7.15.2b. The moment on
the left side of the beam is higher than that on the right, so
that some reinforcing bars from the left side have to be bent
down to the pile and provide the frame action. The diameter
of bend determines the pressure on the strut at this node. The
loads or shear forces of both beams are transferred to the
compression zone of the pile, which provides the support.
Node N1 is biaxially stressed and, therefore, not critical.
The pile-to-deck connection is often built with prefabricated members such as shown in Fig. 7.15.2c(a). For a certain
load case, this may lead to the forces and moments in the
connection shown in Fig. 7.15.2c(b), where a moment has
to be transferred from the left side to the pile. The strut-andtie model in Fig. 7.15.2d(a) shows that this requires Ties T3
and T2 and reinforcing bars bent down at Node N2, similar
to the model in Fig. 7.15.2b. However, there are additional
requirements for the nodes as listed in Fig. 7.15.2d(b). The
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
joint at the left support of the deck slab will require a welded
connection for T3, and this will likewise be the case for Tie
T2 because a lap splice would be difficult to arrange and
transverse reinforcement would be required, which is not
feasible. A critical node may also be Node N1 where only a
very short anchorage length is provided.
7.15.3 Prestress level in concrete piles—Longitudinal
prestressing is not normally considered load-bearing reinforcement. Sufficient prestressing steel in the form of hightensile wire strand or bar should be used so that the effective prestress after losses is sufficient to resist the handling,
driving, and service-load stresses. Tensile stresses can also
develop in the body of the pile if they are driven through
dense soil into weaker layers. Tensile stresses are usually
mitigated through the use of adequate prestress. Refer to
ACI 543R for prestress pile design.
Prestressed concrete piles should be protected against high
compressive stresses, which develop at both the pile butt and
the pile tip during driving. High compressive stresses at the
extremities are usually mitigated through the use of wire
spirals at a closer spacing over at least twice the diameter
of the pile. The pitch spacing tightens from the normal 6 in.
(150 mm) to a very tight pitch (often less than 1 in. [25 mm])
at the last few turns at the butt and tip of the pile.
7.15.4 Concrete pile spirals—In addition to mitigating
high compressive stresses during driving, pile spirals
perform two other functions. First, the spiral provides significant shear resistance. For piles subject to significant tension
(usually batter piles) and for areas of piles likely to experience plastic hinging, the concrete component of shear resistance is significantly reduced. Thus, careful consideration of
spiral pitch should be given in these situations. Normally the
minimum spiral pitch is 6 in. (150 mm).
Second, spirals provide confinement for the core concrete
in plastic hinge regions, which may be subject to relatively
high strain levels. For sections that are controlled by the
concrete compressive strain, decreasing the pitch of the
spirals can often significantly increase the displacement
capacity of the structure, thus decreasing the risk of collapse
under extreme seismic events. Minimum volumetric spiral
requirements vary significantly in different design codes.
Therefore, the selection of spiral pitch should be based
not only on the code-specified minimum requirements, but
also on engineering judgment and desired level of performance. For further information on pile spiral design, refer
to AASHTO HB-17-02 and PCI Committee Report (1993).
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Fig. 7.15.2a—Detailing of pile-deck connections using
hooks as proposed by Ferritto et al. (1999).
27
Fig. 7.15.2b—Strut-and-tie model for a beam-pile connection.
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28
Fig. 7.15.2c—Pile-to-deck connection with prefabricated members.
beams and slabs assuming that adjacent piles are driven with
an out-of-tolerance of 6 in. (150 mm), thus making spans 1
ft (0.3 m) longer. This increase in span length is assumed
to apply to crack control design as well as to strength. Pile
loads are calculated without the out-of-tolerance adjustment,
based on the assumption that compensating pile mislocations are most likely to occur and, if not, an extra pile can be
added relatively easily if required during construction.
Fig. 7.15.2d—Strut-and-tie model for connection of Fig.
7.15.2c.
7.15.5 Hollow concrete piles—Hollow concrete piles are
used where water depths require greater section capacity.
Radial cracking of hollow concrete piles is not uncommon
during driving. For more information on design, manufacture, and installation of hollow concrete piles, refer to ACI
543R. Providing a hole as a vent from the inside of the pile
to the outside allows relief of the internal pressure that may
contribute to radial cracking.
7.15.6 Design adjustments for mislocated piles—Pile butt
location tolerance of approximately 2 to 4 in. (50 to 100 mm)
is usually allowed in pile driving specifications to keep the
pile inside the pile caps. It is common, however, to design
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7.16—Consideration of slope deformations
Port facilities are commonly constructed by filling in tidal
lands, and earthquake-induced liquefaction ground failure in
fill soils is well documented (Puri and Prakash 2008; Cubrinovski and Ishihara 2004; Ishihara and Cubrinovski 2004;
Cubrinovski et al. 2010). Overall stability of slopes in the
vicinity of foundations should be considered as a part of the
design of foundations. Information on slope stability and
stabilization methods can be found in Duncan et al. (1987)
and Abramson et al. (2001).
CHAPTER 8—CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS
8.1—General
The waterfront environment presents many challenging
demands on the design and construction of concrete coastal
marine structures. Various environmental, physical, and
geological conditions, and regulatory requirements that
are unique to the waterfront dictate the design, equipment,
and procedures used in coastal marine construction. The
designer, owner, and contractor should carefully consider
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
the demands on construction and their interaction with these
constraints along with logistics, economics, schedule, risk,
and safety. The demands become more significant as the
distance from the shore to the structure being constructed
increases (Gerwick 2000).
Every project should undergo a constructibility review
during and after the design stage. This process by which the
designer, owner, and contractor review the design is essential to the successful completion of a project. The constructibility review should consider all the various environmental
and physical constraints, local construction experience and
practice, construction staging/access, and quality assurance/
quality control (QC) concerns. The goal of the review is to
identify principles that can be applied to construct the structure in the most expedient, safe, and cost-effective manner.
Examples include prefabricating as many components as
possible off-site, using simple configurations and standardization of details as much as possible, providing reasonable and flexible tolerances, and selecting the construction method that is suitable for the site and structure (ACI
364.3R).
8.2—Environmental and physical constraints
Environmental factors such as water depth, tides, waves,
currents, ice, wind, and existing marine habitat can substantially impact the selection of marine structure design and the
construction methods used by the contractor.
For example, tidal fluctuations may impact the window
of opportunity to perform certain construction operations
such as formwork and concrete placement. The range of tide
fluctuation could also dictate whether concrete is cast-inplace or precast. The latter may permit construction during
high-tide periods, but may entail using divers to perform
the submerged portions of the work. In places where waves,
currents, and ice are substantial, the contractor may require
erecting temporary shields to protect the work area and mitigate the physical challenges presented by these elements.
Sometimes construction is performed in sensitive areas
where potential disturbance to aquatic life and neighboring
residents necessitates the use of equipment and procedures that minimize ground vibrations and noise, which is
commonly associated with pile-driving activities. In these
cases, drilling techniques are successfully used for reducing
vibrations and noise while installing piles or caissons for
pier and wharf structures. Special hammers and hammer
cushions that reduce noise levels, such as closed-system
hydraulic hammers, shrouds, and polymer cushions are
becoming more common.
8.3—Local construction experience and practice
The availability of local skilled labor and local construction experience are important factors that could have an
impact on the way a structure is designed and constructed.
The availability of precasting plants may result in relatively
lower costs than cast-in-place concrete. This results from
prefabricating a significant portion of the structure offsite. The experience of local contractors with certain types
of concrete mixture designs and placement methods, such
29
as pumping versus pouring, should be considered when
selecting material.
Being familiar with the methods used for constructing
similar coastal concrete structures in similar conditions
can simplify construction and result in a more cost-effective design. For example, if the typical practice within a
certain geographic region is to employ precast systems for
constructing piers and wharves, selecting this type of system
could result in a more competitively bid project.
8.4—Construction staging and access
Schematic drawings should be developed that clearly
identify the various stages in the construction process,
access routes, material storage areas, site operations, loads,
and how these factors interact with ongoing site activities. Appropriate procedures should be developed for each
construction stage that will meet the various constraints,
such as loads, access, safety, and schedule.
A site-specific safety plan should be developed that
considers the owner’s constraints and identifies the hazards,
risks, and appropriate mitigation measures to be adopted to
minimize risk of accident or delay. Construction procedures
should comply with the requirements of agencies having
jurisdiction, such as the Occupational Safety and Health
Agency (OSHA 2005).
Available access will vary from site to site and will often
dictate construction procedures such as methods of delivering materials or products, precast versus cast-in-place
concrete, and truck or barge delivery. For example, the
contractor may elect to have longer piles delivered by barge
to the site to avoid splicing lengths that would otherwise be
limited by truck delivery.
The location of construction equipment, such as crane
location, should be carefully planned to avoid interference with access, other work, owner operations, and the
completed structure. A typical consideration for waterborne
equipment is where and how to anchor barges to avoid interference with navigation or site operations. The contractor
should also provide safe and convenient access for personnel
to create a more efficient environment for workers, which
can contribute to increased productivity.
8.5—Construction methods
8.5.1 General—This section assumes that all materials
have been tested to assure that they meet specifications, and
that special structural features and stability considerations
required by the particular construction method selected have
been considered by the designer and constructor. Various
other references describe construction methods for fixed
offshore concrete structures (ACI 357R), barge-like structures (ACI 357.2R), and arctic structures (ACI 357.1R).
