lOMoARcPSD|51044122 Antibiotics on Organisms Materials Technology (Velammal Engineering College) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 BY: KRISHA PRINCY N.S. XII A ACADEMIC YEAR 2023-2024 BIOLOGY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT VELAMMAL VIDYALAYA MUGAPPAIR WEST - 37 1 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 VELAMMAL VIDYALAYA MOGAPPAIR WEST, CHENNAI – 37. BIOLOGY PROJECT ACADEMIC YEAR: 2023 – 2024 To study the effects of Antibiotics on microorganisms PREPARED BY NAME: KRISHA PRINCY N.S. CLASS: XII A SUBJECT CODE: 2 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT In the accomplishment of this project successfully, many people have bestowed their blessings and heart-pledged support up on me, I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to all, who have been instrumental in the successful completion of this project. Primarily, I express my deep sense of gratitude to the luminary, The Senior Principal, The Vice Principal and The Head Master for providing the best of facilities and environment to bring out innovation and spirit of inquiry through this venture. I am deeply indebted to my teacher ____________________, without whose constructive feedback, this project would not have been successful. The valuable advice and suggestions for correction, modifications and improvement did enhance the quality of the task. I would also like to thank my parents, friends and all the members who contributed to this project was vital for the success of the project. I am grateful for their constant support and help. 3 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 VELAMMAL VIDYALAYA MOGAPPAIR WEST, CHENNAI – 37. NAME: BATCH NO: CLASS: REGD.NO.: CERTIFICATE Certified that this is a bonafide Record of Practical work done by Mr. / Miss. _____________________________________________ in the __________________________ Laboratory during the year 2023. Teacher-In-Charge Submitted for the Practical Examination in ________________________ ______________________________ held on ____________________ VICE PRINCIPAL INTERNAL EXAMINERS 4 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) EXTERNAL EXAMINERS at lOMoARcPSD|51044122 INDEX S. NO. 1. TOPIC ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 2. BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE 3. WHAT ARE ANTIBIOTICS? 4. HOW ANTIBIOTICS WORKS? 5. ANTIBIOTICS 6. AIM & QUESTION 7. MATERIALS 8. INTRODUCTION 9. PROCEDURE PG. NO. 3 5 6 7 8-22 11 12 10. RESULTS 11. BIBLIOGRAPHY 13-22 23-29 30-41 5 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) 42 lOMoARcPSD|51044122 WHAT ARE ANTIBIOTICS? Antibiotics are medications that destroy or slow down the growth of bacteria. It includes a range of powerful drugs used to treat diseases caused by bacteria. Doctors prescribe them to treat bacterial infections. They do this by killing bacteria or preventing them from multiplying. Only substances that target bacteria are called antibiotics. Antibiotics cannot treat viral infections, such as colds, flu, and most coughs. Antibiotics are produced in nature by soil bacteria and fungi. The first antibiotic was penicillin. Penicillin-based antibiotics, such as ampicillin, amoxicillin, and penicillin G, are still available to treat a variety of infections and have been in use for many years. 6 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 HOW ANTIBIOTICS WORKS? Before bacteria can multiply and cause symptoms, the immune system can typically kill them. White blood cells (WBCs) attack harmful bacteria — even if symptoms occur, the immune system can usually cope and fend off the infection. However, sometimes the number of harmful bacteria is excessive, and the immune system cannot clear them all. Antibiotics are useful in this scenario. There are different types of antibiotics, which work in their unique way. Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections. Antibiotics take advantage of the difference between the structure of the bacterial cell and the host's cell. They either prevent the bacterial cells from multiplying so that the bacterial population remains the same, allowing the host's defence mechanism to fight the infection, or kill the bacteria, for example stopping the mechanism responsible for building their cell walls. It may take a few hours or days after taking the first dose before people feel better or their symptoms improve. 7 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 Antibiotic classification: An antibiotic can also be classified according to the range of pathogens against which it is effective. • Narrow-spectrum antibiotic: Penicillin G will destroy only a few species of bacteria. • Broad-spectrum antibiotic: Tetracycline is effective against a wide range of organisms. Fast facts on antibiotics • Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin, the first natural antibiotic, in 1928. • Antibiotics cannot fight viral infections. • Fleming predicted the rise of antibiotic resistance. • Antibiotics either kill or slow the growth of bacteria. • Side effects can include diarrhoea, stomach, and nausea. 