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Bgcse History Booklet Book 2 2023
History (Moshupa Senior Secondary School)
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BGCSE: History
Revision Booklet, Book 2
Inspire Tomorrow, Today
BGCSE
History Revision Booklet
BOOK 2
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Acknowledgements
BOU wishes to acknowledge all those who contributed directly or indirectly to the production of
this booklet, which is intended to assist BOU learners, especially upgraders.
Subject Specialist Programme Developer
Gopalang Donald Matebele
Editor
Unopa Tomeletso
Aims of the Booklet
This History revision booklet was designed to assist learners, especially those who are upgrading,
to go through the material quickly and adequately prepare for their exams. This decision was
reached after realising that it was almost impossible for learners to go through the whole content
as currently presented in our normal printed materials before sitting for their final exams. The
booklet contains clear, concise, and condensed revision notes to enable the learner to understand
the information at a glance. The content is aligned with the specific objectives of the syllabus. The
minute details have been deliberately omitted in an attempt to make the content easy to
comprehend.
Assessment
At the end of every topic, there are typical exam questions. Learners are encouraged to use the
knowledge they have acquired from the topic to answer those questions. When answering the
questions, you should try by all means to satisfy the demands of the questions. History Paper 2
consists of two (2) sections. Question 1 is compulsory, and it is the only question in this section.
This question is source-based. The sources are both pictorial and textual. They are five (5) in all
and they ascend in levels of difficulty. They are of high order, so you are expected to critique them
(interpret, assess, compare, critically analyse and evaluate). The tips for answering source-based
questions are given at the end of this booklet. Section B has eleven (11) questions. The candidate
is expected to answer two (2) questions only. Each question is divided into two parts and the
candidate is expected to answer all parts of each question chosen.
Part (a) questions ask low order questions, which are mainly recall or comprehension questions.
For example; outline and describe are mainly found in part (a) questions. You may be asked to
outline the successes of the United Nations. But the description is more than just an outline; you
are expected to add a bit of detail by giving a chronological description of the events. For example,
you may be asked to describe the conditions in Russia, which led to the 1917 February Revolution.
The (b) part questions require the candidates to explain. Explanation mainly requires learners to
write in detail, giving reasons, and examples, depending on how the question has been structured.
For example, you may be asked to explain why Hitler rose to power in 1933.
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Unit 1: First World War 1914- 1918
OVERVIEW
Tensions in Europe before 1914
1. France
France was angered by the loss of Alsace and Lorraine, an industrial heart of France territory,
which was rich in Iron, textiles, and cotton. She had lost one and a half million of her population
to Germany during the Franco-Prussian war in 1870 after the signing of the Frankfurt treaty.
France feared further German aggression, therefore a strong army in order to protect her empire,
especially in North Africa.
2. Germany
Germany was a new nation worried about its security. She felt particularly threatened by France
and Russia, a coalition of powers, which could force Germany into a two-front war. Germany
wanted colonies-a place in the sun, as Kaiser Willem II was jealous of the British Empire, which
was bound to collide with Britain. Germany built the Berlin-Baghdad railway through the Balkans,
which threatened British interests in the East.
3. Britain
Britain was angered by German support of the Boers, during the Boer war of 1899-1902. Britain
feared German competition in the industry, trade, naval power, and empire expansion. Britain,
therefore, realised that her policy of splendid isolation was becoming precariously unsafe and
began to build ententes (friendly agreements).
4. Russia
Russia needed an outlet to the sea (Mediterranean Sea), and she was opposed to German/Austrian
influence in the Balkans. She saw the Berlin-Baghdad railway constructed by Germany as a threat
to its position in the Balkans.Russia wished to protect other Slavs and therefore supported Serbs
and Bulgarians.
5. Austria
Austria was an empire of many nationalities, or a large multi-racial empire (Hotchpotch) e.g.,
Czechs, Poles, Italians, Serbs, Croats and so forth. She was worried by those national groups,
which might want to rule themselves, especially Slav-speaking people in the south who looked to
Serbia for leadership.
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6. Serbia
Serbia was a new nation formed in 1878 after breaking away from the Turkish empire. Nationalists
planned to create Yugoslavia states by bringing into Serbia all Slavs living in the south of AustriaHungary.
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic the learner should be able to:
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Explain how the alliance system contributed to World War 1
Describe how the colonial problems created tension between the Great Powers
Describe how the military rivalry contributed to World War 1
Analyse how problems in the Balkans contributed to World War 1
Discuss the contribution of war plans to World War 1, e.g. Schlieffen plan
Explain why the assassination of Franz Ferdinand led to the war
Topic: 1
(a). System of Alliance
The formation of alliances contributed significantly to the outbreak of the First World War.
Bismarck, from 1871 after France- Prussian war in 1870, wanted to avoid war at all costs and he
embarked on a system of alliance in order to diplomatically isolate France, who was regarded as
the ultimate enemy, who would one day seek revenge for her defeat and humiliation. During that
war, France lost her rich provinces of Alsace-Lorraine, which she would like to regain by hook or
crook.
The system of alliance posed the danger of war as member countries promised to support each
other in the event of war. For instance, the formation of the Austro-German Alliance of 1879 was
a military alliance directed at Russia. In the Dual alliance, Austria promised support to Germany
in the event of a joint attack by France and Russia. This alliance became a Triple Alliance when
Italy joined it in 1882. Similarly, France signed the Franco-Russian alliance of 1894 which would
force Germany to fight on two fronts if she were attacked either by France or Russia. This was a
military alliance, which was to continue as long as the Triple Alliance was in force. In this alliance,
Russia promised France military support against Germany or Italy with Germany’s help. France
was to support Russia if attacked by Germany or Austria, with Germany’s help. As a matter of
fact, if any member of the Triple Alliance mobilised, France and Russia were to mobilise
immediately.
Later in 1907 Britain, France and Russia formed the Triple Entente, which was to oppose the Triple
Alliance. Europe was on a knife edge. Any little push would tip the knife edge. By 1914 Europe
was divided into two heavily armed camps that were suspicious of each other. This caused tension
in Europe, and this was a clear indication that peace would not prevail long in Europe. The AustroGerman alliance encouraged Austria to act dangerously recklessly after the Assassination of
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Francis Archduke Ferdinand because Germany promised her support in the event of war with
Serbia. The system of alliance made small conflict easily spread into an international conflict.
(b). Colonial Rivalry or Clashes
(i) The Moroccan Crisis also known as the Tangier incident (1905-6)
The colonial rivalry was one of the contributory factors of the First World War. In 1905 Kaiser
William II visited Morocco, a French colony in North Africa, landed at Tangier and made a speech
in which he declared the independence of Morocco. This was an attempt by the Germans to test
the recently signed Anglo-French Entente cordialle of 1904 in which France promised to recognise
the British position in Egypt and Britain approved the French takeover of Morocco. The Germans
announced that they would assist the sultan of Morocco to maintain his country's independence
and Germany demanded an international conference to decide the future of Morocco. At the
conference of Algiers Germany suffered a diplomatic defeat as Britain, Russia, Italy, and Spain
supported French claims.
'N b. Mib6
(ii) The Agadir Crisis 1911
Another dispute arose over Morocco in 1911, when French troops occupied Fez, the Moroccan
capital, to put down a rebellion against the Sultan. The Kaiser sent a gunboat “the Panther" to the
Moroccan Port of Agadir. The British and French suspected he wanted to establish a naval base
from which to threaten Britain's trade routes. Although neither of these two events led to war, they
increased and intensified tension among major powers and in 1914 they went to war to protect
their colonial interests.
(c) Nationalism
Nationalism-can be summarised as the desire among people of a common language, religion, or
race to unite and gain independence. This spirit contributed much to the outbreak of the First World
War. A typical example was Pan Slavism (The political union of all Slavs). People of the Balkan
states did not like to be under Turkish and wanted to overthrow it so as to gain independence, for
instance, in 1875-6 the Balkan states revolted against the Turkish government demanding
independence and freedom from oppression.
Austria-Hungary was allowed to administer Bosnia-Herzegovina by the Congress of Berlin in
1878 and her subsequent annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina by Austria in 1908 intensified the
spirit of Nationalism among the Balkan states, especially in Serbia. Serbia had hoped to create a
large speaking empire called Yugoslavia under her domination or control. This Yugoslavia was
to include Bosnia-Herzegovina which is why Serbia hated Austria for denying Slavs freedom.
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Serbian nationalism (the desire to free your nation from control by people of another nationality)
was the most dangerous cause of friction. Consequently, many Austrians were ready for what they
called “Preventive war to destroy Serbia before she became strong enough to destroy AustriaHungary.” Arising from these resentments and tensions came a series of events, which culminated
in the outbreak of war in July 1914.
(d) Anglo-German Naval Race /Competition
Before 1890 Britain was considered the major naval power in the world or “mistress of the sea”,
but after the fall of Bismarck Germany passed “Tirpitz navy laws” which intended to increase her
navy. Kaiser William II wanted to build a navy "second to none", he even said our, "future lies in
water". This intensified naval competition between Germany and Britain. This race for naval
supremacy arose fear and suspicion, which contributed to World War One.
Germany further alarmed Britain when she joined a Kiel Canal, from the Baltic to the North Seas.
The British interpreted this as “preparation for war." British realising that they were challenged,
built the most formidable battleship called Dreadnought (fear nothing). The Germans responded
by building a similar type of ship.
Not all Germans approved of the Kaiser’s ambitions because they did not need it as much as the
British. This view was expressed by Churchill when he said “Whereas a large navy was a necessity
for England…it was a luxury for Germany"
(e) Arms Race
After 1871, Franco-Prussian war militarism increased. Germany emerged from wars of unification
forming the most powerful army in Europe, the army was kept as a defence mechanism against
France, between 1890-1914 Russia, France, and Austria also increased their army. In 1913 the
German army act was passed to increase its expenditure on the army. Armaments industries such
as German Krupps and French Schneider expanded to manufacture explosives and dynamites. This
increased armaments and military buildup caused tensions and suspicions, which resulted in First
World War.
(f) Formation of War Plans
European countries made war plans from 1905. Germany for instance designed the Schlieffen Plan
in 1905, this secret plan was based on the assumption that Germany would be fighting France
simultaneously or at the same time. Through this was the plan, Germany was to attack France
through Belgium (a neutral state) and then proceed quickly to Russia on the eastern front. Russia
also planned to attack Austria but later changed to include Germany. The French plan of attack
was called Plan 17, in an event of war, French troops would invade Germany through Alsace and
Lorraine. Austria’s plan of attack was called Plan R. In an event of war Austria would invade
Russia and attack Serbia in the south.
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In 1913 Britain and France defined their areas of Naval Operation during the war. Britain was to
operate from the North Sea while France was to operate from the Mediterranean. The formation
of these war plans contributed to war as they must be tested on the ground.
(g) The Events in the Balkans from 1908-1914
(i) Bosnian Crisis 1908 In the late 19th century, a number of young educated Turkish officers
revolted, demanding constitutional changes and equality for all Turkish subjects. Over the years
great rivalry had developed between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, over the provinces of BosniaHerzegovina. Serbian nationalists wanted to control Bosnia because its people were Serbs.
Unfortunately, in 1908 Austria annexed the provinces, and the annexation-angered Serbia whose
aim of forming Yugoslavia which was to include Bosnia-Herzegovina was frustrated. Serbia was
supported by Russia and this nearly caused the war.
(ii) 1st Balkan War 1912
The young Turks did not bring any changes in the lives of the people. Brutality and oppression
continued. In 1912 while the Turkish were engaged against Italy, Balkan states (Greece,
Montenegro, Bulgaria) formed the Balkan league with the aim to liberate Balkan states from
Turkish rule. They used the harsh treatment of Macedonian Christians by the Turkish ruler as an
excuse for war. The Balkan League defeated Turkey, and she lost her remaining European
territories. After the defeat of Turkey, her treaty of London was signed in 1913, at which Austria
insisted that Albania should become independent in order to prevent Serbia from having access to
the Adriatic Sea.
(iii) 2nd Balkan Wars 1913
The Balkan League fought among themselves over the spoils of the war. Bulgaria was not satisfied
with the gain from Turkish territories, she felt cheated by Serbia over Macedonia in 1913 Bulgaria
attacked Serbia and Greece, and Bulgaria was defeated and signed the treaty of Bucharest. In this
treaty, the fresh division of the territory (Macedonia) was done. All parts of the Balkans were now
independent except Bosnia-Herzegovina which was ruled by Austria. Serbia
emerged from these wars as the most powerful state. Austria on the other hand was worried by the
strength of Serbia. She wanted to destroy her before she became powerful. Serbia having defeated
Bulgaria and Turkey was itching for a chance to defeat Austria and free the Serbs. The tension
between the two countries meant that any incident would ignite war. The Balkan wars acted as a
rehearsal for a major war. War became one method used to solve problems.
(h) The Sarajevo Incident of 1914
The Sarajevo assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire was the spark, which
ignited World War I. On the 28th of June 1914, the Austrian heir Archduke Francis Ferdinand and
his wife Sophie were assassinated by a Serbian backed terrorist (Gavrilo Princip), a member of the
"Black Hand ". The Austrian government sent Serbia an ultimatum (a series of demands) that had
to be replied within forty-eight hours. So harsh were the terms (demands) that if Serbia could have
agreed to them, they could have ended her existence as an independent state.
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Austria took this as a chance to destroy Serbia but before she could attack Serbia, she sought
German support first and Germany responded by giving her (Austria) a "blank cheque” promising
her full support. Kaiser the Second even said, "What comes from Vienna (the capital of Austria)
is to Germany a command... I am ready to draw the sword whenever your actions make it
necessary!”
So, Serbia's reply to the ultimatum was rejected by Austria. Austria then seized a chance and
declared war on Serbia on 28th June 1914. Russia unwilling to let down Serbia mobilised, and
Germany was to declare war on Russia and then on France as Germany was following the
Schlieffen war plan designed in 1905, which stated that there is a need to defeat France in the West
as quickly as possible and proceed quickly to Russia in the Eastern Front. Britain was drawn into
war by the fact that Germany had invaded Belgium, a neutral country, which she had pledged to
defend at the London Treaty of 1839.