Some of the methods described therein are common to
coastal marine construction. Hoff (2008) described the
construction methods for offshore concrete structures that
are also applicable to the construction of waterfront and
coastal concrete structures.
All methods and workmanship should follow accepted
practices as described in ACI 301. In general, only addi-
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30
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
tional recommendations relevant to coastal marine structures
are included herein. Several methods have been developed
for marine concrete construction depending on site conditions, available equipment, and design parameters. Selecting
the appropriate method can simplify both construction and
design. For example, on-site construction in floating formwork, as described in 8.5.5, eliminates the need to design for
eccentric towing, wave, and launching loads. All methods
have in common the need for delivering materials to the site
and their placement in the structure. Concrete mixed in a
batch plant on-site or delivered by concrete trucks can be
placed in forms with a buggy, conveyor belt, or crane bucket;
however, boom pumps have gained more popularity. A
small-line pump with a nozzle and an air compressor allows
application of wet-mix shotcrete to a sloped or vertical
surface and saves the expense of double formwork (Iorns
1989, 1996). Dry-mix shotcrete is seldom used because of
rebound and QC problems.
8.5.2 Underwater concrete placement—If it is impractical or uneconomical to dewater the site with a cofferdam,
caisson, or dike, concrete may be placed in underwater formwork by the tremie method making certain that the discharge
end of the tremie is always embedded in previously cast
concrete, or by using an anti-washout admixture to minimize
mixing with water. The concrete foundation pad is usually
placed on a rock or gravel base or on piles driven into the
bottom sediments. Concrete skirts can be cast in place or
precast units can be placed around the base to prevent scour.
8.5.3 Construction in casting basin or graving dock and
setting gravity structures floated in place and set on piles—
ACI 357.2R describes many of these types of structures and
their methods of construction. Large floating and gravity
structures are usually built by casting the base in a graving
dock or basin with a floor that is below the outside water
level and is kept from flooding by a gate or removable
dike. Formwork is erected on the dock floor and construction proceeds in a conventional manner until the sides of
the structure are high enough for it to float when the gate
is opened or the dike is removed and the site flooded. The
structure is completed in the proximity of the dock or towed
to and completed at the site. Structure size is limited to the
available area of the dock floor and draft is limited to the
depth of the basin below exterior water level. Larger structures should be built in segments and assembled outside the
dock. A notable example of this construction is the Valdez
Container Terminal, a floating wharf 700 ft (214 m) long by
100 ft (30 m) wide by 33 ft (10 m) deep, which was built in
Tacoma, WA, in 1982 in two 350 ft (107 m) sections. On
this project, the two sections were towed 1240 miles (2000
km) and joined at Valdez, AL (Mast et al. 1985; Zinzerling
and Chicanski 1982). Another example is the ARCO LPG
Barge, a post-tensioned 59,000 ton (53,500 tonne) barge
built in Tacoma and towed 9940 miles (16,000 km) to Indonesia (Anderson 1976).
8.5.4 Construction on a barge—Construction on a barge
is essentially the same as for a floating dry dock. Instead
of wing walls to control stability, the barge has watertight
compartments with pipes leading to a pump or air compressor
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in one corner or to a manifold connected to an outside pump
or air supply. Launching is achieved by flooding side or end
compartments until the barge deck is lowered and the structure slides off. The flooded compartments are then evacuated
by pumping or air pressure. Structures too large for construction on barges are built in segments. A modified version of
this method was used to build marinas on site by making
the largest component, usually the fuel dock, in a floating
form (7.5.5) and using this platform to build and launch the
fingers and header floats.
8.5.5 Construction on floating formwork—Hummel
(1984) has described how a floating caisson was used to
build a massive concrete pier. Construction on a floating
formwork is similar to methods used in 7.5.4 except that a
floating form allows any size structure to be built directly on
the water on site or a nearby location. This method has been
used since 1965 in California, Florida, England, and India
to build floating wharves and fuel docks (Iorns 1989, 1991,
1996, 1999). The bottom and sides of the floating form can
be made of any water-resistant panel material, but 0.35 in. (9
mm) thick oriented strand board (OSB) is preferred because
of its availability and low cost. Panels are fastened together
on polyethylene film at the water’s edge and the assembly is
pushed or pulled offshore as more panels are added. Where
waves at the site may exceed 3 ft (1 m) in height, the form
is stiffened or protected with a floating breakwater that can
later be incorporated in the structure or sunk for use as an
anchor. Common labor applies successive layers of shotcrete
to the floating form and embeds preformed reinforcing mat
in each layer to create the hull. Bulkheads and deck slabs are
precast on shore or within the hull, hoisted into place, and
bonded together with reinforced shotcrete fillets. The deck
may also be a continuous pour on precast ferrocement forms.
Once the hull is complete, one end of the form is removed
and the sides are loosened so the structure can be slipped out
and the form reused.
8.5.6 Construction on slipway—Concrete construction
on a slipway introduces complicating factors not present
in a graving dock. Not only should the slipway support the
weight of the structure, it should have sufficient rigidity to
prevent distortion of the formwork during construction and
stress cracks after completion. Slipway angle, buoyancy
distribution of the structure, suction to the bottom form, and
bridging loads during launch should be considered.
Breaking the bond between the base of the structure and
the slipway or dock can be accomplished by injecting air
or water through ducts in the structure or in the dock, or by
casting on sand, paper, plywood, strand board, or a textile
covered with plastic film. In floating formwork, polyethylene film serves both to release and protect fresh concrete
from seawater.
8.5.7 Construction on piles—Piles are usually made of
timber, steel, or concrete, although some proprietary pile
systems consist of plastic or fiberglass sheaths and other
structural elements. Information on concrete pile manufacture and installation is presented in ACI 364.3R and ACI
543R. Piles are driven with a pile-driving hammer, jetted,
or placed in predrilled holes made with an auger or drill.
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Concrete piles require additional care when being lifted in
place and prepared for driving. Because of their relatively
low bending capacity, multiple pick-up points are required
to prevent overstressing the pile. Piles are typically spaced at
20 to 23 ft (6 to 7 m) for obtaining an optimal and economical design for capacities in the range of 100 to 250 tons (90
to 225 tonnes) per pile (Tsinker 1997).
Pile-supported concrete structures, such as piers, wharves,
and mooring/breasting dolphins are typically constructed
in place, often using the permanent piles for supporting
the formwork. Forms for the pile caps or deck beams are
typically prefabricated as boxes, and are set with steel
reinforcing cages inside. A Scandinavian method used for
erecting a concrete lighthouse consists of building its base
on pile bents above water, intentionally collapsing the piling
by explosive charges. The remainder of the structure is
completed afloat (Dock and Harbour Authority 1961).
In cases where a precast design is used, the pile caps are
cast in place and precast planks are laid down to span the
caps. The planks are then used as formwork for the cast-inplace topping that, when hardened, acts compositely with
the planks to provide the design load capacity. For piers and
mooring dolphins, piles are typically driven with waterborne
pile-driving equipment through a template, which maintains
the pile alignment during driving and temporarily braces the
piles against wind, current, or ice forces. The template or
stay-lathing is sometimes used for supporting formwork for
pouring the concrete caps, deck, or both. In wharf construction, although the outboard piles are driven with floating
equipment, the piles closer to shore can be driven with landbased pile-driving equipment.
For dolphins, the concrete cap is often poured in two parts
to reduce the formwork structural requirements. The first
placement is typically 1 to 2 ft (0.3 to 0.6 m) thick, and once
it attains a specified compressive strength, it is used as the
formwork for the subsequent placement.
8.5.8 Construction on berm—In this method, construction takes place on a sand berm that is then fluidized until
the structure floats free. Construction may also take place on
any beach or mud flat between tides or periods of low water.
This method was used to construct a fuel dock at the water’s
edge during an annual period of low water on Lake Folsom,
CA. The dock floated free when the water level rose. Other
pontoons were built between tide cycles by covering freshly
cast sections to protect them from contact with incoming
tides until the hull was completed and could be floated out at
high tide for completion in deeper water.
8.5.9 Segmental construction—A structure too large to
be built as a monolith in a dedicated facility can be built
in segments and joined afloat. Typically, the structure is
divided into segments defined by vertical planes through the
structure, although the structure can also be divided horizontally and assembled by floating one level over another.
Segments are designed to facilitate joining by external or
internal ballast, keyways, sockets for shear pins, and ducts
for post-tensioning. Segments may also be bolted to each
other, as was done for the Interstate 90 floating bridge
between Seattle and Bellevue in Washington State. Twenty
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31
pontoons were bolted together to form a rigid roadway 6600
ft (2013 m) long and 56 ft. (17.1 m) wide (Iorns 1991).
8.5.10 Joining segments split horizontally—In structures
split horizontally, the lower segment is ballasted to slightly
negative buoyancy and allowed to rest on the bottom or is
supported by external buoyancy devices while the upper
section is floated over it. Matching ducts in each segment
contain guide cables to align the segments in plan and also to
post-tension the structure. Inflatable bags, steel drums, and
plywood boxes encased in plastic film are some of the ways
used to provide buoyancy.
