The Making of the Modern Middle East
Q:What were the three major Islamic Empires?
A: The Ottoman Empire, the Safavid Empire, and the Mughal Empire were the three major
Islamic empires
Q: Why is Arabic signi cant for the Middle East?
A: The spread of Islam after the seventh century was accompanied by the spread of the Arabic
language. This helped create a common historical experience that continues to in uence the
region today.
Q: What innovations did the printing press bring to the Middle East?
A: The printing press led to simpli ed Arabic, standardized grammar, and the creation of
newspapers4. These made it easier for people across the region to communicate with one
another and contributed to the idea of a shared Arab identity4.
Q: What was the impact of the Tanzimat reforms on the Ottoman Empire?
A: The Tanzimat reforms were a series of governmental changes that led to the creation of new
institutions like a postal service and modern universities, codi cation of law, and the
standardization of weights and measures in the Ottoman Empire.
Q: How did British interests impact the Middle East at the start of the 20th century?
A: British interests in the Middle East at the start of the 20th century focused on oil and India6.
Oil became a strategic asset when the Royal Navy switched from coal to oil6. At the same
time, the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 made it crucial for Britain to protect its supply lines
to British India6.
Q: What was the outcome of the Arab Revolt?
A: The Arab Revolt led by Hussein’s son, Faisal, helped British troops oust Ottoman forces
from Palestine and Transjordan during World War I6.
Q: What did the Balfour Declaration promise?
A: The Balfour Declaration promised British support for a “national home” for the Jews in
Palestine. This was seen as a strategic move to potentially gain Jewish support for the British
in World War I.
Q: How did the Sykes-Picot Agreement contradict the promises made to Sharif Hussein?
A: The Sykes-Picot Agreement, a secret agreement between Britain and France, contradicted
the promises made to Sharif Hussein of an independent Arab kingdom. Instead, the agreement
divided the Middle East into areas of British and French control.
The Israeli-Palestinian Con ict
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Q: What was the Zionist movement?
A: Zionism was a Jewish nationalist movement that advocated for the establishment of a
Jewish homeland in Palestine7.
Q: What was the impact of the 1939 British White Paper on Palestine?
A: The 1939 British White Paper on Palestine limited Jewish immigration to Palestine and
proposed an independent Palestinian state within ten years. This increased tensions between
the British, the Zionists, and the Arab population in Palestine.
Q: How did the United Nations partition plan for Palestine in 1947 impact the region?
A: The 1947 UN partition plan for Palestine proposed dividing the territory into independent
Jewish and Arab states, with Jerusalem under international control10. The plan was accepted
by Zionist leaders but rejected by Arab leaders, which led to the 1948 Arab-Israeli War10.
States and Institutions
Q: Why did states in the Middle East and North Africa struggle to develop strong
institutions?
A: In many cases, societies in the Middle East and North Africa su ered from limited
participation, social inequalities, sectarian strife, stalled economic development, and
international interference11. This is partly due to weak state development and a lack of
institutions that ensure fair distribution of goods and services11.
Q: What are the four core functions of legislatures?
A: Legislatures represent the demands of di erent constituencies, shape public policy, oversee
the executive branch, and provide constituency service. Strong legislatures are vital for
e ective governance.
Q: Why is an independent judiciary important for democracy?
A: An independent judiciary ensures human rights, secures property rights, and promotes
responsive governance by holding those in power accountable13.
Q: How does the media play a role in shaping public opinion?
A: Media outlets play a vital role in disseminating information, shaping public discourse, and
in uencing public opinion.
Religion, Society, and Politics in the Middle East
Q: What factors in uence how religion manifests in a society?
A: Religion as a social phenomenon is shaped by evolving interpretations of religious texts,
leadership of religious gures, laypeople's engagement in religious practices, and the use of
religion for political and social goals15.
Q: Why is it misleading to speak of religions like Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as
single entities?
A: It is misleading to speak of religions like Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as single entities
because they have diverse interpretations and practices. Each religion has given rise to a
variety of communities, beliefs, and rituals that have evolved over time.
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Q: What are the ve factors used to measure government involvement in religion?
A: The ve factors used to measure government involvement in religion are:
- The o cial role of religion in the state
- Whether the state restricts or gives preferential treatment to some religions
- Restrictions on minority religious practices
- Regulation of the majority religion
- Whether the state legislates religion
Q: What does the range in the index of government involvement in religion suggest?
A: The wide range in the index of government involvement in religion, from 22.17 for Lebanon
to 77.56 for Saudi Arabia, indicates the signi cant variation in how religion and politics
intertwine across di erent Middle Eastern states.
Social Change in the Middle East
Q: What are some signi cant societal changes in the Middle East since World War II?
A: Some signi cant societal changes in the Middle East since World War II include rapid
population growth, urbanization, rising literacy rates, and increasing access to technology.
Q: What are some of the factors that contributed to the Arab Spring?
A: The Arab Spring uprisings were fueled by a complex interplay of factors, including economic
grievances, social inequalities, political repression, and the use of new communication
technologies1718.
Q: How have new technologies impacted political activism in the Middle East?
A: New technologies have provided platforms for voicing dissent, mobilizing protests, and
disseminating information. The internet and mobile phones have played a key role in
connecting activists, exposing human rights abuses, and challenging state control.
The Political Economy of Development in the Middle East
Q: What are the key challenges to economic development in the Middle East?
A: The Middle East faces various challenges to economic development, including dependence
on oil revenues, political instability, corruption, lack of diversi cation, and high unemployment
rates, especially among youth.
Q: How do oil revenues impact political and economic development?
A: While oil revenues have brought wealth to some countries, they have also contributed to
economic inequality, political instability, and a lack of economic diversi cation19.
International Relations
Q: What are the major sources of power in the Middle East?
A: Power in the Middle East is determined by a combination of military capabilities, economic
resources (especially oil), ideological in uence, media platforms, and strategic alliances21.
Q: What are some of the key regional organizations in the Middle East?
A: Some key regional organizations in the Middle East include the Arab League, the Gulf
Cooperation Council, and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation.
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Algeria
Q: What are the main political parties in Algeria?
A: Some of Algeria’s main political parties include the National Liberation Front (FLN), the
National Rally for Democracy (RND), and the Rally for Culture and Democracy (RCD)23.
Q: What is the historical context of Algeria's formation as a state?
A: Algeria's modern history is marked by its prolonged period as a French colony from 1830 to
1962. The native Algerian population endured discrimination under French rule, and it was not
until the 1950s that they were granted full French citizenship. The discovery of oil in the Sahara
Desert in 1956, during the Algerian War of Independence (1954-1962), signi cantly impacted
the country's trajectory. After gaining independence in 1962, Algeria adopted a socialist path
with a one-party system and a state-controlled economy. The transition to a multi-party system
and attempts at democratization in the post-Cold War era were met with challenges, including
political violence and the "dirty war" of the 1990s, which resulted in an estimated 250,000
deaths.
Q: What is the role of the army in Algeria’s political system?
A: Despite the formal adoption of a multiparty system and democratic institutions, the Algerian
army continues to wield signi cant in uence in the country's politics. While Algeria has a
constitution, free elections, and freedom of speech, the army remains the ultimate source of
power, in uencing the selection of political leaders and ensuring they adhere to the unwritten
rule of the Algerian political system: The army is the sole source of power. Although reluctant to
establish a full- edged dictatorship, the military leadership believes in supervising and
controlling civilian elites to prevent potential betrayal of the nation. This in uence is seen in the
lack of independence of the judiciary from the army-overseen government.
Q: What are the major political parties in Algeria and what are their positions?
A: The sources provide information on several key political parties in Algeria:
- FLN (National Liberation Front): The FLN was the dominant party during the one-party rule
era and continues to be a major political force. While it presents itself as a nationalist party, it
is often seen as a vehicle for maintaining the status quo and perpetuating the army's
in uence in politics.
- RND (National Rally for Democracy): The RND is often viewed as a party closely aligned with
the military establishment and the presidency.
- Islamist Parties: Several Islamist parties exist in Algeria, including the MSP (Movement of
Society for Peace), the oldest and largest; Nahda; El Islah; and the MNR (Movement for
National Renaissance). These parties advocate for incorporating Islamic principles into
governance but di er in their approaches and strategies. The FIS (Islamic Salvation Front),
which won the 1991 elections that were subsequently annulled, triggering the "dirty war", no
longer exists.
- FFS (Front of the Socialist Forces): The FFS is a non-Islamist opposition party that
advocates for democratic values, including freedom of expression and human rights. It is
critical of both the military's role in politics and the in uence of Islamist parties.8
- PT (Workers' Party): The PT is a leftist party that focuses on economic and social justice
issues. It has been critical of liberal economic reforms and advocates for strengthening the
public sector.
