Learning
to
Fly
Second
Edition
R.
mg1
y
Randall
Padfield
Mc
Graw
Hill
Education
Learning to
Fly
Helicopters
About the Author
R. Randall Padfield, formerly editor-in-chief of AIN
Publications for 14 years and now chief operating
officer, has some 9,000 hours of flight time, most of it in
helicopters, and is the author of four books on aviation.
He holds an Airline Transport Pilot certificate for helicopters and airplanes, flew U.S. Air Force rescue
helicopters in Iceland and Alaska and civil offshore
helicopters to North Sea oil platforms, and for a short
time served as copilot for Donald Trump, flying a
VIP-configured AS332 Super Puma. A graduate of the
U.S. Air Force Academy, Mr. Padfield holds a master's
degree in engineering management from UCLA and
received the National Business Aviation Association's
Gold Wing Award for reporting excellence in 1998.
Learning
to
Fly
Helicopters
R. Randall Padfield
Second Edition
Mc
Graw
Hill
Education
New York Chicago San Francisco
Athens London Madrid
Mexico City Milan New Delhi
Singapore Sydney Toronto
Copyright © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States
Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means,
or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
ISBN: 978-0-07-180862-0
MHID: 0-07-180862-0
e-Book conversion by Cenveo® Publisher Services
Version 1.0
The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: ISBN: 978-0-07-180861-3,
MHID: 0-07-180861-2.
McGraw-Hill Education eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales
promotions, or for use in corporate training programs. To contact a representative, please visit the Contact Us page
at www.mhprofessional.com.
All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners. Rather than put a trademark symbol after every
occurrence of a trademarked name, we use names in an editorial fashion only, and to the benefit of the trademark
owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark. Where such designations appear in this book, they have
been printed with initial caps.
Information has been obtained by McGraw-Hill Education from sources believed to be reliable. However, because
of the possibility of human or mechanical error by our sources, McGraw-Hill Education, or others, McGraw-Hill
Education does not guarantee the accuracy, adequacy, or completeness of any information and is not responsible for
any errors or omissions or the results obtained from the use of such information.
TERMS OF USE
This is a copyrighted work and McGraw-Hill Education and its licensors reserve all rights in and to the work. Use
of this work is subject to these terms. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the right to store
and retrieve one copy of the work, you may not decompile, disassemble, reverse engineer, reproduce, modify,
create derivative works based upon, transmit, distribute, disseminate, sell, publish or sublicense the work or any
part of it without McGraw-Hill Education's prior consent. You may use the work for your own noncommercial and
personal use; any other use of the work is strictly prohibited. Your right to use the work may be terminated if you
fail to comply with these terms.
THE WORK IS PROVIDED "AS IS." McGRAW-HILL EDUCATION AND ITS LICENSORS MAKE NO
GUARANTEES OR WARRANTIES AS TO THE ACCURACY, ADEQUACY OR COMPLETENESS OF OR RESULTS
TO BE OBTAINED FROM USING THE WORK, INCLUDING ANY INFORMATION THAT CAN BE ACCESSED
THROUGH THE WORK VIA HYPERLINK OR OTHERWISE, AND EXPRESSLY DISCLAIM ANY WARRANTY,
EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY
OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. McGraw-Hill Education and its licensors do not warrant or
guarantee that the functions contained in the work will meet your requirements or that its operation will be
uninterrupted or error free. Neither McGraw-Hill Education nor its licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else
for any inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in the work or for any damages resulting therefrom.
McGraw-Hill Education has no responsibility for the content of any information accessed through the work. Under
no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill Education and/or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incidental, special,
punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from the use of or inability to use the work, even if any of
them has been advised of the possibility of such damages. This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or
cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise.
To my ever-loving, always patient, cleverly creative, frequently funny, and
thankfully forgiving wife, Moira; our three happy, intelligent, amazing, and muchloved children, Heitha, Dirk, and Tommy, and their spouses, Richard and Dawn;
and our clever, spunky, and fun-loving grandchildren, Richie, Nia, Lila, Liam, and
Coral, all of whom are showing signs of outdoing their parents and grandparents.
This page has been intentionally left blank
Contents
Foreword
Part 1
1
xv
Acknowledgments
xvii
Introduction
xix
Essentials for Students and Private Helicopter Pilots
Helicopter Myths
3
Myth #1: If a Helicopter's Engine Quits, You're a Goner
3
Myth #2: Helicopters Need Two Engines—One for the Big Propeller
on the Top and One for the Little Propeller in the Back
6
Myth #3: Helicopters Are Too Fragile to Fly in Strong Winds
8
Myth #4: A Flight in a Helicopter Is Always Bumpier Than
a Flight in an Airplane
2
Myth #5: Helicopter Pilots Are Different from Other People
13
Basic Aerodynamics
19
Lift and Airfoils
19
Stalls
23
Retreating Blade Stall
24
Settling with Power
29
Torque and Tail Rotors
31
A Torque Experiment
32
Observations
3
4
12
34
Unconventional Helicopter Designs
34
All Else, Aerodynamically
40
Flight Controls
41
The Collective
41
The Throttle
44
The Cyclic Stick
46
The Tail Rotor Pedals
49
All Together Now
51
Your First Flight
55
Why Be a Passenger?
55
Before the Flight
57
Ba
ggage
Clothing
60
62
Hearing Protection
64
Toilet Facilities
64
Boarding the Helicopter
66
■■
VII
vjjj
Contents
5
6
7
Before Takeoff Safety Briefing
68
Seat Belts
70
Smoking
71
Sitting Next to the Pilot
71
The Flight
71
Start-Up
72
Taxiing
73
Takeoff
73
Cruise
77
Landing
78
After Landing
80
Emergencies
81
Finding a Ride
83
Basic Flight Maneuvers
85
Straight-and-Level
85
"I Have Control"
86
Pilot-Induced Oscillations
88
Accels/Decels
89
Level Turns
91
Two Rules of Thumb
92
Normal Climbs
92
Cyclic-Only Climbs
93
Collective-Only Climbs
94
Best Climb Method
95
Flying with Your Ears
95
Normal Descents
96
Turning Climbs and Turning Descents
98
Doing It by the Numbers
99
Learning to Hover
101
The Basic Hover
102
A Few Tricks of the Trade
105
Hovering Turns
105
Hovering with Wind
107
Hovering Forward, Sideways, and Rearward
108
In Ground and Out of Ground Effect
110
More Basic Maneuvers
115
Takeoffs
115
Normal Takeoff from a Hover
117
Takeoff from the Surface
121
Running Takeoff
122
Approach and Landing
123
Normal Approach to a Hover
123
Normal Approach to the Surface
125
Running Landing
126
Contents
8
Words about Wind
128
Traffic Patterns
129
Normal Takeoff or Departure from a Hover
130
Crosswind
131
Downwind
131
Base
131
Final Leg and Normal Approach
131
Quick Stops
133
Autorotation
135
Four-Step Aircraft Emergency Procedure
137
Real Autorotations versus Practicing Autorotations
137
Practicing Autorotations
139
Flare-Type Autorotations
143
Going All the Way
145
Hovering Autorotations
145
All the Way Again with a Full Touchdown Autorotation
147
Common Errors
147
Autorotations—180 and 360 Degrees
148
Dead Man's Curve
149
Because the FA A Says So
9
155
Final Reminder
155
Advanced Maneuvers
157
Confined Area Operations
157
High and Low Reconnaissance
158
Approach and Landing
160
Slope Operations
Ground Reconnaissance
10
141
Closer to the Ground
162
164
Maximum Performance Takeoffs
164
Pinnacles and Ridge Operations
166
Rooftop Heliports
169
The Joys of Flying IFR
170
Offshore Oil and Gas Operations
173
Approaching an Oil Rig
175
Rig Landings
177
Rig Takeoffs
182
Sling and Hoist Operations
185
External Sling Basics
186
Hoisting Basics
188
Category A and B Helicopters and Operations
189
Emergencies
195
More about the Basic Aircraft Emergency Procedure
195
Basic Four-Step Emergency Procedure for Helicopters
Tail Rotor System Failures
195
203
jx
X
Contents
11
Tail Rotor Control System Failures
204
Tail Rotor Drive System Failures
206
Main Gearbox Malfunctions
209
Engine Malfunctions
210
Fires
211
Engine Fire
211
Electrical Fire
212
Another Good Rule
212
Cabin and Baggage Compartment Fire
213
Mast Bumping
213
Aircraft Systems
217
Engines
217
Magnetos
218
Mixture Control
219
Carburetor Heat
220
Engine Oil System
221
Engine Tachometer
221
Manifold Pressure Gauge
223
Main Transmission
225
Clutch and Freewheeling Unit
228
Main Rotor System
229
Rotor Blades
229
Swashplates
233
Vibration-Reducing Devices
233
Fuel System
233
Electrical System
235
Hydraulic System
237
Flight Instruments
237
That Was Then, This Is Now
238
Glass Cockpits
240
GPS
241
Aviation Apps
245
Turbine Engines
Turbojet Engines—The Original Jet Engine
248
Turbofan Engines
249
Turboprop Engines
250
The Helicopter's "Jet" Engine: The Turboshaft
251
Turboshaft Engine Parameters, Ratings, and Limitations
Learning to Fly a Turbine-Powered Helicopter
12
247
....
252
254
Other Systems
255
Hazards of Low-Level Flying
257
Scud Running
257
Special VFR
259
Rules for Scud Running
261
Avoiding Power Lines
264
Birdstrikes
266
Contents
13
Flight Training Tips
269
The Basics
269
The Civilian Flight Training Route
270
Requirements for a Private Pilot Certificate with
a Helicopter Rating
271
Becoming a Professional Pilot
272
Requirements for a Commercial Pilot Certificate with
a Helicopter Rating
How to Find and Select a Flight Training School
275
275
Step One: Search
276
Step Two: Narrow Your Search to Five to Ten Schools
276
Step Three: Call the Schools for Information
277
Step Four: Select Three to Five Schools and Visit Them
278
Step Five: Decide Which School You Will Attend
278
How Much Will Civil Flight Training Cost?
How Do I Pay for Flight Training?
The Military Flight School Route
278
280
281
U.S. Army
281
U.S. Navy
282
U.S. Marine Corps
282
U.S. Air Force
282
U.S. Coast Guard
283
U.S. Merchant Marine Academy
283
How Can Military Pilots Obtain Civil Pilot's Licenses?
283
Other Flight Training Considerations
284
If My Goal Is to Be a Helicopter Pilot, Should I Train
in Airplanes First or Go Right to Helicopters?
14
284
Adding a Helicopter Rating to an Airplane Certificate
285
Veterans Administration Benefits
285
What Really Is a "Flight Simulator"?
286
Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Helicopters
291
General Information
291
Practical Test Standards Concept
292
Practical Test Book Description
292
References
292
Objectives
293
Abbreviations
293
Use of the Practical Test Standards
294
Plan of Action
294
Special Emphasis Areas
295
Private Pilot—Rotorcraft Practical Test Prerequisites
295
Aircraft and Equipment Required for the Practical Test
296
Flight Instructor Responsibility
296
Examiner Responsibility
296
Satisfactory Performance
297
xi
xjj
Contents
Unsatisfactory Performance
297
Typical Areas of Unsatisfactory Performance
297
Letter of Discontinuance
298
General Areas Evaluated
298
Aeronautical Decision Making and Risk Management
298
Single-Pilot Resource Management
298
Applicant's Use of Checklists
298
Use of Distractions during Practical Tests
299
Positive Exchange of Flight Controls
299
Applicant's Practical Test Checklist (Helicopter)
299
Examiner's Practical Test Checklist (Helicopter)
300
Area of Operation; Preflight Preparation
300
Area of Operation: Preflight Procedures
303
Area of Operation: Airport and Heliport Operations
304
Area of Operation: Hovering Maneuvers
305
Area of Operation: Takeoffs, Landings,
and Go-Arounds
307
Area of Operation: Performance Maneuvers
311
Area of Operation: Navigation
312
Area of Operation: Emergency Operations
313
Area of Operation; Night Operation
316
Area of Operation; Postflight Procedures
317
15
The Ten Commandments for Helicopter Flying
319
16
Weight and Balance, Passenger Briefings, and Hand Signals
339
Weight and Balance
339
Weight a Minute
340
Just a Moment
340
Center of Gravity or Reference Datum?
342
Longitudinal and Lateral CG Limits
342
Flying with Passengers
Passenger Preflight Safety Briefing
Commonly Used Hand Signals
Part 2
17
344
346
347
Flying Helicopters Professionally
Employment Opportunities
355
Military or Civilian?
356
One Way to Find Helicopter Operators
358
Careers of Professional Helicopter Pilots
359
General Utility Operations
359
Search and Rescue, Firefighting, Public Service
361
Air Medical/Emergency Medical Services
362
Production Test Pilot, Helicopter Manufacturer
364
Flight-Test Engineering, Academic Instruction on
Flight-Test Training, and Airworthiness Certification
366
Contents
Helicopter Sales and Brokering, Primarily in the
Private/Executive Marketplace
368
Corporate/Not for Hire (Part 91)
370
Corporate/Executive Transport
371
Oil and Gas Offshore
373
Air Medical
374
Flight Instruction, Photo Flights, Helicopter Tours,
Aerial Advertising
375
Air Tours
377
Charter/Air Tour
379
Law Enforcement
380
Military, U.S. Coast Guard, Maritime Law Enforcement,
Search and Rescue
18
19
20
381
Air Tours and Helicopter Aviation Education
383
Military Pilot, U.S. Army
385
Human Factors and Safety
387
A Brief Introduction to Human Factors
388
Ergonomic Problems
388
Psychological Baggage
390
Eliminating Human Factor Errors
394
Three More Common Human Factor Problems
394
Overconfidence
394
Complacency
396
Gung-Ho Attitude
398
The Decision Is Yours
399
Be Suspicious of Others
399
A Flight to Remember
401
Flight Data
401
Preflight
401
The First Leg
405
NOTAM Problems
406
Language Problems
410
Where the H— Is Pontoise?
411
Engine Problems
414
One Final Hazard
415
Analysis
416
Lessons Learned
417
The Return Flight, Almost
418
Postflight
421
Born-Again Copilots
423
One Step Backward, Two Steps Forward
423
Passive Copilots
424
Not the Right Stuff
425
Captain/Copilots
426
What to Do
428
xiii
xjv
Contents
21
22
23
24
Resources for Helicopter Pilots
429
Aviation Associations
429
Broad Aviation Web Sources
430
Aviation Publications
431
A Few Books for Helicopter Pilots
431
Flight Training Resources
433
Aviation Apps
434
Miscellaneous
435
Civil Helicopters
437
Some Points about the Helicopters in This Chapter
438
Normal and Transport Category Helicopters
439
The Data Explained
440
The Helicopters
442
A Glance at Future Rotorcraft
475
There But for the Grace of God
483
Pitfalls for Helicopter Pilots
484
Learning Lessons from Other Pilots
485
Postflight
487
About Ron Bower
487
Over and Out
490
Glossary
493
Index
505
Foreword
Charles Lindbergh and I both flew out of Roosevelt Field in Garden City on New
York's Long Island. He did it famously in 1927, and I in utter anonymity some
30 years later. Still, my flight—albeit as a passenger—was also noteworthy since
it occurred after the field had become, sadly, the Roosevelt Field Mall and thus may
have been among the last flights from the hallowed aviation place.
As you've surely guessed, my aircraft was a helicopter, a classic Bell 47 that my
uncle, a friend of helicopter pioneer Frank Piasecki, had sponsored for a brief appearance
at the mall. A wide-eyed kid going aloft for the first time, I distinctly recall my surprise
at not so much ascending, as I had expected, but rather seeing the ground fall away
below me. I knew immediately that this was something special.
Ever since I have marveled at the helicopter's unique properties, but they remained
largely theoretical as I went on to fly aircraft whose wings were fixed solidly in place,
and to write and edit stories about the same.
Then one day in 1980 a manuscript arrived unbidden at the magazine I was then editing
that described in riveting detail an environment, a set of circumstances, a discovery—all to
the extreme—that had tested helicopters and their crews to the limits. The story focused on
the Alexander Kielland, a five-legged, semi-submersible drilling rig that had capsized after
one of its legs broke off during a furious storm in the North Sea shortly before night. Despite
a desperate response by helicopter crews in harrowing conditions, their bravery could not
alter the catastrophe, which ultimately claimed 123 lives.
The story's author was one of those responding pilots, an expert rotary-wing aviator,
and, as it turned out, a writer of the highest order as well. That was my first encounter
with Randy Padfield and, fortunately, we've had many since, as we've traveled parallel
paths in publishing.
Over the years, I have come to admire Randy's special ability to convey both the
technical and practical aspects of rotary-wing flight, as is well demonstrated within the
pages that follow. Anyone truly interested in mastering these extraordinary flying
machines—no simple thing, as two of my sons can attest—would be well served to spend
some time taking in what an aviator who achieved that level years ago has to give.
And before long you, too, might be pulling collective and watching your old world
fall away.
William Garvey
Editor-in-Chief
Business & Commercial Aviation
Ridgefield, Connecticut
XV
xviii
Acknowledgments
for her; to Amy Laboda, a freelance writer for Aviation International News and former
editor of Aviation for Women magazine, who provided contacts with three helicopter
pilots she knows; and to Stacy Sheard, one of Amy's contacts, who connected me with
three more pilots. Believe me, networking in the helicopter industry really works!
I am also thankful to Laura McColm of the Bristow Academy and Daniel Jones of
Hillsboro Aviation, who provided much of the current information about helicopter
flight training that appears in Chap. 13.
More special thanks to my two longtime bosses, Jim Holahan, founding editor of
Aviation International News, and Wilson Leach, founding publisher, now managing
director and full owner of the business and my current boss. Jim took a chance on me,
hiring a professional helicopter pilot/freelance writer to be news editor of what then
was primarily a business aviation publication, at a time when I really needed the job.
Wilson took another chance when he offered me the position of editor-in-chief when
Jim retired.
I also want to thank Bridget Thoreson, my editorial coordinator at McGraw-Hill
Education, publisher of this book, for encouraging me to do this second edition and for
patiently helping me step by step through the process; and Sapna Rastogi, project
manager at Cenveo Publisher Services, for patiently guiding me through the page proof
process and allowing me to use Dropbox instead of the company's FTP site to move
materials back and forth.
And I must also gratefully thank all the helicopter manufacturers who provided
many photographs and much information about their aircraft for this book and its first
edition: AgustaWestland, Bell Helicopter Textron, Boeing Helicopters, Enstrom Helicopter
Corporation, Erickson Air-Crane, Eurocopter, Kaman Aerospace, MD Helicopters, Robinson
Helicopter Company, and Sikorsky Aircraft Company; and also Bristow Academy and
Hillsboro Aviation.
Finally, as I did in the first edition of Learning to Fly Helicopters, I wish to thank again
my parents, Ralph and Clara Anne Padfield, although this time posthumously. My father,
a World War II naval aviator, meticulously prepared the drawings for the first edition and
T have kept all of them in this one. He and my mother also read the original manuscript
of the first edition for clarity, accuracy, readability, and errors. Thank you. Mom and Dad.
I miss you both.
R. Randall Padfield
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank my dear wife, Moira, for her many hours of help in the
preparation of this second edition of Learning to Fly Helicopters, for her reasoned
advice, for accepting my absence while I worked on the book during nights and
weekends, and for doing even more of her fair share of household tasks than she
normally does, while she still maintained her private practice as a psychotherapist for
children and adolescents.
I offer special thanks to three longtime friends and to my first helicopter flight
instructor:
•
Matt Thurber, one of my coworkers and a key editor at Aviation International
Neivs, who wrote the section on glass cockpits and aviation apps for Chap. 11,
"Aircraft Systems," and proofread my section on turbine engines in the same
chapter.
•
Bill Garvey, editor of Business & Commercial Aviation magazine and an
accomplished airplane driver, who agreed to write the Foreword to this second
edition and encouraged his two sons, Michael and James, to provide their career
stories as helicopter pilots. When Bill was editor at Professional Pilot magazine
many years ago, he bought and published my first paid story as a writer.
•
Ron Bower, who took me along on one leg of his first, record-breaking, roundthe-world flight in a Bell 206 JetRanger, provided his career story for Chap. 17,
"Employment Opportunities," and offered some inspiring "Words of Wisdom for
Aspiring Pilots," which forms the basis of Chap. 24, "Postflight," the last chapter
in this book.
•
Gale Stouse, posthumously, my first helicopter flight instructor during primary
training at Fort Wolters in Mineral Wells, Texas. Mr. Stouse, a former World
War II Navy fighter pilot and also an early member of the Blue Angels flight
demonstration squadron (formed in 1946), had more flying knowledge than I
could ever acquire and was the best flight instructor I've ever known. Much of
what you'll find in this book I learned from him.
I am extremely grateful to all 17 helicopter pilots who provided their career stories
for Chap. 17.1 am especially grateful to Tom Dolan, a former New York City Police pilot
I've never met in person, who eagerly offered me his story and provided contacts with
six more pilots; to Carol Lynn, owner of Sky River Helicopters in New Jersey (whom I
also have not met), who put me in contact with three flight instructors who had worked
xvii
This page has been intentionally left blank
Introduction
A couple of surprising things happened to me as I worked on this updated edition
of Learning to Fly Helicopters. First, I realized I had stopped flying professionally
.20 years ago in 1992, the same year the first edition of this book was published.
However, I did continue to fly privately in my own 1946 Taylorcraft BC-12D, a small,
two-seat airplane, and I started flying with test and demonstration pilots in new and
upgraded helicopters so I could write pilot reports about the aircraft for Aviation
International News (AIN). In effect, I went from being a full-time pilot and a part-time
writer to being a full-time writer and a part-time pilot.
But more surprising to me was that I really fell in love again with helicopters. Not
that I had ever lost my fondness for them, but after almost 20 years in Air Force and
civilian helicopter cockpits, I had felt a need to pursue something else.
So, after leaving my job with Helikopter Service in Norway and returning to the
United States in 1989, I added a multiengine airplane class rating to my Airline
Transport Pilot certificate. My intended goal was to fly airplanes professionally.
However, I quickly learned that I did not have enough fixed-wing time to get a job
flying airplanes that paid enough to keep my family afloat. My best option was to
return to helicopters, which I reluctantly did. I flew for Trump Air until I was laid
off, then worked as sales manager for Carson Helicopters until I was unfortunately,
but rightfully, fired for not being good enough at that job. Meanwhile, I was
freelancing for a few aviation magazines and had started writing books, which I
quickly learned is no more than a side income for most authors. So when Jim
Holahan, AIN's editor-in-chief at the time, offered me a full-time position as an
editor, I hesitated less than 24 hours before I gratefully accepted it. I knew nothing
about editing, but I could write and was eager to learn how to become a good editor.
Now, 20 years later, I find writing about aviation, and flying occasionally, a perfectly
satisfying occupation (Fig. 1), although I would like to fly more often than I do. But I
know what it takes for me to feel safe and competent in the cockpit—to fly like a
professional pilot even when I'm flying for fun. While I eagerly accept any stick time I
can get with other pilots, I do not have the time to concentrate on being the professional
aviator I once was. But enough about me already.
Because you have picked up this book and maybe even bought it, I suspect you are
wondering what it is like to fly a helicopter. Before I tell you, allow me to explain some
things about Learning to Fly Helicopters.
xix
Introduction
"
•*«
V-
Figure 1 Doing pilot reports for AIN Publications has allowed me to pursue my favorite
avocations: flying helicopters and writing. In May 2009, Leo Meslin (right), a Bell Helicopter
experimental test pilot, took me on a demonstration flight in a Bell 429 at Bell Helicopter's
assembly facility in Mirabel, Quebec. My report on this light, twin-engine helicopter appeared in the
July 2009 issue of Aviation International News. Photo by Yves Beaulieu (www.beaulieuphoto.com).
What This Book Is Not
If you found Learning to Fly Helicopters on Amazon, you might have read some or all of
the 20 comments about the first edition, and maybe some more comments about this
edition. Then you already know that most of the first edition's comments were quite
positive (13 five-star ratings), some were moderately positive (5 four-star ratings), one
was average (a three-star), and one other was quite negative (a one-star). I have also
received more than a dozen letters in the mail from readers. These letter writers were all
complimentary, and most also asked for advice, which I tried to provide as best I could.
I'd like to address that single, one-star commenter on Amazon, who wrote the
following: "I strongly urge anyone who has any rotary-wing time not to buy this book.
It is completely introductory in nature. The only usefulness might be for someone
before they undergo rotary-wing training to gain an understanding of what a rotarywing training program is about.... If you're looking for supplemental information, T
would suggest The Art and Science of Flying Helicopters. ... But Learning to Fly Helicopters
does not offer anything new."
The first and last sentences hurt, but I am heartened by the fact that the majority of
readers who commented on Amazon apparently don't feel the same way. I agree with
the unhappy reader's suggestion that The Art and Science of Flying Helicopters is an
excellent follow-on to this book. In fact, I know its author, test pilot Shawn Coyle. I
much admire all that he knows about this subject that I do not. (He also provided his
career story for Chap. 17, "Employment Opportunities.")
Introduction
But I do believe my book is more than "completely introductory in nature," that it
has usefulness for people both before and after they have started flight training, and
that it does offer "something new" in the quite small universe of books about how to fly
helicopters. Based on their comments, as many as 18 of the other readers (the five- and
four-star raters) apparently feel this way, too. I also think my book can be helpful to
spouses, significant others, family members, and friends who want to know more about
what their budding helicopter pilot is getting him- or herself into.
As much as I dared to, I have tried to enliven this book with my own experiences,
thoughts, joys, fears, mistakes, misunderstandings, foibles, and failures, so that the
reader can hopefully learn and profit from my time as a student and as a full-time,
professional helicopter pilot. I've tried to write the book as if you and I were casually
talking together about flying and in a way that one does not need to be an aeronautical
engineer to understand what is being discussed. I could not write that way if I wanted
to. I've been to enough conferences and lectures by engineers and PhDs—really smart
people, believe me—to know that beyond a certain point I often don't understand a
word they're saying. Yet I managed to fly almost 9,000 hours in helicopters without
killing or injuring myself and anyone else or breaking anything significant, although I
did have some close calls.
Another thing this book is not is a reworded example of the FAA's Rotorcraft Flying
Handbook, nor is it the FAA's Pilot's Encyclopedia of Aeronautical Knowledge. To be sure,
you must get both of these books and study them carefully, if you are to become a
proficient pilot, whether you fly for fun or money. They are thorough, as they should
be, and the latest editions are huge improvements over earlier ones. My hope is that
Learning to Fly Helicopters will help you to better understand much of the information
that is in the Rotorcraft Flying Handbook and maybe a few things in the Encyclopedia.
Finally, this second edition of Learning to Fly Helicopters includes additions to many
of the previous chapters and several new chapters. It also has been slightly reorganized
with information in Part 1 relevant to all student helicopter pilots, both those who plan
to fly only privately and those who want to become professional pilots. Part 2 holds
information that is tailored more for budding professional helicopter pilots, but I think
many private pilots will find value in this part, as well.
What This Book Is
This book is about what it's like to learn to fly helicopters and what it's like to fly
them as a professional pilot. And what is that exactly? It starts with a feeling. A
feeling that must be experienced to be understood. The best I can do is identify
other experiences that create similar feelings, experiences you're more likely to
have had, and hope you'll get the idea.
It's a feeling you get when playing football. You go out for a long pass. You're
running full speed down the field and hear your name called out. You look over your
shoulder and there's the ball—right there—floating toward you. You reach out in front
of you, your legs pumping as fast as they can go, and the ball just settles right into your
fingers as if it were weightless. You grasp the ball, cradle it to your side, and feel like
you could run on forever.
Or you're playing baseball. The pitcher throws and before the ball is halfway to
the plate you know it's the kind of pitch you like. You time it just right and swing
Introduction
hard and smooth. The bat meets the ball full on, a loud satisfying "thunk." As the bat
coils around your body, you watch the ball sail straight out over the pitcher's head in
a perfect 45-degree arc and it sails on and on and on.
It's a feeling, a hands-eyes-and-feet coordination thing. The kind of feeling a
gymnast gets on the balance beam. The kind of feeling an airplane pilot gets when he
squeaks on a landing in a tail dragger. The kind of feeling a skier gets coming down a
slope covered in new powder. The kind of feeling everyone gets when they learn to ride
a bicycle without training wheels.
That's what it's like to fly a helicopter.
You won't get the feeling riding as a passenger in a helicopter. You won't get it the
first time you fly a helicopter or even the second or the third. When you're learning,
you'll be concentrating too much on the basics to get the feeling. You have to master the
basics before the feeling comes. Be patient. It will come with time.
When you get the feeling, you'll know it. The helicopter will no longer feel like an
alien machine trying to kill you at every turn. You won't think of it as thousands of
individual parts flying together in loose formation while they try to beat the air into
submission. You won't think of it as the "inherently unstable" ugly duckling of the aviation
industry. When you get the feeling, the helicopter will become your magic carpet.
This book can't give you the feeling. No book can. What this book can do is pave the way
so that you'll get the feeling sooner.
Helicopters are fascinating, complicated machines. They're not easy to fly and they're not
easy to understand. You have a lot of study and work and practice ahead of you if you are to
become a helicopter pilot. Believe me, it's worth the time, effort, and money.
Once you get the feeling, you'll never want to let it go.
For several of my pilot reports on various helicopters, previously published in
Aviation International News, and a selection of images from this book, please visit
www.mhprofessional.com/helicopters.
For links to more pilot reports and to contact me directly, go to "R. Randall
Padfield" on Facebook.
PART
Essentials for Students and
Private Helicopter Pilots
Chapter i
Helicopter Myths
Chapter io
Emergencies
Chapter 2
Basic Aerodymanics
Chapter n
Aircraft Systems
Chapters
Flight Controls
Chapter 12
Hazards of Low-Level Flying
Chapter 4
Your First Flight
Chapter is
Flight Training Tips
Chapter s
Basic Flight Maneuvers
Chapter 14
Private Pilot Practical Test Standards
for Helicopters
Chapter 6
Learning to Hover
Chapter?
More Basic Maneuvers
Chapters
Autorotation
Chapters
Advanced Maneuvers
Chapter is
The Ten Commandments for Helicopter
Flying
Chapter io
Weight and Balance, Passenger Briefings,
and Hand Signals
This page has been intentionally left blank
CHAPTER
Helicopter Myths
If God had wanted man to fly, he would have given him O.D. fire-resistant skin and pockets
with zippers.
Unknown United States Army helicopter pilot, referring to the
olive drab-colored Nomex flight suits worn by military pilots
Admit it. Deep down one thing you've always wanted to do is fly a helicopter.
Ever since you saw your first helicopter hovering over the ground, you've
wondered what it's like to be a real "hover lover." But something has always
held you back.
Maybe it's that number one horror story about helicopters: If the engine stops, down
you go, with all the glide ratio of a brick. Even twin-engine helicopters aren't safe, you've
heard. And what about strong winds? Aren't they a problem for those fragile-looking
whirlybirds? Most people will tell you no one in their right mind would really want to fly
such unsafe aircraft. Why, you'd be risking your life every time you went up!
Hold on a minute. Let's clear up these things right from the start. First of all, let me
assure you that all the horror stories about helicopters are just that—stories. The truth
is helicopters and their pilots suffer from an image problem. Because of this and a general lack of knowledge about rotary-wing aircraft, a number of misunderstandings
about helicopters, myths, if you will, have grown up over the years.
I've talked with many people—passengers, nonpassengers, even experienced airplane pilots—and I've found that a few subjects are brought up time and time again
(Fig. 1-1). Let's look at them one at a time.
Myth #1: If a Helicopter's Engine Quits, You're a Goner
The film and television industries perpetuate this myth by constantly showing helicopters spinning madly out of control whenever the pilot so much as scratches his nose...
not to mention when the movie villain does something mysterious, but obviously foul,
to the hero's machine. For an apprehensive viewer with little or no mechanical or aeronautical knowledge, it's easy to believe that it doesn't take much to make a helicopter
fall out of the sky.
On the other hand, some people with some mechanical and aeronautical knowledge, even many fixed-wing pilots, hold fast to this myth. They reason that rotary-wing
aircraft have glide ratios not much better than bricks or anvils. Therefore, when its
engine stops, a single-engine helicopter is doomed to descend at such a high rate that a
crash is inevitable.
3
Chapter One
Myth #1: If a helicopter's engine quits, you're a goner.
Myth #2: Helicopters need two engines: one for the big propeller on
the top and one for the little propeller in the back.
Myth #3: Helicopters are too fragile to fly in strong winds.
Myth #4: A flight in a helicopter is always bumpier than a flight in an
airplane.
Myth #5: Helicopter pilots are different from other people.
Figure 1-1
The five myths about helicopters.
An object's glide ratio is the relationship between the distance it will travel
unpowered over the ground compared to the height that it started gliding from; gliders are made to glide and therefore have good glide ratios; small airplanes usually
have fair glide ratios and supersonic jet aircraft have relatively poor glide ratios;
bricks, anvils, and rocks obviously don't glide very far so they have extremely poor
glide ratios (Fig. 1-2).
Flelicopters don't have the best of glide ratios, but as long as the rotor blades keep
turning, helicopters can do something airplanes can't do. And it's even better than gliding. It's called autorotation.
The fact is: You have a better chance of survival after a complete power failure in a
helicopter than you do after a complete power failure in an airplane.
Helicopters can autorotate because they have rotating wings (rotor blades) instead
of fixed wings. Think of the rotor blades on top of a helicopter as a fan. When you
switch on a fan, an electric motor turns the fan's blades and the blades create a small
breeze.
n
*
Glide distance (not proportional)
Figure 1-2 Relative glide ratios of several objects. A helicopter in autorotation has a better glide
ratio than a supersonic jet aircraft.
Helicopter Myths
The opposite of a fan is a windmill, or wind turbine. A windmill uses breezes and winds
to drive pumps, generators, and other machinery. Air moves the blades of a windmill to
drive the machinery, whereas, the motor in a fan turns its blades in order to move the air.
The amazing helicopter can act like either a fan or a windmill.
Most of the time, a helicopter acts like a fan. The engine turns the rotor blades, the
rotor blades create lift, and the helicopter flies. But if the engine stops, the air flowing
past the rotor blades, the relative wind, causes the blades to turn like a windmill. This
allows a helicopter to make a controlled descent and landing.
What happens when the engine fails in a single-engine helicopter? (We'll get to
twin-engine helicopters in Myth #2.)
The first event is the immediate and automatic disconnection of the engine from the
rotor system by a freewheeling unit in the main transmission (Fig. 1-3). The effect is
similar to when you stop pedalling a bicycle when going downhill. Because of your
momentum and the pull of gravity, the bicycle's wheels continue to turn even though
the "engine" (meaning you, the cyclist) has stopped pedalling. You might even pick up
speed as you coast down the hill.
A flying helicopter is also subject to the force of gravity and it will continue "downhill" with its rotor blades "coasting" because of the effect of the relative wind turning
them like a big windmill.
The net result is that helicopters do not glide like bricks, they do not fall from the
sky like anvils, and they do not spin around like whirling dervishes when the engine
fails. What they do is autorotate.
Although a helicopter in autorotation will descend at a faster-than-normal rate, helicopter pilots are trained to handle this event. As the helicopter nears the ground, the pilot
manipulates the controls so that the momentum generated by the turning rotors during
the descent is converted into lift. Some helicopters have so much energy that they can
actually hover over the ground for a few seconds at the bottom of the autorotation.
The amount of lift available is dependent upon the weight of the helicopter, the temperature, the air pressure, and the surface wind. However, even under the most unfavorable conditions, a skilled pilot can usually still make a safe autorotative landing—no
damage and no injuries—into an area not much larger than the helicopter itself (Fig. 1-4).
Main rotor
□ t
3 C
Freewheeling
unit
M
^
4-,
ft
i
i
L 1
i i
U'
3
Z
Tail rotor
Engine
Transmission
Figure 1-3 Simple schematic of a single-engine helicopter. The engine is coupled to the transmission
via a freewheeling unit. In the event of an engine failure, the freewheeling unit automatically
disconnects the engine from the transmission so that the main and tail rotors are free to autorotate.
6
Chapter One
V
5
i
b
&
Figure 1-4 At the hands of a skilled pilot, a helicopter can make an engine-out landing into an
area not much larger than the helicopter itself: Schweizer 300. (Source: Schweizer Aircraft
Corporation)
The ability to safely land in a small area is the main advantage an unpowered helicopter has over an unpowered airplane, but there are other advantages, too.
When a small, piston-engine airplane loses all engine power, its electrical generators and hydraulic pumps stop, as well (newer airplanes and airliners have backups);
however, because the generators and pumps in a helicopter are connected to the main
transmission, as long as the rotor blades are turning, so are the generators and pumps.
This means that the helicopter pilot can use the same equipment during autorotation
that he has available in powered flight: radios, navigation aids, autopilot system, and the
like. An unpowered airplane, on the other hand, would be reduced to battery power alone,
which usually means that some electrical consumers are lost. Small airplanes do not have
hydraulically boosted controls, but the loss of total hydraulic power in a large airplane is a
serious emergency. This would happen if an airplane had a total engine failure.
So, you can see that autorotation is a very handy thing for the helicopter pilot
to have.
Myth #2: Helicopters Need Two Engines-One for the Big Propeller on
the Top and One for the Little Propeller in the Back
Can you figure out one of the fallacies in this statement from the preceding explanation?
Think of a single-engine helicopter. It has a main rotor on the top, the "big propeller" (but don't ever call it that), and a tail rotor in the back, the "little propeller" (ditto),
and it has but one engine; therefore, something else besides a second engine must make
the little propeller—excuse me, the tail rotor—in the back go around.
Helicopter Myths
That something is the same in both single- and twin-engine helicopters, and even
three-engine helicopters (yes, there are some, the AgustaWestland AW101, for example).
For comparison, an automobile has one engine. The engine turns the gears in the
transmission and the transmission transfers the power to the wheels. In a normal twowheel drive car, there is one engine powering two wheels.
What if you decided you wanted a more powerful car? You could, of course, take
out the engine and install a bigger one. But, for the sake of this analogy, let's say that
you decide to add another engine and connect it directly to the transmission.
Now you would have a car with two engines powering two wheels through a single
transmission. If one engine were to stop, you could continue tooling on down the highway
because you would still have power to both wheels from the engine that's still working.
A twin-engine helicopter is similar to that hypothetical twin-engine car, except that the
transmission of the helicopter drives the main rotor and the tail rotor, instead of two wheels
(Fig. 1-5). Each engine has a freewheeling unit so that if one engine fails, it will not slow
down the transmission and make it harder for the other engine to keep the rotors turning.
The reason a "standard" helicopter has a tail rotor is to counteract the torque of the
main rotor. Without an antitorque device to counteract the rotation of the main rotor,
the fuselage of the helicopter would rotate in the opposite direction. Other ways of
counteracting torque include the tandem rotors of the Boeing 234 Chinook or blowing
pressurized air out vents in the tailboom like the MD Helicopters NOTAR (NO TAil
Rotor), but we won't get into them just yet.
Why two engines? The obvious reason is to increase safety. Even though aircraft
engines rarely fail, they can theoretically stop at any time, and the ability to continue
flight on the remaining engine gives the pilot of a twin-engine helicopter more options
(Fig. 1-6). The pilot of a single-engine helicopter has only one option available if the
engine fails: autorotation. As discussed earlier, this is a very good thing to have, but it
does mean the flight will end sooner than planned.
Numerous minor things can plague engines: partial failures of the control mechanism, stuck throttles, hiccups in the fuel system, and environmental factors, such as
icing, heavy rain, and salt water spray, which although not always serious, can be cause
Main rotor
Freewheeling
unit
Engine
r4-i—
Z3£
0
i
-J.L-
Tail
rotor
Z3 e
Engine
Transmission
Figure 1-5
Simple schematic of a twin-engine helicopter. The transmission is powered by two
engines that each have their own freewheeling gear. If one engine fails, the other engine can still
provide power to main and tail rotors via the transmission.
7
8
Chapter One
i
-
as
if
gifofr
-i-Mrtttt;
m
M
Figure 1-6 If one engine fails in a twin-engine helicopter, the flight can be continued to the
nearest safe landing area: Eurocopter EC155. (Source: Eurocopter)
for concern. If plagued by one of these problems, the pilot of a single-engine helicopter
might consider it prudent to make an immediate precautionary landing. Meanwhile,
the pilot of a twin-engine helicopter, although concerned, might be able to continue the
flight to the destination.
The fact is: If you were flying as a passenger in a twin-engine helicopter and one of
its engines failed, you probably wouldn't even notice it.
More than once, I've had engine problems with one engine while piloting a twin-engine
helicopter. Although the engines did not stop completely, they only provided a portion of
their available power. To regain full power, I simply used the emergency fuel control lever
in the cockpit to take manual control of the engine and continued to our destination.
The point is: None of the passengers on these flights ever realized we had any problem at all. We didn't lose altitude and airspeed decreased only slightly when the problem
engine lost some power. After I brought in manual control, airspeed went back to normal.
Absolutely no unusual noises, vibrations, movements, or other indications were noticed.
We just kept on flying as if nothing had happened, and for all intents and purposes, nothing had happened. The other pilot and I only needed to give the malfunctioning engine a
bit more attention than usual.
Myth #3: Helicopters Are Too Fragile to Fly in Strong Winds
What's a strong wind? 20 knots? 40 knots? 60 knots? 100 knots?
What's a knot?
Okay, first things first; knot means nautical miles per hour. If you've ever done any
boating, you're probably familiar with the use of knots as a measurement of speed.
Helicopter Myths
Aviators chose to use knots to measure speed because sailors use knots to measure
speed. (Sailors also tie knots, but that's another subject.) Sailors use knots because the
world is divided into degrees of latitude and longitude. Degrees of latitude and longitude are divided into minutes, 60 minutes equalling one degree. One nautical mile
equals one minute of arc on a meridian (one minute of latitude) or one minute of arc on
the earth's equator. All nautical and aeronautical charts are marked off in degrees of
latitude and longitude; therefore, it only makes sense to use nautical miles per hour
when using these charts. If you were to use statute miles per hour or kilometers per
hour with such charts, a conversion factor would constantly have to be applied.
Back to our original question: What are strong winds?
If you stand in the middle of an open field and get hit by 40 knots of wind, you'd
probably agree that it feels like a strong wind. Sixty knots will push you over, if you
don't lean into it, and a 100-knot wind will make you crawl. (By the way, meteorologists
classify any sustained winds in excess of 64 knots as hurricane force.)
Let's say that anything above 40 knots is a strong wind to someone standing on the
ground. How does 40 knots of wind feel to an aircraft in flight? Like nothing at all.
Wind has no meaning to an object in flight, except in its relationship to the ground.
Once an aircraft—this applies to airplanes, gliders, helicopters, balloons, gyroplanes,
and the like—rises above the ground, it becomes one with the wind. The ground could
disappear, for that matter, and it would make no difference to an aircraft (Fig. 1-7). If the
ground did disappear, flight at lower altitudes would be smoother. Much of the turbulence at lower altitudes is caused by the uneven heating of the earth's surface or by
movement of the air over and around the terrain.
A balloon, for example, can only move with the air mass; therefore, with the wind.
If you lay a sheet of paper on a table in the gondola under a balloon, the paper will
remain completely motionless, no matter what the wind speed is.
Figure 1-7 Once an aircraft leaves the ground it becomes one with the wind: Robinson R22.
(Source: Robinson Helicopter Company)
9
Chapter One
Winds could be blowing 60 knots, but the paper will stick like glue to the table
because the balloon and the table and the paper are all moving at 60 knots over the
ground, but the balloon's relative speed in the air mass is zero. Or, to put it another way,
the balloon's groundspeed is 60 knots and its airspeed is zero. When you move with the
wind, you don't feel it.
Balloons float with the wind and have zero airspeed. Airplanes, on the other hand,
need some airspeed to create a relative wind over their wings in order to create lift and
fly. An airplane with zero airspeed can only go one direction, down.
An airplane cannot take off until it reaches a certain minimum airspeed. This airspeed varies according to aircraft type, weight, air temperature, and air pressure, but
for the sake of an example, let's say that a particular airplane needs 60 knots airspeed
before it can lift off from the ground.
If there were no wind at all, the airplane would have to accelerate along the runway
until reaching 60 knots of airspeed and groundspeed because both are equal in a
no-wind situation.
What happens if a 40-knot wind is blowing directly parallel to the runway?
With the airplane's nose pointed into the wind before the takeoff roll begins, its airspeed indicator would show 40 knots, even though its groundspeed is obviously zero.
The airplane would only have to accelerate an additional 20 knots before it could take off;
it would still take off with 60 knots airspeed, but its groundspeed would be only 20 knots.
And if the wind were 60 knots? The airplane would theoretically be able to fly
directly over one spot, its airspeed 60 knots and its groundspeed zero—hovering.
Incidentally, all aircraft (except balloons) have airspeed indicators, airspeed being
very important and relatively easy to measure. Groundspeed is actually irrelevant to an
aircraft with respect to the physical act of flying. One's speed over the ground is of great
relevance to navigation, however, and is much more difficult to determine, unless the
craft is equipped with navigation equipment.
What's the point?
The point is that most airplanes, like the hypothetical one in our example, need
nearly a hurricane-force relative wind before they can even take off. And after takeoff,
they might accelerate to 100 or 200 or even 1,000 or more knots in the air. To sum up,
airplanes are designed to fly in strong winds and require a strong relative wind to fly.