8.5.11 Joining segments split vertically—Segments are
floated into juxtaposition and ballasted into alignment, and
cables are fed through ducts and then tensioned and grouted.
Some segments are designed to accept a closing pour.
Matching sockets may be built into segments and hollow
nipples inserted to resist shear and provide passageways for
pipes or personnel
8.5.12 Prestressing—Precast elements used in marine
structures are frequently prestressed. Post-tensioning is
used both for member strength and also for joining precast
components or structure segments. Ducts should be fully
grouted after tensioning.
CHAPTER 9—QUALITY CONTROL AND
INSPECTION
9.1—Introduction
9.1.1 General—The extent of a quality control (QC)
program for waterfront and coastal marine concrete structures can vary depending on the previous experience, application, raw materials used, and the level of quality desired.
A QC program may be extensive or general standard type.
Therefore, it is the responsibility of the engineer to determine an appropriate QC program that will assure the product
will meet and satisfy the desired intent. Quality control
emphasizes concrete testing to uncover defects and report
to management––who will make the decision to allow or
deny use of the concrete or its placement—whereas quality
assurance attempts to improve and stabilize production
and associated processes to avoid or minimize issues that
led to the defect(s). ACI 121R is useful in developing the
project specific QC and quality assurance programs. There
are a number of computer-based quality data and analysis
programs available that should be used in assuring that the
concrete produced and placed meets specifications.
The testing agency that performs concrete mixture design,
the specification of concrete ingredients, and concrete placement testing should also satisfy the requirement of applicable standards and usually should meet the requirement of
ASTM E329. The batch plant that supplies concrete should
also satisfy the Concrete Plant Standards of the Concrete
Plant Manufacturers Bureau (2007) and as well as those of
ACI 301 or ASTM C94/C94M.
9.1.2 Mixture development—Any QC program should
begin with a concrete that meets the project requirements.
To obtain concrete with certain desired performance characteristics, selecting the component materials is the first step,
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
which is followed by mixture proportioning. The component
materials to be used are described in 4.1 to 4.5.
The proportioning of concrete mixtures is the process of
arriving at the right combination of cement, supplementary
cementitious materials, aggregates, water, and admixtures
for making concrete according to the project specifications.
Mixture proportioning is not an exact science, but guidelines
on accomplishing it are found in ACI 211.1, ACI 211.2,
211.4R, and Kosmatka and Wilson (2011). Refer to ACI
211.5R for information on concrete proportions.
The essential requirements of the concrete mixture are the
workability of the freshly mixed concrete and the strength
of the hardened concrete at a specified age. These should be
included in the project specifications. Once the initial requirements are met, other project requirements such as concrete
density in the case of lightweight concrete; specified density
concrete; or heavyweight concrete, water content, chlorideion permeability, concrete temperatures in large placements,
effects of varying admixtures or other additions and their
content, concrete durability, and placing techniques such as
pumping can be evaluated and the basic mixture adjusted.
The mixture development should be done by approved
laboratories and the requirement for these laboratories
should be included in the project specifications. However,
if full-size concrete batches are required—for example,
pumping trials—the project site mixer or concrete supplier
can become involved in the mixture development.
9.1.3 Quality control program—As a minimum, the
following tests should be specified and verified on fresh
concrete:
a) Slump
b) Entrained air content
c) Concrete temperature
d) Unit weight
e) Yield
f) Compressive strength
If the strength fails the project requirements, the action
needed should also be specified in the project specifications.
Guidance on interpreting strength test results is found in ACI
214R and ACI 214.4R.
A preplacement inspection should also be conducted and
include the following as a minimum:
a) Soil/rock foundation
b) Formwork
c) Concrete joints
d) Embedded items
e) Reinforcing steel
f) Cleanliness of conveying and placing equipment
g) Hot and cold weather placement
h) Consolidation
A post-placement inspection should also be required with
the following as a minimum:
a) Finishing
b) Curing
c) Repair of defects
d) Form removal
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9.2—Quality control tests
9.2.1 Concrete slump—Depending on application and
placement requirements, consistency characteristics can
be important and are generally reported as concrete slump
(ASTM C143/C143M). Appropriate slump can be achieved
by adding either water (if under the specified w/cm), a waterreducing agent, or a high-range water reducer.
9.2.2 Concrete air content—Minimum and maximum air
content should be specified irrespective of the structure.
Good QC is required to ensure that the proper amount of
air content is achieved. The recommended amount of air
content provided in ACI 357R and ACI 211.1 and is generally measured in accordance with ASTM C231/C231M for
normal-density concrete and ASTM C173/C173M for lightweight-aggregate concrete.
9.2.3 Concrete unit weight, yield, and concrete temperature—For waterfront and coastal marine concrete applications, a normal unit weight is typically recommended.
However, lightweight-aggregate concrete can be specified
for structures that might be floating either during construction, when in service, or both. Because the design density
of lightweight-aggregate concrete is an important consideration, density control is described in ACI 213R. The yieldof-concrete test is required to ascertain compliance with
design mixture weights and is determined in accordance with
ASTM C138/C138M for both normalweight and lightweight
concrete. Concrete temperature at the time of placement is
very important. Concrete temperature depends on thickness
of structure or component, ingredients in the mixture, and
ambient temperature during placement.
9.2.4 Concrete compressive strength—The strength
requirement depends on the load-carrying characteristics
of the structure. Compressive strength of concrete should
be specified accordingly. Compressive strength of concrete
can be determined using the ASTM C39/C39M. Compressive strength test results should be provided to the concrete
producer by the laboratory.
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32
9.3—Inspection
9.3.1 General—Inspection of existing structures is very
important, particularly if located in an aggressive environment. The frequency of inspection depends on the type of
structure, its usage, and location. Inspections can be scheduled as: 1) periodic inspections to evaluate the overall condition of the structure; 2) emergency inspections, usually of
limited scope, to determine the extent of damage following
a vessel collision, flood, earthquake, or similar event; or 3)
preconstruction inspections to confirm the extent of repair
work. An additional in-depth inspection may be performed
based on the results of periodic or emergency inspections,
if there are other reasons to believe potential structural
problems may exist, or where the cause or significance of
deterioration should be investigated by laboratory testing or
analysis. Inspections should include above- and below-water
elements of the structure.
9.3.2 Periodic inspections—Periodic inspections of
existing structures are important (AASHTO 1983; Brinckerhoff 1992). The frequency of inspection depends on the
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methods are primarily used above water, they can also be
used below water.
9.3.3.1.3 In-place testing—Samples of hardened concrete
obtained from the structure can be used to determine various
properties of the in-place concrete. These properties include
strength, air content, density, specific gravity, absorption,
voids, cement content, mineral admixture and organic
admixture content, chloride content, depth of carbonation,
moisture content, and permeability.
Core testing is the most direct method to determine the
in-place compressive strength of concrete in a structure.
If strength records are unavailable, the in-place strength
of concrete in an existing structure can be evaluated using
cores.
In new construction, cylinder strength tests failing to meet
strength-based acceptance criteria can be investigated using
provisions given in Section 5.3 of ACI 318. These criteria
specify the circumstances when core tests are permitted,
the number of cores to be tested, the conditioning of the
cores before testing, the limits on the time interval between
coring and testing, and the basis for determining whether
the concrete in the area represented by the core strengths is
structurally adequate. ACI 214.4R can be used for obtaining
cores and interpreting compressive strength results. The
standard method for obtaining and testing drilled cores is
ASTM C42/C42M.
The cores, pieces of the cores, or pieces of concrete from
the structure can be used to determine other characteristics
of the hardened concrete as follows:
a) Air-content and air-void system parameters
b) Density, specific gravity, absorption, and voids
c) Cement content
d) Presence and amount of certain mineral admixtures
e) Acid-soluble chloride-ion content
f) Water-soluble chloride-ion content
g) Total chloride content
h) Depth or degree of carbonation
i) In-place moisture content or relative humidity
j) Permeability
k) Evidence of freezing-and-thawing damage
l) Evidence of chemical attack
m) Sulfate attack
n) Aggregate properties
o) Alkali-silica reactivity
The air-content and air-void system parameters of hardened concrete can be determined by ASTM C457/C457M.
The hardened air-content test is performed to assure that the
air-void system is appropriate for a particular environment
and that it has not been affected by different admixtures and
methods of consolidation.
The density, specific gravity, absorption, and voids can be
determined in accordance with ASTM C642. The saturated
surface-dry (SSD) state of the concrete provides a close indication of the freshly mixed unit weight of the concrete. The
density of the hardened concrete can also be determined by
nuclear methods (ASTM C1040/C1040M).
Although the cement content of hardened concrete test
(ASTM C1084) is infrequently performed, it is useful in
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type and use of the structure and the availability of funds.
Usually, inspection once a year helps identify and correct
minor degradation problems and minimizes the cost of major
repair work. A condition survey is necessary to determine
the extent of damage and determine whether the structure
or component needs repair or replacement and also helps to
perform a cost analysis (Perenchio 1990). Condition surveys
can include visual inspection, nondestructive testing, halfcell potential measurements for corrosion of reinforcement,
and other pertinent tests. The results of these tests are typically compiled in a condition survey report and should be
reviewed by the engineer or owner. Guidance on conducting
these inspections can be found in ACI 201.1R, ACI 224.1R,
and ASCE 11-99 (2000).