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Q: How has Algeria’s economy been impacted by its dependence on oil?
Q: What is the relationship between Algeria’s domestic politics and its foreign policy?
A: Algeria’s domestic politics and its history have shaped its foreign policy. During the Cold War
era, Algeria aligned with the Soviet Union and positioned itself as a champion of anti-imperialist
movements. This stance provided support for national liberation movements worldwide,
particularly in Africa. After the Cold War, Algeria shifted its foreign policy, becoming more
aligned with Western powers, especially the United States, in the context of combating
terrorism. However, Algeria’s relationship with the US has been complex, marked by periods of
cooperation and tension related to human rights issues and Algeria's internal con icts.
Algeria's foreign policy is also shaped by its ongoing con ict with Morocco over the Western
Sahara. This con ict has hampered regional cooperation and hindered Algeria's diplomatic
in uence in the Arab world. More recently, Algeria has maintained a relatively neutral stance on
major regional crises, like those in Syria, Libya, and Yemen.
Q: What were the major events of the 2019 “joyful revolution” in Algeria?
A: The “joyful revolution” in Algeria began in February 2019 as massive peaceful protests
erupted across the country in response to President Abdelaziz Boute ika's announcement that
he would seek a fth term in o ce, despite his advanced age and health issues. The protests,
remarkable for their peaceful nature and inclusivity, brought together diverse segments of
Algerian society, demanding not only Boute ika's removal but also a fundamental change in
the political system. Under pressure from the protests and the army, Boute ika eventually
resigned. The "joyful revolution" marked a turning point in Algeria's political history, challenging
the military's long-standing dominance and raising hopes for a more democratic future.
Q: What type of government does Algeria have?
A: Algeria has a semi-presidential republic system, where the president is the head of state and
shares power with the prime minister, who acts as the head of government.
Q: Who is the current president of Algeria?
A: The current president of Algeria is Abdelmadjid Tebboune, who took o ce in December
2019 following the resignation of long-time president Abdelaziz Boute ika.
Q: What major event led to Abdelaziz Boute ika's resignation in 2019?
A: Boute ika's resignation was prompted by widespread anti-government protests known as
the Hirak Movement, which called for political reforms and an end to corruption and
authoritarian rule.
Q: What is the role of the military in Algerian politics?
A: The military has historically played a signi cant role in Algerian politics, acting as a key
power broker and often in uencing political decisions and leadership transitions.
Q: What are some of the main challenges facing Algeria’s political system?
A: Key challenges include political corruption, a lack of genuine political reform, high youth
unemployment, and economic dependency on oil and gas revenues.
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Q: What measures has President Tebboune taken since coming to power?
A: President Tebboune has promised political and constitutional reforms, including the 2020
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A: Algeria's economy is heavily reliant on oil and gas exports, which constitute a signi cant
portion of its revenue. This dependence on hydrocarbons has made the country vulnerable to
uctuations in global energy prices. While the discovery of oil in the 1950s initially boosted the
economy and allowed for investments in industrialization and social programs, this heavy
investment did not lead to sustainable growth. Algeria faces the challenge of diversifying its
economy to reduce reliance on oil and gas.
constitutional referendum, which aimed to limit presidential terms and reduce the military's
political in uence, though critics argue that substantial changes have yet to materialize.
Q: How does Algeria's economy impact its politics?
A: Algeria's economy is heavily dependent on oil and gas exports, which account for a large
share of government revenue. Fluctuating global oil prices signi cantly impact the economy
and contribute to economic instability and public discontent.
Q: What is the signi cance of the Hirak Movement?
A: The Hirak Movement was a peaceful protest movement that began in February 2019. It
called for an overhaul of the political system, greater transparency, and an end to the ruling
elite’s hold on power. It led to President Boute ika's resignation but continues to in uence calls
for reform.
Q: What human rights concerns are associated with Algeria?
A: Human rights organizations have reported restrictions on freedom of expression, press, and
assembly in Algeria, particularly in response to the Hirak Movement and other dissenting
voices.
Q: What role does Algeria play in regional politics?
A: Algeria is a key player in North African and Sahel regional politics, advocating for noninterference and acting as a mediator in regional con icts. It maintains a complex relationship
with Morocco due to the ongoing Western Sahara dispute and has strong ties with Russia as a
major arms supplier.
Egypt
Q: What was the signi cance of the 1952 revolution in Egypt?
A: The 1952 revolution in Egypt, led by Gamal Abdel Nasser, ended the monarchy, established
a republic, and ushered in a period of socialist economic policies and pan-Arab nationalism.
Q: What is considered the starting point for modern Egyptian politics and society?
A: Napoleon Bonaparte's invasion in 1798. While the French were only in Egypt for seven
years, they left a lasting impact on Egypt.
Q: How did the French invasion of Egypt impact the country?
A: The French brought the ideals of liberté, egalité, fraternité, fostered an interest in ancient
Egyptian history, catalogued the Nile valley's resources, and introduced technologies such as
the printing press.
Q: Who was Muhammad Ali, and what was his role in Egyptian history?
A: Muhammad Ali was an Albanian o cer in the Ottoman army sent to recapture Egypt from
the French in 1801. Through political maneuvering, he became the de facto ruler of Egypt and
established a dynasty that lasted until 1952. He implemented modernization reforms including
a new transport system, cotton cultivation, textile manufacturing, education, and a modern
military.
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Q: What was the signi cance of the Suez Canal for Egypt?
A: The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 led the Egyptian government to seek loans from
European creditors to fund infrastructure projects. When cotton prices collapsed, Egypt was
unable to repay its debts, leading to European control of Egypt's nances and ultimately the
British occupation of Egypt and Sudan in 1882.
Q: What role did the Wafd party play in Egyptian politics during the early 20th century?
A: The Wafd party, formed from a delegation of Egyptian nationalists who sought
independence at the Versailles peace conference, became Egypt's leading political party. It
participated in a three-way struggle for power with the king and the British during the decades
leading up to the 1952 revolution.
Q: Why did British High Commissioner Sir Miles Lampson force King Farouk to appoint a
Wafdist prime minister in 1942?
A: Lampson was worried that the Egyptian government was sympathetic to Germany during
World War II.
Q: How did Egypt participate in regional politics in the mid-20th century?
A: In 1945, Egypt joined other Arab states to establish the Arab League. In 1948, King Farouk
sent troops to ght in the Arab-Israeli War.
Q: Who were the Free O cers, and what were their goals?
A: The Free O cers were a group of Egyptian military o cers who overthrew the monarchy in
1952. They sought to establish a republic, end British occupation, promote social justice, and
establish sound democratic life (though their commitment to democracy was merely a slogan)
Q: What role did Gamal Abdel Nasser play in Egyptian politics?
A: Gamal Abdel Nasser was a leading member of the Free O cers and became president of
Egypt in 1954. He implemented socialist economic policies, promoted pan-Arab nationalism,
and played a key role in the Suez Crisis of 1956.
Q: What were the key features of Nasserism?
A: Nasserism was a political ideology characterized by populism, Arab socialism, antiimperialism, and nonalignment in the Cold War. It included land reform, nationalization of
industries, expanded education and health services, and support for the Palestinian cause.
Q: How did Nasser view formal institutions of representative democracy?
A: He believed that democracy was found in the lives of the people, not parliaments, and he
moved to dismantle the remnants of Egypt's democratic institutions after the revolution.
Q: How did Anwar al-Sadat's rule di er from Nasser's?
A: Sadat, who became president after Nasser's death in 1970, gradually liberalized Egypt's
economy and politics. He sought to move Egypt out of the Soviet orbit and into the American
one and aimed to attract foreign investment. He put a new, more liberal constitution in place,
legalized political parties, and held multiparty parliamentary elections in 1979.
Q: What changes did Hosni Mubarak introduce to Egyptian politics?
A: Mubarak, who succeeded Sadat, initially showed signs of political liberalization but
ultimately maintained Egypt's authoritarian system. He introduced multiparty elections for the
presidency in 2005, but his victory with 88% of the vote demonstrated that little had changed.
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Q: What was the role of the judiciary in Egyptian politics under Mubarak?
A: Despite Egypt's authoritarian system, the judiciary, particularly the Supreme Constitutional
Court, acted as a check on executive power. The court had the power to review the
constitutionality of government decisions and often ruled against the regime.
Q: What is the signi cance of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egyptian politics?
A: The Muslim Brotherhood, an Islamic political movement founded in 1928, has been a major
force in Egyptian politics. Banned by Nasser in 1954, it remained a powerful opposition group
and emerged as a potential challenger to the ruling party under Mubarak.