Bismarck concludes it by saying "Some damned foolish thing in the Balkans had blazed up into a
general war. Selfish national interests and memories of old quarrels and recent disputes panned the
flames so there was plenty of wood to keep the bonfire going!”
1.1 The Schlieffen Plan
It was the German war plan designed by General Schlieffen in 1905. The German commanders
realised that if war started, they would face the danger of fighting two enemies at once, that is,
France in the west and Russia in the East. This would mean splitting their forces into two, therefore,
the plan aimed at avoiding fighting on two fronts simultaneously. The plan assumed that the
Russians would be slow to get ready for war; therefore, they hoped that they would have three
clear weeks to defeat Belgium before Russia could mobilise its troops. The second assumption was
that they assumed Britain would not join the war when Germany invaded Belgium. Britain had in
1839 promised to defend Belgium's neutral position in the war, but an attack by Germany forced
Britain to defend the neutrality of Belgium. According to the Schlieffen plan, France was to be
attacked first and defeated within six weeks, thereafter German troops would be concentrated on
the Eastern side to crush Russia. Russia was to be defeated in six months; the plan provided for a
weak defensive force along the France-German border to guard against France’s forces that might
attack Germany through Alsace and Lorraine.
It provided a powerful striking force capable of entering France through Belgium and
Luxembourg. The striking force was to eventually encircle Paris, the capital of France, this would
force France to surrender.
1.2 Reasons Why the Schlieffen Plan Failed
The Schlieffen plan failed because several important things went wrong:
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The Belgians put up more resistance than expected especially at Liege, this slowed down
the German advance.
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The British honoured their treaty with Belgium and sent over the British expeditionary
force. Kaiser William was amazed and angry at Britain for honouring a treaty with Belgium
that he called a “scrap of paper.”
The Russians mobilised more quickly than the Germans had expected and invaded
Germany. The Germans had to send two divisions to try to stop them on the eastern front,
thus weakening the striking force.
The German advance was too rapid for their own supply of transport to keep pace, as a
result there was shortage of food (war supply) and shortage of fuel, and as a result, they
were weakened by hunger.
The German Generals modified the Schlieffen plan by weakening the striking force and
reinforcing the stationary forces. The modification was made in order to prevent France’s
possible advance into Alsace and Lorraine. It also failed because Moltke, the chief of
German Staff had lost control over some of his commanders.
There was also poor communication among German soldiers, as a result, the plan was
aborted or ended in a fiasco.
1.3 Reasons Why Central Powers were Defeated
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The central powers lost the war because the Schlieffen plan failed to achieve its objectives.
According to the plan, they had prepared for a short war and that did not turn up to be the
case, the prolonged war overstretched German resources, which were meant for a short
war.
Furthermore, the allied powers overwhelmed the central powers in terms of resources. The
USA supported the allies with loans, weapons and food supplies. The four central powers
(Bulgaria, Turkey, Austria-Hungary and Germany) were at war with 27 states, which
included the whole of the British Empire and the French Empire.
The German gamble of unrestricted submarines of warfare as well as the publication of the
Zimmerman Telegram brought the USA into the war. The American entry into the war
boosted the morale of the allied powers. The Americans reinforced the allied powers at a
time when the German forces had been drastically weakened.
Germany was also let down by her partners in the war. Italy who was a member of the
Triple Alliance ever since 1882 did not join the war on the German side.
Austria-Hungary was also partially ineffective and that forced Germany to reinforce
Austria-Hungarian troops and which was a setback for Germany.
Furthermore, Austria-Hungary disintegrated into small states, as racial minorities were
fighting for independence, this reduced the effectiveness and efficiency of AustriaHungarian forces.
The allied powers were also powerful (Britain and France). Britain imposed a naval
blockade against Germany, which caused serious food shortages in Germany while keeping
the allied powers fully supplied. The allied powers had also competent leadership at that
time.
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Self-assessment Exercise 1
1. (a) Describe the Triple Entente of 1907.
[8 marks]
(b) Explain how the Bosnian Crisis of 1908 contributed to the outbreak of the First World
War.
[12 marks]
2. (a) Describe the events of the First Balkan War of 1912
(b) Explain how the Alliance System helped lead to the First World War.
3. (a) Outline any four major alliances that existed in Europe by 1914.
(b) Explain how German militarism contributed to the outbreak of World War 1
4 (a) Outline the main features of the Schlieffen Plan.
[8 marks]
[12 marks]
[8 marks]
[12 marks]
[8 marks]
b) Explain how conflict between Serbia and Austria-Hungary made war in Europe more likely.
[12 marks]
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Unit 2: Inter- War Treaties
Overview
The Paris Peace Conference 1919-1921
After the First World War, leaders of the victorious powers or allied leaders met at a conference
in Paris. Their fundamental aim was to work out a peace settlement and to decide on how best to
deal with Germany and other defeated powers (central powers). The most important and influential
allied leaders were Woodrow Wilson of the USA, George Clemenceau of France, and Lloyd
George of Britain.
The conference started from 1919-1921 and the most important outcome of the conference was
the Versailles Treaty.
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic the learner should be able to:
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Analyse and evaluate the Paris Peace Treaties and their effects
Describe the origins, aims and structure of the League of Nations
Evaluate the successes and failures of the Leagues of Nations
Discuss the causes of World War 2
Topic: 2
1.0 The Aims of the Different Leaders at the Paris Peace Conference
The most important and influential countries at the negotiations were France, Britain and U.S.A.
The leaders of these countries had conflicting views on what a peace treaty should do.
(a) George Clemenceau (France)
Clemenceau nicknamed the “Tiger” was clamouring for revenge against Germany. He was
influenced by bad memories of Franco - Prussian War of 1870 in which France was defeated and
forced to sign the Frankfurt Treaty through which France lost Alsace and Lorraine and had to pay
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500 million francs. During that war, large areas of land were left devastated, and a lot of French
industries were destroyed. Millions of French people were killed and therefore Clemenceau was
hostile to Germany, so his aims were clear and vivid.
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He wanted a harsh treaty that could punish Germany and permanently cripple her
economically and militarily, so that she could not threaten France again, he said, “I want a
treaty which would weaken Germany and keep France safe.”
He wanted Germany to pay for the damages of the war.
He also wanted to take away German land, weaken her industries and reduce her armed
forces.
(b) Woodrow Wilson (USA)
Wilson preferred lenient peace terms to be imposed on Germany. He said, “I want a just and fair
peace treaty to avoid future war.” Wilson did believe that Germany should be blamed for the war
but did not believe that the treaty for Germany should be harsh because one day Germany would
recover and want revenge and another war would follow. Wilson wanted a peace treaty based on
his 14 points. In his 14 points, he put forward two important points of self-determination (selfrule) and formation of international cooperation (settling of disputes by all countries working
together).
Woodrow Wilson’s 14 Points
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An end to secret diplomacy
Freedom of navigation on the seas
Removal of economic barriers to trade
Guarantees to reduce armaments to a level consistent with domestic safety.
The settlement of closed claims with proper regard for the interests of the inhabitants
German evacuation of Russian Territory
Restoration of Belgian sovereignty
Return of Alsace and Lorraine
Adjustment of Italy’s Frontiers on national lines
Independence for the subject peoples of Austria-Hungary
Restoration of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania, with access to the sea for Serbia
Independent development for the subject peoples of the Ottoman Empire and the opening of
the Dardanelles under international guarantee’
Independence and access to the sea for Poland
The formation of an international organization for securing the independence and territorial
integrity of all nations
Woodrow Wilson was forced by the harsh actions of Germany on Russia to agree to a harsh treaty
proposed by Clemenceau of France. Germany had imposed Brest-Litovsk agreement. Through this
treaty, Russia lost Latvia, Estonia and Ukraine, an industrial heart of Russia where wheat was
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produced, and Russia was to pay an indemnity. So, Wilson agreed that Germany was to be treated
in the same manner.
(c) David LIoyd George (Britain)
LIoyd of Britain just like Wilson preferred lenient peace terms on Germany he said, “I want
Germany to be punished but not so much that Germany will seek revenge in the future.”
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He wanted Germany to recover quickly so, that they could trade with each other, he also
wanted to prevent Germany from becoming poor that they would turn to communism.
He also wanted to end the German threat to the British navy and empire.
He wanted to help secure France against Germany but prevent France from becoming too
powerful. He wanted to create a balance of power so that no one European country can
threaten the others, but he wanted Germany to pay for the damages of the war, even people
in Britain were bitter to Germany and they chanted slogans such as “Hang the Kaiser,”
“Make Germany to Pay”, “Squeeze inside a lemon a bit more”. George who had won the
elections because he had to punish Germany was forced to agree to a harsh treaty. The
Paris conference lasted from 1919-21 and their discussions led to the birth of the treaty of
Versailles which was signed on 25th June 1919.
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2.0 The Treaty of Versailles (1919)
On the 28th of June 1919, the German delegation was summoned to the Grand Hall of Mirrors, and
it was compelled to sign the Versailles treaty. Germany had no choice but to sign the humiliating
peace treaty. This event delighted Clemenceau because it was in the same Hall that the German
empire was proclaimed, and it was in the same Hall that Germany accepted his country's
humiliation. The main terms of the Versailles treaty covered the following areas:
(a) War Guilty Clause 231
Fundamental to the Versailles treaty was article 231, which was known as the War Guilty clause.
The article compelled Germany to accept the responsibility for having caused the war. This
accusation that Germany had caused the war, was the foundation of the harsh terms of the Treaty
in Germany. This was indeed a bitter pill for Germany to swallow because there is no easy answer
to the question of who caused the war. The war guilty clause demanded that Kaiser should be
handed over to the allied powers for trial.
(b) Disarmament
The Versailles treaty ordered that they should be general disarmament by both defeated and
victorious powers. However, the disarmament clause applied to the defeated nations only as the
victorious were reluctant to disarm. The size of the German army worried all the allied powers,
especially France.
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The treaty, therefore, cut German armed forces to a level where below what they have been before
the war.
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The German army was limited to 100 000 men
No conscription was allowed (forced army service was banned)
Germany was not to have armoured vehicles, submarines and military aircrafts. Germany
could have only six (6) battleships.
The Rhineland (the area on the border between Germany and France) became a
demilitarised zone that is, German troops were not allowed in that area. The
demilitarisation of the Rhineland was demanded by France with the belief that the move
would give France security and would act as an adequate defence mechanism against
German future aggression.
(c) Reparations
The reparations were meant to punish Germany and compensate the allied powers for the cost of
the war. This followed the example set by Germany herself when she posed such punishment on
France in 1871 and Russia in 1918.
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Germany was to pay 6.600 million /6.6 billion to the allied powers.
Germany had to surrender merchant ships to Britain. The German Saarccal field was to be
used by France for 15 years
A fixed number of cattle and sheep was to be handed over to Belgium as compensation for
war time losses.
All German property in former German colonies and in allied countries was confiscated.
(d) Loss of German Territories
The allied powers agreed that the lands and territories in Europe should be re-arranged and that
Germany should lose out.
Territory
From
Control
Alsace-Lorraine
France
Eupen, Moresnet & Malmedy
Belgium
North Schleswig
Denmark
German
Comments
Taken by Germany during
Franco-Prussian war 1971
Taken from Denmark during
the wars of unification, 1864
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West Prussia, Posen, Upper Poland
Silesia
Free city controlled by the
league of nations to give
Poland access to the sea
Danzig
League of Nations
League of nations was to be a
free city (controlled by LN)
Memel
Lithuania
Saar area
League of Nations
Vote to be held after 15 years
to decide its future
Estonia, Latvia, Ukraine
Russia
Germany had taken them from
Russia in 1918
German colonies
Britain & France as mandates
e.g., German East Africa – to
Britain
Cameroon – France
Namibia – SA
Samoa – New Zealand
*The Treaty of Versailles had forbidden ‘Anschluss’ or union between Austria and Germany
(e)The League of Nations
Germany was not allowed to join the League of Nations until she had proved that she had
abandoned her aggressive policy.
2.1 Why Germany Objected to the Treaty of Versailles
Germany was called at the end to sign the treaty, which was designed to punish her by the Big
Three. Germany objected because as far as they were concerned the treaty was imposed on her
they saw it as a dictated peace treaty hence "Diktat” (dictated). Some historians argue that
Germany was justified in objecting to the treaty. It would have been reasonable and sensible if
Germany was allowed to participate in the discussions that led to the Versailles Treaty. This could
have deprived Germany of the argument that the treaty was a dictated one and therefore not morally
binding to honour. The Germans objected to the treaty; they argued that the treaty was harsh on
them. This was probably not a valid objection because Germany had imposed a humiliating treaty
in 1871 (Frankfurt) and Brest-Litovsk was just harsh on the Russians like the Versailles was on
Germany.
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The Germans objected to the treaty because it was not based on the 14 points. They claimed that
they were promised a peace treaty, which was based on 14 points. They felt they had been betrayed
this probably was not a valid objection because Germany had rejected the 14 points when they
seemed to have a chance of winning the war.
The Germans objected to the war quilt clause 231, the Germans did not feel entirely to be blamed
for causing WW1, this was a valid objection because there were many factors that contributed to
World War I, and therefore it was unfair to blame Germany alone.
Germany objected to the payment of reparations, she argued that the payment of 6.6 billion was
too high and that after losing territories that were rich in resources it was extremely difficult to pay
for reparations. Germany objected to the loss of territories both inside and outside Europe.
Germany gave too many areas to the allied powers, some of which were rich in natural resources.
Germany also lost her nationals to her neighbouring countries and Germany saw this as a way of
dismantling its empire.
The Germans objected to the disarmament clause arguing that 100 00 troops were not enough to
keep the peace, law, and order at a time of political turmoil/disturbance. The Germans became
more bitter after realising that other powers were not prepared to disarm, this was a fair objection
because disarmament was not to apply to Germany alone but to all nations. The Germans saw the
Versailles treaty as severe and vindictive (meant to punish them). They saw it as an unjustified
treaty that was meant to render Germany impotent in all aspects of l
2.2 Treaties Signed with other Central Powers
(a) The Treaty of Saint Germain: signed with Austria in 1919.
¥
¥
The treaty of saint Germain separated Austria from Hungary; Austria was forbidden from
seeking unification Anschluss with Germany. It forced Austria to disarm. The Austrian
army was limited to 30 000 men.
