Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
Contents
1Food Systems in Sri Lanka: Components, Evolution,
Challenges and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Nutrition Transition in Sri Lanka: A Meta-Analysis
2of the Nutrition Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ­ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Cascaded Tank-Village System: Present Status and Prospects . . . . . . 63
Soil Survey, Classification and Mapping in Sri Lanka:
3Past, Present and Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4Milestones in the History of Rice Improvement in Sri Lanka . . . . . . . 101
Vegetable Breeding in Sri Lanka in Retrospect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5
Genetic Improvement for Sustainability of Coconut
6Production: The Sri Lankan Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
7Breaking the Mold: Pave the Way for Future Cereals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Recent Developments in Vegetable Production Technologies
8in Sri Lanka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Input Intensification in Food Crops Production
and Food Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
9
10
ix
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
We Don’t reply in this website, you need to contact by email for all chapters
Instant download. Just send email and get all chapters download.
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
You can also order by WhatsApp
https://api.whatsapp.com/send/?phone=%2B447507735190&text&type=ph
one_number&app_absent=0
Send email or WhatsApp with complete Book title, Edition Number and
Author Name.
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
x
Contents
11A Cross Section of Century-Long Experiences
in Entomological Research in Crop Sectors: Directions
for Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
12Animal Feed Production in Sri Lanka: Past Present
and Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Livestock and Poultry to Assure Sustainabilityin the Food System . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
13
Fisheries Sector Contribution for Sustainable Food System:
Past, Present, and Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
14
Evolution of Agricultural Extension System in Sri Lanka . . . . . . . . . . 351
15
Performance and Potential of Agricultural Insurance: Global
and Sri Lankan Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
16
Agricultural Research for Sustainable Food Systems:
Recommendations with Special Reference to Sri Lanka. . . . . . . . . . . . 389
17
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
Abbreviations
AAIB
AEU
AFS
AI
AI
AICRP(VC)
AMZ
AO
ASC
ASD
ASF
ASMEC
AT
AVRDC
BDG
BLB
BMI
BPH
CAGR
CARI
CAS
CBSL
CCB
CDO
CEU
CFC
CGRD
CICL
CIDA
CIMMYT
CISL
CKDu
COGENT
Agricultural and Agrarian Insurance Board
Agriculture Education Unit
Australian Friesian Sahiwal
Artificial Insemination
Agricultural Instructor
All India Coordinated Research Project (Vegetable Crops)
Australian Milking Zebu
Agriculture Officer
Agrarian Service Centre
Advisory Services Department
Animal-sourced foods
Annual Symposium of Minor Export Crops
Adaptability testing
Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center (Presently
known as the World Vegetable Center)
Brewers dried grains
Bacterial Leaf Blight
Body Mass Index
Brown plant-hopper
Compound Annual Growth Rate
Central Agricultural Research Institute
Ceylon Agricultural Society
Central Bank of Sri Lanka
Coconut Cultivation Board
Coconut Development Officer
Cyber Extension Unit
Ceylon Fisheries Cooperation
Coconut Genetic Resources Database
Ceylinco Insurance Company Limited
Canadian International Development Agency
International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center
Ceylinco Insurance and Securities (Pvt.) Limited
Chronic Kidney Disease of uncertain etiology
International Coconut Genetic Resources Network
xv
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
xvi
CP
CPRS
CPUE
CRBS
CRI
CRVT
CTVS
DAEO
DAPH
DArT
DC
DCS
DEA
DEMs
DFP
DGWG
DHS
DOA
DZ
EEZ
EMI
ERP
EU
FAO
FCRDI
FHB
FPO
FRDI
GAP
GAP
GDP
GE
GFMI
GIAHS
GIFT
GIZ
GM
GM
GMO
GN
GPR
GPS
GSP
HI
HIES
Abbreviations
Central Province
Central Poultry Research Station
Catch Per Unit Effort
Central Rice Breeding Station
Coconut Research Institute
Coordinated Rice Varietal Testing program
Cascaded Tank-Village Systems
District Agricultural Extension Officer
Department of Animal Production and Health
Diversity Array Technology
Desiccated coconut
Department of Census and Statistics
Department of Export Agriculture
Digital Elevation Models
Department of Food Production