Q: What were some of the key economic challenges facing Egypt in recent decades?
A: Egypt has struggled to generate jobs for a rapidly growing population and to educate its
workforce for available positions. Unemployment is particularly high among young people and
university graduates.
Q: What were the goals of the economic reforms implemented in Egypt from the 1970s
onward?
A: The goal of these reforms was to shift Egypt away from state socialism toward a free-market
economy open to foreign investment.
Q: What were some of the challenges Egypt faced in implementing economic reforms?
A: Successive Egyptian governments struggled to balance the demands of foreign creditors for
market-oriented reforms with the needs of a population heavily reliant on state subsidies and
public sector employment.
Q: How has Egypt's regional role evolved since the 2011 revolution?
A: Since the 2011 revolution, Egypt's regional position has become uncertain. The country has
faced internal political turmoil and regional instability, including the rise of the Islamic State and
an increasingly assertive Iran.
Q: What type of government does Egypt have?
A: Egypt has a republican government with a strong presidential system. The president holds
signi cant executive power, including control over the military and legislative in uence.
Q: Who is the current president of Egypt?
A: The current president of Egypt is Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, who has been in power since 2014
after leading the military ousting of former President Mohamed Morsi in 2013.
Q: What is the main legislative body in Egypt?
A: The main legislative body in Egypt is the House of Representatives, which is responsible for
passing laws, approving the national budget, and monitoring the actions of the executive
branch.
Q: What event marked a signi cant change in Egyptian politics in 2011?
A: The 2011 Egyptian Revolution, part of the Arab Spring, marked a signi cant political change
as it led to the ousting of long-time President Hosni Mubarak after 30 years in power.
Q: What happened during Egypt’s 2013 military intervention?
A: In 2013, the military, led by then-General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, intervened to remove
President Mohamed Morsi from power following mass protests against Morsi’s government.
This led to the suspension of the constitution and the appointment of an interim government.
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Q: What signi cant reforms has President el-Sisi implemented?
A: President el-Sisi has implemented economic reforms, including reducing subsidies, securing
IMF loans, and promoting large-scale infrastructure projects. These reforms aim to modernize
the economy but have been criticized for their impact on the lower and middle classes.
Q: What are the main challenges facing Egypt’s economy?
A: Egypt faces major economic challenges such as high in ation, currency devaluation,
unemployment, and reliance on foreign aid and tourism revenues.
Q: What human rights concerns are associated with the current Egyptian government?
A: There are signi cant human rights concerns under President el-Sisi’s government, including
the suppression of political opposition, restrictions on freedom of expression and assembly,
and reports of arbitrary arrests and detentions.
Q: What role does the military play in Egyptian politics?
A: The military plays a powerful role in Egyptian politics, with substantial in uence over the
economy and national security. It is considered a pillar of support for President el-Sisi’s
administration and has a say in many key government decisions.
Q: How has Egypt’s foreign policy evolved under President el-Sisi?
A: Under President el-Sisi, Egypt has maintained strong relationships with Western allies,
particularly the United States, while also strengthening ties with Russia and Gulf states like
Saudi Arabia and the UAE to ensure economic and military support.
Q: What factors contributed to the strained relationship between Egypt and the United
States in the 1950s and 1960s?
A: Egypt's policy of nonalignment in the Cold War, Nasser's purchase of arms from
Czechoslovakia, and the Suez Crisis of 1956 led to tensions with the US.20
Jordan
Q: How did Jordan come into existence?
A: Jordan was created as Transjordan in 1921 by the British and was initially ruled by Amir
Abdallah, a son of Sharif Hussein25.
Q: How has Jordan been impacted by refugees and migration?
A: Jordan has been signi cantly impacted by waves of refugees, particularly from Palestine and
Syria, which has strained the country's resources and social fabric.
Q: What were the circumstances surrounding the establishment of Transjordan in 1921?
A: During World War I, British troops ousted Ottoman forces from Palestine and Transjordan
with the assistance of an army of Arab tribesmen raised by the Sharif Hussein of Mecca. In
exchange, the sharif had been promised an Arab kingdom, a realm he expected would stretch
from Palestine to Mesopotamia. Instead, London created thrones for two of his sons,
establishing Faisal as the monarch of Iraq and Abdallah as the amir of the new entity of
Transjordan.
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Q: What type of government does Jordan have?
A: Jordan has a constitutional monarchy, where the king holds signi cant executive and
legislative powers alongside an elected parliament.
Q: Who is the current king of Jordan?
A: The current king of Jordan is King Abdullah II, who has ruled since 1999, succeeding his
father, King Hussein.
Q: What is the structure of Jordan’s parliament?
A: Jordan’s parliament consists of two chambers: the House of Representatives (elected) and
the Senate (appointed by the king). The House plays a legislative role but operates within limits
set by the monarchy.
Q: What major challenges has Jordan faced in recent years?
A: Jordan has faced signi cant challenges including economic di culties, high unemployment
rates, reliance on foreign aid, and the impact of hosting large numbers of refugees from
neighboring con icts, especially Syria.
Q: What signi cant political reforms have been introduced in Jordan?
A: Recent political reforms include e orts to modernize the electoral system and promote
greater political participation through the establishment of the Royal Committee to Modernize
the Political System in 2021.
Q: What role does tribal in uence play in Jordanian politics?
A: Tribal in uence is signi cant in Jordan, as many parliamentary seats are occupied by
representatives with strong tribal a liations. This impacts political decision-making and loyalty
dynamics within the country.
Q: How does Jordan's relationship with its neighbors a ect its politics?
A: Jordan maintains a strategic balance in regional politics, holding peace treaties with Israel,
strong ties with Western allies, and careful relations with Gulf states and Iraq to ensure security
and economic stability.
Q: What role does the Muslim Brotherhood play in Jordanian politics?
A: The Muslim Brotherhood is a prominent political and social force in Jordan, primarily
represented by the Islamic Action Front. Although it participates in elections, its in uence has
been challenged by government crackdowns and restrictions.
Q: What are the main economic issues facing Jordan?
A: Jordan struggles with economic challenges such as budget de cits, public debt, high youth
unemployment, and limited natural resources, making it dependent on foreign aid and
international assistance.
Q: How has the refugee crisis impacted Jordan?
A: The in ux of refugees, particularly from Syria, has put signi cant pressure on Jordan’s
economy, public services, and infrastructure, leading to calls for increased international
support to manage the situation.
Q: What is the historical signi cance of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War for Jordan?
A: After Transjordan's Arab Legion joined the battle in 1948, Transjordanian forces controlled
central and eastern Palestine, as well as East Jerusalem, by the time of the armistice in 1949.
Abdallah then annexed these territories, which became known as the West Bank, to the
kingdom. The name of his realm was changed to the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.
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Q: How did King Abdallah I's annexation of the West Bank impact Jordan's
demographics?
A: The annexation of the West Bank resulted in a massive in ux of Palestinian refugees,
dramatically increasing Jordan's population and introducing a signi cant Palestinian presence
within the kingdom.
Q: How did the in ux of Palestinian refugees into Jordan shape the country's social and
political landscape?
A: The arrival of Palestinian refugees led to tensions between the original inhabitants of
Transjordan (East Bankers) and the newcomers (Palestinians). These tensions were
exacerbated by the fact that many Palestinians felt a strong sense of Palestinian nationalism
and did not necessarily identify as Jordanian.
Q: How did the events of Black September in 1970 a ect relations between Jordanians of
Palestinian and East Banker origin?
A: The 1970 civil war, in which the Jordanian army clashed with Palestinian guerrilla
organizations, led to increased mistrust between East Bankers and Palestinians. The regime
and much of the Transjordanian population viewed Palestinians as potential traitors, and an
"East Banker rst" policy emerged, prioritizing Transjordanians in government and security
positions.
Q: What is the signi cance of Islam in Jordanian politics?
A: The ruling Hashemite family claims direct lineage to the Prophet Muhammad and derives
legitimacy from this connection. Islam is enshrined as the state religion in Jordan's
constitutions.
Q: What steps has the Jordanian government taken to promote a moderate interpretation
of Islam?
A: Jordan has established institutions such as the Royal Aal al-Bayt Institute for Islamic
Thought and the Royal Institute for Inter-Faith Studies to promote a tolerant understanding of
Islam. In 2004, Jordan issued The Amman Message, which called for tolerance and unity in the
Muslim world.
Q: Describe the distribution of power within Jordan's political system.
A: Jordan is a constitutional monarchy. While the king formally shares power with the
parliament, in practice he retains considerable authority, particularly over foreign policy and
security.