It also took territories from Austria and created new states.
Territory
from Austria to
Bohemia & Moravia
New states of Czechoslovakia
Bosnia-Herzegovina
New states of Yugoslavia
Croatia, Slavia
Trieste & Tyrol
Comments
It included the former
state of Serbia
Italy
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¥
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Austria also lost territories to Poland and Romania. The treaty weakened Austria as a
leading power in Europe, Saint Germain was really sorting out jumbled territories into new
states rather than punishing Austria.
Austria suffered severe economic problems after the war, as most of her industries had
gone to Czechoslovakia.
(b) The Treaty of Neuilly: Signed with Bulgaria 1919 (November)
The treaty of Neuilly forced Bulgaria to agree to:
¥
¥
¥
Give land to Greece, Yugoslavia and Romania
The Bulgarian army was restricted to no more than 20 000 men
Bulgaria was forced to pay reparations
(c) The Treaty of Sevres: Signed with Turkey in 1920
¥
¥
The treaty of Sevres took most of Turkish land in Europe; Smyrna, Aegean Island and East
Thrace were transferred to Greece. Italy secured the Island of Dodecanese and part of
southern Anatolia.
The treaty broke up the Turkish empire giving much of it to France and Britain to govern
as mandates on behalf of the League of Nations e.g., France was given Syria and Lebanon,
Britain was given Palestine, Iraq, Iran and Jordan. Turkey was to pay reparations.
(d) The Treaty of Lausanne: altered the treaty of Sevres. In 1923 Turkey regained much of her
land lost to Greece.
¥ No reparations were to be paid.
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Self-assessment Exercise 2
1. (a) Describe the terms of the Treaty of Neuilly signed with Bulgaria in 1919 after the
First World War
[8 marks]
(b) Explain why the Germans strongly objected to the Treaty of Versailles.
[12 marks]
2. (a) Outline any four territorial terms of the Versailles Treaty
[8 marks]
(b) Explain how the Treaty of St Germain affected Austria
[12 marks]
3. (a) Outline any four of Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points.
[8 marks]
(b) Explain the effects of the non- territorial terms of the Versailles Treaty on Germany
[12 marks]
4. (a) Name the “Big Three” and state their views on how they wanted Germany to be
punished at the Paris Peace Conference.
[8 marks]
(b) Explain the effects of the Versailles Treaty on Germany.
[12 marks]
5. a) Outline four territorial terms of the Versailles Treaty.
[8 marks]
b) Explain why the Germans regarded the Versailles Treaty as unfair.
[12 marks]
6. a) Name two treaties signed with the Central Powers other than Germany.
[8 marks]
(b)Why did the Germans object strongly to the terms of the Versailles Treaty
[12 marks]
7. (a) Describe the views of the ‘Big Three’ at the Paris Peace Conference.
[8 marks]
(b) Explain the effects of the non-territorial terms of the Versailles Treaty on Germany.
[12 marks]
8. a) Outline the non-territorial terms of the Versailles Treaty of 1919.
b) Explain the effects of the Versailles Treaty on Germany.
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Unit 3: The League of Nations
Overview
The president of the USA Woodrow Wilson was the architect of the League of Nations. The
League of Nations formed part of his 14 points, it was therefore adopted into the Versailles Treaty.
The United States nevertheless did not join the League of Nations as she reverted to her policy of
isolation.
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic the learner should be able to:
¥
¥
Describe the origins, aims and structure of the League of Nations
Evaluate the successes and failures of the Leagues of Nations
Topic: 3
1.0 Covenant of the League
This was the constitution of the League; it had 26 articles, which were to deal with things such as;
o
o
o
o
o
Arms reduction and control of arms manufacturing
The duty of the league was to prevent the outbreak of another war
The duty of the members’ states was to take disputes to the league
If war broke out it should apply sanctions/stop trading with the aggressor
If economic sanctions did not end fighting, the League of Nations would order
military action
1.1 Aims of the League of Nations
¥
¥
¥
The fundamental aim was to maintain international peace and security by having collective
security i.e., all nations working together to provide peace and safety for everyone so that
the entire world could live in perpetual harmony and tranquility.
To attain this the league aimed at reducing national armaments (international
disarmament) this was vital because many believed that the military buildup before 1914
led to WW1.
Further, the league aimed to encourage member states to solve their disputes peacefully
and refrain from aggression.
o It also aimed at encouraging improving living standards and working conditions of
all people.
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NB: The League of Nations was built around collective security this meant that the members of
the league were to prevent war by acting together to protect and defend the interests of nations.
1.3 The Structure of the League (Body, Organs)
(a)The Assembly
It was a debating chamber of the league, and it was located at the league’s headquarters in Geneva,
Switzerland. When the League of Nations began in 1920 it had a total number of 42 countries.
Each country had the right to send three delegates, although each country had only one vote. The
assembly met only once a year but could be summoned in times of emergency. The assembly
provided a forum where nations would voice their opinions regarding world peace.
Functions
The duties of the assembly were to:
o
o
o
o
Elect non-permanent members of the council
Supervised other organs and committees of the league
It also had the right/prerogative to admit new members to the league and control budget
It could change existing place treaties
NB: All decisions taken by the assembly had to be unanimous
(b)The Council
The Council consisted of permanent and non-permanent members. Permanent members had Veto
power (the ability to stop any action to be taken as the decision had to be unanimous). It was
designed to cope with emergencies and could be called at short notice.
Functions
¥
¥
¥
¥
¥
To arbitrate on disputes that might threaten the world peace
It was given the responsibility of making plans for disarmament
To adjudicate on minor adjustments such as frontier adjustment
It could recommend the imposition and sanctions and the use of the military against the
aggressor.
The council supervised the work of varieties of commissions.
NB: The decision of the council had to be unanimous (they all had to agree) which led to low
arguments and slow progress in times of crisis.
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(c) The Secretariat
The secretary general headed the secretariat, and it formed the civil service of the league.
Functions
¥
¥
¥
¥
It carried out the work and administration of the league
It kept records of the league meetings and prepared reports for different organisations
within the league
It collected information on any subject
It also implemented the league's decisions
(d) The Permanent Court of Justice
The court was based in The Hague (The Netherlands). It was made up of 15 judges who represented
different legal systems of member countries.
Functions
It gave decisions on cases referred to it by countries in disputes
It gave legal advice to the assembly e.g., on interpretation of treaties
o
o
1.4 Subsidiary (Commissions) of the League
(a) International Labour Organisation (Aim))
¥
To improve working conditions of member states
Functions
¥
Discussed issues and produced "conventions” that member states could adopt as part of
their own laws.
Results
Produced some 70 conventions in 1939 e.g., on wage rates, health, safety caries, and employment
of women and children.
(b) Disarmament Commission (AIM)
¥
To persuade member states to reduce armed forces and weapon stocks.
Functions
o Held Washington Naval Conference 1921
o Called Disarmament Conference 1926, 1930, 1932-34
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Results
o Naval powers agreed to reduce the number of warships in 1921.
o No other agreements reached
(c) Refugee Committee
o To repatriate prisoners of war after the WW1
o To find homes for refugees
Functions
o
o
o
o
Raised money
Found transport
Designed houses
Provided medical aid
Results
¥
¥
Helped over 495,000 prisoners to return home
Dealt with the post-war refugee crisis and found homes for 600,000 Greeks fleeing from
Turkey. After 1933, valuable help was given to thousands of people fleeing Nazi
persecution in Germany.
(d) Drugs Committee
Persuaded states to tighten up customs and postal controls and to educate people about the dangers
of drugs investigated drugs trade and published findings. Tried to control poppy growing.
Aims
To stop smuggling and misuse of dangerous drugs
¥
Results
Improved controls: but could not defeat determining drug producers.
¥
Some states were reluctant to act e.g., against poor families relying on poppy growing for
income.
(e) Mandates Commission
The mandate kept an eye to ensure good governance of the mandated territories.
(f) Minority Commission
It drew the attention of the league to ill treatment of various minorities, and invited states guilty
of such treatment to improve their ways.
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1.5 Successes of the League Nation
The League of Nations was able to establish Danzig as a free city in spite of the rivalry between
Poles and Germans.
¥
¥
o In 1921 the dispute between Sweden and Finland over Aaland- Islands was solved
peacefully in favour of Finland by the league.
o In 1991 the league arranged a referendum, which confirmed the division of Upper
Silesia although neither country was really satisfied by the division.
o In 1922 the Austrian economy was at the point of collapse, but the league
successfully arranged financial help to save Austria.
In 1925 when Greece invaded Bulgaria the league intervened and forced Greece to pay
compensation to Bulgaria.
o The Committees Commission of the league achieved valuable results. The most
successful was the ILO whose function was to persuade member states to improve
working conditions and increase the wages of workers. ILO was able to persuade
member countries to increase the minimum wage for the workers and improve
working conditions as well as fixing maximum working hours. Women and
children were not supposed to work at night. It also persuaded member states to pay
a pension fund.
The committees of refugees and Nansen solved the problem of prisoners at war, especially
in Russia.
o After 1933 Valuable help was given to people fleeing from Nazi persecution in
Germany
o In 1923 they took care of refugees in Greece some of the repatriated from Asian
countries to Eastern Thrace.
o WHO also did a good job of investigating the causes of epidemics. It was successful
in combating Typhus in Russia.
1.6 Failures of the League of Nations
¥
¥
¥
¥
Poland attacked Vilnius which was controlled by Lithuania. The league condemned the
attack but failed to take any action against Poland and Poland was allowed to hold on to it.
In 1923 Lithuania invaded Memel and despite the league's protest, Lithuania kept it.
In 1923 an Italian on a league mission was murdered on the Greece-Albanian border where
Italy wanted to expand. Italy did not take the issue to the League of Nations, instead it
started bombarding the Greek Island of Corfu. The League Council wanted to refer the
matter to the permanent court of Justice, but Mussolini refused. The allied conference of
Ambassadors solved the issue and forced Greece to pay an indemnity to Italy.
The first major test of the league concerned Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931
(Manchuria Chinese Province) China appealed for help from the league of rations the latter
condemned and ordered Japan to withdraw from Manchuria. Japan refused to withdraw,
and the league failed to take any economic and military sanctions against Japan. Japan,
therefore, defied the League of Nations and exposed its incompetence.
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¥
Revision Booklet, Book 2
Another test for the league came in 1935 when Hitler under Mussolini invaded Abyssinia
(Present-day Ethiopia) Mussolini refused to withdraw from Abyssinia and the league
decided to impose economic sanctions which proved ineffective because they had excluded
oil, coal, and steel and were not applied wholeheartedly. This incident also exposed the
inability of the league to take military action against the aggressor.
From 1935 to 1939 Hitler of Germany defied the League of Nations because he was aware
the league was powerless and toothless. The actions of the dictator pushed the world into
WW2. The outbreak of the Second World War was a clear indication that the league had
failed to achieve its fundamental aim of maintaining peace and security
1.7 Reasons Why the League Failed
o The league had the disadvantages of being too closely linked to the Versailles treaty. This
gave it a picture of being an organisation for the benefit of the victorious powers. The
league also had to defend the Versailles treaty, which was far from being perfect.
o The League of Nations lacked power because it had no army of its own. It depended only
on the goodwill of its member states however the latter were not always willing to fulfill
their collective responsibility of providing the league with troops. The league, therefore,
became known as a “toothless dog” that could only bark. Lack of power became a serious
problem to the league because countries could openly defy it knowing that no action
would be taken against them.
o The League lacked important members that would have helped it to become a powerful
instrument; in March 1920 USA senate (upper house of parliament) rejected both the
Versailles treaty and the League of Nations. Many Americans were opposed to the
membership because they feared that their membership would entangle them in another
war, and they wanted to return to their policy of isolation. Germany and Russia were not
members of the league from the beginning. The absence of the USA, Germany and Russia
deprived the League of economic and military strong world powers that could have made
the League more powerful. The permanent members of the league became aggressors
themselves e.g., Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931, and Italy invaded Abyssinia in 1935.
o The League was weakened by the withdrawal of its members e.g., Japan withdrew from
the league in 1933, Italy in 1937 while Germany withdrew in 1935.
o It was not easy for member states to arrive at unanimous decisions, and this made it
difficult for the league to carry out actions that could have promoted peace.
o In 1929 the League of Nations faced a new problem of the Great Depression, which
started in the USA. The economic depression contributed to the decline of the League of
Nations.
o The Self-interest of France and Britain was also an obstacle to the league, and this led to
the failure of the league.
o The league also had constitutional weaknesses. The assembly only met once a year, which
was not, enough to attend to international disputes, as a result, the league failed to execute
its duties satisfactorily.
o The league failed to disarm European countries despite the number of disarmament
conferences that were held.
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Self-assessment Exercise 3
1(a) Describe the functions of any four minor commissions or committees of the League of
Nations
[8 marks]
(b) Explain why the League of Nations suffered some failures during the 1920s and the 1930s
[12 marks]
2(a) Outline the origins and aims of the League of Nations
[8 marks]
(b) Explain how the League of Nations attempted to solve the social and economic problems
facing the world between 1920 and 1935.
[12 marks]
3. (a) Outline the success of the League of Nations in the 1920s
[8 marks]
(b) Explain why the League of Nations was a failure in the 1930s.
[12 marks]
4 (a) Describe the functions of four minor organs (Commissions and Committees) of the
League of Nations.
[8 marks]
(b) Why did the League of Nations fail to maintain peace in the 1930s?
[12 marks]
5. (a) Outline any four of Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points
[8 marks]
(b) Explain how the weaknesses of the League of Nations contributed to the outbreak of
WWII.
[12 marks]
6 (a) Describe the functions of the main organs of the League of Nations.
[8 marks]
(b) How far did the League of Nations manage to maintain peace between 1920 and 1939?
[12 marks]
7 (a) Describe the functions of the four main organs of the League of Nations.
(b) Why did the League of Nations fail to keep peace in the 1930s?
8. (a) Outline the aims and structure of the League of Nations
[8 marks]
[12 marks]
[8 marks]
(b) Explain how the weaknesses of the League of Nations led to the outbreak of the
Second World War.