9.3.3 Above-water inspections and in-place concrete
testing—Above-water inspections should be conducted
in accordance with accepted procedures and terminology
presented in ACI 201.1R. For many structures, the abovewater inspection should include examination of decks and
related elements from below, usually accessed by a small
boat. Areas of cracking, damage from impact or abrasion,
faulty joints, evidence of sulfate attack, and reinforcing
corrosion should be carefully noted. The condition of accessories such as cleats, bitts, fendering, and utility runs are
usually examined at this time as well.
Recording visible cracks 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) or greater is
recommended. Narrower cracks are often difficult to discern;
however, if observed, they should also be recorded. This
allows the engineer to determine whether they require repair.
9.3.3.1 In-place concrete testing
9.3.3.1.1 General—In-place tests are typically performed
on concrete within a structure, in contrast to tests performed
on molded specimens made from the concrete to be used in
the structure. Historically, they have been called nondestructive tests because some of the early tests did not damage
the concrete. Over the years, however, new methods have
developed that result in superficial local damage. Therefore,
in-place tests are used as a general category that includes
those that do not alter the concrete and those that result in
holes in the concrete or minor surface damage.
In both cases, the principal focus is to determine the
quality of the concrete. A variety of techniques are available
for estimating the in-place quality of concrete (Malhotra
1976; Bungey 1989; Malhotra and Carino 2003). In most
instances, only those methods that have been standardized
should be used.
ACI 364.1R outlines procedures for the evaluation of
concrete structures before rehabilitation. However, it may
also be useful for evaluation of structures even if rehabilitation is not contemplated. These procedures are intended to
be used as a guide to assist the individuals responsible for
the evaluation.
9.3.3.1.2 Nondestructive testing—Pulse velocity testing,
impact echo testing, impulse response tests, and half-cell
tests are well adapted to nondestructive testing of concrete
waterfront and coastal concrete structures. Information
on these test methods may be found in ACI 228.2R and
Malhotra and Carino (2003). While some of these test
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determining the cause for lack of strength or poor durability
of concrete. The presence and amount of certain mineral
admixtures, such as fly ash, can be determined by petrographic techniques (ASTM C856).
Concern about the chloride-induced corrosion of reinforcing steel can be monitored; the water-soluble chlorideion content of hardened concrete can be determined in
accordance with ASTM C1218/C1218M. The acid-soluble
chloride-ion content of hardened concrete can be determined
in accordance with ASTM C1152/C1152M. Total chloride
content can be determined by ASTM C114 or AASHTO
T260. The limits on chloride-ion content should be included
in the project specifications.
The depth or degree of carbonation can be determined by
petrographic techniques (ASTM C856) through observation of calcium carbonate, which is the primary product of
carbonation. A phenolphthalein color test can also be used
to estimate the depth of carbonation by testing the pH of
concrete as carbonation reduces pH.
The in-place moisture content or relative humidity of hardened concrete is sometimes used to determine if the concrete
is dry enough for the application of coatings. Kanare (2008)
provides guidance on how to accomplish this.
Various test methods are available for determining the
permeability of concrete to the substances encountered
by waterfront and coastal concrete structures. The most
commonly used is the rapid chloride permeability (electrical
resistance) test (ASTM C1202). The desired test should be
included in the project specifications.
Evidence of freezing-and-thawing damage, chemical
attack including sulfate attack, alkali-silica and alkalicarbonate attack, and selected aggregate properties can be
identified using a petrographic examination (ASTM C856)
as described in 9.3.7.4.
Other tests used that result in some surface damage to the
concrete are penetration resistance methods (ASTM C803/
C803M), pullout test (ASTM C900), the break-off test
method, and pull-off and permeation tests. All of these are
described in detail by Malhotra and Carino (2003). For interpretation purposes of the results, all of these indirect tests
of concrete should be correlated to standard compressive
strength tests of the project concrete.
9.3.4 Underwater inspections—Underwater inspections
should be conducted by qualified inspectors who are also
qualified divers. Diver training and all diving operations
should be in conformance with the requirements of the
Occupational Safety and Health Agency standards (OSHA
2004). Many organizations, including the U.S. Navy, require
underwater inspections to be performed by engineer-divers.
This does not imply that the site engineer be left out of the
inspection process. The engineer is responsible for making
final decisions concerning the condition of a structure/
component.
As a minimum, the presence of an engineer on-site to
direct and interpret the diver’s work should be required. A
good solution is to place an experienced professional engineer in the work boat, connected by voice communications
to a qualified diver below. Much can be done with the use of
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underwater video and verbal description to inform the engineer of underwater conditions.
In these cases, real-time video and continuous communication should be used. It is also important that non-engineer
divers be trained in inspection. The underwater inspection
proceeds similar to topside inspection, although in marine
environments considerable effort could be required to properly clean marine growth and allow a thorough inspection.
Because of the expense involved in the removal of marine
growth from marine structures, an approach to underwater
inspections using various levels of effort for inspection has
been adopted by many agencies. The three levels of inspection generally used are as follows:
1) Level I—Overall assessment of all structure elements
for obvious or gross deficiencies. This is sometimes
termed a swim-by inspection.
2) Level II—Selected areas are cleaned of all growth,
facilitating a more detailed examination.
3) Level III—A detailed inspection, often including
nondestructive testing and material sampling.
A periodic condition assessment inspection normally
includes a Level I inspection of the complete structure and
a Level II inspection of 10 percent of the structure. Level III
inspection is used if the information obtained from the Level
II inspection is not sufficient to assess the structure’s condition. Where visibility is limited, inspections are conducted
tacitly by feeling the structure. Inspection frequency should
be indicated in the project contract documents.
9.3.5 Sonar systems—Side-scan and scanning sonar
systems have been used in a limited scope for inspection of
waterfront and coastal concrete structures. These systems
can provide an overall picture of a facility’s condition and
identify areas for further, more detailed, examination. Sidescan sonar has been used to conduct initial examinations of
seawalls and breakwaters; however, the data obtained are
not sufficient to enable a structural assessment to be made.
9.3.6 Hydrographic surveys—Hydrographic surveys to
provide water depths and indications of any scour activity
should be obtained at regular intervals. Sea bed profiles and
scour depth soundings are recommended prior to any diving
operations. Review of this data is useful to engineers to
detect siltation or scour activity and may locate areas where
further investigation is needed. Hydrographic surveys can be
conducted using equipment ranging from simple recording
fathometers to fully-automated survey systems, with the
system selected based on the extent of survey data required
and funds available.
Topographic profiles of water depths are useful to engineers working from the surface as a reference point to detect
scour in later years. The baseline profile is simply compared
with any new readings taken at the same locations so as to
highlight points of change (FHWA NH1-01-001).
9.3.7 Inspection for potential structural problems
9.3.7.1 Introduction—Inspections are normally conducted
based on findings developed from periodic inspection,
suspected material problems, or as a baseline for modifications to the structure. Inspections may also be used for
areas suspected of damage due to instances of vessel colli-
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sion with the structure or natural events such as hurricanes
or seismic events. These inspections often include more
detailed measurements and mapping of cracks, extensive
photography and video recording, use of partially destructive or nondestructive testing (as noted in 9.3.3), and laboratory testing.
9.3.7.2 Corrosion surveys—Corrosion surveys are often
performed on waterfront and coastal concrete structures,
particularly in marine environments. Methods for conducting
these surveys are covered in ACI 222R and Chase and Washer
(1997). Half-cell potential surveys, sampling of concrete
and testing to determine chloride contents and penetration
profiles, and cover meter surveys are usually performed.
Cover meter testing can also be performed below water.
9.3.7.3 Concrete cores—Concrete cores are extracted
from a structure and subjected to various laboratory tests
to determine strength and physical make-up and provide
samples for petrographic analysis. Core samples can vary
from 2 to 6 in. (50 to 150 mm) in diameter, depending on
aggregate size and the difficulty of access and coring. Cores
can often be obtained below normal water level by working
during periods of low tide. Where below-water cores are
needed, they can be taken by divers using pneumatically
or hydraulically powered drill rigs. The size and number of
cores extracted should be selected with recognition of the
added costs for below-water work.
9.3.7.4 Petrographic analysis—Petrographic analysis
(ASTM C856) provides information regarding the concrete’s
quality, its consolidation, w/c, air content, permeability, and
carbonation. It also shows the reaction of salt and chemicals, the stability of the aggregates, and the effects of the
freezing-and-thawing process. Petrographic analysis may be
essential in diagnosing the cause of concrete deterioration in
such cases as sulfate attack, alkali-silica reaction, or delayed
ettringite formation.
CHAPTER 10—REPAIR
10.1—General
Concrete marine structures are constantly pounded by
waves, subject to wetting and drying, exposed to freezing
and thawing, and subject to high levels of chloride exposure.
They also experience various forms of mechanical damage
from vessel impact, debris, ice floes, and accidental overload. As a result of their severe exposure and usage conditions, repairs may be necessary to allow continued use of the
facility. Repairs are complicated by the severe environment
and the necessity to perform the work in or under water.
Prior to initiating repairs, it is critical that a sufficient
investigation be conducted to assure that the repairs are
properly formulated for effective repairs that are not just
simply covered up. The severity of the marine environment
requires added care to provide long-lasting, durable repairs.