What about helicopters?
A helicopter doesn't need forward movement through the air to take off and land
because the rotating wings create their own relative wind. Consequently, helicopters
are able to take off and land with zero forward airspeed; however, after takeoff they can
accelerate to airspeeds greater than 100 knots (and experimental rotorcraft have flown
more than 300 knots).
Helicopters might not fly as fast as most airplanes, but like airplanes they are designed
and built to fly in strong winds.
This is not to say that strong winds do not create problems for aircraft. They do, but
it is with respect to the ground that wind is a problem (Fig. 1-8).
The first problem with wind is during takeoff. An airplane is very sensitive to wind
from the sides and back; therefore, even though a light airplane could take off into a
60-knot wind, it might not be able to do so safely, particularly if the wind is not coming
straight down the runway. Even if the wind is parallel to the runway, it might be impossible to taxi the airplane to the takeoff position without subjecting it to excessive crosswinds and tailwinds. It's not unusual for small planes to be flipped upside down because
the pilot was not paying enough attention to the wind while taxiing around the airport.
Helicopter Myths
i
ij
'
*
!
Figure 1-8 Helicopters are built to fly in strong winds. It's with respect to the ground, such as
during landing, that wind becomes a problem: Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk. (Source: United
Technologies Sikorsky Aircraft)
Of course, a helicopter doesn't need a long runway and can be turned to face any
direction in order to take off into the wind. However, starting up and shutting down a
helicopter in high winds can be a problem. Until the rotors are turning at normal rotational speed, the blades are very susceptible to flapping up and down. If the wind is too
high, a rotor blade can flap so low that it hits the top of the fuselage or the tail boom.
Another problem with high winds is fuel consumption. If an airplane or helicopter
cruises at 120 knots and has a 60-knot tailwind, then there's no problem, ground-speed is
180 knots and it will get where it's going in 50 percent less time than if there were no wind.
But if that 60-knot wind is right on the nose, the groundspeed will be only 60 knots and it's
going to take it twice as long to cover the same distance than in the no-wind condition.
In both cases the airspeed is the same, 120 knots, so the rate of fuel consumption is the
same. The difference is time. In the second case it might not be possible to load enough
fuel in the tanks to make the trip. Theoretically, helicopters and airplanes could fly in any
wind speed. They might not get anywhere and might be moving backward over the
ground if the wind is greater than their maximum airspeed, but they could still fly.
The third problem with high winds is passenger safety when getting on and off the
aircraft. This can be a serious consideration at offshore oil platforms where the wind is
often greater than 40 knots.
Many North Sea helicopter operators have chosen 60 knots as the maximum wind
speed limit at offshore oil platforms. This is for the safety of the passengers while
boarding and disembarking from the helicopters. En route to the platforms, there is
no wind limit as long as the helicopter carries enough fuel for the round trip and the
wind stays below 60 knots over the platform's helideck.
Chapter One
Myth #4: A Flight in a Helicopter Is Always Bumpier Than a Flight
in an Airplane
"Bumpier" usually means two things to helicopter passengers: vibrations and turbulence.
All right, I'll grant you that helicopters vibrate more than airplanes, particularly
jet-powered airplanes. You'd vibrate, too, if you had has many moving parts as a helicopter does. Even when a helicopter is as fine-tuned as a concert piano, vibrations
occur. And, if just one thing is out of balance or adjustment, the ride in a helicopter
can be very uncomfortable.
The first helicopter builders watched some of their inventions literally shake themselves to pieces. Fortunately, the industry has come a long way since then. The subject
of vibration reduction is one of prime concern among rotary-wing designers and manufacturers and, consequently, the newer helicopters vibrate a great deal less than their
predecessors of only a few decades ago.
Helicopter vibration might never be reduced to the level of a large passenger jet, but
it's much better than it used to be.
With respect to turbulence, however, I take issue.
The fact is: Helicopters are more stable in turbulence than airplanes.
Just ask my wife, a reluctant airplane and helicopter passenger if ever there were
one. She is one of the foremost authorities on turbulence. She hates it.
She always sits by the window in an airliner so she can watch the wing (to be sure
it doesn't fall off) and to look out for clouds. She has learned from experience that
clouds might make bumps. And she hates those bumps.
Before her first flight in a helicopter, my wife was very worried about turbulence.
I tried to reassure her that the weather forecast was not that bad, but T had to be honest
with her because it wasn't that good either.
We hit some turbulence during the flight and my wife was pleasantly surprised.
As I said before, the wings of a helicopter are its rotor blades. In flight, the blades
can be considered a single unit, the rotor disc. Nearly all the weight of the helicopter
hangs from the rotor disc like a giant dead weight. Although the fuselage itself creates
some lift, it is the rotor disc that is doing the lion's share of the work.
Turbulence, which is defined as abrupt changes in the relative wind, causes disturbances to the flying part of an aircraft. Therefore, in a helicopter, it's the rotor disc that
takes the brunt of any turbulence. By the time the effect of the turbulence is transmitted
to the fuselage hanging below, it is dampened considerably by the various things that
are built into helicopters to reduce vibrations. The sharp jolts and bumps often felt in an
airplane become gentle to moderate bumps in a helicopter.
My wife described turbulence in a helicopter as similar to the gentle rolling motion
one experiences in a canoe when passing over the wake of another boat.
On the other hand, the wings of an airplane are mounted rigidly to the fuselage, as
they must be. Any turbulence that affects the wings is directly transmitted to the fuselage and is felt by the passengers and crew.
To be honest, an average-size helicopter is not going to be as stable as a Boeing 747
in the same turbulence. The difference is the total weight; it's like comparing the ride in
a canoe to that of an ocean liner. If you take an airplane and a helicopter of the same
weight, you will have a more stable ride in the helicopter (Fig. 1-9).
The reason that helicopters seem bumpier than airplanes is relative and actual, relative
because there are no helicopters as big as Boeing 747s. If you step off a 747 after crossing the
Helicopter Myths
S
-V
■'
!
c
y
*
li
4
Figure 1-9 The ride in a small helicopter is smoother than the ride in an airplane of equal gross
weight: Schweizer 300. {Source: Schweizer Aircraft Company)
Atlantic and then climb into an airport-to-city center helicopter, the helicopter is not only
going to seem bumpier to you, it will be bumpier because it's a lot smaller.
A flight in a helicopter over a certain route might actually be bumpier than a flight
in an airplane over the same route because airplanes, even those as small as or smaller
than helicopters, can often fly above the worst turbulence-producing storms and frontal
systems. Helicopters, mainly because they lack icing protection, pressurization systems, and the power required to fly higher, have to muck along at lower altitudes and
plow through the turbulence.
Things are changing. With the advent of such rotary-wing aircraft as the AgustaWestland AW609 and Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey tilt-rotors, the improvement of conventional
helicopter designs and engines, and the development of reliable helicopter anti-icing systems, cruising efficiently at altitudes above 10,000 feet is becoming more practical. This will
give the helicopter pilot more flexibility in choosing an altitude that is less turbulent.
Myth #5: Helicopter Pilots Are Different from Other People
Thank you, Hollywood, and YouTube!
Not all helicopter pilots on television and in films are portrayed as being a little
strange, but after seeing so many helicopters crash on big and little screens, why would
any sane person want to be a helicopter pilot?
Luckily for us, accidents are not nearly as prevalent in real life as they are in the
movies and when they do occur, they're usually survivable.
Chapter One
Vs
W
^ll
Figure 1-10 Pilots know the hazards involved in flying and act accordingly. They don't go out of their
way to take unnecessary risks: Boeing AH-64D Apache Longbow. (Source: The Boeing Company)
And speaking of surviving, I think most pilots have a keener sense of self-preservation
than most other people. This is perhaps because they respect the hazards inherent with
flying and have to compensate for them on a daily basis (Fig. 1-10). Remember, it's always
the pilots who are the first to arrive at the scene of an aircraft accident.
Helicopter Myths
What does it take to be a pilot? An excerpt from OUTING Magazine is just as valid
today as it was when it was written by Augustus Post in May 1911:
Flying ... calls for the greatest exercise of self-control and requires, as essential elements for
success, bravery, daring, to a slight degree, courage, confidence in yourself, your men, and
your machine, good judgment, clear sight, intuitive knowledge, quickness of thought, positiveness of action, all combined with a most delicate sense of feeling and acute powers of
perception. Good health is both a result and a prerequisite of good flying, and your mind
must be clear and free.
Pilots start flying because they are lured by the thrill and adventure of the sky. They
keep flying because they enjoy it, it's personally rewarding it pays well (or at least well
enough), they get a fair amount of free time, or all four, if they're lucky.
Helicopter pilots consider themselves pilots first and helicopter pilots second.
The reasons they fly helicopters instead of airplanes, or helicopters and airplanes, are
as varied as the pilots themselves.
I flew helicopters and airplanes while in the Air Force. I chose to fly helicopters
because I got a bigger kick out of flying low over the ground than way up above the
clouds and because the main mission of the Air Force helicopter fleet, at that time, was
search and rescue. That appealed to me.
Other pilots began flying helicopters for different reasons.
The fact is: For all professional pilots, flying is a job.
And a job is something one likes to come home from.
When it comes right down to it, helicopter pilots really aren't that much different
from other people. (I don't sound crazy, do I?)
They have wives and children, or husbands and children, or boyfriends or girlfriends, or girlfriends and children, or maybe a combination of the above. They might
be single or married or divorced or separated, just like the rest of humanity. Some are
deeply religious, some are less so, and others are atheists.
Helicopter pilots come home from their daily flying and play golf or wash dishes
or watch television or have a couple of beers or take the dog for a walk or change a
diaper or work on the house or run the family business or go fishing or work on their
farm or help the kids with homework or cut the grass or raise horses or fiddle with a
computer or fix the car or write books.
The vast majority of pilots adhere fanatically to the regulations concerning consumption of alcohol and flying (in the United States, no booze eight hours before takeoff).
Failure to do so can mean loss of license and job, but most follow the rule or extend the
number of hours beyond eight because they are professionals and don't want to impair
their own abilities when flying. Other pilots simply do not drink.
Very few professional pilots use illegal drugs and I can't imagine a flight operator
putting up with a pilot who did. Because the FAA has ordered mandatory drug testing
for all professional pilots, it's doubtful any pilot who does take drugs would last very
long before he was discovered.
Almost without exception pilots are rugged individualists and often politically
conservative, but they usually have a strong sense of camaraderie and fellowship
with other pilots. The Air Line Pilots Association is a strong union for airline pilots
and there are several unions for helicopter pilots in the United States and Europe,
primarily serving pilots.
Chapter One
Most pilots take their physical condition seriously, although some smoke and many
drink too much coffee. Eating unbalanced meals at odd hours while on the job is common; often pilots don't get enough sleep because of the nature of the job; many should
probably exercise more. They still must pass a medical examination every six months,
year, or two years, depending on their age and the regulations of the country. Without
a valid medical certificate, a pilot is not allowed to fly.
Many people know that pilots need regular medical checkups, but many don't
know that all pilots involved in scheduled passenger-carrying services, whether by
helicopter or airplane, are required to pass a flight test and written examination every
six months.
It's like taking a driving test twice a year, only believe me it's much more difficult.
Most companies go a step further and require their pilots to have a few days training in
conjunction with the flight check. Anything and everything having to do with that company's operations and specific aircraft operations is covered during this training.
Much training is done in flight simulators. There are companies whose sole purpose
is to provide periodical simulator training to pilots. Such training is not required by law
yet, but many flight operators send their pilots anyway, because they believe in the
benefits of training in a simulator. Some companies send their pilots half-way around
the world, just to get them into a specific simulator once or twice a year.
What can you do in a simulator? Just about anything done in the actual aircraft.
The inside looks exactly like the cockpit of a real aircraft and all the switches, instruments, warning lights, and controls work as if they were in the real aircraft. Amazingly
realistic, computer-generated images fill the cockpit windows with simulations of airports.
Figure 1-11 Learning to fly helicopters can lead to an interesting and rewarding career.
Stacy Sheard, Sikorsky Aircraft test pilot, flying a Sikorsky S-76C++ in 2009.
Helicopter Myths
heliports, cities, countrysides, offshore drilling platforms, and even interactive scenes
depicting emergency medical situations and military operations.
Every conceivable aircraft emergency can be enacted in a simulator, including
emergencies that are too dangerous or even impossible to simulate in the real aircraft.
The ability to experience emergencies, to see the symptoms and warnings as they actually happen, to feel how the aircraft responds, and to learn and improve human reactions is a benefit of an aircraft simulator that every pilot respects. A pilot might not like
the training as it is happening, but he appreciates its value afterwards.
Helicopter pilots might be a little different from other people, but they aren't the
shell-shocked psychopaths often portrayed in movies. They are professionals who take
pride in doing their jobs well.
So what do you think? Now that we've exposed the myths for what they are, do you
still want to learn to fly helicopters? I hope so, because I think you'll find flying helicopters a rewarding experience, whether you do it for a living or just for fun (Fig. 1-11).
The next chapter deals with one thing every helicopter pilot should know something about: aerodynamics. If the subject sounds frighteningly technical to you, never
fear. From personal experience, I've found that many ground and flight instructors try
to give the student too much of what he doesn't need and too little of what he does;
therefore, I've tried to simplify the more technical aspects about aerodynamics to reveal
only what you need to know. Please don't skip the next chapter if you claim to be a
nontechnical person. If I've done my job right, it shouldn't be difficult to understand.
Fair enough? Okay, let's go do it.
This page has been intentionally left blank
CHAPTER
Basic Aerodynamics
Like all novices ive began with the helicopter (in childhood) but soon saw it had no future and
dropped it. The helicopter does, with great labor, only what the balloon does without labor, and is no
more fitted than the balloon for rapid horizontal flight. If its engine stops, it must fall with deathly
violence, for it can neither float like a balloon nor glide like an airplane. The helicopter is much easier
to design than an airplane, but it is worthless when done.
Wilbur Wright
15 January 1909
Conventional wisdom states that one should know something about the theory of
flight before one actually begins to learn how to fly. This makes sense to me, but
some people might not agree.
Look at birds, for instance. They do it without going to ground school first. Humans
learn how to ride bicycles without studying the principle of gyroscopic force that maintains balance. Perhaps it is better to simply "kick the tires and light the fires" and zoom
off into the wild blue yonder with nary a thought about lift coefficients and thrust vectors and other such things.
On the other hand, many of us older, more mature helicopter pilots went through
undergraduate pilot training with the military, and the military certainly does like to
give briefings and classes to pilot candidates. As a result, I suppose I lean toward conventional wisdom in this case.
But theory doesn't have to be boring. So, don't skip this chapter just because you
think you have a right-side-dominant brain.
Lift and Airfoils
Lift is a force that acts upon any object moving through air. Propel anything fast enough
through the air and lift will be created. Depending upon the shape of the object it might
also be creating an enormous amount of drag and expending great quantities of energy,
but you will get some lift.
Lift is created by the air moving past the object (Fig. 2-1). As air moves over
the object, the velocity of the air increases and the air pressure above the object
decreases.
At the same time, the velocity of the air moving under the object decreases and the
pressure increases; thus, the combination of decreased pressure on the upper surface and
increased pressure on the lower surface results in an upward force. This is the force we
call lift. For the scientifically minded, this principle is called the venturi effect or the
Bernoulli principle.
19
Chapter Two
Reduced pressure
Reduced pressure
Figure 2-1 As a quantity of air moves through a restricted space, such as the Venturi tube in the
upper drawing, the velocity of the air increases and its pressure decreases. Similarly, the velocity
of the air moving over the top of the airfoil (in the lower drawing) increases and its pressure
decreases. The higher air pressure under the airfoil causes the airfoil to move upward. This
upward force is called lift.
Confused? Don't worry. You really don't have to understand why it works just
as long as you believe it does work. In fact, the Bernoulli principle works whether you
believe it or not. Perhaps the following experiment will help you understand how it
works, if not why.
While riding in a car, stick your hand out the window. Hold your fingers together
and your hand flat, palm toward the ground, thumb forward. You'll be able to find a
neutral position easily, that position in which your hand will neither go up nor down in
relationship to the ground.
Now rotate your hand slightly, turning the thumb-side upward. You'll feel the wind
pushing your hand upward. If you could hold your hand at that angle and it wasn't
attached to your arm, your hand would just keep on climbing, assuming, of course, that
it continued to propel itself forward.
The more you increase the angle of your hand, the harder the wind pushes it up; in
other words, the greater the force of lift acting on your hand (Fig. 2-2). If you try this
Basic Aerodynamics
Drag
Drag
Figure 2-2
produced.
The greater the angle that an airfoil meets the wind (within limits), the greater the lift
21
Chapter Two
experiment at different speeds, you'll discover that the faster you go the less you have
to angle your hand in order to get the same amount of lifting force. In fact, all other
things being equal, if the speed doubles, the amount of lift created increases four times.
(Lift varies as the square of the velocity of an airfoil.)
Your hand is a simulated wing, or airfoil, what engineers like to call a wing. An airfoil is any surface designed to produce lift or thrust when air passes over it; therefore,
airplane propeller blades and helicopter rotor blades are also airfoils.
In theory, almost anything can produce lift if it moves through the air fast enough,
even anvils and bricks. But some things are obviously better lift-producers than others
and anvils and bricks are definitely poor lift-producers. Actually, no matter how fast
you propel anvils and bricks through the air you won't be able to make them fly because
the lift they produce is not nearly enough to overcome their weight, but they do create
some lift.
Airfoils, by definition, are good lift-producers and one of the most important tasks
of an aircraft designer is to find the best airfoil for the aircraft in question (Fig. 2-3).
Large, heavy transport aircraft need airfoils that are shaped differently from fast, highaltitude fighters; helicopter airfoils are different from airplane airfoils.
A wing designed to fly faster than the speed of sound is not a good lift-producer at
slower airspeeds and the opposite is true, too. The General Dynamics F-lll fighterbomber, for example, was designed with movable swing wings so that the profile of the
wing could be changed for slow or fast flight. This is very expensive and not practical
for aircraft not funded by the military-industrial complex; therefore, aeronautical engineers always have to make trade-offs and compromises when designing airfoils.
The airfoils (rotor blades) on a helicopter create unique problems for the designer
because helicopters not only fly forward, they must also hover and fly sideways and
backwards. Rotor blades designed with good hover characteristics do not provide for
great high-speed maneuvers, and vice versa. So, every helicopter rotor blade is a compromise that gives the machine good hover capability and good, but not too fast, forward flight capability, although rotor-blade designs are getting better all the time.
Leading edge
Trailing edge
Flight path
Relative 1
Angle
of
attack
Figure 2-3 Elements of a basic airfoil. The airfoil in the drawing is symmetrical because the
shape of the airfoil on both sides of the chordline is the same.
Basic Aerodynamics
Stalls
A limiting factor for every airfoil is stall. Most people relate the term stall to automobile
engines and assume that when a pilot says his airplane stalled, he means the engine
stopped. When I told my wife I was going out to practice stalls in my airplane, she
became very upset. "Do you have to really turn off the engine? Isn't that dangerous?"
she asked.
I explained to her that I wasn't going to shut down the engine in flight. I was
referring to the loss of streamlined airflow over the wings that causes a loss of lift
and a large increase in drag (Fig. 2-4). When this happens, the airfoil literally stops
flying and the airplane literally begins falling. Stalls are usually easy to get out of, if
the pilot has enough altitude, but if he fails to manipulate the controls properly, he
could cause the airplane to enter a spin. Spins are harder to get out of, require a good
deal more altitude for recovery, and are rather frightening the first few times you
practice them.
An airplane can stall at high airspeeds and even when the engines are providing
full power. This is rare. Most unintentional stalls in airplanes happen at low airspeeds and low power, usually during takeoff or landing. Much of a fixed-wing
pilot's training deals with how to recognize the approach of a stall, how to avoid it,
and what to do after the airplane has entered it. The first thing many experienced
pilots will do when checking out an airplane they have not flown before is climb to
a safe altitude and do a series of stalls in various configurations (flaps up, flaps
down, with power, without power) just to learn how the airplane reacts under these
conditions.
o
Figure 2-4 Airflow over an airfoil in a stalled condition. Airstream break up on the upper side of
the wing causes a large decrease in lift and increase in drag.
Chapter Two
Most airplanes have some kind of stall warning device to help pilots recognize the
approach of a stall. This can be as simple as a horn or a voice warning that starts to
sound as the airplane begins to stall. In large airplanes, a device called a stick-shaker,
shakes the control column before the airplane actually enters a stall.
Helicopter airfoils can stall, but not in the same way as airplane airfoils, although
the same aerodynamic principles still apply. Because a helicopter's wings (i.e., its rotor
blades) are always moving quite fast, a helicopter cannot enter a low airspeed stall in
the same way that an airplane does, no matter how slow the helicopter's forward airspeed is, even zero, which is hovering. The ability to fly at slow airspeeds and hover
without stalling is one of the main advantages helicopters have over airplanes.
Retreating Blade Stall
On the other hand, a helicopter will enter a high-speed stall at forward airspeeds that
are much lower than are common for airplanes. Again, this is due to the helicopter's
rotating wings.
Imagine a hovering helicopter in a no-wind condition, the main rotor blades turning
counterclockwise, as seen from above, or counterclockwise, as seen from below, that is, from
right to left when viewed from the cockpit. Most helicopters built in the United States have
main rotors that rotate in this direction. The main rotors of most European and Russian
helicopters rotate in the opposite direction (Fig. 2-5). For the sake of simplicity, also
imagine four main rotor blades at this precise moment located at the 90-, 180-, 270-, and
360-degree positions with respect to the fuselage. It's easy to understand that the tip
speeds (the airspeed at the outer tip of the blade) of all the rotor blades are equal.
Now consider the same helicopter in forward flight.
The blade on the right-hand side, at 90 degrees, is meeting the airflow head on, as if
your hand were sticking out of a car window. That blade's tip speed is the sum of the
blade's rotational speed plus the forward airspeed of the entire helicopter. This blade is
called the advancing blade because it is advancing into the wind.
The blades directly at the 360-degree and 180-degree positions have airspeeds equal
to only the rotational speed, because the forward speed of the helicopter is not contributing anything to these blades' total airspeed.
The total airspeed of the rotor blade in the 270-degree position is less than its rotational speed because it is moving in the opposite direction of the helicopter. This is the
retreating blade because it is retreating from the forward airflow; therefore, its airspeed
is equal to the rotational speed minus the forward speed of the helicopter and as a result
has the lowest total airspeed of all the blades.
Remember, the rotational speed of the rotor blades is constant, or nearly so, and that
each individual blade sequentially becomes the advancing and the retreating blade as it
rotates. It is the position of each blade in relationship to the direction of movement that
causes the changes in their total airspeed.
Perhaps you're getting some idea of the complexity of the problems that faced and
still face helicopter designers.
Think about the lift experiment in the car again. As the car's speed increased (and
the airspeed acting on your hand increased), you needed less and less angle to create
the same amount of lift. You can see the general principle involved here: To create an
equal amount of lift, you need higher angles at low airspeeds than you need at high
airspeeds. Likewise, if two airfoils are meeting the air at the same angle of attack, the
airfoil with the greater speed will be producing more lift. Unfortunately, the analogy of
Basic Aerodynamics
[
Retreating
blade
Advancing
blade
Figure 2-5 If a helicopter is hovering in a no-wind condition, the tip speeds of all the blades are
equal, for example, 400 knots. If the helicopter is moving forward at 100 knots, the tip speeds
are unequal. The advancing blade has a tip speed of 500 knots and the retreating blade has a
tip speed of only 300 knots. The blades at the 360- and 180-degree positions have tip speeds of
400 knots.
a hand outside a car, an airplane, and a helicopter breaks down because of the different
ways airplanes and helicopters create lift and thrust.
Recall basic aerodynamic theory that the four major forces acting on any aircraft are
lift, weight, thrust, and drag (Fig. 2-6). Lift is the force that acts upward and, as we have
discussed, is the result of air flowing over an airfoil. Weight is the force that acts downward and is as simple as it sounds, the weight of the aircraft. Thrust is the forwardacting force that propels the aircraft forward. Drag opposes thrust and is a combination
of air resistance and inertia.
Chapter Two
Drag
Thrust
Weight
Thrust
Drag
Weight
Figure 2-6 The four major forces acting on a powered aircraft in flight are thrust, lift, drag, and
weight. The main rotor blades of a helicopter provide thrust and lift.
To fly faster in an airplane while maintaining a level altitude, a pilot must increase
thrust by increasing engine power. In an airplane with a fixed-pitch propeller, the propeller blades rotate faster; in a jet-powered airplane, the turbine blades inside the engine
rotate faster. The wings of the airplane remain constant.
A helicopter creates lift and thrust with the main rotor system. When hovering, the
helicopter as a whole has no thrust and no drag; all thrust created by the main rotors is
acting vertically as lift to oppose weight; however, each blade is creating lift (and drag)
Basic Aerodynamics
by virtue of its movement through the air. To fly forward in a helicopter, part of this
vertical thrust/lift vector must be directed forward in order to produce a horizontal
thrust vector.
Engine power must be increased to fly faster in a helicopter, as in an airplane; however, unlike an airplane's propeller, a helicopter's rotor blades do not rotate faster to create more thrust. Instead, the pitch angle on all the blades is increased in order to increase
overall thrust/lift, similar to the constant-speed propeller of a complex airplane. By tilting
the entire rotor disc progressively more forward, more and more of this total thrust/lift
vector is converted to forward thrust.
The joker in all of this is the rotational speed of the rotor blades, called rotor speed or
rotor rpm (revolutions per minute). Generally, every helicopter has an optimal rotor speed
and therefore this speed should remain as constant as possible. But when you increase the
pitch of the rotor blades, you not only increase lift, but drag, too. This means you must use
more engine power to keep the rotor blades rotating at the same speed.
Let's try another analogy: swimming. Imagine doing the breaststroke with your
hands flat in the water (parallel to the surface) at one stroke per second. It doesn't take
much effort to swim this way, but you don't move very fast either, if at all. Now, angle
your hands slightly and pull at the same rate. This takes more energy, but your body
now moves through the water. Angle your hands 90 degrees to the surface of the water
and it requires a lot of energy to maintain the same rate of one stroke per second, but
your body quickly slides forward.
This is similar to what a helicopter has to do. The angle, or pitch of the main rotor
blades must increase to move the helicopter faster through the air while maintaining the
same rotational speed. But there's an upper limit to this because the blade moving the
same direction as the helicopter (the advancing blade) has a higher airspeed than
the blade moving opposite to the forward direction (the retreating blade) and therefore
the advancing blade is creating more lift. If this dissymmetry of lift is not compensated
for, it would be impossible for a helicopter to do anything but hover.
The problem was first solved by Juan de la Cierva with his autogiros and his solution is considered his greatest contribution to the eventual development of true helicopters (Fig. 2-7). De la Cierva mounted his autogiro blades on hinges that allowed them to
flap individually within set limits (Fig. 2-8).
Amazingly, this flapping action automatically compensated for the dissymmetry of
lift by allowing the advancing blade to flap up and the retreating blade to flap down.
The upward flapping of the advancing blade causes its effective area of lift and angle of
attack to be reduced while the downward flapping of the retreating blade causes its
effective area of lift and angle of attack to be increased. The overall effect is to equalize
lift across the entire rotor disk. It might sound too good to be true and a bit hard to
comprehend, but it does work.
The down side of this flapping action is the fact that the retreating blade always
must have a higher angle of attack than the advancing blade. As said before, a limiting
factor for every airfoil is stall; in other words, every airfoil has a stall angle of attack,
which, when exceeded, causes the blade to stall.
Because the retreating blade's angle of attack is always higher than the advancing
blade's angle of attack in forward flight, the retreating blade is always the first to stall.
(Remember that each blade successively becomes the retreating, then the advancing, then
the retreating blade, over and over again as it rotates.) As the air stalls on the retreatingblade side of the helicopter, an imbalance is created and high lift on the advancing side
isf
01
&
15t
r»«'
IV1
111
I
i ,
n
I
1 I
tl
1
I
Figure 2-7 Juan de la Cierva's greatest contribution to rotary-wing flight was his development of
the flapping hinge for his autogiros: Pitcairn Autogyro, 1930.
Flapping
hinge
o
Mam rotor blade
Figure 2-8 The flapping hinge permits the rotor blades to flap and thereby equalize the lift
between the advancing half and the retreating half of the rotor disc.
28
Basic Aerodynamics
36
Figure 2-9 Retreating blade stall is more of a concern to military pilots who sometimes must
push their aircraft to the limits of the operating envelope: Sikorsky MH-60 Pave Hawk. (Source:
United Technologies Sikorsky Aircraft)
and low lift on the retreating side causes the helicopter to pitch up and roll toward the
retreating side. This is known as retreating blade stall.
Fortunately, retreating blade stall is easy to avoid, easy to get out of, and therefore
not nearly as dangerous or encountered as often, as stalls in airplanes. Helicopter manufacturers must establish maximum airspeed limits that are below the threshold of
retreating blade stall for each helicopter they produce. Pilots who inadvertently encounter retreating blade stall know they must reduce the collective pitch {see index for
explanatory reference to collective pitch) of the main rotor blades to reduce the angle of
attack on all the blades and thereby bring the retreating blade out of the stall region.
Retreating blade stall is so rare that civilian pilots just about never encounter it because
they rarely fly close to the maximum allowable airspeed of their helicopters. Military
pilots who sometimes must, out of necessity, push their machines to the limits of the operating envelope, perhaps occasionally feel the onset of retreating blade stall (Fig. 2-9). They
must always keep it in mind but probably don't lose any sleep worrying about it.
Settling with Power
Another more common way a helicopter can "stall," settling with power, occurs during
landings with very light wind or tailwind conditions when the descent angle is vertical
or nearly so.
Chapter Two
Figure 2-10 Airflow pattern when a helicopter is settling with power. The condition is
characterized by a high rate of descent that increases even more when more power is applied to
the helicopter (when collective is increased).
Anyone who has stood under or near a hovering helicopter knows that it creates
quite a wind. Not all the downwash goes straight down. The air disturbed by the outer
rim of the rotor disc goes down, too, and then curls up in a circular pattern. It is similar
to and very much akin to the vortex-shaped wake turbulence that is created by
airplanes.
If a pilot allows the helicopter to descend too fast vertically, the main rotor begins
to encounter its own turbulent downwash (Fig. 2-10). The turbulent air stalls over all
the rotor blades, reducing lift, and the helicopter descends faster. If the pilot tries to
correct the increased rate of descent by increasing power, he aggravates the situation
by making the downwash more turbulent and the rate of descent only increases.
Settling with power can be hazardous if it happens too close to the ground and
the pilot does not recognize it soon enough. Fortunately, getting out of settling with
power is not too difficult if the helicopter is not too low. The pilot just needs to
maneuver his craft out of the column of turbulent air. He or she does this by moving
the cyclic forward to push the nose down and gain forward speed and by lowering
the collective to reduce the pitch angle on the blades, which reduces the turbulence
on the blades.
Settling with power in a helicopter is similar to a low-speed stall in an airplane, in
that it is something that helicopter pilots are trained to avoid.
Basic Aerodynamics
Torque and Tail Rotors
A chapter about helicopter aerodynamics wouldn't be complete without a few words
about torque and the various ways helicopter designers have tried to counteract its effect.
The reason conventional helicopters have tail rotors is to counteract torque effect. A
portion of Newton's law of motion states: "For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction." Without a tail rotor, the main rotor blades would turn one direction and
the fuselage would turn the other direction.
It's perhaps unfair to classify helicopters with one main and one tail rotor as "conventional" (Fig. 2-11) and everything else as nonstandard or unconventional. After all,
there are a lot of helicopters without tail rotors that fly as well as or better than those
with them. And the tail rotor is certainly no holy cow. It's sort of an add-on, a necessary
evil put there to counteract the torque of the main rotor. Not surprisingly, then, most,
if not all, of the so-called unconventional designs were motivated by an attempt to
get rid of or modify the pesky tail rotor.
A single main-rotor helicopter must have a tail rotor, or other antitorque device,
such as a ducted fan or NOTAR, which uses pressurized air. Without it the helicopter is
unflyable. But the tail rotor doesn't do its work for free. In fact, it extracts the proverbial
"pound of flesh" in more ways than one.
First, it adds weight and a long tail that has no other purpose than to support the
tail rotor. Much of the tailboom is hollow and cannot be used for equipment or baggage
because it would cause problems with the fore and aft center of gravity (see Chap. 16).
-ec-
Figure 2-11 The Bell 47, the first helicopter to be awarded a commercial license in the
United States, is a conventional helicopter. The three-seat version shown here came afterward.
(Source: Bell Helicopter Textron)
Chapter Two
*
41
A
ES
Figure 2-12 The EC145T2 is one of several Eurocopter models that are equipped with a ducted
or shrouded fan, called a "Fenestron," for antitorque control instead of a conventional tail rotor.
The name comes from the French word for "window."
Second, the tail rotor requires power that could otherwise go to the main rotor and
therefore reduces the lifting capability of the helicopter. The tail rotor wastes lift horizontally.
Third, tail rotors are dangerous to living things. Tail rotors spin so fast they become
virtually invisible; in certain light conditions, they are invisible. Loading a helicopter from
the rear while the engine is operating must be done very carefully. The ducted-fan tail rotor
reduces this particular disadvantage of tail rotors, but not the other problems (Fig. 2-12).
Fourth, the tail rotor and its support boom are limiting factors when the pilot is
maneuvering the helicopter in very confined areas.
Finally, tail rotors limit the operating capability of the helicopter. It is possible in
strong crosswinds for the pilot to run out of tail rotor, or yaw, control authority. This
happens when the antitorque required from the tail rotor exceeds the amount of force it
can provide. With full pedal deflection, a pilot simply cannot keep the nose pointed
straight. For this reason, all conventional helicopters have crosswind limits considerably lower than their forward airspeed limit.
A Torque Experiment
My father, who was an engineer, thought of this experiment while he was proofreading
the manuscript for the first edition of Learning to Fly Helicopters. The experiment is a
good demonstration of Newton's Third Law (for every action there's an equal and
opposite reation) and will help you understand why a helicopter needs some way to
counteract torque (Fig. 2-13).
Basic Aerodynamics
ni
Torque
action
2
C
a
r>in
il! nn
Torque
reaction
Figure 2-13 Torque experiment: The pencils rotate in opposite directions, just as the main
rotor and fuselage of a helicopter would rotate in opposite directions if not counteracted by the
tail rotor.
Materials:
•
Soda straw, shortened if necessary.
•
Rubber band that is longer than the straw.
•
Two pencils.
Directions:
1. Feed the rubber band through the straw so that loops stick out each end of the
straw.
2. Insert a pencil throught each loop in the rubber band.
3. Have another person hold the straw gently at its midpoint. Do not squeeze the
straw.
4. Hold one pencil steady while turning the other pencil to wind the rubber band.
5. When the rubber band is wound moderately tight, release both pencils. The
assistant should keep holding the straw at the midpoint.
Chapter Two
Observations
Both pencils should spin, but in opposite directions, caused by the torque force stored in
the twisted rubber band. The rubber band is like the main gearbox in the helicopter. One
pencil is the main rotor and the other is the fuselage. When the rotor is turned by the main
gearbox, there is an equal and opposite reaction acting on the fuselage of the helicopter
making it want to spin in the opposite direction. Therefore, a helicopter must have some
device that provides a force to counteract the engine torque that is transmitted to the main
rotor. In most helicopters, this device is the tail rotor, but there are several other ways to
design rotorcraft to counteract or avoid the torque effect of a single main rotor.
Unconventional Helicopter Designs
Helicopter designers have known about the tail rotor's disadvantages for a long time
and they have tried many ways to eliminate it. The most obvious design was to use two
main rotors that turn in opposite directions and thereby cancel out the torque effect of
each other.
Twin-rotor helicopters use all available engine power for lifting. None of the power
is wasted to counteract rotor torque; furthermore, twin-rotor helicopters are not as
"yaw control limited" as single-rotor machines; they can tolerate much higher crosswinds. Finally, with both rotors horizontal and higher off the ground, twin-rotor helicopters aren't as dangerous for people on the ground.
A twin-rotor helicopter can be built three ways:
•
Side-by-side rotors
•
Tandem rotors
•
Coaxial rotors
The side-by-side (lateral) design has been tried often, frequently with success. The
FW 61 helicopter piloted by Hanna Reitsch inside the Deutschlandhalle in Berlin in
1938 had two lateral rotors. The largest helicopter ever built, the Mi-12 with its loaded
weight of more than 230,000 pounds, also had lateral rotors. The design obviously
works, but it has a few disadvantages. For example, placing the main rotors on the
sides increases the overall width of the aircraft and adds complexity and weight (an
additional gearbox and strengthening selected parts).
Modern technology often stimulates the revival of older designs. The tilt-rotor is a
side-by-side rotor helicopter, and also a hybrid. It can fly as fast as a turboprop airplane
and hover like a helicopter, which is possible with the tiltable main rotors on its wings.
When hovering, the rotors are horizontal; in forward flight, they can be tilted 90 degrees
forward for airplane conversion.
Although the idea is not new, it was not until the 1980s that the tilt-rotor became
an operational possibility. The Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey had a long and checkered
development but has proven itself in service with the U.S. Marine Corps and Air Force
(Fig. 2-14). The AgustaWestland AW609, a smaller tilt-rotor, was forecast (in 2013) to be
certified in 2016.
It's also possible to build a side-by-side twin-rotor total helicopter with the rotors
so close that they intermesh. The Kaman H-43 Huskie with a side-by-side was flown for
many years by the U.S. Air Force for close-to-airport rescue service.
Basic Aerodynamics
§
f
Figure 2-14 The Bell Boeing MV-22 tiltrotor is a side-by-side rotor helicopter and also a hybrid, as it
can fly as fast as a turboprop airplane and hover like a helicopter. (Source: The Boeing Company)
Seeing the rotors intermesh was disconcerting, but in flight the Huskie was no different from other helicopters. One big advantage was the large clamshell doors in the
rear that could be used with no fear of encountering a tail rotor. It was used successfully
for many years until obsolescence; too small, too slow, and too short a range for Air
Force needs.
Chapter Two
Figure 2-15
The Boeing CH-47F Chinook is a tandem rotor helicopter. (Source: The Boeing Company)
In 1994, Kaman certified the K-MAX, which is designed specifically for carrying
external loads. It has side-by-side rotors, carries one pilot and no passengers and can lift
twice its own weight.
The side-by-side design works well, but the tandem rotor helicopters have been
more popular. Frank Piasecki built and flew a successful model in 1945. Numerous
other manufacturers have produced tandem-rotor helicopters: Boeing, Bristol, Vertol, and Sikorsky among others. The Boeing CH-47, remains quite popular with
armed forces all over the world and has been in continuous production since 1962
(Fig. 2-15).
Mounting one rotor above the other is another way to accommodate two main
rotors rotating in opposite directions. This requires two main rotor shafts, one rotating
inside the other one; hence, the term coaxial contrarotating rotors. The design is rather
complex and heavy, but workable. The Kamov design center in the soviet Union has
built many of these helicopters for military and civilian roles (Fig. 2-16).
The Sikorsky X2 is an experimental helicopter with coaxial rotors and a pusher
propeller instead of a tail rotor. In September 2010, a Sikorsky test pilot flew the X2 at
250 knots, at that time an unofficial record for the fastest speed by a helicopter in level
flight (Fig. 2-17).
A more exotic way to eliminate the tail rotor is to use a jet tip helicopter. Propulsion
on the tips of the rotor blades avoids the torque problem altogether. The idea is intriguing and has attracted countless researchers. Many types of jet propulsion schemes have
Basic Aerodynamics
m
)il
%
Kfl 32
it
Figure 2-16 The Kamov KA-32 is an example of a helicopter with coaxial contrarotating rotors.
Notice the complex design of the main rotor head.
Chapter Two
m
a
vri
Figure 2-17 The Sikorsky X2, a technology demonstrator, achieved 250 knots in level flight in
September 2010. (Source: United Technologies Sikorsky Aircraft)
been tried, including rockets, ramjets, turbojets, and compressed air. Some have even
flown; however, all tip jet helicopters have three things in common: high noise level,
poor fuel efficiency, and concept abandonment. Who knows? Perhaps technological
advances in the future will make jet tip helicopters more attractive.
Basic Aerodynamics
Figure 2-18 An MD 520N, equipped with a NOTAR antitorque system, hovers in the glow of an
Arizona sunrise. (Source; MD Helicopters)
A commercially successful way of eliminating the tail rotor also uses the Coanda
effect. The Coanda effect was named for Henri Coanda who discovered the phenomenon
in 1910; the effect is the tendency of an airflow to stick to a curved surface if pulled along
by a dynamic force. McDonnell Douglas developed the NOTAR (NO TAil Rotor) helicopter and builds three models the MD 520N, 600N, and Explorer (Fig. 2-18).
Instead of a tail rotor to counteract the torque of the main rotor, NOTAR uses a turbine fan to pressurize the air inside the tailboom. Slots in the tailboom release a portion
of the air to cause the main rotor downwash to adhere to the tailboom and create a
sideward lift vector. The curved surface of the tailboom—the NOTAR tailboom has a
considerably wider diameter than a conventional tailboom—is an airfoil and uses the
Coanda effect to enhance the antitorque force. Additional force comes from venting the
remaining air through a rotatable direct-jet thruster at the end of the tailboom. Antitorque pedals in the NOTAR work the same as tail rotor pedals in a helicopter with a
conventional tail rotor.
Eurocopter's X3 (pronounced "X cube"), an experimental helicopter based on the
Aerospatiale AS365N, counteracts the torque of the main rotor by changing the power
output of the two propellers, which are mounted on wings attached to the fuselage.
These propellers are powered by a second output from the main gearbox, which also
drives the main rotor and is itself driven by two turboshaft engines mounted above the
cabin. The X3 (Fig. 2-19) achieved a speed of 255 knots in level flight in June 2013, making it the fastest helicopter at the time.
Chapter Two
1
Figure 2-19 The experimental Eurocopter X3 ("X-cube") achieved an airspeed of 255 knots in
June 2013, making it the fastest helicopter at this time. (Source: Eurocopter)
All Else,Aerodynamically
Many other aerodynamic principles affect helicopters: gyroscopic precession, centrifugal force, blade coning, Coriolis force, among others. A pilot is primarily concerned
about the principles discussed so far, plus a few more that shall be explained in subsequent chapters.
Additional aerodynamic principles that affect helicopters are defined in the glossary. In 40 years of helicopter flying, the only times I really had to worry about the more
esoteric aerodynamic stuff was when I took written tests for the Army, Air Force, and
FAA. Refer to supplemental material if you want to know more about helicopter aerodynamics, beyond the basics.
Aerodynamic theory is great for the armchair pilot, but when it comes to really flying, what you do with your hands and feet determines how you translate theory into
action. The next chapter explains helicopter flight control systems, the tools that connect the pilot to Bernoulli's principle, and all that other aerodynamic stuff.
CHAPTER
Flight Controls
To study the action and permit ourselves some training, zoe mounted the helicopter without the main
rotor on a support that permitted tilting the machine in all directions. The controls appeared satisfactory and, after about one week of training, the main lifting screw zoas mounted again and flights were
resumed. In flight it was much better, but we were more careful now because ive had learned that
with inadequate control and experience the aircraft could easily turn over near the ground—as it did
once, before the new control system was installed.
Igor Sikorsky, describing the VS 300 in 1940, "The Winged S"
Helicopters have four flight controls; collective, throttle, cyclic, and antitorque or
tail rotor pedals (Figs. 3-1 and 3-2). When you fly, you'll usually be manipulating two or more of these in combination during most maneuvers. Chapter 11
delves into aircraft systems in more detail, but for now let's look at each of the flight
controls separately and find out what it does.
The Collective
The collective control is the stick or lever that the pilot moves with his left hand. Basically,
the collective changes the pitch, or angle, on all the blades exactly the same amount. Or,
more precisely, the collective pitch lever changes the pitch on all the blades collectively.
Recall the swimming example in Chap. 2.
When you do the breaststroke, you instinctively equalize the angle that your hands
meet the water; you don't hold one hand flat and the other one perpendicular to the
surface; if you did, you'd go around in circles. A helicopter needs a mechanism to
ensure that an equal amount of pitch can be demanded from each of the blades. This is
done with the collective pitch lever and a series of rods, bellcranks, swashplates, and
other things I won't get into yet.
The easiest example to visualize is a helicopter hovering in a no-wind condition
(Fig. 3-3). If the pilot wants to climb straight up, he needs to increase the pitch on all the
blades an equal amount simultaneously. He pulls the collective lever up slightly,
increasing the pitch (or angle) on all the blades, which causes the angle of attack of each
blade to increase, which means more lift is created by each blade equally (because all
the blades are rotating at the same speed), and as a result total lift increases, too. The
helicopter moves upward.
To descend, the pilot pushes the collective down, and the opposite happens. The
pitch angle on all the blades decreases, which causes the angle of attack of each blade to
decrease, which means less lift is created by each blade and therefore total lift decreases,
too. The helicopter goes down.
41
Chapter Three
i
V
-
;-?r
5w
Figure 3-1 Cockpit of Schweizer 300 showing the location of the cyclic, the collective, the
throttle control, and the antitorque or tail rotor pedals.
This is the theory, anyway, but there is one important thing that must be compensated for or the helicopter won't work at all. This is aerodynamic drag.
