Thomas Hobbs – Leviathan Core Ideas Human Nature: o People are driven by passions, logic, and self-preservation. o Morality is relative; good and evil depend on the situation. o Humans aren’t inherently evil but are defensive and prideful. State of Nature: o Without authority, life is chaotic ("every man for himself"). o Equality exists, but fear and suspicion lead to conflict. Natural Rights & Laws Rights of Nature: Self-preservation. Laws of Nature: 1. Seek peace. 2. Renounce some rights for order. 3. Follow the Golden Rule. 4. Enforce laws through a sovereign authority (Leviathan). The Sovereign (Leviathan) Formation: Chosen by the people or imposed by conquest. Powers: Absolute control over war, peace, laws, and governance. People’s Role: Must obey, but rebellion is justified if the sovereign loses power. Relationship Between Church and the Soveriegn: The church must submit to the state to maintain order. However, the state cannot declare a state-religion Locke’s Letter Concerning Toleration Core Ideas Separation of Church and State o Stop people from infringing on other people’s rights, and they can use punishment (external concerns). They cannot enforce religious practices o The Church: Provides an avenue for people to pursue salvation (voluntary). They cannot coerce their beliefs (internal concerns), but rather encourage/motivate. Religious Tolerance o Religious coercion in matters of faith is counterproductive: a person genuinely believes if its based on their decision. Thus, religious tolerance is a byproduct, which increases diversity Limits of Toleration o Atheists: Cannot trust them because they do not have a moral foundation to adhere to social order/rule o Religions Loyal to Foreign Powers: Cannot trust them because they undermine the current sovereign’s authority Mutual Respect o Engage in persuasion and reasoning as a means to address religious differences, rather than force Locke’s Second Treatise of Government First Treatise Argument against Robert Filmer’s Patriarcha: o God gave the Earth to all humans equally, with no distinction between individuals. o Government power is not the same as parental or master power, so there are no divine rights of kings based on Adam's patriarchal authority. Second Treatise State of Nature: o All men are equal, and it’s not always a state of war because humans are rational and recognize natural law (life, liberty, property). o However, peace is fragile, and conflicts can easily turn into war. Slavery: o Justified when a victor in a just war enslaves the aggressor. o Condemn slavery of innocent or hereditary people. o Contradictions between his philosophy and actions on slavery. Property: o Private property is justified by mixing one’s labor with resources. o The commonwealth still has ample resources, and the land isn’t permanently harmed. o Money is a consensual form of trade for resources. o Supports the enclosure of land, which leads to wealth inequality. Social Contract: o A government is established through universal consent to protect rights and form a particular type of government. Dissolution of Government: o Happens through foreign conquest, changes to the legislature, or when the government exercises arbitrary power. o Illegitimate if it infringes on natural rights or cannot enforce laws. Rosseau’s Social Contract Natural Liberty From Hobbs & Locke: Right of Self-Preservation and fundamental equality State of Nature: Compassion and empathy for others, rather than a constant stateof-war from Hobbs or Locke. Additionally, humans do not inherently care for status Social Contract “How to establish a sovereign power without surrendering some of our natural rights” Argue against the “right to rule” notion and Hobbs “absolute monarch sovereign” in favor for free, consensual authority Renunciate some of your individual rights and you gain much more when you join society as a indivisible part of the commonwealth (analogous of marrying someone) Civil Society Surrendering some of your rights will bless you with civil and moral freedom, property rights, etc. Trusting in the Commonwealth’s adherence to the justified civil laws to govern morality Sovereignty People are the source of power for the governing bodies, whether it is the absolute monarch (for Hobbs) or the limited government (for Locke) The general will – serving the common good by relinquishing one’s self-interest (difference in the Locke’s philosophy) o People having the same opinion is good since it reflects that society is fulfilling ALL of the citizen’s desires Forms of Government Prefer an elected aristocracy for executing law – people elect a small group of WISE people from the general to represent them Pre-conditions for Democracy o Small territory o Culturally homogenous society o Roughly equality in socio-economy o Absence of luxury Civil Religion Basically what Locke argue Smith’s Wealth of Nations Productivity is King Increase the number of people who have jobs and boost productivity in those jobs o Division of Labor Increase baseline/inert skills Decrease downtime between “switching tasks” Increase transportation of goods/services o Proper management/allocation of resources and capital Money To boost productivity in exchange (essentially standardizing good/services), monetization systems were established Money have value in exchange, while other goods (spears, food, etc.) are value in use Price Real Price is determined by price in labor, capital, resource, time, etc. Nominal Price is determined by monetary estimation of said labor, capital, resource, time, etc o Wage – pay for workers o Profit – pay for capitals o Rent – pay for land Supply & (Effective) demand determines the pricing/quantity of a good/service Components of Price Wage – Should be at least enough to cover the essential necessity of oneself and a family Profit – increase capital results in competition Rent – lending land Inconsistency in Pay Expenses & Difficulties – consider the time and effort spent on “honing their craft” Inconsistency – circumstantial compensation (janitor, nightguard) Responsibility – serving the “greater good” Improbability of Success – obtaining something that is very, VERY difficult to get (miners) Dirtiness & Disagreeable – public enemy number 1 or filthy (politician, journalist) Accumulation and employment of capital Service for Consumption – Vacation, food, etc. Negative, relative ROI Depreciating Products – Negative, relative ROI Non-depciating Products – Zero, relative ROI; collectibles or houses Investing Products – Positive, relative ROI Globalization Do what you are best at and simply trade with others what you want Wanna be rich? Be friends with other rich people Free Trade Capital is naturally employed when returns are the greatest or in home markets Government interference would result in loss of the country’s capital. The only exceptions are not supporting foreign countries and boosting one’s economy Government’s Purpose Defend itself to sustain wealth Establish justice for the people Build public infrastructure Make accessible education Financing/Taxing Equality – pay in proportion of your work and your contribution to the state’s revenue Certainty – time, quantity, and payment are concise and clear Convenience – taxes should be due whenever people the people are most likely to have the tax money readily available Efficiency – balance between burden for people or benefit of government Marx’s German Ideology Critique of German Idealism Marx and Engels critique German philosophers, particularly those influenced by Hegel, for declaring that the “World Spirit” (a kind of collective consciousness of mankind) move towards greater freedom and self-awareness idealism Materialist Conception of History Marx and Engels introduce historical materialism, asserting that material conditions—specifically the mode of production and economic relations—are the primary forces driving historical change. Human history is shaped by the development of productive forces (tools, technology, and labor) and the relationships of production (class relations). Base and Superstructure They describe society as consisting of a base (the economic foundation, including production and labor relations) and a superstructure (institutions, culture, laws, and ideology). The superstructure is shaped by the base and serves to reinforce the existing economic and class order. Role of Class Struggle History is driven by conflicts between classes with opposing interests, stemming from the organization of production. For instance, the tension between the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and the proletariat (working class) defines the modern era. These struggles eventually lead to revolutionary changes when the productive forces outgrow the existing relations of production. Call for Revolutionary Praxis Marx and Engels argue that interpreting the world is insufficient; it must be transformed. They emphasize the importance of praxis, combining theory with revolutionary action. They see the proletariat as the key to overthrowing capitalism and establishing a classless, communist society. Critique of Utopianism Marx and Engels reject utopian visions of socialism that ignore the material basis of society. Instead, they advocate for a scientific approach rooted in the analysis of economic and social structures.