Dee-Geo-Woo-Gen
Demographic and Health Survey
Department of Agriculture
Dry Zone
Exclusive Economic Zone
Electromagnetic Induction
Eppawala Rock Phosphate
European Union
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Field Crops Research and Development Institute
Family Health Bureau
Food Production Overseer
Fruit Crops Research and Development Institute
Good Agricultural Practices
Granary Area Program
Gross Domestic Production
Genetic Engineering
Genetic, Feeding and Management Improvement
Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System
Genetically Improved Farm Tilapia
German International Cooperation Agency
Gall midge
Genetically modified
Genetically modified organisms
Grama Niladhari
Ground Penetrating Radar
Global Positioning System
Generalised Scheme of Preferences
Harvest Index
Household Income and Expenditure Surveys
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
Abbreviations
HORDI
HS
HYV
HYW
IASRI
ICPT
ICT
IDD
IFC
InDels
IPM
IPNS
IPS
IR
IRRI
ISE
IZ
JICA
KVS
LDI
LOAM
MABB
MAB
MAS
MB
MI
MILCO
MPCI
MRY
MSY
MYT
NAEC
NAIC
NAP
NAQDA
NARA
NCD
NCVT
NDVI
NFS
NGOs
NGS
NIV
NLDB
xvii
Horticultural Crop Research and Development Institute
Hybridization and selection
High yielding varieties
Hungarian Yellow Wax
Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute
Integrated Crop Protection Technologies
Information and Communications Technology
Iodine Deficiency Disorders
International Finance Corporation
Insertion–Deletion Length Polymorphism
Integrated Pest Management
Integrated Plant Nutrition System
Institute of Policy Studies
Indian River
International Rice Research Institute
Introduction Selection and Evaluation
Intermediate Zone
Japanese International Cooperation Agency
Krushikarma Vyapthi Sevaka (English translation: Agriculture
Extension Officer)
Livestock Development Instructor
Lanka Organic Agriculture Movement
Marker-Assisted Backcross Breeding
Molecular Accelerated Breeding
Marker Assisted Selection
Maintenance Breeding
Mahailluppallama
Milk Industries of Lanka Company Limited
Multi-Peril Crop Insurance
Meuse-Rhine-Yssel
Maximum Sustainable Yield
Major Yield Trial
National Agricultural Extension Committee
National Agricultural Information and Communication Centre
National Agriculture Policy
National Aquaculture Development Authority
National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency
Non-Communicable Disease
National Coordinated Varietal Trial
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
National Fertilizer Secretariat
Non-Governmental Organizations
Next-Generation Sequencing Platforms
New improved varieties
National Livestock Development Board
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
xviii
NPPOS
NSC
NSP
OFC
OIV
PAGE
PCR
PeCroDeP
PGRC
QTL
RARC
RDD
RRDI
RRI
SAARC
SAEP
SAVERNET
SCPPC
SCS
SDG
SHB
SIDA
SILEP
SL-ADB
SLAEA
SLCAREP
SLCARP
SLR
SMO
SNP
SPMDC
SRI
SRICANSOL
SSR
STF
T&V
TA
TMR
TRI
TSHDA
TSP
TYLC
UETS
UN
UP
Abbreviations
National Plant Protection Organization
National Seed Council
National Seed Policy
Other field crops
Old improved varieties
Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems
Polymerase Chain Reaction
Perennial Crops Development Project
Plant Genetic Resources Centre
Quantitative Trait Loci
Regional Agricultural Research Centre
Rubber Development Department
Rice Research and Development Institute
Rubber Research Institute
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
Second Agricultural Extension Project
South Asian Vegetable Research Network
Seed Certification and Plant Protection Centre
National Seed Certification Service
Sustainable Development Goals
Shot hole borer
Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency
Smallholder Integrated Livestock Extension Project
Sri Lanka-Asian Development Bank
Sri Lanka Agricultural Extension Association
Sri Lanka Council for Agricultural Research and Extension Policy
Sri Lanka Council for Agricultural Research Policy
Sri Lankan Rupees
Subject Matter Officer
Single Nucleotide Polymorphism
Seed and Planting Material Development Centre
Sugarcane Research Institute
Sri Lanka–Canada Soil Resource Project
Simple Sequence Repeats
Seed Task Force
Training and visit
Technical Assistant
Total Mixed Rations
Tea Research Institute
Tea Small Holdings Development Authority
Triple Superphosphate
Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus
Unified Extension and Training System
United Nations
Uva Province
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
We Don’t reply in this website, you need to contact by email for all chapters
Instant download. Just send email and get all chapters download.