Q: How has the selection process for Jordan's prime minister evolved over time?
A: In 2013, the parliament was given a say in the selection of the prime minister. However, the
king still designates the head of government in practice.
Q: What factors in uence the composition of Jordan's cabinets?
A: Ministerial posts are typically assigned based on political considerations such as balancing
representation from di erent regions, religious groups, and tribes, as well as ensuring a
predominance of East Bankers over Palestinians.
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Q: What were the primary demands of Jordanian protesters during the Arab Spring
uprisings of 2011?
A: Protesters in Jordan called for political reforms, investigations into corruption, and a more
democratic system.
Q: What reforms were implemented in response to the 2011 protests?
A: The government investigated corruption cases, although the parliament did not prosecute
those charged. A new electoral law, widely seen as disappointing by reform advocates, was
approved in 2012.
Q: What was the signi cance of the 2017 local elections in Jordan?
A: In 2017, Jordan held its rst-ever local elections for twelve new governorates and one
hundred municipal and local councils. The elections, part of a decentralization program, were
intended to increase citizen participation. However, turnout was low, and candidates a liated
with the Muslim Brotherhood achieved unexpected successes.
Q: How have Jordan's political and social circumstances in uenced political participation
and associational life in the kingdom?
A: Political participation and associational life in Jordan have been signi cantly a ected by the
country's involvement in the Arab-Israeli con ict, its economic challenges, and the presence of
a large Palestinian population.
Q: Describe the evolution of Jordan's relationship with the Muslim Brotherhood.
A: After initially encouraging the Muslim Brotherhood in the 1990s, the Jordanian government
later sought to weaken the group, concerned about its growing popularity and in uence.
Q: What economic challenges has Jordan faced as a rentier economy?
A: Jordan has historically relied heavily on external sources of income, such as foreign aid and
remittances, rather than a strong domestic productive base. This dependence has made the
country vulnerable to shifts in regional politics and global economic trends.
Q: How has Jordan's dependence on external rent shaped its political system?
A: The need to secure external support has led Jordanian monarchs to cultivate close ties with
foreign powers, particularly the United States. This reliance on foreign aid has also in uenced
domestic politics, as the government has had to balance the demands of external donors with
the needs of its population.
Q: Explain how Jordan's regional alliances have evolved in response to regional con icts
and political shifts.
A: Jordan's regional alliances have shifted over time in response to changing regional
dynamics. For example, after the 1967 war, Jordan moved closer to Iraq, seeing Saddam
Hussein as a counterweight to the growing in uence of the Palestine Liberation Organization
(PLO).
Q: Describe the key features of Jordan's relationship with the United States.
A: Jordan has long been a close ally of the United States, receiving signi cant economic and
military assistance. The relationship has deepened in recent years as Jordan has cooperated
with the US in the "war on terror" and in addressing regional instability.
Q: What factors contributed to Jordan's decision to disengage from the West Bank in
1988?
A: King Hussein's decision to relinquish claims to the West Bank was driven by a combination
of factors, including the ongoing Palestinian uprising, the PLO's growing in uence among
Palestinians, and Jordan's desire to focus on its own domestic challenges.
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Q: What impact did the 1990-1991 Gulf War have on Jordan's economy?
A: The Gulf War had a devastating impact on Jordan's economy. The country lost its most
important trading partner (Iraq) and experienced a ood of refugees. International aid was
limited because of Jordan's refusal to join the US-led coalition against Iraq.
Q: What were some of the key economic reforms undertaken by Jordan in the 1990s and
2000s?
A: Jordan implemented a range of economic reforms, including diversifying its trading partners,
joining the World Trade Organization, and signing free trade agreements with the European
Union and the United States. The country also established special economic zones and
quali ed industrial zones to attract foreign investment.
Q: What are some of the ongoing economic challenges facing Jordan?
A: Despite economic reforms, Jordan continues to face challenges such as high
unemployment, a large public debt, and dependence on foreign aid.
Kuwait
Q: What is Kuwait’s form of government?
A: Kuwait is a constitutional monarchy with a hereditary emir as head of state.
Q: What were the circumstances surrounding the establishment of Kuwait in 1961?
A: The provided sources highlight Kuwait's unique trajectory. Initially a coastal town known for
pearl diving and shing, Kuwait came under British protection in 1913. The discovery of oil in
1934 transformed Kuwait into a major oil exporter. Following World War II, Kuwait gained
independence from British control in 1961.
Q: What are the key characteristics of Kuwait's political system?
A: Kuwait is classi ed as a monarchy and is governed by the Al-Sabah family. The emir is
recognized as the head of state and is granted immunity and inviolability according to Article
54 of the Kuwaiti constitution.
Q: How has oil wealth shaped Kuwait's political economy?
A: Kuwait, along with Saudi Arabia and the UAE, is among the richest countries in the world
due to its abundant oil resources. The country adopted an "interventionist-redistributive"
development model characterized by state-planning, protectionism, and a comprehensive
welfare system funded by oil revenue. This system aimed to maintain citizen satisfaction and
political acquiescence.
Q: What is the role of Diwaniyyas in Kuwait's political and social life?
A: Diwaniyyas, traditional social gatherings held in homes or separate structures, are important
spaces for political discussion and participation in Kuwait. They serve as "mini-parliaments"
bridging formal and informal political activity. These gatherings are known to in uence civil
society organizations, elections, and even played a key role in the reinstatement of Kuwait's
parliament in 1990.
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Q: How does Kuwait's political system compare to other Gulf states?
A: While Kuwait, like other Gulf monarchies, leverages its oil wealth to provide public goods
and maintain stability, its political system exhibits unique features. Unlike some neighbors,
Kuwaiti women have gained the right to vote. Kuwait's experience with parliamentary politics
and the role of diwaniyyas in mediating state-society relations also distinguish it from other Gulf
states.
Q: What is Kuwait's role in regional politics?
A: Kuwait, despite its small size, is considered one of the great powers in the Middle East due
to its vast wealth and capable state. Its foreign policy is shaped by its membership in the Gulf
Cooperation Council (GCC) and its alliance with the United States, which maintains a military
base in the country. Kuwait, like other GCC states, faces security concerns stemming from
regional instability and the rivalry between Iran and Iraq
Q: What type of government system does Kuwait have?
A: Kuwait has a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system, where the Emir holds
signi cant executive powers alongside an elected National Assembly.
Q: Who is the current Emir of Kuwait?
A: The current Emir of Kuwait is Sheikh Nawaf Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, who assumed
power in 2020 following the death of his half-brother Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah.
Q: What role does the National Assembly play in Kuwait’s political system?
A: The National Assembly (Majlis Al-Umma) is the legislative body in Kuwait, with the power to
pass laws, question ministers, and in uence government decisions. It is composed of 50
elected members, and the Emir appoints the prime minister and cabinet.
Q: What is a signi cant feature of Kuwait’s political culture compared to other Gulf
states?
A: Kuwait is known for its relatively active political participation and free speech, with a
parliament that debates government policies and challenges the executive branch more than in
most other Gulf states.
Q: What challenges has Kuwait faced in its political system?
A: Kuwait’s political system has faced challenges such as frequent disputes between the
government and the National Assembly, leading to dissolutions of parliament and political
gridlock.
Q: What are Kuwait’s main economic challenges?
A: Kuwait faces economic challenges including overreliance on oil revenues, budget de cits,
and the need for economic diversi cation to reduce dependency on the energy sector.
Q: How does Kuwait approach regional and international relations?
A: Kuwait maintains a balanced foreign policy, acting as a mediator in regional con icts and
maintaining good relations with both Saudi Arabia and Iran, as well as strong ties with Western
allies like the United States.
Q: What signi cant social or political reforms has Kuwait implemented recently?
A: Kuwait has made some strides toward political reform, including increased e orts to combat
corruption and promote transparency in governance. However, deeper structural changes have
been slow.
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Q: How does freedom of expression in Kuwait compare to other Gulf states?
A: While Kuwait is known for having more freedom of expression and a relatively independent
media compared to other Gulf states, there are still restrictions, and individuals can face legal
action for criticizing the Emir or government policies.
Saudi Arabia
Q: Who is the current Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia?
A: The current Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia is Mohammed bin Salman (MBS), who has been
in this position since 2017.
Q: What is the system of government in Saudi Arabia?
A: Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy, with the king holding signi cant political, legislative,
and religious power.
Q: What major economic plan did Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman introduce?
A: Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman introduced Vision 2030, a strategic framework aimed
at diversifying the Saudi economy and reducing its dependency on oil revenues.
