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-- Latin scientia (knowledge)
-- a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable
explanations and predictions about the universe
-- modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature
generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by mathematics; and
required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and organization for
exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions." —p.vii, J. L.
Heilbron,(2003, editor-in-chief).
The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science. New York: Oxford University Press.
--- Science is an invention; human invented it (in a gradual, accumulative way), refined and
re-designed it, within the last known 4000 years as a method.
-- Science is a discovery (it is discovered that by the modern science that: nature generally
acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by mathematics laws and relations)
--- Science as a process/or method; requires the invention and use of devising techniques
abstractions (concepts), organization, apparatus (devices) for exhibiting these regularities in
the universe and finding-formulating the law-like descriptions of these regularities
http://www.gly.uga.edu/railsback/1122sciencedefns.html
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-Formulation of Research Question (Why is the sky blue?)  Observation (is it really
blue, are the proposed reasons there, is there any factor of perception issue, what is
color?)  Hypothesis (Sky is blue because of the chemical properties of outer layers
of atmosphere)  (Prediction) ( for example, in (above) the south pole
atmosphere does not have that property in July so the sky will not be blue than)
Experimentation/Observation  Analysis (Confirmation or Rejection ) logic – covariation.
-Blind test, double blind test
- Statistical analysis
--------------------------------------------------- These definitions and essence of science evolved in the history; so we are passing to
the initial phases of science and we will scrutinize the human activities in the
prehistory that resemble todays human scientific activities and scientific institutions.
-Before passing to the initial stages we will give a brief definition of technology
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--http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1350805/history-of-technology
-http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1350805/history-oftechnology/10393/Stone
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-- Newton’s laws of statics, dynamics, kinematics used directly in civil engineering
(look up), laws of micro world (atoms, sub-atoms, particle physics) is used in
electronics.
-- Biology and neurology and molecular biology (dna, proteins) are used in medicine,
not doctors but molecular biologists are dealing with cancer or Alzheimer's disease.
So scientists are in technology and in technology business.
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-- These two branches united before 20th century, people and governments realized
after 1st World War, and societies realized after 2nd World War.
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See Ancient history in Wikipedia for the meaning of Ancient
Merriam Webster:
of or relating to a remote period, to a time early in history, or to those living in such a
period or time; especially : of or relating to the historical period beginning with the
earliest known civilizations and extending to the fall of the western Roman Empire in
a.d. 476
(A very Eurocentric definition)
What is Eurocentric? Homework, 3 pts.
-Events of structural change and theories of cycles of history.
-Revisit İbni Haldun and Toynbee (http://history-andevolution.com/whee4th/chap7_5_1.htm) (cycles of civilizations)
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Look up: urban??
http://www.asiaminortours.com/turkey/history.htm (for the earliest urban
settlements of the world and they are in Turkey)
Çatalhöyük, Konya: 7500 BC to 5700 BC means 9500 years ago.
Göbeklitepe, Urfa: 12000 years ago
http://antik.eksisozluk.com/show.asp?t=g%C3%B6beklitepe
http://antik.eksisozluk.com/show.asp?id=32331603
http://i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2009/02/27/article-0-03B05683000005DC812_306x516.jpg
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Homo sapiens neanderthalensis is also considered human, breed with human, and
extinct because of human.
http://www.bridgemanart.com/asset/276592/Paleolithic/Clactonian-chopper-EarlyAcheulian-c.300-000-BC- homo-habilis
Look up for the meaning and etymology of the words Paleolithic and Neolithic (1
pts.)
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http://www.bridgemanart.com/asset/276592/Paleolithic/Clactonian-chopper-EarlyAcheulian-c.300-000-BC- homo habilis
(tool use is not specific to human)  şempanzeler taşla sert kabuk kırıyor, çubukla
termit yiyebiliyor, kuşlar da çubuk kullanıyor.
(tool making  manipulation of environment to manipulate the environment, an at
least two step plan)
Cultural transmission (is not specific to human) (tool use is not specific to human)
But these are the basis of human survival. That is significant. Human without fire,
hunting, food processing tools and techniques and clothes could not leave. All are
culturally transmitted.
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Fire and homo sapiens:
But these are the basis of human survival. That is significant. Human without fire,
hunting tools, food processing tools and techniques and clothes could not live. All
techniques are learned, i.e. culturally transmitted.
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Fire homo sapiens:
But these are the basis of human survival. That is significant. Human without fire,
hunting, food processing tools and techniques and clothes could not leave. All are
culturally transmitted.
How do we know homo sapiens had language in the paleolithic period? No writing,
music cd’s etc. By means of the remnants of symbolic life.
For me: a language using and a symbolic life owning community is as developed as
«modern human»
Rules of language: Language is not just a sign system, animals have sign systems,
intelligent animals have very complex forms of it.
Language: syntax, functional words like «on», «over», «numbers», «tenses»,
recursive use, these require different brains.
So reasoning, making plans for later time, not living in now, but in far past and
indeterminate future are also (may be) results of this complex features of human
brain).