As you increase the angle of attack of an airfoil to increase lift, you also increase
drag (Fig. 2-2). In a helicopter, this means as you increase the pitch angle on the blades,
you make it harder for the blades to move through the air and the blades' rotational
velocity, the rotor revolutions per minute (rotor rpm), will decrease.
Cyclic
Throttle
Collective
QJ>
<X>
Antilorque
or
tail rotor
pedals
Figure 3-2
Basic flight controls in a helicopter.
D-HMUC
>.
*
ai
t
*
w.
mm
.
r
Tv%>-r#r
^
Figure 3-3 The collective changes the pitch of all the rotor blades an equal amount. An increase in
collective will cause a helicopter in a hover to ascend vertically: a decrease in collective will cause
a helicopter in a hover to descend vertically: Bavarian Police Helicopter Squadron BO 105CB.
(Source: Eurocopter)
43
Chapter Three
It's similar to trying to cut through butter with a knife. If you use the edge of the
blade, the knife will slice right through, but if you use the flat side of the blade, it takes
a lot more pressure.
Of course, the opposite happens if you reduce the collective pitch: It's now easier
for the blades to move through the air and the rotational speed will increase. Because
the rotor system of a helicopter is designed to operate at a certain optimal rotational
speed—bad things start to happen if the rotor rpm is too low or too high—it is important to keep the rotational speed constant, or at least within rather narrow limits.
This has to be done with engine power. In the simpler helicopters with piston
engines, and in some helicopters with turbine engines, a throttle grip is installed on the
collective lever. This throttle grip is not unlike the throttle grip on a motorcycle.
A helicopter's throttle is controlled with the left hand—a motorcycle throttle is controlled with the right hand—and to increase power a helicopter throttle must be rotated in
the opposite direction of a motorcycle throttle. This is one of the reasons people who have
ridden motorcycles a great deal sometimes have a problem learning to fly helicopters.
The Throttle
One of the first things a new helicopter pilot learns is that when he pulls the collective
up he must also add power to keep rotor rpm from decreasing and as he lowers the collective he must reduce power to keep rotor rpm from increasing. In fact, my first homework assignment from my Army flight instructor was to do 500 "power on/ power off"
actions with my left hand to try and imprint the technique into my brain early in
training (Fig. 3-4).
Imagine you have a short rod in your left hand to practice a "power on/power off."
Or better yet, get a broomstick. Sit in a chair and lay the broom on the floor on your left
side, with the top of the broom near your left foot and the bristles behind you. Lean
over and grasp the top of the broomstick. You now have a simulated collective.
Sit up straight and hold the broom at arm's length. Now, lift the broom upwards,
bending your elbow and rotating your knuckles toward your body. (Keep the bristle
end of the broom on the floor.) This is the action of a "power on." Say, "Power on," out
loud and turn your wrist as far as you can. Next, rotate your knuckles away from your
body while you lower the broomstick, straighten your arm, and say, "Power off." You'll
find the movement of your arm and wrist completely natural, very similar to doing an
inside curl with a dumbbell. If you had to twist your wrist the opposite direction as you
raise your arm, the action would be quite unnatural.
Newer, sophisticated turbine-engine helicopters have eliminated the throttle from
the collective pitch lever and replaced the throttle with electronic devices that automatically change the power required to maintain rotor rpm whenever the pilot changes
the position of the collective (Fig. 3-5).
Many turbine-powered helicopters have the engine speed levers on the center overhead panel. Once you move them to a "flight" position after starting the engines, you
don't have to touch them until you want to shut the engines down. This has reduced the
helicopter pilot's workload considerably.
Unless you happen to be independently wealthy or Uncle Sugar is paying for your
helicopter training, you'll probably start out on one of the small, piston-powered helicopters that still has a throttle. So, practice those "power on/power offs."
Flight Controls
COLLECTIVE
CONTROL
Throttle
Up collective
Down collective
THROTTLE CONTROL
Increase power
Decrease power
COLLECTIVE
STICK
Figure 3-4 Changes in collective pitch must be coordinated with adjustments to the throttle.
Practice "power on/power offs" until the action becomes second nature.
Chapter Three
Figure 3-5 The Boeing 234 collective does not have a motorcycle-type throttle. The two ridged
switches on the left side are used to make fine adjustments to engine rpm.
Even though small, piston-powered helicopters don't have the sophisticated electronic devices that adjust engine power to maintain rotor rpm, they do have mechanical
devices linking the throttle to the collective. This feature, called correlation, automatically increases power when the collective is raised and decreases power when it is lowered. It's a good feature, but the pilot still must usually make fine adjustments with the
throttle to keep rotor rpm precisely where he wants it.
Robinson R22 and R44 helicopters have an engine rpm governor, that assists the
pilot in controlling engine rpm in the normal range.
The Cyclic Stick
A helicopter pilot's right hand holds and adjusts the cyclic stick (Fig. 3-6). When hovering, the cyclic is used to move the helicopter forward, backward, and sideways. When
flying forward, the cyclic is used to bank into turns and, together with the collective, to
climb, to descend, and to adjust the airspeed.
Mechanically, the cyclic changes the pitch on the main rotor blades in only one
portion of the entire rotor disc. Consequently, lift is increased on one side of the disc
and decreased on the other. As each blade rotates around the rotor mast, its pitch
increases and decreases as determined by the cyclic stick position. The control is
called the cyclic stick because the pitch on each blade changes as it cycles around the
rotor disc.
Flight Controls
«HP
a
mm
Ml*
o
3
*
*
\
(b)
Figure 3-6 Flight control placement in four helicopters: (a) Bell 206B JetRanger, (b) Enstrom
F-28F Falcon, (c) Aerospatiale AS 332 Super Puma, (d) Agusta A109C.
Chapter Three
. '11 •
if
Miajia
■■IK'S- ^.c
^*/A
1(C) I
Figure 3-6
(Continued)
^■ W
^
Flight Controls
For example, if you want to move toward the right while hovering, you must
decrease the lift on the right side of the rotor disc and increase lift on the left side so that
the resulting lift vector pulls the helicopter toward the right. To be 100 percent correct,
there's actually a 90-degree lag in the lift vector due to gyroscopic precession of the
rotor system; therefore, the changes in lift must occur not left and right, but forward
and aft to move sideways.
Fortunately, this phenomenon, which is a characteristic of all rotating bodies, was
discovered early in the game by pioneer helicopter designers and engineers. They very
wisely decided to rig the controls such that when the pilot moves the stick to the right,
the helicopter moves right and when he moves it left, the helicopter moves left.
As a result, the pilot doesn't have to think about gyroscopic precession or where the
lift vectors are because these have been taken care of by the designers and engineers.
And thank God for that because it sure would be hard to fly a helicopter if you had to
move the stick forward to make it go to the right... or would you have to move it right
to make it go forward? Don't worry about it.
Actually, the cyclic is very user-friendly: move the cyclic forward and the helicopter
moves forward, move it backward and the helicopter moves backward, move it right
and the helicopter moves right, move it left and the helicopter moves left.
What could be simpler?
The Tail Rotor Pedals
The fourth control the helicopter pilot must contend with is the tail rotor pedals. Also
called antitorque pedals, these resemble the rudder pedals in an airplane and have the
same function, yaw control, but work in a different manner.
A single main-rotor helicopter, which is often called a conventional helicopter, must
have a tail rotor to counteract the torque created by the main rotor. Without a tail rotor,
the main rotor blades would spin one way and the fuselage would spin the other way
and flying in a helicopter would be impossible.
The tail rotor creates a force, lift, in a direction opposite to the torque effect of the
main rotor (Fig. 3-7). Essentially it is a small main rotor mounted vertically instead of
horizontally, pushing the tail one way so that the nose of the helicopter doesn't go the
other way. A tail rotor is mounted far out on the tail boom to increase effectiveness with
a longer moment arm.
The torque effect of the main rotor is not constant. It changes whenever there's a
change in collective pitch, power, airspeed, and cyclic. In other words, torque effect is
always changing, except in the most stable conditions; therefore, it's necessary to provide some way to control the antitorque force of the tail rotor.
One way to do this would be to change the rotational speed of the tail rotor, in other
words make it spin faster or slower, but this would be very impractical. The tail rotor is
connected directly to the main gearbox by a long shaft so that its rotational speed is
always in direct proportion to the rotational speed of the main rotor. (Tail rotors normally spin four to five times faster than the main rotor.) Increasing and decreasing tail
rotor speed is not easy to do.
The other way to vary the power of the tail rotor is to change the pitch angle of the
blades. Because there is no need for cyclical changes of the tail rotor, the blade angles
change by equal amounts, collectively. Pushing on one tail rotor pedal (left or right.
Chapter Three
Direction of rotation of
main rotor
Torque reaction
of fuselage
Antitorque force
from tail rotor
Figure 3-7
The tail rotor counteracts main rotor torque by producing lift sideways.
depending on which side of the fuselage the tail rotor is mounted and the direction of
rotation of the main rotor) causes the pitch angle on each tail rotor blade to increase;
therefore, the lift generated by the tail rotor also increases. Pushing on the other tail
rotor pedal causes the pitch angle to decrease; therefore, the antitorque force decreases.
Flight Controls
/
#
DANGER
r
Figure 3-8 The tail rotor pedals change the pitch of the tail rotor blades collectively so that the
lift produced by the tail rotor can be varied: Robinson R22 Beta tail rotor.
In essence, the tail rotor pedals change the pitch of the tail rotor blades in the same
manner that the collective changes the pitch of the main rotor blades (Fig. 3-8).
A helicopter pilot knows all this, of course, but he doesn't have to think about it
much. What he does need to remember is that to make the nose of the helicopter turn to
the right, he must push on the right pedal and to make it turn left, he must push on the
left pedal.
This sounds very simple and it is; however, when first learning to hover a helicopter
it takes a tremendous amount of concentration. Any small change in any one of the
controls—collective, throttle, cyclic, and pedals—causes an adjustment in at least one
other control, and sometimes all three other controls. A small change in wind can do the
same thing.
All Together Now
Suppose you are hovering a helicopter and want to move to the right a few feet (Fig. 3-9).
To move right, you remember to move the cyclic stick slightly to the right. Fine. You do that.
Realize that by moving the cyclic you change the lift vector of the rotor disc so that
some of the lift is now being used to move the helicopter sideways. This means that less
Chapter Three
igfuft?**
_Jtt|
■■
•» ■ >
■■
Eiirirn:
i
!d
Figure 3-9 To move a hovering helicopter to the right requires coordination of all the controls:
Bell 412. (Source: Bell Helicopter Textron)
lift is available to hold the helicopter in the air and you must increase the collective
pitch slightly to compensate for this loss of lift.
When you increase collective pitch you also must remember to adjust the throttle so
that main rotor rpm does not decrease and when you increase the throttle, the torque
effect of the main rotor also increases, so you must counteract this torque by using the
tail rotor pedals. This gets you moving to the right and everything is fine and stable
until you want to stop.
Then you have to readjust each of the controls all over again.
Can you imagine what it's like to maneuver a helicopter in turbulent wind conditions? Believe me, it requires your full attention.
A few human factors are also conspiring to screw you up. Human factors are discussed in more detail in Chap. 18, but one thing is worth mentioning now.
Take this seemingly simple rule of thumb: "Push on the left pedal, the nose turns
left. Push on the right pedal, the nose turns right."
Have you ever ridden a bicycle, sled, or soapbox derby car? Sure you have. If you
want to turn one of these to the left, which hand or foot do you push forward? It's your
right hand or foot. Think about it. It's a completely natural action that you have learned
from experience.
Flight Controls
I guarantee you, sometime when you're learning to fly helicopters and you're all
caught up in coordinating cyclic, collective, throttle, and pedals, at least once—and
probably more than once—you're going to want the nose to turn to the left and your
first instinctive reaction will be to push the nose around with right pedal. And the nose
will, of course, turn to the right. You'll note your mistake immediately and correct it by
pushing on the left pedal, but your initial seat-of-the-pants reaction was to push on the
right pedal. That's a human factors problem.
I'm getting ahead of myself. Here I am talking about human factors and you haven't
even had your first flight yet. That's coming up in the next chapter.
This page has been intentionally left blank
CHAPTER
Your
First Flight
Oh, I have slipped the surly bonds of earth, And danced the sky on laughter-silvered wings —
John Gillespie Magee Jr., "High Flight"
This suggestion is going to seem a little radical. Well, not as radical as flying into
restricted airspace without contacting an air traffic control; nothing that bad.
So, here's my suggestion: Take your first flight in a helicopter as a passenger, not as
a student pilot.
But don't be just a passenger. Don't sit there twiddling your thumbs, reading a
magazine, or enjoying the view. This is going to be part of your training. A homework
assignment.
Go for a ride in a helicopter and pay attention, extremely close attention, to everything that happens. This will require some preparation and expense on your part, but I
assure you the effort will be worthwhile. The preparation is to read this chapter before
you go. The assignment is to observe everything you can and jot down notes that will
help you remember more about the ride afterward; review the notes immediately after
the flight and fill in any blanks with better explanations or observations.
Why Be a Passenger?
Perhaps you're wondering "Why should I shell out good money just to ride as a passenger
in a helicopter, when I could be using it to pay for instruction?" There are several reasons.
First, if you've never ridden in a helicopter before, how are you going to know if
you like it or not? If you think you're going to like it, but aren't sure, doesn't it make
sense to find out by paying much less for a ride than you would to rent an entire helicopter and hire an instructor? What if you don't really like it?
Let me be absolutely clear about one thing: If you don't like riding in a helicopter as
a passenger, you definitely should not become a helicopter pilot. Make no mistake
about that.
Second, everyone's first ride in anything new usually ends up being a "gee whiz"
joyride. If you do enjoy riding in helicopters—and because you've read this far in this
book I suspect you'll fall into this category—it's going to be awfully hard to pay attention to an instructor during your first few training flights. You're going to be utterly
fascinated and it will take time before the fascination wears off enough to start learning.
By taking your first ride as a passenger instead of as a student, you'll get a lot of
your initial "gee whiz" sensations out of the way and be ready to knuckle down to the
task of learning how to fly during your first lesson: observe now, learn quicker later.
55
Chapter Four
(All right. I admit you'll still be fascinated for many flights to come and you'll
lose your concentration every once in awhile, but, hey, that's part of the joy of flight.
At least you'll have your initial awe out of the way; more awe undoubtedly will
follow.)
Third, you really can learn some things by just observing, instead of doing. Although
your learning experience will be hampered somewhat by your initial enthusiasm, you'll
be able to see some things that will help you later on during instruction.
Finally, if you do eventually get a civilian certificate or military wings, you'll be flying passengers someday (Fig. 4-1). They might not be as enthusiastic about helicopter
flying as you are. As their pilot, you should be able to empathize with them. The best
way to find out what it's like to be a passenger is to be one yourself. Seeing things from
the eyes of a passenger will help you provide for their needs and make you a better
pilot with passengers onboard.
Perhaps you have already ridden in a helicopter before, nevertheless I still want to
urge you to follow this suggestion. It's hard to mentally retain something that doesn't
make sense to you. After you've read about helicopters, you will be able to understand
more and remember more.
Allow me to make an observation.
Flying in helicopters is fun, especially in nice weather. Part of the fun is seeing
things on the ground from a height that doesn't make everything so small it becomes
boring (Fig. 4-2). From 1,000 feet up, you can still observe people, make out familiar
landscapes, and see colors. From 30,000 feet, you lose all ground detail and contrasting
colors blend together—even the Rockies and Alps look dull and flat.
Figure 4-1 Passengers might not share your enthusiasm for flying in a helicopter;
AgustaWestland AW101. (Source: AgustaWestland)
Your First Flight
Figure 4-2 The view from a helicopter is much more interesting than that from a high-flying
airplane. You'll want to look at the sights below instead of paying attention to your instructor:
Robinson R22. (Source: Hillsboro Aviation)
As mentioned in Chap. 1, flying lower than most fixed-wing aircraft does cause a
few disadvantages, such as turbulence. But when the weather is nice and the air is
smooth, you can't beat a helicopter for the view and the ride; therefore, even though
this chapter reveals a few points that might seem negative, all things considered, I think
you're going to enjoy flying helicopters.
That said, let's get on with your first flight.
Before the Flight
One of the first things you'll notice about a helicopter is it's size. Helicopters are usually
a lot smaller, especially inside the cabin, than what most experienced airplane passengers are used to (Fig. 4-3).
Most air travelers accustomed to Airbus and Boeing airliners are going to find that
all helicopters are smaller. Riding in the most common helicopters, like the Bell 206,
Robinson R22, and Eurocopter AS 350 will seem more like riding in a flying sports car
than in an airplane.
The largest helicopters (the Boeing 234 Chinook, Sikorsky S-61, AgustaWestland
AW101, and Eurocopter EC225, for example) if compared to airplanes, would be called
medium-sized. So, you see, the label "large helicopter" is relative.
On the other hand, many people expect helicopters to be small and are quite surprised when they see the interiors of "large helicopters." I've given many tours of the
Chapter Four
&
/
pirrf
■
T-ii
"9
I
.
a
I
////
/////'
W/
%
m
E X PEFUMEM 'rA'
b)
Figure 4-3 Helicopter cabins are usually much smaller than most airplane passengers are used
to: (a) Eurocopter AS350 B3 cabin, (b) MD600 cabin. (Source: MD Helicopters)
Your First Flight
\
•-
■M
■
• oiM
p'
i
Figure 4-4
y'
Interior of Sikorsky S-61.
S-61 and AS 332 Super Puma and the first comment most people have is, "Oh, I didn't
know it was so big inside" (Fig. 4-4). When they see the inside of the Boeing 234, they are
really impressed; the commercial Chinook had the same internal finishings as Boeing's jet
transports (Fig. 4-5).
r
11
Figure 4-5 The interior of the Boeing 234 (the civil version of the military CH47 Chinook) looked
very much like the interiors of some twin turboprop airplanes flying for regional airlines.
Unfortunately, there are no longer any 234s flying passenger service.
Chapter Four
Generally speaking, helicopter cabins are smaller than airplane cabins. Smaller does
not mean less safe, although it does mean that some things have to be done differently.
These restrictions are due solely to size—they are just as relevant in small airplanes as
they are in helicopters.
Baggage
Baggage space is usually very limited in helicopters.
In large airplanes, baggage and cargo are carried in cargo holds under the floor. In
small airplanes and most helicopters, this under-the-floor space simply is not available
because the cabin is not big enough for anything under the floor. Also, current FAA
regulations do not allow the stowage of anything underneath the seats in helicopters. In
medium helicopters, the fuel tanks are under the floor. (Airplanes have standard fuel
tanks in the wings; auxiliary tanks might be located in a baggage compartment.) The
only helicopter I'm aware of that has under-the-floor cargo holds is the S-61 and even
these compartments are not very big (Fig. 4-6).
m
r
Ij
''
Figure 4-6 Baggage compartments in (a) Robinson R22, (b) Boeing 234, (c) Enstrom F-28F,
(d) Bell 212. (Source: Robinson Helicopters)
Your First Flight
■.-fn
m
id)
Figure 4-6
j
(Continued)
Where does the baggage go then? Often, there are small cargo holds in the fuselage,
usually behind the cabin. The only baggage compartments in the little Robinson R22
are under the seat cushions. Sometimes a helicopter operator finds it necessary to block
off a portion of the cabin itself and put the baggage in there. This is safe and legal if the
baggage is secured properly.
Unfortunately, most of the large, open area in a helicopter's tailboom, that part of
the fuselage between the cabin and the tail rotor, must be kept empty. This is because
too much weight in the back will move the center of gravity of the helicopter too far aft,
which will make the aircraft tail heavy.
Space for carry-on baggage is also very limited. Most helicopters, unless they are
configured for executive travel, don't have facilities for hang-up bags. If you take a
small bag or briefcase inside the cabin with you, you will probably end up holding it on
your lap. As mentioned, the FA A prohibits stowing anything under the seats.
Chapter Four
The main point to remember about baggage is that there isn't a lot of room in a
helicopter. I'm not going to tell you not to take that big suitcase with retractable wheels
and 50 pounds of carry-on luggage—after all, if you've just crossed the Atlantic and
want to take the helicopter shuttle from Kennedy to downtown Manhattan, you'll probably have a lot of luggage. This is one of the things the helicopter operator must consider when he chooses the type of helicopter he will use for a certain operation and how
many passengers it can carry.
Otherwise, please, if you're just going to make a short trip that includes a flight in a
helicopter, at least consider packing as lightly as possible. If you must carry a lot of luggage, divide it up into two or three small bags. From the pilot's point of view (the pilot
often being the baggage handler), two medium-size soft-sided bags are preferable to
one big hard-sided suitcase, because two soft-sides are easier to lift and stow. Try to
limit carry-on luggage to a camera bag, briefcase, or purse. You and the other passengers will have a lot more leg room.
Clothing
What should you wear during the flight?
I have the feeling that very few passengers think very much about the clothes they
should wear when traveling by airplane or helicopter. Of course, in many places in the
world oil workers are required to don antiexposure survival suits for their helicopter flights
to and from their offshore destinations (Fig. 4-7). But for the most part, airplane passengers
probably don't even think about wearing special clothing when they travel by air.
V
v
r
f
llllllMlft
SjW
Figure 4-7 Passengers on offshore helicopter flights in some parts of the world are required to
wear antiexposure suits: Helikopter Service Boeing 234, North Sea.
Your First Flight
The airlines are regrettably closed-mouthed about the subject. After all, they want people to believe that air travel is as safe as ground travel, safer actually. And statistics generally
prove they're correct. The airlines are apparently reluctant to talk about wearing special
clothing on aircraft because that would make aircraft seem less safe. It might also scare some
passengers away and that's not good for business. The airlines want people to want to fly.
So do I, but I think a frank discussion about clothing is worth losing a few potential
passengers' if it can help some real passengers avoid a good deal of pain and suffering—and perhaps save a life or two.
Not much effort nor deviation from current fashion styles is necessary to clothe
yourself properly when traveling by air.
Aircraft accidents are rare, but they do happen. What if you have to evacuate from
an airplane or helicopter quickly? What if there is a fire on board? What if there is snow
outside? Or what if something as mundane as fog causes your flight to divert to another
airport with colder weather than your expected destination? These are things you
should think about when choosing clothes before a flight.
The passenger dressed in comfortable cotton or wool slacks and long-sleeve shirt is
better dressed for an emergency evacuation than a one wearing lightweight clothing,
for instance, a man wearing a T-shirt, shorts, and sandals, or a woman in a thin blouse,
a skirt, high-heeled shoes, and nylon stockings.
The better options for all passengers are nonsynthetic slacks, shirts, blouses, jackets,
and flat shoes with cotton socks.
Women should avoid nylon stockings, because nylon has a tendency to melt into
skin as it burns. Natural fabrics burn, too, but at least they don't melt. Wool is the best,
and the more layers of clothing between your skin and the fire the better.
If you really want to get down to the nitty-gritty, a high-necked shirt or sweater
will protect your neck, a hat will keep your hair from burning, and gloves will protect
your hands.
When I ride as a passenger, I wear my jacket or coat during takeoffs and landings. I
keep my hat and gloves in a carry-on bag under the seat in front of me. Statistically, it is
during these two phases of the flight that most emergencies occur. If we must evacuate
quickly, I have protected myself as best I can against fire on my way out of the aircraft
and against the weather once I get outside.
Point: The number of emergency exits on aircraft is determined by how fast a full
load of passengers can evacuate in an emergency. The aircraft manufacturer must prove
with actual tests that all the passengers can get out within a certain time period.
Counterpoint: These tests are not conducted with an average passenger mix of children, adults, and persons who are old or handicapped. Tests are done with physically
fit, young adults wearing jogging suits and running shoes, who practice until they can
get the evacuation done in the minimum required time.
Clothing is going to protect you while you wait to get through that emergency exit
and it might save you from serious injury, perhaps even fatal injury.
Did you ever think what it will be like inside the cabin of an airliner if you have a
rapid decompression at 30,000 feet? It's going to be cold, as low as -60oF or lower, even
in summer. You'll get an oxygen mask and the pilots will begin a fast descent, but it will
take some time to get down to warmer temperatures. Wouldn't you rather be wearing
a long-sleeve shirt and a sweater than just a T-shirt or blouse? Wouldn't it be nice to
have a jacket within easy reach?
Helicopters aren't pressurized and don't fly high enough to require it, but they can
be cold and drafty. What if the heater fails or doesn't work? What if the pilot has to
Chapter Four
land out in the wilderness because of a mechanical problem? Are you dressed for a hike
in rough terrain?
The old Boy Scout motto is a cliche, but it wouldn't hurt if more people took it to
heart when they traveled by air. The clothes you should wear in a helicopter really
aren't any different than what you should wear in an airplane. With a little thought, you
can "Be Prepared" for the worst, and no one will even notice you've disregarded the
fashion designers for the duration of your flight.
Hearing Protection
Although improvements are being made all the time, most helicopters are still noisier
inside than airplanes. The noise comes from the engines, which in many passengercarrying helicopters are turbine engines, from the transmission gears, from the rotor
blades, and from the passage of the fuselage through the air.
Airplane designers can locate engines away from the cabin and they don't have to
worry about the noise from a transmission or rotor blades. Wind noise is dampened out
by sound insulation surrounding the pressurized fuselage. The ride is very quiet.
Helicopter designers have a much harder job. Unfortunately, sound insulation
means extra weight and operators often opt for less insulation and more available payload. Insulation doesn't pay its way (Fig. 4-8).
Unless you happen to ride an extremely well-insulated helicopter, you won't be
able to talk easily to the person sitting next to you. The use of hearing protection is necessary to protect your hearing and also tends to make the flight less fatiguing.
Some operators equip their machines with in-flight entertainment systems. These
systems are usually connected to individual headphones for each passenger. The headphones not only provide you with music and announcements from the crew, but also
dampen out the noise.
If the helicopter is not equipped with an in-flight entertainment system, the operator will usually provide passengers with plain earmuff headsets or inexpensive disposable earplugs. Earplugs aren't as comfortable as headsets, but do take out the worst part
of the noise.
When you start your flight training, you should consider buying a good noisecancelling headset for yourself.
Toilet Facilities
Most helicopters, even the larger ones, do not have toilet facilities on board. Fortunately,
most helicopter flights are not very lengthy, but the lack of facilities is something to consider.
It's more than something to consider. Many pilots are avid coffee drinkers, but they
are careful about how much they drink before and during a flight and the last place
they stop before going out to the helicopter is usually the restroom. So take a tip from
pilots based upon experience.
In a dire emergency, you might find that a helicopter is equipped with special bottles in lieu of toilets. Some of these are cleverly called H.E.R.E. bottles, for "Human
Endurance Range Extenders." But don't count on the fact that the helicopter has any. If
it were an extreme emergency, I guess you could ask the pilot to land in a field somewhere, but this could be very embarrassing. Use the restroom before you board.
Your First Flight
'
iv
i
Figure 4-8 British Caledonian Helicopters installed extra sound insulation in the Sikorsky S-61s
the company used on the shuttle between Heathrow and Gatwick airports in England so that their
passengers wouldn't need hearing protection.
Will you become air sick in a helicopter?
That's a hard question to answer because it depends so much on the individual.
I suspect that all pilots have become sick or at least felt queasy at some time while
flying. Experienced pilots rarely feel queasy in flight because their bodies are used to
the motion of the aircraft.
If you know you have a propensity toward motion sickness, you can take a few precautions before the flight. A stomach full of greasy food obviously isn't going to help
things, but a completely empty stomach can be almost as bad. Hunger pangs sometimes
evolve into motion sickness. Eat a small amount of something bland before the flight.
Carbonated beverages help some people and hinder others. They do make everyone
burp more. The higher the aircraft goes, the more you will burp because air pressure
decreases and the gases trapped in your body force their way out. If burping tends to
aggravate your motion sickness, then it's probably best to avoid carbonated beverages.
Alcohol might reduce your nervousness and eliminate that one cause of motion
sickness, but it might create another by upsetting your stomach. Too much alcohol.
Chapter Four
a big meal, and a turbulent flight can make motion sickness almost a sure thing. Of
course, FAA regulations state that a person may not operate an aircraft within
8 hours of having consumed alcohol or while under the influence of alcohol.
Numerous medications help reduce motion sickness. If over-the-counter medicines
don't help, your FAA-approved flight doctor can prescribe stronger ones.
If you find yourself becoming queasy in flight despite all these precautions, there
are a few things you can do that will hopefully calm down your stomach.
First, remember that motion sickness is related to your sense of balance, which is
felt in your inner ear. When you feel queasy, it's because there's a discrepancy between
what your inner ear is feeling and what your eyes are seeing. If you are reading or looking only inside the aircraft, your eyes will tell your brain you are sitting upright, but
your inner ear will be detecting all the movements of the aircraft.
Look out the window and give your eyes and inner ear a chance to agree. Don't look
down, rather straight out toward the horizon. Take slow and steady deep breaths. Don't
read and don't make sudden head movements that will also upset the balance in your
inner ear. Don't eat—you probably won't feel like eating anyway—and don't drink
anything stronger than water and only in small quantities.
If you still become sick, there should be a motion sickness bag nearby you. Please
use it and don't be embarrassed. It can happen to everyone and probably has.
Boarding the Helicopter
Depending on circumstances, you may board the helicopter while it is shut down, while
it has one or more engines running, or while the rotors are turning (Fig. 4-9). All ways
are safe, but with all three you must take certain precautions.
When the helicopter is shut down, things are quiet and nothing is moving. Everything
looks safe, but make sure the cockpit crew is not busy with engine start-up procedures.
The most dangerous time to be near a helicopter is when the rotors are starting or
stopping.
When the rotors are stopped, special devices called droop stops keep the blades from
hanging down too far. When the rotors are rotating at normal speed, the rotors can
droop down quite low, but the pilot has full control of their position with the cyclic and
collective sticks. During start-up, after the droop stops move out of position but before
the rotor blades are up to normal rpm, the blades are not moving fast enough to be fully
controllable by the pilot and are therefore very susceptible to wind gusts.
A gust of wind at the wrong instant can cause a main rotor blade to flap down so
low that it can hit the top of the cockpit or tailboom. This is the main reason why helicopters have wind limitations for start-up and shutdown. Needless to say, a blade could
also flap down low enough to hit a person standing within the circumference of the
rotor disc. It has happened.
Flow can you tell if a helicopter is starting up? If there is no one sitting in the cockpit, you're safe. The helicopter cannot start itself. If there is someone sitting there, you
should assume he or she might be starting the engine(s); therefore, approach the helicopter from the front. Stop outside the tip of the rotor blade and get a clear signal from
the person sitting in the helicopter before moving any closer.
I should mention that the person in the cockpit does not necessarily have to be a
pilot. Some aircraft mechanics are authorized to start the engines and engage the rotor
Your First Flight
*
i
»
%
c-
a
...
m
'
*
%
••
mi
Figure 4-9 These passengers are boarding the Sikorsky S-61 while the rotors are turning. They
were escorted to the helicopter by ground personnel.
Chapter Four
blades, too. So, simply because a person in the cockpit is not wearing a pilot uniform,
don't assume that they cannot start the rotors.
Engine noise is unmistakable, but not necessarily an indication that the rotors will
soon be turning. Most twin-engine and many single-engine helicopters are equipped
with a rotor brake (very similar to a disc brake on a car) that is used to stop the rotor after
the engines are shut down. Selected helicopters are started with the rotor brake engaged
and, as a consequence, you'll hear one or both engines, but the rotor will not be turning.
Other helicopters are started with the rotor brake off; in this case, the rotors will start
turning at the same time the first engine is started.
To summarize, the rotors can't turn without at least one engine running, but a running engine does not necessarily mean the rotors will be turning.
Approaching a helicopter from the front is also the best practice when the engines
are running and when the rotors are turning, too. In both cases, someone will be sitting
in the cockpit. If you are not being escorted to the aircraft by ground personnel (who
presumably receive clearance from the cockpit crew to approach the helicopter), then be
sure you get clearance from the cockpit crew before moving under the rotor disc.
How do you get clearance to move in toward the helicopter? Wait in front of the
cockpit until you get the pilots' attention. Don't bother to shout because they can't hear
you. If they're looking down at something inside the cockpit, wait until they look up.
You won't have to wait long.
They'll either wave you in or give you the universal thumbs-up signal. Pilots like to
use thumbs-up because it looks cool.
Never, never, never approach a helicopter from the rear (Fig. 4-10).
Tail rotors spin fast, are hard to see, are often low to the ground, and will kill you in
an instant.
Even if you stay clear of the tail rotor, the pilots are not going to know you are there.
If they don't know you're there and they decide to take off at the precise moment that
you pass the tail rotor, you're going to have a problem.
Another reason not to approach a helicopter from the rear is the engine exhaust.
Exhaust gas temperatures might be as high as 600 0C. Of course, the gases cool off
quickly when they hit the air and the farther away from the exhaust ducts you are, the
cooler the gases, but they still can be warm enough to be uncomfortable.
To tell the truth, on very cold days I have stood in engine exhaust to stay warm,
although not for very long. It's not healthy to breathe the exhaust, the odor is strong,
and your hair gets dirty.
Before Takeoff Safety Briefing
Small cabins mean no cabin attendants. This is legal up to 10 passengers; operators are
often able to get a dispensation that allows them to fly with up to 19 passengers or more
without a cabin attendant.
This means that you the passenger are going to be more on your own, more responsible for your actions and safety. Remember this fact when you listen to the pilot give
you the preflight passenger briefing {see Chap. 16).
Preflight passenger safety briefings are required by most aviation authorities and in
the absence of a cabin attendant, one of the pilots will usually give this briefing. Or, you
might get the briefing prior to boarding, either by video or from a ground attendant.
Your First Flight
✓
ti
Figure 4-10 Passengers should never approach a helicopter from the rear, especially when the
rotors are turning: Bell 429 tail rotor.
Everyone who flies frequently has heard passenger safety briefings on aircraft.
They also know that most passengers don't pay attention to the briefings. Unfortunately, the noise level inside many helicopters might make the briefing almost unintelligible, even if a public address system is used. The net effect is that many passengers
don't know what was covered in the briefing.
Forgive me if I sound like I'm preaching here, but the passenger safety briefing
really is important to you, particularly in an emergency. Without a cabin attendant on
board in a helicopter or an airplane, the passengers really do have to look out for
themselves because the pilots are going to be very busy in the cockpit. So, if you can't
hear the briefing or miss something in it, look for the briefing card or folder that is
required by law to be available for each passenger and read it carefully. Sermon over.
Sometimes even the best-intentioned passenger safety briefings go astray. Misunderstandings because of language can cause problems with interesting results.
Such an incident occurred on a Helikopter Service flight. A Norwegian helicopter captain was briefing a group of Italian passengers in English. He discovered
very soon that few of them understood what he was saying, so he asked if there
was anyone who could interpret for him. One man stood up right away and said,
"Yes, yes, I speak English." The captain gave most of the normal briefing, pausing
often to allow his interpreter to repeat the instructions about emergency exits, seat
belts, and other pertinent items.
Chapter Four
When he came to the subject of life vests (which were required to be worn during
this offshore flight), he demonstrated how to put the vest on. His interpreter did the
same thing and the other 17 passengers followed suit. Then the captain explained
how one should pull down on the red handles to inflate the vests in the event that
the helicopter had to land on the water. He waited patiently while the interpreter
explained this in Italian, but to his horror, the next sound he heard was the whoosh
of 36 bottles of pressurized carbon dioxide inflating the 18 vests of his passengers.
Seat Belts
Once in the aircraft, be sure to fasten your seat belt. The pilot or other personnel should
check that all the passengers have fastened their belts, but it's better to take care of
yourself (Fig. 4-11). Observe and obey the seat belt signs.
Size puts a restriction on movement inside the cabin. In the small helicopters, there
is about as much room as a car. You can't get up and walk around inside your car while
driving, can you?
Large helicopters have some room to move around, especially if the aircraft isn't
full, but there really isn't anywhere to move to. For passenger safety, the fasten seat belt
sign is usually left on during the entire flight. Without a cabin attendant in the back,
most pilots are reluctant to allow passengers to move freely around the cabin, but they
do make exceptions if you have a special request.
Besides, with no toilet facilities on board, there really isn't any need to move
around.
\
\
Figure 4-11
British Caledonia Helicopters ground hostess checks the passengers' seat belts.
Your First Flight
Smoking
Smoking is no longer permilted on commercial flights, those where you buy a ticket.
However, it may be permitted on charter and private flights.
Some companies that own or lease helicopters have arbitrarily decided that there
will be no smoking on any of their flights. Of course, the pilot-in-command always has
the option to refuse to allow smoking on the aircraft, but most pilots and charter helicopter operators with a concern for passenger service might defer the decision to the customer or individual passengers.
If you know who your fellow passengers will be, perhaps you can come to some
agreement about smoking before the flight. Or, if for some reason, perhaps medical, you
really can't tolerate smoke, it wouldn't hurt to mention this to the pilot (and the other
passengers). The point is you'll be in a confined space that unfortunately often does not
have the best ventilation. Most smokers are willing to abstain for a while if they know
their smoking will cause problems for other people.
Smoking is not allowed during takeoff and landing, the obvious reason being the fire
hazard in case of an emergency. Neither is smoking allowed on the ground near the aircraft.
If you do want to light up at an airport or heliport, do so only in a designated smoking area.
Sitting Next to the Pilot
The trend in passenger-carrying operations is toward a two-pilot crew in a twin-engine
helicopter, especially at night and in poor visibility conditions, called instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), when flying must be done by reference to cockpit instruments
only and in accordance with instrument flight rules (TFR). Vast improvements in autopilot systems for helicopters have made it possible for certain helicopter manufacturers
to obtain approval for single-pilot IFR operation under specific conditions. Many helicopters are approved for operation by a single pilot when the visibility is good and
visual flight rules (VFR) are in effect.
Whatever the case, you might find yourself sitting in the left-side seat of the cockpit, next to the pilot; a helicopter copilot would occupy this seat when required. (This is
exactly the opposite of the seating arrangement in an airplane cockpit. However, in a
few helicopters, such as the Enstrom models, the pilot flies from the left seat and a passenger sits in the right seat.)
Regulations might require that the copilot's controls be removed before a passenger
may ride along in the copilot's seat. If the controls are there, don't touch them. And
don't touch any of the switches, knobs, or other cockpit apparatus.
If the pilot has time, he will probably be glad to explain to you how some of the systems work. If you take your introductory flight in a training helicopter with an instructor
pilot, he or she might even give you a chance to take the controls and fly a little; however,
please don't bug him about this. If he's busy or stressed or just plain tired, he might not
want to take on the extra burden of teaching a passenger how to fly. Just sit back, enjoy
the ride, and be grateful that you have a chance to sit in one of the best seats in the house.
The Flight
Let's assume that you board the helicopter while everything is quiet; you find a seat by
a window because helicopters have lots of windows, and fasten your seat belt. You listen carefully while one of the pilots gives the passenger briefing. Soon all the luggage is
Chapter Four
loaded, the doors are closed, and the pilots take their places in the cockpit. It's time to
start the engine(s).
You notice that the pilots wear headsets. This is so they can converse easily with
each other and over the radio. If you are at an airport or heliport with air traffic control,
the pilots will probably have to get clearance before they may start the engines.
Start-Up
As soon as the pilot presses the start switch, you'll hear the starter begin to turn one of
the engines. The noise gets louder and louder as the engine rotates faster and faster.
Variation in the sound of the engine is likely as the pilot or an automated system controls the amount of fuel being injected into the engine. (The pilot must avoid a hot start,
which is the result of too much fuel and not enough air.) Once the rotation of the engine
increases above a certain rpm, the engine is self-sustaining and the pilot releases the
starter, or it disengages automatically.
The rotor blades might begin turning when the first or only engine is started,
depending upon the type of helicopter, the approved starting procedure, or the wind.
Certain helicopters are started with the rotor brake off in a no-wind condition and rotor
brake on in high wind. Leaving the rotor brake on until one engine is up to a prescribed
power setting will allow the rotors to accelerate faster when the rotor brake is released.
A faster rotor acceleration is an advantage in high winds because the rotors become
controllable sooner.
When the rotor blades start to turn, the entire fuselage of the helicopter will begin
to sway back and forth. As the rotors go faster and faster, the swaying will stop, but
you'll feel a fast (high-frequency) vibration throughout the cabin.
I remember riding in an old Air Force helicopter, the Kaman H-43 Huskie, that had
two counterrotating main rotor blades and no tail rotor. The Huskie shook so much
during start-up that I thought it was going to fall apart, but once the rotors came up to
normal rotational speed, the shaking diminished. Fortunately, modern helicopters
don't shake nearly as much as the H-43 when starting up.
Pilots prefer to start up with the nose of the helicopter facing into the prevailing
wind. Sometimes this is not convenient and it is perfectly safe to start up with a slight
crosswind or tailwind. The only problem is that the combination of the wind and the
downwash from the rotor blades might cause some of the exhaust from the engines to
circulate into the cabin. This can be quite uncomfortable, fortunately it usually takes
only a few moments until the rotors come up to full rpm and the exhaust is blown away
from the helicopter.
Pilots try to make sure this doesn't happen, but sometimes they're unlucky. One
time, while starting up on a hot, windless day, I purposely left the cabin doors open so
the cabin wouldn't become too warm for the passengers who were wearing antiexposure suits. (The cabin ventilation fan was powered by the AC generators that would not
produce electrical current until the rotors and main gearbox were turning.)
I didn't realize there was a very slight tailwind and as the engines started, the
exhaust was sucked directly into the cabin. By the time the other pilot and I smelled
the exhaust in the cockpit and were able to signal the mechanic to close the cabin
doors, all the passengers were teary-eyed and coughing. I felt very bad about what
happened, but all I could do was apologize and explain the situation as best I could
over the PA system.
Your First Flight
□
r
ti
Figure 4-12 Helicopters with wheeled-landing gear are normally ground taxied to the takeoff
position: Eurocopter EC175.
Taxiing
Once the rotors are turning and everything else is turned on and checked, the pilots taxi
the helicopter to the takeoff position. If the helicopter doesn't have wheels, then it has
to be hover taxied—flown. If the helicopter has wheels, the pilots will usually taxi normally to conserve fuel (Fig. 4-12). Abnormal circumstances, such as ice or snow on the
ground, might make it necessary to hover taxi a wheeled helicopter.
The time from engine start to hover taxi will probably be a bit longer than from
engine start to ground taxi because more checks must be performed before a helicopter
is lifted into a hover.
In fact, every system in the helicopter is checked either before or after the engines
are started. Depending upon the type of helicopter and company procedures, the pilots
might do a power assurance check of the engine or engines before lifting into a hover.
You might hear changes in the engine noise as each engine is checked at a specified
power setting. The pilots must also check the operation of the freewheeling gears and
this might cause some strange sounds as each engine disengages and engages with the
main gearbox.
Takeoff
Although helicopters, both those with wheels and skids, can take off from a runway like
an airplane, most of the time they take off from a hover. An important point to remember is that a hovering helicopter is a flying helicopter.
Chapter Four
In a way, this makes a helicopter safer than an airplane. An airplane is not flying
until it has reached a certain minimum airspeed. To come up to its minimum flying
speed, an airplane must accelerate along the ground, usually using full power from its
engines to make the takeoff roll as short as possible.
This is a critical time for an airplane—any emergency must be dealt with quickly
and correctly. And because you can't fully check the health of some things while stationary on the ground, like the full power output of the engines and the effectiveness of
the controls, there's a period of uncertainty until the airplane has attained flying speed,
lifted from the ground, and flown to a safe altitude.
A helicopter cockpit crew can check all of these things in a hover (Fig. 4-13). Because
a helicopter uses more power in a hover than in cruise flight, the pilots know that if the
machine has enough power to hover, it has more than enough power to fly straight and
level. Hovering also requires more control inputs than in cruise flight; again, if the pilot
can control the helicopter in a hover, he knows that it can be controlled in flight as well.
If something is not working properly, it's very easy to put the helicopter back down
on the ground. The pilots might discover a discrepancy while lifting into the hover and
might never leave the ground at all. So, the period of uncertainty—Will it work this
time or not?—is much shorter in a helicopter than in an airplane. The period actually
m
•
Figure 4-13 During the predeparture hover check, the pilots check the engines, flight controls,
and other critical systems before transitioning to forward flight: Japanese Defense Force AS 332
Super Puma. (Source: Eurocopter)
Your First Flight
lasts only the few seconds it takes the pilot to lift the helicopter from the ground into a
stabilized hover.
What happens after the hover depends on many factors. One thing is certain, most
of the time the helicopter will not go straight up like an elevator.
This misconception, that helicopters normally take off going straight up, is almost
common enough to be a myth. Most people who have ridden helicopters or seen them
take off know this isn't so, but those who have only seen helicopters on television or in
films, videos, and cartoons seem to think this it is accurate.
A pilot I knew in the Air Force used to do what he called an "FBI takeoff." He said
he had picked it up from watching TV shows, mainly the old "FBI" series.
He would lift the helicopter into a hover, climb straight up to 100 feet, kick in a
180-degree turn with the pedals, and then push the nose over to gain airspeed diving
toward the ground. He could only do this takeoff when the helicopter was very light
(and therefore had a lot of power available). It was a blatantly unauthorized maneuver
performed with no passengers and no witnesses on the ground.
A vertical takeoff, one that goes straight up, requires an enormous amount of power
compared to cruise flight or even a low hover over the ground. Even when a helicopter
has the power available to make a vertical takeoff, it is a waste of fuel and places extra
strain on the engine and other parts of the machine.
