Writing
Handbook
Modes of Writing
Narration
When writers tell a story, they use narration. There are many kinds of
narration. Most include characters, a setting, and a sequence of events. Here
are some types of narration.
A short story is a short, creative narrative. Most short stories have one or
more characters, a setting, and a plot. A few types of short stories are realistic
stories, fantasy stories, science-fiction stories, and adventure stories.
Autobiographical writing is a factual story of a writer’s own life, told by the
writer, usually in the first-person point of view. An autobiography may tell
about the person’s whole life or only a part of it.
Biographical writing is a factual story of a person’s life told by another
person. Most biographies are written about famous or admirable people.
Description
Description, or descriptive writing, is writing that gives the reader a mental
picture of whatever is being described. To do this, writers choose their words
carefully. They use figurative language and include vivid sensory details.
Persuasion
Writers use persuasion to try to persuade people to think or act in a certain
way. Forms of persuasive writing include advertisements, essays, letters,
editorials, speeches, and public-service announcements.
Exposition
Exposition, or expository writing, is writing that gives information or explains
something. The information that writers include in expository writing is
factual. Here are some types of expository writing.
A compare-and-contrast essay analyzes the similarities and differences
between or among things.
A cause-and-effect essay explains causes or effects of an event. For example,
a writer might examine several causes of a single effect or several effects of a
single cause.
Writers use a problem-and-solution essay to describe a problem and offer
one or more solutions to it.
1
Writing
Handbook
A how-to essay explains how to do or make something. The process is broken
down into steps, which are explained in order.
A summary is a brief statement that gives the main ideas of an event or a
piece of writing. One way to write a summary is to read a text and then
reread each paragraph or section. Next, put the text aside and write the main
ideas in your own words in a sentence or two.
Research Writing
Writers often use research to gather information about topics, including
people, places, and things. Good research writing does not simply repeat
information. It guides the readers through a topic, showing them why each
fact matters and creating a complete picture of the topic. Here are some types
of research writing.
Research report A research report presents information gathered from
reference books, interviews, or other sources.
Biographical report A biographical report includes dates, details, and main
events in a person’s life. It can also include information about the time in
which the person lived.
Multimedia report A multimedia report presents information through a
variety of media, including text, slides, photographs, prerecorded music and
sound effects, and digital imaging.
Responses to Literature
A literary essay is one type of response to literature. In a literary essay, a
writer discusses and interprets what is important in a book, short story, essay,
article, or poem.
Literary criticism is another type of response to literature. Literary criticism
is the result of a careful examination of one or more literary works. The writer
makes a judgment by looking carefully and critically at various important
elements in the work.
A book critique gives readers a summary of a book, encouraging the reader
either to read it or to avoid reading it. A movie critique gives readers a
summary of a movie, tells if the writer enjoyed the movie, and then explains
the reasons why or why not.
A comparison of works compares the features of two or more works.
2
Creative Writing
Creative writing blends imagination, ideas, and emotions, and allows the
writer to present a unique view of the world. Poems, plays, short stories,
dramas, and even some cartoons are examples of creative writing.
Practical and Technical Documents
Practical writing is fact-based writing that people do in the workplace or in
their day-to-day lives. A business letter, memo, school form, job application,
and a letter of inquiry are a few examples of practical writing.
Technical documents are fact-based documents that identify a sequence of
activities needed to design a system, operate machinery, follow a procedure,
or explain the rules of an organization. You read technical writing every time
you read a manual or a set of instructions.
In the following descriptions, you’ll find tips for tackling several types of
practical and technical writing.
Business letters are formal letters that follow one of several specific formats.
News releases, also called press releases, announce factual information
about upcoming events. A writer might send a news release to a local
newspaper, local radio station, TV station, or other media that will publicize
the information.
Guidelines give information about how people should act or how to do
something.
Process explanations are step-by-step explanations of how to do something.
The explanation should be clear and specific and can include diagrams or
other illustrations.
3
Writing
Handbook
The Writing Process
The writing process is a series of steps that can help you write effectively.
Step 1: Prewrite
During prewriting, you collect topic ideas, choose a topic, plan your writing,
and gather information.
A good way to get ideas for a topic is to brainstorm. Brainstorming means
writing a list of all the topic ideas you can think of.