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
You can also order by WhatsApp
https://api.whatsapp.com/send/?phone=%2B447507735190&text&type=ph
one_number&app_absent=0
Send email or WhatsApp with complete Book title, Edition Number and
Author Name.
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
Abbreviations
USA
VAT
VMS
VRI
WCLWD
WHO
WIBI
WRI
WZ
xix
United States of America
Varietal Adaptability Trial
Vessel Monitoring System
Veterinary Research Institute
Weligama Coconut Leaf Wilt Disease
World Health Organization
Weather Index-Based Insurance
World Resources Institute
Wet Zone
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
1
Food Systems in Sri Lanka: Components,
Evolution, Challenges and Opportunities
Jeevika Weerahewa, Warshi S. Dandeniya,
and Buddhi Marambe
Abstract
Many countries are in the process of transforming their food systems to be more
environmentally sustainable and resilient and able to deliver healthy and nutritious diets to all. Sri Lanka is no exception to this process. This chapter describes
the key features of different subcomponents of food systems of Sri Lanka and
presents the opportunities and challenges faced by Sri Lanka in order to make
food systems more sustainable. Authors argue that interrelationships among various elements of the food system should be given due consideration in designing
and redesigning policies, institutions and technologies to address complex issues
governing the food systems of the country.
Keywords
Food systems · Sustainability · Agriculture · Nutrition · Sri Lanka
1
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
2
J. Weerahewa et al.
1.1
Food System: The Concept
1.1.1
What Is a Food System?
A food system goes beyond a farming system, the predecessor of the concept. A
farming system is predominantly an agricultural production system which generally
consists of crop, livestock, aquaculture, agroforestry and fruit crops to which farm
family allocates its scarce resources to reach a family goal. A food system comprises farming systems, their input supply systems and waste management systems
as well as the trade system and health system. The Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) of the United Nations defines a food system as “the entire range of actors and
their interlinked value-adding activities involved in the production, aggregation,
processing, distribution, consumption and disposal of food products that originate
from agriculture, forestry or fisheries, and parts of the broader economic, societal
and natural environments in which they are embedded”. Figure 1.1 illustrates the
key subcomponents of a typical food system. The characteristic feature in a food
system, as in any other system, is the interconnectedness among its subsystems.
Due to this characteristic, a change that originates from one subsystem will impact
on all other subsystems.
1.1.2
Why Sustainable Food Systems?
A sustainable food system is a food system that produces and accesses food in a
sustainable manner and provides food and nutritional needs of the present as well as
future generations. By definition, sustainable food systems generate economic
A well- nourished food secure nation
Agricultural
Research
Sustainable agriculture production systems
Markets
Policies
Institutions
Crop
Livestock and
Poultry
Fisheries
Efficient and environmentally friendly raw
material supply systems
Natural
resources –
Water and land
Genetic
materials
Agricultural
inputs – Seeds,
fertilizers
Agricultural
services –
Extension,
Insurance,
Finance
Society/culture
Fig. 1.1 Key components of a sustainable food system
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
1
Food Systems in Sri Lanka: Components, Evolution, Challenges and Opportunities
3
returns to all the actors involved, provide benefits to the society and do less or no
harm to the natural environment. Sustainable food systems are needed to achieve
most of the targets of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Reshaping of unsustainable or not-so-sustainable food systems into sustainable
food systems is one of the major challenges faced by the globe in the present era.
The challenges are multiple and multifaceted. For some countries, the critical challenge is to make the food system more productive, whereas for others, it is to make
them more inclusive of poor and marginalized populations (see Chap. 2 for issues in
Sri Lanka). Many countries are in the process of transforming their food systems to
be more environmentally sustainable and resilient and able to deliver healthy and
nutritious diets to all. All these require combinations of interconnected actions at the
local, national, regional and global levels.
1.1.3
hy Food System Approach Is Needed to Achieve
W
Development Targets?