Q: What signi cant social reforms has Saudi Arabia implemented in recent years?
A: Saudi Arabia has implemented signi cant social reforms, including allowing women to drive,
expanding entertainment options, and increasing women’s participation in the workforce.
Q: What are the main challenges facing Saudi Arabia's economy?
A: The main challenges include overreliance on oil revenues, the need for economic
diversi cation, youth unemployment, and the impact of global oil price uctuations.
Q: How has Saudi Arabia positioned itself in regional geopolitics?
A: Saudi Arabia plays a major role in regional geopolitics, often acting as a counterbalance to
Iranian in uence in the Middle East and maintaining strong ties with Western allies like the
United States.
Q: What controversial event in 2018 brought international scrutiny to Saudi Arabia?
A: The killing of journalist Jamal Khashoggi in the Saudi consulate in Istanbul in 2018 brought
signi cant international scrutiny and criticism to Saudi Arabia and Crown Prince Mohammed
bin Salman.
Q: What is Saudi Arabia’s stance on social freedoms and political dissent?
A: While social reforms have been introduced, political dissent and freedom of expression
remain heavily restricted, with critics of the government often facing imprisonment or harsh
penalties.
Q: What role does Saudi Arabia play in OPEC?
A: Saudi Arabia is the largest oil producer in OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting
Countries) and plays a leading role in in uencing oil production levels and global oil prices.
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Q: What was the impact of oil on Saudi Arabia?
A: The discovery of oil in Saudi Arabia in the 1930s transformed the country's economy and
society, making it a major player in global energy markets2829.
Q: How did oil discovery and exploitation shape the development of Saudi Arabia?
A: The discovery of oil in 1938, followed by large-scale production in the late 1940s,
transformed Saudi Arabia from a poor, tribal society into a wealthy, modern state. The Arabian
American Oil Company (Aramco), formed by US companies, played a crucial role in this
transformation. Aramco built the infrastructure necessary for oil exportation, e ectively acting
as the "Ministry of Public Works”
Q: How did the Saudi regime utilize its oil wealth to consolidate its power and in uence?
A: The Saudi regime used its oil wealth to fund state-building activities, develop a
comprehensive welfare system, and strengthen its military. The sources suggest that Aramco
transferred vast sums to the Saudi rulers. This nancial power enabled the regime to suppress
dissent and maintain political stability. The Ikhwan, instrumental in the initial uni cation, were
later used to attack those seeking more equitable relations with Aramco or advocating for
democratic reforms. Oil wealth also propelled Saudi Arabia's rise to a dominant position in
regional politics. The country leverages its nancial resources to in uence diplomacy, fund the
spread of its version of Islam, and purchase advanced weaponry.
Q: What is the signi cance of religion in the formation of Saudi Arabia's national identity
and political system?
A: The linkage between the Al Saud family and Islam dates back to the 18th century, when
Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab allied with Muhammad ibn Saud6. This alliance solidi ed
Saudi control in the Nejd region and established a foundation of religious legitimacy for the
ruling family. By conquering the Hejaz in 1925, the Saudi ruler became the protector of the holy
sites in Mecca and Medina, further enhancing the kingdom's Islamic identity. Saudi Arabia
actively sponsors and organizes the annual pilgrimage (Hajj), attracting millions of Muslims
worldwide.
Q: How does Saudi Arabia's legal system re ect its religious principles?
A: Saudi Arabia's legal system is rmly rooted in Islamic principles. The rst article of Saudi
Basic Law declares Islam as the state religion and designates the Quran and Sunna as its
constitution. The regime's right to rule is derived from Islam, and the state actively protects and
implements Sharia law. The sources state that Article 23 of Saudi Basic Law mandates the
protection and implementation of Sharia law, while promoting righteous behavior and
discouraging evil. The country maintains a morality police (mutawwain) responsible for
enforcing Sharia law and ensuring adherence to conservative social norms.
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Q: How has Saudi Arabia's foreign policy approach evolved throughout its history?
A: Saudi Arabia's foreign policy has evolved through distinct phases, marked by shifting
regional dynamics and global power structures. During the Cold War, Saudi Arabia cultivated
close ties with the United States while competing with Egypt for regional leadership. The
country's vast oil wealth became a key instrument of diplomatic in uence, used to provide
nancial support to allies and spread its version of Islam. In the aftermath of the Arab uprisings,
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Q: What were the circumstances surrounding the formation of the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia in 1932?
A: The modern state of Saudi Arabia emerged from a series of tribal wars in the Arabian
Peninsula in the early 20th century. The Al Saud family, historically powerful in the Nejd region,
sought to reassert its dominance throughout the peninsula. By 1926, with their Ikhwan ghting
force, the Saudis had vanquished their rivals. Recognizing the changing power dynamics, the
British shifted their support from the Hashemite family in the Hejaz to the Al Saud clan. In 1932,
having uni ed the peninsula, Abdul al-Aziz ibn Saud declared the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia,
making it the only country named after a family.
Saudi Arabia assumed a more assertive role, leading a counterrevolutionary coalition to contain
the spread of unrest and actively intervening in regional con icts. Notably, the country
intervened militarily in Bahrain to support the al-Khalifa monarchy's repression of protests and
brokered a political transition in Yemen while preserving the core regime structure. Saudi
Arabia's recent foreign policy, under Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman, is characterized as
more erratic and assertive.
Iraq
Q: What was the role of the Ba'ath Party in Iraq?
A: The Ba'ath Party, a secular Arab nationalist party, came to power in Iraq in 1968 and ruled
the country until the US-led invasion in 2003.
Q: What makes the modern history of Iraq tumultuous?
A: Since gaining formal independence in 1932, Iraq has been governed by two foreign powers
and has transitioned through various forms of nondemocratic rule. Iraq holds the distinction of
having the rst coup in the Arab world in 1936. Most leaders have attained power through
unconstitutional means.
Q: What forms of war has Iraq experienced since 1974?
A: Since 1974, Iraq has been involved in an almost continuous state of war including:
- An insurgency led by Kurdish nationalists in northern Iran
- A conventional war with Iran that lasted from 1980-1988
- Bombing attacks by the U.S. during the First Gulf War in 1991
- Violent uprisings in 1991
- The Second Gulf War/Iraq War in 2003
- An Anglo-American military occupation from 2003-2011
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- Multifaceted armed con icts within the country
- A transnational insurgency from 2014-2018
Q: What is the common misconception about Iraq's political trajectory?
A: A common belief is that Iraq was destined for failure due to its diverse society. However, this
perspective overlooks the historically contingent methods of power struggle and social control
that have de ned the state's contemporary situation.
Q: Who is the author of the chapter on Iraq?
A: The chapter on Iraq is authored by Julia Choucair-Vizoso
Q: What is the signi cance of the founding of the modern Iraqi state?
A: The foundation of the modern Iraqi state is often viewed as a result of European powers
drawing arbitrary lines on a map. In reality, the process of creating the Iraqi state was a
complex and violent one, carried out over several stages with shifting boundaries.
Q: Who played a central role in the establishment of the Iraqi state?
A: Although Britain and France were key players, local elites who wielded economic, coercive,
and symbolic in uence also played a signi cant role in shaping the nascent order as they
witnessed the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.
Q: Who was the rst ruler of Iraq, and what were his state-building objectives?
A: The rst ruler, King Faisal, was installed by Britain in 1921 after a manipulated plebiscite. He
aimed to establish a conscript army and centralize taxation.
Q: How did local elites respond to Faisal's agenda?
A: Most local elites were skeptical of Faisal's agenda, and some resented how he came to
power.
Q: What were some of the challenges to state-building in early Iraq?
A: Iraq's early political landscape lacked the conditions that often compel elites to cooperate or
be coerced into state-building.5 Some of those conditions include:
- Lack of Common Threat: Elites didn't perceive mass-based threats to their bene ts, like
class or widespread communal con ict.
- No External War: While de ning the new state's borders led to con icts, Britain's powerful
airforce settled these disputes, eliminating the need to develop strong Iraqi institutions.
- Ability to Resist Centralization: Elites who opposed a strong central state had the capacity to
resist it. Some possessed military capabilities, while others took advantage of geography to
avoid conscription.
- British Protection: Some elites sought protection from the British, who opposed universal
conscription, granted tribal leaders tax exemptions and legal autonomy, and controlled oil
revenue.
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Q: What were the consequences of this challenging environment for Iraq's early
institutions?
A: As a result of the power struggles and resistance to centralization, only a limited number of
political forces were included in Iraq's initial state institutions, particularly in the formation of
the army.
Q: What was the population of Iraq in 1920, and what were its main social divisions?