Look at your list of topic ideas. Choose the one that is the most interesting to
you. This is your topic, the subject you will write about.
Plan your writing by following these steps:
• First, decide on the type of writing that works best with your topic. For
example, you may want to write a description, a story, or an essay.
• The type of writing is called the form of writing.
• Then think about your audience. Identifying your audience will help you
decide whether to write formally or informally.
• Finally, decide what your reason for writing is. This is your purpose. Is
your purpose to inform your audience? To entertain them?
How you gather information depends on what you are writing. For example,
for a report, you need to do research. For a description, you might list your
ideas in a graphic organizer. A student named Becca listed her ideas for a
description of her week at art camp in the graphic organizer below.
Main Idea:
My summer at
art camp.
Detail:
Why I went
4
Detail:
What I did
Detail:
What I learned
Step 2: Draft
In this step, you start writing. Don’t worry too much about spelling and
punctuation. Just put your ideas into sentences.
Here is the first paragraph that Becca wrote for her first draft.
I saw an art contest advertised in the newspaper last spring. I
entered my best drawing. I have always loved art. The prize was a
week at an art camp in June with 9 other kids. I was very happy
when I won.
Step 3: Revise
Now it’s time to revise, or make changes. Ask yourself these questions:
• Are my ideas presented in the order that makes the most sense?
• Does my draft have a beginning, a middle, and an end?
• Does each paragraph have a main idea and supporting details?
If you answered no to any of these questions, you need to revise. Revising can
mean changing the order of paragraphs or sentences. It can mean changing
general words for specific words. It can mean correcting errors.
Once you decide what to change, you can mark the corrections on your draft
using editing marks. Here’s how Becca marked up her first paragraph.
When
I saw an art contest advertised in the newspaper last spring. I
,
entered my best drawing. I have always loved art. The prize was a
nine
excited
week at an art camp in June with 9 other kids. I was very happy
when I won.
5
Writing
Handbook
Step 4: Edit and Proofread
In this step, you make a second draft that includes the changes you marked
on your first draft. You can also add details you may have thought of since
writing your first draft. Now you’re ready to proofread, or check your work
for errors and make final corrections.
Here’s Becca’s first draft after she finished proofreading.
My Week at Art Camp
I have always loved art. When I saw an art contest advertised in
the newspaper last spring, I entered my best drawing. The prize was
a week at an art camp in June with nine other students. I was very
excited when I won.
The camp was located at the Everson museum of art. On the first
day, we looked at paintings by different artists. My favorite was by
a painter named Monet. He painted colorful land scapes of boats and
gardens. On the second day, we began our own paintings. I choose to
paint a picture of the duck pond on the campus. I worked hard on my
painting because we were going to have an art show of all our work at
the end of the week.
I learned alot about painting at camp. I especially liked learning
to use watercolors. For example I found out that you can make
,
interesting designs by sprinkling salt on a wet watercolor painting.
I had a great time at art camp. The show at the end of the week
was a big success, and I made some new friends. I hope to go again
next year.
6
Step 5: Publish
Prepare a final copy of your writing to publish, or share with your audience.
Here are some publishing tips.
• Photocopy and hand out your work to your classmates.
• Attach it to an e-mail and send it to friends.
• Send it to a school newspaper or magazine for possible publication.
Here is the final version of Becca’s paper.
My Week at Art Camp
I have always loved art. When I saw an art contest advertised in
the newspaper last spring, I entered my best drawing. The prize was
a week at an art camp in June with nine other students. I was very
excited when I won.
The camp was located at the Everson Museum of Art. On the first
day, we looked at paintings by different artists. My favorite was by
a painter named Monet. He painted colorful landscapes of boats and
gardens. On the second day, we began our own paintings. I chose to
paint a picture of the duck pond on the campus. I worked hard on my
painting because we were going to have an art show of all our work at
the end of the week.
I learned a lot about painting at camp. I especially liked learning
to use watercolors. For example, I found out that you can make
interesting designs by sprinkling salt on a wet watercolor painting.
I had a great time at art camp. The show at the end of the week
was a big success, and I made some new friends. I hope to go again
next year.
Once you have shared your work with others, you may want to keep it in a
portfolio, a folder or envelope with your other writing. Each time you write
something, add it to your portfolio. Compare recent work with earlier work.