A system approach is required to address problems in a system as the given solution
would have implications on all the components in the system. Food systems are not
exceptions to this rule. Better solutions for many food and agricultural issues, i.e.
food and nutrition insecurity, climate change, natural disasters, etc., can be provided
when the interrelationships among various elements of the food system are given
the due consideration. This enables to examine all social, environmental and economic impacts of a given solution. This also facilitates multi-stakeholder collaboration and policy coordination at different levels which is the order of the present era.
1.2
Measuring Performance and Drivers of Food Systems
Performance of a food system is generally measured using agricultural productivity,
quality and safety of the produce, nutrition and health, farm income and employment, women empowerment, degree of agro-industrialization, food and nutrition
security of the nation it serves and the degree of depletion of natural resources,
particularly land and water. There is an increased concern over certain other aspects
of the food system, and measures are being developed to assess the nature of food
items produced (whether they are highly processed, high-calorie and low nutritional
valued; see Chap. 2), provision of market access to small-scale producers and agri-­
enterprises, food loss and waste, incidences of food safety (see Chaps. 7–9), animal
and human health issues (see Chap. 11), and energy-intensity and ecological footprint associated with the lengthening and industrialization of food supply chains.
Identification of drivers of food system is of paramount importance as it paves
the way to correct the weaknesses in the food systems and make them sustainable.
Rapid population growth, urbanization, growing wealth, changing consumption
patterns, globalization and climate change are the key natural drivers of food systems. The man-made drivers include technologies, policies and institutions.
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
4
J. Weerahewa et al.
1.3
Evolution of Food Systems of Sri Lanka
1.3.1
The Key Components of the Food System
Foods systems in Sri Lanka are diverse and can be broadly classified as traditional
food systems, mixed food systems and modern food systems. Chena cultivations
and home-garden systems are examples for traditional food systems (see Chap. 3),
which are characterized by subsistent production and/or exchanges of primary
­produce in informal markets with short and local supply chains. Mixed food systems are characterized by semi-subsistence or commercial production and food
manufacturing where the processed foods are packaged, labelled and sold in both
formal and informal markets with frequent branding and advertising. Modern food
systems comprise more diverse food production options all year long, with significant processing and packaging to extend food’s shelf life, food safety being monitored and enforced, and storage and transport infrastructures such as cold chains are
generally prevalent and reliable. The systems involving food production by large
farmers, cultivations in protected agriculture (see Chap. 9), food processing in
­factory industries, retailing in supermarket chains, connections with global value
chains, etc. can be treated as modern food systems of Sri Lanka.
1.3.2
gricultural Production System in the Economy of Sri
A
Lanka
Sri Lanka had been a self-sufficient economy comprising a peasant agricultural
­sector with little international trade, till the country fell totally under British colonial rule in 1815 (see Chap. 7). The interest of the British rulers was to establish an
export agricultural sector consisting of large plantations. For this purpose, an overt
land grabbing campaign sanctioned by the government through the Crown Land
Ordinance of 1840 was launched. This restricted traditional land use and ownership
patterns making a large proportion of hitherto used and unused land available for
European investors (IPS 2004). Foreign capital was invested on establishing large
plantations in such acquired lands resulting in a steep rise in the acreage under the
“Export Agricultural Sector”, while the neglected “Peasant Agricultural Sector”
stagnated producing mainly for household consumption with a little surplus of food
crops aimed at local markets (Samaratunga 2012). In fact, the role of the domestic
food production was further marginalized by the depressed prices in these markets
emerged following the widespread promotion of cheap imported foods. Following
these changes, the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) grew fast with the export
earnings of the plantation agriculture, while the contribution of the peasant food
crops sector gradually shrank.
The first change in this pattern appeared as a result of “nationalistic thinking”
emerged within the local political movement. In order to promote domestic food
production and to distribute land among the landless in the wet zone of the country,
the Land Development Ordinance of 1933 was enacted under which large irrigation
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
We Don’t reply in this website, you need to contact by email for all chapters
Instant download. Just send email and get all chapters download.
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
You can also order by WhatsApp
https://api.whatsapp.com/send/?phone=%2B447507735190&text&type=ph
one_number&app_absent=0
Send email or WhatsApp with complete Book title, Edition Number and
Author Name.