A: Iraq had a population of 2,849,000 in 1920, with people belonging to diverse and
overlapping social groups based on language, religion, occupation, social class, and regional
and tribal a liations.
Q: What is the geographic distribution of linguistic minorities in Iraq?
A: Linguistic minorities were concentrated in the mountainous regions of the north and east, as
well as in the cities of Baghdad and Basra.
Q: What was the approximate religious composition of Iraq in 1920?
A: Based on estimations:
- 92% were Muslim.
- 3% were Christian.
- 2.5% were Jewish.
The rest were Yazidi and Sabean/Mandean.
Q: How has Iraq's linguistic diversity contributed to political division?
A: Despite the country's diversity, British o cials and King Faisal's supporters consistently
referred to Iraq as an "Arab state." The initial constitution in 1925 declared Arabic as the sole
o cial language, and early textbooks promoted pan-Arabism, an ideology advocating for a
uni ed Arab state.
Q: What was the role of the Iraqi Communist Party in Iraqi politics?
A: The Iraqi Communist Party, founded in 1934, gained widespread popularity among citizens
from various religious and sectarian groups. It advocated for social justice and opposed
sectarian politics. The party remained active despite facing severe repression from the
government, including martial law and targeted violence.
Q: How did military regimes in Iraq impact the development of political participation?
A: Political parties under Iraq's military regimes chose to form alliances with di erent military
factions instead of advocating for the preservation and development of parliamentary
procedures and elections. This decision ultimately weakened the potential for broader political
participation.
Q: What are some of the ways that the Ba'ath party restricted political participation in
Iraq?
A: The Ba'ath party, under Saddam Hussein, utilized various methods to sti e political
participation, including:
- Physical coercion: They implemented unprecedented levels of physical force against any
form of independent political participation.
- Targeting the Communist Party: They subjected the Iraqi Communist Party to a systematic
campaign of arrests, torture, and suppression.
- Criminalizing Non-Ba'athist Political Activity: They made any political activities by members
of the armed forces that were not aligned with the Ba'ath party punishable by death.
- Transforming the Ba'ath party into a Tool for Control: The party itself became a powerful
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instrument for political and social control.10
Q: What role did political parties play in the post-2003 political landscape?
A: In post-2003 Iraq, political parties emerged as signi cant players in the new political system.
However, the sources indicate that they were often divided along ethnosectarian lines and
engaged heavily in patronage politics, hindering the development of a uni ed and e ective
government.
Q: How did elections evolve in Iraq?
A: Prior to 2005, elections in Iraq were largely symbolic, serving primarily as a means of
distributing patronage among a limited political elite. The monarchy manipulated election
results, and women were excluded from voting. There were no general elections between 1954
and 1980, and the National Assembly established by the Ba'ath party in 1980 lacked any true
legislative authority. However, after the 2003 U.S. invasion, elections became a more prominent
feature of the political landscape.
Q: What is the role of associational activity in Iraq?
A: Associational activity in Iraq, which encompasses professional associations, labor unions,
and civil society organizations, has uctuated throughout its history. The sources describe how
these groups, while present during the monarchy and the early republican period, were tightly
controlled under the Ba'ath regime.
Q: Who is the current prime minister of Iraq?
A: The current prime minister of Iraq is Mohammed Shia' Al-Sudani, who took o ce in October
2022.
Q: What type of government system does Iraq have?
A: Iraq operates under a federal parliamentary republic system, as established by the 2005
constitution.
Q: What major event in 2003 signi cantly impacted Iraq’s political landscape?
A: The U.S.-led invasion in 2003 toppled Saddam Hussein’s regime, dismantling the Ba’ath
Party and leading to the establishment of a new government and political system.
Q: Which three major groups share power in Iraq’s political structure?
A: The power in Iraq's political system is divided among Shiite Arabs, Sunni Arabs, and Kurds
to re ect the country's ethnic and religious diversity.
Q: What major challenge does Iraq continue to face post-ISIS?
A: Iraq continues to face security challenges due to insurgent activities from ISIS remnants and
other militant groups, as well as political instability and sectarian tensions.
Q: What is the role of the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) in Iraq?
A: The KRG administers the semi-autonomous Kurdish region in northern Iraq and has its own
government, military (Peshmerga), and policies that often create tension with the federal
government in Baghdad.
Q: What are the main economic issues a ecting Iraq?
A: Iraq's economy faces challenges such as overreliance on oil revenues, corruption, high
unemployment, and underdeveloped infrastructure, leading to periodic protests and civil
unrest.
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Q: How has Iraq’s relationship with Iran in uenced its politics?
A: Iran exerts signi cant in uence over Iraq, particularly through Shiite militias and political
alliances. This relationship impacts Iraq's domestic politics and its approach to regional and
international a airs.
Lebanon
Q: What was the Taif Agreement?
A: The Taif Agreement, signed in 1989, ended the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990) and
restructured the Lebanese political system.
Q: What is the impact of Israel's establishment on Lebanon's society and politics?
A: While Jordan and Egypt signed peace treaties with Israel, Lebanon's con icts with Israel
persist. The impact of Israel's establishment on Lebanon is multifaceted and has contributed to
internal instability. The in ux of Palestinian refugees after the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, for
instance, created divisions in Lebanese society and presented challenges to the monarchy. The
socioeconomic development and political stability of Lebanon remain closely tied to
Palestinian-Israeli relations.
Q: How did the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO)'s presence in Lebanon a ect
the country?
A: After the PLO relocated its headquarters to Beirut in 1970, Lebanon's stability deteriorated.
The presence of the PLO, along with demands to dismantle the sectarian system, contributed
to rising tensions. These factors ultimately led to the eruption of the Lebanese Civil War in
1975.
Q: Can you elaborate on Lebanon's weak state institutions and the issues they have
caused?
A: Lebanon's weak state institutions have contributed to various problems, including:
- Lack of Territorial Control: The state struggles to maintain control over its territory,
exempli ed by Hizballah's engagement in the 2006 war with Israel, a foreign policy decision
taken outside government control.
- Failure to Provide Services: The state is often unable to provide essential services to its
citizens.
- Civil War: Lebanon has experienced periods of civil war, highlighting the state's inability to
manage internal con ict e ectively.
- Sectarian Tensions: The country is characterized by deep-seated sectarian divisions, which
have fueled political instability and violence.
- Unstable Governing Coalitions: The formation and maintenance of stable governing
coalitions has been a persistent challenge.
- Absence of Key Leaders: There have been extended periods where Lebanon has lacked a
sitting president or a legitimate parliament.
- Lack of Monopoly on Force: The state does not have a monopoly on the legitimate use of
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force, as evidenced by the presence of various armed groups, including Hizbollah.
Q: Despite its weak state, how has Lebanon managed to achieve some level of
development?
A: Despite the challenges posed by its weak state, Lebanon has managed to achieve relative
success in development, particularly in economic terms. The World Bank classi es Lebanon as
an upper-middle-income country. This is largely attributed to a thriving private sector. For
example, the private education sector has ourished while the public education system
struggles.
Q: How did Lebanon's democratic system emerge?
A: Lebanon's exposure to the West played a role in establishing its democratic system.6 The
country developed a confessional, semi-presidential democracy.
Q: What are the characteristics of Lebanon's confessional and semi-presidential
democracy?
A:
- Confessionalism: Aims to ensure representation for various groups in society based on
religious sect, a system known as consociationalism.
- Semi-Presidentialism: Includes elections for both a president and a parliament with a prime
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minister.
Q: How did confessionalism emerge as a solution in Lebanon?
A: Confessionalism arose as a response to con icts between di erent sectarian groups
regarding the nature and boundaries of the Lebanese state. The National Pact was a
compromise to accommodate both Muslim and Christian interests. The president was
designated as a Maronite Christian, the prime minister a Sunni Muslim, the speaker of the
house a Shiite, and parliamentary seats divided based on a ratio between Christians and
Muslims.
Q: How does religion impact the state in Lebanon?
A: In Lebanon, religion's in uence ows from religious groups toward the state. The country's
diverse religious makeup prevents it from adopting an o cial religion or using religion for
political gain, setting it apart from many other states in the region. This is in contrast to the
pattern of state control over religion observed in other Middle Eastern states.
Q: How does Lebanon manage its diverse religious groups?
A: Lebanon's government recognizes seventeen sectarian religious groups. This approach
acknowledges the country's diverse religious landscape and seeks to balance the interests of
di erent groups, although this system has also led to political instability.
Q: What is the role of Hizbollah in Lebanon?
A: Hizbollah, an armed Shi'i resistance movement, plays a complex role in Lebanon.