See how your writing is improving.
7
Writing
Handbook
Rubrics for Writing
What Is a Rubric?
A rubric is a tool, often in the form of a chart or a grid, that helps you assess
your work. Rubrics are helpful for writing and speaking assignments.
To help you or others assess your work, a rubric offers several specific criteria
to be applied to your work. Then the rubric helps you indicate your range of
success or failure according to those specific criteria. Rubrics are often used to
evaluate writing for standardized tests.
Using a rubric will save you time, focus your learning, and improve your work.
When you know the rubric beforehand, you can keep the specific criteria for
the writing in your mind as you write. As you evaluate the essay before giving
it to your teacher, you can focus on the specific criteria that your teacher
wants you to master—or on areas that you know present challenges for you.
Instead of searching through your work randomly for any way to improve or
correct it, you will have a clear and helpful focus.
How Are Rubrics Structured?
Rubrics can be structured in several different ways:
1. Your teacher may assign a rubric for a specific assignment.
2. Your teacher may direct you to a rubric in your textbook.
3. Your teacher and your class may structure a rubric for a particular
assignment together.
4. You and your classmates may structure a rubric together.
5. You can create your own rubric with your own specific criteria.
How Will a Rubric Help Me?
A rubric will help you assess your work on a scale. Scales vary from rubric to
rubric but usually range from 6 to 1, 5 to 1, or 4 to 1, with 6, 5, or 4 being
the highest score and 1 being the lowest. If someone else is using the rubric
to assess your work, the rubric will give your evaluator a clear range within
which to place your work. If you are using the rubric yourself, it will help you
improve your work.
What Are the Types of Rubrics?
A holistic rubric has general criteria that can apply to a variety of
assignments. An analytic rubric is specific to a particular assignment. The
criteria for evaluation address the specific issues important in that assignment.
The following pages show examples of both types of rubrics.
8
Holistic Rubrics
Holistic rubrics such as this one are sometimes used to assess writing
assignments on standardized tests. Notice that the criteria for evaluation are
focus, organization, support, and use of conventions.
Points
6 Points
5 Points
4 Points
3 Points
2 Points
1 Point
Unscorable
Criteria
• The writing is focused and shows fresh insight into the writing task.
• The writing is marked by a sense of completeness and coherence and is
organized with a logical progression of ideas.
• A main idea is fully developed, and support is specific and substantial.
• A mature command of the language is evident.
• Sentence structure is varied, and writing is free of fragments.
• Virtually no errors in writing conventions appear.
• The writing is focused on the task.
• The writing is organized and has a logical progression of ideas, though there may
be occasional lapses.
• A main idea is well developed and supported with relevant detail.
• Sentence structure is varied, and the writing is free of fragments.
• Writing conventions are followed correctly.
• The writing is focused on the task, but unrelated material may intrude.
• Clear organizational pattern is present, though lapses occur.
• A main idea is adequately supported, but development may be uneven.
• Sentence structure is generally fragment free but shows little variation.
• Writing conventions are generally followed correctly.
• Writing is focused on the task, but unrelated material intrudes.
• Organization is evident, but writing may lack a logical progression of ideas.
• Support for the main idea is present but is sometimes illogical.
• Sentence structure is free of fragments, but there is almost no variation.
• The work demonstrates a knowledge of conventions, with misspellings.
• The writing is related to the task but generally lacks focus.
• There is little evidence of an organizational pattern.
• Support for the main idea is generally inadequate, illogical, or absent.
• Sentence structure is unvaried, and serious errors may occur.
• Errors in writing conventions and spellings are frequent.
• The writing may have little connection to the task.
• There has been little attempt at organization or development.
• The paper seems fragmented, with no clear main idea.
• Sentence structure is unvaried, and serious errors appear.
• Poor diction and poor command of the language obscure meaning.
• Errors in writing conventions and spelling are frequent.
• The response is unrelated to the task or is simply a rewording of the prompt.
• The response has been copied from a published work.
• The student did not write a response.
• The response is illegible.
• The words in the response are arranged with no meaning.
• There is an insufficient amount of writing to score.
9
Writing
Handbook
Analytic Rubrics
This analytic rubric is an example of a rubric to assess a persuasive essay.
It will help you assess presentation, position, evidence, and arguments.