8 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) an upset lOMoARcPSD|51044122 7 types of antibiotics Although there are well over 100 antibiotics, the majority come from only a few types of drugs. These are the main classes of antibiotics. ANTIBIOTIC EXAMPLE Penicillin amoxicillin Cephalosporins cephalexin Macrolides erythromycin Fluoroquinolones ofloxacin Sulphonamides Bactrim Tetracyclines tetracycline Aminoglycosides gentamicin 9 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 The Impact of Antibiotics on Microorganisms: Antibiotics have been widely used to treat bacterial infections for over a century. However, they have also had a profound impact on the microbial world. Antibiotics can kill beneficial microorganisms along with harmful ones, leading to an imbalance in the microbial ecosystem. This can result in the growth of antibioticresistant bacteria, which can be difficult to treat and pose a significant threat to public health. Antibiotic Resistance: Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria evolve to resist the effects of antibiotics. This can happen naturally or as a result of overuse or misuse of antibiotics. The spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is a growing concern, as it can lead to the failure of antibiotic treatments and the development of new, more dangerous infections. 10 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 EXPERIMENT AIM: To study the effects of antibiotics on bacteria count Question/ Purpose: What do you want to find out? Write a statement that describes what you want to do. Use your observations and questions to write the statement. The purpose of this investigation is to see the effect of antibiotics on bacteria count. 11 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 Materials and Equipment: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 10 test tubes of sterilized water 10 PCA plates blender or mixer (optional) Bunsen burner Graduated cylinder Ethanol (Used for sterilizing. Just flame is enough in most cases) Glass hockey stick Pipettes Refrigerator Incubator (A warm cabinet for growing bacteria) Microwave Scale Large beaker Hot plate Sample anti-biotic 12 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 Introduction (Initial Observation): An antibiotic is a substance, such as penicillin or streptomycin, produced by or derived from certain fungi, bacteria, and other organisms, that can destroy or inhibit the growth of other microorganisms (specifically bacteria). The first antibiotic, penicillin, was discovered about seven decades ago. Sir Alexander Fleming discovers the drug penicillin, which counteracts harmful bacteria. Fleming makes the discovery by accidentally contaminating a bacteria culture with a "Penicillium notatum" mould. He notices that the non-toxic mould halts the bacteria's growth, and later conducts experiments to show penicillin's effectiveness in combating a wide spectrum of harmful bacteria. 13 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 In this project, we will investigate the effect of antibiotics on bacterial count. The procedures and experiments that I am proposing here are for actual bacteria count. If you just want to see the effect of antibiotics on bacteria growth, you can do it much easier. Your test media can be a cup of chicken broth, mixed with some sugar. When the bacteria grow, they will create gases resulting in a very bad odour. They also convert sugar to acid and drop the pH in a solution. So, you can simply get some chicken broth (canned powder), dissolve it in water, and add sugar and a few drops of polluted water. Then you divide your sample into two parts. Add some antibiotics to one part. Cover both with filter paper or aluminium foil. Keep both samples in a warm place such as an incubator for 24 hours. Check both samples to see which one smells bad or has a lower pH. That is the one with a higher level of bacteria. 14 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 Basic information: Growing bacteria is one of the most rewarding and educational activities that a student can do. You will learn a lot of things just by growing bacteria. We usually grow bacteria as a way of identifying or counting bacteria. Bacteria can grow anywhere as long as food, moisture and proper temperature is available. The optimum temperature for growing most bacteria is about 37 to 40 degrees centigrade. This is the same as the body temperature of warm-blooded animals. That does not mean that bacteria do not grow in other temperatures. If the temperature is not favourable, bacteria will grow slower. If you have ever placed some cut flowers into a clear jar, you may have noticed that in a few days, the water becomes cloudy and smells bad. Bacteria are the cause of cloudiness in water. Recently this level of cloudiness is measured by special machines and used as a method of counting or estimating the number of bacteria (bacteria count). This method is not accurate, but it is fast and does not need a 24 hours or more waiting time. To accurately count bacteria in a sample, first, a dilution of the sample is made. Then the dilution is spread on a nutrient agar petri-dish for bacteria growth. Each bacterium will reproduce and become a bacteria colony. So, we can simply count the colonies. 15 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 I said nutrient agar because agar by itself is not food for bacteria. You need to add some food to the agar to make it nutrient agar. What food is good for bacteria? Think for a moment. What foods spoil faster and create the worst odour? They are most likely good for bacteria. I usually use some fat-free chicken broth or beef broth as food. I may also add a small amount of sugar. If you want to do this, make sure you filter the broth so it will be clear. Chicken broth powder can be purchased from supermarkets, the only problem is that they also contain some flavour and vegetables so they can be served as soup. If you use them, you still need to filter them with a coffee filter. But why do we use agar? We use agar because agar can form a gelatinous moist and clear medium for growing bacteria. There are a few reasons that you cannot use gelatin itself. The first reason is that gelatin melts in warm temperatures, so you have to keep it cold and bacteria don't grow fast in cold temperatures. The other reason is that I think manufacturers of gelatin add some preservatives that stop or slow down the bacteria growth. So far agar is the best-known gelatinous substance for growing bacteria. Since agar is also used as a food additive, you may purchase agar from health food stores or whole food 16 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 stores. You may need to do some search on that. Some of these stores don't know what the agar is. So, start today. Prepare your broth, add some agar, let it boil for a few minutes and fill up your Petri dishes or any other thing that you want to use for bacteria growth, keep it open for a few minutes so the bacteria from the air will get to that. Cover it and keep it in a warm place for 24 hours. you should then be able to see the bacteria colonies. 