- Resistance to Occupation: Hizbollah was formed to resist the Israeli occupation of southern
Lebanon.
- Social Services: The group provides social services for the disadvantaged Shi'i community.
- Political Party: Hizbollah participates in Lebanese elections and has become a powerful
political force.
- Military Capabilities: Hizbollah retains its arms, claiming to defend against potential Israeli
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threats, but its military strength has also been used to exert in uence in domestic politics.
Q: What challenges does Hizbollah pose to the Lebanese state?
A:
- Monopoly on Violence: Hizbollah's military strength challenges the Lebanese state's
monopoly on violence.
- Internal Instability: Hizbollah's actions, like the kidnapping of Israeli soldiers in 2006, have
provoked con ict and instability within Lebanon.
- External In uence: Hizbollah's ties to Iran and Syria have drawn Lebanon into regional
con icts.
Q: Are there concerns about terrorist attacks in Lebanon?
A: The sources indicate that Lebanese citizens have expressed concern over terrorist attacks.
According to an Arab Barometer survey, 64.8% of Lebanese respondents expressed worry
about the possibility of a terrorist attack, with 42.6% stating they are "very much" worried.
Q: What are the attitudes of Lebanese citizens towards the United States?
A: Lebanese citizens generally view the United States' in uence negatively. The sources
indicate that 69% of Lebanese respondents hold a very or somewhat negative view of the
United States' impact on the con ict in Syria.13 Additionally, 35.5% consider the United
States' in uence on the development of democracy in Lebanon as very negative, while 26.6%
perceive it as somewhat negative.
Q: What are the preferred ways for the United States to engage with Lebanon, according
to its citizens?
A: When asked about the most positive action the United States could take in Lebanon, the
majority of Lebanese citizens indicated a preference for non-involvement. However, a notable
portion of respondents (26%) believe that promoting economic development would be the
most bene cial action the United States could undertake.
Q: What role do informal gatherings play in Lebanese political participation?
A: While the sources provide detailed accounts of informal gatherings in Yemen, Kuwait, and
Saudi Arabia as forms of political participation, they lack speci c information on similar
practices in Lebanon.
Q: What is the status of women's participation in Lebanon's civil society?
A: The sources highlight the role of women in civil society across the MENA region, including
their participation in cinema, literature, and various organizations. However, they do not provide
speci c details about women's participation in Lebanon's civil society.
Q: How has the Arab Spring impacted Lebanon?
A: The sources provide insights into the Arab Spring's e ects on various countries in the
region, including changes in values, attitudes, and political participation. However, they lack
speci c information on the Arab Spring's direct impact on Lebanon.
Q: Who is the current president of Lebanon?
A: As of the most recent update, Lebanon has been experiencing a political deadlock without a
president, following the end of former President Michel Aoun’s term in October 2022.
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Q: What political system does Lebanon use?
A: Lebanon operates under a confessional political system that allocates key government
Q: What event in 2020 exacerbated Lebanon's economic and political crisis?
A: The Beirut port explosion in August 2020 devastated large parts of the capital, killed over
200 people, and highlighted government negligence, deepening public discontent and the
ongoing economic crisis.
Q: What major group has signi cant in uence in Lebanese politics and military a airs?
A: Hezbollah, a Shiite Islamist political party and militant group, has signi cant in uence in
Lebanon's politics and military a airs, often acting as a state within a state.
Q: What has been one of the major causes of recent mass protests in Lebanon?
A: Major causes of recent mass protests include widespread corruption, economic
mismanagement, and deteriorating public services, which led to nationwide demonstrations
starting in October 2019.
Q: What economic challenges is Lebanon currently facing?
A: Lebanon is facing severe economic collapse, with hyperin ation, a loss of over 90% of the
Lebanese pound's value, high unemployment rates, and widespread poverty.
Q: How has the international community responded to Lebanon’s crises?
A: The international community has provided humanitarian aid and called for reforms to unlock
nancial assistance. However, international donors have demanded structural changes that
have yet to be implemented due to political gridlock.
Syria
Q: What was the nature of the con ict between Syria and Israel?
A: The con ict between Syria and Israel centered on the Golan Heights, which Israel captured
from Syria in the 1967 Six-Day War.
Q: What is the historical context of Syria's formation as a state?
A: Syria, like many Middle Eastern states, was part of the Ottoman Empire until the early 20th
century. The sources trace the historical context of Syria's state formation back to the Ottoman
and Safavid Empires, which in uenced the region's cultural and political landscape. After World
War I, the Ottoman Empire collapsed, and the Middle East was divided among European
powers. Syria became a French mandate, contributing to a shared historical experience with
other countries in the region.
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Q: What is the signi cance of the Sykes-Picot Agreement in relation to Syria?
A: The Sykes-Picot Agreement, a secret pact between Britain and France during World War I,
played a signi cant role in shaping the Middle East, including Syria. The agreement carved up
the Ottoman territories, laying the groundwork for the modern borders and political divisions of
the region. The sources highlight the agreement's role in allocating Syria and Lebanon to
France as mandates. The agreement's legacy is often cited as a contributing factor to ongoing
con icts and instability in the Middle East.
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positions based on religious a liation: the president must be a Maronite Christian, the prime
minister a Sunni Muslim, and the speaker of parliament a Shiite Muslim.
Q: How has the concept of a "Greater Syrian Arab nation" in uenced Syria's development?
A: The idea of a "Greater Syrian Arab nation," encompassing Syria, Lebanon, Jordan,
Palestine/Israel, and parts of Iraq, Turkey, and Iran, has signi cantly in uenced Syria's
development. The sources suggest that this concept, alongside competing nationalisms like
Iraqi, Syrian, and Palestinian nationalism, began to emerge after the establishment of mandates
and new borders. This highlights the complex interplay of identity and national aspirations that
shaped Syria and its relationship with neighboring countries.
Q: What internal factors have contributed to instability in Syria?
A: Syria's political landscape has been shaped by instability arising from various internal
factors. The sources mention the Ba'th Party's rise to power and its role in Syria's politics. The
Ba'th Party, an Arab nationalist party advocating for socialist principles, has been a dominant
force in Syrian politics since the 1960s. This dominance, along with factors like economic
disparities, social divisions, and political repression, have fueled grievances and dissent,
contributing to instability and ultimately to the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War in 2011.
Q: What role has religion played in Syrian society and politics?
A: Religion, particularly Islam, has had a profound in uence on Syrian society and politics. The
sources point to the predominance of Islam in the MENA region and its role in shaping social
norms, political discourse, and the relationship between state and religion. The diversity of
religious groups within Syria, including Sunnis, Alawites, Christians, and Druze, adds another
layer of complexity to the country's sociopolitical dynamics.
Q: How did the Syrian Civil War begin, and what were some of its key features?
A: The Syrian Civil War, which erupted in 2011, marked a pivotal moment in Syria's history. The
sources point to the government's violent crackdown on peaceful protests, initially triggered by
opposition to the al-Asad family's four-decade rule, as the catalyst for the con ict.
Key features of the war include:
- Regional and global proxy war: The con ict quickly escalated into a regional and global
proxy war, with external powers like Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Turkey, the United States, Russia,
and Iran supporting di erent sides.
- Rise of ISIS: The civil war created a vacuum that allowed extremist groups like ISIS to gain
control over large parts of Syria.
- Humanitarian crisis: The war has resulted in one of the worst humanitarian crises in recent
history, with hundreds of thousands dead, millions displaced, and extensive damage to
infrastructure.
Q: How has Syria’s foreign policy been in uenced by the international system?
A: Syria’s foreign policy has been heavily in uenced by the dynamics of the international
system, particularly during shifts in global power balances. After the Cold War and the loss of
its Soviet backer, President Ha z al-Asad adapted Syrian foreign policy by joining the US-led
coalition against Iraq in 1990-1991 and participating in the Madrid peace talks. As the US
engaged in wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, Syria’s bargaining power increased. During the Syrian
Civil War, resistance from China and Russia hindered Western intervention e orts. These
examples highlight how Syria has maneuvered within the international system to protect its
interests and enhance its position.
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Q: Who is Raymond Hinnebusch, and why is he relevant to understanding Syria?
A: Raymond Hinnebusch, a professor of international relations and Middle East politics, is the
author of the chapter on Syria in the provided source. He is recognized as an expert on Syrian
politics, having published extensively on the subject, including works like Authoritarian Power
and State Formation in Baathist Syria and Syria: Revolution from Above. His expertise makes
his analysis of Syria in the source a valuable resource for understanding the country's complex
dynamics.
Q: What is the role of state capacity in Syria's regional politics?