Presentation
Position
Evidence
Arguments
All evidence is
logically organized,
well presented, and
supports the position.
All reader
concerns and
counterarguments
are effectively
addressed.
5 Points
Most of essay
addresses an issue
that has more than
one side.
Essay clearly states a Most evidence is
position on the issue. logically organized,
well presented, and
supports the position.
Most reader
concerns and
counterarguments
are effectively
addressed.
4 Points
Essay adequately
addresses issue that
has more than one
side.
Essay adequately
states a position on
the issue.
Many parts of
evidence support
the position; some
evidence is out of
order.
Many reader
concerns and
counterarguments
are adequately
addressed.
3 Points
Essay addresses
issue with two sides
but does not present
second side clearly.
Essay states a
position on the issue,
but the position is
difficult to support.
Some evidence
supports the position,
but some evidence is
out of order.
Some reader
concerns and
counterarguments
are addressed.
2 Points
Essay addresses
issue with two sides
but does not present
second side.
Essay states a
position on the issue,
but the position is not
supportable.
Not much evidence
supports the position,
and what is included
is out of order.
A few reader
concerns and
counterarguments
are addressed.
1 Point
Essay does not
address issue with
more than one side.
Essay does not state
a position on the
issue.
No evidence supports No reader concerns
the position.
or counterarguments
are addressed.
6 Points
Essay clearly states a
Essay clearly and
supportable position
effectively addresses on the issue.
an issue with more
than one side.
10
Writing Letters
Friendly Letters
A friendly letter is less formal than a business letter. It is a letter to a friend, a
family member, or anyone with whom the writer wants to communicate in a
personal, friendly way. Most friendly letters are made up of five parts:
the date, the greeting (or salutation), the body, the closing, and the
signature. The greeting is followed by a comma, and the paragraphs in
the body are indented.
The purpose of a friendly letter is usually to share personal news and feelings,
to send or to answer an invitation, or to express thanks.
In this letter, Maité tells her friend Julio about her new home.
Date
Greeting
March 2, 2019
Dear Julio,
I was so happy to receive your letter today. I am feeling much better.
My mom and I finally finished decorating my room. We painted the
walls green and the ceiling pink. At first, my mom was nervous to
paint the ceiling something other than white, but I knew it would look
good. Now that my bedroom is finished, Manhattan is starting to feel
more like home.
Over the weekend I went to the Museum of Natural History. The
whale exhibit made me think of back home and how you and I would
spend hours at the beach. I am starting to adjust to city life, but I
miss the smell of salt in the air and collecting sea glass on the shore.
My parents said I can spend the summer with my grandparents at
their beach house. They said I could invite you for a couple of weeks.
We’ll go swimming every day. I can’t wait!
Your friend,
Maité
Body
Closing
Signature
11
Writing
Handbook
Business Letters
Business letters follow one of several formats. In block format, each part
of the letter begins at the left margin. A double space is used between
paragraphs. In modified block format, some parts of the letter are indented
to the center of the page. No matter which format is used, all letters in
business format have a date, an inside address, a greeting (or salutation),
a body, a closing, and a signature. These parts are shown on the model
business letter below, formatted in block style.
Date
June 11, 2019
Edward Sykes, Vice President
Animal Rights Group
154 Denver Street
Syosset, NY 11791
Inside Address
Greeting
Dear Mr. Sykes:
Many students at Bellevue High School would like to learn about
animal rights for a project we are starting next fall. We’ve read
about your program on your website and would like to know more
about your activities.
Would you send us some information about your organization? We’re
specifically interested in learning what we as students can do to help
protect animals. About 75 students have expressed interest so far—I
think we will have the people power to make the project a success
and have an impact.
Please help us get started. Thank you for your time and consideration.
Sincerely,
Closing
Signature
Pedro Rodriguez
The inside address shows where the letter will be sent. The greeting is
punctuated with a colon. The body of the letter states the writer’s purpose.
The closing “Sincerely” is common, but “Yours truly” or “Respectfully yours”
are also acceptable. The writer types his or her name and writes a signature.
12
Body
Filling in Forms
Forms are preprinted documents or web pages with spaces for the user to
enter specific information. Some include directions; others assume that users
will follow the labels and common conventions. Two common forms in the
workplace are contact forms and employment applications. When you fill out
forms, it is important to do the following:
• Fill them out accurately and completely.