17 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 Notes: Agar concentration must be 1 to 3 % to get a good gel. I think you better do it with 2% agar. The same amount of chicken broth and half of that sugar must be sufficient. In each petri dish add enough agar to cover the bottom of the dish. Usually, you cover the petri-dish and keep it upside down in warm storage such as an incubator. When the petri dish is upside down, agar does not dry and condensation does not form on the petri-dish cap. If you are growing household bacteria, you can just dump your used Petri dishes in the garbage and wash everything else with warm water and liquid detergent. 18 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 Determining which antibiotic is most effective: This is how we determine which antibiotic will kill a particular organism like E. coli in the laboratory. The picture that you see is showing a culture plate with bacteria and antibiotic disks. The bacteria were spread evenly all over the culture plate. Next, little white disks with different antibiotics in them were dropped on the plate. Each white disk represents a different antibiotic like ampicillin, tetracycline, gentamicin, and others. The culture plate was then placed in an incubator for 18-24 hours to allow the bacteria to grow. If the bacteria is sensitive to a particular antibiotic, it will not grow close to the disk. If the bacteria is resistant to an antibiotic, it will grow right up to the disk. In the picture above, the bacteria is sensitive to all the antibiotics. Without laboratory tests such as this, the physician would be guessing which antibiotic to use. Only medical laboratory technologists are licensed to perform and interpret such tests. 19 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 Identify Variables: When you think you know what variables may be involved, think about ways to change one at a time. If you change more than one at a time, you will not know what variable is causing your observation. Sometimes variables are linked and work together to cause something. At first, try to choose variables that you think act independently of each other. If you are going to do this experiment in an advanced biology lab with all possible equipment, your independent variable is the amount of antibiotic that you use. But for now, the variable is antibiotic (presence, absence). The dependent variable is the bacteria count. The constant is the type of antibiotic. Controlled variables are temperature, light and any other factor that may affect the bacteria growth in our different experiment runs. 20 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 Hypothesis: Based on your gathered information, make an educated guess about what types of things affect the system you are working with. Identifying variables is necessary before you can make a hypothesis. I think antibiotics can reduce the bacteria count to zero unless there are some antibiotic-resistant bacteria in our test sample. I also think that the amount of antibiotics or the ratio of antibiotics to bacteria is important because if an antibiotic is not enough to disable all bacteria, then bacteria may get a chance to mutate and become resistant to antibiotics. 21 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 Experiment Design: Design an experiment to test each hypothesis. Make a step-by-step list of what you will do to answer each question. This list is called an experimental procedure. For an experiment to give answers you can trust, it must have "control." A control is an additional experimental trial or run. It is a separate experiment, done exactly like the others. The only difference is that no experimental variables are changed. A control is a neutral "reference point" for comparison that allows you to see what changing a variable does by comparing it to not changing anything. Dependable controls are sometimes very hard to develop. They can be the hardest part of a project. Without a control, you cannot be sure that changing the variable causes your observations. A series of experiments that includes a control is called a "controlled experiment." 22 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 If an antibiotic is able to kill bacteria or disrupt the growth or reproduction of bacteria, we will have a lower bacteria count on samples exposed to antibiotics. PROCEDURE: For your experiment, you will get a sample containing bacteria and divide it into two parts. Expose one part to antibiotic and then test bacteria count in both parts. To count the bacteria, grow the bacteria on a nutrient agar plate. Each bacterium will grow to a colony in about 24 hours. That's when it is visible and you can count them Each colony represents one bacterium in the test sample. Note that sometimes there are millions of bacteria in a very small sample. If so many new colonies grow on a petri-dish, we will not be able to count anything. That is why we dilute our sample using distilled water. We make many different dilutions such as 1:1000 and 1:10,000 and 1:100,000 and 1:1000,000. Then we do bacteria count test on all of them, hoping that in one of them, bacteria colonies will be in a countable quantity. 