To some extent, it is also unsafe. All helicopters must operate in accordance with
certain procedures that are determined by performance capabilities. Certain altitude
and airspeed combinations negate a safe landing if the engine fails. It's the pilot's job to
always avoid these unsafe combinations.
The only time a pilot will do a vertical takeoff is when obstacles must be avoided (or
he's showing off!). For example, an air ambulance pilot might have to land close to a
patient in an area surrounded by trees or telephone wires. He knows the risks involved
and tries to give himself as much power as possible by reducing the helicopter's weight,
primarily by limiting fuel and passengers.
How does the helicopter take off if it doesn't go straight up?
It depends on a lot of factors, including helicopter type, number of engines, wind,
temperature, visibility, air pressure, length of the runway or helipad, obstacles, and
local restrictions or regulations, such as noise abatement procedures, but basically this
is what happens.
Let's assume we're taking off from a flat surface, on the ground, and clear of obstacles: an airport or heliport runway, or helipad with an open area under the takeoff path.
To start the helicopter moving forward, the pilot moves the cyclic stick in his right
hand slightly forward. This causes the nose of the helicopter to pitch down, which
results in simultaneous forward and downward movement (Fig. 4-14). To counteract
the slight descent, the pilot increases power with the collective lever in his left hand.
The net result is that the machine begins to move forward at a faster and faster rate
while staying level with the ground.
This nose-down movement seems exactly opposite to what an airplane does during
takeoff, but it isn't. An airplane must take off with forward airspeed and, in a sense,
trades some of this forward speed for vertical speed at the point it leaves the ground;
when the required takeoff speed is obtained, the pilot pulls the nose up to cause the
airplane to climb. What you don't see when an airplane takes off is the pilot holding the
nose of the airplane down with forward pressure on the control stick or column during
the takeoff roll until the craft reaches the required takeoff speed.
Chapter Four
Figure 4-14 The amount of nose-down attitude required during takeoff varies with helicopter
type and conditions: Helikopter Service Sikorsky S-61N departing Fonts Heliport.
The helicopter begins a "takeoff roll" in a hover with zero airspeed (depending on
the wind, of course); therefore, in order to reach the most efficient climb speed, the pilot
must also get the helicopter moving forward first. The difference is that the airplane is
accelerating nose down on the ground and the helicopter is accelerating nose down a
few feet over the ground.
At about 15 to 35 knots, the helicopter begins to benefit from translational lift, which
is the additional lift obtained through airspeed because of the increased efficiency of the
rotor system. This means that while it might take 90 percent of a helicopter's available
power to fly level at 20 knots, it might take only 80 percent to fly at 45 knots, and
65 percent to fly at 120 knots.
You might feel a slight burble of turbulence as the helicopter begins to encounter
translational lift; it's nothing to worry about. Translational lift is an aerodynamic law
that can't be repealed. Helicopter type, wind, pilot technique, and other factors can
make the passage into translational lift more or less noticeable.
Your First Flight
The pilot allows the helicopter to accelerate to climb speed, usually between 70 and
100 knots, and then eases back on the cyclic to hold that climb speed. Depending on the
air route structure, other traffic, and obstacles, it might be necessary to level off and
make a few turns before climbing to cruising altitude.
Shortly after takeoff, the pilots will do the after-takeoff checklist, which varies
among helicopter types and flight departments. If the helicopter has retractable landing
gear, the pilots will raise the wheels and you might hear the whine of a hydraulic pump
as the wheels come up and a dull clunk when they're in place.
Cruise
In cruise flight, a helicopter is not much different than an airplane. It might seem slower
than usual to you. It is. It might seem lower than usual to you. It is. It will probably be
noisier than you're used to. It is. Other than those things, it's not much different.
One unusual noise you might hear is blade slap, a very loud WHOP-WHOP-WHOP
that is a characteristic of helicopters with two main rotor blades (Fig. 4-15). You'll hear
it often when the helicopter is turning fairly steeply and it's even louder on the ground.
For this reason, pilots try to avoid blade slap, but because it is dependent upon airspeed, temperature, and pressure altitude, sometimes the slap sneaks up and before
you know it, there it is.
The view from a helicopter on a clear day is beautiful no matter where you are. It
doesn't matter if you are over a city or countryside or wilderness or water, although
after a while water can get downright monotonous. Everywhere else, interesting things
are always available to see and photograph, if you like to do that.
Meal and beverage service on helicopters tends to be primitive, if not completely
nonexistent. You'll be lucky if you get a bottle of water and some cookies. Without a
cabin attendant on board, self-service is in order.
urn
— '•1^ ■y\
Jvr
jC
V
r.
., *>'*
3*
*
Y Is
•'
r*"
f
jr
f?
»/
-#23Ri
1
/ t.d /v
'//>•■
*
-!■
n
NSCTBNS
n
4^
%
*
&
A
t
T
.« .*
.*
t ■
• ■S
:■
a flrV
Figure 4-15 Blade slap is common to helicopters with two main rotor blades, such as this
Bell 206L LongRanger. With proper pilot technique, blade slap can be avoided under most
atmospheric conditions. (Source: Bell Helicopter Textron)
Chapter Four
Plan on eating and drinking before and after the flight or bring your own. Check
before you open that bottle of whiskey because consumption of alcoholic beverages
might be frowned upon by company, customer, or aviation regulations.
The lack of cabin attendants on most helicopters causes another problem: How do
you give a message to the pilots?
The surest way is simply to write your message on a piece of paper and hand it to
one of the pilots. Try to hand it to them when they are not obviously busy flying or talking on the radio. Don't worry if the seat belt sign is on because you may leave your seat
to give the pilots a message anytime except during takeoff and landing.
The worst way to tell the pilots something is to shout the message to them. The
noise is so loud that you'll probably have to repeat the message several times and the
pilots might ask you to write it down anyway to be sure they understand you.
The best way to talk to the pilots is through a microphone on a headset. If there is
an extra headset available, the pilots will probably ask you to use it if your message is
long. In most machines, you'll have to push a switch to talk and release it to hear the
reply. Certain aircraft intercoms are voice-activated, which means you don't have to push
a switch to talk, although you might have to talk slightly louder than normal to get the
system to work. If you can hear yourself talking in your own headset, then the other
people with headsets probably hear you, too.
Landing
Vertical landings, like vertical takeoffs, are very unusual. An elevator-like, straightdown landing is even more unusual than an elevator-like, straight-up takeoff. It's also
more dangerous.
The danger is due to settling with power, which was explained in Chap. 2.
Helicopter pilots avoid settling with power like the plague. Vertical landings are
possible, but a good margin of power is necessary so that the descent can be done
slowly and the possibility of entering settling with power is minimized.
A standard landing in a helicopter is very similar to a landing in an airplane, except
the helicopter usually stops in a hover with zero groundspeed instead of squeaking
down on the runway with 60 to 100 knots or so. Wheeled helicopters can land with
some forward speed and many operators have their pilots do this routinely; however,
because the landing gear in helicopters is not built for high speeds, forward landings
are usually limited to no more than 40 knots. Helicopters with skids can also land with
forward speeds, but this is done only during certain emergencies.
Before landing, the pilots do a prelanding checklist. As with the after takeoff checklist, you might hear the landing gear being pumped down and locked into position. A
pilot might give a short passenger briefing.
Landing is a busy time for the pilots (Fig. 4-16). Even in visual conditions, there are
procedures to be followed, radio calls to make, and often other traffic to avoid. When
in the clouds and flying an instrument approach procedure, the pilots are even more
busy; therefore, it is important not to bother them with messages that don't have an
impact on the safety of the flight.
You'll hear changes in the engine noise as the pilots adjust the engines in the descent
and as the helicopter nears the ground. Unlike airplanes that land with low-power
throttle settings, a helicopter landing to a hover will need a high-power setting, because
hovering takes more power than cruise flight. You'll first hear decreasing engine noise
Your First Flight
'
'
V
A
7
♦
Figure 4-16 Landing is one of the busiest times for the cockpit crew of any aircraft, particularly
at busy airports: Sikorsky S-61, Heathrow Airport.
as the helicopter descends toward the touchdown area and then increasing noise during the transition into the hover.
You're also likely to feel an increase in vibrations as the helicopter passes out of
translational lift and into a hover. The S-61, for example, is particularly susceptible to
vibrations during this period and it takes precise control inputs to avoid what can seem
like very alarming vibrations. On the other hand, the Eurocopter EC175 experiences
almost no vibrations when landing. Like many things in flying, changes in temperature,
pressure altitude, wind, and the weight of the helicopter can make differences in the
vibration level during landings.
After stopping in a hover over the landing spot, the pilots will taxi to the assigned
parking place. In a helicopter with skids, this will require a hover taxi. In one with
wheels, the helicopter will normally be ground taxied. Please remain in your seat with
your seat belt fastened in both cases. Ninety-nine times out of one hundred, nothing
will happen, but there's always the chance that the pilot might have to make a quick
movement on the controls to avoid an obstacle or react to an emergency and then it's
best to be seated and strapped in.
Chapter Four
After Landing
Circumstances might require you to disembark from the helicopter when the rotors are
still turning. Use the same precautions you did when boarding the aircraft: Follow the
instructions of the ground personnel and stay away from the tail rotor. (Fig. 4-17).
Although it is a very dangerous time to be under the rotor disc when the rotor is being
stopped, you usually won't have to worry about this, because the pilots won't start the
shut down procedure until they are certain all the passengers are clear of the aircraft.
I should mention one other very important caution. If the helicopter has landed on
uneven or sloping terrain, be very aware of the rotor disc. The clearance from the disc
to the ground will be less than normal on the upslope side of the helicopter. This might
seem logical, but the clearance is even less than you'd expect because the pilot must tilt
the rotor disc toward the slope to keep the helicopter planted firmly on the ground.
Watch your head. Don't become so excited about arrival that you don't pay attention when disembarking. And if you happen to be carrying any long objects, carry them
horizontally, not vertically.
If the pilots shut everything down before you disembark, you won't have to worry
about the rotor blades. The noises, smells, and vibrations will be similar to those experienced during start-up. Sometimes there will be a puff or two of smoke from the engines
as they are shut off, but this is nothing to worry about as long as it doesn't last more than
a few seconds. The whirring noise you might hear after everything has stopped is the
spinning gyros inside the cockpit navigation equipment coming to a stop.
Your first flight is over. Do you still want to fly helicopters?
Good! Read on because the best is yet to come.
N174AM
1 v..
ftNMI
Figure 4-17 Always stay away from the tail rotor when disembarking from a helicopter: EC130 B4.
(Source: Eurocopter).
Your First Flight
Emergencies
Even though air travel is heralded as the safest form of transport, the frequent flyer, be
he a pilot or passenger, is bound to experience some kind of emergency, if he flies often
enough.
Most aircraft emergencies are minor. Most delays or diversions due to mechanical
problems are caused by the loss of one part of a redundant system. In other words, the
aircraft can still fly safely, but one system, perhaps more, no longer has a backup. Aircraft design philosophy is to make all systems fail-safe. This is the philosophy that
anything can fail at any time; therefore, everything should have a backup. If something
fails, the flight can still be continued safely on the backup system.
Not everything in a helicopter is fail-safe. The main and tail rotors and the gearboxes do not have backups; therefore, these are subject to very frequent and thorough
maintenance inspections. A large helicopter, for example, requires the same number of
maintenance man-hours as a large passenger airliner four times its size.
In flight, the pilot has a number of warning systems that tell him if there is a problem
with some part of the aircraft. Often, there is a ranking order to the warnings of a particular system. For example, an increase in oil temperature in a particular system might
require no more than extra vigilance, but an increase in oil temperature with a decrease in
pressure might require a landing within one hour; an increase in oil temperature with a
decrease in oil pressure plus a warning light might mean an immediate landing.
Usually, the pilot has time to evaluate the emergency and decide on the best action.
If he's doing his job and is not too busy, he'll tell the passengers what has happened,
what he is doing about it, and what, if anything, they should do; however, in the event
of a complete loss of engine power or loss of tail rotor control, the pilot will have to
enter autorotation immediately. He will have his hands full and his first priority will be
to make a safe landing; he probably won't have time to talk to the passengers and even
a two-pilot crew might be so busy that they can't give a passenger briefing.
You can't mistake an autorotation for any other kind of descent. Normal descents
are made at about 500 feet per minute. In autorotation, the descent is about 2,500 feet
per minute, again depending upon many factors. On the way down, the pilot might
have to bank the helicopter sharply a few times to head into the wind.
The best thing a passenger can do is prepare for a hard landing. Tighten your seat
belt. Brace your legs on the floor. Memorize in your mind the location of the nearest
emergency exit. Then lean forward and protect your head with your hands and your
legs. With luck, the landing won't be too hard, but at least you'll be prepared if it is.
Helicopters have a big advantage over airplanes in that they can land vertically
with little or no forward speed. They are therefore designed to absorb a great deal of
energy from a vertical descent. The landing can be so hard that the structure of the helicopter is damaged or destroyed, but the passengers and crew will be able to walk away
with no more than minor injuries.
Circumstances will dictate when you should disembark from the helicopter after
an emergency landing. For example, if the pilot decides he must make a precautionary landing on a calm sea because of a suspected serious problem, the landing is safe
and proper, and the helicopter is floating nicely, then there's no reason to leave
immediately.
On the other hand, if the pilot must autorotate in mountainous terrain, the landing
is very hard, and there is a lot of damage to the helicopter, it is probably better to
Chapter Four
disembark immediately. In such a case, your main concern is a post-crash fire and you'll
want to get away from the aircraft as soon as possible.
One big caution when disembarking from a helicopter after a crash: Wait until the
main rotor has stopped turning. It will only take seconds if the helicopter is on its side,
on the ground, or in the water, but those seconds will make a big difference. In both
cases the rotor disc will most likely be closer to the surface than normal. Wait until it
stops.
Will a helicopter float if it lands on water?
Helicopters that fly often over long stretches of water are required by law to be
seaworthy, like the amphibious S-61, be equipped with permanent floats (Fig. 4-18), or
have flotation equipment installed. These flotation bags can usually be inflated either
manually by the pilots or automatically by an electrical mechanism.
But will the helicopter float?
Yes and no. Yes, if the sea is not too rough, it might float upright indefinitely. If the
sea is too rough, it might float for a while, then turn upside down and float somewhat
longer, or it might begin to sink fairly quickly. This is why life rafts for all people on
board are also required for overwater flights.
Your best insurance is the pilots. I mean this seriously. They are not going to land on
a rough sea unless it is absolutely clear that landing on the water is the safest alternative, perhaps the only alternative.
A number of helicopters have ditched successfully in the North Sea, all on calm
seas. Some people express amazement that all were so lucky that the seas weren't
rougher; if you read the accident reports, it's evident that the pilots would not have
ditched their aircraft if the sea had been too rough.
Rir
Figure 4-18
Robinson R22 equipped with floats.
Your First Flight
The cockpit indications were such that landing on a calm sea was a preferable alternative to continued flight; if the seas had been rough, thereby making a ditching much
riskier, the preferable alternative would have been to continue the flight and take the
risk of reaching land before the situation worsened.
What are the chances of surviving a serious helicopter emergency that results in an
accident?
That's another difficult question to answer because it depends on so many factors.
Every accident is different. All things considered, though, I believe your chances of
surviving an accident in a helicopter are as good as, and perhaps better than your
chances of surviving an accident in an airplane. Better because helicopters don't have to
take off and land from long runways and statistics show that most aircraft accidents
happen during these two phases of flight. And better because helicopter cabins are
smaller and you'll probably be able to evacuate faster.
On the other hand, certain helicopter components, such as the rotor blades and
gearboxes, are not fail-safe. A rotor blade separating from a helicopter is like a wing
falling off an airplane. If that happens, the resulting accident is usually fatal. This is why
these components on helicopters have numerous warning systems, are inspected thoroughly and frequently, and are replaced at very specific intervals. As a result, accidents
due to failure of such items happen very, very rarely. If they happened more often, there
would be fewer helicopter pilots around—as it is, there always seems to be plenty of
applicants for the jobs that are available.
Finding a Ride
This may be the easiest part of your introduction to helicopters. It will just cost you
some time and money.
Helicopter flight schools have realized that they need to provide incentives to get
people interesting in taking flight training. So many of them offer "introductory" or
"demonstration" flights to people who express an interest in learning how to fly
helicopters at their school (Fig. 4-19). Even if they don't advertise this offer on their
websites or in their print materials, they may provide such a flight anyway, just because
you asked. So don't be shy about asking for an introductory flight. (If you just can't wait
to jump into flight training right now, go to Chap. 13 for information on how to search
and select a flight school that will meet your needs.)
Of course, you will probably have to pay for the flight, but it will likely be less than
if you wanted to charter the helicopter for an hour, for example, as your introductory
flight may be shorter. (Charter customers must often pay for a minimum number of
hours for their flights, regardless if the flight takes that long.) Sometimes a school will
put you in a training helicopter, but not charge you for the cost of the instructor. And if
you decide to take the training course, they may even credit the flight time toward your
private license requirements. This sounds reasonable, but don't expect it.
And there are other ways to get a ride in a helicopter. If you live or visit a city that
has a regular helicopter shuttle, you could buy a round-trip ticket and go for the ride.
Find out the times when the shuttle flights have the fewest passengers. Be sure to let the
ticketing agent know you are interested in learning how to fly helicopters and would be
grateful if you could speak to a pilot about your flight, either before or after. You may
even get a chance to ride in the copilot's seat, if the shuttle operates with only one pilot.
Chapter Four
r.
•s
Figure 4-19 Many helicopter flight schools offer introductory flights for less than the cost of
renting a helicopter for flight training: Robinson R22. (Source: Hillsboro Aviation)
Air tours are another way to get a ride in a helicopter. I met an older gentleman who
told me he likes to take a sightseeing flight in a helicopter whenever he visits a city that
offers such flights. Again, try to find out the times when there are the fewest passengers
and go then. The air-touring operations are concentrated in areas where there are a lot
of tourists, such as New York City, Los Angeles, Miami, Las Vegas, Atlantic City, and
some areas of Alaska, but other smaller cities also have sightseeing helicopters. You just
have to search for them.
As I mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, getting your first ride in a helicopter as a passenger with an assignment to really observe what's going on during the
flight is going to be well worth your time and money, even if you decide after the flight
that you no longer want to be a pilot. If nothing else, you will have crossed off one more
thing on your bucket list.
CHAPTER
Basic
Flight Maneuvers
Nothing can take the place of persistence. Talent will not; nothing is more common than unsuccessful
people with talent. Genius will not; unrecognized genius is almost a proverb. Education will not; the
world is full of educated derelicts. Persistence and determination alone are the omnipotent.
Calvin Coolidge
30th President
We've talked about lift and rotors and controls, you've gone on your first flight,
and now you have some idea how a helicopter works. Reading a book won't
teach you how to ride a bicycle and it won't teach you how to fly a helicopter.
But reading about any activity can give you a general idea how to do it and most people
find this helpful. Because you probably already know how to ride a bicycle, I'll skip
over that and go right into how to fly a helicopter.
Whatever your experience level, hovering should not be the first thing you try to do
in a helicopter. That would be like trying to ride a unicycle on a tightrope before you've
become good enough to take the training wheels off your bicycle. You may ask your
instructor to demonstrate hovering flight during your first lesson so you can experience
it, but your first chance at the controls of a helicopter should be in straight-and-level
flight at a respectably safe altitude.
Straight-and-Level
First attempts won't be precisely straight-and-level flight, but it's a goal to work toward.
Straight means you hold a constant heading; level means you hold a constant altitude
(Fig. 5-1).
Your instructor should make the takeoff, climb to a safe altitude at least 1,000 feet
above the ground, and turn the helicopter to a cardinal heading aligned with a prominent landmark near the horizon.
The cardinal headings—north, east, south, and west—are marked on the heading
indicator N, E, S, and W, or 0, 9,18, 27 for 0, 90,180, and 270 degrees. People tend to get
a little stressed when they're learning how to fly and round-numbered altitudes and
cardinal headings are easier to remember and therefore easier to maintain when at the
controls. By also using a prominent landmark on the horizon, you will be able to notice
small heading deviations when you look outside the cockpit.
85
Chapter Five
X
*
->■
Figure 5-1 Straight-and-level flight should be the first maneuver you try in a helicopter:
Schweizer 300. (Source: United Technologies Sikorsky Aircraft)
"I Have Control"
When the instructor says, "You have control," position yourself comfortably in the seat,
place your hands lightly but positively on the cyclic and collective, and rest your feet on the
tail rotor pedals. Take a deep breath to calm yourself, and when ready, say "I have control."
Only when you say "I have control" will your instructor remove his hands and
feet. Don't say it until you do have control. Actually, your instructor probably won't
Basic Flight Maneuvers
move his hands and feet too far away from the controls, because he knows his calming
influence will be needed shortly. But within limits, you will be controlling the helicopter.
This "You have control," "I have control" procedure should not be trivialized. It is
a basic, important control change procedure that you'll use throughout your career
whenever you fly with another pilot, in any aircraft. It's the simplest way to ensure that
at least one pilot always has his hands and feet, as well as his mind, on the controls and
that both pilots know who is in control.
The pilot-in-command, or instructor in this case, will tell you when he wants you to
take the controls by saying, "You have control." He'll keep his hands and feet on the
controls until you say, "I have control."
When he wants to take the controls back, he'll say, "I have control." You should
check visually that he has taken the controls, say, "You have control," and then take
your hands and feet away.
If you want him to take the controls while you're flying, say, "You have control," but
don't release the controls, until he says, "I have control," and you've visually checked
that he does.
If you would like to take the controls while the pilot-in-command or instructor is
flying, be polite and ask, "May I have the controls?" or "Could I fly a while?" If the
answer is yes, follow the "I have control" procedure. If the answer is no, don't force the
issue. When you're second-in-command or a student, it's not your prerogative to take
the controls unless told to do so or invited to do so by the pilot-in-command, except in
an extreme emergency when it appears that the pilot-in-command isn't able to handle
the situation and you believe you can do a better job.
If it seems that I am belaboring this point, it's only because I have learned from
personal experience and the experience of others that confusion about who has control
usually occurs at the most inopportune time and that it can be extremely embarrassing,
not to mention dangerous, when both pilots think the other one has control and as a
result, neither of them has it.
If your instructor isn't as fanatic about this as I am, do yourself a favor and use the
procedure anyway. Your continued insistence on saying "I have control" and "You have
control" might eventually embarrass him enough to start doing it, too.
The first thing that will probably happen after you say, "I have control," is nothing. If
the aircraft is trimmed up properly for straight-and-level flight, it will pretty much stay
that way and fly by itself without pilot input (Fig. 5-2). This will continue for several seconds, which will seem like minutes, and just when you think you're starting to get the
hang of it, you'll notice you've started to turn away from the selected prominent landmark and its cardinal heading.
This is natural and to be expected because most of us (before we become helicopter
pilots) are not too precise with our feet. What has happened is that in resting your feet
on the pedals, you've inadvertently put a bit more pressure on one of them. This very
correctly will cause the helicopter to yaw in that direction.
Your initial deviations probably won't occur with the cyclic or collective controls
because you'll be concentrating much more on these. Actually, with a comfortable
amount of friction on the collective and throttle, you can probably ignore your left
hand—although you should still hold onto the throttle. The cyclic will require the most
attention and you'll be trying very hard not to change its position in the slightest from
where your instructor left it. Eventually, no matter how much you initially try not to,
you'll forget about your feet.
Chapter Five
y. i
Figure 5-2 The helicopter will fly along quite well for a few moments without any input from the
pilot: Bell 206L LongRanger. (Source: Bell Helicopter Textron)
Next, you will try to correct for the change in heading. You'll probably do two
things (if you've read this book, listened to your instructor, and are thinking at all
sensibly). First, you'll push slightly harder on one of the pedals and if lucky, it will be
the one that turns you back toward, the heading. Second, you'll try to help the machine
back by adding cyclic in the direction you want to go. If the first action doesn't create
problems, the second one will.
If you push the correct pedal, you'll probably push too hard. Well, what do you
expect? You've never done this before. This initiates the turn back toward the heading
too quickly and then you'll push too hard on the other pedal and then too hard on the
first one again and back and forth until everything is totally out of whack and the
instructor takes over. Believe me, by the time he says, "I have control," you'll want to
give him the controls so quickly you'll forget to visually check that he really does have
them before you release them.
If you make a cyclic input, you'll start rolling as well. And, because most people tend
to pull back on the cyclic a little when they try to move it from one side or the other, you'll
start some pitching movements, too. Pitching movements are when the nose starts to bob
up and down. As it goes up—because you unintentionally pulled back on the cyclic—
you'll try to counter this by moving the cyclic forward, probably too much. As the nose
dips below the horizon, you'll counter again with back cyclic. And every time you try to
correct pitch, you'll be adding more and more roll inputs to correct the first one you made
to counteract the pedal movement you didn't mean to make in the first place.
Pilot-Induced Oscillations
Everybody has experienced over-controlling or pilot-induced oscillations and everybody does it. (Some pilots call it "PIT," for pilot-induced turbulence.) Even experienced.
Basic Flight Maneuvers
professional pilots often over-control when they check out in a new aircraft. It's almost
impossible not to because every aircraft has a different feel.
The helicopter is going to be making all sorts of funny gyrations in the sky until you
start to get a feel for it. Don't worry about it. It'll come. Ten hours of stick time is a fair
rule of thumb before most pilots begin to feel comfortable in a new machine. But that's
only a rule of thumb and everybody's different.
As a new pilot, with less experience to draw upon, it will take you longer, maybe
three or four times as much, so don't worry if you don't catch on right away. Everything
comes with practice. If you get discouraged, re-read the quote by President Coolidge at
the beginning of this chapter.
So much for the pep talk, we're still trying to fly straight-and-level.
When the gyrations get too bad or the instructor feels your control movements are
so much out of sync that you're not learning anything, he'll take the controls. In a second or so, the aircraft will be flying straight-and-level again, steady as a rock, and you'll
swear your instructor is possessed with mystical powers. Don't let this bother you. It
happens to everyone and your instructor just wants to give you a chance to start from a
controlled position again.
One common instruction technique is to give the student only one or two controls
to handle, while the instructor takes care of the other controls. This permits the student
to concentrate on handling one control correctly while the other controls don't go to
pieces. Because changes in one control can affect the others, it's easy to start to feel like
a one-armed, wallpaper hanger on a wobbly ladder until you get the feel for how much
control input is needed for a given situation.
Watch what your instructor does to calm things down. It'll look like black magic at
first, but basically what he'll do is simply put the cyclic, collective, and tail rotor pedals
back to their neutral cruise flight positions and hold them there. When he wants to
make a correction to come back on altitude or heading, he'll do it by increasing finger
pressure on the appropriate control, not by moving it. Flying a helicopter takes an
extremely fine touch. In fact, once you have trimmed up in straight-and-level flight,
added a tad friction to the collective, and equalized the pressure on the pedals, you can
easily fly by using only the thumb and forefinger of your right hand.
Finding the neutral positions and acquiring the necessary touch is what it's all
about. It simply takes time and practice.
Accels/Decels
A good way to improve proficiency in level flight is to perform accelerations and decelerations, or accels/decels. These will also help improve your "feel" of the aircraft and
prepare you for other, more difficult, maneuvers, such as quick stops.
Accels/decels are very much like quick stops, although much gentler. The main differences between accels/decels and quick stops (see Chap. 7) are that accels/decels are
done with a slower rate of acceleration and deceleration, at altitude instead of close to
the ground, and the lowest airspeed during the deceleration phase of the maneuver
should be at or above the best-rate-of-climb airspeed.
Start out straight-and-level at the best-rate-of-climb speed for your helicopter, let's
say 45 knots. Note the power setting you're using. You'll need it later. What you want
to do is accelerate to high-cruise speed without gaining or losing altitude or changing
your heading. To gain airspeed, two things must be done: the nose must be lowered and
Chapter Five
the power must be increased. To lower the nose, ease the cyclic forward slightly. To
increase power, raise the collective to maximum available power, adding throttle to
maintain rotor rpm. Of course, as you increase power, the torque effect increases, too,
and you must counteract this with the left pedal.
As the airspeed increases, you'll have to make small adjustments to the cyclic position
to keep from climbing or descending. When you reach high-cruise speed, lower the collective to the high-cruise power setting, reduce the throttle accordingly, adjust the cyclic
to maintain level flight, and neutralize the pedals to remove any yaw tendency (Fig. 5-3).
Fly straight-and-level for a minute or two to settle yourself down. A deceleration is
the opposite of an acceleration. To decelerate you must decrease power and raise the
nose. To decrease power, lower the collective to the normal descent power setting,
reducing throttle to maintain rotor rpm. To raise the nose, ease the cyclic back slightly.
Of course, as you decrease power, the torque effect decreases, too, and you must counteract this by easing off the left pedal pressure and maybe even adding the right pedal.
As the airspeed decreases, you'll have to make small adjustments to the cyclic position to keep from climbing or descending. As you approach the best-rate-of-climb
speed, raise the collective to the power setting you had before beginning the acceleration, increase the throttle accordingly, adjust the cyclic to maintain level flight, and neutralize the pedals to remove any yaw tendency.
The rate at which you increase and decrease the collective will determine how difficult the maneuver is. The faster you move the collective, the harder accels/decels are.
Start off slowly. There's no reason to rush the maneuver the first times you do it. As you
improve and feel more comfortable with the helicopter, gradually speed up the initial
collective input.
Be careful not to allow the airspeed to fall below best-rate-of-climb speed, absolutely not below translational-lift airspeed. There's no reason to tempt fate with an
engine failure at a slow airspeed. Best-rate-of-climb airspeed is usually very close to the
Figure 5-3 Accels/decels are straight-and-level maneuvers that will improve your feel for the
aircraft and prepare you for more difficult maneuvers later in flight training: AgustaWestland
A109MAX. (Source: AgustaWestland)
Basic Flight Maneuvers
optimal autorotation airspeed; therefore, if the engine fails during the maneuver, it
won't be difficult to enter autorotation at the best airspeed.
As soon as you start catching on to straight-and-level flight, your instructor will ask
you to try some level turns. You might want to strangle him at this point, but don't try
it because you need him to get safely on the ground. He is displaying some confidence
in your learning abilities and believes it's time to step up to something more difficult.
If you steadfastly do not want to do any turns, say so. Instructors aren't gods or
mind readers. The good ones could make pretty good psychologists and probably
know better than you what you need at that moment, but other instructors might be
plodding along adhering to a lesson plan regardless of your actual progress.
All instructors appreciate feedback. If you don't feel ready for a maneuver, request
additional practice before moving on. Naturally, consider costs and do not waste time
while simultaneously considering personal safety instincts. Consider requesting another
demonstration of a maneuver to observe and integrate your experience to that point; that
is an excellent chance for you to clear your head and relax hands and feet.
Level Turns
Recall that level means holding a constant altitude; turn means changing the heading. Turns come in all sizes, from one or two degrees through many times around the
compass. Ninety-degree turns, from one cardinal heading to another, are a comfortable size to start off with. Students naturally progress from 90-degree turns to 180-,
270-, and 360-degree turns. Combinations for 540- or 720-degree turns are possible,
but that's usually just boring holes in the sky. Obviously, turns can be made either to
the right or left.
Before you do any maneuver, clear the area, meaning look for other aircraft above,
below, and at your level in the direction of the maneuver. Make this a habit whenever you fly not just during training. Because of their slower speed relative to most
airplanes, helicopters are easily overtaken and if your fixed-wing brethren aren't
"seeing and avoiding" as well as they should, the encounter might be too close for
comfort. Besides, helicopter cockpits have much better fields of view than most airplane cockpits, so you probably have a better chance than airplane pilots of seeing
conflicting traffic.
Before any turn training, clear an area left, right, and aft; do a pair of 90-degree clearing turns, first in the direction of the planned turn and second back to the original heading. You don't have to do clearing turns before every practice turn, but it's a good idea to
do them every few minutes or so. Unless you happen to be training in a well-known
practice area, pilots who do spot you might initially figure you'll be continuing in a particular direction, because this is the most common occurrence. They won't expect you to
turn again and again, possibly toward their direction of flight, and might have, none too
wisely, disregarded you. So make those clearing turns and watch out for yourself.
Making level turns in a helicopter is actually quite easy and very similar to making
turns in airplanes. Like airplanes, you bank a helicopter toward the direction you want
it to turn. Unlike an airplane, you don't need to use rudder to coordinate the turn
(to prevent slipping and skidding) and counteract adverse yaw; however, because turns
might cause changes in rotor rpm for aerodynamic reasons that are too complicated to
get into here, you'll probably need to use some tail rotor pedal input to keep the turn
coordinated.
Chapter Five
Many texts on helicopter flying tell you not to use pedals in a turn. Theoretically the
texts might be correct. In reality, I've found a little pressure on the left pedal when turning left and a little pressure on the right pedal when turning right tends to help keep the
ball in the center. Don't ask for an explanation, it just works.
The most difficult part of level turns is staying level. When you tilt the rotor to one
side to enter a bank, part of the vertical lift vector is lost. If you don't correct for this,
you'll start to descend. To counter this loss of lift, you may either add power by increasing the collective or trade airspeed for altitude by easing back on the cyclic slightly.
If you enter a gentle bank and turn only a few degrees, you probably won't have to
do either because the loss of lift will be minimal. If you enter a steep bank and do a
complete 360-degree turn or more, you definitely will have to correct for this loss of lift.
You'll find that different helicopters act differently in turns. Some drop their nose
considerably and require aft cyclic to keep them from entering a descent. Others tend to
stay level in a turn, but lose airspeed fairly quickly. After flying one type for a while,
you'll become quite used to its reactions and upon switching to another helicopter you
might inadvertently apply an unnecessary correction.
Two Rules of Thumb
Two rules of thumb will serve you well when making turns:
First, angle of bank should not exceed one-half the number of degrees you wish to
turn, up to a maximum of 30 degrees. In other words, if you want to turn 20 degrees,
use a 10-degree angle of bank; if you want to turn 40 degrees, use a 20-degree angle of
bank. If you want to turn 60 degrees or more, use a 30-degree angle of bank.
Second, start the roll out from the turn to the desired heading using one-half the number of degrees in the bank angle. For example, you're turning right from 090 degrees to
270 degrees using a bank angle of 30 degrees. Start the roll out at 255 degrees, 15 degrees
prior to reaching 270 degrees. If done smoothly and steadily, this should put you within
a degree or two of the desired heading every time. When that close, you may get rid of
that last degree by using the pedals, but do it gently to avoid noticeable yaw.
Just when you think you're getting the hang of level turns, your instructor demonstrates climbs and descents.
Normal Climbs
A pilot can cause a helicopter to climb in three ways: by pulling back on the cyclic;
by raising the collective; and by doing both, pulling back on the cyclic and raising the
collective.
Pulling back on the cyclic is similar to pulling back on the stick or yoke in an airplane. The nose goes up, airspeed goes down, and the aircraft starts to climb. You're
trading airspeed for altitude. If you pull the nose up too much, the helicopter will climb
very quickly initially, but, just as quickly, airspeed will decrease; in an airplane you risk
entering a stall; in a helicopter you can bleed airspeed all the way to zero and perhaps
end up, depending upon aircraft weight and the power setting, either moving backwards in a high out-of-ground effect hover or in a nose-up shallow descent.
Pulling up the collective of a helicopter is akin to adding power in an airplane, but
differences are apparent; in an airplane, the airspeed increases; in a helicopter, you start
Basic Flight Maneuvers
/
i
i
4..
JO
%
Figure 5-4 By doing a cyclic climb, the pilot causes the helicopter to climb quickly by trading
airspeed for altitude: Sikorsky MH-60 Pave Hawk. (Source: United Technologies Sikorsky Aircraft)
to climb and airspeed stays the same. (If you wanted to increase airspeed and not climb
in a helicopter, you must also add forward cyclic when you pull up the collective.)
Finally, the most effective way to climb is by both pulling back on the cyclic and
increasing the collective.
The third method is the commonly accepted way to climb, but the other two ways are
acceptable under some circumstances. Let's say, for the sake of an example, you're a military pilot flying nap-of-the-earth at maximum airspeed and with full power (Fig. 5-4).
You're approaching a line of trees that you'd rather fly over than around. You can't increase
the collective pitch any more because the collective is already in your armpit. So, you ease
back on the cyclic, zoom up to just above tree-top level (losing maybe five knots in the process), and ease the cyclic forward again to level off. {See Chap. 10 about the danger of mast
bumping, if this maneuver is done in a helicopter with a two-bladed, semi-rigid rotor system, such as the Robinson R22.) Within seconds, you regain the five knots you lost in the
climb and everything is the same as before, except you're a few feet higher over the ground.
Cyclic-Only Climbs
Such altitude-for-airspeed climbs, often called cyclic climbs, are good for gaining small
amounts of altitude quickly: actually, the fastest way to gain altitude in a helicopter. The
disadvantage is that the initial high rate of climb will dissipate rapidly as airspeed
drops off. It all depends upon the airspeed when the climb is initiated and how much
airspeed can be lost in the climb. To achieve the best climb, allow the airspeed to drop
to best-rate-of-climb speed and hold it there. If any slower, climb rate is reduced. For the
sake of safety, don't let the airspeed drop below translational-lift airspeed.
Chapter Five
One important thing to remember about cyclic climbs: Do not pull back on the
cyclic too quickly The faster you pull back, the more g-forces are applied. Civilian helicopters are not built to take as much g-force as most airplanes and selected military
helicopters, and something might break.
Of equal concern is the flapping tendency of the main rotor blades. When you pull
back on the cyclic, the back of the rotor disc tips down. With a high positive g-force also
acting on the rotor disc, there's a good possibility that one or more main rotor blades
might contact the tailboom or even sever the tail rotor drive shaft. So, when you do a
cyclic climb, do it with care and don't try to make a vertical climb with the little rotarywing machine. It's not a space shuttle.
Collective-Only Climbs
Climb method number two, the collective-only climb, is useful if you want to maintain
airspeed, don't need to climb quickly, and don't have to gain more than 500 feet or so.
As such, it's a good method for climbing when you are flying on instruments, for example (Fig. 5-5). It's also useful for maintaining altitude in minor turbulence.
You'll normally cruise at a power setting equivalent to approximately 60 or 70 percent
of full power; thus, you'll have ample power available to accommodate a climb of at least
500 feet per minute while maintaining cruising airspeed. Collective-only climbs are probably the most comfortable for passengers because fuselage attitude does not vary. They
probably won't even notice the altitude change.
One disadvantage of the collective-only climb is that the rate of climb usually is not
that great, and might be downright marginal if the aircraft is near maximum gross
weight and it's a hot day. Also, because you're maintaining airspeed while climbing,
you might have to use full power, which is not ideal for the engine if you have to gain
a lot of altitude. And more fuel is consumed.
x
:
a
i 7
I
m,
Figure 5-5 Collective-only climbs are a good way to climb when flying IFR or when you don't need
to gain much altitude: AgustaWestland A109MAX. (Source: AgustaWestland)
Basic Flight Maneuvers
Best Climb Method
The third way to climb is the most popular because a cyclic and collective climb is the
quickest and most fuel efficient, advantageously combining the other two methods
with none of the disadvantages. You can initiate the climb quickly by easing back on
the cyclic, trading airspeed for altitude, plus sustain the climb and maintain a comfortable airspeed by increasing collective pitch. Because the climb is at a lower airspeed and the rate of climb is greater than with a collective-only climb, you don't
have to maintain the climb as long and the wear-and-tear on the engine is minimized.
Assume you're cruising along at 100 knots straight and level and at a fixed power
setting. To start the climb, you ease back on the cyclic to bring the nose up 5 to 10 degrees
above the horizon. You could start the climb by increasing the collective first and then
easing back on the cyclic, but this won't initiate the climb as quickly as making the cyclic
input first.
You should see an immediate indication on the vertical-speed indicator showing a
climb and the altimeter will slowly increase. Airspeed reacts, too, by decreasing. If you
hold the nose up and don't do anything with the collective, airspeed will continue to
bleed off until it stabilizes at a slower speed that corresponds to that particular nose-up
attitude and that power setting. Depending on conditions and gross weight, you could
end up either level or descending. Instead of waiting to let that happen, you should
increase the collective pitch to the helicopter's climb-power setting.
Now you must adjust the other controls to keep everything working together
properly. An increase in collective means blade pitch increases; therefore, in order to
maintain rotor rpm, engine power must also be increased, a power on, by rotating the
throttle counterclockwise (as viewed from the pilot's seat). As collective pitch and
throttle are increased, so is the torque effect of the main rotor and the nose of the helicopter yaws to the right. Increased pressure on the left pedal is needed to keep the
machine on heading.
Flying with Your Ears
One thing we haven't talked about up to now is sound. Your ability to hear changes in
rotor rpm and engine noise is going to become very important to you as a helicopter
pilot. You won't notice it so much at first, but as you gain time in a machine, you'll learn
what normal rotor rpm and engine noise sound like. You'll also be able to distinguish
between high and low rotor rpm and unusual engine sounds. Many experienced helicopter pilots will hear critical changes in rotor rpm and engine rpm before noticing the
changes on the gauges, a very effective early warning system.
Don't try to learn these sound indications on your first few flights—you'll have
enough else to do—but do be aware of them. I mention them now because during climbs
and descents, when you are necessarily making changes in the collective and throttle settings, you'll be exposed to differing sound indications from the rotor and engine.
The airspeed you use in the climb will depend on the helicopter type and how
quickly you want to climb. Two climb airspeeds are often stipulated by the manufacturer. The best-rate-of-climb airspeed (V) is what it says, the airspeed that yields the
best (greatest) rate of climb. Learn and do not forget this airspeed because it offers the
absolute best climb performance for that helicopter. Actually, V varies plus or minus a
Chapter Five
few knots depending upon atmospheric conditions, but the change is so slight that you
can safely use one speed. Besides, airspeed indicators aren't that precise anyway.
The other airspeed often, but not always, given to us by the manufacturer is the
cruise-climb airspeed. This is always higher than V and doesn't give as much climb—
only one speed can be the best—but it will give you an acceptable climb rate without
requiring you to slow down all the way to V. In helicopters with relatively high-cruise
speeds, the V might be as low as 50 percent of the cruise-climb speed.
If the manufacturer hasn't established a cruise-climb speed, pilots and operators
often pick a speed that gives them good climb performance without sacrificing too
much airspeed.
Anticipate leveling off to end up at the desired altitude without busting through it. Use
the 10 percent rule of thumb. If climbing at 500 feet per minute, start to level off when 50 feet
below the desired altitude. If climbing 1,000 feet per minute, start to level off 100 feet below
the desired altitude. If climbing 5,000 feet per minute, you're not flying a helicopter.
Ease the cyclic forward first. This will cause airspeed to increase and the rate of
climb to decrease. Then, as the airspeed approaches cruising speed and the altimeter
nudges toward the desired altitude, reduce the collective to the cruise power setting.
Reducing the collective will necessitate a reduction in engine power in order to keep
rotor rpm from increasing. Rotate the throttle clockwise as you lower the collective.
Torque is consequently reduced; therefore, keep the nose straight, releasing the extra
pressure you put on the left pedal to counteract the increase in torque during the climb.
If you've climbed no more than 1,000 feet or so, power setting, airspeed, control positions, and overall vibration level will be approximately the same as the previous altitude;
if you've climbed 2,000 feet or more, you'll definitely notice a difference in the above
parameters. With the same power setting, indicated airspeed will be less (although true
airspeed might be the same or higher depending on atmospheric conditions). To get the
same indicated airspeed, you'll have to use a higher power setting. The collective lever
will be raised, the cyclic will be more forward, you'll need more pressure on the left pedal,
and the overall level of vibrations will be greater.
As you gain more experience and confidence in the helicopter, take the time to note
outside air temperature before and after the climb. Usually, you'll see it decrease 2 0C
per 1,000 feet, which is the standard lapse rate. Sometimes temperature will decrease
quicker, indicating the presence of colder-than-normal air above, possibly due to an
approaching cold front. An increase in outside air temperature while climbing indicates
a temperature inversion. Inversions are often indicative of future fog or smog, if not
already present.
More than likely, after climbing a few thousand feet, your instructor will request a
descent.
Normal Descents
Straight ahead normal descents are probably the easiest maneuver to do in a helicopter
(Fig. 5-6). Perhaps only the pull of gravity makes descents seem this way. Perhaps it's
only in the mind of the pilot, a human factor psychological issue that somehow relates
descents in aircraft to coasting down hills on a bicycle on a warm summer day. Perhaps
it's because they're just easy to do.
There are two basic ways to initiate a descent: lower the collective or apply forward
cyclic.
Basic Flight Maneuvers
i
11%^
Figure 5-6 Normal descents in a helicopter are probably the easiest maneuver to do: Sikorsky
S-76B. (Source: United Technologies Sikorsky Aircraft)
The first way is more common and will allow a much wider range of descent rates
than the second way. You can vary the rate of descent from as little as a few feet per
minute to full autorotational rate of descent (about 2,000 feet per minute or more,
depending on conditions) just by using the collective.
On the other hand, using forward cyclic to start a descent is limited by the neverexceed airspeed (Vne). If you're cruising only 10 or 15 knots below Viie when you start the
descent with forward cyclic, you'll soon be bumping the limit.