A: Domestic state capacity has played a crucial role in Syria's ability to assert itself as a
regional power. The sources highlight the shift in Syria's state capacity under Ha z al-Asad,
who consolidated power in the 1970s and created a repressive national security state. This
consolidation, while accompanied by repression, allowed Syria to become a more active player
in regional politics, as it was no longer vulnerable to external meddling. However, the Syrian
Civil War reversed this trend, weakening the state and making Syria once again an arena for
regional proxy wars.
Q: What are the key features of Syria's political economy?
A: The sources do not provide a detailed analysis of Syria's speci c economic indicators,
sectors, or development challenges. However, they place Syria in the context of broader
regional economic trends. Syria is categorized as a middle-oil country (MOC), meaning it has a
high dependence on oil but also a large population, placing it in the lower-middle-income
group. The sources also highlight the economic costs of war and protracted con ict in the
Middle East, using Iraq as a primary example. Given Syria's prolonged civil war, it is likely that
the country has experienced similar economic devastation and a decline in social indicators.
Q: What are the prospects for democracy in Syria?
A: The sources acknowledge that while the Middle East lacks a stable, liberal democracy, it
does have electoral democracies. However, they do not provide a speci c assessment of the
prospects for democracy in Syria, especially in light of the ongoing civil war and the
authoritarian nature of the al-Asad regime. The question of whether Syria can transition to a
more democratic system remains highly uncertain and depends on various factors, including
the outcome of the con ict, the role of external powers, and internal political dynamics.
Q: Who is the current president of Syria?
A: The current president of Syria is Bashar al-Assad, who has been in power since 2000,
following the death of his father, Hafez al-Assad.
Q: What major con ict has de ned Syria's political landscape since 2011?
A: The Syrian Civil War, which began in 2011 following mass protests during the Arab Spring,
has de ned Syria's political landscape and led to widespread violence and displacement.
Q: Which countries have been key supporters of the Assad regime?
A: Russia and Iran have been key supporters of the Assad regime, providing military, economic,
and political assistance throughout the con ict.
Q: What is the status of Kurdish-controlled areas in Syria?
A: The Kurdish-controlled areas, primarily in northeastern Syria, are governed by the
Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (AANES). These regions are semiautonomous but face challenges from Turkish military incursions and the Syrian government.
Q: What is the humanitarian situation in Syria as a result of the civil war?
A: The humanitarian situation in Syria is dire, with millions of people displaced internally and
externally, severe food shortages, and widespread destruction of infrastructure.
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Q: What role has ISIS played in Syrian politics?
A: ISIS (Islamic State of Iraq and Syria) seized large parts of Syria in the early 2010s,
contributing to the instability and violence. While their territorial control has largely been
eradicated by 2019, remnants of the group continue to conduct insurgent attacks.
Q: How has the international community responded to the con ict in Syria?
A: The international community has responded with a combination of diplomatic e orts,
sanctions, and humanitarian aid. However, divisions among global powers, including the U.S.,
Russia, and Turkey, have complicated peace e orts.
Yemen
Q: Who are the Houthis?
A: The Houthis are a Shia Muslim group in Yemen that launched a rebellion against the
government in 2004.
Q: Who is the internationally recognized president of Yemen?
A: The internationally recognized president of Yemen is Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi, who ed to
Saudi Arabia after the Houthi takeover of Sana'a in 2014.
Q: What major event in 2014 signi cantly changed Yemen's political landscape?
A: In 2014, the Houthi rebels seized control of the capital Sana'a, leading to the ousting of
President Hadi and the start of Yemen’s ongoing civil war.
Q: What is the Southern Transitional Council (STC) in Yemen?
A: The Southern Transitional Council (STC) is a separatist group that seeks to establish an
independent state in South Yemen and has clashed with both Houthi forces and the Hadi
government.
Q: What role does Saudi Arabia play in the Yemeni con ict?
A: Saudi Arabia leads a coalition that intervened in Yemen in 2015 to support the Hadi
government and counter the Houthi insurgency, which they view as an extension of Iranian
in uence.
Q: What humanitarian crisis has been caused by the con ict in Yemen?
A: The con ict in Yemen has caused one of the world's worst humanitarian crises, with
widespread famine, disease, and millions of people displaced and in need of humanitarian
assistance.
Q: How has the con ict impacted Yemen’s economy?
A: Yemen’s economy has been devastated by the con ict, leading to high levels of poverty,
unemployment, and the collapse of basic infrastructure and services.
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Q: What is the historical context of Yemen's formation as a state?
A: Yemen's history as a uni ed state is relatively recent. The sources explain that the Republic
of Yemen was formed in 1990 through the uni cation of North Yemen and South Yemen. Prior
to uni cation, North Yemen (Yemen Arab Republic) and South Yemen (People's Democratic
Republic of Yemen) had distinct political systems and historical trajectories.1 The sources note
that the history of state-building in Yemen involves the development of this uni ed Republic of
Yemen.
Q: How is Yemen characterized in terms of its political economy and development?
A: The sources categorize Yemen as belonging to the "periphery" of the global economic
system, alongside places like Oman, the West Bank, and Gaza. This categorization suggests
that Yemen's economy is on the margins of global capitalism and faces signi cant challenges
in terms of development. The sources also highlight that Yemen is one of the poorest countries
in the Middle East, with poverty levels comparable to some sub-Saharan African countries. In
2016, over 62 percent of Yemen's population lived below the poverty line, and in 2015, 55
percent of Yemeni women were illiterate. These statistics underscore the severity of poverty
and underdevelopment in Yemen.
Q: What is the signi cance of the Fragile States Index in understanding Yemen's
challenges?
A: The Fragile States Index (FSI) is a tool used to assess the vulnerability of states to con ict
and collapse. The sources explain that Yemen has consistently ranked high on the FSI,
indicating its vulnerability to instability. In 2010, before the Arab Uprisings, Yemen was ranked
the fteenth most fragile state globally. The sources attribute Yemen's fragility to its weak state
capacity, characterized by an inability to control territory, implement policies e ectively, or
promote socioeconomic development. Yemen's state has historically adopted policies of
accommodating local strongmen to maintain stability rather than actively regulating and
controlling social forces.
Q: What role has the qat plant played in Yemen’s political life?
A: The qat plant, whose leaves have a stimulant e ect when chewed, plays a signi cant role in
Yemen’s social and political life. The sources describe informal gatherings called "qat chews"
as important sites of political participation in Yemen. During these gatherings, people come
together to chew qat and discuss social problems, political issues, or literary matters. While qat
chews may not directly lead to elections or regime change, they provide spaces for political
debate and criticism, particularly in an authoritarian context where such activities are often
restricted. Qat chews illustrate how informal spaces can become avenues for political
engagement and expression in Yemen.
Q: What role have tribes played in Yemen?
A: The sources emphasize the signi cant role tribes play in Yemen's social and political
landscape. Tribal a liations are central to many Yemenis' identities, often taking precedence
over allegiance to the state. Tribes have historically served as support networks, providing
social, economic, and even protection from the state. During the 2011 uprising against
President Ali Abdullah Saleh, tribes played a key role in mobilizing people against the regime.
This example illustrates how tribal structures can shape political dynamics and in uence
events in Yemen.
Q: What are the sources of Yemen’s fragility as a state?
A: The sources identify several interconnected factors contributing to Yemen's fragility:
- Weak state capacity: Yemen's central government has struggled to exert e ective control
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over its territory and has often relied on accommodation with local power brokers rather than
actively enforcing its authority.
with high rates of poverty, illiteracy, and limited access to basic services. This economic
deprivation fuels social unrest and weakens the state's ability to provide for its citizens.
- Internal con icts: Yemen has a long history of internal con icts, including tribal disputes,
regional tensions, and separatist movements.59 These con icts undermine stability and
drain resources from development e orts.
- External intervention: External actors, such as Saudi Arabia, the United States, and Iran,
have intervened in Yemen's internal a airs, often exacerbating existing con icts and
undermining Yemeni sovereignty. The ongoing Saudi-led military intervention in Yemen,
which began in 2015, has had a devastating impact on the country, leading to a
humanitarian catastrophe.
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Q: Who is Sarah G. Phillips and what insights does she o er about Yemen?
A: The sources identify Sarah G. Phillips as the author of the chapter on Yemen. Phillips is an
associate professor at the University of Sydney whose research focuses on security and
development in the Arabian Peninsula and the Horn of Africa. She has conducted extensive
eldwork in Yemen and has a critical perspective on external intervention and non-state
governance. Her expertise and experience make her analysis of Yemen in the sources
particularly valuable.
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- Poverty and underdevelopment: Yemen is one of the poorest countries in the Middle East,