• Include only information that is asked for on the form.
Forms usually have limited space in which to write. Because space is limited,
you can use standard symbols and abbreviations, such as $15/hr. to mean
“15 dollars per hour.”
Contact Us
Name
Laura Rivas
Email
lrivas@themail.net
Yes, I want to subscribe to your weekly newsletter.
Yes, I want to receive messages from your partner companies.
Subject
Message
Catalog request
Please send me your catalog. Thank you!
SEND
13
Writing
Handbook
Filling in an Application for Employment
Story Land Bookshop
EQUAL OPPORTUNITY EMPLOYER
Date: 12/04/2019
PRE-EMPLOYMENT QUESTIONNAIRE
PERSONAL INFORMATION
Name (last name first)
Social Security No.
Rivas, Laura
145-53-6211
Present Address
City
Osborne
AZ
85357
Permanent Address
City
State
Zip Code
Phone No.
Referred by
EMPLOYMENT DESIRED
Position
Start Date
351 Middleton Road
Same
(001) 661-1567
Sales associate
State
Zip Code
Josh Logan
Salary Desired
Immediately
Are you presently employed?
May we contact your former employer?
Were you ever employed by this company?
EDUCATION
Name and Location of School
Osborne High School, Osborne, AZ
FORMER EMPLOYERS
Name and Address of Employer
$15/hr.
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yrs Attended
Did you graduate?
Salary
Position
3
Blue River Summer Camp
127 Horse Lane
Millwood, AZ 85721
$195 per week
Date Month and Year
Reason for Leaving
6/20/19 to 9/20/19
14
No
No
No
Summer ended
Expect to graduate
2021
Junior camp
counselor
Conducting Research
Reference Skills
There is a wide range of print and online references you can use to find many
different kinds of information.
Encyclopedias
Encyclopedias contain facts on a great many subjects. They provide basic
information to help you start researching a topic. Use encyclopedias for basic
facts, background information, and suggestions for additional research.
Periodicals
Periodicals are magazines and journals. Once you’ve used a periodical index
to identify the articles you want to read, ask a librarian to help you locate the
periodicals. Often, past issues of magazines are stored electronically. Use the
table of contents, the titles, and other magazine features to help you find
information.
Biographical References
These books provide brief life histories of famous people in many different
fields. Biographical references may offer short entries similar to those in
dictionaries or longer articles more like those in encyclopedias. Most contain
an index to help you locate entries.
Nonfiction Books
Nonfiction books about your topic can also be useful reference tools. Use
titles, tables of contents, prefaces, chapter headings, glossaries, indexes, and
appendixes to locate the information you need.
Almanacs
Almanacs are published annually. They contain facts and statistics
about many subjects, including government, world history, geography,
entertainment, business, and sports. To find a subject in a printed almanac,
refer to the index in the front or back. In an online almanac, you can usually
find information by typing a subject or key word.
Online Databases
Online databases provide quick access to a wealth of information on a topic.
Using a search feature, you can easily access any type of data, piece together
related information, or look at the information in a different way.
15
Writing
Handbook
Proofreading
All forms of writing—from a letter to a friend to a research paper—are more
effective when they are error-free. Once you are satisfied with the content of
your writing, polish the grammar, usage, and mechanics.
Challenge yourself to learn and apply the skills of proofreading to everything
you write. Review your writing carefully to find and correct all errors. Here are
the broad categories that should direct your proofreading:
CHECK YOUR SPELLING: Use a dictionary or an electronic spelling
checker to check any spelling of which you are unsure.
CHECK YOUR GRAMMAR AND USAGE: Use a writing handbook to
correct problems in grammar or usage.
REVIEW CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION: Review your draft to be
sure you’ve begun each sentence with a capital letter and used proper
end punctuation.
CHECK THE FACTS: When your writing includes facts gathered from
outside sources, confirm the accuracy of your work. Consult reference
materials. Check names, dates, and statistics.
Editing Marks
To:
Use This Mark:
Example:
s
add something
We ate rice, bean, and corn.
delete something
We ate rice, beans, and corns.
start a new paragraph
add a comma
add a period
,
We ate rice, beans, and corn.
,
We ate rice, beans and corn.