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Fig. 1.3. Paleolithic art. In the late Paleolithic era food-collecting populations of
Homo sapiens began to create art in many parts of the world. In southwestern
Europe they adorned the walls of caves with naturalistic representations of animals.
Why in caves??
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Speculations about sacrifice of the slaves and the children and others in times of
over-population.
Look up for «measure»
the food-collecting mode of life persisted as long as the population of hunters and
gatherers remained small enough to exploit the resources of their habitats with
reasonable ease.
Since population increased slowly and since suitable habitats were numerous on a
global scale, 2 million years passed before hunter- gatherers reached the "carrying
capacities" of accessible environments through the increase of their own numbers
and a resulting broadening of foraging activity. This account also explains the low rate
of technological innovation prior to the late Paleolithic era: small populations blessed
with ample resources were served well by their techniques and
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Look up «fragile»
Practical knowledge embodied in the crafts is different from knowledge deriving from
some abstract understanding of a phenomenon.
To change a car tire, one needs direct instruction or hands-on experience, not any
special knowledge of mechanics or the strength of materials. By rubbing sticks
together or sparking flint into dry kindling, a scout can build a fire without knowing
the oxygen theory (or any other theory) of combustion. And conversely, knowledge
of theory alone does not enable one to make a fire. It seems fair to say that
Paleolithic peoples applied practical skills rather than any theoretical or scientific
knowledge to practice their crafts.
My idea is that they may have a false or primive but law like belief system,
accounting for natural events, for example: an expert on fire may be believed to have
a fire related spritual power.
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Paleolithic lunar observations, a) An engraved mammoth tusk from Gontzi, Ukraine,
that has been interpreted as a record of lunar cycles. Thousands of these artifacts
have been found stretching back 30,000 years. This one dates from approximately
15,000 years ago. b) A diagrammatic rendition of the artifact showing cycles of four
lunar months aligned with the engraved markings.
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Climate and conditions were good, automatic population planning of harsh conditions
was not availabe: like immigration to outer borders of the terrains (all regions were
being used by similar Paleolithic people)
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Look up all:
Where is Fertile Crescent? (Bereketli Hilal); Look up in the Wikipedia.
Unlucky, Americas, Southeast Asia, Australia, lack of wheat, sheep and cow which is
easy protein  insect eating, cannibalism (evolved into religion), semi sedentary =
semi nomadic life.
Lucky Eurasia also for the contact of societies and parallel climates and unlucky
vertical continents Africa and Americas.
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Several isolated Paleolithic communities were dispersed all around the world before
Neolithic age. No contact, but when ice age is ended, some of these transformed
into sedentary communities independently and in different speeds, but after a while
they become dominant and marginalized the remaining Paleolithic hunter gatherers
in isolated areas.
Selective breeding  unconscious intervention to evolution (slow for corn in
Americas)
Domesticated sheep, chickens or domesticated wheat cannot survive or reproduce
independently
Emergence of agriculture and livestock raising in several regions independently in
Mesopotamia, India and China and in Americas. It means that in appropriate
conditions transformation from foraging = hunter gatherer to agriculture and
sedentary life is a regularity for human societies.
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Domestication of animals and plants  domestication of humankind itself 
creation of surplus value, over-population  domestication and herding of human
population as a force of production, after the survival from starvation is secured
people are domesticated and exploited as production tools.
Look up for selective breeding in the internet.
http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yapay_se%C3%A7ilim
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_breeding
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By the late Neolithic low-level hierarchal societies, tribal
chiefdoms, or what anthropologists call “big men” societies appeared.
These societies were based on kinship, ranking, and the power to accumulate and
redistribute goods sometimes in great redistributive feasts.
Leaders now controlled the resources of 5,000to20,000 people. They were not yet
kings, however, because they retained relatively little for
themselves and because Neolithic societies were incapable of producing truly great
wealth. (p. 22)
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«This circumstance changed by the later Neolithic, as greater food
surpluses and increased exchange led to more complex and wealthier
settlements with full-time potters, weavers, masons, toolmakers, priests,
and chiefs. Social stratification kept pace with the growth of surplus
production.» (p. 22)
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(megacities of the time) had 2000 people, since the density is maybe a 1000 times
higher then the Paleolithic age.
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(megacities of the time) of 2000 people, since the density is maybe a 1000 times
higher then the paleolithic age.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1350805/history-oftechnology/10396/Building-techniques
The military power accumulated in the hands of the ruler creates a dependency
relation for the population, to protect them and their status quo against chaos,
raiders and other conquerer rulers, against a new ruler, another ruler.
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The Neolithic revolution was a techno-economic process that occurred
without the aid or input of any independent “science.” In assessing the
connection between technology and science in the Neolithic, pottery
provides an example exactly analogous to making fire in the Paleolithic.
Potters made pots simply because pots were needed and because they
acquired the necessary craft knowledge and skills. Neolithic potters
possessed practical knowledge of the behavior of clay and of fire, and,
although they may have had explanations for the phenomena of their
crafts, they toiled without any systematic science of materials or the
self-conscious application of theory to practice. (p.23)
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