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
1
Food Systems in Sri Lanka: Components, Evolution, Challenges and Opportunities
5
projects were undertaken in the dry zone. Further, the developed lands were ­alienated
to the landless from other areas, chiefly for production of rice, the country’s main
staple food. This started a marginal upward trend in the domestic food production
sector. This trend was further reinforced by the scarcity and high prices of imported
food, mainly rice, during the World War II from the early 1930s to the mid-1940s. It
was in this backdrop that Sri Lanka gained her political independence in 1948 which
had serious implications on food production and consumption in the country.
From this point onwards, the drive for domestic food production was given
prominence with self-sufficiency in rice as the prime objective. With continued
land development and support prices for rice, the domestic food production sector
growth picked up some momentum, and this was further strengthened after 1960
by the increasing prices of imported food items. The start of the present epoch of
growing domestic food production was therefore marked around this period.
However, in spite of the absolute growth of agriculture (comprising both food and
plantation crops), its share in the total GDP has been steadily declining since 1950
onwards. The economic policy paradigm adopted by the Sri Lankan government
during these years was clearly of import substitution orientation, and restrictions
on imports and sporadic price supports imposed on domestic food crops supported
further the growth of domestic food production sector. Nevertheless, this change
did not help the country in alleviating her food importation burden. Figure 1.2
depicts that the food imports bill has been, on a long run trend, rising in both absolute terms and as a percentage of the total exports. However, the food imports as a
percentage of total imports have remained constant, due to the faster increasing
non-food imports. All these point to the unabated import dependency problem in
the food sector of Sri Lanka.
18000000
16000000
0.14
14000000
0.12
12000000
0.1
10000000
0.08
8000000
0.06
6000000
0.04
4000000
0.02
2017
2015
2013
2011
2009
2007
2005
2003
2001
1999
1997
1995
1993
1991
1989
1987
1985
1983
1981
1979
1977
2000000
0
Food imports %
Food imports (US $)
0.16
Food import (Constant 2010 US$)
Food import as a % of total imports
Food import as a % of total export
0
Year
Fig. 1.2 Values of food imports in absolute and proportional terms
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
6
J. Weerahewa et al.
GDP (Constant 2010 US$)
Agricultural GDP
Agriculture, forestry and fishing value added (% of the GDP)
8E+10
35
30
7E+10
25
GDP (US $)
6E+10
5E+10
20
4E+10
15
3E+10
10
2E+10
5
1E+10
Agricultural GDP (% Total)
9E+10
0
2017
2015
2013
2011
2009
2007
2005
2003
2001
1999
1997
1995
1993
1991
1989
1987
1985
1983
1981
1979
1977
0
Axis Title
Fig. 1.3 Trends in GDP and agricultural GDP
The strategy of import substitution came to an end following the radical political
change of 1977 (see Fig. 1.3 for changes in GDP and agriculture GDP during 1977–
2018). The new regime immediately liberalized trade and adopted an export promotion development strategy in the years that followed. This changed the relative price
structure facing domestic agriculture, bringing about drastic changes in food production and consumption. In fact, it is the paradigm following this change that initiated and still governs the trends in the food production and consumption sector of
Sri Lanka.
1.4
Performance of Food Systems in Sri Lanka
1.4.1
Agricultural Production System
Rice is a success story in Sri Lanka. According to the Department of Census and
Statistics of Sri Lanka (2019), paddy yields have increased steadily from 1588 to
4446 kg/ha during 1952–2015, and this was associated with an increase in the total
production of paddy from 604 to 4819 million kg during the same period (see
Chaps. 5 and 7).
Lower land productivity of many crops and livestock, except for paddy, compared to those of neighbouring countries has been highlighted by many experts. The
growth in agricultural output has been found to be driven by input growth more than
productivity growth. Though the total factor productivity has grown over 1961–
2013 period in Sri Lanka, its performance compared to those of other developing
countries is found to be not satisfactory. It has been argued that agricultural value
chains in Sri Lanka are characterized by a large number of scatted small-scale producers, concentrated food processing sector, inadequate linkages with the global
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
1
Food Systems in Sri Lanka: Components, Evolution, Challenges and Opportunities
7
value chains (despite the unique characteristics of certain agricultural products) and
inadequate diversification at the farm level and export level (despite the diversification of diet). Concerns have been expressed regarding malpractices in agrochemical
application (see Chap. 7) in certain production systems claiming the association
between the same and human health hazards such as chronic kidney diseases.