23 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 Step 1: Prepare 24 culture media plates for growing bacteria. You may purchase a bacteria culture kit and prepare your plates using the agar that comes in the kit. Make your own nutrient agar using the following formula and then use that to prepare your plates. TGY Tryptone Glucose Yeast • Tryptone- 5.0g • Agar- 10.0g • Yeast extract- 5.0g 24 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 • Glucose- 1.0g • K2HPO4- 1.0g • Spring water-1000 mL This is also called Plate Count Agar. It supports more species of bacteria than any other medium. 1 gram of powdered CaCO3 can be added to counteract the acid generated by many bacteria from the glucose, helping stock cultures for years. Substitutes: Limestones or chalk. Step 2: Get a sample of polluted water for the test. Mix 2 ml of polluted water with 10 ml chicken broth in a test tube and incubate it for 24 hours so the bacteria will reproduce and increase. Usually, this is done on a device that constantly moves, so the bacteria can freely move in the liquid. Most likely you will not have a vibrator, so it is good if you shake the test tube a few times during this incubation period. 25 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 Step 3: While the bacteria are being incubated, prepare some antibiotic disks as described here. (Antibiotic disks can also be purchased from biology suppliers). Break an antibiotic capsule (I used Ampicillin) and empty the contents in a clean petri-dish. One capsule will be enough for hundreds of disks. 26 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 Dispose of the plastic shell and add a few drops of water to the remaining powder. Cut some filter papers into small pieces and soak them in the antibiotic solution. Let the disks dry in a clean space. You may cover them with filter paper to protect them from dust. Although they are known as antibiotic disks, you can cut them into small squares. The reason that we use filter paper, is that other papers often have starch and other polymers that may affect the results of our experiments. Filter paper is pure cellulose fibre. 27 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 Step 4: Use the bacteria that you grew in Step 2 and prepare different dilutions of bacteria. 1. Prepare a 1:10 dilution of the sample. To do this, take 2 mL of the sample and blend it with 18 mL of distilled water. 2. Prepare a 1:100 dilution of the sample by taking 1 mL from the previous solution and adding 9 mL of water to it in a test tube. 28 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 3. Prepare 1:1000, 1:10,000 and 1:100,000 dilutions by taking 1 mL of solution from the previous dilution and adding 9 mL of distilled water 4. Pipette 0.1ml of each dilution onto a Plates Count Agar (PCA) plate 5. Take a glass hockey stick submersed in ethanol and run it through a flame to sterilize it. (Glass hockey stick is a glass rod bent on one end like a hockey stick. It is used to spread bacteria on the surface of the agar plate. You may use a steel spoon instead.) 6. Let it cool and use it to spread dilution around the plate 7. Do this on two plates for each of the five different dilutions. 8. Place an antibiotic disk on one of the plates of each dilution. Label the plates with did dilution level. 29 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 9. incubate all plates at 35 degrees Celsius for 24 hours and then count the bacterial colonies. Record the results in a table like this: Dilution Bacteria count for a Bacteria count for plate with antibiotic plate without disk antibiotic disk 1:10 plates 8 120 1:100 plates 6 55 1:1000 plates 6 71 1:10,000 plates 7 97 1:100,000 plates 8 112 30 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 How do you determine the actual bacteria count? If a 0.1ml of 1:100 dilution shows 7 bacteria colonies, then: • • • There have been 7 bacteria in 0.1ml of 1:100 solution. There have been 700 bacteria in 0.1ml of the original solution (before diluting). There have been 7000 bacteria in 1ml of the original solution. Analyse your results: The above table contains a set of sample results in grey. This sample of results shows that the bacteria counted are not from the samples. Instead, they are from the environment or from the nutrient agar plates. Where the bacteria are from samples, they must match the dilution pattern. For example, if you have 7 bacteria in your 1:1000 sample, you must have about 70 bacteria in your 1:100 sample and about 700 in your 1:10 sample. (You see that sanitation and a clean environment are crucial to the bacteria growth tests.) 31 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 Disregarding the source of bacteria, the effect of antibiotics is clear. Take the average bacteria count with antibiotics and without antibiotics and use them to make a graph. Use a bar graph: You can use a bar graph to visually present your results. Make two vertical bars. Label one bar "With Antibiotic". Label the other bar "Without Antibiotic". The height of each bar must show the average bacteria count in that group. 