In some cases, strengthening the structure can be incorporated in the repair.
If repairing deteriorated concrete, the important factor to
be considered is to restore the member to its original loadcarrying capacity by using a material that will act with the
35
substrate concrete to ensure structural integrity and durability. Continuing developments in concrete repair materials
and techniques provide the engineer with ever-increasing
means of providing suitable materials for a particular repair
need. For example, fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) jacketing is especially suited for the harsh construction conditions involved in the repair of marine piles (Lin et al. 2012).
Typical concrete repair techniques are described in ACI
224.1R, ACI 546R, ICRI 310.1R, ICRI 320.1R, and the
Concrete Repair Manual (ACI/ICRI 2013).
10.2—Strength and durability
Selection of repair material depends on the type and
nature of repair (that is, overhead, vertical surface, horizontal surface, or under water). The selected repair material
should be at least as strong and as durable as the existing
concrete. The repair material should not reduce the alkalinity of the existing concrete. It is important that the mortar,
concrete, or polymeric material used in the repair of the
area will not shrink. Otherwise, cracks will develop at the
periphery of the repaired area, leading to a future problem
area. Shrinkage cracks at the interface of existing and new
concrete implies loss of bond and adhesion. Nonshrink grout
cement mortars, epoxy mortars, and polymer concrete may
satisfy this nonshrink requirement.
10.3—Above-water repairs
10.3.1 General—Above-water repair techniques used for
marine structures encompass the full range of repair materials and methods available for concrete structures. Selection
of the appropriate repair depends on many factors, of which
environmental exposure and operation constraints should
be included. Guidance for concrete repairs above water is
contained in ACI 546R.
10.3.2 Surface preparation—Adequate surface preparation is a requirement in all successful repairs. Selection of a
proper technique will vary with not only the extent and type
of repair, but also with access concerns and debris collection, especially if repairs are executed below pier decks.
Obtaining good bond between repair material and the
original concrete is extremely important in any concrete
repair. The repair area should be saw-cut 1/2 to 3/4 in. (13
to 19 mm) deep. Concrete should be removed up to sound
concrete so that sound concrete is exposed at the repair
surface (ICRI 310.1R).
Removal is normally performed by jackhammer,
hydrodemolition, or hand chipping. Hammer sizes should
be chosen for the task required. Some states restrict these
hammer-size weights. If hammer-size weights or jackhammers are restricted or prohibited, the use of hand chipping
is recommended. Truck-mounted breakers, jackhammers,
rotary profilers, and drill and split techniques using wedges
or expanding grout may be used for large removal operations. Prior to applying the repair material, the concrete
surface should be clean and free from dust, laitance, oil, and
foreign material.
If corrosion is encountered, the concrete should be
removed to 1 in. (25 mm) depth or to a depth corresponding
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
to the size of the concrete aggregate, whichever is greater,
beyond the reinforcing bar. The reinforcing bar is then sandblasted or wire-brushed all around until completely free from
corrosion material. If the bar serves only as temperature or
distribution reinforcement, some reduction in section loss
may be permissible, provided analysis supports the reduction. Adequacy of a corroded structure should be assessed
on the basis of structural analysis. If the steel is corroded
beyond acceptable levels, it needs to be replaced. Enough
concrete should be removed to provide adequate lapping of
bars beyond the deteriorated location. The lapping length
should be confirmed to the requirement of ACI 318. Sometimes a mechanical splice may be helpful. Once the existing
reinforcing bar is thoroughly cleaned, there is no need to
protect it with special coatings, such as epoxy products,
unless other reinforcing bars in the area are also protected.
Research has shown that adding chlorides can be beneficial (not to exceed minimum recommended dosage) to the
mixture if the adjacent concrete is contaminated (chloride or
sulfate). This reduces the potential for electrochemical cells
to form on the material. There is some risk in doing this so
the process should be tightly controlled.
10.3.3 Placement of repair materials—The time interval
between performing surface preparation and executing the
repair should be minimized. The proximity of chloride
containing seawater and chlorides in the atmosphere near
seawater can cause rapid chloride contamination and surface
corrosion of cleaned reinforcement.
10.3.4 Bonding repair material—Placement of repair
materials, whether portland-cement concrete and mortars
or various polymer materials, proceeds as with other nonmarine repair projects. Frequently, repairs are required
to be executed on pile caps, beams, and other below-deck
elements of piers or wharves where repair materials appropriate to these vertical and overhead applications are used.
Common placement techniques for these repairs include
formed concrete, pumped concrete, preplaced-aggregate
concrete, and shotcrete. For some facilities, below-deck
access may only be possible during periods of low tide.
Fresh wet concrete has been found to bond well to existing
dry concrete, provided the surface is properly prepared.
Typically, the prepared surface is roughened to minimum
1/4 in. (6.35 mm) amplitude and moistened to a saturated
surface-dry (SSD) condition just prior to the material placement. Commercially available bonding agents can also be
used between new and existing concrete.
10.3.5 Curing—Curing of concrete repair material is
very important. It is recommended that the manufacturer’s
instructions be followed. If it is cement mortar or concrete,
follow the ACI 308R recommendation for curing.
10.3.6 Crack repairs—Sealing cracks in concrete marine
structures is important to inhibit the ingress of chlorides and
thus reduce corrosion. Preferably, cracks wider than 0.01 in.
(0.25 mm) should be sealed. It is critical before sealing to
determine whether the crack is active or dormant. The use
of rigid sealants in active cracks is a frequent cause of repair
failure. Selection of the proper repair material depends
on the nature of the crack—active or dormant, width, and
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cause. The sealing of corrosion-induced cracks should be
approached with caution because it does not arrest the corrosion process; further opening of the crack, or an adjacent
crack, can be expected.
10.3.7 Cathodic protection—Cathodic protection systems
are increasingly finding application for repair of corrosion damage in in-service marine concrete structures (ACI
222.3R). Cathodic protection is capable of stopping the corrosion process, even in concrete with high chloride contents.
It has been applied to piles as well as other pier members.
These systems can be applied if initial corrosion is detected
to limit any further damage or as part of a repair. Effective
application of cathodic protection systems to existing structures is dependent on establishing electrical continuity of the
reinforcing steel and the ability to apply a uniform impressed
current throughout the element being protected.
10.4—Below-water repairs
10.4.1 General—Repairs extending below water are often
required for repairing physical damage, corrosion damage,
or scour. Careful selection of repair materials and installation techniques is needed if successful repairs are to be made
in the difficult below-water environment. Though numerous
repair techniques exist for below-water work, such work is
usually expensive and carries risk for the contractor due to
weather and other factors over which there is little control.
ACI 546.2R should be referenced for additional information
on underwater repair.
10.4.2 Surface preparation—Proper surface preparation is
critical for the successful performance of underwater repairs.
Below-water and splash zone surfaces may be covered
with up to several inches (millimeters) of dense and wellattached marine growth, with various grasses and algae, silt,
or other surface contamination. These products, as well as
deteriorated concrete, should be thoroughly removed prior
to placing repair materials. Removal can be accomplished
using a variety of tools, with underwater chipping hammers
and high-pressure water blasters most often used. The
reemergence of marine growth or deposition of silts or other
contaminants may occur quite rapidly, and prompt placement of repair materials is necessary if good bond is to be
achieved.
Where heavy marine growth or extensive deteriorated
concrete is present, a two-step surface preparation is often
used. The surface is first cleaned of major growth and deterioration, and then a separate final cleaning takes place just
prior to placing the repair materials. Tests conducted by
the Corps of Engineers (Husbands and Causey 1990) indicate that, with proper surface preparation and placement of
portland-cement mortars, the bond strength below water can
approach 85 percent of that achieved above-water where a
polymer is used for the bonding action.
The allowable bond strength between infill concrete and
a concrete cut-out is limited to approximately 20 psi (0.14
MPa) (ETL 1110-2-565 2006). This can be increased by
adding shear studs or welding on shear rings.
10.4.3 Placement of repair materials—Along with portland-cement mortars and concrete, numerous polymer prod-
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ucts are used for below-water repairs. Polymer products, as
well as various prepackaged cementitious materials, should
be carefully evaluated to assure that they are formulated for
placement and curing in a submerged condition and are not
simply moisture-tolerant (that is, able to be placed against a
moist or wet surface above water).
Small repairs may be executed by hand application of a
repair mortar to a properly prepared surface. Such repairs
may often form part of standard maintenance operations.
Larger repairs involve setting forms, either standard removable forms or any of a variety of stay-in-place form systems.
Because of the high cost of form removal by divers, stay-inplace forms are widely used, particularly for pile repairs. A
disadvantage of stay-in-place forms can be the difficulty of
inspecting the repairs during construction and future inspections. Translucent forms may often be used to overcome this
limitation.
Portland-cement mortars and concretes should be formulated and proportioned to provide a durable material that
is readily placed. Guidance on durability is presented in
Chapter 4, while ACI 211.1 and ACI 304R provide information on proportioning, mixing, and placing concrete
applicable to marine structures. To the maximum extent
possible, mixtures for below-water placement should be
self-consolidating, highly flowable, and be formulated to
minimize washout of cement and fines. The use of antiwashout admixtures should be considered along with other
mineral and chemical admixtures to provide mixtures having
optimum properties for a specific repair scheme.