Limited land and labour availability for agricultural production and the spread of
agricultural production among a large number of small semi-subsistence farmers are
two key challenges to enhance the efficiency of the agricultural production system.
1.4.2
Agricultural Marketing System
Traditionally, agricultural marketing system is a complex process, involving a large
number of intermediaries handling a number of agricultural commodities, which are
seasonal and bulky and some are highly perishable. This process involves assembling, grading, processing, storage, transportation, wholesaling and retailing apart
from pre- and postharvest operations. Supporting services such as financing, market
research is also important. Since the early 1970s, successive governments in Sri
Lanka have intervened in agricultural marketing by various ways that include offering guaranteed prices to farmers for selected food crops. The two main objectives of
government intervention in agricultural marketing were to stabilize food prices and
to ensure that farmers receive remunerative prices for their produce (Weliwita and
Epaarachchi 2003). Since 1977, the role of the state intervention gradually diminished, and the private sector participation has spread in every facet of the agricultural marketing partly due to the obvious failure in state intervention and partly due
to renowned interest on market-based alternatives and innovation mechanisms. The
key advantages of market-based instruments were assurance of future revenues,
comparatively low cost of implementation and shifting the risks to traders who are
willing to take the price risk (Varangis and Larson 1996).
Currently, the agricultural marketing is a private sector operation except for necessary government intervention during market failures especially during the best
performing years and the bad weathered years. Traditional agricultural marketing
system is plagued with the issues like high price fluctuation; high marketing margins; lack of integration between input supply, production and marketing; and heavy
postharvest losses (Karunagoda 2010). However, rapid and ongoing changes are
occurring in domestic and export procurement systems, with the growing dominance of supermarkets, high-quality retail, bulk procurement by domestic manufacturing firms and increased quality awareness in the global trading system. This
phenomenon has been further influenced by urbanization, income increases,
increased migration of Sri Lankan citizens, increased female participation in the
labour force, etc. (Samaratunga 2007). Consequently, new demand patterns have
emerged, shifting the focus towards continuous supply of high-quality, value-added
products with improved processing, packaging and labelling. The most intractable
issue arising from the global market is public concern regarding food safety in
industrialized countries that has resulted in increased and tightened public standards
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
8
J. Weerahewa et al.
over the past two decades (IPS 2015). As in other developing countries, the food
retail market in Sri Lanka has gradually evolved from fragmented local markets to
centralized wholesale markets and eventually to the emergence of supermarkets
(Samaratunga and Marawila 2006). This might have simplified the traditional
­complex value chains of domestically produced food commodities and developed
modern value chains that integrate small producers with the dynamic markets.
1.4.3
Food and Nutrition Security
The average dietary energy supply adequacy increased from 103 to 115, and prevalence of undernutrition decreased from 3.5 million to 1.9 million from 1999/2001 to
2016/2018 (FAO 2019). Poverty is a rural phenomenon in Sri Lanka, and the head
count index of poverty decreased from 26.1% to 4.1% from 1990/1991 to 2016
(Department of Census and Statistics 2017), which is highly attributable to increase
in agricultural wages that grew annually by an average of 5.7% during 2006–2013.
However, child malnutrition as measured by underweight, stunting and wasting has
not significantly decreased during the period 2006–2016 (Department of Census
and Statistics 2019) (see Chap. 2).
For a country that suffers no significant food shortages and demonstrates high
scores for education and health services, it is rather paradoxical to note the status
with respect to some of the indicators of undernutrition. Though there is a clear
decline in numbers, 1.9 million of the Sri Lankan population does not have access
to their energy requirement. Sixteen per cent children are born with low birthweight—and around same per cent of under-fives are reported to be stunted, rising
as high as 32.4%, in some deprived districts (Department of Census and Statistics
2019). According to the Food Security Survey conducted by the Department of
Census and Statistics (2014a), among the 10.3% who are food insecure, 30.1% are
severely food insecure, 39.3% are moderately insecure, 21.7% are mildly food insecure and 8.9% are marginally food insecure.