To start a normal descent, simply lower the collective an inch or two. Your instructor should recommend an approximate power setting to use. Of course, every time you
move one control in a helicopter, you must adjust one or more of the others. In this case
you'll have to rotate the throttle clockwise, a poiver off, to keep the engine from revving
the rotor rpm too high and apply pressure to the right tail rotor pedal to keep the nose
straight. You need the right pedal because the nose will yaw to the left because of the
reduction in torque when you lowered the collective.
You might have to make an adjustment to the cyclic position, although theoretically
this shouldn't be necessary. Airspeed will tend to increase a few knots, but this shouldn't
be any problem unless you happen to be cruising at close to Vm, speed, which is unlikely.
If airspeed does build too much, simply ease back on the cyclic a tad and that should
stabilize it. If this aft cyclic movement slows the rate of descent too much, simply lower
the collective a bit more.
Use the same 10 percent rule of thumb as a guide to determine when to start leveling out. If descending at 700 feet per minute, start to level out 70 feet above the desired
altitude.
Level out by increasing collective back to cruise power, add throttle to maintain
rotor rpm, and ease the pressure off the right pedal. If you made an aft cyclic correction
Chapter Five
to keep the airspeed in limits on the way down, slowly ease the stick forward again to
maintain cruise airspeed.
That's really all there is to it.
Turning Climbs and Turning Descents
Not to worry you, but these maneuvers will probably seem very difficult the first times you
do them. It's only because you'll have to do a number of things simultaneously and that
always takes some getting used to. But learning climbing turns and descents is well worth
the time and effort because they are common maneuvers, particularly in the traffic pattern.
RIGHT
CLIMBING
TURN
LEFT
CLIMBING
TURN
RIGHT
DESCENDING
TURN
LEFT
DESCENDING
TURN
1
Clear the area for other aircraft
2
Visualize the maneuver
3
Right
cyclic
Left
cyclic
Lower
collective
Lower
collective
4
Increase
collective
Increase
collective
Decrease
throttle
Decrease
throttle
5
Increase
throttle
Increase
throttle
Right
cyclic
Left
cyclic
6
Some
right pedal
Definite
left pedal
Definite
right pedal
Some
left pedal
7
Check the gauges; Airspeed, vertical speed, heading, altitude, power
8
Adjust cyclic, collective, throttle, and pedals as required
9
Repeat steps 7 and 8 throughout the maneuver
10
Begin to level off and roll out using rules of thumb
11
Center
cyclic
Center
cyclic
Raise
collective
Raise
collective
12
Decrease
collective
Decrease
collective
Increase
throttle
Increase
throttle
13
Decrease
throttle
Decrease
throttle
Center
cyclic
Center
cyclic
14
Ease off
right pedal
Ease off
left pedal
Ease off
right pedal
Ease oft
left pedal
15
Check the gauges; Airspeed, vertical speed, heading, altitude, power
16
Adjust cyclic, collective, throttle, and pedals as required
Figure 5-7
Left and right climbing turns by the numbers.
Basic Flight Maneuvers
Learn how to perform numerous tasks simultaneously by doing the individual
tasks in sequence by the numbers. As you become more and more proficient at each
individual task, repeat the actions faster and faster and eventually you'll be able to do
all the tasks at the same time.
That's why you start off straight-and-level, progress to level turns, continue to
climbs and descents, and finally end up with climbing and descending turns, building
skills along the way to acquire proficiency in the individual tasks before trying to put
them all together.
A climbing turn is really nothing more than a level turn with a climb thrown in, or
a climb with a level turn thrown in. You don't do anything more than you've learned up
to this point; you're just combining two maneuvers into one. In theory, it shouldn't be
all that difficult, but it will seem hard because you won't be accustomed to juggling so
many elements at once.
I suggest you do it by the numbers until you get a good feel for it. Figure 5-7 gives
step-by-step procedures for climbing and descending right and left turns.
Doing It by the Numbers
Clear the area to check for other traffic (step 1), then form a mental picture of the maneuver you plan to do, for example, a 180-degree left climbing turn (step 2). Okay, visualize
the helicopter turning left and climbing to your rear (Fig. 5-8). What steps do you have
to do? (Fig. 5-8):
3. Start the turn with left cyclic.
4. Increase the collective to climb power.
5. Increase the throttle to maintain rotor rpm.
6. Keep the turn coordinated by adding the left tail rotor pedal.
7. Check the gauges: airspeed, vertical speed, heading, altimeter, power.
8. Adjust the cyclic, collective, throttle, and pedals as needed to maintain a
constant rate of climb and turn.
9. Repeat steps 7 and 8 throughout the maneuver until it's time to level off and
roll out.
10. Begin to roll out using the rules of thumb for turns and climbs.
11. Return the cyclic to the center or neutral position.
12. Decrease the collective to the cruise flight position.
13. Decrease the throttle to keep engine rpm in limits.
14. Ease off the added pressure on the left pedal.
15. Check the gauges to ensure you've ended up where you want to end up.
16. Make a final adjustment to the cyclic, collective, throttle and pedals, if needed.
It sounds complicated when you read it, but, believe me, if you do it by the numbers
enough times, you'll soon be doing it instinctively, smoothly, and simultaneously. It will
still take concentration and attention to what you're doing, but it won't seem nearly as
difficult.
Chapter Five
w
€
m
•OL
s.
Figure 5-8 An AgustaWestland A109Power makes a steep climbing turn to the left. Do climbing
and descending turns by the numbers until you can do them instinctively. (Source: AgustaWestland)
Use the similar by-the-numbers procedures as outlined in Fig. 5-7 for right climbing
turns, right descending turns, and left descending turns.
Notice that climbing turns are started with cyclic input whereas descending turns
are started with collective input. This is a matter of technique based on personal preference and experience in the helicopter types I have flown. It's not cast in stone, I feel
comfortable initiating the maneuvers this way. Your goal should be to do steps 3 through
7 and steps 11 through 15 more or less simultaneously. If you feel more comfortable
starting climbs with the collective input and descents with the cyclic input, feel free to
do so.
It will probably only take you a few hours to master straight-and-level flight, level
turns, and normal climbs and descents. By the time you've done these, you'll start to
have a feel for the machine. Feel is hard to define, but you'll know it when you get it.
It's akin to learning how to balance on a bicycle.
Climbing turns and descents will take many hours of practice before you can do
them well, but as mentioned before, it's worth the time and effort. Fortunately, you
don't have to be completely proficient in climbing turns and descents before progressing on to the next phase of your training, hovering, which I think is the best part of
flying helicopter. As the saying goes, "To fly is human, but to hover is divine."
CHAPTER
Learning to
Hover
I did most of the flying at that time and became very familiar with the helicopter's operation. During
my years in aviation, 1 had never been in a machine that zoas as pleasant to fly as this light helicopter
was, with a completely open cockpit. It was like a dream to feel the machine lift you gently up in the
air, float smoothly over one spot for indefinite periods, move up and down under good control, and
move not only forward or backzvard but in any direction. As for landings, it was possible to come
down not only within a few feet but even within a few inches of a spot previously designated on the
ground and this was easily done, even with rather strong winds.
Igor Sikorsky, describing the VS 300 in 1940
"The Winged S"
Hovering makes a helicopter a helicopter. That might sound corny, but it really
is true. If a helicopter couldn't hover, it might as well be an airplane. Or to put
it another way, if your job doesn't require an aircraft that can hover or an aircraft that can take off from and land in a very small space (which essentially requires
hover capability), you don't need a helicopter.
Hovering is the "raison d'etre" of helicopters. It's the main advantage helicopters
have over airplanes. It's the single most important rotary-wing capability that keeps
helicopter operators all over the world in business.
It's also fun.
Cars in parking lots at helicopter flight schools abound with bumper stickers that
say, "Hover Lover" and "To Fly is Human, To Hover is Divine." You can't help getting
a kick out of hovering.
You sit there motionless, a few feet over the ground, and unattached to anything
earthbound. Want to see what's behind you? Press on a pedal and you turn around.
What's that over there? Nudge the cyclic and you slide over to it. Can't see what's on
the other side of that fence? Lift the collective and you climb like an elevator. No king
ever sat on a more wonderful throne. It's great.
It's also hard.
It's the hardest thing you'll have to learn. But once you master it, you'll have it. Like
riding a bicycle.
In fact, a pilot friend of mine likes to use a bicycle analogy when describing helicopter flying. He says flying an airplane is like riding a bicycle and flying a helicopter is like
riding a unicycle. It's not a bad analogy.
There are a lot of similarities between airplane flying and helicopter flying, just like
riding a bicycle is similar to riding a unicycle. But, riding a unicycle requires something
101
Chapter Six
more, too—more skill, better balance, greater concentration, more practice. Flying helicopters, and particularly hovering, is like that.
If you've flown airplanes, hovering will be a new, slightly disconcerting sensation.
If you've never flown before, it will simply be awesome.
The Basic Hover
It's important to remember that a hovering helicopter is a flying aircraft, even though it
is stationary over one spot. The helicopter might only be a few inches above the ground,
but it is now a creature of the air and all aerodynamic rules and principles apply. I say
this because a hovering helicopter might look stable and easily controlled; it might be
stable, but it's not necessarily easily controlled. The pilot is working hard, sometimes
very hard, to keep it where it is.
Before lifting into a hover, check that the cyclic and tail rotor pedals are in their
neutral positions, in other words, that you haven't inadvertently pushed the right pedal
forward slightly or moved the cyclic stick one way or the other. On the ground, moving
these controls will generally not move the helicopter, but anytime the rotors are turning
you must pay attention to any control inputs. By checking the position of these controls
immediately before takeoff, you help ensure that the helicopter will lift straight up and
not veer or turn to the right or left.
Clear all around, right, left, and above. Remember, you're going up and you don't
want to hit someone flying low over the top of you. You can never be sure the way is
clear, so check overhead. Check the sides for people, vehicles, and other aircraft (Fig. 6-1).
i
Figure 6-1
A Bell 206 pilot clears the area, checking for traffic, prior to a practice maneuver.
Learning to Hover
When you're ready to go, lift the collective slowly upward while at the same time
increasing engine power with the throttle, keeping rotor rpm within limits. As the pitch
on the main rotor blades increases, the lift increases and the helicopter becomes light on
the skids or wheels. The machine is now half-flying and half on the ground and you'll
have to make careful adjustments with the cyclic and tail rotor pedals. In Americanmade helicopters, whenever you raise the collective, the fuselage will want to turn to
the right, so you can expect to progressively increase the pressure on the left pedal as
you lift into a hover.
This transitional phase when the helicopter is not quite flying and not quite on the
ground requires extreme vigilance. Two nasty things can happen if the pilot is not careful: ground resonance and dynamic rollover.
Ground resonance occurs when the pilot's collective inputs get out of synchronization with the aircraft and the machine starts bouncing up and down. The springiness of
the skids or landing gear only aggravate the situation. Ground resonance usually occurs
when the pilot is trying to be too precise and too cautious and starts pumping the collective up and down. A good way to avoid pumping the collective is to increase the
friction on the collective pitch lever by rotating the friction lock in the proper direction.
This will make the collective seem heavier and harder to move.
Dynamic rollover is mainly a problem when taking off from a sloping surface or
with a crosswind. It is caused by too much lateral cyclic, which is an easy mistake
when you're trying to hold the machine steady on a slope. The problem is you could
cause the machine to enter a condition in which it begins to roll over while balanced
on one skid and go past the point where no amount of opposite lateral cyclic will
counteract the roll.
The way to avoid both ground resonance and dynamic rollover is to be sure the cyclic
is in the neutral position when light on the skids and to pull the collective up in one smooth
motion. It shouldn't be a fast, jerking movement, but rather a steady, constant-rate pull.
Whatever you do, don't stop halfway between firmly on the ground and fully in the air.
As you pull the collective upward, one skid or main wheel will leave the ground
first, not because the helicopter has been loaded improperly but because of the way it is
constructed. To improve forward flight performance, the main rotor mast is tilted a few
degrees forward. The tilt and the gyroscopic effect cause the helicopter to hover with a
slight bank in a no-wind condition, a compromise that is acceptable. It should also be
noted that a crosswind can exaggerate the bank, eliminate it, or even cause the helicopter to bank in the opposite direction.
The tendency of most helicopters to lift into a hover with one gear lower than the
other is another reason you don't want to be too prim with your upward collective
movement. If you dally too long with one wheel or skid touching the ground, sooner or
later the helicopter is going to want to move. The wheel or skid will act as a pivot point
and cause the machine to pirouette, but not very gracefully.
The hardest part of hovering will be pilot-induced turbulence (PIT), your own
erratic and unnecessary control inputs. Try to calm down. That's easy to say, but hard
to do. You will be clutching the controls and your instructor will tell you to relax your
grip. That's easy to say and hard to do, too. One way to keep yourself from gripping too
hard is to hold a pencil wedged on top of the first and third fingers of your right hand
and under the middle finger. If you squeeze the cyclic too hard, the pencil will hurt your
fingers, causing you to relax your grip. Believe it or not, you'll eventually be able to
hover using only finger pressure.
Chapter Six
VERTICAL
CLIMB
Lift and thrust
Z\
STEADY
HOVER
Cs
VERTICAL
DESCENT
\7
Weight and drag
Figure 6-2 Forces acting upon a helicopter in a hover, no-wind condition. Increasing the
collective increases lift and causes the helicopter to ascend vertically. Decreasing the collective
decreases lift and causes the helicopter to descend vertically. Holding the collective constantly,
stabilizes the hover at a precise height. (Blade coning angle exaggerated in drawing.)
Although the cyclic will feel about as firm as a wet noodle and you'll be concentrating a lot on it, the biggest offender is often the collective. It is the one control that will
always create the need for correcting inputs from the other controls, so calm it down
first. Try to find a fixed power setting that will hold a comfortable hover and leave the
collective at that setting; at most, make very small adjustments. Whatever you do, don't
pump the collective up and down (Fig. 6-2).
Stabilizing the collective will eliminate a multitude of other sins. Now you can
adjust the throttle and leave it set. After that you can pay less attention to the pedals
because you won't be changing torque. Then you can concentrate on that wet noodle.
It's very important to find a comfortable seat height and position so that you can
rest your right forearm on your right thigh. This will give you a stable platform from
which you can control the cyclic. Cyclic movements should be done from the wrist, not
the elbow. Actually, the movements needed are so precise, that they are more on the
magnitude of pressures than movements. If you find yourself working the cyclic like an
old-fashioned butter churn, your movements are much too big. All you're doing is creating PIT and working against yourself.
Your first attempts at hovering will be worse than your first attempts at straightand-level flight. I think you will appreciate the wisdom of getting a feel for the machine
in cruise flight before attempting to hover. Hovering takes practice, lots of practice, so
don't be discouraged.
If you've flown airplanes before, an excerpt from an article by J. Mac McClellan in
FLYING Magazine, might raise your spirits:
Learning to Hover
"I believe the experienced airplane pilot has a small edge (over the nonpilot) when
transitioning to helicopters, though learning to fly helicopters is the most challenging
and difficult aviation task I have ever faced."
A Few Tricks of the Trade
Helicopter pilots use a few tricks of the trade to hold a steady hover over one spot. One
is to use two or three hover references instead of concentrating on only one spot. Pick
one hover reference about 20 to 30 feet in front of you, another at a 45-degree angle to
the side at about the same distance, and a third between these two points and just a few
feet from the helicopter. Move your eyes from one reference spot to another and occasionally bring the horizon into your field of vision, too. If you look only at one point, it
will be difficult to see small changes in attitude.
Try to think of the entire windshield as a big attitude indicator. Heading control will
be easy because small deviations will be readily apparent on the horizon. Peripheral
vision will give you depth perception and help you detect movement to the sides without having to turn your head.
One of the best tricks involves the "gunsight technique." First, pick an object relatively close to your position, for example a small tree or pole, and then line one point of
that object onto another object in the distance. The trick is to hold the first object on top
of, or in the same relation to, the second object. Using one "gunsight" works fairly well,
but you can still end up moving forward or backward along the line of the sight; therefore, it helps to have another gunsight at an angle to the first one. Very small movements of the helicopter are easy to detect using this method and by correcting the small
deviations quickly, you avoid the big ones.
Hovering Turns
Hovering turns are relatively easy in no-wind conditions, once you've mastered the
ability to hover over one spot. In theory, all you need to do is to add pressure to the
pedal on the side you want to turn toward. Push the right pedal forward and you turn
to the right; push the left pedal forward and you turn to the left. This "pushing" typically does not require much movement of the pedals to get the helicopter to respond.
Most of the time you'll only need to increase the pressure on the pedal you want to
move forward (in the direction you want the helicopter to turn) while you ease up pressure on the other pedal.
Of course, as we have seen before, making an input on one control usually necessitates
a correcting input on one or more of the other controls. Hovering turns are no different.
In a stable, no-wind hover everything is in equilibrium. The engine is providing just
enough power to keep the main rotor turning at just the right rpm to hold the height over
the ground and to keep the tail rotor spinning at just the right angle to counteract the torque
of the main rotor. When you push one or the other of the tail rotor pedals forward, you upset
this balance and must do something to compensate in order to hold the same hover height.
In a hover, the torque of the main rotor tries to turn the fuselage to the right and
therefore pressure on the left pedal is required to keep the nose straight. Forward left
pedal means the tail rotor blades are biting the air at a greater angle of attack and therefore producing more lift. If you add even more forward left pedal to initiate a left hovering turn, you increase the tail rotor blade pitch angle even more. This requires more
power from the main gearbox and, if engine power remains constant, the only way the
Chapter Six
gearbox can satisfy this increased demand for power from the tail rotor is to allow main
rotor rpm to decrease.
If you push the left pedal while hovering and do not compensate with collective
and throttle, the helicopter will not only begin to turn left, but will also begin to descend
as rotor rpm decreases. You might not descend all the way to the ground if you are very
gentle with the left pedal, but you will probably get close.
The correct procedure, then, is to counter the increased demand on the main gearbox by increasing the throttle to maintain rotor rpm when turning to the left.
A right hovering turn causes just the opposite to occur. When you push the right
pedal, the pitch angle of the tail rotor blade decreases and demands less power from the
main gearbox. The result is that more power is made available to drive the main rotor
blades and rotor rpm will increase. When rotor rpm increases, the helicopter will climb
vertically. It usually won't climb very much, but if you're trying to hold a precise hover
height, just a few feet higher might be too much.
The correct procedure, when making a right hovering turn, is to decrease the throttle slightly in order to keep rotor rpm from building.
Throughout the maneuver you should maintain position over the ground with the
cyclic. You probably won't need to adjust the cyclic very much with no wind, provided
you make pedal and throttle movements smoothly and correctly. PIT can send the helicopter gyrating all over the sky.
Another thing you should know about hovering turns is that the helicopter will
rotate around the main rotor mast when you make a pedal-only hovering turn. In a
small helicopter, the pilot sits with his back almost against the mast and it's easy to get
the impression that you are at the center of rotation (Fig. 6-3). For all practical purposes
v 7
■ 'M
T
1S&I
i- ■ -<*
' Mv:,
-X-
Figure 6-3 In small helicopters, like this Schweizer 300, the rotor mast, and therefore, the axis
of rotation in a hovering turn, is directly behind the pilot's back. (Source: United Technologies
Sikorsky Aircraft)
Learning to Hover
you are, but if the pilot's seat could scribe its position on the ground as you turn, you'd
find it made a small circle as opposed to a point.
In larger helicopters, the pilot sits farther away from the main rotor mast and the
pilot's seat would scribe a much larger circle when doing a 360-degree hovering turn.
The difference is like sitting on the edge of a CD or DVD or near the center. As a consequence, two types of hovering turns are often used in larger helicopters.
One was just defined, a simple rotation around the main rotor mast. The second is
more difficult because it always requires cyclic inputs, a good deal of them. This is the
hovering turn in which the axis of rotation is not the main rotor mast, but some other
point. The point could be the pilot's seat, or the nose of the helicopter, or even an
imaginary point in front of the nose. The main rotor mast would scribe a circle over
the ground. You can imagine the complexity of control inputs required for such a
maneuver.
As you gain proficiency, hovering turns around an imaginary point in front of the
nose are a good training maneuver to improve overall control coordination.
Hovering with Wind
Up to now, we've only talked about no-wind conditions. In most parts of the world,
some wind is usually present, so we can't expect to encounter no-wind conditions very
often; however, wind does have its good sides, too.
Hovering a helicopter requires a lot of power; normally a helicopter will use less
power at cruise speed in forward flight than it does hovering; at its best endurance
airspeed, a helicopter might use as little as 50 percent of the power it uses to hover.
The reason is translational lift, discussed in Chap. 4. Translational lift, as you
remember, is the additional lift obtained by the helicopter because of increased efficiency of the rotor system as the helicopter moves from hovering into forward flight or
when it hovers in a wind. The rotor disc, which is the circular area defined by the sweep
of the rotor blades, behaves as if it were a solid wing and picks up extra lift that supplements lift created by the rotation of the blades.
Wind, then, improves the helicopter's ability to hover by simulating, if you will,
forward flight. This assumes, of course, that the helicopter is hovered with the nose
into the wind, which is usually the case. Hovering in a sidewind or tailwind requires
more power than a no-wind hover and is therefore only done if there is an operational
necessity.
Hovering with the nose pointed into the wind is actually easier than hovering with
no wind. The weather vaning tendency of the helicopter and the added lift from the
wind help you hold a more stable hover.
On the other hand, when you want to make a hovering turn, things become more
difficult. In fact, helicopters have crosswind and tailwind hovering limitations. If the
wind exceeds these values, hovering turns should not be done.
As soon as you turn the nose, the wind will start to push the helicopter downwind.
The more you turn, the more it will push. To maintain position over the ground, you
must tilt the rotor disc into the wind, which requires cyclic pressure toward the wind.
As you turn, you must continually readjust the cyclic position.
Hovering over one spot with a 10-knot headwind is the same as moving forward at
10 knots in a no-wind condition. As you turn 90 degrees, it will be the same as hovering
Chapter Six
sideways at 10 knots. Turn the tail into a 10-knot wind, and it's the same as hovering
backward at 10 knots in a no-wind condition. So you can see that when you do a
360-degree hovering turn when it's windy, you're not only turning, you're also transitioning from forward to sideways, to rearward, to sideways, and back to forward hovering flight.
Hovering Forward, Sideways, and Rearward
Hovering over one spot is fine and being able to turn 360 degrees is quite useful, but
helicopters wouldn't be worth much if they couldn't move from one place to another
while still hovering.
Hovering forward is the easiest, perhaps because it is the most natural. You're facing forward, you're probably used to driving a car (mostly) forward, and if you've
flown airplanes, you've done that going forward, too.
From a stable hover, ease the cyclic forward very slightly. This will tip the rotor disc
forward, cause the nose to dip slightly, and initiate movement. It will also cause you to
descend a bit because now you're using part of the total lift vector as forward thrust,
whereas before it was only being used to counter the weight of the machine. To avoid
descending, increase collective a small amount and simultaneously increase throttle to
maintain rotor rpm. Of course, when you increase collective and throttle, you also
increase torque, so you'll need left pedal pressure to counter the fuselage's tendency to
yaw right.
As soon as you start to move forward, ease the cyclic back to its stable hover position. If you don't, you'll keep accelerating and eventually pass through translational lift
and enter forward flight.
To stop hovering forward requires an aft (rearward) cyclic application. This tips the
rotor disc and the nose upward and slows the machine. As you come to a stop, remember
to reduce the collective to its original hover power setting and adjust throttle and the pedals as necessary to maintain rotor rpm in limits and stay on heading, respectively.
Like I said, hovering forward is the easy one.
Hovering rearward is the opposite of hovering forward, almost. The required cyclic
control inputs mirror what you do when hovering forward. Instead of using forward
cyclic and lowering the nose, you use aft cyclic and raise the nose. The collective, throttle, and pedal inputs are the same: up collective to counteract the loss of some of the
vertical lift vector to a horizontal vector, increase throttle to maintain rotor rpm, and left
pedal to counteract the increased torque. The thing that makes it different is the position of the tail rotor.
With the tail rotor now leading the rest of the helicopter, you have an unstable
longitudinal situation, not unlike wind blowing on a weather vane. You could say
that the tail feels uncomfortable out front and very much wants to take its rightful
place in the rear to the machine. The faster you hover backward, the more the tail
wants to swap ends with the front. Of course, it's the pilot's job to keep this from happening and this requires continuous pedal corrections to keep the aircraft moving
straight.
Actually, this is not as difficult as it sounds because you are able to see very quickly
when the helicopter starts to yaw to one side or the other as you hover backward. It just
Learning to Hover
Figure 6-4 When hovering backward, always be aware of the obstacles behind you: Sikorsky SH-60F.
(Source: United Technologies Sikorsky Aircraft)
takes some time to learn how to coordinate your pedal inputs to stop the helicopter
from yawing so that you hover backward in a straight line.
Three things to be particularly aware of when hovering backward are speed, height
above the ground, and the obstacles behind you (Fig. 6-4). If you keep your speed
down to no faster than a brisk walk, you'll avoid a lot of problems, one of which is getting too low. Besides possibly exceeding the aft speed limit, a fast rearward speed
requires a high nose-up attitude, which obviously puts the tail closer to the ground.
You never want the tail to hit the ground and hovering backward is one of the worst
times it can happen.
A hovering clearing turn should be done before hovering backward, unless you
have some other way of ensuring that the area behind you is clear. (In larger helicopters,
for example, you could have a crewman open the cabin door and check the area for
you.) If there's room enough to do a clearing turn, there's probably room enough to
hover sideways and hovering sideways is usually a safer choice than hovering backward because you can see where you're going.
Probably the most compelling reason for hovering backward is high wind. It's
much easier to allow the wind to push you backward than to hover sideways with a
crosswind or turn your tail into the wind and hover forward. It might be necessary to
Chapter Six
hover backward if the wind speed is so great that turning the tail into the wind would
cause you to exceed the tailwind or crosswind limitations.
Sideways hovering, like rearward hovering, requires dazzling footwork to do it
correctly. The main rotor readily accepts the idea of moving to one side or the other,
but the fuselage and tail rotor are reluctant to come along. It's not too hard to figure
out why: The fuselage and tail present a large surface area toward the relative wind.
The other problem is weather vaning, again. As soon as you turn the nose of a helicopter away from the wind (and by moving sideways you are, in effect, creating
a relative crosswind), the tail wants to whip around and point the nose back into
the wind.
When hovering sideways, you are working against two forces: surface area resistance against the wind and weather vaning. The faster you hover sideways, the
greater these forces. The wind resistance of the fuselage will cause the helicopter to
roll, or lean, toward the direction of movement. Hover sideways to the left and the
helicopter leans to the left. Hover to the right and it leans right. It's not uncomfortable, but it is noticeable.
Pedal action counteracts the weather vaning. Moving left, the nose wants to
turn to the left; therefore, the right pedal is required to keep the nose pointing
straight ahead. Moving right, the nose wants to swing right, so the left pedal is
needed. However, because the amount of lift produced by the tail rotor is limited,
it's possible to "run out of pedal" when hovering sideways (or in a crosswind,
which is essentially the same thing). You'll know you've run out of pedal when you
push one of the pedals all the way to the forward stop and the helicopter keeps
turning in the opposite direction.
Because some left pedal is already required in a no-wind hover, you'll run out of left
pedal at a lower speed than you'll run out of right pedal. This means you can hover
faster to the left than to the right and hold your heading in a stronger left crosswind
than right crosswind. The situation is not too critical if you run out of one pedal or the
other (unless you happen to be hovering in very tight quarters), because the helicopter
will simply turn itself into the wind until full left or right pedal is enough to counteract
the weather vaning of the tail. You might end up hovering sideways with the nose
cocked to one side, but this is not dangerous if you still have control of the situation and
are clear of obstacles.
In Ground and Out of Ground Effect
Ground effect is the term given to the cushion of air that builds up between the rotor
system of a hovering helicopter and the ground. It occurs because the rotor blades displace air downward faster than the air can escape from beneath the helicopter (Fig. 6-5).
Ground effect is one of the few free lunches in aviation because it helps support the
helicopter in a hover—decreasing the power required to hover—and doesn't extract anything in return.
To hover in ground effect, the helicopter must be no higher than about one-half
the diameter of the main rotor blades. The wind must also be light because any
appreciable amount of wind will simply blow the descending air out from under
the helicopter.
Learning to Hover
Figure 6-5
Airflow pattern of a helicopter hovering in ground effect.
On the other hand, wind generally improves the performance of a helicopter; an
increase in wind speed decreases the power required to hover. This creates an interesting hiccup on charts that prescribe the power required to hover.
In a no-wind condition and at a low hover, the helicopter is in ground effect and
needs a certain amount of power to hover. As the wind increases, the cushion of air
moves back and away from under the helicopter, depriving it of its positive effect, but
the wind is not yet strong enough to make up the difference; therefore, with about 7 to
10 knots of wind, the power required to hover actually goes up. As the wind speed
increases, power required goes down.
A helicopter is said to be hovering out of ground effect whenever it hovers without the benefit of the ground cushion (Fig. 6-6). Hover heights greater than one-half
the rotor diameter are out of ground effect. Some surfaces, such as tall grass, steep
slopes, and very rough terrain, also tend to dissipate or disrupt the ground cushion
and will cause the helicopter to be hovering out of ground effect at a lower height
than normal (Fig. 6-7).
Ground effect cannot always be used to advantage, but when it's there it's like getting an extra bonus of power.
Now you know enough about hovering to get started, but knowing is different from
doing and no matter how much you read and study, when it gets right down to it, hovering can only be learned by doing.
Hovering is going to be tough at first. This is a time when your instructor may find
it helpful to take control of one or two of the flight controls while you get comfortable
Chapter Six
G
Figure 6-6
Air flow pattern of a helicopter hovering out of ground effect.
with the other or others, even though you may have already mastered handling all the
controls when flying straight and level, making turns, and climbing and descending.
You might become frustrated with your lack of progress. You might decide learning to
hover is impossible and want to give up. Don't. Try, try again. It will come. With practice you will get better and eventually it will become as natural to you as riding a
bicycle is now.
If it's any consolation, just remember hovering can tax the skill of professional
pilots, particularly when they are checking out on a new machine. I spent over an
hour during one training flight just watching and helping a Japanese Defense Force
major practice takeoffs to a hover and landings from a hover in a Super Puma.
Learning to Hover
■"■I
* ,
V-
v
- :■
■¥
\ ■
\ •
,m
. ?v-vc
'---T
"
'
-^yv ■ ['M*
*
:
N-V. .. ■«
«. £V - ^
*wM*
r- ;
a
»
yv.
'<*•
J ,<fyT-r
N.:
- ^
>0
-•
-*'
V-
vr.
• m-
r -
Vs
v ■;■y
N
5^
Figure 6-7 Hovering over tall grass reduces the effectiveness of ground effect: Westland
Battlefield Lynx 3K. (Source: AgustaWestland)
He knew he would be flying VTPs soon and he wanted to be able to do these maneuvers perfectly. After that hour he still wasn't doing them perfectly, but they were
much better than when we started. As Calvin Coolidge said, "Nothing takes the
place of persistence."
Speaking of takeoffs and landings, they happen to be the subject of the next
chapter.
This page has been intentionally left blank
CHAPTER 7
More
Basic
Maneuvers
The trick, Fletcher, is that we are trying to overcome our limitations in order, patiently. \Ne don't
tackle flying through rock until a little later in the program.
Richard Bach, "Jonathan Livingston Seagull"
What have you learned to do so far? How to fly straight and level and how to
do level turns, climbs, descents, and climbing and descending turns. You've
done all the basic hovering maneuvers. Before you do your first solo, there
are only three more things you need to learn: how to take off, land, and autorotate.
It might seem odd that learning to take off and land are the last of the basic maneuvers you should learn, but there's a proven method of progression here. The "building
block" approach to flight instruction is the mainstay of most flight instructors worth
their salt.
If your instructor follows the same order as this book, by the time you reach the lesson on takeoffs and landings, you'll have all the prerequisites you need to do them
easily. Plus, you'll have the added bonus of having seen your instructor demonstrate
several takeoffs and landings for you. You're well prepared to do them yourself.
The only thing you haven't done is transition through translational lift airspeed.
You've flown above translational lift airspeed and you've hovered below it. There's nothing magical or difficult about flying through it; you just haven't done it yet.
Takeoffs
The helicopter's ability to hover creates an interesting semantic problem with the word
"takeoff." When does a helicopter actually take off?
Strictly and aerodynamically speaking, when you lift a helicopter into a hover, you are
taking off. This is also called a vertical takeoff to a hover, "or simply a vertical takeoff." The
FA A says you should log flight time from the instant the wheels or skids leave the ground,
which is as it should be. From a maintenance point of view, everything that can move is
moving, all the rotating bits and pieces are being stressed, and the clock is running on the
time-change components. There should be no doubt that the helicopter has taken off.
But there is doubt.
Let's put a helicopter at an airport with a control tower (Fig. 7-1). A lot of traffic at
this particular airport requires permission from ground control before engine start. You
get clearance to start and you're ready to go. Because of the proximity of other aircraft,
the tower doesn't want you to depart from the parking ramp, but rather from a nearby
taxiway. You are cleared to taxi.
115
Chapter Seven
G
Li
i
Figure 7-1 When does a helicopter take off? It depends: Oakland Police Department MD 500E.
(Source: MD Helicopters)
Enter ambiguity. If you are flying a helicopter with wheels, you can ground taxi just like
an airplane, and the tower will expect you to do this. If, however, your helicopter has skids,
you're going to have to hover taxi. Of course, it's possible to hover taxi a wheeled helicopter,
too, but this is normally only done when special conditions make it more practical or safer
than ground taxiing, for example, when the ramp or taxi ways are ice-covered.
You can ground taxi a helicopter with skids but it's neither good for the skids nor
for the ground surface. Usually, it's better to hover taxi. At most airports, you must
specifically ask the tower for permission to "hover taxi" or "air taxi," not just "taxi,"
because of the hazards of rotor wash on other aircraft. If you request only "to taxi," the
controller might not realize you want to hover taxi and might unknowingly clear you
to ground taxi too close to another aircraft.
So, with your skid-equipped helicopter, you hover taxi from the parking ramp to
the taxiway. Have you taken off? The answer is yes and no.
It's "yes" for the purposes of your logbook and the maintenance records because
you have taken off and can start logging flight time. It's "no" as far as the tower is concerned. All you've done is taxi to your takeoff position and, despite the fact there was
air between your skids and the ground, the tower will still consider you not yet airborne. The tower wouldn't consider that you have taken off until after they have given
you a takeoff clearance and you depart from your takeoff position on the taxiway.
This whole discussion might seem somewhat esoteric, but it's important to realize
the distinction. It's just one of numerous things about helicopters that can be confusing.
You see, by the time helicopters arrived en masse on the scene, aviation rules and regulations had already been written for airplanes. Much of what was on the books didn't
apply to helicopters or meant something different. Over the years most of these ambiguities have been corrected, but many things that still apply to airplanes are confusing
when applied to helicopters.
How will this affect you?
Let's say you're sitting in your helicopter, on the ground, rotors turning, at an
uncontrolled airport (one without an operating control tower) and your instructor says.
More Basic Maneuvers
"Okay, go ahead and take off." Does he mean take off to a hover and don't do anything
but hover? Or, does he mean take off and depart the airport?
Granted, in most cases you'll probably know what your instructor wants you to do
by the situation at hand, but what if you're not sure? Well, the thing to do is ask him,
and don't be shy about it. Just because what your instructor says is ambiguous, doesn't
mean you have to sit there silent and not know what he really wants you to do.
All right, I'm on my soapbox again. My point is that small misunderstandings and
ambiguities, like the one above, often play large roles in avoidable accidents. For example, there's the true story about a twin-engine Air Force helicopter that lost one engine
shortly after takeoff.
The aircraft commander shouted "takeoff power" to the copilot, meaning "move
the throttle controls to the takeoff power setting" so that he would get full power on the
remaining engine as he tried to gain altitude. The copilot misinterpreted the command
to be, take o^fpower, meaning "remove the power from both engines," which he thought
could be a logical command if the aircraft commander figured they were about to crash
anyway. And, of course, after the copilot shut down the remaining good engine, they
did crash. A simple misunderstanding that had tragic consequences.
In any cockpit, nip misunderstandings in the bud before they blossom into fullblown accidents. Back to takeoffs
Normal Takeoff from a Hover
The most common takeoff procedure in a helicopter is from the ground to a hover and
then from the hover to forward flight (Fig. 7-2). You can go directly from the ground to
forward flight, without pausing in a hover, but this is usually unnecessary. Only in
blowing sand, dust, snow, or other visibility-restricting matter do you really need to do
it. Usually you can blow most of the junk away when you pull collective to become
V
Figure 7-2 Normal takeoff from a hover: (1) Do hover checks at normal hovering height. (2) Ease
the cyclic forward and increase the collective to prevent settling to the surface. Use the pedals to
control heading. (3) Accelerate through translational lift, holding the nose-down attitude until
airspeed approaches normal climb speed. (4) Raise the nose to maintain normal climb speed.
Chapter Seven
light on the skids (simply wait in this position until the rotor wash cleans up the area
for you), so the need for a no-hover takeoff doesn't happen very often. However, be
mindful of the increased risk of ground resonance when you hold the helicopter light
on the skids while you wait for the dust to clear.
There's a very good reason to hover for a few seconds before departing; it's one of
the major advantages helicopters have over airplanes.
An airplane pilot can't be absolutely positive about several concerns until airborne.
First, engines can and do fail on takeoff, even when the pilot has done all the proper
engine run-up checks, because one takes off at full power. Any engine problem when
you're low and slow in an airplane is a potentially dangerous situation. In fact, the one
engine failure I had in my Taylorcraft BC-12D, a small, two-seat, single-engine airplane, happened on takeoff. Fortunately, I still had enough runway in front of me so
the engine-out landing was uneventful.
Takeoff is also a critical time for the controls and control surfaces. You can and,
of course, should check the controls before starting the takeoff roll, but you can never
be 100 percent certain they'll work properly until the air starts flowing over the wings.
Finally, a center of gravity problem might not become evident until the airplane is
off the ground and flying.
A hovering helicopter allows you to check all these things before getting too high off
the ground or gaining a lot of speed. If everything works in a hover, that's a darn good
indication it will all work properly in forward flight. You can check these concerns when
you're still light on the skids, before you lift off the ground. If the engine seems anemic
or one of the controls is binding, just lower the collective and shut the thing down.
Make it a point to hover for a few minutes before making a departure, whenever
you can. If you don't have enough power to hover, you shouldn't take off, except under
extraordinary circumstances, in which case you'll have to do a running takeoff (more
on this later in this chapter).
The first step, then, in a normal takeoff is to lift up into a hover, which was explained
in Chap. 6.
Perform a hover check (Fig. 7-3). The hover check is your last line of defense in the
never-ending battle against mechanical failures and mental lapses. One key to
becoming a safer pilot is to catch lapses before they create accidents. The hover check
varies from helicopter type to type, but the goal is the same. You want to make certain
everything is working as it should.
Check the power gauge to be sure you're using a proper amount. What's a proper
amount? From experience you'll learn an amount that's normal for your type of helicopter, but for greater accuracy, you can determine this from the performance charts in the
flight manual or pilot handbook for the helicopter you're flying. Your flight instructor
should show you how to do this. If the gauge tells you something else, an indication
that's way too high, for example, there should be a logical explanation for it. Perhaps it's
a very hot day and you're carrying a heavy load. Power required to hover would be
higher than normal in such conditions. But if you can't figure out a good reason for an
unusual power figure, be very suspicious. You could have a malfunctioning instrument
or a problem with the engine. In both cases, have a mechanic check it out.
Check the other engine and system instruments. Usually it's sufficient to ensure
that all the needles are in the green arcs: "Everything's in the green." However, like
power indications, you'll soon learn what are normal temperature and pressure readings.
More Basic Maneuvers
Figure 7-3
properly.
The hover check is your last chance to ensure that all the systems are operating
Perhaps oil pressure is always on the low side of the green arc, but today it's nudging the
top of the green. It's still in the green, but it might be (and probably is) an early indication
of a problem.
Check that all the warning lights are out. You'd be surprised how easy it is to miss
a warning light when you're concentrating on something else, like lifting into a stable
hover. Now's a good time to check that nothing happened when you had your attention
outside the cockpit.
Check the position of critical switches or handles peculiar to your type of helicopter. For
example, in a wheeled helicopter, check that the parking brake is off. In helicopters with
flight control systems or autopilots, check that all the switches are properly positioned.
Finally, check the cockpit controls. Most of the time, if there is a problem with the
controls, you'll notice it as you lift into a hover; however, the amount of control displacement required to lift off is relatively small. Pilots have been able to take off to
perfectly good, stable hovers with tail rotor or cyclic control locks installed. (It's rather
difficult to not notice that the collective is locked down. You won't be able to lift it.) So
double-check that the controls are working properly by displacing them slightly and
noting the reaction: cyclic—left, right, forward, aft; pedals—left, right.
Your instructor will probably have a litany for the hover check. If he doesn't, devise
one yourself. An easy way to remember all the items is to start at one place in the cockpit, for example the top of the control panel, and move in a line until you hit all the
items you want to check.
I recall that the hover check in the Aerospatiale Super Puma was straightforward:
"Power checked, no warning lights, instruments in the green, autopilot on, nose wheel
locked, parking brake off, controls checked." That covered in just a few seconds a cockpit with more than 200 lights and switches.
Chapter Seven
The last item in every hover check should be to visually clear the area to your front,
sides, and overhead. You never know when a person, animal, vehicle, or other aircraft
might wander into your path and, as a helicopter pilot, you'll have to watch out for a lot
more things than the average airplane pilot bound to runways.
It's time to depart.
From a stable hover, ease the cyclic forward very slightly. This will tip the rotor disc
forward, cause the nose to dip slightly, and start you moving. It will also cause you to
descend a bit because now you're using part of the total lift vector as forward thrust,
whereas before it was only being used to counter the weight of the machine. To avoid
descending, increase collective a small amount and simultaneously increase throttle to
maintain rotor rpm. Of course, when you increase collective and throttle, you also increase
torque, so you'll need left pedal pressure to counter the fuselage's tendency to yaw right.
You might have noticed this is the same material from the section in the previous chapter that described hovering forward, sideways, and backward. The next paragraph says:
"As soon as you start to move forward, ease the cyclic back to its stable hover position. If you don't, you'll keep accelerating and eventually pass through translational lift
and enter forward flight."
Ahhhh, but now you want to enter forward flight, so don't ease back on the cyclic.
Keep it pushed forward. Ease it farther and farther forward as airspeed increases and
when you do pass through translational lift, you'll need a definite forward input on the
cyclic to keep the nose from rising too much. Allow the helicopter to accelerate to bestclimb-airspeed and then adjust the cyclic position to hold that speed (Fig. 7-4).
Increased collective pitch will determine rate of climb. You can actually take off
without increasing collective above that required to hover. All that is required is very
"
L
-
uc
Figure 7-4 After moving through translational lift, additional forward cyclic might be needed to
keep enough nose-down attitude to continue the acceleration to normal climb speed: Bell 222.
(Source: Bell Helicopter Textron)
More Basic Maneuvers
gentle forward cyclic inputs to get airspeed increasing up to translational lift. Once you
pass translational lift, you're home free.
The added lift means less power is required to maintain the same airspeed and if
you don't reduce the collective, you'll have a reserve of power that will give you a
climb. Before you get to translational lift, however, you'll be trading height for airspeed
and might end up accelerating with the landing gear only inches from the ground. It's
a very delicate maneuver and a good one to practice as you gain proficiency. For the
time being, add some collective pitch.
How much to add will depend on conditions and the type of machine you're flying.
Again, your instructor should clue you in with a rule of thumb for proper collective
pitch. The more power you use, the faster you'll gain altitude.
The minimum takeoff power is hover power, the maximum amount you can use is
whatever the engine can provide, subject to its limitations. It usually isn't necessary to
use maximum available power for every takeoff. Unless you need all the power you can
get to clear obstacles or gain altitude quickly, it's better for the engine if you don't pull
max power every time. On the other hand, don't get too conservative and not use
enough power to make a decent climb. Use what you need to stay safe.
The pedals provide heading control. Because you're already proficient in hovering,
straight and level, and climbs and descents, holding a heading should not be a problem
if you take off into the wind. Crosswind takeoffs require some explanation.
You should strive to take off into the wind, but sometimes this just isn't possible. It's
permissible to take off into a crosswind with the helicopter's nose cocked to one side in
a crab, but it's usually preferable to take off in a slip. If the wind is very strong, you
might have no choice but to take off in a crab.
Flying in a slip, which is uncoordinated flight, requires that the cyclic be held into
the wind and the pedals used to keep the heading straight along the takeoff path. The
goal is to have the fuselage and the ground track aligned so that in the event an immediate landing is necessary the chance of touching down skewed to one side is minimized.
Once you've obtained translational lift and a safe altitude, allow the helicopter to
enter a crab into the wind while maintaining the same ground track. The helicopter will
be in coordinated flight again.
Continue the climb until you reach the desired cruising altitude and level off as
described in Chap. 5.
Takeoff from the Surface
The main reason for taking off from the surface without hovering is because of the possibility of blowing snow, dust, or other matter reducing visibility to zero while in a hover.
In most cases, however, you should be able to blow away most of the obscuring material
by becoming light on the skids and holding the helicopter there for a bit longer than normal. If you can hover, and usually you can, you should hover to check aircraft systems.
If you must take off from the surface, do a modified hover check while the helicopter is
light on the skids. Expect to create a cloud of dust or snow as you do this, so find several
hover references before you start. Then lower the collective again, being careful to keep the
cyclic and pedals in the same positions. You want to jump off the ground quickly to avoid
the cloud of material, so it doesn't make sense to start off with the cloud already there.