[12 marks]
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Unit 4: Germany 1918-1945
Overview
In November 1918 Kaiser William abdicated (resigned) 2 days later on the 11th of November
Germany signed an Armistice. The constitution of the Weimar Republic was drafted at Weimar
Town. The first president to be elected was Fredrick Ebert of the Socialist Democratic Party. The
new constitution granted democratic rights to the people of Germany for the first time in German
history, even women were allowed to vote. There was to be a president elected every seven years.
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, the learner should be able:
¥
¥
¥
¥
Explain why the Weimar Republic failed
Explain why and how Hitler was able to rise to power by 1933
Explain how Hitler was able to control Germany after 1933
Explain how Germany embarked on an expansionist policy
Topic 4
1.0 The Weimar Republic
(i) Political Problems
(a) Signing of the Treaty of Versailles
The Weimar Republic was handcuffed right from the beginning and never had a fair chance of
success and was doomed from the onset. The Weimar Republic experienced the problem of the
Versailles treaty. Many Germans were made bitter by the imposition of the Versailles treaty on
Germany. Many soldiers, nationals and other patriots criticized the leaders of the new Democratic
Republic who signed and agreed to the treaty and accepted the terms of the treaty therefore the
legend or myth arose that Germany had been stabbed in the back by the revolution at home.
The new Republic was despised for causing national humiliation. Germany was forced to admit
the guilt of causing the war and now she felt like an outcast or a moral leper among the nations.
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She was denied a seat in the assembly of the league and her territories were occupied by foreign
countries. She was called to pay huge sums of reparations. She lost 10% of her land, 25% of her
population, 48% in the iron industry and 16% 0f her coal. Therefore, many Germans viewed the
young republic with hostility.
(b) Assassinations
¥
¥
Matthias Erzberger who signed the Treaty of Versailles, on behalf of Germany was shot
and killed in 1921.
Walther Rathenau the Weimar Republic’s foreign minister was murdered in Berlin by a
gang of nationalist youth.
(c) Uprisings/Threats From 1919-1923
The Weimar Republic faced serious opposition from the communist especially the Spartacists. The
Spartacists were a leading communist movement in Berlin (Germany) that attempted to overthrow
Ebert's government. The Spartacist were under the leadership of Karl Liebknecht and Rosa
Luxemburg. Ebert’s government did not have enough troops to suppress the rebellion therefore
the government responded by calling the Freikorps who were ex-soldiers. Unfortunately, the
Freikorps were not disciplined and became cruel in quelling the rebellion. The leaders of the
Spartacist movement were murdered, and this brutality caused hatred toward the socialist
government
(d) Kapp Putsch
On 13th March 1920, Dr. Wolfgang Kapp and 5000 supporters marched on Berlin. They wanted
to overthrow the Weimar Republic and restore monarchical rule but all the workers in Berlin went
on strike because no one wanted to work with Kapp and his followers, so after 4 days Kapp gave
up.
(e) Munich Putsch
In 1923 Hitler also attempted to take over the government by force through the Munich “Beerhall"
putsch. Adolf Hitler's private army (stormtroopers) surrounded a Beer Hall in Munich then Hitler
took over the Beerhall and told people about his plans for Germany. Hitler wanted to take
advantage of the French occupation of Ruhr. The Weimar Republic was blamed for allowing the
French to humiliate the Germans. Hitler and his supporters wanted to take over Bavaria and then
march onto Berlin. Unfortunately, they met armed police. Hitler was arrested and tied and
sentenced to 5 years imprisonment.
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(f) Instability of Government
The other problem that faced the Weimar Republic was the instability of government, this was
caused by the fact that elections were based on proportional representation, which resulted in the
proliferation of parties. It became difficult for any party to win a clear majority during elections.
Parties, therefore, resorted to coalition governments, which followed each other in succession
because of political differences. In that situation, it was difficult for the government to introduce
reforms, which could effectively address the economic problems of the country.
(ii) Economic Problems of the Weimar Republic
(a) Hyper Inflation
A more immediate problem in the Weimar was inflation. The German mark had lost its value and
the problem got worse as the government printed more money. Moreover, there was the scarcity
of goods and prices depended on the black market. This led to a decline in the living standard of
people in Germany.
(b) Unemployment
There was also a problem of mass unemployment. Many people in Germany lost their jobs during
the war and it became very difficult for the government to create employment. By 1932, 6 million
people were without jobs, consequently, people lost hope in the government and started to support
opposition parties, which promised to restore prosperity in Germany.
(c) Reparation
The most formidable problem was reparations. Germany whose economy had been destroyed by
the war found it difficult to pay reparations to the Allied powers. In 1923, France and Belgium
occupied Ruhr, an industrial area after the Germans had failed to pay reparations. French
occupation of the Ruhr area had both adverse and positive results. The adverse consequences of
the incident of the Ruhr occupation by France boosted the support of the extreme political parties.
The incident caused political dissatisfaction in Germany and discredited the government of
Weimar as having allowed such humiliation. The incident encouraged Hitler to try to take the
government by force (Munich Putsch).
(d) Economic Depression
In 1929, Germany was affected by an economic depression, which had started in New York, USA.
The depression had adverse effects on the Weimar Republic, the Weimar export could no longer
be sold at overseas markets and investments in Germany stopped. The German economy that
survived on American loans collapsed because the loans were withdrawn. The depression
worsened the problem of unemployment.
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All the political and economic problems discredited the leaders of the Weimar Republic. The
opposition exploited these problems to their advantage as a result; one of the opposition leaders
Adolf Hitler became German Chancellor because he posed as the only man who could solve
political and economic problems in Germany.
1.1 Adolf Hitler and his Rise to Power
¥
¥
¥
¥
¥
¥
Hitler served as a corporal lance throughout the First World War and he wanted Germany
to fight to the bitter end. The signing of amnesties in November 1918 disappointed him.
From that time, he expressed hatred toward the leader of the Weimar Republic, whom now
he called criminals, and it became his aim to work towards their downfall.
In 1920, Hitler joined the German Worker's Party (GWP). It was a party with strong views
on race. Hitler was later given leadership of the party and changed its name to Nationalist
Socialist Worker's Party; however, it became known later as the NAZI party. It adopted the
ancient symbol of the “Swastika” which symbolized power.
Hitler used the problems, which the Weimar Republic faced to win support for the Nazi
party. He claimed that he had never been defeated but was let down by the communists and
the Jews hence the myth ‘stabbed in the back’. He also blamed the Versailles treaty for
many of the German problems, he promised to ignore the Versailles treaty, and this won
him much support from the patriots. His demand of the union with Austria also gave him
support from many Germans
Hitler promised to revive the economy of Germany, and this appealed to the unemployed
including the ex-soldiers who then joined his party. These people joined the semi-military
wing of the party called stormtroopers (SA). Stormtroopers were used to break the
meetings of the opponents. They also frightened people so that they attend Nazi party
meetings and kept order at those meetings. Hitler promised to re-arm Germany and many
army officers sympathised with the idea and as a result, he won the support of the army.
Hitler also condemned democracy as a weak and ineffective government, this convinced
many people because democracy had failed to deliver better political and economic
conditions in Germany. Hitler also gained the support of capitalists by condemning
communism. Capitalists believed that Nazism would protect their interests against
communism or socialism.
Another advantage was that Hitler was a good public speaker and his speeches hypnotised
his audience, by 1923 Hitler felt confident enough to challenge the government and
embarked on the Munich Putsch. However, the Munich Putsch was repulsed and failed.
The Government troopers in Bavaria fought the Nazis and 60 Nazis were killed in this
clash. Hitler was arrested and sentenced to 5 years in prison but only served 9 months.
While in prison Hitler wrote a book called Mein Kampf (my struggle). Mein Kampf
became a Nazi bible and pronounced Nazi ideas. The most important ideas expressed were:
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The superiority of the Aryan race (Herrenvolk or Master race). Germans were a
super race.
• The need to expand the German population and secure the living space
(Lebensraum) for the Germans as well as the extermination of the inferior races
such as the Jews and the Slavs.
Although the Munich Putsch was a failure Hitler benefitted from it. This necessitated a
change in the strategy and resolved that his path to power would be based on political
campaigns. After Hitler’s release from prison, his party made little progress because
Germany was experiencing economic recovery under Gustav Stresemann. In fact, Nazi
representation in parliament declined and by 1928 there were only 20 Nazi representatives.
However, the 1929 economic depression benefitted Hitler a lot. During the depression,
international trade collapsed. Banks, factories, and businesses closed down. The problem
of unemployment was so serious that President Von Hindenburg appointed Hitler as
chancellor because all other chancellors appointed before him had failed to arrest economic
problems. Hindenburg realised the value of Hitler in 1932 when they contested in the
presidential elections in which 13 million people against 19 million for Hindenburg voted
for Hitler.
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The decision by Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as a chancellor became a turning in the history of
the Weimar Republic and that marked the destruction of the second Reich of the Weimar Republic
and the creation of the Third Reich by Hitter which was destined to last for a thousand years.
1.2 How Hitler Consolidated Himself in Power From 1933-1939
It took Hitler less than 2 years to concentrate all power to his hands. He did this through, several
means:
(a) 1933 Election
First, he called another election in 1933 to try to get an overall Nazi majority in the Reichstag. In
the election, Hitler’s Nazi party won their largest share of votes thus gaining the overall majority
that he needed
(b) Reichstag Fire
In February 1933 the Reichstag building was set on fire. Hitler accused the communists of being
responsible for the act of anarchy. Although the truth was never discovered it is possible that the
destruction was a Nazi plot to discredit the communists. The accusation served as a suitable excuse
for the persecution of the communists. After that incident, 5000 communists were locked in
concentration camps where most of them were tortured to death. The communist party were
excluded from any office of importance, this destroyed the communist party which could have
been the strongest opposition to Hitler.
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(c) Enabling Law 1933
In March 1933 Hitler was able to get 2/3 support for the enabling law, by this law, Hitler and his
cabinet had absolute power for a period of 4 years to make laws without consulting the parliament.
All the legislative powers were transferred to the cabinet. These reduced the importance of the
Reichstag/Parliament to that of openly giving automatic approval to the decision made by Hitler
and his cabinet. Hitler used this opportunity to introduce reforms favourable to him and to
eliminate all forms of opposition to his government.
(d) Banning of Opposition Parties
Hitler consolidated himself in power by banning opposition parties in Germany. The leaders of
opposition parties were arrested and imprisoned; the Nazi party became the only party in Germany.
Trade unions were prohibited and many of their leaders imprisoned and their properties were
confiscated. Strikes and demonstrations were not allowed in Germany, trade unions were replaced
by labour fronts.
(e) The Night of Long Knives
In 1934 Hitler made a secret deal with the army leaders who hated Ernest Rohm and his everincreasing Storm troopers. Hitler feared that under Rohm SA would eventually control the Nazi
movement. Moreover, Rohm and his SA expressed socialist ideas that were a threat to German
capitalism that Hitler counted on for support. The SA had to be eliminated as it was regarded as a
threat.
On the 30th of June 1934, Rohm and the leaders were arrested and shot dead. Between 3000 and
5000 people were arrested by Hitler's personal bodyguards, SS. The SS were completely obedient
to Hitler; however, it should be remembered that it was the SA who helped Hitler to come to power
but in 1934 he forgot the gratitude that he owed to them. The SA were replaced by the SS, who
organised the secret security policy called the Gestapo. The Gestapo hunted for the opponents of
the Nazis and were cruel.
The final step by which Hitler consolidated himself in power came in 1934 when President Von
Hindenburg died. Hitler proposed to occupy the two posts that are, Presidency and Chancellor, the
referendum was held and 90% of the Germans were forced to vote that Hitler must be both the
President and the Chancellor. After uniting the two posts there was no doubt that Hitler was a
Fuhrer (True leader).
1.3 Hitler’s Domestic Policy
Hitler made a lot of changes at home after ascending to power.
(a) Public Works and Battle of Works
Under Hitler, Germany appeared to prosper. His battle for work almost eliminated unemployment
and the domestic output of steel, oil, synthetic fibers, and rubber increased enormously, thus
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reducing imports. Many industries particularly armaments industries were constructed and
provided employment
Great Public works such as building of motorways were undertaken. Railways and other means of
communication were also improved but the greatest achievement occurred in the motor vehicle
industry. German people were able to buy exciting new family cars. In 1934, a rapid expansion of
the armament industry began where tanks, guns, and aeroplanes were produced. The introduction
of conscription in 1935 reduced unemployment.
By 1039, people had radios, vacuum cleaners, and various electrical appliances.
With the unemployment problem solved. Hitler's next objective was to make Germany selfsufficient in food and essential raw materials. Unfortunately, Hitler was less successful in this area.
People who could have produced them migrated to towns for better pay and jobs. Nevertheless, he
succeeded in reducing agricultural imports by 25%.
(b) Population Policy
In his book "My struggle" Hitler mentioned the need for a pure race to expand in population. After
assuming power, he tried to achieve that by encouraging the Germans to bear healthy children for
Hitler. Therefore, Germany under Hitler had a rising birth rate. Marriage loans were granted, and
other benefits were given to women for performing state duties of bearing children.
(c) Education
Like Mussolini and Stalin, Hitler indoctrinated the youth with the values of National Socialism at
school. All teachers from kindergarten to university had to take an oath of allegiance (loyalty) and
were forced to join National Socialist Teachers League. Children were taught to live and die for
the Fuhrer. Textbooks, especially history books were re-written to conform with Hitler's beliefs
and new subjects like the science of races were introduced which taught students that they belong
to a 'master race'. Mein kampf was studied chapter by chapter. Children were to spy for their
teachers and parents who were against Nazi beliefs and report them to the S.S.
(d) The Persecution of the Jews
Hitler and the Nazis hated the Jews and were regarded as enemies of the German people. The Nazis
aim was to eliminate the Jews from Germany. Anyone who had a Jewish parent or grandparent
was excluded from employment, universities and banned from studying law and medicine.
The Jewish music and musicians were prohibited. The Jewish children in schools were humiliated
as they were forced to sing the chorus "We are the greatest enemy of the German people " In 1935
the Nuremburg laws were passed.
The laws deprived the Jews of all the rights of farming, employment, and citizenship. In addition,
the laws prohibited the Jews from marrying the Germans. In 1938, the Jews were made to carry
placards to identify themselves as JEWS, the motive being to humiliate them. Their homes were
burnt to ashes, and their businesses were confiscated and given to the so-called master race.