The second burden of malnutrition, i.e. micronutrient deficiencies is also widespread in Sri Lanka. In a recent survey, results show that of all anaemic children
52.3% are iron deficient and of the children population 5.1% are zinc deficient
(Ministry of Health and UNICEF 2012). The study also shows the relatively high
prevalence (47.6%) of calcium deficiency with a wide interdistrict variation ranging
from 23.1% in Badulla District and 70.3% in Matale District.
Overweight and obesity, which is the cause of many non-communicable d­ iseases,
is the third burden of malnutrition. Overweight was observed even among schoolchildren of Sri Lanka (Mohamed 2015). According to the survey on self-­reported
health, the highest number of cases reported is on high blood pressure (39.0%), and
diabetes cases are the second highest (30.4%). The prevalence of diabetes in the
population age 15 years and above is higher in districts of Colombo, Kalutara and
Puttalam. The prevalence of high blood pressure for the same population is higher
than 10% in several districts. The prevalence for all selected chronic illnesses is
clearly increasing with age (Department of Census and Statistics 2014b).
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
1
Food Systems in Sri Lanka: Components, Evolution, Challenges and Opportunities
1.4.4
9
Policies, Institutions and Regulations
As stated earlier, Sri Lanka embarked on an extensive economic liberalization
­process in 1977, and it had dramatic effects on all components of food system. The
first round of reform measures covered most aspects of economic policy, including
trade policy. For the agricultural commodities however Sri Lanka has traditionally
pursued a two-pronged agricultural policy. One was applied to the plantation sector,
which grows export crops such as tea, rubber and coconut. The sector benefited
from some incentives provided for export expansion and foreign exchange. The
other was applied to the non-plantation sector, based on smallholders’ production of
mainly basic foods. The sector, sometimes referred to as “subsistence agricultural
sector”, was also provided with a fair degree of protection from imports. It was also
assisted with subsidized inputs, particularly of fertilizer, seeds and planting material, and through other support measures, such as low interest credit, guaranteed
marketing through virtually free irrigation water. With the openness to trade, agricultural exports remain one of the most important sectors in the total exports and
contribute around a quarter of the total exports.
1.5
he Way Forward for Sri Lanka: Opportunities
T
and Challenges
Scattered nature of production which made the quality assurance across agricultural
producers difficult and a poor adherence to quality standards are observed in many
agricultural value chains. Collective behaviour among farmers is lacking in Sri
Lanka and the bargaining power of farmer organizations is poor. The conflicting
political ideologies of the ruling governments also block design and implementation
of rational and pragmatic development policies for the country to a greater degree.
Poor governance with respect to public provisions has also been observed. Being
competitive in the export market is a challenge due to rising labour costs. Value
addition is largely done by the small and medium enterprises which do not have
sufficient access to finance. Most large enterprises do not wish to invest in Sri Lanka
due to policy uncertainty. Outmigration of young and males from the agricultural
sector, non-communicable disease burden and health risks associated with chronic
kidney disease of uncertain aetiology (CKDu), land and soil degradation and climate change are the other challenges to develop its agricultural sector.
The growth in the agricultural sector could help to a greater extent in alleviating
poverty in rural areas. The incidences of poverty have reduced significantly over the
past decade in Sri Lanka despite its stagnant economic growth and productivity
growth. Interestingly, an overall widening of inequality particularly across geographical areas can be observed and agricultural provinces being the least developed regions in the country. On one hand, it is claimed that the country relies heavily
on natural resources to support economic growth, and hence there is an urgent need
to evaluate environmental impacts of fast economic growth rate. On the other hand,
some experts argue that stringent environmental regulations prevented the establishment of large-scale agricultural production units of the country.
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
10
J. Weerahewa et al.
Despite the above challenges, Sri Lanka is blessed with myriad of opportunities
to strengthen its food systems. Sri Lanka’s strategic location provides ample opportunities to trade with the growing Asia, which would benefit its local agribusiness
and consumers alike. The growing middle class of the country and increased tourist
arrivals enhance domestic demand for high-value agricultural products and value-­
added products as well. The country is situated in a strategic location, and it can be
the maritime hub in the region. There is a large room for agricultural value addition
through establishment export processing zones. The country has already an established name for quality products (intrinsic qualities of tea, cinnamon, pepper, etc.),
and it can build on this reputation in making its exports more competitive.