Material placement for underwater repair is most often
accomplished by tremie techniques or by pumping through
ports set into the formwork. In either case, the placing procedure and sequence should be such as to minimize any intermixing of surrounding water. Where pump lines are handled
by divers, it is usual to limit their size to 2 to 3 in. (50 to
75 mm) for ease of handling. Placement of both portland
cement and polymer grouts, mortars, and concretes should
be monitored below water to detect improper placement that
can result in material degradation through mixing with adjacent water and the entrapment of water pockets.
10.4.4 Crack repairs—The repair of below-water cracks
can be achieved by grouting with cement grouts or polymer
grouts, with selection of the proper material dependent on an
evaluation as to the cause and behavior of the cracks. Pressure grouting of cracks below water is accomplished in a
similar manner to above-water work, using pump pressures
sufficient to overcome hydrostatic head as well as assure
crack penetration. Crack surfaces below water may be
contaminated with marine growth or deposits that may limit
the effectiveness of the completed repairs.
10.4.5 Cathodic protection—Both active and passive
cathodic protection systems are used on in-service structures
for splash zone and below-water rehabilitation. Cathodic
protection is often incorporated along with other restoration
techniques as one aspect of an overall repair project.
10.4.6 Scour repairs—Scouring could undermine
substructure foundation as a result of one or more of the
following reasons:
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37
a) Poor choice of structure location
b) Inadequate flow area
c) Inaccurate estimation of wave heights and direction
d) Excessive waves (due to hurricane)
e) Poor orientation of structure with respect to wave
direction
f) Lack of scour prevention measures such as rip-rap
g) Improper rip-rap protection
h) Improperly designed rip-rap
Scour occurs if the velocity of water around a structure
is sufficient to carry bottom materials away, creating holes
or an overall lowering of the sea floor. Scour can occur due
to changes in local currents or may be produced from the
concentrated current effects of prop wash or bow thrusters.
Scour-holes near structures could result in increased exposed
pile lengths or undermining of foundations.
Periodic underwater inspection for scour is recommended. This is the only way to prevent any catastrophic
scour-induced failure. The frequency of inspection should be
determined on the basis of the scour history of the waterway
and the presence of factors that would generate scour, such
as those listed previously.
Repair of scoured areas normally consists of restoring the
elevation of the sea floor and providing an upper layer of
material (armoring layer) of sufficient size to resist removal
by the current-generated shear forces. This armoring layer
most often consists of either large stone rip-rap or various
manufactured concrete shapes placed individually or as
prefabricated mats. A filter layer should be provided between
the bottom material and the armor layer to prevent the
bottom material from working up through the armor layer.
This filter may consist of either geotextile fabrics or graded
stone filters sized using Terzaghi’s filter criteria as described
by Terzaghi et al. (1999) and Giroud (2010).
10.4.7 Other waterfront concrete structures—Concrete
piles, sea walls, and quay walls are constantly pounded by
waves and are exposed to wetting and drying and freezing
and thawing. Consequently, they deteriorate faster than
other structures. Sometimes, abrasive forces from debris and
ice floating in the water cause loss of concrete and, therefore, these structures or components frequently need to be
repaired or replaced. Before rehabilitating these types of
structures, several tests are commonly conducted to identify
deficiencies. They include visual inspection, nondestructive
testing, and half-cell readings. For many concrete armoring
units, repair may not feasible or cost-effective, and replacement is usually the solution.
CHAPTER 11—REFERENCES
ACI committee documents and documents published by
other organizations are listed first by document number, full
title, and year of publication followed by authored documents listed alphabetically.
American Concrete Institute (ACI)
121R-08—Guide for Concrete Construction Quality
Systems in Conformance with ISO 9001
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
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201.1R-08—Guide for Conducting a Visual Inspection of
Concrete in Service
201.2R-08—Guide to Durable Concrete
207.2R-07—Report on Thermal and Volume Change
Effects on Cracking of Mass Concrete
210R-93(08)—Erosion of Concrete in Hydraulic
Structures
211.1-91(09)—Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete
211.2-98(04)—Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Structural Lightweight Concrete
211.3R-02(09)—Guide for Selecting Proportions for
No-Slump Concrete
211.4R-08—Guide for Selecting Proportions for HighStrength Concrete Using Portland Cement and Other
Cementitious Material
211.5R-14—Guide for Submittal of Concrete Proportions
212.3R-10—Report on Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
213R-03—Guide for Structural Lightweight Concrete
214R-11—Guide to Evaluation of Strength Test Results
of Concrete
214.4R-10—Guide for Obtaining Cores and Interpreting
Compressive Strength Results
221R-96(11)—Guide for Use of Normal Weight and
Heavyweight Aggregates in Concrete
222R-01(10)—Protection of Metals in Concrete against
Corrosion
222.2R-01(10)—Corrosion of Prestressing Steels
222.3R-11—Guide to Design and Construction Practices to Mitigate Corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete
Structures
224R-01(08)—Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures
224.1R-07—Causes, Evaluation, and Repair of Cracks in
Concrete Structures
228.2R-98(04)—Report on Nondestructive Test Methods
for Evaluation of Concrete in Structures
232.2R-03—Use of Fly Ash in Concrete
233R-03(11)—Slag Cement in Concrete and Mortar
234R-06—Guide for the Use of Silica Fume in Concrete
301-10—Specifications for Structural Concrete
304R-00(04)—Guide for Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, and Placing Concrete
308R-01(08)—Guide to Curing Concrete
309R-05—Guide for Consolidation of Concrete
318-11—Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete and Commentary
357R-84(97)—Guide for the Design and Construction of
Fixed Offshore Concrete Structures
357.1R-91(97)—Report on Offshore Concrete Structures
for the Arctic (withdrawn 2008)
357.2R-10—Report on Floating and Float-In Concrete
Structures
364.1R-07—Guide for Evaluation of Concrete Structures
before Rehabilitation
364.3R-09—Guide for Cementitious Repair Material
Data Sheet
365.1R-00—Service-Life Prediction
Copyright American Concrete Institute
Provided by IHS under license with ACI
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
423.7-07—Specification for Unbonded Single-Strand
Tendon Materials and Commentary
440.6-08—Specification for Carbon and Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Bar Materials for Concrete Reinforcement
445R-99(09)—Recent Approaches to Shear Design of
Structural Concrete
543R-12—Guide to Design, Manufacture, and Installation of Concrete Piles
544.1R-96(09)—Report on Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
544.3R-08—Guide for Specifying, Proportioning, and
Production of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
544.4R-88(09)—Design Considerations for Steel FiberReinforced Concrete
546R-04—Concrete Repair Guide
546.2R-10—Guide to Underwater Repair of Concrete
ITG-6R-10—Design Guide for the Use of ASTM A1035/
A1035M Grade 100 (690) Steel Bars for Structural Concrete
SP-17(11)—The Reinforced Concrete Design Manual in
Accordance with ACI 318-11
ASTM International
A53/A53M-12—Standard Specification for Pipe, Steel,
Black and Hot-Dipped, Zinc-Coated, Welded and Seamless
A123/A123M-12—Standard Specification for Zinc (HotDipped Galvanized) Coatings on Iron and Steel Products
A276-13a—Standard Specification for Stainless Steel
Bars and Shapes
A416/A416M-12a—Standard Specification for Steel
Strand, Uncoated Seven-Wire for Prestressed Concrete
A421/A421M-10—Standard Specification for Uncoated
Stress-Relieved Steel Wire for Prestressed Concrete
A615/A615M-14—Standard Specification for Deformed
and Plain Carbon-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A653/A653M-13—Standard Specification for Steel
Sheet, Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) or Zinc-Iron Alloy-Coated
(Galvannealed) by the Hot-Dip Process
A706/A706M-14—Standard Specification for Low-Alloy
Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A722/A722M-12—Standard Specification for Uncoated
High-Strength Steel Bars for Prestressing Concrete
A767/A767M-09—Standard Specification for ZincCoated (Galvanized) Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A775/A775M-07b(2014)—Standard Specification for
Epoxy-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars
A820/A820M-11—Standard Specification for Steel Fibers
for Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
A882/A882M-04a(2010)—Standard Specification for
Filled Epoxy-Coated Seven-Wire Prestressing Steel Strand
A934/A934M-13—Standard Specification for EpoxyCoated Prefabricated Steel Reinforcing Bars
A1022/A1022M-13—Standard
Specification
for
Deformed and Plain Stainless Steel Wire and Welded Wire
for Concrete Reinforcement
A1035/A1035M-14—Standard
Specification
for
Deformed and Plain, Low-Carbon, Chromium, Steel Bars
for Concrete Reinforcement
A1055/A1055M-10ε1—Standard Specification for Zinc
and Epoxy Dual-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
C33/C33M-13—Standard Specification for Concrete
Aggregates
C39/C39M-14a—Standard Test Method for Compressive
Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
C42/C42M-13—Standard Test Method for Obtaining and
Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete
C94/C94M-14a—Standard Specification for ReadyMixed Concrete