You are now set to make a fast departure. Pull the collective up smoothly to maximum power while maintaining rotor rpm with the throttle. Only minor corrections
Chapter Seven
should be needed with cyclic to keep the helicopter in a level attitude. The left pedal is
needed to counteract torque and hold the heading. The liftoff should be almost vertical,
but not quite.
You want to have some forward motion so that airspeed will increase. The helicopter will create a cloud with the rotorwash and you'll very quickly pop out in front of
and above it. As soon as you do, lower the nose to attain normal climb speed. From then
on the maneuver is just like any other takeoff.
Running Takeoff
Running takeoffs and landings are more appropriate for wheeled helicopters than those
with skid-type landing gear. Skids wear out fast if you continually slide them over hard
surfaces and they tear up soft surfaces. The main reason for making a running takeoff
is to avoid having to use the power required to hover.
Every helicopter, whether wheeled or skidded, will have a running takeoff and running landing groundspeed limitation. Commonly, it's close to the translational lift airspeed, or slightly above; thus, in a no-wind situation, you can make a running landing
while still flying at translational lift airspeed. Conversely, you could make a running
takeoff and attain translational lift speed while still on the ground.
Running takeoffs increase the operational envelope of the helicopter because they
allow you to take off or land when you don't have enough power to hover. You shouldn't
make a habit of this, for reasons I explained before, but it does give you the option.
In a wheeled helicopter, a running takeoff is similar to a takeoff in an airplane. After
doing as much of the hover check as you can, you increase collective to a power equal
to at least one-half the power required to hover and apply forward cyclic. This tilts the
rotor disc forward and starts the helicopter rolling. Pedals are used to maintain heading
as airspeed increases.
After passing translational lift airspeed there really is nothing more to be gained by
staying on the ground any longer. Simultaneously, increase collective pitch to lift the
helicopter off the runway and apply cyclic as needed (fore or aft) to attain a climb attitude. Certain helicopters tend to tuck their nose as they lift off from a running takeoff;
others rise level off the ground. From then on, it's a normal climb.
Running takeoffs in skidded helicopters are done the same way, although you definitely don't want to dally on the ground too long (Fig. 7-5). To repeat, a running takeoff
in a helicopter with skids is not a normal maneuver. The only reason to do it is if you
don't have enough power to hover. If you don't have enough power to hover it's
because the helicopter is too heavy for the atmospheric conditions.
The Bell Helicopter Textron training guide for the Bell 206, Flying Your Bell Model 206
JetRanger, comments about running takeoffs. Consider it applicable to all helicopters:
No flight should be attempted without the capability of at least being able to hover momentarily. If the helicopter is loaded to gross, some possibility exists that it has been loaded in a
manner to exceed the center of gravity limitations, and insufficient cyclic control to allow
safe flight might be present. If you are unable to get clear of the ground enough to check
your hover cyclic position before exceeding maximum power limits, you'd be wise to offload part of what you intend to carry and make two trips. No one other than the pilot
should make this decision. It might not be your helicopter, but it's your life and professional standing as a pilot that is at stake.
More Basic Maneuvers
4
1
Figure 7-5 Running or high-altitude takeoff: (1) Set power to just below hover power and ease
cyclic forward to start slow acceleration. Maintain heading with pedals. (2) After passing
translational lift airspeed and before reaching the landing gear groundspeed limitation, ease back
on the cyclic to become airborne. (3) Maintain a level attitude over the surface to accelerate to
normal climb speed. (4) Raise the nose to maintain normal climb speed.
If you have enough power to hover, make a takeoff from a hover. If you don't have
enough power to hover, reduce the gross weight so you get enough power. If you can't
hover and you can't reduce the weight, don't make a running takeoff. The performance
of the helicopter is unpredictable and there is no way of knowing if you have enough
power available to make a safe running takeoff.
Approach and Landing
There are three different landing approaches: to a hover, to a running landing, and to the
ground. All three begin the same way, with a normal descent you learned in Chap. 5. It's
the way they end up that makes them different.
Normal Approach to a Hover
An approach to a hover is the one you'll make the most often in a helicopter (Fig. 7-6).
The difficulty of the maneuver derives from the fact that you must lose altitude and
airspeed to transition from forward flight hundreds of feet above the ground to a hover
only a few feet over one particular spot.
Don't kid yourself into thinking it's easy. It's the most difficult of the basic maneuvers. It amounts to three problems that require simultaneous control: rate of closure,
rate of descent, and heading control. But as I mentioned in the beginning of the chapter,
you have all the skills you need to do it.
Start the approach by lowering the collective pitch the amount required to descend
at an angle of approximately 15 degrees on final approach. As collective pitch is lowered, increase right pedal pressure to compensate for the change in torque and maintain
heading. Adjust the throttle to maintain rotor rpm. Decelerate to landing approach
speed and adjust the cyclic to maintain this speed.
The angle of descent is controlled by collective pitch; airspeed is controlled by
cyclic; coordination of all controls is required continuously. Maintain a constant sight
picture of the landing area to keep a constant angle of descent (Fig. 7-7).
Because you want to end up with zero groundspeed, at some point on the approach
you will have to begin to reduce airspeed. Deciding when to do this is probably the most
difficult part of the approach because the point will vary with the wind. The goal should be
Chapter Seven
Figure 7-6 Normal approach to a hover: (1) Line up on final with normal approach airspeed,
power, and rpm. (2) Lower the collective to start the descent. Adjust the cyclic to maintain
airspeed. Use the collective to maintain a constant sight picture (angle of descent). Pedals
control the heading. (3) At the manufacturer's recommended altitude, apply aft cyclic to decrease
groundspeed and start the landing flare. Increase the collective as the airspeed drops below
translational lift so that the rate of descent does not increase. (4) Use forward cyclic and
collective as needed to stop in a level hover over the landing spot.
Circular helipad
Approach angles
C
Square helipad
Approach angles
Shallow
Normal
Steep
Figure 7-7 Maintain a constant sight picture of the landing area in order to fly a constant
descent angle.
to maintain the approach angle without shallowing out or getting too steep, and to have a
steady rate of deceleration and descent. Even experienced pilots don't get it right every
time. Fortunately, if you don't start to decelerate at precisely the right point you can still
make an acceptable approach by varying your rate of descent and rate of deceleration.
As you descend closer to the ground, apparent groundspeed will appear to
increase. Resist the temptation to slow down too soon. One position you want to
avoid is being too high and too slow because that might make it difficult to make a
More Basic Maneuvers
good autorotation if the engine fails. The other position to avoid is too fast and too
low because you might not have enough power to stop the descent or might flare
excessively and hit the tail.
Generally speaking, you should decelerate through translational lift close enough
to your intended landing point so that you can make the spot if the engine fails.
Remember, loss of translational lift means an increase in power required. Once you
lose it, you enter the realm of hovering flight, which, as you know, requires more power
than forward flight. So, as you come through translational lift, you'll have to be increasing the collective to compensate for the loss of lift. If you fly the approach properly, you
shouldn't need to pull any more power than that required to hover. If you find yourself
sinking toward the ground, though, don't be afraid to pull whatever power you need to
keep from touching down.
Now that you're hovering, you'll feel like you're back in familiar territory. Coordinate the controls as you did before. If you are hovering over your intended landing
spot, simply land as you would from a normal hover.
It is very common to undershoot or overshoot your landing spot on your first attempts
at landing approaches (and landings will continue to be a challenge throughout your flying experience as you deal with different weather, light, altitude, obstacle and ground
conditions). Don't worry, it will come with time. Undershooting usually isn't too bad
because you can simply hover forward in most cases. Overshooting can be more of a
problem, particularly if the landing area is small or if you try to salvage the approach by
making a big flare to lose airspeed. There is no shame in making a go-around if you overshoot your approach. In such cases, discretion is the better part of valor.
Normal Approach to the Surface
If you were to rate landings by difficulty, this type would come out on top. When done
properly, however, it's quite a handy maneuver to have in situations where you don't
want to, or can't hover, and the surface is too rough for a running landing.
The main reason you would want to make an approach directly to the ground without
stopping in a hover is the same as for wanting to take off from the surface without hovering:
the possibility of snow, dust, or other materials restricting visibility in a hover. Another
reason is that you simply do not have enough power to hover. A partial power failure in a
single-engine helicopter or the failure of one engine in a twin-engine helicopter are good
examples. Most twin-engine helicopters do not have single-engine hover capability except
under very favorable conditions (low gross weight, low temperature, strong headwind).
A normal approach to the surface is accomplished just like a normal approach to
hover, except that instead of stopping in a hover, you take the machine all the way to
the ground in one fluid motion. The tricky parts are making the motion fluid, not landing too hard, and avoiding stopping in a hover, if you do have enough power to hover,
because you were too worried about landing hard.
Ideally the rotor wash is going to blow away all the snow or dust when closer to the
ground. Realistically the depth and density of the particles plays a part in the scenario.
In Alaska, we found there were two ways to land on snow-covered terrain. The first
was to stop in a high hover, 50 to 100 feet above the ground, and slowly descend while
blowing the snow away. This worked fine if there wasn't a lot of snow or if there was a
thin layer of light snow over a crust, and we had enough power to hover out of ground
effect. If there was too much snow or we didn't have the time or power available to
blow the snow away, we made an approach to the surface.
Chapter Seven
As you approach the spot in such conditions, the helicopter will create a rolling cloud
of dust or snow behind it. The nearer you get to the surface and the slower you go, the closer
this cloud comes. If you look behind you, you can see it approaching the aircraft. Just before
you come to a stop, it closes in from both the sides, then surrounds you completely.
Visibility will only be a few feet; therefore, it's very important to pick out a landing
reference before the dust or snow cloud envelopes the entire machine. Find something
that will stand out, such as a black stump or rock in a snow-covered area. The more
references you can find, the better, but if you only have one, try to land so it's located at
about a 45-degree angle from the nose of the aircraft and no more than a few feet away.
The key to a successful approach to the surface is to know how much power to pull.
You should have in your mind a power setting that will give you hover power. If you
haven't burned off a lot of fuel and your landing site is about the same altitude as your
takeoff site, hover power will be about the same. As you approach the spot, keep in
mind that this power setting will cause the helicopter to stop in a hover. You can pull it
to slow down the descent, but don't hold it too long. You need a slightly lower power
setting to allow the helicopter to settle to the ground.
Don't forget about ground effect. As you descend from a normal hover height closer
and closer to the surface, ground effect increases; therefore, you have to progressively
reduce collective pitch. Don't slam it down, but don't be too timid about it either.
When the obscuring cloud engulfs you, you should be on the ground or just about
to touch down with the hover reference in sight.
The application of collective pitch could be summed up as follows. Start the
approach with a decrease in collective pitch. As the helicopter slows below translational
lift airspeed, gradually increase collective pitch. Maximum collective pitch should be
reached just before the helicopter passes through normal hover height; however, the
maximum amount of pitch used should not exceed that required to hover. Hold maximum collective pitch for a second as the machine settles to a level attitude, then lower
it carefully to allow the helicopter to continue down to the ground. Once you are safely
on the surface, lower the collective all the way down.
Running Landing
Running landings are the easiest landings to make, particularly in a wheeled helicopter;
such landings are easier to make in a helicopter than they are in an airplane. Some helicopter operators instruct their pilots to make running landings whenever they can as a
matter of routine in order to avoid the high-power settings required by hovering. In
twin-engine helicopters, running landings might be necessary in the event of a singleengine failure, so the maneuver is practiced often in training.
An approach to a running landing is normally shallower than a normal approach to
a hover (Fig. 7-8). Start with the same approach speed you use with a normal approach.
The main difference is that you do not have to slow your speed as much as you do with
an approach to a hover; therefore, you avoid the most difficult part of an approach to a
hover, namely the transition from forward flight to hovering flight. You also use less
power and fewer control inputs.
Basically, you fly straight toward your touchdown spot with a constant airspeed. At
about the same height (50 to 100 feet, depending on type) you start the deceleration on
a normal approach, ease back on the cyclic to raise the nose. This will slow airspeed and
initially reduce the rate of descent. Because you're on the back side of the power curve,
a slower airspeed at the same power setting will result in a higher rate of descent, but
More Basic Maneuvers
V
G
^:=£>
3
LXk.
Figure 7-8 Running landing: (1) Line up on final with normal approach airspeed, power, and rpm.
(2) At a point slightly earlier on final than with a normal landing, lower the collective to start a
shallower-than-normal descent. Adjust the cyclic to maintain airspeed. Use the collective to
maintain a constant sight picture (angle of descent). Pedals control the heading. (3) Maintain
normal descent airspeed until just short of the end of the landing area, then gradually reduce
airspeed to translational lift airspeed. (4) Allow the helicopter to settle to the landing area in a
level or very slightly nose-high attitude. Use a slight increase in collective to cushion the landing.
Center the cyclic and carefully lower the collective. Apply brakes, if wheeled landing gear.
this doesn't take effect immediately. As you descend closer to the ground, level the aircraft and add collective to maintain the reduced rate of descent.
The airspeed should be just above translational lift speed as the helicopter descends
into ground effect. As translational lift dissipates, ground effect takes hold and a very
slight increase in collective, if any at all, will be needed to cushion the landing.
The surface of the landing area and the flight manual limitation on the landing
gear will dictate the touchdown speed. Generally speaking, you can safely land a
wheeled helicopter at a higher groundspeed than you can land a skid-equipped helicopter. To obtain a lower speed, hold the helicopter off the ground by progressively
adding more power with the collective and easing the cyclic aft. Don't do this too low
to the ground or you might ding the tail. If you know you have to land with a low
touchdown speed, it's better to get rid of the excess airspeed before you get into the
ground cushion.
Your goal should be to land as level and as straight as possible. If there is a crosswind, you might crab as long as you want on the approach, or you can slip to keep the
nose aligned with the ground track, but you must touchdown in a slip with the fuselage
straight with the line of flight. Touching down skewed could damage the landing gear
or even cause the helicopter to roll over.
After touching down in a wheeled helicopter, lower the collective smoothly to put the
aircraft firmly on the ground and use the wheel brakes to slow the groundspeed. Do not
use aft cyclic to try to slow your speed. Believe me, you'll want to try, because that's the
way you slow down in hovering flight. As you descend on the approach, tell yourself,
"I will not use aft cyclic on the ground. I will not use aft cyclic on the ground." If anything,
use a little forward cyclic to ensure that the main rotor does not contact the tailboom.
In a skid-equipped helicopter, don't lower the collective immediately on touchdown. Skids have a much higher coefficient of friction with the surface than wheels and
you risk a sudden stop if you make the aircraft "heavy on the skids" when it still has too
much forward speed. Stop too quickly and the helicopter might nose over. If you feel
you must obtain more braking action, lower the collective very cautiously.
Chapter Seven
Words about Wind
Helicopters are versatile vehicles that can do many things, but they operate better under
some conditions than others. With respect to wind, you should always strive to hover,
take off, and land into the wind whenever possible. Taking off and landing downwind—
with your tail into the wind—is asking for trouble.
With the wind pushing from behind, it takes more power to hover than it does in a
no-wind condition. It's also harder to hold a steady hover because the front and back
want to swap positions. A helicopter is just like a big weather vane in this respect. Compare the distance between the nose and the rotor mast and the rotor mast and the tail
and you'll see why this is so.
Another concern with the tail into the wind is the air flow coming off the tail rotor
and meeting the main rotor. Helicopters are designed so that both rotors operate in
clean air most of the time because rotor effectiveness is lost if the air is turbulent. With
the nose into the wind, the tail rotor is above the main rotor wash and, of course, the tail
rotorwash moves to the side and rear. Put the tail into the wind and the main rotor will
be running into some of the tail rotorwash at some point. It's usually not a big problem,
but it does mean you have to work harder to keep the hover stable.
The transition from a hover through translational lift takes longer if you start with
a tailwind. Remember, a helicopter goes through translational lift at about 15 to 25
knots of forward airspeed, not groundspeed. In a downwind hover with a 15-knot tailwind, you have minus 15 knots of forward airspeed. To get to translational lift airspeed,
you must first restore those 15 knots and then accelerate another 15 or 25 knots, for a
total airspeed increase of 30 to 40 knots.
This takes time and eats up a lot of ground. It's not a big problem if you're taking off
from a long runway or open area, but if the area is confined you might have problems.
What is more dangerous is that you will be moving over the ground much faster than
you would during a no-wind takeoff.
Compare your groundspeed if you take off into that 15-knot wind. Now, in a hover,
you have a positive airspeed of 15 knots and you use less power than in a no-wind hover.
With the nose into the wind, the streamline design of the helicopter makes yaw control
easier because the machine wants to point this way. A small nudge forward on the cyclic
tilts the rotor disc forward and starts the machine moving slowly over the ground. Airspeed increases quickly and, before you've moved very far, you've reached translational
lift. The airspeed indicator shows 25 knots, but the groundspeed is only 10 knots.
An upwind takeoff is much safer if you have a mechanical problem and have to put
the machine on the ground. To make a zero-groundspeed touchdown, which obviously
has the lowest potential for injury or damage, you wouldn't have to decelerate the helicopter nearly as much as you would if you take off downwind.
A comparison between landing upwind or downwind is similar. During a normal
no-wind landing, the task is to descend from final approach altitude while decelerating
from approach speed to zero groundspeed (a hover). Total change in airspeed is about
50 to 70 knots, depending on aircraft type.
With a headwind of 15 knots and a normal approach speed of 60 knots, the task is
somewhat easier because now you have to decelerate only 45 knots to stop in a hover.
Fewer control inputs are required all around. With 15 knots on the nose in a hover, you
need less power: not as much collective and throttle application. Because the wind
helps slow the machine down, you don't need as much aft cyclic. With fewer collective
More Basic Maneuvers
and throttle movements and the tendency for the helicopter to weather vane into the
wind, you need fewer tail rotor pedal inputs. Finally, you don't need as much real estate
to get the machine slowed down.
Landing downwind increases your problems. Now you need to decelerate from
60 knots to minus 15 knots, a total of 75 knots, and then stop in a downwind hover with
all its attendant problems. The number of control changes increases dramatically. You
need to reduce collective and throttle more and apply a hefty aft cyclic movement. Yaw
control becomes more and more critical as you slow down. As you get closer to a landing
spot, you need a greater nose-up attitude to stop forward movement over the ground.
You need a large collective application to stop the descent. The danger is a too-low height
and too much nose-up and a consequent tail strike on the ground. Miscalculation of the
aircraft's position and height and misjudgment of the control inputs required are common problems during downwind landings.
The problems of crosswind takeoffs and landings are like those of downwind
takeoffs and landings to a lesser degree, with one exception. A strong crosswind from
the right—in American-made helicopters—could cause you to run out of tail rotor control as the airspeed decreases. (FJelicopters made in Europe and some other countries
have a similar problem with strong crosswinds from the left.) The reason is that the tail
rotor can only produce a limited amount of lift and might not be able to produce enough
lift to counteract torque effect and a right crosswind.
In a normal hover, you need some left pedal to counteract the torque of the main
rotor. With a crosswind from the right, the helicopter wants to yaw to the right and
additional left pedal is required to hold the nose straight. With a strong wind from the
right, you can push the left pedal all the way to the stop and not have enough tail rotor
force to stop the machine from yawing to the right. The right yaw will continue until the
helicopter aligns itself into the wind sufficiently for the full left pedal to counteract the
torque of the main rotor and the remaining crosswind component.
This is not to say that downwind and crosswind landings and takeoffs are impossible and you'll never have to do them. Obstacles will sometimes require a takeoff or
landing in a direction other than straight into the wind. Be aware of the hazards and be
prepared to meet them.
Traffic Patterns
The normal way to practice takeoffs and landings is in a traffic pattern. Many of the
maneuvers covered are complicated; therefore, the following excerpt from the Bell
Helicopter Textron training guide. Flying Your Bell Model 206 JetRanger, makes a good
summary. Please be aware that the altitudes, airspeeds, and power settings will vary for
different helicopter types.
The helicopter's special flight abilities do not require standard landing patterns.
Because helicopters do not need runways, the tower may clear you to land or take off
crosswind or parallel to their active runway, or from a taxiway or parking ramp, particularly at airports where airplanes are operating.
For training purposes, the pattern presented here is chosen for safety, its conformity
to FAA and ATC procedures, and its training value. A plan view of a normal left traffic
rectangular pattern is shown in Fig. 7-9. For right traffic, use a mirror image of the left
traffic pattern. Any part of the pattern can be varied to suit terrain or other conditions, but
it's good to first learn to fly the standard pattern with precision before making variations.
Chapter Seven
Wind
Climb to 300 feet
turn crosswind
Descend
Takeoff
feet
Fin;
500 feet
Base
nrcwswinrf
Lea
45-d
ar
Descend
tr\
Downwind
Hold 500 feet
traffic pattern airspeed
^ Enter at
45-degree angle
500 feet
Figure 7-9 Normal left-hand traffic pattern as taught for the Bell 206. A right-hand traffic pattern
is a mirror image. (Source: Bell Helicopter Textron)
Normal Takeoff or Departure from a Hover
If the terrain permits, the takeoff should be made over a smooth, unobstructed area. A
look at the height/velocity diagram (see page 151) in your helicopter flight manual will
readily explain the reason for this. Stated simply, a safe landing in case of engine failure is
doubtful from altitudes between 50 feet and 200 feet if your airspeed is less than 40 knots;
therefore, plan your takeoff to avoid this altitude/airspeed area of doubtful safety.
Hover into the takeoff position and line up on your takeoff leg. Look ahead and
familiarize yourself with any obstructions or unfavorable areas that will influence your
proposed ground track. When you are satisfied that your takeoff leg is safe, gently
lower the nose and begin hovering forward along your ground track.
A slight settling of the helicopter will occur as you begin to move forward because
a portion of the power that has been producing lift is now being used for thrust. To
compensate, a small up-pressure on the collective will hold your altitude.
Continue hovering forward and accelerating smoothly, and at about 15 to 20 knots
you will feel a considerable increase in lift and the helicopter will tend to yaw left as the
main and tail rotors move into translational lift. The nose will also try to pitch up
slightly. Just before reaching this condition, you will be alerted to it by a moderate
vibration or shudder throughout the helicopter.
Coordinate the cyclic and pedals to maintain a slightly nose-low attitude and heading
parallel to your movement over the ground. The helicopter will climb in this attitude and
continue to accelerate. Gently ease the nose forward and allow the helicopter to accelerate
to the best rate of climb speed (V ). At this speed ease the nose up to a slightly nose-low
attitude (two or three degrees below the horizon) and the helicopter will climb out smoothly.
More Basic Maneuvers
During this maneuver divide your attention between the power gauge (manifold
pressure for reciprocating engines or torque for turbine engines) and the engine temperature gauge to adjust climb power; also, the airspeed indicator and your attitude
with relation to the horizon to adjust your climb airspeed.
Directional correction for any crosswind should consist of a slip until well clear of
the ground (50 feet or above) so that your landing gear is paralleling your ground track.
After reaching this altitude, enter a crab into the wind to climb out coordinated and
streamlined.
Crosswind
It is best to climb to at least 300 feet before turning crosswind. Because airspeed and
power setting are stabilized by this time, a simple cyclic turn puts you on the crosswind
leg. Remember, some helicopters require just a "feel" of pedal in a turn.
To make the turn smooth and at a constant climb airspeed, it is best to clear your turn
first, then look ahead and control your attitude by reference to the horizon. It is very easy
to let your attitude wander and lose your best climb airspeed. Plan your turn to roll out
level with enough crab to correct for wind drift and fly a 90-degree ground track.
Downwind
Five hundred feet is a safe altitude to turn downwind, giving you plenty of time to
make a smooth turn into the wind in case you must make an autorotation because of an
engine failure. As you approach 500 feet, build your speed by easing the nose down a
few degrees and maintaining climb power until you've reached power to cruise, about
70 to 80 percent power being enough to give you 90 to 115 knots.
This sounds deceptively simple. It will take a little practice to smooth up and coordinate this power change in a turn while holding a constant speed. If done properly,
you will roll out on downwind smoothly at cruise power and airspeed with very little
or no correction.
Base
For training purposes, set your base leg about a quarter mile downwind from your
intended approach point so that you won't be rushed and will have an adequate amount
of straight and level flight on final to plan a smooth approach.
Start a cyclic turn, then reduce power to descend to 300 feet on base. This is good
practice for descending turns. Roll out with enough crab to keep the pattern square and
reduce speed as you continue letting down so that you arrive at the turn to final at V
and 300 feet altitude. Plan your turn to final so that you will be lined up with your
approach point.
Final Leg and Normal Approach
To aid in your practice for a smooth, well-planned approach, you should roll out at
300 feet and
with about one-eighth of a mile of final to fly straight and level. This
gives you time to get trimmed and look over your landing area before entering the
approach. Give yourself enough room so that you won't be rushed. It is practically
impossible to fly smoothly while you are hurrying.
Chapter Seven
Now remember, you're not on final for a landing to the surface. You're only going to
fly down from 300 feet at V while decelerating and stop in a hover at three feet with zero
groundspeed. Don't get all tensed up and ready for a big bunch of problems. You'll still
be flying when you're through with the approach. After that, you'll descend straight
down from a hover either at this point or after hovering to some other spot on the airfield.
The safest and generally most satisfactory approach is down a 10- to 20-degree
approach angle. This angle gives clearance over obstacles into confined areas, yet allows
you to keep your intended landing area in sight all the way down. As you arrive on
final to a position where your spot is about 10 degrees below the horizon and any
approach obstacles have dropped below your approach path, enter the approach by
lowering the collective.
You'll have to coordinate pedal to maintain heading. Attitude should be held
constant during the first half of the approach. Do not let the attitude go too far astray.
Control your angle of descent with the collective. That is, if your approach path looks
short, add up-pressure; if long, apply down-pressure.
At about 100 feet, begin dissipating your forward speed with the cyclic, slowly
adjusting your rate of closure so that you arrive at a full stop over your approach spot.
As you decelerate, you will be making a transition from translational lift through transverse flow effect to a hover. Additional power will be required with slower airspeed as
the rotor begins operating below translational lift. The power difference is usually
about 10 or more percent (Fig. 7-10).
The addition of power should be smooth and continuous, but only at a rate you
need in order to maintain your selected line of approach. As power increases, you will
need to begin applying the left pedal against the increased torque. Just at termination.
Figure 7-10 Bell 206L LongRanger about to enter a hover during a normal approach. {Source:
Bell Helicopter Textron)
More Basic Maneuvers
the nose of some helicopters has a slight tendency to pitch up, so be prepared with a
little forward cyclic pressure which will allow the helicopter to coast to a three-foot
hover.
This maneuver takes practice and requires "feel." It is not like landing an airplane,
in the sense that you try to touch down just above a stall. You simply bring the helicopter to a hover, so relax. You'll make a few mistakes, but there's nothing critical about
them if not carried to extremes. Relax and stay loose. Keep your eyes moving.
Quick Stops
A rapid deceleration (quick stop) is primarily a coordination exercise, although you might
have occasion to use it outside training, too. Its purpose is to quickly bring the helicopter to a stationary hover from forward flight.
Quick stops are like accels/decels only quicker. They're also done closer to the
ground. Because of these two factors, they require a greater degree of skill, coordination, and vigilance.
Begin the exercise from a normal hover with the nose pointed directly into the wind
and with a thousand feet or so of clear, flat area, such as a runway, in front of you. Start
as if you were making a normal takeoff from a hover. Accelerate through translational
lift and allow the helicopter to climb to about 25 to 30 feet. This height should be high
enough to avoid danger to the tail rotor during the flare, but low enough to stay out of
the shaded area of the height-velocity chart during the entire maneuver. Level off at this
height and continue to accelerate to no more than 40 knots.
Begin the quick stop by smoothly lowering the collective, simultaneously applying
the right pedal to maintain heading, decreasing the throttle to keep rpm within limits, and
easing back on the cyclic to decelerate the helicopter. The timing of the controls' inputs
must be precise and you'll understand the value of doing accels/decels before attempting
quick stops. If you use too much aft cyclic or apply it too quickly, the helicopter will climb.
If you use too little cyclic or apply it too slowly, the helicopter will descend.
Hold aft cyclic until the helicopter has decelerated to the speed of a brisk walk.
Lower the nose slightly and, as the helicopter continues to descend, start increasing the
collective to stop the helicopter at a normal hover height and zero groundspeed.
The throttle will have to be increased to maintain rpm and the left pedal applied to hold
the heading.
Be very careful to avoid an excessive tail-low attitude too close to the ground. Give
yourself plenty of room too slow down so you won't be tempted to pull back too much
on the cyclic in order to stop in a small space.
Quick stops aren't something you'll do every day in the real world, but they might
come in handy. At busy airports, the tower controllers often clear helicopters to depart
across an active runway. If a controller misjudges incoming or departing fixed-wing traffic, you might find it necessary to abort your takeoff by doing a quick stop in order to
avoid coming too close to another aircraft.
Now that you have all the basics, it's time to do your first emergency procedure:
autorotations.
This page has been intentionally left blank
CHAPTER
Autorotation
On Iune 21, 1972, in an Aerospatiale SA-3I5B Lama that was lightened as much as possible, I
reached an altitude of 40,814 feet, establishing a helicopter altitude record which remains today. That
flight also wound up being the longest autorotation in history because the turbine died as soon as I
reduced power. With a -630C temperature that day, the engine flamed out and could not be restarted.
Jean Boulet, former Aerospatiale chief test pilot
"Rotor & Wing International Magazine," 1991
Recall the first myth in Chap. 1: If a helicopter's engine quits, you're a goner. Also
recall the first fact: You have a better chance of survival after a complete power
failure in a helicopter than you do after a complete power failure in an airplane.
This is true, you recall, because of the helicopter's autorotative capability. Now that you
know how to do the basic flight maneuvers, it's time to talk about autorotations.
Autorotating is an emergency maneuver and not something you'll do every day. On
the other hand, it's an extremely important emergency maneuver that is necessary to
learn early in your training—before you do your first solo—and to stay proficient in
throughout your career as a helicopter pilot.
To put your mind at ease, autorotations are not that difficult. They are easier than
some of the advanced maneuvers. By the time you start to practice autorotations, you'll
probably find them easier than your first attempt at hovering. However, they may be a
little frightening at first because the rate of descent during an autorotation is greater
than a normal rate of descent; you might even feel as if you're falling.
Fear of falling, the psychologists tell us, is one of two basic fears we all are born
with. (Fear of loud noises is the other.) Try not to be intimidated by the high sink rate.
You won't really be falling, you'll actually be gliding steeply. It's only natural for the
descent rate to be high and for it to be a little scary. If you don't mind roller coasters, you
won't mind autorotations at all. To be honest, I'd choose autorotating in a helicopter
over a roller coaster ride any day. Autorotations are much more tame.
Engine failures in modern aircraft, fixed-wing and rotary-wing, are rare. In some
9,000 hours of flight time, I've only experienced one actual engine failure in a helicopter,
and that was in a twin-engine helicopter. I've had to shut down an engine a few times,
mainly because of a low oil pressure indication, but, again, that was in twin-engine helicopters. Had T been in a single-engine helicopter, it would have been necessary to autorotate after shutting down the engine, but at least the engine shutdown would not have
come as a surprise.
I do know other helicopter pilots who have had to autorotate three or four times
during their careers, so maybe I've just been lucky. Because you'll be flying singleengine helicopters during your training and perhaps later, too, you should be prepared
to autorotate at any time.
135
Chapter Eight
An engine failure in a single-engine airplane can be quite critical, especially if it
occurs close to the ground and at a low airspeed. Immediate action is required. On
the other hand, if the failure occurs at a high altitude and at normal cruising speed,
the situation is serious, but not as critical. The pilot could conceivably do nothing
and the airplane, although descending in a glide, will continue to fly. Things don't
get really critical until the airplane is closer to the ground.
An engine failure in a single-engine helicopter always requires immediate actions
from the pilot regardless of altitude—always (Fig. 8-1). Those actions, simultaneously
or nearly simultaneously applying aft cyclic and lowering the collective all the way
down (i.e., "bottoming" it) to decrease the pitch angle of the main rotor blades, are
absolutely necessary to keep the rotor rpm within limits and maintain the flying capability of the helicopter. With excessive pitch, there is simply too much drag on the rotor
blades and the rotor rpm will decay (decrease). If rotor rpm is allowed to decay too
much, control of the helicopter will be lost and it will be impossible to get it back. The
helicopter will then fall like the proverbial brick.
To repeat, the first actions whenever the engine fails in a single-engine helicopter
are cyclic back bottom the collective, except when in a low hover, which is explained
later in this chapter.
*
■V
Figure 8-1 An engine failure in a single-engine helicopter always requires an immediate
response from the pilot, namely applying aft cyclic and "bottoming" the collective: McDonnell
Douglas MD 500E (for illustration purposes only). (Source: MD Helicopters)
Autorotation
Four-Step Aircraft Emergency Procedure
Because we are talking about an emergency maneuver, this is a good time to introduce
the "Basic Four-Step Aircraft Emergency Procedure." Decades ago, I ran across this in
an article in an aviation magazine. The author attributed the procedure to his old flight
instructor. I don't know who thought of it first, but it's certainly worth repeating:
Step 1. Fly the aircraft
Step 2. Remember step 1
Step 3. Immediate action items
Step 4. Checklist
I thought this sounded so good, that when I was involved in revising the S-61 and
AS332 emergency checklists for Helikopter Service of Norway, I convinced the chief
pilot to print this basic checklist on the front cover, slightly revising step 1 to better fit
helicopters:
Step 1. Fly the aircraft and maintain rotor rpm (revised again, see below)
Step 2. Remember step 1
Step 3. Immediate action items
Step 4. Checklist
Since then, however, I have gained a better appreciation for the extreme importance
of maintaining rotor rpm. Therefore, I've reworded Step 1 to: "Maintain rotor rpm and
fly the aircraft." With any emergency or unusual occurrence in any type of aircraft, your
main concern is to keep the machine flying safely in the air until you can put it on the
ground, and you can do that in a helicopter only if you maintain rotor rpm first. When
you have rotor rpm under control, then you should pay attention to the aspects of flying
that apply to all aircraft, namely, attitude, heading, altitude, and airspeed. For more on
the Basic Four-Step Emergency Procedure for Helicopters see Chap. 10, "Emergencies."
Why is proper rotor rpm so important? It has to do with lift and airspeed and angleof-attack. If the main rotor isn't spinning fast enough, it just can't make much lift. Neither can the tail rotor. This is even worse because you can lose yaw control while the
main rotor is still producing some lift. Because the tail rotor is spinning about five times
faster than the main rotor and lift varies as the square of the velocity, you'll lose yaw
control rather quickly as rotor rpm decreases. That's all there is to it. Period.
Real Autorotations versus Practicing Autorotations
The failure of the engine in a helicopter is usually going to be a surprise, whether one is
flying a single- or twin-engine helicopter. If all engine power is lost, the pilot must be
able to react nearly instantaneously to maintain rotor rpm.
Although the FAA's Helicopter Flying Handbook does not state this, many knowledgable people in the helicopter industry are adamant that applying aft cyclic along with
bottoming the collective is essential for maintaining rotor rpm after a total loss of engine
power. Some people say aft cyclic should come first and others say it does not matter if
the collective is lowered first or that both actions should be taken simultaneously.
Chapter Eight
The reason for applying aft cyclic is to make sure the airflow through the rotor disc
continues from below the helicopter.
This is particularly important for helicopters with low-interia rotor systems, such as
the Robinson R-22 and Eurocopter AS350 AStar, and when they are flying at cruise
speeds. If the engine fails at these speeds, the nose of the helicopter tucks and the airflow
continues to come through the top of the rotor disc, even if the collective is lowered.
Rotor rpm decreases rapidly.
In his book. The Little Book of Autorotations, former test pilot Shawn Coyle, states,
"The cyclic and collective can (and should) always be moved together when entering
autototation. How much the cyclic needs to be moved aft will depend on the situation,
but it should be moved aft to start the air flowing up through the rotor." The reason for
doing this, he explains, is because "rotor RPM is much more important than airspeed,
and that reducing collective on its own will tilt the disc forward."
I highly recommend The Little Book of Autorotations and the realistic autorotation
training Coyle advocates. Unfortunately, such training is not readily available.
Pete Gillies, chief pilot at Western Helicopters in Rialto, Calif., is another advocate
of the immediate application of aft cyclic when entering autorotation. In fact, he says it
is more important to apply aft cyclic before lowering the collective than the other way
around. "You're not in an autorotation until you've got air coming up through the
blades. That is the only thing that will build rotor rpm or hold it in the green." The only
way to ensure air comes up through the blades is with aft cyclic.
"Bottoming the collective is fine," he says, "but all it does is reduce the rate at which
the rotor rpm is falling. It never stops the loss of rpm and cause it to climb. Never. Only
bringing the cyclic back will arrest a falling rotor rpm and bring it back to where you
want it, but only if the pilot reacts quickly enough."
Where you want rotor rpm is inside the green arc on the rotor tachometer. If rotor rpm
goes more than 5 percent below the bottom of this green arc. Gillies says it is impossible
to get it back up. "Letting the rotor rpm get too slow is deadly. The flight's over."
Gillies recommends the following procedure when a total loss of engine power occurs.
1. Cyclic back immediately and collective pitch down, in that order, or at least
simultaneously.
2. Always pick a place to land that you think is too close. You can handle too close,
too high and too fast, but not the opposites of these.
3. A helicopter is happy in autorotation. It will do anything you ask as long as the
rotor is somewhere in the green and you don't try to do a sustained climb.
Gillies also says that indicated airspeed is not important unless you are trying to get
the best glide distance or the minimum rate of descent. "The only airspeed that is
important during autorotation is the airspeed over your wings [the main rotor blades],
not the pitot tube airspeed," he says. "It's all about rotor rpm. If the rotor is in the green,
you have a flying machine."
The autorotation training described in this chapter is more representative of the
type of training you will receive, which is an autototation with the engine or engines
still running, but at ground idle, and followed by a power recovery in the air instead
of all the way to the ground. Coyle and Gillies keep the engine running at ground
idle, too, and advocate practicing autorotations all the way to the ground when conditions permit.
Autorotation
At the entry of a practice autorotation, you may not need to use aft cyclic because of
the relative "gentleness" of the simulated engine failure. Maybe you will. In any case,
you need to make it a point to remember that aft cyclic and down collective will both
likely be needed in the event of a real engine failure in order satisfy all the requirements
of Step 1: "Maintain rotor rpm and fly the aircraft."
Practicing Autorotations
In normal flight, the engine or engines power the main transmission and the main
transmission transmits the power to the main and tail rotors. If an engine quits, the
freewheeling mechanism automatically uncouples the engine input to the transmission
so that the transmission and the rotor blades can rotate unencumbered by the engine.
This "automatic rotation" of the rotor blades after uncoupling a failed engine is the
mechanical essence of autorotation.
To practice autorotations, the engine or engines could be shut down completely, but
you would be burning bridges behind you. You wouldn't have an out if you made any
mistake during the autorotation procedure.
Fortunately, it's possible to do autorotations with the engine or engines running and
this is the normal way to practice them. A partial reduction in engine power is all that's
required to slow down the engine-to-main-gear-box-input shaft enough to cause the
freewheeling unit to uncouple the transmission. In the cockpit, you look for the engine
rpm (N2 or Nf) needle to decrease below the rotor rpm (Nr) needle. Once the needles are
split, the main rotor is rotating freely on its own and is independent of the engines.
(From here on, I'll refer only to single-engine helicopters so I don't have to keep
writing "or engines." Just remember that both engines failing in most twin-engine helicopters is the same as one engine failing in a single-engine helicopter. There are some
exceptions, however. The twin-engine Bell 212 and 412 and Sikorsky S-58 have a single
drive shaft that goes from both engines to the main gear box. If this drive shaft fails,
there is no longer power to the rotor system and autorotation becomes a reality.)
Your first practice autorotations should be started from a comfortable altitude, say
3,000 feet, and end with a power recovery well above the ground. The point of the exercise
is to learn how to enter an autorotation, to get a feel for the helicopter in an autorotative
descent, and to experience a flare and power recovery.
Just in case the engine really does quit while you're practicing autorotations, you
should do them over an area that would be suitable for landing. Start in straight and
level flight, into the wind, at an airspeed equal to or only a few knots above best autorotation speed.
Every helicopter has a "best glide speed" or "best autorotation speed," the airspeed
that gives the slowest rate of descent in autorotation, usually between 50 and 70 knots.
The glide distance can be improved by descending at a higher airspeed, up to a point,
but if you use a lower speed you'll go down at a faster rate and you won't glide as far.
Start the first couple of autorotations close to the best autorotation speed so you
don't have to work too hard to maintain that airspeed. You'll also need time to concentrate on everything else that's happening. As your proficiency in autorotations improves,
work up to starting your practice autorotations at high cruise speeds because these will
be the airspeeds you'll be flying more often.
Lower the collective all the way down, then rotate the throttle off ("power off") until
engine rpm splits off from the rotor rpm. When the engine stops delivering power to the
Chapter Eight
Figure 8-2
Airflow pattern in autorotation.
transmission, it's the airflow that's turning the rotor (Fig. 8-2 ). (See section "Real Autorotations versus Practicing Autorotations.") The helicopter has become a horizontal
windmill and you're autorotating.
Stay alert. Most helicopters will tend to drop the nose a little so you'll have to compensate by applying aft cyclic to keep the air flowing up through the rotor and to prevent
the airspeed from building up. In addition, when you lower the collective and chop the
power, you reduce the torque and the helicopter yaws left; therefore, right pedal pressure
is required to keep the nose straight.
The only other thing you have to watch out for is excessive rotor rpm. In some helicopters, at certain gross weights, at some speeds, and in particular atmospheric conditions, the rotor rpm might actually speed up too much. Memorize the rotor rpm limits
Autorotation
for your particular helicopter and check the rotor tachometer frequently. Try to keep
rotor rpm in the middle of the limits (inside the green arc), so that you have room to
error on either side. The solution to high rotor rpm is simple: Raise the collective slightly
to increase the pitch on the blades. This will increase drag and slow the rotor down.
Don't pull too much collective or you might cause an excessive decay in rpm.
If rotor rpm is on the low side after entering autorotation, check that you've pushed
the collective all the way down and apply slightly more aft cyclic. If rotor rpm does not
increase, that's probably all the rotor rpm you're going to get. Either the helicopter has
not been properly rigged or the helicopter's gross weight and atmospheric conditions
are conspiring to keep rotor rpm from building any higher; however, if rotor rpm is
below the minimum allowed for autorotation, discontinue the maneuver by rolling on
the throttle ("power on") and return to base. Have the helicopter checked by a mechanic
after landing because something is not right. Don't fly a helicopter that cannot provide
the minimum required rotor rpm during autorotation.
After the descent has begun, it will feel like any other descent, except that the vertical speed indicator will be showing a much greater rate of descent than you've ever
seen before, as much as 2,500 feet per minute in larger helicopters. The helicopter will
fly just like it always flies, so just concentrate on holding the best autorotation airspeed
and do some shallow turns. Before you know it, it will be time to level off and terminate
the maneuver. Be sure to increase the throttle before raising the collective! If you raise
the collective first, you'll find out why you must always lower collective when the
engine fails: rotor rpm will decrease rapidly.
Roll on the throttle to match up the engine and rotor rpm needles again, and then
raise the collective as you continue to add more throttle to keep rotor rpm in limits.
Be careful not to add too much throttle when the collective is down or you could end up
over speeding the engine, the transmission, and the rotor head.
I suggest you do your first power recovery with a constant airspeed to get a feel for
the way the helicopter responds; however, the priority is to follow your instructor's
directions. Level off, take a deep breath, and climb up to do it again (Fig. 8-3).
Flare-Type Autorotations
After making at least one more successful practice autorotation like the first one, it's
time to practice a flare-type autorotation. The beginning remains the same: collective
down, throttle reduced, remember you would use aft cyclic in a real autorotation, needles split, hold the airspeed, check rotor rpm. The power recovery is different.
Choose a barometric altitude that will simulate ground level, let's say 1,000 feet; make
sure that at this altitude your helicopter is able to hover out of ground effect at its current
weight and the current atmospheric conditions (outside air temperature and pressure altitude). The actual height above the ground that the flare should be started in an autorotation
to ground level is going to vary under differing atmospheric conditions, at different gross
weights, and from helicopter to helicopter, but let's use 50 feet for the sake of example.
At 1,050 feet, then, you'll start your flare. Move the cyclic smoothly aft. The nose
will come up and the fuselage will act like a big wind brake, slowing the descent and
the airspeed. At about the time the airspeed drops below translational lift airspeed is a
good time to move the cyclic forward again to obtain a level attitude. As you come back
to level, you should be at about 1,010 feet and the forward airspeed should be dropping
below 20 knots.
Chapter Eight
y
2
j
i5r
Figure 8-3 Practice autorotations at altitude before trying them closer to the ground: Bell 2061
LongRanger. (Source: Bell Helicopter Company)
In a real autorotation close to the ground, this is the time you would now pull the
collective to use the inertia built up in the rotor system to slow the rate of descent even
more and cushion the landing. Pulling the collective will increase the pitch angle on the
blades and give you a few seconds of increased lift. Of course, this higher pitch angle
also means more drag and without the benefit of an engine powering the transmission,
rotor rpm is going to decay quickly. The good news is you'll be on the ground by then,
if you did the flare right. Once you're on the ground, losing rotor rpm is immaterial.