Furthermore, the country possesses a group of highly qualified and renowned agricultural professionals. Most of all, the successive governments have been treating
its agricultural sector in a very special manner, and the needed political commitment
is there.
References
Central Bank of Sri Lanka (various years) (n.d.) Central Bank Annual Report
Department of Census and Statistics (2014a) Household food security survey report. http://www.
statistics.gov.lk/agriculture/Publications/HFS_Survey2014.pdf. Accessed 26 Aug 2019
Department of Census and Statistics (2014b) National survey on self-reported health. http://www.
statistics.gov.lk/social/National%20Survey%20on%20Self-reported%20Health-2014.pdf.
Accessed 26 Aug 2019
Department of Census and Statistics (2017) Poverty indicators. ISSN 1391 – 4693. http://www.
statistics.gov.lk/poverty/Poverty%20Indicators_2016.pdf. Accessed 26 Aug 2019
Department of Census and Statistics (2019) Demographic and Health Surveys. http://www.statistics.gov.lk/page.asp?page=Health. Accessed 26 Aug 26 2019
Department of Census and Statistics of Sri Lanka (2019) Paddy statistics. http://www.statistics.
gov.lk/agriculture/Paddy%20Statistics/PaddyStatsPages/PaddyAnnualSHYP.html. Accessed
26 Aug 2019
Food and Agriculture Organization (2019) FAOSTAT—Sri Lanka. http://www.fao.org/faostat/
en/#country/38. Accessed 26 Aug 2019
IPS (2004) Land policy in Sri Lanka. In: State of the economy 2004. The Institute of Policy
Studies, Colombo
IPS (2015) State of the economy report 2015. The Institute of Policy Studies, Colombo
Karunagoda K (2010) Sri Lanka—value chain of rice, coconut, fruits and vegetables and milk.
Background paper prepared for FAO project on articulating and mainstreaming trade policies,
Colombo, Sri Lanka
Ministry of Health and UNICEF (2012) National Nutrition and Micronutrient Survey. https://
geonode.wfp.org/documents/2454. Accessed 26 Aug 2019
Mohamed SM (2015) Childhood obesity: epidemiology, determinants, and prevention. J Nutr
Disord Ther 5:156. https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-0509.100015
Samaratunga P (2007) Sri Lanka: innovative practice in integrating small farmers into dynamic
supply chains: a case study of Ma’s Tropical Food Company. Regoverning markets innovative
practice series. International Institute for Environment and Development, London
Samaratunga P (2012) Achieving economic efficiency and equitable distribution of land use
through reforms and/or market discipline. In: Kelegama S, Gunewardena D (eds) Economic and
social development under a market economy regime in Sri Lanka—Buddhadasa Hevavitharana
Felicitation, vol 2. Vijitha Yapa Publications, Colombo
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
1
Food Systems in Sri Lanka: Components, Evolution, Challenges and Opportunities
11
Samaratunga P, Marawila D (2006) Major characteristics and their determinants of the rural land
sector in Sri Lanka and implications for policy, research studies. Agricultural Policy Series No.
7. The Institute of Policy Studies, Colombo
Varangis P, Larson DF (1996) Dealing with commodity price uncertainty. Policy Research Working
Paper 1667. The World Bank, Washington, DC
Weliwita A, Epaarachchi R (2003) Forward contracts: a market based alternative to government
intervention in agriculture marketing in Sri Lanka. Agricultural policy series. Institute of Policy
Studies of Sri Lanka, Colombo
World Bank (various years) (n.d.) World development indicators. http://datatopics.worldbank.org/
world-development-indicators/. Accessed 24 Aug 2019
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
We Don’t reply in this website, you need to contact by email for all chapters
Instant download. Just send email and get all chapters download.
Get all Chapters For Ebook Instant Download by email at
etutorsource@gmail.com
You can also order by WhatsApp
https://api.whatsapp.com/send/?phone=%2B447507735190&text&type=ph
one_number&app_absent=0
Send email or WhatsApp with complete Book title, Edition Number and
Author Name.