32 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 Note: The list of materials depends on your final procedure design. You may modify these procedures based on what is available to you. Results of Experiment (Observation): Experiments are often done in series. A series of experiments can be done by changing one variable a different amount each time. A series of experiments is made up of separate experimental "runs." During each run, you make a measurement of how much the variable affected the system under study. For each run, a different amount of change in the variable is used. This produces 33 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 a different amount of response in the system. You measure this response, or record data, in a table for this purpose. This is considered "raw data" since it has not been processed or interpreted yet. When raw data gets processed mathematically, for example, it becomes results. You may change the procedures suggested above in order to adapt them to your equipment, supplies or questions. For example, here initial sample of polluted water was placed on a nutrient agar plate and incubated for 48 hours. (The nutrient was chicken broth with a small amount of sugar.) The bacteria colonies appeared to be in two different colours. So, I decided to grow the bacteria with a yellow colony. I used a sterile spatula to remove one colony and transfer it to 2 ml of distilled water in a test tube. Then I took 3 nutrient agar plate and added 0.5 ml of the solution on each of the plates. I left one plate without any antibiotics, and placed one antibiotic disk on the second plate and two antibiotic disks on the third plate. All plates were incubated for 48 hours. Images show that no bacteria is grown close to antibiotic disks. 34 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 What Nutrient Agar did I use? The nutrient agar in these plates was made using 9 grams of chicken broth (powder), 5 grams of Agar and 500 ml of water. I also used a few drops of food colouring hoping that it will make the bacteria colonies more visible, but I did not feel any difference. That made me 15 nutrient agar plates that I kept in the refrigerator for later use. 35 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 How to dispose the bacteria-infected plates? One way is placing all the plates in an autoclave in a temperature of 130º for one hour. Note that this temperature is under pressure and hot steam will kill bacteria. Dry hot air does not kill the bacteria at this temperature. 36 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 Another way is using antibacterial disinfectants. Soak the plates in a strong antibacterial solution for a few days and then dispose them. Calculations: Depending on your method you may or may not need to do any calculations. If instead of a bacteria disk, you use a bacteria solution, then you may also want to do some calculations to find out how many bacteria will be killed by the action of a certain amount of antibiotics. 37 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 Related Questions & Answers: What you have learned may allow you to answer other questions. Many questions are related. Several new questions may have occurred to you while doing experiments. You may now be able to understand or verify things that you discovered when gathering 38 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 information for the project. Questions lead to more questions, which lead to additional hypotheses that need to be tested. Possible Errors: If you did not observe anything different than what happened with your control, the variable you changed 39 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 may not affect the system you are investigating. If you did not observe a consistent, reproducible trend in your series of experimental runs there may be experimental errors affecting your results. The first thing to check is how you are making your measurements. Is the measurement method questionable or unreliable? Maybe you are reading a scale incorrectly, or maybe the measuring instrument is working erratically. If you determine that experimental errors are influencing your results, carefully rethink the design of your experiments. Review each step of the procedure to find sources of potential errors. If possible, have a scientist review the procedure with you. Sometimes the designer of an experiment can miss the obvious. Summary of Results: Summarize what happened. This can be in the form of a 40 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 table of processed numerical data, or graphs. It could also be a written statement of what occurred during experiments. It is from calculations using recorded data that tables and graphs are made. Studying tables and graphs, we can see trends that tell us how different variables cause our observations. Based on these trends, we can conclude the system under study. These conclusions help us confirm or deny our original hypothesis. Often, mathematical equations can be made from graphs. These equations allow us to predict how a change will affect the system without the need to do additional experiments. Advanced levels of experimental science rely heavily on the graphical and mathematical analysis of data. At this level, science becomes even more interesting and powerful. Conclusion: Using the trends in your experimental data and your 41 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 experimental observations, try to answer your original questions. Is your hypothesis correct? Now is the time to pull together what happened, and assess the experiments you did. BIBLIOGRAPHY 42 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 1. 2. https://www.studocu.com/in/document/universit y-of-kerala/reading-poetry/bio-projectestse/44582353 www.emedicinehealth.com 4. www.scienceproject.com 3. www.microbiologysociety.org 43 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com) lOMoARcPSD|51044122 44 Downloaded by Daksh NayyarBS (dakshnayyarbs@gmail.com)