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Many Jews were sent to concentration camps where they were forced to do hard labour and over
6 million Jews lost their lives in these camps as a result of torture. Some were suffocated in gas
chambers while others were buried alive.
(e) Hitler and the Church
In 1933, Hitler won the support of the German Christians by signing a concordat with the
Catholics. By this agreement, Catholics in Germany were guaranteed freedom to practice their
religion in public. The church could conduct its own affairs without state interference. In return,
Catholic priests were to keep out of politics and German Bishops were to swear allegiance to the
Nazi regime. Nevertheless, the harmonious relationship was short-lived as the Nazi began to
encroach on the catholic activities.
As for the Protestants, churches were merged into one national church. Those who refused were
arrested and sent to concentration camps and their properties confiscated.
(f) Labour Fronts
In 1933, the trade unions were dissolved, and workers were obliged to join the Nazi Dominated
labour front. Employers were given complete authority over the workers. From 1935, all workers
were obliged to carry a labour book that contained their work record and racial background. The
labour fronts organised welfare schemes and leisure activities. Through its slogan "Strength
through Joy." Many German workers enjoyed subsidised foreign holidays, sporting activities;
cultural programmes travels including trips to Norway, and loans for buying Volkswagen
(Beetles).
1.4 Hitler’s Foreign Policy
(a) Aims of Hitler’s Foreign Policy
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Hitler wanted to reverse the Versailles treaty
To restore German pride
To retrieve (regain) German land lost in 1919
To rearm
To remilitarise Rhineland
To unite all German speaking people in greater Germany i.e., to make Germany a single,
united homeland for all Germans
He wanted to form a union with Austria (Anschluss)
He wanted to give Germany Lebensraum (living space). Hitler said, "Greater Germany
would have a population of 85 million people and therefore their land would provide
insufficient food and raw materials". To obtain this Germany would have to take over land
to the East in Poland and the U.S.S.R. The Poles and Russians were Slavs whom Hitler
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believed to be an inferior race to the Germans. Therefore, the superior race was entitled to
their land.
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1.5 Hitler’s Foreign Policy
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In 1934, Hitler withdrew from the Disarmament conference using an excuse, France's
refusal to reduce her armaments. Later during the same year, he withdrew Germany from
the League of Nations. In 1934, he signed a non-aggression pact with Poland.
In 1935, Saar Plebiscite was held and 90% voted in favour of a return to Germany.
In 1935, Hitler began to publicly rearm, claiming that other states failed to disarm. He
introduced military conscription (recruitment) and began to construct submarines, aircrafts
and naval ships. Still in Germany, Hitler signed the Anglo-German Naval Treaty. By this
treaty, Hitler agreed to limit the size of the German navy to not have more than 35% of the
British fleet. In addition, Germany was allowed to build a submarine fleet equal to that of
the British Commonwealth. Britain with this had implied acceptance of Germany’s right
to rearm in spite of limits imposed at Versailles.
In 1936, Hitler sent troops to occupy Rhineland and in Britain, there was a general
understanding that Germany was only going into their own backyard. Still in 1936 Hitler
and Mussolini participated in the Spanish civil war in support of General Franco, this
provided Hitler with still an opportunity to test the strength of his army. Still in 1936 Hitler
and Mussolini signed the Rome- Berlin Axes around which the rest of Europe would
revolve. Still in 1936 Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact in which they
agreed to support each other in the struggle to combat the advance of communism. In
November, Italy joined Anti- Comintern pact to become a tripartite pact (Rome, Berlin,
Tokyo axis)
In 1938, taking advantage of political unrest in Austria Hitler forced Anschluss (union)
with Austria. The Possession of Austria gave Hitler new resources of both man and
materials. It also allowed him to exercise greater influence over affairs in the Balkans and
placed him in an excellent position to plan his next move, that is, to win control of
Czechoslovakia.
In September 1938, Britain and France prevailed upon the Czechs to surrender to Germany
all those areas of Sudeten land with more than 50% German population. The Sudeten land
was to be occupied by German troops on the 10th of October as agreed at Munich. The
consequences of the Munich Agreement were far reaching. Czechoslovakia lost her
territory, iron industry, and human resources. She also lost Teschem to Poland, and
Ruthenia to Hungary.
In 1939 German troops occupied Czechoslovakia, and Bohemia and Moravia became a
German Protectorate. In the same year, Hitler claimed that the port of Memel from
Lithuania.
Hitler now turned to Poland and claimed Danzig, but Britain warned that he would support
Poland if that country’s independence was threatened. In 1939 Hitler and Mussolini signed
the Pact of Steel. Through this pact, both countries promised to help one another in the
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event of war. Still in 1939, Hitler signed the Nazi-Soviet pact with Russia. This alliance
shocked and amazed the whole world as the two practised different ideologies. They agreed
to divide Poland and the Baltic states amongst themselves and to remain neutral if one of
them was involved in war.
On the 1st of September 1939, Hitler invaded Poland in the morning of the 3rd September Britain
declared war on Germany, France joined Britain and Second World War had begun.
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Self-assessment Exercise 4
1(a) Describe the Dawes Plan signed in 1924
[8 marks]
(b) Explain how the Enabling Act of March 1933 helped Hitler gain total control of Germany.
[12 marks]
2 (a) Describe the events of the Munich Putsch of 1923
[8 marks]
(b) Explain how Stresemann dealt with the problems faced by the Weimar Republic from 1924
to 1929
[12 marks]
3 (a) Outline the main features of the Nazi totalitarian state.
[8 marks]
(b) Explain the steps that were taken by Hitler to consolidate his power in Germany between
1933 and 1934.
[12 marks]
4 (a) Outline the aims of Hitler’s foreign policy.
[8 marks]
(b) Explain how the problems of the Weimar Republic helped Hitler to rise to power.[12 marks]
5 (a) Describe the problems that were faced by the Weimar Republic after the First World War.
[8 marks]
(b) Explain how Hitler’s foreign policy led to the outbreak of the Second World War. [12 marks]
6 (a) Outline the reasons for Nazi popularity in Germany after 1933.
[8 marks]
(b) Why did Hitler follow an aggressive foreign policy after 1933?
[12 marks]
7 (a) Outline the main features of Nazism.
[8 marks]
(b) How did the problems of the Weimar Republic from 1919 and 1933 lead to its decline?
[12 marks]
8 (a) Outline ways in which Hitler organised the German economy.
[8 marks]
b) Explain how Hitler reversed the Versailles Treaty.
[12 marks]
9 (a) Describe the political problems faced by the Weimar Republic.
[8 marks]
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b) How was Adolf Hitler able to control Germany between 1933 and 1939?
[12 marks]
10 (a) Describe the steps taken by Hitler to rise to power in Germany by 1933.
[8 marks]
b) How did Hitler’s domestic policy enable him to stay in power in Germany by 1933?
[12 marks]
11 (a) Outline the main features of the Nazi totalitarian state.
[8 marks]
b) Why did Germany embark on an expansionist policy from 1933-1941?
[12 marks]
12 (a) Outline the aims of Hitler’s foreign policy.
[8 marks]
b) How far did the problems of the Weimar Republic help Hitler rise to power?
[12 marks]
13 (a) Describe the factors which led to the rise to power of Hitler in Germany
[8 marks]
(b) How was Hitler able to consolidate his power in Germany up to 1934?
[12 marks]
14 (a) Describe the events that led to the fall of the Weimar Republic.
[8 marks]
b) Explain why Hitler rose to power by 1933.
[12 marks]
15 (a) Outline the problems of the Weimar Republic.
[8 marks]
b) Why did Hitler follow an aggressive foreign policy after 1933?
[12 marks]
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Unit 5: Second World War 1939-1945
Overview
Just like the First World War, there is no single factor that could be held responsible for the
cause of the Second World War.
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic the learner should be able to:
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Discuss the Causes of World War 2
Topic 5
1.0 Causes of Second World War
(a) Failure of the League of Nations
The League of Nations was formed at the end of the first world war and was entrusted with the
responsibility second of the outbreak of further wars, however the responsibility of keeping peace
became more and more difficult in the 1930s. The league failed to force its members to renounce
aggression. Countries like Japan exposed the incompetence of the league by invading Manchuria
in 1931. Mussolini also did the same in 1935-36 when he attacked Abyssinia and from 1936 Hitler
did the same. The weakness of the league encouraged the dictators to pursue their selfish aims
which disturbed world peace. The world experienced yet another war was a clear indication that
the league had failed to achieve its aim of maintaining international peace.
(b) Hitler’s Foreign Policy
Hitler wanted to secure a living space for the Germans and therefore adopted an aggressive policy
towards neighboring countries for instance in 1936 he Sudetenland and in 1939 he attacked Poland
the action which sparked the second world war.
(c) The Versailles Treaty
Hitler was more than determined to fulfil his promise to reverse the Versailles. He defied the
Versailles treaty in many ways. After 1933 he started to rearm and to have armaments such as
tanks, submarines, aircrafts and so forth which were forbidden by the Versailles treaty, he also
forced union with Austria in 1938 for instance, remilitarized the Rhine and so forth, all these
actions led to Second World War.
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(d) Failure of the Disarmament Conference
After the First World War countries felt that they should reduce their armaments, although there
was to be a general disarmament by all powers the victorious powers were not prepared to disarm.
Several disarmament conferences were held but in vain. Hitler was aware that other countries were
not prepared to disarm therefore, in 1933; he pulled Germany from the disarmament conference
and from the League of Nations. Hitler appointed a man called Goering to supervise the
implementation of the 4-year plan, which was to become a foundation of German preparation for
total war. Rearmament was not confined to Germany alone but was also effected in the USSR,
Britain, France, Japan, Italy for instance, Joseph Stalin of Russia introduced a 5-year plan which
aimed at massive remilitarization. This military buildup led to mistrust among the superpowers
and ultimately led to war.
(e) Actions of the Dictators
The foreign policies of dictators (Japan, Italy, Germany) probably contributed more than any factor
to the Second World War. The leaders of these countries believed in aggressive nationalism and
challenged peace by seizing land from other countries. In achieving their imperialistic ambitions,
Japan under General Tojo dreamt of creating greater Asia as a co-prosperity sphere. In Italy,
Mussolini wanted to restore Italian pride by colonizing other states while Hitler of Germany
wanted to secure the living space for the Aryan race in the East. In pursuit of their aims, world
peace was compromised, and disturbed. These dictators used force to achieve their owns and defied
the League of Nations which was an instrument of peace.
(f) Appeasement Policy (by Britain & France)
Appeasement means to avoid conflict by giving in to other person’s demands. During the period
1933-9, Britain and France believed that they should avoid conflict with Germany at all costs.
Whenever Germany broke the terms of the Treaty of Versailles Britain and France did to try
nothing to enforce the terms. The British prime minister Novelle Chamberlain elected in 1937 was
the main proponent of this view. By this policy Britain and France gave in to Hitler's demands
hoping that he would be satisfied. Failure to take appropriate actions against Hitter encouraged
him to pursue his aims therefore the appeasement can be blamed to have caused the Second World
War.
1.1 Why Britain and France Adopted the Policy of Appeasement
# No Direct Threat to Britain and France
Western Europe and Britain did not feel threatened by German expansionism, which seemed to be
aimed at Eastern Europe.
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# Fear of Mass Destruction
The horrors of the first world war particularly trench warfare were still fresh in people's minds,
i.e., the world had seen the disastrous effects and calamities of World War I and as such was not
prepared that such war should re-occur.
#Economic Problems
Another factor was the cost of re-armament, people felt that money should be spent on social
services and housing rather than on weapon
# Guilty over the Treaty of Versailles
The Western powers adopted this policy because they felt that the Treaty of Versailles was too
harsh on Germany so they believed that by appeasing Hitler world peace would be safeguarded.
#Admiration of German Prosperity
After the chaos of the depression some people saw Nazi Germany as a symbol of order and
prosperity. The vast propaganda spectacle which Germany put on when it hosted the 1936 Berlin
Olympics impressed many foreigners. Many Western politicians saw Hitler as a reasonable man
with reasonable aims.
# Fear of Soviet Russia
Many people in Britain saw the Soviet as a real enemy, they regarded Nazi Germany as a defense
mechanism against the spread of mechanism, this view was strengthened by news of purges, with
show trial and forced labour camps in Russia.
# The Weaknesses of the League of Nations
Many people in both Britain and France believed that the responsibility for stopping German
aggression lay with the League of Nations, they did not believe that their countries should step in
to take over the role that the league had been designed for.
# The USA Isolationist Stance
Without the backing of the USA, it was difficult for Britain and France to take a stand against
Hitler.
# French Internal Conflicts
Throughout most of the 1930's France was divided by internal conflicts between the left- and rightwing parties therefore the main focus of French concern was on domestic political issues.
# British Concern with Its Own Empire
Before the Second World War, most British foreign policy focused on the British Empire rather
than external issues.
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Self–assessment Exercise 5
a) Outline any four of Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points
[8 marks]
b) Explain how the weaknesses of the League of Nations contributed to the outbreak of the
Second World War.
[12 marks]
a) Outline any four causes of the Second World War
[8 marks]
b) How did Hitler’s foreign policy contribute to the outbreak of the Second World War?
[12 marks]
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Unit 6: United Nations Organisation
Overview
In 1941 President Roosevelt of the USA and Prime Minister of Britain Winston Church Hill drew
the Atlantic charter, in which they declared their wish to up the see:
- The freedom of speech and expression enjoyed by all everywhere in the world
- The freedom of every person to worship God in his own way everywhere in the world.
- The world free from fear
- The world free from want
They also agreed on the principle of self-determination, that is, the right of every country to govern
itself. Later these leaders met the Russian leader Joseph Stalin, to make plans for the post world
War. The importance of these conferences of world leaders which were held in Tehran capital of
Iran (1943),Yalta in Russia (1945) and Potsdam in Germany (July 1945) was to establish another
stronger international organisation to replace the League of Nations and they realized the need to
establish the new organisation before the end of the war to avoid the mistake made in the formation
of the league, so at the Yalta Conference Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to the setting up
of a new United Nation Organisation.