During this practice autorotation, however, you don't want to end up with decreasing rotor rpm. Instead, you want to do a power recovery. So, just like the other power
recovery you did, you'll bring the engine back up by rolling on the throttle until the
engine and rotor rpm needles are once again matched. You do this while you're in the
flare with the nose up and just before you level the machine. After you level the machine,
increase the collective while adding throttle to maintain rotor rpm and Viola!, you're
hovering at 1,000 feet out of ground effect.
There are a few things to remember about the flare.
First, as you pull the nose up, the increased volume of air meeting the rotor disc will
cause rotor rpm to increase. Actually, this is good, because it will give you more energy
you can use to cushion the landing. It can be bad if you allow rotor rpm to increase too
much because damage could be done to the rotating components. If you're doing a real
engine-out autorotation such damage will be the last thing on your mind. Nevertheless,
when you're training, there's no reason to stress the machine unnecessarily. To keep the
rotor rpm from spinning out of sight, simply nudge the collective up slightly. This has
the added bonus of making your flare more effective. But be careful not to raise the collective too much or you'll lose an excessive amount of rotor rpm.
Autorotation
Tail rotor control is another thing to watch. When you entered the autorotation, recall
that you had to use right pedal to counter the loss of torque. As you pull the collective up
to effect a power recovery after leveling out, Newton's Third Law rears its ugly head
once again and you'll have to use left pedal to counteract the torque of the main rotor. If
you're doing a real autorotation, or a practice one all the way to the ground, you'll actually need more right pedal as you pull collective to cushion the landing because the loss
of tail rotor rpm reduces its effectiveness.
Closer to the Ground
Once you've mastered the technique of doing a power-recovery autorotation at 1,000 feet,
then it's time to try one closer to the ground (Fig. 8-4).
More likely than not, you'll find this much easier because you'll have ground references to help determine when to flare and when to pull pitch.
r-x
V
Figure 8-4 Practicing an autorotation and landing: (1) Lower the collective all the way down
and decrease the throttle to cause the engine rpm needle to decrease below the rotor rpm
needle. Remember that you would probably need to apply aft cyclic at the same time you lower
the collective. Add right pedal pressure to hold the heading. (2) Maintain the best autorotation
airspeed by raising or lowering the nose with cyclic. (3) At the manufacturer's recommended
height, use aft cyclic to flare to a nose-up attitude in order to decrease groundspeed. If doing a
power recovery, roll on the throttle to match up the engine and rotor rpm needles. (4) After the
desired groundspeed is reached, move the cyclic forward to level the aircraft. (5) Allow the
helicopter to descend vertically and pull collective to cushion the landing, or stop in a hover, if
doing a power recovery.
Chapter Eight
There's one visual illusion you should be aware of, if you haven't noticed it by now;
ideally your instructor has made you aware of it during his demonstrations or you have
naturally noticed it. As you descend toward the ground from 1,000 feet or so, the ground
doesn't appear to be coming toward you very quickly. Then, at about 100 feet, it suddenly starts to rush up at you faster than you expect. The faster your rate of descent, the
more you'll notice this phenomenon and the harder it will be to judge your height
above the ground.
The first few times you experience this when autorotating to the ground will probably be very disconcerting. Normal reactions are to flare too high in an attempt to stop
the apparent rush toward the ground or to "freeze up" at the sight and flare too late.
Just be aware of the fact that the ground will suddenly seem to rush up at you and rely
on your altimeter to give you a more exact indication of your actual height. You'll get
used to it after you see it happen a number of times.
Except for this visual illusion and the fact that you'll end up in ground effect instead
of out of it, doing a power-recovery autorotation to a hover a few feet over the ground
is just like doing one at 1,000 feet above the ground (Fig. 8-5).
Practice autorotations to the ground should be done over a runway or to a large flat
open area with a good surface, well clear of buildings and people, and with a good
IMIh
i i
//
Figure 8-5 A practice flare autorotation to the ground is normally terminated in a hover by doing
a power recovery. The Bell Helicopter Customer Training Academy in Fort Worth, Texas, teaches
full touchdown autorotations: Bell 206 JetRanger.
Autorotation
surface wind indication device. At a controlled field, be sure to request permission from
the tower before starting autorotation training and keep a good look out for other traffic. Autorotations are nonstandard maneuvers and other pilots won't be expecting
them. Follow your instructor's recommendations.
Going All the Way
You can see that a power-recovery autorotation is just like a real autorotation except for
the very last part: the touchdown. Even though the touchdown is a very important part
of a real autorotation—and some people argue it's the most important part—the powerrecovery autorotation is still a good training maneuver. But to practice the real thing,
you have to go all the way down to the ground.
Full touchdown autorotations, as they are called, are not practiced by everyone.
Many armed services stopped doing them when accident statistics showed that there
were more injuries and damage from practicing autorotations than there were from
actual autorotations. It simply made economic sense to stop practicing full touchdown
autorotations and do power-recovery autorotations instead.
Many touchdown autorotation advocates remain in the helicopter business. They
agree that the first part of an autorotation is important, but they argue that the ball
game is won or lost between the flare and the ground. Power-recovery autorotations
don't train touchdowns. I think even the military agrees with this argument; they just
can't justify all the bent training machines.
If you fly single-engine helicopters, autorotation practice is a must and touchdown
autorotations are the best. If you fly twin-engine machines, touchdown autorotations
probably aren't worth the risk (if you fly the Bell 212 or 412, you can practice a driveshaft
failure in a simulator). The chances of a dual engine failure are so small and the probability of a poorly executed touchdown autorotation is so high, that it just isn't cost-effective.
Periodic training in power-recovery autorotations should be done, however.
Finding an instructor who will do full autorotations might be difficult. It is a potentially hazardous maneuver and few owners like to risk damage to a helicopter by letting
inexperienced pilots do the maneuver. Their only insurance is a good instructor who is
current and well-trained in touchdown autorotations. The most likely place to look for
such instructors is at factory training schools and at large flight academies. The Robinson
and Bell factory schools are two examples.
Before doing full touchdown autorotations, let's see how to do them from a hover.
Hovering Autorotations
Even if your instructor can't, won't, or isn't allowed to do full autorotations to a touchdown, he will be able to teach you hovering autorotations, which are done to the
ground. These are really quite fun and so easy that the probability of damaging a
machine is very slight (Fig. 8-6). In The Little Book of Autorotations, Coyle makes the point
that it is incorrect to call a landing from an engine failure in a hover an "autorotation
because the air does not have a chance to keep the rotors turning." He uses the term
"hover engine failures." While he is correct and many people understand this, most still
use the term "hovering autorotation."
Chapter Eight
—
I
--
|
iiHilLJ
"
mm
(a)
a
////////
m
Figure 8-6 Hovering autorotations are not difficult and can be safely practiced with little risk of
damaging the machine: Bell 206 JetRanger.
What you try to simulate, of course, is an engine failure in a hover. This can be a
critical time to lose an engine if you're in a high hover {see the dead man's curve discussion in this chapter), but from a low hover a safe landing is almost a sure thing. There's
only one way you're going and that's down and from a low hover you don't have far to
descend. To keep from smacking the landing gear on the ground too hard, you just need
to pull collective to cushion the landing.
You want to keep the aircraft level with cyclic. Always try to land as level as possible,
whatever kind of landing. The only other thing to worry about is the loss of torque when
the engine dies. Because hovering is a high-power maneuver and high-power maneuvers require a left pedal input, you'll need to ease off the left pedal pressure and might
need some right pedal to hold the heading.
The trick is to catch the movement right away and correct for it. Use whatever
pedal necessary to keep the nose straight. You'll find after a while this comes naturally. If you ask a number of very experienced helicopter pilots which way the nose
will yaw in a hovering autorotation, it would probably take them some time to figure
it out; if it happened to them in flight, they wouldn't hesitate for a second to hold the
nose straight with whatever pedal they needed, without ever thinking consciously
about it.
Autorotation
All the Way Again with a Full Touchdown Autorotation
A full touchdown autorotation is just like a power-recovery autorotation right up to the
point where you begin to roll on the throttle in the flare. At this point, instead of rolling
on the throttle as you pull collective, you check that the throttle is closed at the ground
idle position to ensure that it doesn't inadvertently reengage the transmission and possibly cause an overspeed.
Now it's the energy in the rotor that provides the "power" to cushion the landing.
Level the aircraft with cyclic and smoothly pull up the collective to further reduce the
rate of descent and cushion the landing. Use the pedals to maintain heading. You'll
probably need some right pedal, but don't think too much about it—just keep the nose
straight by using your feet. From here on in, it's just like a hovering autorotation,
although if the ground conditions permit it, you can accept some forward motion. This
will make the landing easier. When you're on the ground, hold the cyclic in the neutral
position and lower the collective.
A touchdown autorotation is easy to write and talk about. It's hard to do. Until
you get a good feel for it under your instructor's tutelage, you'll flare too high, then
flare too low; you'll pull up the collective too soon, then pull it up too late; you'll level
off too late, then level off too soon. You'll think you're doing everything just perfect—
and it really will look perfect—and you'll land hard. It takes time and lots and lots of
practice before you really start to feel confident. As you can see, it's very important to
practice.
Common Errors
Common errors should be kept in mind:
•
Flaring too high, like doing an autorotation from a high hover, will leave too
much space between the helicopter and the ground. There might not be enough
inertia in the rotor to prevent a hard landing and you'll be tempted to pull up
the collective pitch lever too soon.
•
Pulling up the collective pitch lever too soon will cause rotor rpm to decay
while the helicopter is still too high above the ground resulting in loss of control
and lift. Yaw control will be lost first, followed by cyclic control.
•
Flaring too low will probably result in a touchdown speed that is too great and
will leave little time for the application of up collective. It could also result in a
nose-up attitude at touchdown and possibly a ground strike with the tail.
•
Pulling up the collective pitch lever too late will result in a hard, fast touchdown,
maybe even a bounce, after which the helicopter will become uncontrollable as
rotor rpm decreases. Don't be too conservative with your collective pull when
it comes time to cushion the landing. You don't want to "waste" rotor rpm by
pulling the collective when you are too high, but use what you have to make a
soft touchdown.
•
Landing level is extremely important. Touching down in a nose-up attitude
could cause the tail to hit the ground, possibly damaging the tail rotor and
resulting in a severe yaw, or cause a pitch forward on the landing gear that
Chapter Eight
could flip the helicopter over. Leveling off too soon or with a nose-down attitude
will cause airspeed to build up again and result in a high groundspeed at
touchdown. A severe nose-down attitude and a high groundspeed at ground
contact will definitely cause a roll-over.
•
Touching down with a yaw and more than a few knots forward speed could
also cause the helicopter to roll over.
Autorotations-180 and 360 Degrees
You could, of course, do 90-, 270-, and 720-degree autorotations ad infinitum, but 180s
and 360s are the most common and will provide you with all the elements you need to
do any kind of autorotation. Actually, once you have mastered straight-in autorotations, doing any kind of turning autorotation will be a piece of cake. There are a few
things to think about while you are turning, but once you're lined up with the touchdown area, into the wind, the rest is the same as a straight-in autorotation.
Getting yourself aligned into the wind will be your primary motivation for doing a
turning autorotation. Another reason would be the lack of suitable landing areas anywhere else except the spot directly below you or close by.
Perhaps you're at 3,000 feet when the engine fails and the landing area is right
below you. Instead of flying away from the spot and then back toward it to lose altitude
(and risk landing short because you miscalculated the glide distance), it would be more
prudent to spiral down above it so you have a higher probability of landing in the area.
The amount of altitude you lose in a turn will be dependent upon a lot of factors,
including angle of bank, altitude, temperature, gross weight, and the type of helicopter
you're flying. As a rule of thumb, you can usually figure on losing 500 feet for every
180-degree turn and, if you haven't achieved this rate after the first turn, you'll probably
be able to adjust your angle of bank (within the limitations of your helicopter) so that you
do achieve this rate on the next turn. Using a 500 fpm-descent for every 180 degrees just
makes it easier to calculate how many turns you'll be making before reaching the ground.
Remember two important things about turning during autorotation:
•
In a turn, rotor rpm will increase above the value obtained in a straight-in
autorotation because of the g-forces generated in a steep turn. The steeper the
turn, the greater the g-forces and the more rotor rpm will increase. If it starts to
build too high, you can correct this by raising the collective slightly. Remember
to lower the collective again when you roll out on final.
•
Avoid the temptation to use pedal pressure to increase your rate of turn, unless
absolutely necessary to align on final. Too much or not enough pedal will cause
a skid or slip and both these conditions will increase the rate of descent and
shorten the glide. Instead, use right pedal to keep the aircraft in trim.
To do a 180-degree autorotation, align the helicopter on a close downwind, 500 feet
above the ground. Start your first ones at best glide speed, then work up to cruise speed
as you get better. (Consult with your instructor for any variations.)
Abeam the landing spot, lower the collective, roll off the throttle, and start your
turn. On entry, look out at the horizon, instead of at your spot. This will help make a
coordinated turn. Go for an initial bank of 30 to 40 degrees. Check airspeed and rotor
rpm and, if needed, make corrections to keep them in limits.
Autorotation
The combination of bank and autorotation attitude will make it seem like you're
diving toward the ground more so than in a straight-in autorotation, so you might feel
the temptation to ease back on the cyclic. Check airspeed first. If it's at the best glide
airspeed, don't change the cyclic position.
Halfway into the turn, glance out at the landing spot to check your progress. Steepen
the bank if you're too close; roll out a bit if you're too far away. Your goal is to roll out
wings level on the centerline at least 50 feet or so above flare altitude.
Glance quickly at rotor rpm as you roll out and lower the collective all the way, if
you raised it during the turn. From this point on it's a straight-in autorotation. Do a
power recovery or full touchdown, whichever applies.
A 360-degree autorotation is done just like a 180, except you start out on final, 1,000 feet
above your landing spot. A 720-degree autorotation is started on Final at 2,000 feet, and so
on and so on.
Dead Man's Curve
The ability to autorotate is a handy option to have up your sleeve, but, unfortunately
there are some combinations of airspeed and altitude that do not provide enough time
and altitude to do a decent autorotation.
Figure 8-7 shows an example of a height-velocity diagram, which should perhaps
more descriptively be called, "the heights and velocities from which a safe recovery can
500
400
H
LLl
300
SAFE
x
X
MAXIMUM
100
PERMISSIBLE
AIRSPEED
UNSAFE
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
AIRSPEED IN KNOTS
Figure 8-7 The height-velocity diagram reveals that if the engine fails while the helicopter is in
the unsafe (shaded) area, it will probably not be possible to avoid crashing.
Chapter Eight
be made in case of an engine failure." (The generic diagram shown here is for illustration purposes only and does not apply to any particular helicopter.)
It's also known colloquially as "the dead man's curve." This term originated when
all helicopters were single-engine, piston-powered aircraft, and their reciprocating
engines weren't as reliable as they are today. Flying inside the unsafe areas of the dead
man's curve was a lot more hazardous then simply because engines failed a lot more
often.
Today, the consequences of having an engine failure while in the unsafe areas is just
as dangerous, from a physics point of view, but not as probable. And with a twin-engine
helicopter, the unsafe areas are virtually nonexistent under most conditions.
Helicopter manufacturers are required to provide a height-velocity diagram for
each helicopter model and publish it in the pilot's operating handbook as per the
FAA regulation.
The vertical axis of the diagram is in feet above the ground and the horizontal axis
is airspeed in knots. The shaded area on the left side of the boundary line is the unsafe
area. The unshaded area to the right of the line is the safe operating area. There's also a
high-speed segment of the diagram that is also shaded and therefore unsafe.
From any point on the boundary line, an average pilot should be able to manipulate the controls correctly, enter a normal autorotation, maintain rotor rpm, and land
without damage to the helicopter or injury to himself (provided there's a halfway
decent place to put the craft down). Inside the dead man's curve, the manufacturer's
test pilots and lawyers don't expect the average pilot to be able to recover from a
complete power failure without some damage to the helicopter. This is not to say that
it's impossible to avoid bending the aircraft from every point inside the curve; however, it will take extraordinary skill and a lot of luck to do a noncrash autorotation
from a height-velocity point inside the curve. From the boundary line outward (up
and to the right) it generally gets easier to make an acceptable autorotation because
there's more room for error.
An important point about height-velocity curves needs to be emphasized. The
generic curve illustrated here and the one you'll find in the pilot's operating handbook
are not valid for all conditions. Such factors as gross weight, temperature, altitude, and
pressure will change the shape and size of the dead man's curve. Usually, the curves
you find in flight manuals are drawn for average gross weights at sea level pressure and
for a standard day (59 0F, 15 0C). Generally, as gross weight goes up and air density goes
down, the height-velocity curve expands outwards, like a balloon. Either the graph itself
or an explanatory section in the flight manual should explain how the graph changes
under different conditions. Read it and heed it.
The worst place to be when the engine fails is in a medium-high hover with low
forward airspeed and no wind. Recall from Chap. 1 that there's a big difference between
airspeed and groundspeed. You can have zero groundspeed, in other words be hovering over one spot, and have a high airspeed—your airspeed will be whatever the wind
is. With 40 knots of wind in a medium-high hover, you'd actually be in a fairly safe position if power were lost. The point on the diagram corresponding to 350 feet and
40 knots is the safe area.
But at 350 feet with zero airspeed, you'd be in the unsafe area. Medium-high, zeroairspeed hovers put you between the proverbial rock and hard place.
The rock is quickly decreasing rotor rpm. The hard place is the fact that lowering
the collective is going give you a very high rate of descent.
Autorotation
Medium-high hovers are out of ground effect and therefore require more power
than any other helicopter maneuver. This means that the collective pitch is pulled all the
way up to your left armpit, the main rotor blades are at or near maximum available
pitch angle, and the engine is giving all it's got. When the engine quits, the blades are
taking an enormous bite out of the air. Think of sticking your hand out the window of
a moving car and holding the palm perpendicular to the ground. Your hand is like a big
wind brake.
The rotor blades aren't perpendicular to the ground, but they do have a very high
pitch angle. This pitch angle causes them to slow down much quicker than if the helicopter was in forward flight. Consequently, rotor rpm decreases very fast. So fast that
even if the pilot immediately recognizes the engine has failed and he applies aft cyclic
and bottoms the collective without delay, there still isn't enough time for the rotor rpm
to build back up to a normal rpm before the ground comes rushing up to meet the bottom of the helicopter. If the pilot doesn't realize the engine has failed for a second or two
and doesn't react right away, which is more probable, rotor rpm will decrease even
faster and there's even less chance of a noncrash landing.
You don't want to descend faster than you have to, but you really don't have much
choice. If you don't apply aft cyclic and lower the collective right away, you'll very quickly
lose rotor rpm and yaw control. If you lower the collective, you'll descend like a rock.
The best you can do is opt for the lesser of two evils. It's better to have some control
over the helicopter and a high rate of descent, than to hope for a softer landing with no
or little control. So, cyclic back, bottom the collective, get back as much rotor rpm as
possible, and make the best landing you can.
If you must crash, the best way to do it in a helicopter is coming straight down.
Helicopters are designed to absorb a good deal of vertical loads. The landing gear struts
or skids take the force first, then the fuselage and frame, then the seats. The machine
might end up looking like a piece of modern art, but you'll probably be able to unstrap
and walk away from the wreckage before collapsing from shock.
The point is to avoid the situation in the first place, which is what height-velocity
curves are all about.
As you can see from the diagram, low hovers are in the safe area. If the engine fails,
you descend, but not very far. There is enough inertia in the rotor system to allow you
to increase the collective to add some lift and cushion the landing. Rotor rpm will
decrease rapidly after you do that, but it won't matter because you'll be on the ground
already.
To recover from an engine failure while in a high hover (a point above the heightvelocity curve) is harder, but not impossible. Do two things: lower the collective and
move the cyclic aft to raise the nose to keep air flowing through the blades from below
the helicopter. The downward collective movement is to regain the rotor rpm, and
from a high hover there's enough height to do this safely. When the rotor rpm comes
back to the normal range, gently ease forward with the cyclic. The forward cyclic
movement will cause airspeed to increase, which not only helps maintain rotor rpm,
but also makes the autorotation easier by reducing the rate of decent. Note the initial
reaction of the helicopter to these actions: a vertical descent and dive. As in recovering from a stall in an airplane, this maneuver requires some height above the ground
or it can't work.
The other unsafe area on the height-velocity diagram is the high-speed segment. To
fly faster and faster in a helicopter (above the best rate of climb speed), you need more
Chapter Eight
and more power. This means the engine is working harder, you're pulling more and
more collective pitch, and the blade pitch angle becomes greater and greater. At some
point you pull more pitch and use more power than even in a high hover.
If the engine fails, rotor rpm will decrease rapidly because of the high pitch angle,
just as it does in a hover; however, you do have an ace up your sleeve: airspeed. By
simultaneously reducing the collective and applying back cyclic, you can convert airspeed to altitude and regain and maintain rotor rpm during the rest of the maneuver.
"If one has this airspeed ace, why the high speed segment?" you might wonder.
The reason is that low and fast doesn't give much room for error. If you are inattentive
for a second too long or make only a small improper control input, there's a good
chance you might make what accident reports call "an inadvertent descent into terrain"
(Fig. 8-8).
-
-.
; :gr
v
•—•
- .
jj.*,
1
—
r
y
" 1—
\>■ .■■II' - mm
_
-- -
W A
v
rr
Figure 8-8 Flying too low and fast can be just as dangerous as flying too high and slow. You don't
have a large margin of error in case of engine failure: Phillipine Air Force McDonnell Douglas MD 500.
(Source: MD Helicopters)
Autorotation
Determing the Shape of the Height-Velocity Diagram
To devise the height-velocity diagram for a new helicopter requires flight testing.
Most helicopter test pilots will tell you that the testing for the height-velocity curve
is the most demanding they ever have to do. The reason is simple: to find out the
unsafe areas, the pilots have to operate the helicopter to the very limits of its capabilities, and their own. They quite literally have to "push the envelope" as far as it
will go, without breaking it.
The height-velocity curve also presents a kind of tug of war between a manufacturer's marketing department and the flight-test engineers and pilots. In days
gone by (I've been told), the marketers wanted the dead man's curve to be as small
as possible so that the helicopter would have the widest possible operating range,
or at least, the appearance of the widest possible range. Restrictive limitations do
not sell helicopters.
The test pilots and engineers, on the other hand, wanted to make the diagram as
realistic as possible; to do otherwise, they argued, was asking for trouble and risking people's lives. As the story goes, the marketers got their way initially, but after
the helicopter manufacturers started getting into trouble because regular pilots
were unable to do decent autorotations from safe areas that really should have
been marked unsafe, the top brass at the manufacturers overruled the marketers
and widened the height-velocity curves.
So now, when the flight-test program reaches the time to do the height-velocity
testing, the engineers have a good idea of the performance of the helicopter and
they are able to draw a rough approximation of the diagram.
Then the pilots take the height-velocity diagram and head out to the airport to
do full touchdown autorotations. Starting out at test points (combinations of height
and airspeed) that are well inside the safe areas, they continue closer and closer to
the test points that are in the unsafe area.
However, they don't fly every possible combination of height and velocity in the
unsafe areas. They can't. If they tried to do that, they would undoubtedly put themselves into situations from which even they could not fly a safe autorotation. Instead,
they carefully choose selected test points that they can use to define the limits of the
curve. When they find themselves reaching the limits of the helicopter and their own
abilities, they stop the test flights. The curve then gets drawn slightly on the safe side
of the most difficult test points (Fig. 8-7). It is also corrected to standard conditions
(sea level and 15 0C/59 0F) and the maximum gross weight of the helicopter.
The design of the curves also factors in a reaction time delay. Consider the
height-velocity curve on the left side of the diagram, the curve reaches from about
10 to 400 feet and bulges from zero knots to about 50 knots.
In the lower portion of the unsafe area in this section (from the "knee" of the
curve down to the left), a one-second reaction time is assumed. This is because a
pilot would most likely be taking off when he finds himself in this part of the diagram. During takeoff, it is reasoned, he will probably be in a high-power demand
situation. With the collective in his armpit, the pitch angle on the blades will be
high and therefore rotor rpm will decrease rapidly after the engine fails, if the pilot
does not lower collective quickly. On the positive side, the pilot should be most
alert during takeoff and spring-loaded to react to any emergency.
Chapter Eight
In the upper portion of the unsafe area on the left, the reaction time is two seconds. The reasoning here is that a pilot probably wouldn't be paying as much
attention in the "cruise" area and therefore needs more reaction time. For a similar
reason, a two-second reaction time is provided in the high-speed unsafe segment,
the nearly flat curve that goes from about 50 knots to the maximum permissible
airspeed (120 knots).
For some people, the one- or two-second reaction time may seem like an eternity; for others, it may go by all too quickly. The point to remember is that the
professional test pilots, who did the flight testing, did not use a heartbeat more
than the reaction time permitted when determining the height-velocity diagram.
They were keyed up, alert and flying only one thing that day, autorotations. They
were doing these autorotations to determine the height-velocity curves in good
weather over a paved runway and with as much skill and precision as they could
muster. And they are very good at doing autorotations, or they would not be
helicopter test pilots for a manufacturer. In other words, these men and women
are good!
Think about that if you find yourself in the unsafe area of the dead man's curve
and start thinking, "Yeah, I know flying around at 15 knots at 300 feet is inside the
unsafe area of the dead man's curve, but I got almost 1,000 hours on this bird and
I know I can hack a good auto from here. No problem, man!" If your engine does
quit, you will become, for a short time, an unofficial test pilot from here, because
it's entirely possible that no real test pilot actually tried to fly an autorotation from
these particular test points.
There's one more thing I should mention. The test flying for autorotations is
supposed to be done at (or corrected to) the maximum gross weight (MGW) of the
helicopter. This gives the worst-case scenario in standard conditions. Therefore, if
the gross weight of the helicopter is anything less than MGW, then the heightvelocity curve would be smaller (in standard conditions). Flow much smaller is
impossible to determine from the graph. If the temperature and/or density altitude are higher than standard, then the height-velocity curve could be the same
size and shape as that shown, but it could be bigger.
But even if your helicopter is at a low gross weight, you are flying at sea level
on a colder-than-standard day and you have a stiff wind blowing—which could
put you in a close-to-best-case situation—you still don't know exactly what the
boundaries of the height-velocity curve are for this scenario. You could probably
figure that these conditions theoretically define a better curve than the plainvanilla, standard-conditions MGW curve in the flight manual, but you can only
guess if it has chocolate sauce, whipped cream, and a cherry on top. If you put
yourself in a high hover inside this curve and have to autorotate, then the only
thing you can know for certain is that you've now become an untrained, volunteer test pilot—because chances are no test pilot has flown an autorotation
in this helicopter in exactly these same conditions. Good luck, my friend, because
you're going to need it.
Autorotation
Because the FAA Says So
Another very good reason to abide by the height-velocity diagram is the fact that the
FAA has used it during enforcement actions against helicopter pilots to prove violations of Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs). The reasoning, which has been accepted
by the National Transportation Safety Board, is that operation of a single-engine helicopter within the shaded areas of the applicable height-velocity diagram violates
FAR 91.79 (Minimum Safe Altitude) and FAR 91.9 (Careless and Reckless Operation)
because the pilot cannot safely autorotate in the event of an engine failure without
undue hazard to people or property on the surface and that such operations endanger the life or property of another. Needless to say, violating FARs is a good way to
lose your certificate.
Pay attention to the "dead man's curve." Manufacturers use the height-velocity
diagram when devising the takeoff, landing, and other procedures for each helicopter
model. If you always fly the helicopter according to the procedures specified in the
pilot's operating handbook, you'll stay in the safe areas of the height-velocity diagram
and keep yourself out of physical, and legal, trouble.
Final Reminder
Remember this, if nothing else, about autorotations. You must maintain rotor rpm
above the minimum limit or the helicopter will not fly. When the engine fails, CYCLIC
BACK, BOTTOM THE COLLECTIVE AND FLY THE AIRCRAFT.
This page has been intentionally left blank
CHAPTER
Advanced
Maneuvers
I often remember being asked in 1947 what I thought the helicopter could be used for. The answer,
I thought, is like looking at a post office wall filled with hundreds of small boxes and finding in those
boxes new ways to use this great machine. Perhaps we could open one a day, or a month, or a year.
We've found many new uses, some good and some not so good, but we are still opening boxes to see
what they hold.
Carl Brady, former president and CEO, ERA Helicopters
"Rotor & Wing International Magazine," 1991
The versatility of the helicopter is its strongest suit. Helicopters can do so many
things that it would be impossible to name them all. (I have tried; see Fig. 9-1.)
The things that will be done by helicopters in the future are limited only by
man's imagination.
Fortunately, once you've learned to do a few advanced maneuvers you'll be
equipped to tackle many of the jobs on the list. This doesn't mean you'll be able to do
every job. You won't, for example, be able to do aerial refueling, or long-line external lift
work, or night instrument approaches to oil rigs, to name a few things. These all require
special skills, additional training, and much experience, but you will have the basic
advanced skills required for many helicopter operations.
The first part of this chapter covers many common advanced maneuvers: confined
area operations, slope operations, maximum performance takeoffs, and pinnacle and ridge
line operations. The second part introduces a few advanced operations you could encounter later in your flying career: flying on instruments; offshore oil and gas operations; sling
and hoist operations; and Category A and B procedures.
Confined Area Operations
A confined area is any area where the flight of the helicopter is limited in some direction
by terrain or obstructions (Fig. 9-2). Examples are small clearings in wooded areas, and
heliports, corporate, hospital and private helipads, parking lots, oil platforms, and sometimes even rooftop helipads. Confined areas can contain sloping ground or be on pinnacles
or ridge lines. Basically, you should consider any off-airport landing area as a confined
area until you ascertain it to be otherwise.
Confined area operations require special techniques for both landing and takeoff.
Before landing in any confined area for the first time, you should fly over the site
at least twice, making one high reconnaissance and one low reconnaissance.
157
Chapter Nine
Aerial photography
Air-mobile operations—personnel transport
Air-to-air combat
Antisubmarine operations
Antitank warfare
Battlefield command and control
Battlefield observation and reconnaissance
Cattle herding
City-center passenger transport
Close air support of ground troops
Combat search and rescue
Corporate transport
Crop dusting
Crop seeding
Crop fertilizing
Delivery of oil dispersion chemicals on oil spills
Drug interdiction
Emergency relief operations
Environmental research
Erection of small bridges
Erection of transmission poles
Film stunts
Forest fire fighting
Geological surveys
Guarding coastal waters
Inter-hospital transportation
Lift loads to and from high buildings
Logging
Manned spacecraft launch and recovery support
Map surveying
Medical evacuations—air ambulance
Mine-sweeping
Move trees
News gathering
Oil pipeline inspection
Parachuting
Police work
Pollution inspection and control
Power line inspection
Power line insulator cleaning
Pull barges
Radar tracking
Radio and TV tower erection
Rescue from tall buildings
Retrieval of airborne drones and weather
balloons
Search and rescue
Sightseeing
Special Forces operations
Supply lighthouses
Supply remote locations on land
SWAT team transport
Tow mine-countermeasures sled
Transport of checks and other banking materials
Transport drugs and organs
Transport of drilling rigs
Transport of personnel, supplies, and equipment to offshore oil platforms
Transport of harbor pilots to and from ships
Transport of sand to golf course sand traps
Transport Santa Glaus
Tuna spotting
Unloading of ships
Vermin eradication in remote areas
VIP transport
Wildlife management
Figure 9-1 This list of things helicopters can do is long, but it's certainly not complete. Perhaps
you can think of additional missions suited to the helicopter.
High and Low Reconnaissance
One of the first things your instructor will demonstrate and emphasize is how easy it is
to miss seeing dangerous obstacles from a few hundred feet in the air. Wires and poles
are particularly difficult to see. In some light conditions, they might be impossible to
spot until you are almost directly upon them.
Always look out for the unusual, even when it looks like the usual. I was reminded
of this fact on a flight I made in a Super Puma from Stavanger, Norway to Paris, France.
On a final approach to the downtown heliport at night I saw what I thought were
edge lights outlining the helipad. I stopped in a hover over the lights, intending to
descend directly onto the pad, but as I looked down I realized the lights were mounted
on 3-foot poles, apparently some sort of visual approach guide. The paved helipad was
actually behind me {see Chap. 19, "A Flight to Remember").
So, pay close attention whenever you make a landing at a new site, whether it's
prepared or not.
The usual procedure at any site you're unfamiliar with is to fly at least one high
reconnaissance (high recon) and one tow reconnaissance (low recon). No rule says you
Advanced Maneuvers
'■r' a
«\i
-v-
*
v
-I
»
//
mil .1
t
i
y
J'i i
/
j ■
Ed 'if
Figure 9-2 The helicopter's ability to operate from confined areas is one of its most important
assets: Royal Air Force Boeing CH-47 Chinook. (Source: Boeing Company)
should fly only one of each; fly as many as you like until you feel comfortable you've
seen all you can see.
The high recon is flown well above the obstacles, about 500 feet agl at a low cruise
speed (Fig. 9-3). Check the size of the area, the condition of the surface, the degree of
slope of the surface, the obstacles in and surrounding the area, and the wind direction.
Try to get an idea where you'll run into turbulence.
You want to figure out the best way into and out of the site, taking into account
wind and possible emergency landing areas if you have an engine failure on short final
or after takeoff. Most of the time you should try to make use of the longest part of the
confined area, which means that sometimes the best approach and departure paths
might not be directly into the wind.
After you do a high recon, you'll be ready to do a low recon. It's a good idea to get
your prelanding checks out of the way before starting the low recon. This way, if you
must for some reason land immediately, you'll have everything done and won't have to
worry about doing a checklist.
The low recon is like a low approach with a go-around. Using the information you
gathered during the high recon, decide how you want to fly the approach and come in
this direction on your low recon. In effect, you'll be making a practice approach to the
area while taking another look at the site from a lower height. After passing over the
site in your high recon, position yourself so that you are aligned on your proposed final
approach course at 500 feet and about one-half mile from the site.
Chapter Nine
£
ir
n
■
i
.
Figure 9-3 The high recon is flown at a safe height above obstacles at a low cruise speed:
Boeing AH-64A Apache. (Source: Boeing Helicopter)
Make a descent on final but don't descend below the height of the obstacles. Maintain no less than best-rate-of-climb speed. If you've misinterpreted or underestimated
the effect of the wind, you want to have airspeed, altitude, and power available to fly
out of there.
During the low recon, you should check for the same things you did during the high
recon. Choose the spot where you want to touch down and find a prominent object to
help you identify it when you come around again for the actual landing. As often happens, you might have to modify your original plans after examining the area from a low
recon. Perhaps the touchdown site you picked out during the high recon appears too
uneven or has an excessive slope. Maybe the wind changes direction as it curls around
an outcropping of rock or a man-made structure. Be flexible. If you need to change your
initial plans, do so.
Most of the time it's not necessary to fly another low recon, even if you do decide to
come in from another direction. If you prefer, fly another one. It won't cost more than a
little time and fuel and will probably make your actual approach even better. You can
always learn something else.
If you don't feel you need another low recon, now's the time to land. Double check
the prelanding checklist on downwind for the confined area.
Approach and Landing
The size of the confined area and the obstacles surrounding it will dictate the type and
angle of approach to fly. Usually, it's a good idea to fly as close to a standard rectangular
Advanced Maneuvers
traffic pattern as possible in order to make everything as normal as possible. That way
you won't be adding any new variables to a situation that is already different enough.
If something happens, you will at least be able to start from a fairly normal condition.
Of course, often it's not possible to fly a standard pattern because of wind, weather,
and obstacles. In such cases, you should fly the safest route possible under the conditions.
Plan to touch down in the lower quarter of the upper half of the area, if conditions
permit, and adjust your approach angle accordingly. If it's windy, don't land too close
to the obstacles on the upwind boundary of the pad because you might run into downdrafts. On the other hand, don't land too close to the obstacles on the downwind boundary because you'll have to make the approach too steep. Landing a little in front of the
middle gives you a good compromise, and some room for error. Always pick one spot
to aim for. This makes for a neater approach. It will also help you notice when you deviate from your intended approach path and angle, perhaps due to a change in the wind.
Be careful not to get too steep (Fig. 9-4). Confined area approaches are notorious for
luring helicopter pilots into settling with power. (Recall settling with power in Chap. 2.)
Some confined areas seem almost made for catching helicopters. If the area is small,
slopes downward on final, has high obstacles on all sides, is in the mountains, and has
downdrafts, you'd better go in with a good power reserve or you could find yourself in
a very precarious position.
1
2
Figure 9-4 Confined area/steep approach (fly a high and low recon for safety check): (1) Line up
on final with normal approach airspeed, power, and rpm. (2) Lower the collective a greater amount
than normal to start a steeper descent. Adjust the cyclic to maintain airspeed. Use the collective
to maintain a constant sight picture (angle of descent). Pedals control the heading. (3) At the
manufacturer's recommended altitude, apply aft cyclic to decrease groundspeed and start the
landing flare. Increase the collective as the airspeed drops below translational lift so that the rate
of descent does not increase. Do this flare high enough to avoid striking the ground with the tail.
(4) Use forward cyclic and collective as needed to stop in a level hover over the landing spot.
Chapter Nine
As you descend, continue to inspect the area. Some training books call this the low
recon, but I think you'd be smart to make a separate low approach of the area, as described
above. Of course, if you have landed in the area in the last day or two (any longer and
new obstacles might be in place), you probably can get away with doing your low recon
on final approach. Stay alert and be prepared for sudden changes in the wind.
Unless you have to land in light snow or on a very dusty area, it's best to stop in a
hover and closely inspect the ground beneath the helicopter. Does the surface look firm
enough to support the landing gear? If the ground looks doubtful, lower the collective
cautiously until you're sure that the helicopter won't sink too far. Pay particular attention to any rocks or stumps that might protrude enough to puncture the fuselage if the
gear sinks into soft ground.
The worst situation you can get into is if one skid or wheel sinks into soft ground and
the other one doesn't, or one wheel or skid settles on a rock or other hard surface while the
other is on lower ground. You absolutely don't want this to happen because the helicopter
could easily roll over. If you feel one side sinking, lift the machine back up into a hover and
find a better place to set down.
Slope Operations
Slopes are standard fare in unimproved, confined areas. Sloping terrain doesn't have to
be very steep to be of concern to the helicopter pilot.
Despite their all-terrain label, helicopters really aren't very good on slopes. The
FAA recommends that you do not land on a slope greater than 5 degrees. That's not
very much. Believe me, a 5-degree slope will feel so uncomfortable that you won't want
to attempt a steeper one.
Two hazards are associated with slopes. Hint: Both hazards are spinning at a high
rpm. Never land the helicopter with the nose facing downhill because the tail rotor
might strike the slope. Landing with the nose uphill is permissible, but now the main
rotor may get too close to the ground. Uphill landings also make it more dangerous if
you are loading or unloading passengers because the common procedure is to have
people walk to the helicopter from the front.
Usually, the best way to land on a slope is cross-slope, like a skier traversing a hill
(Fig. 9-5). Because the helicopter is more or less level in a hover, the upslope skid or
wheel will touch the ground first. Skids are better than wheels for landing on slopes
because their shape nestles in and holds the ground. A single wheel on the ground can
easily act as a pivot point if you're a little sloppy on yaw or roll control.
Continue to lower the collective after the uphill skid touches, and hold your position steady with the cyclic and pedals because the fuselage will lean downhill and
might cause the upslope skid to slide. Apply a small amount of cyclic toward the
slope to counteract this tendency. Keep an eye on the clearance between the rotor tip
and the ground on the uphill side as you come down. When the downhill skid touches
the ground, continue down with the collective and add a bit more cyclic towards the
slope. Be ready for an immediate takeoff if the helicopter starts to slide downhill.
A takeoff from a slope is the reverse of a landing. Center the cyclic and smoothly
raise the collective. The downhill skid or wheel comes up first. Readjust the cyclic position as necessary to affect a level liftoff when the uphill skid comes off the ground.
Remember to climb to an adequate height before turning the nose downhill so that the
tail does not strike the ground.
Advanced Maneuvers
Slope exaggerated
1
Hold cyclic toward slope
Figure 9-5 Landing and taking off from a slope. The cyclic is held into the slope to keep the
uphill skid or wheel firmly on the ground. Continue to move the cyclic toward the slope until the
downhill landing gear is on the ground, too.
Chapter Nine
Ground Reconnaissance
If the confined area is fairly large, you probably don't need to get out of the helicopter to
do a ground reconnaissance. You only need to lift into a hover and air taxi to the takeoff
position, watching where you're going. You can hover sideways or do a 180-degree turn
and hover downwind, if the wind isn't too strong. It's usually best to hover sideways to
the right if you're sitting in the right seat (sideways to the left if you're in the left seat) to
have the best possible view of where you're going. If you think you'll need to hover backward because of the wind or the nearness of obstacles, do a ground recon.
If you decide to leave the cockpit for a ground recon, walkaround inspection, or other
reasons and you keep the engines running and rotors turning, be sure to engage the collective and cyclic control locks or increase the friction so the controls cannot be moved. It's
easy to bump the controls as you climb out of the seat and if you accidently slip and really
displace the cyclic, you could cause the main rotor to flap so low it hits the tailboom or top
of the cockpit. Use good, firm hand holds and pay attention to feet movement.
Apropos to engaging control locks is the story about a United States Army student
pilot who left everything running and forgot to lock the controls after landing in a
remote, confined area on a ridge. After doing his ground recon, he decided to visit
Mother Nature. While he was in the bushes some distance away from the helicopter, the
collective vibrated up enough to lift the little Hughes TH-55 off the ground. The helicopter did a respectable confined area takeoff before rolling on its side and crashing on
the other side of the ridge.
As it happened, an instructor and student in another Army TH-55 were in the vicinity and saw the crash. They flew quickly to the site, landed in the same confined area,
and got out to see if they could find any survivors. As they scrambled down the ridge
to the crash site, the first pilot emerged from the bushes and climbed into what he
thought was his machine.
He took off, saw the crashed machine and the two pilots frantically waving on the
hillside below, and radioed to operations to inform them of the crash. He then landed
back in the same confined area, thinking himself quite the hero. It took the instructor
and other student a good amount of arguing and a check of the maintenance log and
tail number before they could convince the first student that he had taken their aircraft
and that his helicopter was the one that had crashed.
Maximum Performance Takeoffs
It came as a great surprise to me when I learned that helicopters do not normally take off
and land vertically. I could hardly believe it. Isn't that what helicopters are supposed to
do? Isn't that what they were invented for?
If you read aviation history, it's apparent that vertical flight was the primary dream
and motivation of early rotary-wing designers and I suspect the discovery of translational lift must have come as some surprise to them. Here was their vertical-lift machine
actually taking off better moving horizontally over the ground than going straight up
into the air. They no doubt grasped the value of translational lift, but I'm sure they must
have felt somewhat disappointed that a similar increase in lifting capacity didn't occur
as one ascends vertically, too.
The lack of a "vertical translational lift" factor notwithstanding, vertical takeoffs
and landings were still the main impetus for rotary-wing development. The idea of
being able to operate from areas no bigger than the average driveway was enticing. The
Advanced Maneuvers
front cover of the February 1951, issue of Popular Mechanics even shows a drawing of a
suburbanite of the not-too-far-off future pushing his personal helicopter into the garage
at home while another small commuter helicopter flies overhead. Things didn't work
out the way the visionaries saw them.
A maximum performance takeoff is the closest thing you'll get to a vertical takeoff
(Fig. 9-6). True, there will be times you'll have to climb straight up to clear the obstacles in your path, and you'll need all the power you can get to do it. Worse, you could
end up placing yourself inside the dangerous part of the height-velocity curve and
that's a definite no-no. You're going to have to evaluate conditions very carefully if
you don't have at least some horizontal space to use to gain airspeed as you climb.
With a maximum performance takeoff, you use the vertical-lift capability of the helicopter while still operating it safely by using a steeper-than-normal takeoff path.Because
it requires more power than a normal takeoff, a maximum performance takeoff can rarely
be done at maximum gross weight. Usually you'll have to figure on operating the helicopter at a lower weight if you plan to do a maximum performance takeoff, because you
definitely want a good power reserve before doing one. Under extreme conditions, sufficient power to hover out of ground effect might be required to make this type of takeoff.
The angle of climb for a maximum performance takeoff will depend on conditions.
Anything steeper than a normal takeoff path should be done using the maximum performance takeoff procedure. Remember that an engine failure at a low altitude and airspeed
will place the helicopter in a position from which a successful autorotation might not be
1
Figure 9-6 Maximum performance takeoff (do a hover check and land back on the ground):
(1) Set takeoff rpm and increase the collective until the helicopter is light on the skids. Be ready
for a left pedal input. (2) Increase the collective to maximum power, lifting vertically, then add
slight forward cyclic to increase airspeed. (3) Climb at full power, adjusting the cyclic to control
the angle of climb. (4) After clearing the obstacles, lower the nose and accelerate to normal climb
airspeed. Continue a normal climb until reaching cruise altitude.
Chapter Nine
possible. In some cases, operation within the shaded area of the height-velocity diagram
will be necessary during a portion of the takeoff path. The goal should be to get through
this area as quickly as possible by increasing airspeed as soon as the obstacles are cleared.