C114-13—Standard Test Methods for Chemical Analysis
of Hydraulic Cement
C138/C138M-13a—Standard Test Method for Density (Unit
Weight), Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete
C143/C143M-12—Standard Test Method for Slump of
Hydraulic-Cement Concrete
C144-11—Standard Specification for Aggregate for
Masonry Mortar
C150/C150M-12—Standard Specification for Portland Cement
C173/C173M-12—Standard Test Method for Air Content
of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Volumetric Method
C231/C231M-10—Standard Test Method for Air Content
of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure Method
C260/C260M-10—Standard Specification for AirEntraining Admixtures for Concrete
C311-11—Standard Test Methods for Sampling and
Testing Fly Ash or Natural Pozzolans for Use in PortlandCement Concrete
C330/C330M-14—Standard Specification for Lightweight Aggregates for Structural Concrete
C441/C441M-11—Standard Test Method for Effectiveness of Pozzolans or Ground Blast-Furnace Slag in
Preventing Excessive Expansion of Concrete Due to the
Alkali-Silica Reaction
C457/C457M-12—Standard Test Method for Microscopical Determination of Parameters of the Air-Void System in
Hardened Concrete
C494/C494M-12—Standard Specification for Chemical
Admixtures for Concrete
C512/C512M-10—Standard Test Method for Creep of
Concrete in Compression
C595/C595M-14—Standard Specification for Blended
Hydraulic Cements
C618-12a—Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and
Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete
C642-13—Standard Test Method for Density, Absorption,
and Voids in Hardened Concrete
C803/C803M-03(2010)—Standard Test Method for Penetration Resistance of Hardened Concrete
C856-13—Standard Practice for Petrographic Examination of Hardened Concrete
C900-13a—Standard Test Method for Pullout Strength of
Hardened Concrete
C989/C989M-13—Standard Specification for Slag
Cement for Use in Concrete and Mortars
C1017/C1017M-13—Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Use in Producing Flowing Concrete
C1040/C1040M-08(2013)—Standard Test Methods for
In-Place Density of Unhardened and Hardened Concrete,
Including Roller Compacted Concrete, by Nuclear Methods
39
C1084-10—Standard Test Method for Portland-Cement
Content of Hardened Hydraulic-Cement Concrete
C1116/C1116M-10a—Standard Specification for FiberReinforced Concrete
C1152/C1152M-04(2012)ε1—Standard Test Method for
Acid-Soluble Chloride in Mortar and Concrete
C1157/C1157M-11—Standard Performance Specification
for Hydraulic Cement
C1202-12—Standard Test Method for Electrical Indication of Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration
C1218/C1218M-99(2008)—Standard Test Method for
Water-Soluble Chloride in Mortar and Concrete
C1240-14—Standard Specification for Silica Fume Used
in Cementitious Mixtures
C1260-07—Standard Test Method for Potential Alkali
Reactivity of Aggregates (Mortar-Bar Method)
C1293-08b—Standard Test Method for Determination of
Length Change of Concrete Due to Alkali-Silica Reaction
C1602/C1602M-12—Standard Specification for Mixing
Water Used in the Production of Hydraulic Cement Concrete
C1679-09—Standard Practice for Measuring Hydration Kinetics of Hydraulic Cementitious Mixtures Using
Isothermal Calorimetry
D3350-12ε1—Standard Specification for Polyethylene
Plastics Pipe and Fittings Materials
D3963/D3963M-01(2007)—Standard Specification for
Fabrication and Jobsite Handling of Epoxy-Coated Steel
Reinforcing Bars
D4101-14—Standard Specification for Polypropylene
Injection and Extrusion Materials
D7205/D7205M-06(2011)—Standard Test Method for
Tensile Properties of Fiber Reinforced Polymer Matrix
Composite Bars
E329-14—Standard Specification for Agencies Engaged
in Construction Inspection, Testing, or Special Inspection
STP 1370-99—Designing Cathodic Protection Systems
for Marine Structures and Vehicles
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
T260-97—Standard Method of Test for Sampling and
Testing for Chloride Ion in Concrete and Concrete Raw
Materials
HB-17-02—Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges
M329M/M329-11—Standard Specification for Stainless
Clad Deformed and Plain Round Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
7-10—Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures
11-99—Guidelines for Structural Condition Assessment
of Existing Buildings
American Welding Society (AWS)
D1.4/D1.4M:2011—Structural Welding
forcing Steel
Code—Rein-
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
British Standards Institution (BSI)
6349-1:2000—Maritime Structures—Code of Practice for
General Criteria
6349-1-3:2012—Maritime Works—General Code of
Practice for Geotechnical Design
6349-2:2010—Maritime Works—Code of Practice for the
Design of Quay Walls, Jetties and Dolphins.
6349-3:1988—Maritime Structures—Design of Dry
Docks, Locks, Slipways and Shipbuilding Berths, Shiplifts
and Dock and Lock Gates
6349-4:1994—Maritime Structures—Code of Practice for
Design of Fendering and Mooring Systems
6349-5:1991—Maritime Structures—Code of Practice for
Dredging and Land Reclamation
6349-6:1989—Maritime Structures—Design of Inshore
Moorings and Floating Structures
6349-7:1991—Maritime Structures—Guide to the Design
and Construction of Breakwaters
6349-8:2007—Maritime Structures—Code of Practice for
the Design of Ro-Ro Ramps, Linkspans and Walkways
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
NH1-01-001(2001)—Evaluating Scour at Bridges
International Concrete Repair Institute (ICRI)
310.1R-2008—Guide for Surface Preparation for the
Repair of Deteriorated Concrete Resulting from Reinforcing
Steel Corrosion
310.2-1997—Selecting and Specifying Concrete Surface
Preparation for Sealers, Coatings and Polymer Overlays
320.1R-1996—Guide for Selecting Application Methods
for the Repair of Concrete Surfaces
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
13315-1:2012—Environmental Management for Concrete
and Concrete Structures — Part 1: General Principles
Post-Tensioning Institute (PTI)
M10.2-00—Specification for Unbonded Single Strand
Tendons
M50.3-12—Guide
Specification
for
Grouted
Post-Tensioning
M55.1-12—Specification for Grouting of Post-Tensioned
Structures
--`````,`,,`,`,,,,`,`,,`,,,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
AASHTO, 1983, Manual for Maintenance Inspection of
Bridges, with revisions, 1990, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
Abramson, L. W.; Lee, T. S.; Sharma, S.; and Boyce, G.
M., 2001, Slope Stability and Stabilization Methods, second
edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 717 pp.
ACI/ICRI (American Concrete Institute and International
Concrete Repair Institute), 2013, Concrete Repair Manual,
fourth edition, V. 1 and V. 2, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, 2363 pp.
AREMA (American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association), 2012, Manual for Railway
Copyright American Concrete Institute
Provided by IHS under license with ACI
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
Engineering, V. 2, American Railway Engineering and
Maintenance-of-Way Association, Lanham, MD, 274 pp.
Anderson, A. R., 1976, “Design and Construction of a
375,000 bbl Prestressed Concrete Floating LPG Storage
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Anderson, D. G.; Martin, G. R.; Lam, I.; and Wang, J. N.,
2008, “Seismic Analysis and Design of Retaining Walls,
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611, National Cooperative Highway Research Program
(NCHRP), Transportation Research Board (TRB), Washington, DC, 148 pp.
Beeby, A. W., 1978, “Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel in
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Brinckerhoff, P., 1992, Bridge Inspection and Rehabilitation—A Practical Guide, L. G. Silano, ed., John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 288 pp.
Bungey, J. H., 1989, Testing of Concrete in Structures,
second edition, Surrey University Press, Blackie & Son Ltd.,
228 pp.
CEB-FIP Model Code, 2010/2012, Bulletin 66, V. 2, Final
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Chase, S. B., and Washer, G., 1997, “Nondestructive Evaluation for Bridge Management in the Next Century,” Public
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Collepardi, M., 1999, “Damage by Delayed Ettringite
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Concrete Plant Manufacturers Bureau, 2007, “Concrete
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Construction Industry Institute, 2008, “Sustainable Design
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Summary 250-1 (RS250-1), Construction Industry Institute,
The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, Dec., 29 pp.
Cubrinovski, M.; Haskell, J.; and Bradley, B., 2010,
Analysis and Design of Piles in Liquefying Soils, Project
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Cubrinovski, M., and Ishihara, K., 2004, “Simplified
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Duncan, J. M.; Buchignani, A. L.; and de Wet, M., 1987,
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Recommendations in Europe), 2004, Recommendations of
the Committee for Waterfronts, Harbors and Waterways,
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(EAU 2004), eighth edition, Arbertausschuss “Ufereinfassungen” (Germany), John Wiley & Sons, New York, 660 pp.
ERDC, 2002, “Design of Coastal Project Elements,”
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Eurocode 2, 2005, “Design of Concrete Structures, Part
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Port Hueneme, CA, Feb., 182 pp.
Ferritto, J. M.; Dickenson, S.; Priestley, N.; Werner,
S.; Taylor, C.; Burke, D.; Seelig, W.; and Kelly, S., 1999,
“Seismic Criteria for California Marine Oil Terminals,”
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fib, 2002, “Practical Design of Structural Concrete,”
Design Examples for the FIP Recommendations, Bulletin
No. 16, Fédération Internationale du Béton, Lausanne, Switzerland, July, 198 pp.
fib, 2011, “Design Examples for Strut-and-Tie Models,”
Technical Report, Bulletin No. 61, Fédération Internationale
du Béton, Lausanne, Switzerland, 220 pp.