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic the learner should be able to:
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Discuss the immediate results of World War 2
Describe the origins and aims of the UNO
Describe the structure of UNO
Describe the functions of the organs of UNO
Discuss the social and economic activities of the UNO
Describe the role of the UNO peace keeping force
Discuss the limitations of the UNO peace keeping force
Evaluate the successes and challenges of the UNO
Discuss the problems faced by the UNO
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Topic: 6
1.0 The Formation of United Nations
San Francisco Conference in April 1945
The new organisation called United Nations was set up at San Francisco, USA. It was signed by
50 nations.
1.1 UNO Aims:
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To maintain international peace and security to take effective collective measures for the
prevention and removal of threats to the world peace and to suppress all acts of aggression
To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal
rights and self-determination of all peoples
To achieve international cooperation in solving problems of economic, social, and cultural
humanitarian nature.
To promote and encourage respect for human rights without distinction to race, sex,
language or religion
To promote economic and social development
To uphold and promote fundamental human rights
1.2 Structure of the UNO
The UNO is a more practical and realistic body than its predecessor (the League of Nations).
Nevertheless, it reflects features of the League of Nations but refined so as to avoid the weakness
of the league.
(1)
General Assembly
All the member nations meet in the general assembly once a year in September (unless there is a
need for an emergency session to deal with crisis). The assembly discussed issues of international
concern and every nation, large and small has one vote.
Duties
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The Assembly can make recommendations or can pass resolutions (If 2/3 of the members
agree)
The Assembly elects the secretary general
The Assembly votes for the budget of the United Nations
(II) Security Council
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The Security Council has 15 members that is, 5 permanent 10 elected by the general Assembly to
serve for a period of two years. Each of the permanent members has the right to the resolutions.
Permanent members include Britain, France, USSR, USA and China. The Security Council can
take resolutions if 2/5 members approved the resolutions, and it is binding on the general assembly.
The following are the resolutions that can be taken by the Security Council:
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A cease-fire
Impose economic sanctions
Suggest ways of avoiding conflicts
Send a peace keeping force to a troubled spot
Give support to any nation against aggression
(III) Secretariat
The secretariat is the civil organ of the United Nations i.e., it deals with the administration of the
United Nations. It employs people to keep records, provide information, prepare reports, and
provide translators and is headed, Secretary General.
Duties
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Draw the attention of the security council to a threat to world peace
Makes annual reports.
Prepares a budget
Go on missions to troubled spots
(IV) International Court of Justice
It consists of judges elected by General Assembly and the security council. The judges must be
nationals of 15 different states. The ICC ensures that the court represents the main legal system of
the world and judges’ term is set for nine years. Its function is to:
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To arbitrate on international disputes brought before it
It also interprets international treaties and gives advice to the general assembly upon
request.
Decisions taken by the court must be based on the majority of states present and at least 9
must be present.
The headquarters are in Hague.
(V). Economic and Social Council
It consists of 27 members elected by the assembly. It supervises and coordinates subsidiary
agencies general of the United Nations such as NHO, UNICEF, UNESCO, FAD, and IMF. It is
also responsible for the economic and social work of the United Nations to direct economic and
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financial aid given to the states and to supervise the work of humanitarian nature such as helping
victims of disasters /calamities.
1.3 Special Agencies and Functions
(i) World Health Organisation WHO
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To coordinate the fight against disease and medical research.
To set drug and vaccine standard
To provide its members with technical help, advice and information
To achieve basic health services for all by the year 2000
(ii) United Nations, Education Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)
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To contribute to world peace by using education, science and culture.
To promote cooperation among nations and cultures and to increase respect for justice, the
rule of law and human rights.
(iii) Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)
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To raise the level of nutrition
To improve food production and distribution
To improve the lives of people living in the countryside
To increase the effectiveness of Agric, forestry and fisheries
(iv) International Labour Organisation (ILO)
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To improve living and working conditions and improve employment worldwide
To set international standard for the protection of workers and the improvement of their
conditions
(V) International Monetary Fund (IMF)
To help the growth of international trade
To keep stable rates at which currencies of different countries can be exchanged for one another
(Vi) Trusteeship Council
The trusteeship council was entrusted with the responsibility of administering and developing the
trusted territories towards independence. All the trust territories had so far attained their
independence at last e.g., Namibia
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1.4 Problems and Weaknesses of the United Nations
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The problem of the veto power remained an obstacle and, in most cases, it was the cause
of inaction on part of U.N.O. The superpowers (USA and USSR) and other great powers
had the veto powers to attain their selfish ends. The cold war made it difficult for the
superpowers to agree on a number of issues and used veto power to stop U.N. from
adopting resolutions which conflicted with their interest.
The U.N. is sometimes ignored by the world superpowers for instance, in 1962, the Cuban
missile crisis was never referred to the United Nations. The USA and USSR solved the
crisis between themselves, undermining the UNO’s importance.
The policy of one country, one vote is also questionable. It is argued that this places smaller
states on the same level with great powers while small countries are economically poor and
contribute the least to the United Nations cooperation.
Cynicism is one of the weaknesses of the U.N. Some member states have refused to pay
contributions when they disagreed with the policy adopted.
Financial problems have escalated or increased the United Nation's difficulties in fulfilling
its roles effectively. Some countries failed to pay their dues, and others have cut or withheld
them. This has hampered the peacekeeping cooperation.
The United Nations has been unsuccessful in ending the system of alliances and arms race.
There has been a tendency towards regionalism rather than internationalism. Political and
economic ideologies have dominated at the expense of internationalism e.g., the formation
of NATO by the Western powers versus the Warsaw Pact (Eastern)
1.5 Successes of the United Nations
Despite its weaknesses, the UN deserves some credit. It had achieved a lot on the humanitarian
mission through its agencies such as WHO, FAO, IMF etc.
WHO has campaigned against diseases all over the world. Smallpox is one of the fateful diseases
that had been eradicated especially in Indonesia. Between 1955 and 1959 WHO board UNICEF
moved into action against Malaria mosquito armed with DDT spray. The team attacked the known
mosquito areas especially in notorious areas such as Italy, Mexico and Sicily. WHO also
discovered the vaccine for TB, which guaranteed 80% of survival among TB patients.
FAO with a motto "Fiat Panis" (Let there be bread) has worked tirelessly to advise countries like
India on us of tractors so as to produce enough food. FAO encouraged fish production in Israel
and also improved citrus production in Libya and fought locust, plagues in the middle east.
IMF has become more involved in helping developing countries to expand their trade and also
helped those developing nations that couldn't pay their debts to commercial banks.
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1.6 Where the UN Was Able to Keep Peace
Unlike the league, the UN can bark and bite. The UN is the most effective instrument of preserving
world peace than the league.
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In 1950 the UN mobilized troops to assist South Korea which had been attacked by North
Korea. A fierce war was fought between them. The UN was able to liberate South Korea
from North Korea.
The UN intervened successfully in the civil war which broke out in 1953 in Cyprus. The
UN sent peacekeeping troops which were able to stop the fight between the Greek and
Turkish Cyprus and kept the two antagonists apart.
In 1947-67 the UN intervened in the dispute that involved India and Pakistan over boarder
disputes of Kashmir. The UN sent troops to keep the two sides apart and were able to stop
fighting in 1968. However, the border dispute still exists.
In 1956 the British and the French troops seized the control of the Suez Canal following
Naser's decision to nationalise Suez Canal. The UN exerted tremendous pressure on Britain
and France to withdraw their troops from Egypt. Thereafter the UN sent troops to patrol
the border between Egypt and Israel this ensuring that fighting doesn't start again.
In 1990 the UN organized troops to assist Kuwait against Iraq. The UN was able to liberate
Kuwait from Iraq in a mission called Operation Desert Storm led by America.
1.7 Failures of the UN
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In 1956 USSR sent troops into Hungary so as to prevent it from breaking away from USSR
control. USSR ignored the UN’s demand of withdrawing and the UN failed to act against
the USSR.
In 1979 USSR again sent troops to Afghanistan to put someone they wanted in power. The
USSR wanted someone who would support the interests of the USSR. Once again, the UN
failed to face the USSR to withdraw its troops from Afghanistan.
In 1992 the UN failed to keep peace between the warring factions in Somalia. The UN
organized Peacekeeping troops but were withdrawn from Somalia thereby leaving Somalia
to be ravaged by the civil war.
The UN failed to stop the genocide in Rwanda between the majority Hutu and the minority
Tutsi.
The UN failed to stop the formation of armed rival blocks after the end of WWII as shown
by the emergence of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) and the Warsaw Pact of
the USSR.
The UN is sometimes blamed by developing countries for IMF's failure to assist poor
countries economically.
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1.8 Differences Between the League and the UN League
League of Nations
United Nation Organisation
-Formed after WWI
- Formed during WWII
-Unanimous decision
- Unanimous decision not required although
the veto can delay matters. Only 2/3 agrees
action can be taken
-USA and USSR were not members
-USA and USSR were members
-Was part of the treaty of Versailles
- Not associated with any peace treaty
- Was for victorious powers
- Never meant for victors; any small country
could join
- Did not meet often
- It meets more often especially security
Council
- It depended on the goodwill of its members
- Members are obliged to support UN
resolutions
- Membership was restricted to about 50
- Large in terms of membership; 150 African
and Asian countries
- Cold war was never a problem
-Cold war was a problem
-Did not exercise effective economic and
military action
- Security council exercises effective
economic and military action
- Did not have Trusteeship and ECOSỌC
-UN has trusteeship and ECOSỌC
Similarity
Both had the same mission of maintaining international peace
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Self-assessment Exercise 6
1.
(a) Describe the origins of the United Nations Organization.
[8 marks]
(b)Explain any three problems faced by the United Nations since its formation. [12 marks]
2
(a) Name any four minor agencies of the United Nations Organisation and describe their
functions.
[8 marks]
(b) Explain the weaknesses of the United Nations Organisation in its peacekeeping efforts.
[12 marks]
3.
a) Describe the origins of the United Nations Organisation
[8 marks]
b) Explain the role played by the United Nations Organisation in the Korean War of 19501953 and the Suez Crisis of 1956.
4.
12 marks]
a) Outline the achievements of the United Nations Organisation from 1960 to 1995.[8marks]
b) Explain the problems faced by the United Nations Organisation since its formation.
[12 marks]
5.
a) Describe the functions of the main organs of the United Nations Organisations. [8 marks]
b) Explain the role played by the United Nations in any three peace-keeping operations
6.
7.
a) Describe the functions of four of the United Nations specialised agencies.
[12 marks]
[8 marks]
b) How successful has the United Nations been in keeping peace?
[12 marks]
a) Describe the aims of the United Nations Organisation.
[8 marks]
b) Explain why the United Nations Organisation had some successes in its peace- keeping
activities from 1945 to 1966.
[12 marks]
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Unit 7: The Soviet Union from 1917 to 1953
The Russian Empire was an autocratic state. This means that one man the Tsar ruled it. The way
the country was governed depended almost entirely on his personality. Nicolas II became the Tsar
in 1894. The Tsar was the executive, the legislature and the Judiciary. This also means that
constitutionalism was a hereby for only God could limit the power of the Tsar.
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic the learner should be able to:
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Explain why the Tsarist regime Collapsed in 1917
Explain why and how the Bolsheviks rose to power
Explain how the Bolsheviks consolidated power under Lenin
Explain how Stalin came to power
Discuss how the Comintern aspired to leadership of a World Revolution
Explain how Stalin consolidated power up to 1953
Topic: 7
1.0 Causes of 1905 Revolution
1. Autocratic Rule of The Tsar
An autocratic government of the Tsars ruled Russia. All the powers rested in the Tsar; he was the
head of the administration, advised by ministers of state. There was no assembly representing the
people of Russia. The army and the police were to foster his position. The leaders of opposition
parties and trade unions were exiled, imprisoned or driven underground; therefore, the autocratic
rule of the Tsar provided fertile ground for the discontent masses to rise.
2. Agriculture and Growth Discontent
Three-quarters of the Russian population were poor peasants, farmers who lived in villages and
made a living from agriculture. Nevertheless, they experienced an acute shortage of land about
one third of the peasants were landless. While the shortage of land was an important agrarian,
another was low productivity of the land. Peasants owned small farms, used primitive methods
and no income to improve their farms. Agriculture became stagnant. As a result, a series of famines
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occurred during the 1890s and 1900 and peasants unrest erupted throughout Russia demanding the
re-distribution of land and lowering of taxes.
The opposition parties especially social Revolutionary Party attempted to use this rural discontent
to bring about change and improvement in Russia with its slogan "All land to the peasants?
3. Industries and the Growth of Discontent
Russia experienced industrialisation as other European countries and industries were only set up
in towns thus depriving the rural communities of jobs and many were attracted to towns. Therefore,
Russia experienced the evil of the industrial revolution such as child labour, unhealthy living and
working conditions, long working hours, meagre paying and strict factory discipline. These
conditions led to the growth of discontent among workers and the government prohibited the trade
unions. Workers discontent crystalised in a series of strikes as Tsar turned a blind eye to their
problems.
The Social Democratic Party (1898) influenced by the writings of Karl Marx and Frederick Angel
saw urban workers rather than the peasants as the main agent of change in Russia.
4. The Nationalities Question and Growth of Discontent
The Russian Empire was vast in size and included a variety of people of different languages,
religion and culture. Alexander’s answer to the threat of Nationalism was the policy known as
RUSSIFICATION (making people become Russians). The policy had two cornerstones i.e., the
people of the empire to be Russified with regard to language, religion and culture.
This meant that religion, culture and language were to be ignored, suppressed and replaced with
Russian culture. The policy of Russification made the various groups unhappy under Tsarist rule
many experienced persecution and suppression. The nationality problem contributed to unrest in
Russia.
5. The Middle Class and Growth of Discontent
The growing discontent in Russia was not confined to the working classes and the peasantry but
the middle class also demanded equality before the law, a representative assembly, universal
suffrage and freedom of press. This led to the formation of the constitutional Democratic Party
(KADETS). This party mainly consisted of Liberals who derived their inspiration from Western
European political ideas of Liberation and democracy. These political parties (SRP, SDP,
KADETS) experienced harassment, persecution and suppression at the hand of the Tsarist
government. They survived as underground organizations.
6. The Russio-Japanese War
The first war in which Russia involved herself in was the Russio-Japanese 1904-1905. Russia's
attempt to expand in Far Eastern Asia had brought her into conflict with Japan. The war lasted for
a year and Russia was defeated on land and at sea which forced Russia to surrender Port Arthur.