We ate rice, beans, and corn
switch letters or words
We ate rice, baens, and corn.
change to a capital letter
we ate rice, beans, and corn.
change to a lowercase letter
16
A
WE ate rice, beans, and corn.
Citing Sources
Proofreading and Preparing Manuscript
Before preparing a final copy, proofread your manuscript.
• Choose a standard, easy-to-read font.
• Type or print on one side of unlined 8 1/2” x 11” paper.
• Set the margins for the side, top, and bottom of your paper at
approximately one inch. Most word-processing programs have a default
setting that is appropriate.
• Double-space the document.
• Indent the first line of each paragraph.
• Number the pages in the upper right corner.
Follow your teacher’s directions for formatting formal research papers. Most
papers will have the following features: Title page, Table of Contents or
Outline, Works Consulted List.
Crediting Sources
When you credit a source, you acknowledge where you found your
information and you give your readers the details necessary for locating the
source themselves. Within the body of the paper, you provide a short citation,
a footnote number linked to a footnote, or an endnote number linked to an
endnote reference. These brief references show the page numbers on which
you found the information. Prepare a reference list at the end of the paper
to provide full bibliographic information on your sources. These are two
common types of reference lists:
A bibliography provides a listing of all the resources you consulted during
your research. A works consulted list lists the works you have referenced in
your paper.
The chart on the next page shows the Modern Language Association format
for crediting sources. This is the most common format for papers written
in the content areas in middle school and high school. Unless instructed
otherwise by your teacher, use this format for crediting sources.
17
Writing
Handbook
MLA Style for Listing Sources
Book with one author
Book with two or three
authors
Book with an editor
Book with more than
three authors or editors
Single work from an
anthology
Introduction in a
published edition
Signed article in a
weekly magazine
Signed article in a
monthly magazine
Unsigned editorial or
story
Signed pamphlet or
brochure
Pamphlet with no author,
publisher, or date
Films and videos
Radio or television
program transcript
Internet
Newspaper
Personal interview
18
Pyles, Thomas. The Origins and Development of the English Language.
2nd ed. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1971.
McCrum, Robert, William Cran, and Robert MacNeil. The Story of English.
New York: Penguin Books, 1987.
Truth, Sojourner. Narrative of Sojourner Truth. Ed. Margaret Washington.
New York: Vintage Books, 1993.
Donald, Robert B., et al. Writing Clear Essays. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall, Inc., 1996.
Hawthorne, Nathaniel. “Young Goodman Brown.” Literature: An
Introduction to Reading and Writing. Ed. Edgar V. Roberts and Henry E.
Jacobs. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1998. 376–385.
[Indicate pages for the entire selection.]
Washington, Margaret. Introduction. Narrative of Sojourner Truth. By
Sojourner Truth. New York: Vintage Books, 1993, pp. v–xi.
Wallace, Charles. “A Vodacious Deal.” Time 14 Feb. 2000: 63.
Gustaitis, Joseph. “The Sticky History of Chewing Gum.” American
History Oct. 1998: 30–38.
“Selective Silence.” Editorial. Wall Street Journal 11 Feb. 2000: A14.
[If the editorial or story is signed, begin with the author’s name.]
[Treat the pamphlet as though it were a book.]
Are You at Risk of Heart Attack? n.p. n.d.
[“n.p. n.d.” indicates that there is no known publisher or date.]
The Diary of Anne Frank. Dir. George Stevens. Perf. Millie Perkins, Shelly
Winters, Joseph Schildkraut, Lou Jacobi, and Richard Beymer. 20th
Century Fox, 1959.
“Nobel for Literature.” Narr. Rick Karr. All Things Considered. National
Public Radio. WNYC, New York. 10 Oct. 2018. Transcript.
Green, James. Beadwork in the Arts of Africa and Beyond. July 26,
2018. www.metmuseum.org/blogs/collectioninsights/2018/beadworkin-arts-of-africaand-beyond. Accessed August 21, 2018.
[Indicate the date you accessed the information. Content and addresses
at websites change frequently.]
Bowles, Scott. “Ready to Roll at Comic-Con.” USA Today 22 July 2009:
D1 Print.
[For a multipage article, write only the first page number on which it
appears, followed by a plus sign.]
Smith, Jane. Personal interview. 10 Feb. 2018.