FIP-Commission 3, 1999, “Practical Design of Structural
Concrete,” FIP Recommendations, Fédération Internationale du Béton, Lausanne, Switzerland, Sept., 114 pp.
Gerwick, B. C., 2000, Construction of Marine and
Offshore Structures, second edition, CRC Press, pp. 15-42,
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Giroud, J. P., 2010, “Development of Criteria for Geotechnical and Granular Filters,” Proceedings, International
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2009, “Technical Standards and Commentaries for Port and
Harbour Facilities (OCDI-2002),” The Overseas Coastal
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Gustafson, D. P., 1999, “Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing
Bars,” Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, Schaumburg,
IL, 19 pp. (available from the Epoxy Interest Group (EIG),
Schaumburg, IL)
Hochstein, A., and Adams, C., 1989, “Influence of
Vessel Movements on Stability of Restricted ChanCopyright American Concrete Institute
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41
nels,” Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean
Engineering, V. 115, No. 4, pp. 444-465. doi: 10.1061/
(ASCE)0733-950X(1989)115:4(444)
Hoff, G. C., 1998, “Hydrocarbon Fire Resistance of
High-Strength Normal-Weight and Lightweight Concretes
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International Symposium on High-Performance and Reactive Powder Concretes, V. 4, University of Sherbrooke, QC,
Canada, pp. 271-296.
Hoff, G. C., 2008, “Concrete for Offshore Structures,”
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Hoff, G. C.; Bilodeau, A.; Chevrier, R.; and Malhotra, V.
M., 1997, “Mechanical Properties, Durability and Performance in Hydrocarbon Fire of High-Strength Semi-Lightweight Concrete,” Proceedings of the Fourth CANMET/ACI
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Holland, T. C., 2005, “Silica Fume User’s Manual,”
FWHA-IF-05-016, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC, 193 pp.
Hummel, D. E., 1984, “Floating Caisson Method Used for
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Husbands, T. B., and Causey, F. E., 1990, “Surface Treatments to Minimize Concrete Deterioration—Laboratory
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IABSE, 1991a, IABSE Structural Concrete Colloquium,
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
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American Concrete Institute – Copyrighted
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
Iorns, M. E., 1999, “Low-Cost Ocean Platform Construction,” Concrete International, V. 21, No. 12, Dec., pp. 39-42.
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No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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43
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
APPENDIX A
LOAD COMBINATIONS
Excerpt from the 2010 California Building Code, Title 24, Part 2. First Printing, Includes
Errata/Supplement through January 1, 2001
SECTION 1605 LOAD COMBINATIONS
(Load combinations specified in Chapters 18 through 23, as noted below, are not applicable to
this Guide).
1605.1 General. Buildings and other structures and portions thereof shall be designed to resist:
1. The load combinations specified in Section 1605.2, 1605.3.1 or 1605.3.2,
2. The load combinations specified in Chapters 18 through 23, and
3. The load combinations with overstrength factor specified in Section 12.4.3.2 of ASCE
7 where required by Section 12.2.5.2, 12.3.3.3 or 12.10.2.1 of ASCE 7. With the
simplified procedure of ASCE 7 Section 12.14, the load combinations with overstrength
factor of Section 12.14.3.2 of ASCE 7 shall be used.
Applicable loads shall be considered, including both earthquake and wind, in accordance
with the specified load combinations. Each load combination shall also be investigated
with one or more of the variable loads set to zero.
Where the load combinations with overstrength factor in Section 12.4.3.2 of ASCE 7
apply, they shall be used as follows:
1. The basic combinations for strength design with overstrength factor in lieu of
Equations 16-5 and 16-7 in Section 1605.2.1.
2. The basic combinations for allowable stress design with overstrength factor in lieu of
Equations 16-12, 16-13 and 16-15 in Section 1605.3.1.
3. The basic combinations for allowable stress design with overstrength factor in lieu of
Equations 16-20 and 16-21 in Section 1605.3.2.
1605.1.1 Stability. Regardless of which load combinations are used to design for
strength, where overall structure stability (such as stability against overturning, sliding, or
buoyancy) is being verified, use of the load combinations specified in Section 1605.2 or
1605.3 shall be permitted. Where the load combinations specified in Section 1605.2 are
used, strength reduction factors applicable to soil resistance shall be provided by a
registered design professional. The stability of retaining walls shall be verified in
accordance with Section 1807.2.3.
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
45
1605.2 Load combinations using strength design or load and resistance factor design.
1605.2.1 Basic load combinations. Where strength design or load and resistance factor
design is used, structures and portions thereof shall resist the most critical effects from
the following combinations of factored loads:
1.4(D + F)
1.2(D + F + T) + 1.6(L + H) + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (f1L or 0.8W)
1.2D + 1.6W + f1L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
1.2D + 1.0E + f1L + f2S
0.9D + 1.6W + 1.6H
0.9D + 1.0E + 1.6H
(Equation 16-1)
(Equation 16-2)
(Equation 16-3)
(Equation 16-4)
(Equation 16-5)
(Equation 16-6)
(Equation 16-7)
where:
f1 = 1 for floors in places of public assembly, for live loads in excess of 100 pounds per
square foot (4.79 kN/m2), and for parking garage live load, and
= 0.5 for other live loads.
f2 = 0.7 for roof configurations (such as saw tooth) that do not shed snow off the
structure, and
= 0.2 for other roof configurations.
Exception: Where other factored load combinations are specifically required by the
provisions of this code, such combinations shall take precedence.
1605.2.2 Flood loads. Where flood loads, Fa, are to be considered in the design, the load
combinations of Section 2.3.3 of ASCE 7 shall be used.
1605.3 Load combinations using allowable stress design.
D+F
D+H+F+L+T
D + H + F + (Lr or S or R)
D + H + F + 0.75(L + T) +0.75(Lr or S or R)
D + H + F + (W or 0.7E)
D + H + F + 0.75(W or 0.7E) +0.75L + 0.75(Lr or S or R)
0.6D + W + H
0.6D + 0.7E + H
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(Equation 16-8)
(Equation 16-9)
(Equation 16-10)
(Equation 16-11)
(Equation 16-12)
(Equation 16-13)
(Equation 16-14)
(Equation 16-15)
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1605.3.1 Basic load combinations. Where allowable stress design (working stress
design), as permitted by this code, is used, structures and portions thereof shall resist the
most critical effects resulting from the following combinations of loads:
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DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATERFRONT AND COASTAL CONCRETE MARINE STRUCTURES (ACI 357.3R-14)
Exceptions:
1. Crane hook loads need not be combined with roof live load or with more than threefourths of the snow load or one-half of the wind load.
2. Flat roof snow loads of 30 psf (1.44 kN/m2) or less and roof live loads of 30 psf or less
need not be combined with seismic loads. Where flat roof snow loads exceed 30 psf (1.44
kN/m2), 20 percent shall be combined with seismic loads.
1605.3.1.1 Stress increases. Increases in allowable stresses specified in the appropriate
material chapter or the referenced standards shall not be used with the load combinations
of Section 1605.3.1, except that increases shall be permitted in accordance with Chapter
23.
1605.3.1.2 Flood loads. Where flood loads, Fa, are to be considered in design, the load
combinations of Section 2.4.2 of ASCE 7 shall be used.
1605.3.2 Alternative basic load combinations. In lieu of the basic load combinations
specified in Section 1605.3.1, structures and portions thereof shall be permitted to be
designed for the most critical effects resulting from the following combinations. When
using these alternative basic load combinations that include wind or seismic loads,
allowable stresses are permitted to be increased or load combinations reduced where
permitted by the material chapter of this code or the referenced standards. For load
combinations that include the counteracting effects of dead and wind loads, only twothirds of the minimum dead load likely to be in place during a design wind event shall be
used. Where wind loads are calculated in accordance with Chapter 6 of ASCE 7, the
coefficient ω in the following equations shall be taken as 1.3. For other wind loads, ω
shall be taken as 1. When using these alternative load combinations to evaluate sliding,
overturning and soil bearing at the soil-structure interface, the reduction of foundation
overturning from Section 12.13.4 in ASCE 7 shall not be used. When using these
alternative basic load combinations for proportioning foundations for loadings, which
include seismic loads, the vertical seismic load effect, Ev, in Equation 12.4-4 of ASCE 7
is permitted to be taken equal to zero.
D + L + (Lr or S or R)
D + L + (ωW)
D + L + ωW + S/2
D + L + S + ωW/2
D + L + S + E/1.4
0.9D + E/1.4
(Equation 16-16)
(Equation 16-17)
(Equation 16-18)
(Equation 16-19)
(Equation 16-20)
(Equation 16-21)
Exceptions:
1. Crane hook loads need not be combined with roof live loads or with more than threefourths of the snow load or one-half of the wind load.
2. Flat roof snow loads of 30 psf (1.44 kN/m2) or less and roof live loads of 30 psf or less
need not be combined with seismic loads. Where flat roof snow loads exceed 30 psf (1.44
kN/m2), 20 percent shall be combined with seismic loads.
1605.3.2.1 Other loads. Where F, H or T are to be considered in the design, each
applicable load shall be added to the combinations specified in Section 1605.3.2.
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Individuals interested in the activities of ACI are encouraged to explore the
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