The defeat in the Far East revealed the incompetence and weakness of the government, disrupted
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the economy, stimulated popular discontent and survived all groups in opposition to the Tsarist
government.
7. Bloody Sunday
Agitation in towns and countryside reached a peak on Sunday 9th January 1905. On this day, about
150.000 workers and their families marched under the leadership of Father Gapon to the Winter
Palace to present a petition to the Tsar. When the crowd reached the Winter Palace, the authority
refused to meet the petitioners and ordered them to disperse. The crowd refused and the troops
opened fire and that led to a spark in 1900 revolution.
1.1 1905 Revolution
Bloody Sunday was the spark that set alight the flame of revolution. A wave of strike broke out in
many of the industrial towns in sympathy for those who had lost their lives. By the end of January
some half million workers were on strike. The disorders spread to the countryside as peasants
began to burn houses of landlords and killing landowners, so communication stopped as railways
and telegraphic workers went on strike.
1.2 Results of the 1905 Revolution
Faced by growing unrest, Tsar Nicolas II up with the October Manifesto of 1905 which promised
freedom of speech and religion as well as the establishment OF DUMA (National Assembly). The
first DUMA was established in 1905 and had no power over foreign policy and could not question
the government budget. The OUMA had an appearance of Liberalism and democracy but in fact,
it was under the direct control of the Tsar as he was able to dismiss it when he liked. Therefore, its
existence depended on the whims and wills of the Tsar. The first two Dumas attempted to go
against the Tsar's wishes but were short-lived.
The next two Dumas 1907-12 and 1912-17 were under the direct control of the Tsar but achieved
less. These dissatisfied people as they wanted Duma that had real power /say in running the affairs
of the country.
Another result of the 1905 revolution was the final emancipation of the peasants in the countryside.
The payments for the land, which they occupied, was abolished and the peasants were allowed to
buy land. However, the majority of the peasants remained without land and therefore their appetite
for land remained unsatisfied. In actual fact, the overwhelming of Russian people were still
dissatisfied with Nicolas government.
1.3 Revolution of 1917
Russia witnessed two revolutions in 1917, the first one in February/March. The February /March
revolution led to the rise of the moderate.
1.4 Causes of Feb/March Revolution
The causes of February /March revolution can be divided into long terms and immediate terms.
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(a) Long Term Causes
The autocratic rule of the Tsar, shortage of land for peasants, poor working conditions, lack of
liberal, the defeat in Russia - Japanese war and bloody Sunday.
(b) Immediate Causes
Russia's participation in WW1 could be regarded as an immediate cause of February /March
Revolution, Russia entered the war in 1914 on the side of the allied powers, and she did so very
much ill-prepared resulting in defeat by Germany and Austria-Hungary. The war aggravated
within the army and at home. At the battlefront the army had poor equipment, poor medical supply,
inadequate food, breakdown of transport, primitive methods of fighting, incompetent leadership
and all these demoralised the Russian army.
In 1916-17 the Tsar himself took command of the army while at home Tsarina allowed the
government to be dominated by Rasputin. Rasputin encouraged Russia to go on fighting promising
them victory at the end, soldiers lost hope in the Tsar's government and looked for an alternative
government that would pull them out of the war. The opportunity for the soldiers to turn against
the Tsar came in February 1917, when soldiers supported factory workers who revolted against
the Tsar.
During the war, the peasants were expected to feed the soldiers despite the fact they were unable
to feed their own families. Their livestock, horses were taken by force to feed and transport
soldiers. Moreover, their sons were dragged to the battlefront without proper training and died in
large numbers. These angered the peasants who then looked forward to an alternative government.
The workers also felt the condition of the war, they had to work for long hours in order to meet
the demands of the war but there was no proportional wage increase. Because the peasants had
fled to towns there was shortage of food, and this resulted in inflation. Workers also lost faith in
the leadership of the Tsar Nicolas I. All these culminated in the 1917 Revolution.
1.5 February /March Revolution
The February/March revolution began with food not enough or hunger demonstrations led by St.
Petersburg workers. The workers were complaining about the sharp increase in food prices esp.
bread prices and full low wages, labour repression and the effects of the war. The strikers were
joined by the rest of the people who immediately called for the overthrow of the Tsarist
government. The Tsar ordered the army to shoot at the rioters but they refused and instead joined
them. The refusal of the soldiers to fire indicated that Tsar Nicholas had become unpopular with
the army. The rioters captured public buildings, prisoners released, police stations captured etc.
On the 15th of March Tsar Nicholas resigned and that marked the collapse of the Tsar government.
The revolution also resulted in the formation of Soviet councils.
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1.6 Provisional Government
Immediately after the overthrow of the Tsar, the Duma set up a liberal Democratic provisional
government under PM Lvov and later on under Alexander Kerensky in July 1917. The provisional
government formed a democratic society based on the principles of social justice. The provisional
government issued a decree granting freedom of speech and association, press thus legalizing
strike action. All political and religious prisoners were released hence the return of Lenin, Leon
Trotsky, Joseph Stalin, Kamenev etc. from exile.
1.7 Why the Provisional Government Fell from Power
The October/November Revolution came about as a result of blunders/mistakes committed by the
provisional government under Kerensky. The most serious blunder was that it took the unpopular
decision to continue the war with the hope that a victory would restore Russian pride.
The June offensive, which was Kerensky’s idea, was a disastrous failure causing a complete
collapse of the army morale and discipline.
The soldiers who had hoped to be withdrawn from the war lost hope in the provisional government.
The war became very unpopular as it became to be regarded as the mere slaughter of Russian
troops
The provisional government also postponed the settlement of the land problem. The peasants who
had supported the March Revolution with the hope that after the overthrow of the Tsar, the land
would be given to them became frustrated and disillusioned. The conditions of workers also
remained unchanged. There was also hunger in towns. The problem of shortage of food was
aggravated by the return of refugees to Russia. The March Revolution brought little relief to both
peasants and workers hence their discontent continued.
Furthermore, a decree by the Provisional government, to give full political freedom to the people
and released all political prisoners did more harm than good to the government of the day. Lenin,
Stalin and Trotsky and other Bolsheviks were allowed to enter Russia from exile.
These leaders were able to exert much opposition against the government through their paper,
Prava. These were able leaders whose faith in communist ideas had stood the test of
time/imprisonment. Lenin came up with a well-timed slogan to win the support of the majority of
Russians. Lenin came up with the "April thesis" which contained the aims of the Bolsheviks. The
Bolsheviks slogan was, "land, Peace, Bread and all powers to the Soviet". They received support
from workers and the peasants as the Bolsheviks ideas represented the interest of the people.
Kerensky made a blunder of delaying the meeting of the Constituent Assembly, which he had
promised, and this lost him support from all sides.
2.0 The Bolsheviks Gained Power Through Oct/Nov Revolution
The contrast between the February/March Revolution and the October Revolution was not a
spontaneous uprising but a deliberately planned and organised seizure of power. The architect of
this enterprise was Lenin and Trotsky.
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By Sept 1917 the Bolsheviks had a clear majority in the Petrograd Soviet. By, Oct 1917 the Red
guards (Bolsheviks military wing) under Trotsky felt strong enough to challenge the government
forces.
In the early hours of the 25th the soldiers and the Red guards occupied the central telegraph, postoffices, telephone exchange, railway station, state "Banks, bridges across Neva river and other
strategic points. By 27th October, the Winter Palace was also seized, and provisional ministers
were imprisoned. This marked the overthrow of the provisional government and the taking over
of the communists.
2.1 Consolidation of the Bolsheviks rule of 1917
When the Bolsheviks took power, they were in the minority and had a small membership. The
party managed to establish and consolidate its power over Russia. The advantage the Bolsheviks
party had was that its members were dedicated and disciplined, its leadership had clear visions,
aims and direction especially Lenin and Trotsky.
All forms of opposition were wiped out within and outside the party by using a newly formed
secret policy called the Cheka and the Red Army. By 1921 even the constituent assembly was
even dispersed, opposition parties banned, press censored therefore the communist party remained
unchallenged in Russia.
The Bolsheviks were quick to act on those fundamental issues that were previously ignored by the
provisional government. The Bolsheviks redistributed and nationalised it hence, ending the
landlord era. They also signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in March 1918, though
Russia lost a number of territories to Germany, peace was achieved at last.
Bolsheviks party also re-organized industries, the workers in the cities were given control of all
industrial, commercial and banking enterprises, which employed more than five people.
The Bolsheviks also used the civil war to overthrow those who attempted to sabotage the
communist government immediately after the signing of Brest-Litovsk.
2.2 War Communism 1917-21
In order to win the civil war Lenin developed a system of government known as war communism.
Through war communism, the Bolsheviks took control of the economy. The government took over
all workshops and factories, which employed more than ten workers and controlled the types of
goods the factories made. They banned all private trade, and the farms were collectivized i.e.,
peasants’ farms were brought under state control. They introduced rationing and troops from the
Red army were sent to the countryside to confiscate food from the peasants in order to feed those
in the city. The currency system broke down and simple barter took its place.
These aroused discontent and disillusionment among peasants and workers as a result agriculture
and industrial production declined. By 1921, the situation was chaotic as there was food shortage
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in towns and cities. Peasants refused to grow food because soldiers confiscated it, as a result there
was famine and disease, strikes and unrest in the countryside spread to towns and cities. This
development forced Lenin to realize that the policy of war communism was not practical and
popular.
2.3 The New Economic Policy
In 1921, Lenin introduced the new economic policy (N.E.P). The new economic policy was
designed to save the Bolshevik government. The NEP represented a compromise with capitalism.
Lenin said NEP was a step backwards in order to achieve a leap forward in future. It aimed to
improve production agriculture and industry and to encourage trade. The state was to control only
major industries and transport systems. Businesspeople were encouraged to start up shops and
small industries, which were allowed to make profit. Workers were offered food and money as an
incentive (reward). The peasants were allowed to sell surplus food for profit. The NEP encouraged
the development of trade between towns and the countryside, private trade was encouraged, a state
bank reformed the currency, and the internal economy was economy was restored to a cash basis.
3.0 Stalin in Power
After the death of Lenin there was a power struggle in the Soviet Union between Trotsky and
Stalin for leadership. The two clashed over several issues. Trotsky believed in the necessity of
world revolution while Stalin believed in making Communism succeed in Russia itself. His policy
of socialism in one country received much more support than Trotsky’s idea of world- wide
revolution which resulted in him being expelled together with his friends from the party or
Politburo and exiled from Russia. Stalin had an advantage as he already occupied the position of
the General Secretary of the party and had friends in influential positions.
3.1 How Stalin consolidated himself in Power
Stalin and his Communist leaders believed that Russian industry and agriculture could be
developed to a peak of efficiency only by a planned economy which would be state controlled. A
State Planning Commission was introduced as far back as 1921. This was known as Gosplan. This
commission was instructed in 1927 to produce a five-year plan for the overall development of the
Soviet economy.
(a) Agriculture: Collective farms
Stalin introduced a complete revolution in agriculture for no plan of intensive industrialisation
could succeed without agriculture. In order to feed the growing urban population and industrial
workers, Stalin had to improve agricultural methods. The exports of agricultural produce had to
be increased in order to provide the capital for buying the machinery needed in the new factories.
But the increase in agricultural production was impossible as long as 25 million peasants farmed
their smallholdings for subsistence level. Stalin was also determined to get rid of the Soviet Union
of the Kulaks, who he thought were agricultural capitalists and were an embarrassment to a
communist government. Stalin decided that the kulaks had to be ruthlessly eliminated and a
process of collectivisation was introduced. He believed this would serve dual purpose of creating
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larger farms capable of producing surpluses for the market and releasing manpower for the
factories.
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The large collective farms were called ‘kolkhozes’
Peasants were allowed to keep small plots around their cottages
The poorer peasants were encouraged to enter the collective farms by promises of financial
and technical aid in the form of tractors and modern agricultural machinery.
Stalin used force against kulaks who refused to join the collective farms. The police and
the Red Army were sent to search the homesteads and seize produce. Kulaks were arrested
and shot or deported to labour camps in Siberia.
The kulaks retaliated by slaughtering stock, burning crops and breaking their machinery.
So, food production fell and between 1932 and 1933 there was terrible famine in which up
to 10 million peasants died.
Despite the opposition and problems experienced, collectivisation eventually worked.
By 1937 90 per cent of Soviet farms had been collectivised.
From 1933 agricultural production began to rise and by 1937 was significantly higher than
it had been in 1928.
(b) Industrialisation
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Stalin knew that to compete with the other major powers the Soviet Union had to bring its
industries up to their level.
The Five-Year Plan for industrialization of Russia went into operation on 1 October 1928
on a vast scale with the object of transforming Russia from backward agricultural into an
advanced industrial country.
The Five-Year Plans were very successful and by the outbreak of the Second World War,
the Soviet Union was the second largest industrial power in the world.
Huge steel and iron plants were built. and thousands of kilometer roads and railways were
constructed to facilitate the transportation of goods.
Greater electrical power was provided as well as the construction of canals and
manufacturing of motor vehicles.
The massive increase in industrial output was achieved at the cost of personal freedom and
sometimes lives. There was a lot of pressure on workers as a new formula was applied:
‘From each according to his ability, to each according to his production’ in other words
wages would be according to a man’s output.
Workers were encouraged to meet unrealistically high targets and the Stakhanovites were
held up as examples. When targets were not met managers could be imprisoned.
Those who fell foul of the system were sent to labour camps, which provided workers for
schemes such as road or canal building.
The emphasis on industrial production meant that there was little room for producing
consumer goods to improve the lives of citizens.
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(c) Stalin and the purging of the USSR
The purges in Russia during the late 1930s were further proof that Russia society was becoming
more totalitarian. This is shown by the tendency to regard the nation’s leader as beyond criticism.
Stalin was worshipped as the great leader who was demanding ever-greater sacrifices from the
people.
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Those who opposed his industrial or agricultural policies were arrested and sent to labour
camps
Those who dared to oppose his regime in general were also sent to the camps.
Most of Stalin’s victims were ‘enemies of the state’, which could be anyone. An estimated
40 million were arrested between 1936 and 1953, with 24 million of them being executed
in labour camps.
Leading communists were purged, the most famous being Kamenev and Zinoviev. Many
of them confessed in ‘show trials’ to be working for Trotsky.
By 1938, 25 000 army officers had been shot, including the army’s commander-in-chief
Millions of ordinary citizens were arrested; denouncing others became a way of showing
loyalty to Stalin.
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Self-assessment Exercise 7
1. (a) Describe the struggle for power between Stalin and Trotsky after Lenin’s death. [8 marks]
(b) Explain how Stalin consolidated his power up to 1953.
2. (a) Outline the events which led to the coming of the Bolsheviks to power in 1917.
[12 marks]
[8 marks]
(b) Explain how Stalin came to power in the Soviet Union.
[12 marks]
3. (a) Outline the causes of the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917.
[8 marks]
(b) Explain the steps taken by Stalin to improve the economy of Russia between 1924 and
1953.
[12 marks]
4. (a) Outline the factors which led to the collapse of the Tsarist Regime in Russia in 1917
[8 marks]
(b) Explain how the Bolsheviks consolidated their power in Russia between 1917 and 1924.
[12 marks]
5. (a) Outline the factors which led to the downfall of the Tsarist Regime in 1917.
[8 marks]
(b) Explain why the Provisional Government of Kerensky collapsed in 1917
[12 marks]
6. (a) Outline the features of Lenin’s New Economic Policy
(b) How successful were Stalin’s Five-Year Plans?
7. (a) Describe the conditions in Russia which led to the 1917 February Revolution .
[8 marks]
[12 marks]
[8 marks]
(b) Explain how the Bolsheviks under Lenin consolidated their power in Russia between 1917
and 1924.
[12 marks]
8.(a) Describe the main features of War Communism introduced by Lenin.
[8 marks]
(b) Explain why Stalin was able to come to power in Russia in 1924.
[12 marks]
9 (a) Describe the problems faced by Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks between October 1917
and January 1924 .
[8 marks]
(b) Explain why Joseph Stalin emerged successful in the struggle to succeed Vladimir Lenin.
[12 marks]
10 (a) Outline the factors that led to the collapse of the provisional Government in Russia in
1917.
[8 marks]
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(b) Explain how Stalin attempted to solve the political and social problems in Russia between
1924 and 1953.
[12 marks]
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Tips on Source Interpretation
Topics that are important in Paper 2 are those from which source based questions come from.
Question 1 in Paper two is a source based with five sources and is compulsory.
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It covers topics in Unit 7.1: The Twentieth Century World.
Causes of WW1
Inter war period 1919-1939
The United Nations plus Germany
1.0 Types of Sources
There are two types of sources:
(i)
(ii)
Pictorial
Textual
(a)
Textual Sources
These types of sources are a challenge as their understanding depends on language proficiency.
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These may be quotations from a newspaper, textbook, letters, diary, magazine or a speech
In this case, learners’ assertions should be supported by direct quotations from the given
source.
Learners are expected to make an evaluation of the assertion/statement made or of the
source.
Whether the source is reliable, convincing, or believable judging against the historical
events.
When comparing two sources, one should speak to both of them and show which one is
more reliable using their historical knowledge.
After arguments from both sides, they should draw logical conclusions.
An argument should be supported by a specific historical event.
(b) Pictorial Sources
These sources are in different forms e.g. cartoons, pictures, paintings, maps, photographs, posters
and so forth.
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1.1 Answering Source Based Question.
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Start by placing the source in its Historical context.
Use knowledge of past events to unpack the source, by asking questions such as what,
when, where, why it happened, who was involved?
Carefully study the details of the source and identify different items in the source as all
these may have a meaning.
Read and use captions as they may assist you to interpret the source. A caption is a title or
a brief explanation appended to an article, illustration, cartoon, picture or poster.
Look at the cartoon and focus on details such as dates, author or anything that reminds you
of a particular event or period in the history of a nation or the world.
Everything in a cartoon or a picture is communicating something and has an intended
meaning.
Observe the cartoon carefully! Are people in the cartoon happy, sad or angry? In other
words, can you describe the mood of the people in the cartoon? What is the cause or reason
of their mood?
Determine the motive of the cartoonist. What message did he/she want to convey? Can
you believe the claims he is making?
Identify the purpose of the publication
Identify the target group
Identify the purpose of the source
The perception of the writer
Is the source reliable? You are now evaluating the source as you compare what is in the
cartoon against what you know about the specific historical events.
The last question is summative in nature. It requires you to reach an overall conclusion by
using all sources e.g., what can you learn from all these sources about problems facing
historians studying the cold war.
An attempt has been made to give examples of how to answer the pictorial questions below. As
you read the answer keep on referring to the source.
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Un Sources on the Causes of World War
Q1. What do these sources suggest about the causes of World War
1?
Source A
The atmosphere in Europe between 1900 and 1914, adapted from Modern World History, Ben Walsh
Source A explains some of the causes of World War One. It says that the First World War was
brought about by a combination of factors such as the alliance system, which divided Europe into
two hostile camps, and the Moroccan Crises, which brought the world to the brink of war. In the
source, the two factors are seen as dry wood that could catch fire anytime. According to the
source, the Moroccan crises and the alliance system set Europe ablaze (on fire).
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Source B
The Chain of Friendship
From Mastery Modern World History by Norman Lowe
By 1914 Europe was divided into conflicting and hostile camps. These camps were anxious to test
their weapons. On 28 June 1914 Gavrilo Princip member of the Black Hand movement, who
wanted Serbia to be free of Austria Hungary, assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife
and this was the spark that lit the bonfire. Source B shows how the system of alliance made a local
war into an international war. Austria blamed Serbia; Serbia was protected by Russia as indicated
by the statement “If you hit that little feller I’ll”. Austria on the other hand was supported by
Germany as shown by the statement “If you strike my friend I’ll” By September 1914 Britain,
France and Russia as members of the Triple Entente were at war with Germany and Austria
Hungary the members of Triple Alliance. When the war started it was fought along the lines of
separate alliances. It led to a chain reaction, which ended up involving the superpowers, or the
alliance system came into play culminating in the outbreak of the war.
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Source C
Source C explains the causes of the First World War. The source shows both long-term and short
causes. In the source, the Sarajevo crisis is shown as the ‘spark’ that lit the born fire. It was the
spark that created the war. Before Sarajevo, Europe had conflicts brought about by the alliance
system, colonialism, the naval race, and Alsace-Lorraine. But these conflicts did not immediately
start the war. Factors like alliance system, naval race, Pan-Slavism, Alsace-Lorraine, and so on are
shown as dry wood, which could not catch fire because match sticks at the bottom had gone out.
This means that the factors did not produce war immediately, though it was a potentially explosive
situation. However, the Sarajevo crisis simply set Europe on fire. The arms race and nationalism
are shown as winds that fanned the flames.
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Source D
Source E expresses Kaiser William’s political situation of making Germany a master of Europe.
The source shows the Kaiser’s thirst for power and influence as he literally stretches out his hand
to seize (snatch) Europe. This is a demonstration of the Kaiser’s hunger for power. He simply
wanted Germany to flex its muscles. At the same time, Source D is a revelation of the Kaiser’s
character. He is depicted as a tough-minded, robust, and aggressive statesman. These attributes are
‘written’ in his facial expression. This shows that he is committed to the cause of making Germany
a world power. It seems he will not yield (give up) until he realized his aim of dominating Europe.
True, he won’t be happy until Europe is under his control.
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Sources on Inter-War Treaties- The Versailles Treaty
Q2. What do these sources suggest about how Germany was treated
at the Versailles Treaty?
Source A
Caption Reads: GIVING HIM ROPE? GERMAN CRIMINAL (to Allied Police), Ò HERE, I SAY STOP! YOUÕRE HURTING ME! [Aside]. IF I ONLY WHINE
ENOUGH I MAY BE ABLE TO WRIGGLE OUT OF THIS YET.Ó From Modern world History by Ben Walsh
Source A sheds some light on the kind of punishment meted out against Germany at the end of
World War One. In the source, the Allied powers are likened to policemen whereas Germany is
likened to a criminal. The Allied powers (policemen) are mistreating, and manhandling Germany
(the criminal) as indicated by the two policemen trying a helpless criminal’s hands to the back.
Germany, the criminal, is pleading for mercy but the Allied powers do not care. They only wanted
to stay in a state of perpetual weakness as shown by the words ‘’give him rope’’ probably to tie
Germany to a position never to recover from. The source simply refers to the harshness of the
Peace terms that Germany signed after World War One. Germany was forced to sign the
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unfavourable terms of Versailles. The terms created a lot of hardships for Germany. Germany was
treated like a criminal and therefore punished severely
Source B
From: Modern world History by Ben Walsh
The source portrays the Allied powers as angels with the intent of containing German aggression
as shown by the word ‘militarism’ being covered with a lead. The black eagle represents Germany,
probably to suggest the viciousness of German aggression hence the justification to contain it. The
artist seems to suggest that that’s how the Allied powers saw themselves, angels of mercy for a
Europe under an evil spell. The Allied powers could ease their conscience because as long
Germany poses a threat to world peace then the terms of the Treaty of Versailles remained good
and reasonable.
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Source C
The Finishing Touch
From: Modern world History by Ben Walsh
Source C depicts the cruelty and severity of the Versailles treaty. The source tells us that the Allied
powers were hell-bent on destroying Germany. The Allied powers, as shown in the source pushed
Germany to the edge. In the source, Germany appeared like a man on death row, awaiting death.
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This simply means that the Versailles treaty was going to completely and mercilessly destroy the
Germans.
Source D
From International Relations by Tony Rea & John Wright
This source D depicts Germans struggling with an extremely heavy burden. So heavy is the burden
that the horse’s front limbs cannot even touch the ground, further making it impossible for the
horse (Germany) to move. As if that was not enough, two cruel-looking men are about to weep the
overburdened horse. The artist seems to be suggesting that the Versailles treaty was too harsh. This
may also mean that some leaders such as Lloyd George were sympathetic to the Germans. The
words ‘perhaps it would gee-up better if we let it touch earth’ suggest the idea of making Germany
pay some reparation was in itself acceptable, but the reparations stood at an extremely unaffordable
level. In other words, this source seems to be pointing at the folly of the Allied powers in expecting
Germany to pay so heavy a fine.
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Source E
From Modern World History by Ben Walsh
The Source E shows a skinny and bony child held by an equally malnourished mother, the child
was about to die due to poverty and starvation. The mother cannot support the child. The mother
represents Germany, while the child represents the German people in general. The source says that
Germany suffered from hunger and starvation (economic problems) due to the payment of huge
reparations. The source suggests that the Versailles treaty had destroyed the German economy. As
a result of the Versailles treaty, Germany could not afford basic needs. The source depicts the
cruelty and harshness of the Versailles treaty. The Germans could only lead better lives after the
unreasonable reparations bill has been paid as shown by the mother saying, ‘’when we have paid
one hundred billion marks then I can give you something to eat’’.
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Sources on the League of Nations
Q3. What do these sources suggest about the ability of the League of
Nations to Keep Peace?
Source A
From International Relations by Tony Rea & John Wright
The Source suggests that the League of Nations was a weak and ineffective organisation. The
League is likened to a helpless rabbit in the face of an overpowering python. It shows that the
League could not handle world problems. The python represents the magnitude of world
challenges that the League had to deal with. The League is shown as a small organisation (rabbit)
that was not strong enough to solve daunting world problems. The snake probably represents bully
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nations such as Germany, Italy, and Japan, which made the work of the League difficult by willful
defiance of the League’s authority.
Source B
THE GAP IN THE BRIDGE
From International Relations by Tony Rea & John Wright
The source suggests the League of Nations was a weak and infective organisation. The gap in the
bridge is a sign of weakness. The League was not strong it had limitations. The source shows the
absence of the United States of America. In the source, America is the missing ‘keystone’ or ‘link’.
The absence of the USA crippled the League. The League could not function without America.
The man in the source represents America. He is relaxed, smoking a cigar, unconcerned by world
affairs. This shows that America did not care at all about issues affecting the world. America chose
her policy of Isolation. The source simply suggests that the League of Nations was weak because
some nations did not join it.
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Source C
From International Relations by Tony Rea & John Wright
Source C talks about the failure of the disarmament program. That is the exercise of reducing
weapons of war. In 1919 countries set themselves the task of limiting (reducing) their arms; but
10 years later (1929), there were no changes. Countries still owned large navies and armies. The
source shows that European countries were not serious about disarmament. An angel riding a
donkey, carrying a small branch for weep instead of a proper stick, shows this. The angel probably
shows the weakness world of a commitment then to disarmament while the donkey shows that the
program never took off the ground.
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Source D
From International Relations by Tony Rea & John Wright
Source D depicts the League of Nations as a weak organization, which is also nearly irrelevant.
The man representing the League holding his chin and reading a book instead of confronting an
aggressor wielding a dangerous weapon sword shows this. The man reading the book depicts the
ineffectiveness or indifference and irrelevance of the League in the 1920s. The book probably
mock Wilson’s bookish or idealist notions of preventing future wars in the face of harsh realities.
The words ‘peace hopes’ at the edge of the sword and ‘peace plans’ at the base of the sword suggest
that the methods of keeping the peace as espoused by the League, would in fact bring about another
equally or more devastating war in the near future. The sharp edge of the sword held very close to
a helpless man indicates that another war is imminent indeed.
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Sources on the United Nations
Q4. What do these sources suggest about the United Nations in its
mission of keeping world peace?
Source A
Source A shows members’ states of the United Nations who were expected to work together to
keep world peace. However, there was no cooperation as shown by different countries playing
different sports codes, which made it very difficult for them to be united. This made it almost
impossible for them to make effective decisions or take prompt action to keep world peace.
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Source B
Source B contrasts the United Nations with the League of Nations. The UN is depicted as an active,
vibrant, and robust pair whereas the League is shown as a weak and dying human due to lack of
exercise. The energetic duo in the source, with one of them holding a gun and another actively
offering support suggests that the UN enjoyed unity and the blessing of an army to back up its
decisions; while the League was riddled with disunited and had no army. The League of Nations
‘died of lack of exercise’ appears timely as the League eventually died out and its positions were
taken over by the UN.
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