Atmospheric conditions must be considered to determine power available. Wind will
be the hardest to figure, and might ultimately be the most important factor. (If you'll be
doing a lot of confined area operations, you may want to invest in a hand-held wind indicator.) You'll want to take off into the wind, but it might be necessary to take off crosswind
if that direction provides a better departure route. A downwind takeoff is asking for trouble and should be avoided unless there is absolutely no other way to get out of the area.
Be particularly alert to the possibility of downdrafts on the lee (downwind) side of
obstacles. The stronger the wind, the stronger the downdrafts and associated turbulence. If the helicopter is flown into this area, climb performance will be diminished.
Before making a maximum performance takeoff, perform a hover check and pay
particular attention to the power required to hover. This figure subtracted from the
maximum power available gives you the power reserve. Your instructor should give
you a rule-of-thumb minimum power reserve for your particular helicopter.
Lower the helicopter to the ground, being careful to keep the cyclic in the neutral
position for hovering to eliminate the need for a large cyclic correction as you make the
takeoff. Instead of departing from a hover, you're going to use all available power to
leap the helicopter into the air.
On the ground, roll on throttle to set rotor rpm to the upper portion of the green arc
and pull enough collective to get the helicopter light on the skids. Pause a second to
clear the area above and in front of you and make one more check of the engine instruments. Now, pull collective to the maximum power setting while adding full throttle—
up to the point where rotor rpm drops to the bottom of the normal operating range.
The helicopter should come off the ground vertically and because you want to gain
airspeed as well as altitude, ease the cyclic forward slightly. Pedals, of course, control
the heading and you should anticipate a good deal of left pedal input.
As you climb, adjust the angle of climb with cyclic inputs, aft cyclic to steepen the
ascent, forward cyclic to make it more shallow. Check rotor rpm and if it decreases at all
below the bottom of the green arc, nudge the collective down until it comes back up.
If you think the present angle won't clear the obstacles, don't try to "lift" the helicopter by pulling more collective if the engine is already at full power. All you will do
is cause rotor rpm to decrease and when this happens, you'll lose lift and will climb
even slower. Airspeed is what you need, so ease the nose over, gain some speed and
then use this speed for better climb performance.
When you're clear of the obstacles, lower the nose by applying forward cyclic and
accelerate in a level attitude to the best rate of climb airspeed. When you reach it, establish
a climb attitude again and use full power to climb to a safe altitude above the obstacles, at
least 500 feet above the ground. Once you attain 500 feet, you can reduce the collective to
normal climb power and continue the climb or reduce it to cruise power and level off.
Pinnacles and Ridge Operations
A landing site on a pinnacle or ridge isn't necessarily a confined area; however, obstacles are common and must be dealt with. Pinnacle operations also apply to landings on
pinnacle-like, man-made structures, such as buildings, oil platforms, and large vessels
(Fig. 9-7).
Advanced Maneuvers
£
m
1
l
i
■-
&
m
m
u
iff
41
4*
Figure 9-7
A rooftop heliport is a man-made pinnacle: Bell 222. (Source: Bell Helicopter)
A pinnacle is any area from which the ground drops away steeply on all sides.
A ridge line is a long area from which the ground drops away on one or two sides.
If obstacles are not present, the most hazardous parts of pinnacle and ridge line operations are dealing with the wind, the altitude of the site, and the rough and sloping terrain.
Chapter Nine
If obstacles are present, then a combination of pinnacle and confined area operations will
be required.
Rough and sloping terrain will dictate the need to hover, rather than making a landing to a spot; thus, you must be sure you have enough power to hover before making a
pinnacle landing. High altitude and high temperature greatly reduce the performance
of helicopters, so you must take these factors into account before landing at a site.
To be absolutely sure, use the "Power Required to Hover" chart from the aircraft flight
manual. You get temperature from the Outside Air Temperature (OAT) gauge and pressure
altitude by setting the barometric altimeter to 29.92 inches (1,013 millibars) and reading the
result. (Do not forget to reset to current altimeter setting.) Make room for error—don't figure in a wind factor when determining power required to hover; if no wind, you have the
correct figure; if windy (very likely), the increased performance will be gravy.
Always plan on making the approach straight into the wind, if possible; if not possible, try not to take more than a 45-degree crosswind, definitely not more than
90 degrees. If the only way into the site is downwind, don't go in unless you have a huge
power reserve and there's an extremely important reason for landing at the site. Sometimes you won't have such a big power reserve, so no matter how important the reason
is (even to save someone's life), you shouldn't attempt the approach. You won't help
anyone and only make the situation worse if you crash trying to make the helicopter do
something that can't be done.
When climbing up to or approaching any pinnacle or ridge line, do it at a 45-degree
angle on the upwind side of the slope in order to take advantage of any updrafts (Fig. 9-8).
Also, if you must break away from the climb, you'll need less power to descend away
from the hill because of the additional lift from the wind.
▼
I
Figure 9-8 When climbing to a ridge line, make the approach path along the ridge line and into
the wind, if possible. A steep approach might be necessary to avoid turbulence: Bell 222.
(Source: Bell Helicopter)
Advanced Maneuvers
The angle of approach will depend on wind effects at the site, from the shape of the
pinnacle, and from any obstacles. Every situation is different. Sometimes a steeperthan-normal approach will work, other times a shallower-than-normal approach. I suggest trying a normal approach angle during the low recon and see how that works. If
you encounter excessive downdrafts, try to determine the cause; in some situations, a
shallow approach will bring you under the worst turbulence and give the best angle; in
other situations, a steep approach coming in over the downdraft area is better. It all
depends on the site and the strength and direction of the wind.
Takeoffs from pinnacles and ridge lines are usually not as difficult as the landings.
The best way to depart is into the wind and down the hill. Such takeoffs are actually
quite fun, especially if the wind is stiff and the hill is steep. Lift off into a normal hover,
do a standard hover check, then pull collective and go. With any wind at all you'll be
through translational lift quickly and have plenty of power to climb; if you're going
downhill already, you don't have to climb. As the ground falls away below you, simply
hold forward cyclic pitch and let the airspeed accelerate. The higher airspeed will give
you a faster departure from the area and give you a more favorable glide angle in the
event you have to make a forced landing after takeoff.
If the wind isn't coming straight up the hill, opt for a downhill takeoff downwind or crosswind, as opposed to an uphill takeoff into the wind. Trying to climb
uphill with low airspeed, even if the wind is helping you, will be a slow, ponderous
maneuver. Instead, takeoff downhill and accept a greater nose-low attitude and the
resulting higher rate of descent in order to build up airspeed. You'll have altitude
on your side.
If the wind and obstacles are such that you must take off uphill and into the wind,
accelerate and climb until you have at least 5 or 10 knots above translational lift and
good clearance from any obstacles. Then turn downhill (and downwind), lower the
nose, and accelerate to best climb speed.
Rooftop Heliports
A tall building is just a man-made pinnacle with very steep sides. Other buildings
nearby and the presence of numerous people, many of whom might not be too excited
about helicopters flying overhead, are factors that must be added into the equation.
I don't consider it particularly prudent to operate a single-engine helicopter over any
city center area, although I know it is done all the time. The probability of a successful
forced landing in a congested area is almost nonexistent and this makes operating a
single-engine helicopter risky, not only for the pilots and passengers of the helicopter, but
also for the people below. A crash in a downtown area by any helicopter does nothing
positive for the industry as a whole. City governments react quickly to public outcry
and have eliminated all rooftop helicopter operations in some cities after only one or
two well-publicized accidents.
Only helicopters with at least two engines should be allowed into city center rooftop helipads, in my opinion; however, there are many other buildings with rooftop
helipads that, because of their noncongested locations, are entirely suitable for singleengine helicopter operations (Fig. 9-9).
The difference between such a building and a remote area pinnacle (besides the fact
it's man-made) is the presence of people; therefore, the inclination to dive off the structure to gain airspeed, which sometimes would be acceptable at a remote pinnacle.
Chapter Nine
•i
:::
Figure 9-9 Single-engine helicopters, like this Robinson R22, can safely be operated to rooftop
helipads in noncongested areas, but should not be used routinely in congested downtown areas,
in the author's opinion. (Source: Robinson Helicopters)
should be avoided when taking off from a building. Your goal should be to gain both
altitude and airspeed, not just airspeed, because you want to get the helicopter up to a
safe height as soon as possible. A safe height is higher over a populated area than over
an unpopulated area. Reducing noise pollution is also very important over populated
areas; higher altitude means less noise on the ground and better public relations.
Beyond these considerations, operations to and from rooftops are the same as from
natural pinnacles.
The Joys of Flying IFR
Early into your training as a pilot, you will experience flight on days when the weather
is quite different from that shown in photos in flight school brochures and on the
websites of rotorcraft manufacturers, where helicopters are pictured flying in cloudless,
blue skies with light winds gently lifting the wind sock.
You will learn that the FAA allows pilots to operate under visual flight rules (VFR),
even when the visual meteorological conditions (VMC) are a lot lower than ceiling
and visibility okay (CAVOK). You'll also learn that the lower limits of VMC can sometimes be quite challenging. CAVOK is an abbreviation used in meteorological reports
(METARs).
In most airspace and altitudes where helicopters fly, VFR flight requires a visibility
of at least three statute miles below 10,000 feet; above 10,000 feet, you need five stature
of visibility. In Class G airspace below 10,000 feet, the minimum visibility required is
just one statute mile. That's not very far at all, even at typical helicopter airspeeds. Visibility reported at a controlled airport (one with a tower that's open) is usually fairly
Advanced Maneuvers
accurate, but anywhere else it can be questionable. Automatic weather reporting stations (AWOS and ASOS) help a lot at uncontrolled airports and elsewhere, but they,
too, report only what they can measure from their fixed positions on the ground.
VMC also defines distance-from-cloud minimums of 500 feet below, 1,000 feet
above, and either 1 statute mile or 2,000 feet to the side. Clouds are amorphous, often
change quickly in shape and size and move with wind. Frankly, I've never been able to
estimate how far away from a cloud I was, beyond "pretty far away," "getting closer,
"whoa, really close," "oh-oh, better turn around now" and "oops, in the cloud."
I talk about "scud running" in Chap. 12, so you should go there to get a better idea
about the hazards of flying close to the ground in bad weather. In this section, my goal
is to give you reasons to pursue an IFR rating, if you don't have one already.
If you have obtained a private pilot's license for airplanes, you'll already know that
this license requires "three hours of flight training in an airplane on the control and maneuvering of an airplane solely by reference to instruments, including straight and level flight,
constant airspeed climbs and descents, turns to a heading, recovery from unusual flight
attitudes, radio communications, and the use of navigation systems/facilities and radar
services appropriate to instrument flight." The training needed for a private pilot certificate in helicopters does not have this requirement. I think it should, but that is irrelevant.
I suppose the FAA figures that a helicopter pilot will simply land before the clouds
completely engulf his or her aircraft, making the view through the windscreen appear
like you are looking out from the inside of a ping-pong ball in the daytime. At night, it
will look like you're inside a bowling ball. Either way it is very scary and very dangerous for a pilot untrained in flying on instruments.
Even if you are training in a helicopter that is not certified for instrument flight (and this
will likely be the case), you should ask for instruction on how to get yourself out of a situation where you cannot maintain visual contact with the ground, or as it is often called
"inadvertent IMC" (instrument meteorological conditions). A good way to practice this is in
a flight simulation device, or aviation training device, many of which are incorrectly called
"simulators." Training in even the most basic of such devices will be better than nothing.
See Chap. 13 for more information on flight simulation/aviation training devices.
In fact, inadvertent IMC training in simulation devices is becoming more popular among instructors, according to Daniel Jones of Hillsboro Aviation in Hillsboro,
Oregon. "The main purpose of this is not necessarily to train student pilots in what
to do if they inadvertently fly into IMC," he said, "but mainly to help them learn
how dangerous it is. We want them to learn how to watch for any of the contributing
factors that could lead to inadvertent IMC and how to avoid getting into it in the first
place. Of course, we also cover the proper recovery techniques."
You can also safely simulate flight in IMC in a real aircraft by wearing a special
hood or glasses (one popular brand is trademarked as "Foggles"), which restrict
your vision, while the instructor or a safety pilot flies unhampered. These glasses
work better at simulating IMC in an airplane with its higher windshield than in the
typical training helicopter, but if you keep your head down and your eyes on the
instrument panel, they will still block out your view of the horizon. No peeking
through the chin bubble! (This is where the expression, "A peek is worth a thousand
instrument cross-checks," came from.)
The recovery from inadvertent IMC involves doing a level, 180-degree turn and flying back toward where you were the few seconds before you lost contact with the ground.
The theory is that you'll be able to fly a decent, 180-degree turn, no more no less, and
maintain level flight, not climbing or descending more than a few feet in the turn.
Chapter Nine
Flying substantially less or more than a 180-degree turn is risky, because you could
end up further extending your time in clouds that you know nothing or little about. The
weather conditions you know the most about at this particular moment in time and space
are the conditions you just flew through, although they might be changing by the minute.
Descending takes you closer to the ground—obviously—and if you're in a "get out
of the cloud" situation, you're likely to be close to the ground already. In other words,
you're scud running. Climbing takes you away from the ground, which is initially safer,
because it will take you away from the one solid surface you know is there, because you
just flew over it. You do risk running into other obstacles you might not be aware of,
such as towers, power lines, tall buildings, and higher terrain.
If you are in an aircraft equipped for instrument flight when you climb into the
muck, if you are skilled at "flying blind," and if you know instrument flight rules and
how to request an in-flight IFR clearance from air traffic control, your chances of getting
home are much higher. However, you will still be scrambling to fly the aircraft safely,
talk to ATC, and perhaps fly an instrument approach at your destination.
Nevertheless, this is one of the big joys of flying IFR, namely the ability to extricate
yourself out of a high-risk situation caused by inclement weather.
"Let's Make a 360 and Get the Heck Out of Here"
Making that 180-degree turn in the clouds is not easy and takes practice. One of my
"lessons learned" during my flying career came on a daytime, IFR flight in the winter from Fairbanks to Anchorage, Alaska, in an Air Force HH-3E (Sikorsky S-61).
My copilot and I wanted to avoid the low clouds and snow showers in Windy
Pass northeast of Mt. McKinley. The cloud tops for the flight were forecast at 9,000 feet
over the area of the pass. The minimum en route altitude was 10,000 feet, about
as high as you want to fly in a rescue-equipped HH-3E, but doable, so we decided to
try it. Our older, more experienced flight mechanic (a senior master sergeant) was
skeptical, but left the decision to us.
Out of Fairbanks, we climbed the 22,500-pound (maximum gross weight) helicopter slowly in clear skies to 10,000 feet, leveled off, accelerated to 100 knots and
made our way south, where we could see clouds forming around the mountains.
Another HH-3E in our squadron took the low road through the pass, and we held
radio contact on a squadron frequency.
About the time our compatriots reported they were dodging wet snow showers in the pass but weren't picking up any ice, we saw the tops of the 9,000-foot
cloud base below us rising to our altitude and higher. Well, no problem, I thought,
we can fly in instrument conditions and the outside air temperature was low
enough that airframe and rotor blade icing was unlikely. But just five minutes or so
after we entered the clouds and not far from the town of Healy, we felt the telltale
vibrations of ice accumulating on the main rotor blades.
T had to increase collective and reduce airspeed to maintain altitude. We went
from 100 knots and 70 percent torque to 70 knots and 95 percent torque in a matter
of minutes. This could only get worse and the only thing to do was to descend to
warmer temperatures and quickly—hopefully—out of icing conditions. The safest
direction was behind us, where we had just experienced cloud-free skies.
Advanced Maneuvers
My copilot called ATC to let them know we had to do a 180-degree turn and
then descend in VMC. The only traffic near us was our fellow HH-3E, far below us
and nearing McKinley National Park Airport, well to our south. I started a
180-degree turn to the north, while keeping close watch on the torque and airspeed
as an indicator of more ice on the blades, and then rolled out wings-level.
A moment later, our flight mechanic, who was sitting in the cockpit jump seat
between the copilot and me, said calmly over the intercom, "Captain Padfield, sir,
I think you just made a 360-degree turn." I checked the heading indicator and sure
enough, he was absolutely correct. Dang!
Another 180-degree turn (my third one, if you count the 360 as two 180s) got us
heading back toward clear skies and then we continued down toward the ground
and the low-level route through Windy Pass. The ice came off the blades as the
temperature came up. The rest of the flight was smooth and uneventful, except for
the snow showers in Windy Pass.
There are other advantages to flying IFR. Perhaps the most frequently used is the ability to make a flight when a VFR-only pilot and aircraft would have to stay on the ground.
So besides saving your bacon when inadvertently going IMC, an IFR ticket has operational
advantages. And you can also fly IFR in clear, VFR weather taking advantage of radar
contact, flight following, and alerts from ATC about other IFR traffic, as well as any VFR
traffic the controller has on radar.
The advantages of your IFR rating for your employer make you more valuable as
an employee. It also makes you more attractive as a prospective employee. That will be
a huge advantage for you if you want to make flying helicopters a career.
There's one more joy of IFR flight I can guarantee: the joy of flying a precision
instrument approach well, particularly flying it when the weather is at, or near, approach
minimums. Many of the things helicopters do are enjoyable and gratifying—hoisting a
survivor off a boat or rock face (Fig. 9-10), slinging loads, yanking and banking while
spraying crops, flying the CEO to an important meeting, and so on. But I found the
planning and executing of a good instrument approach brought me a particular satisfaction and sense of accomplishment.
Later in my career, the newer helicopters became sophisticated enough to fly coupled, four-axis autopilot, ILS approaches to a slow speed and a 50-foot height over the
runway. The Eurocopter AS332 Super Puma could do this and we often used this real,
hands-off capability. (Hands- and feet-off flight required the use of the autopilot's
higher functions, which included control of heading and altitude and, when on final
approach, the localizer, glide slope and airspeed holds.) But just as often as flying this
fully automatic approach, I would hand-fly the approach with the higher functions of
the autopilot turned off.
Offshore Oil and Gas Operations
Oil and gas operations entail both onshore and offshore flying. Onshore operations are
similar to other flight operations in remote areas, and you'll find your training in landing
in confined areas and on rough, unprepared surfaces quite handy. All the usual hazards
Chapter Nine
/
A
V
■
Figure 9-10 Like rescuing people with the hoist, planning and flying a good instrument approach
gives one a gratifying sense of accomplishment: AgustaWestland AW101. (Source: AgustaWestland)
apply, but there may be more of them. You could be flying over inhospitable terrain
(jungles, deserts, mountains, tundra, you name it) and in adverse weather conditions, so
proper precautions and survival equipment are a must.
Offshore oil and gas is different because it's over water. You'll be landing and
taking off from platforms, rigs, oil tankers, barrages, and other vessels that could be
100 nautical miles or more from land, while also in some of the harshest climates on
the planet. Or you may get lucky and fly in some of the nicest climates, too.
Platforms are typically the most stable offshore destinations, as they are usually
standing on the seabed, though not always. Platforms in very deep water could be
floating and tightly anchored. Drilling rigs are seagoing and do float on the surface.
They can be as stable as fixed platforms in calm water. In high and even moderate
seas, they may be too hazardous to land on. They may also be moving from one location to the next, which can make landing and taking off different from when they are
stationary.
Tankers, barrages, ships, standby boats, and other vessels vary in size and stability.
As a former Air Force pilot, I found rigs and platforms not too hard to deal with, but
landing on vessels was a totally new experience. On-the-job training from some former
naval pilots working for the company was quite helpful, but I never became really proficient. Fortunately, we didn't have to land on vessels very often.
Flying long distances over water took some getting used to. The S-61 was actually
designed for water operations, in particular its boat-like hull and capability to land and
takeoff from water. I've done the latter about five times in my career, all of it in training
Advanced Maneuvers
in the Air Force and with Helikopter Service in Norway. After any water operations,
additional maintenance was necessary to make sure no water had entered where it was
not supposed to enter. And all our water training took place on freshwater lakes. Salt
water, with its corrosive properties, just added to the after-flight maintenance work.
Nevertheless, the S-hl's boat-like hull and flotation capability added some reassurance when 150 miles offshore, though subjectively not much more reassurance than the
pop-out floats on the Bell 212 and the Super Puma. Most offshore pilots resigned themselves to the fact that a ditching at sea in high winds and sea states, which were common
in the North Sea, would mean the aircraft probably would not stay floating upright for
long. So, like our passengers, we wore survival suits and hoped we'd have time to get
into the life rafts, if the situation ever required it. I knew from trying out my survival suit
in the cold waters of a Norwegian lake in late fall that being out of the water and in a life
raft was key to survival for more than a few hours after a ditching.
Approaching an Oil Rig
In the 21st century, global positioning systems (GPS) have made navigation incredibly
reliable and accurate. While a detailed description of what navigation was like in the
late 20th century might be interesting to some readers from a historical perspective, it
really won't have much relevance to offshore operations today. I will just say that our
primary en route navaids were VORs for as far as we could track them from shore,
nondirection beacons (NDBs), and VLF/Omega.
One of our most important "navigation" tools for finding and approaching offshore
destinations (floating rigs and vessels and fixed platforms) is still in use—the weather
radar. Although never built specifically for this task and never formally sanctioned for
it (as far as I know), weather radar was the best way we had to determine our distance
to a platform. Used along with an automatic direction finder (ADF) tuned to a NDB on
a platform, rig, or even vessel, we had a near-foolproof method for finding our desired
destination. The onboard weather radar was and still is also helpful identifying supply
and standby boats servicing the rigs and platforms, as well as other moving vessels.
Manned offshore facilities have a radio operator, who is the primary contact for helicopter pilots. The operator coordinates with the helideck crew and others on the rig to
make sure the helideck is clear and the rig is ready for landing. During drilling operations, explosives may be in use and the rig's cranes could be moving pipes or unloading
supply ships. The radio operator usually would also provide an altimeter setting for the
helicopter's barometric altimeter, and if the pilots are lucky, have some coffee and food
sent up to the helideck from the galley for the return trip.
Besides the location (latitude and longitude) of the offshore destination, it also helps
to know the height of the helideck above the surface of the sea and the height of the
highest structure of the platform, rig, or vessel. One's height above the water is difficult
to accurately determine visually in any conditions and barometric altimeters give only
a rough approximation, so knowing that the helideck is 50 or 200 feet above the surface
helps when approaching the deck. GPS gives height information and most offshore
helicopters are equipped with radar altimeters, which give a more accurate indication
of the helicopter's height above the surface than a barometric altimeter.
As a rule, you want your landing procedures to be as standard as possible
regardless of whether you land on a helipad, a helideck, or in an unprepared confined area. In fact, offshore platforms have many of the characteristics of confined
areas and pinnacles (Fig. 9-11). Use the checklist and double check the essentials.
Chapter Nine
r
F
Figure 9-11 Offshore oil platforms, although man-made, have many of the elements of confined
areas and pinnacles: Sikorsky S-76A. (Source: United Technologies Sikorsky Aircraft)
such as landing gear down, if your helicopter has retractable gear, emergency "pop
out" flotation gear armed, and so on. As a rule, you want to land into the wind
whenever possible.
This can become problematic on an oil installation because of the derrick and other
structures in close proximity to the helideck. Obviously, the wind could be coming from
any direction. Many helidecks are built so that they are far away from the rig's or platform's superstructure, but others are tucked in fairly close to the derrick, cranes, flares
burning off gas, and a myriad of other structures, equipment, and antennas. If an oil rig
is like a village, an oil platform is like a small town and a working oil field like a sparsely
populated metropolitan area of numerous villages and towns.
With a two-pilot crew, the usual procedure is for the pilot, who will have the best
view of the helideck and derrick when approaching into the wind, to make the landing.
This takes knowledge of both the rig and the wind.
Knowledge of the rig often comes from experience, as offshore operations are such
that pilots often go to the same rigs and platforms. Information about the rigs and platforms also comes from prepared materials, such as photos, drawings, descriptions, and
even YouTube videos and flight simulators. When I left Helikopter Service in 1989, we
and other North Sea operators used paper schematics of the offshore structures, which
were prepared for us by Jeppesen and updated regularly. Now, offshore pilots call up
this same information on glass, multifunction displays on the instrument panel and
tablet devices, such as the Apple iPad. So the offshore oil destination is usually not a
complete unknown.
Advanced Maneuvers
Although rig approaches can be considered similar to pinnacle landings, the high
and low recons typical of pinnacles are often not necessary. But if you are not familiar
with the rig, don't have adequate information about it, or have some reason to suspect
something is different from the last time you've been there, flying a high recon over the
rig and, if need be, a closer low recon is worth the time and fuel.
Depending on wind direction, you could be flying en route to the rig straight into a
headwind, with a tailwind or most likely with a crosswind. Since you want your final
approach to be into the wind, this will usually require maneuvering in a modified traffic pattern so that you end up on final at about 500 feet altitude and one mile or so from
the rig with all prelanding checks complete.
Now you need to consider your closure speed to the platform, which will vary with
the wind. With a strong headwind, you can maintain a faster airspeed than with a light
wind. Looking at the surface of the sea does not help much in determining your closure
rate, except to confirm the strength of the wind. Try to establish a closure rate that approximates a normal zero-wind, final-approach speed. The easiest and usually best way to
approximate this is to use the wind speed indicated by your nav equipment, such as GPS,
and add it to your normal approach airspeed. So if your normal approach speed is
70 knots and the headwind is 20 knots, fly this part of the approach at 90 knots indicated
airspeed. Of course, a GPS will also give you groundspeed, which is an even better way
to judge your rate of closure. About a half-mile from the helideck, begin decreasing the
speed. The nonflying pilot can help on your final approach by calling out height as indicated on the radar altimeter and distance to the rig from the GPS or radar.
Rig Landings
There are two main types of rig landings. Straight-in landings are more popular in the
Gulf of Mexico and better for single-engine helicopters, while sideward landings from
high, stable hovers are more popular in the North Sea and many other parts of the
world. However, twin-engine helicopters also use straight-in approaches (Fig. 9-12).
The straight-in landing is basically a continuation of the approach. As the deck
nears, you visually check for people, any indications of turbulent winds around the
deck, and other obstacles. Make sure a crane is not moving toward or over the helideck,
for example.
Evaluating the wind over the helideck comes from experience, but even experienced pilots are sometimes surprised. Typical things to look out for are an erratic wind
sock and shifting smoke and steam. Anticipate updrafts and downdrafts coming
through and around the derrick, crane, and other structures, particularly ones that are
enclosed, and wind ascending up from the sea over the helideck doing the same thing.
As with other confined areas and pinnacles, there may also be a decrease in wind
speed downwind of buildings and structures.
The goal is to reach a decision point on the approach to landing where, if an engine
fails in a single-engine helicopter, you can veer the helicopter away from the platform
and autorotate to the water. In a twin, you have two options: go around or continue the
landing on one engine. To make the go-around, you veer away from the platform, lower
the nose, and increase airspeed to affect a climb. After climbing back to a safe altitude,
you can take time to evaluate the emergency and make the decision whether to return
to land or attempt a single-engine landing on the rig or platform.
With an engine failure after the decision point, the pilot of a single-engine helicopter would need to maneuver the helicopter to a landing on the deck without hovering
Chapter Nine
*
Figure 9-12 When it was still flying in the North Sea, the Boeing 234 would often make
straight-in landings to oil platforms, although the standard procedure for other large, twin-engine
helicopters was to do sideward landings from high, stable hovers. (Source: Boeing Company)
and as rotor rpm decreases quickly. There is little room for error and the likelihood of a
hard landing and damage to the helicopter is high. The pilots of the twin would do the
same thing, although with one engine still running, they may have enough power for a
low hover.
I'm assuming in all of this that the rig or platform you are landing on has been
approved for the size and maximum weight of the helicopter you are flying. Recommended practices for helideck construction, safety clearance from obstructions, and
markings are defined by various organizations and safety groups. An example of
standard helideck markings for the Gulf of Mexico, as defined by the Helideck Safety
Advisory Committee is in Fig. 9-13fl, b, c. (For more information, see http://www
.hsac.org/portals/45/rp/RP0801Helideck.pdf.)
The circle painted on the deck, called an "aiming circle," indicates where the pilots'
seats should be when the helicopter is on the deck (Fig. 9-14). This will guarantee adequate clearance for the tail rotor from any obstacles on the deck.
In the sidewards, rig-landing technique, which is really more suitable for twin-engine
helicopters, the goal is to arrive in a stable hover about 40 to 50 feet above the helideck
and offset to the side so that the disc of the main rotor is not overhanging the deck
(Fig. 9-15). From this position, you should have sufficient altitude, if one engine fails in a
twin-engine helicopter, to lower the nose, descend enough to gain best-rate-of-climb
airspeed, and establish a climb before hitting the water.
Advanced Maneuvers
From a hover, you can check the helideck for people, obstacles, and wind patterns,
just like you do straight-in approach. Because you are stopped, you have more time
to do this.
Now do a hovering descent to the deck by sliding left or right as needed and lowering the collective. Be careful as you move from the smooth, unobstructed wind on
the side of the deck to the often-turbulent wind over the deck. It's not unusual to
encounter a downdraft, which will increase your rate of descent toward the deck, so it
is good to have extra power available to slow the descent. Sometimes keeping power
constant as you slide over the deck will compensate for the downwind and give you a
comfortable descent.
Also be wary of your helicopter's tail rotor and think about the obstacles behind the
helicopter. Depending on the wind, you may be hovering with the deck to your side,
the rig structure behind you and the helicopter's nose facing the sea. In such a situation.
Block, Name &/or Co LOGO
Radio
(a)
Figure 9-13 (a) These are the standard markings used for helidecks used in the Gulf of
Mexico. The black chevron indicates a "limited obstacle sector" (LOS) area in which some low
obstructions are permitted. The weight in pounds refers to the maximum weight of helicopter
models approved for the helideck. The dimensions in feet are the length and width of the safe
area of the deck, as painted by the boundaries. The "D value" limit in feet is a measurement
equal to the overall length of a helicopter from the front of the rotor disc area to the rear of the
tail rotor disc area, (b) Additional markings are added when an isolated obstruction infringes
the LOS, creating the danger of the tail rotor impact. Therefore, a "no-nose" sector is indicated
on the aiming circle (following page), (c) When platform obstructions prevent the use of the
standard landing circle, "restricted size" helideck markings are used. A red block shows that
obstacle clearance is not ensured when maneuvering the helicopter in any direction other than
that indicated by the arrows. The touchdown positions on the ends of the block replace the
aiming circle.
180
Chapter Nine
Prohibited Landing Sector Marking
Va
Radio
F req
'
WEIGHT
(Lbs)
V
Dimensions
m)
9SO\A
D Value
(ft)
Restricted Maneuvering Size Helideck Marking
Platform
t
H
wI
46*|X
I) 42
(C)
Figure 9-13
(Continued)
obstacles
Advanced Maneuvers
0J»
-1
r~
••
»«»
\
v}
*
%
- -
%
>«
Pilots' seat over aiming circle. Helicopter clear of obstacles.
Platform
structure or
obstacle
OB
Aiming circle/
positioning
marker
150° Limited
obstacles
sector
(b)
Figure 9-14 (a) Pilots understand that by placing their seat over the aiming circle the helicopter's tail
rotor and main rotor will remain a safe distance from any obstacles near the helideck: Eurocopter
EC-225. (Source: Eurocopter) (b) Pilots' seat over the aiming circle.
it is easy to allow the helicopter to move backward as the wind pushes it and you try
unconsciously to see more of the helideck. Steel yourself to move sideways in a straight
line to the helideck. All that practice during training hovering sidewards left and right
now comes in handy.
Chapter Nine
Figure 9-15 In the sideward, rig-landing technique, which is really more suitable for twin-engine
helicopters, the goal is to arrive in a stable hover about 40 to 50 feet above the helideck and offset
to the side so that the disc of the main rotor is not overhanging the deck: Eurocopter EC225.
(Source: Eurocopter)
If one engine fails in a twin, from the moment you start to move sidewards, you are
committed to landing on the helideck. Depending on the weight of the helicopter and the
wind speed, you might be able to hover with just one working engine at a low height over
the deck in ground effect or with a good wind, but don't count on it. Instead plan to go
straight from the sideward hover to the aiming circle on the deck.
With both engines operating, stop in a normal hover (more on hovering under Rig
Takeoffs) with your butt over the aiming circle, and then ease down on the deck. If you
find the helicopter being accosted by turbulence, it may be better to ease down a bit faster
than normal. Lower the collective all the way down and take a deep breath. You made it!
In my experience, most stops on offshore decks were quick turns, pax and baggage
out/pax and baggage in, done as quickly as possible with the engines and rotors turning. Usually, one of the pilots exited the aircraft to assist with the passengers and baggage and observe the refueling operation, if needed, though sometimes the deck crew
handled all this. The deck crew should make sure the passengers stayed away from
the tail rotor and made their way safely to the helideck's stairs. If the rig had fuel and
the helicopter needed a top-up for the return flight, the refueling was done before the
homeward-bound passengers boarded (Fig. 9-16).
If shutting down is an option or is required (to wait for passengers or to load cargo
in the cabin, for example), then the pilots need to be sure the wind is below the limits
for starting and stopping the rotors.
Rig Takeoffs
Hovering on the helideck of an oil installation or a vessel takes practice, as it is unlike
hovering anywhere else. The big differences are lack of visual references when the
Advanced Maneuvers
4vi
y\
57
Figure 9-16
Refueling a Bell 212 on an offshore platform.
helicopter's nose is pointed away from any structures and the need to avoid moving
backward from the aiming ring.
With the helicopter's nose pointed away from structures, there is nothing to see but
a small part of the deck itself and the sea and the sky in the distance. If it is dark or
cloudy, you may not see anything in the distance. Therefore, all your hover references
are very close to the helicopter, essentially out the side windows and through the lower
chin bubble at your feet. There are none of the midrange objects 20 or 30 feet from the
helicopter that we all learn to depend upon when hovering.
Your saving grace will be your experience. By the time you get a job flying offshore,
you will have many hours in helicopters and many hours of hovering. You can improve
your ability by practicing hovering over the ground using only the references you see
through your side and chin bubble. Practice with a fellow pilot, who can let you know
when you are moving too much for safety. With time, you'll get very good at it.
So, now the rig takeoff. Do all the normal takeoff checks, make sure the deck is clear
of people and objects and check the sky above you for traffic left, right, center, and
straight overhead. You are looking for other helicopters and moving cranes, even birds,
though they usually get out of the way themselves. Lift off into a stable hover and then
hover forward to the edge of the helideck. Check that all instrument indications are
good and then pull the collective to max takeoff power and go straight up. However,
especially with a single-engine helicopter, if power is limited because of high gross
weight, little wind and/or high air temperature, you can hover forward and land as
close as safely possible at the edge of the helideck and perform a maximum performance takeoff from this position.
Chapter Nine
Your takeoff decision point is the moment you lose sight of the helideck below you.
Whether you are in a single or twin, if an engine fails during this vertical climb while
you still have sight of the deck (which will be for only a few seconds), stop the climb
and allow the helicopter to settle back down on the deck. However, as soon as you lose
sight of the edge of the helideck, you are committed to going forward.
If the engine fails in a single-engine helicopter at this point, your only option is to
dive, lower the collective, and autorotate to the water. A big concern is not hitting the
tail rotor during this maneuver, so you want to be sure to get the nose of the helicopter
as close as possible to the edge of the helideck before pulling power when you takeoff.
In a twin, if you are flying a helicopter with retractable landing gear, the copilot
should raise up the gear at the point the helideck disappears from view, as this is where
you are committed to the takeoff, even if one engine fails. Now you want to gain airspeed as quickly as you can. The way to do this is to lower the nose, normally about
5 to 10 degrees, the moment you lose sight of the deck. The upward momentum will get
you climbing above the deck, so if the engine fails after you tip the nose forward, there
will be little danger of the tail rotor hitting the deck.
Airspeed will increase steadily. As it reaches best-rate-of-climb (BROC) airspeed,
ease the nose up and hold that speed as you climb to a higher altitude, typically, 500 feet.
At this point, you can lower the nose to increase airspeed and maintain a lower rate of
climb until you reach cruising altitude (Fig. 9-17).
Lowering the nose too much when you pass the takeoff decision point risks close
encounters with the sea, especially from low helidecks, can frighten passengers and
will give you a reputation as a "cowboy." (The latter is not good for job retention.)
>■(*
i .«
m
*
Figure 9-17 Rig departure. After leaving the helideck, climb at best-rate-of-climb speed to gain
altitude as quickly as possible to about 500 feet. Then continue the climb at a normal rate until
reaching your cruise altitude: Sikorsky S-61N.
Advanced Maneuvers
Not lowering the nose enough risks a slow, mushy climb, particularly in hot, humid
conditions, and the need to drop the nose steeply, if an engine does fail. Remember,
BROC speed is just that: the speed that gives you the best rate of climb. Climbing at
both slower and faster speeds will give you a slower rate of climb, so reach BROC
smoothly and hold it until about 500 feet.
If the engine fails in a twin any time after departing the helideck, you have the option
of returning to the deck and making a single-engine landing or returning to land.
After a normal takeoff in both singles and twins, complete the after-takeoff checks,
climb to cruise altitude, and you're on your way home.
Virtual Night IFR in Seconds
Departing an oil platform at night presents the challenge of transitioning from
visual conditions over the well-lit platform to virtual instrument conditions
as soon as the helicopter passes over the edge of the deck. If the sky is overcast and
visibility is restricted, making the horizon dark, the situation becomes particularly
susceptible to inducing vertigo.
A night takeoff in a Bell 212 from the North Sea platform Ekofisk illustrated
this to my friend Svein and me one winter evening. Svein was captain on this flight
and made the takeoff. Because there are numerous platforms in the Ekofisk area,
one could usually see the lights and flare of at least one platform from any direction, and frequently more than one. If nothing else, this provided some semblance
of a horizon. But this evening, the visibility was only a mile or so at the surface.
As soon as Svein dipped the nose of the 212 from the hover and we slid away from
the helideck, which was about 200 feet above the surface of the sea, we were engulfed
in a velvety blackness except for the reflections of the platform's lights on black waves.
I kept my eyes inside on the gauges while Svein concentrated on flying. Seconds later,
as the pitot tubes sucked air and our airspeed indicators grudgingly started showing
some speed, Svein said, "I have vertigo. You have control." I looked quickly out the
windshield, saw nothing but darkness ahead, felt a twinge of dizziness and quickly
brought my eyes inside the cockpit.
"I have vertigo, too," I told him as I put my hands and feet lightly on the controls to back him up.
"OK," he replied. "We both have the controls. We'll both stay on the gauges."
We flew that way for another minute or so, concentrating hard on ignoring our
inner ears and just let the 212 fly itself through translational lift and slowly gain airspeed
and altitude. If the helideck had been any lower, we might have gotten wet. If something had failed, we would have had a hard time handling the emergency. For several
uncomfortable moments, I felt like the helicopter was flying itself and we were just
along for the ride. That wasn't entirely true, but we sure felt good when we saw a positive climb on the vertical velocity indicator and even better when we leveled at
500 feet and got our mental bearings back.
Sling and Hoist Operations
When people ask me what makes a helicopter special when compared to other aircraft,
1 tell them a helicopter's ability to hover is its most distinguishing quality. Hovering
gives helicopters the ability to land and takeoff from small places, fly slowly, and do a
Chapter Nine
host of other things. Perhaps two of a helicopter's most useful capabilities are sling
(or external) loads and hoist operations, both of which require hovering.
The good news for helicopter pilots-in-training is that the hovering abilities required
for slinging and hoisting are not much different from the basic hovering skills you'll
learn while earning your private pilot's license. The difference comes with the degree of
skill required, particularly when hovering out-of-ground (OGE) high above the ground
or over water, and the challenges presented by the environment. Building the hovering
skills needed to meet these challenges just requires some additional training and much
practice.
Holding a steady hover from a greater-than-normal height is the primary skill
needed for both, with long-line slinging typically needing the highest hovers. Where
you are doing these operations is the other factor, with the challenge being more or less
equal, all things considered. Accomplishing a safe hoist operation to rescue people from
a ship in high seas at night is the most difficult hoisting operation I can imagine. I can't
think of a compelling reason that one would do a sling operation in similar circumstances, unless you are using a long line to rescue people, which would be done only if
there were no other option.
The most difficult external-load operation I've heard of is placing successively
higher sections of radio towers on top of each other, going up several hundreds of feet.
The pilot must hold each tower section, weighing thousands of pounds, at exactly the
right height and position so that a construction worker at the top of the previously
placed tower section can guide the new piece directly over the vertical bolts of the previous section. The pilot must then lower the tower down a few inches and hold it there
while the construction worker tightens nuts on the bolts. Weather conditions need to be
near perfect to do this, but even turbulence created by the rotor downwash creates a
challenge for the pilot.
External Sling Basics
You can think of an external sling for a helicopter sort of like a trailer hitch on a pickup
truck—as long as you have the right equipment and it's within the weight limits of the
vehicle, you can lift it or pull it, as the case may be.
Helicopter sling loads do have one other important limitation: the flight characteristics of the load itself. Yes, the basic aerodynamics covered in Chap. 2 apply to things
hanging below the helicopter, too. As a rule, you don't want objects you are slinging to
start flying on their own. The worst that can happen is a load starts oscillating back and
forth and goes so high that it hits the main rotor blades.
Examples of ideal external loads from an aerodynamic perspective include solid iron
balls and concrete blocks. You may even carry these sometimes. But most loads come in
all shapes, sizes, and weights, and it's very unlikely that any of these have seen the inside
of a wind tunnel. So the pilot and the load supervisor on the ground need to make educated guesses about the possible aerodynamic characteristics of the loads into account
(Fig. 9-18). If the job requires lifting HVAC units and steel beams from a nearby parking
lot to the flat roof of a low building, then there probably will not be a big problem with
aerodynamics. Slinging sections of a preassembled building several miles to a mountaintop will require greater attention to the shape and weight of the various sections.
David Okita, a 25,000-hour helicopter pilot in Hawaii {see Chap. 17), offers this advice
about flying with external loads. "Hying load is like anything. The more you do it, it
becomes second nature. The load flies the same as the aircraft. Picture any movement the
Advanced Maneuvers
\
*8\%
r
■
y
t
Figure 9-18 Pilots must consider the flying properties of the loads they carry below the
helicopter: Kaman K-MAX. (Source: Kaman Aerospace)
load needs and do it with your flight controls. Any movement the aircraft does and the load
will oscillate. They must fly together. The better you get, then you can swing it around more.
The rest is practice."
Most helicopters have provisions for attaching the hardware required for hanging a
cargo hook, which ideally is placed directly below the main rotor mast to accommodate
the center of gravity. The cargo hook is typically electrically controlled with a manual
backup (a cable) so that the load may be released if the electrical system does not work.
The newer cargo hooks weigh the load and pass this information to the crew. In smaller
helicopters, the pilot has the controls for the hook while in larger helicopters both the
pilot and a crewmember in the cabin may have separate control units. Many helicopters
used extensively or frequently for external-load operations are equipped with special
bubble side-cockpit windows to allow the pilot to lean out and look down at the cargo
Chapter Nine
Figure 9-19 Flying in a high hover with your hand and feet on the flight controls, your head
outside the cockpit, and your eyes looking downward at a sling load a long distance below the
helicopter requires special training and much practice: Robinson R22. (Source: Robinson
Helicopter Company)
load far below the aircraft. Flying from this unusual position is a special skill, which
requires training and much practice to do well (Fig. 9-19).
Many helicopters can legally carry more weight with an under-slung load than they can
in the cabin. Thus, you'll find allowable maximum takeoff weights (mtow) for normal operations (internal loads only) and for operations with external loads in the flight manual.
Slinging is perhaps most profitably used in the logging industry, with the largest
helicopter operators employing both the ground crews and the flight crews. Skilled loggers estimate the weight of the logs, prepare the loads for pick up, and assist in the hook
up. The pilot lifts the load out of the woods, flies it to the drop-off point near a logging
road or into a river, and then returns for the next load. The round trip can take as little as
three minutes. Refueling is done "hot," engines and rotors turning, from a fuel truck.
Hoisting Basics
Helicopter hoists are used to move people, equipment, and supplies from places below
the helicopter where it is dangerous or impossible to land. Like cargo hooks, hoists are
add-on equipment, but helicopter manufacturers frequently include provisions for
hoists (mounts, electrical connections, hydraulic plumbing, controls, and so on) in the
original design of models targeted for certain operations, such as search and rescue and
paramilitary roles.
While hoists can be operated by the pilot, they are usually operated by a trained
crewmember (a hoist operator) in the cabin, who can control the hoist cable and has a
direct view of the person or thing being transferred up and down. I consider the hoistoperator option the better one. Even with sophisticated flight control systems, I think it
is best if the pilot or pilots focus on control and operation of the aircraft.
Treat hoisting operations as you would approaches to confined areas and pinnacles,
meaning fly a high and a low reconnaissance and a normal traffic pattern, with guidance from the hoist operator. If at all possible, fly the final approach into the wind. If not
possible, at least end up in a high hover with the nose into the wind (Fig. 9-20).
In the hover over the person being picked up, the hoist operator, who is strapped to
the aircraft, will continue to give instructions to the pilot for positioning as he or she raises
Advanced Maneuvers
/
Queen
e
Q
.
V£M3
1
Figure 9-20 When the helicopter is in the hover for a hoisting operation, the pilot's job is to hold
the helicopter in a steady hover and monitor the aircraft systems, particularly the engines and
fuel: AgustaWestland AW139. (Source: AgustaWestland)
and lowers the hoist. This can become quite difficult over water, as the rotor wash from
the helicopter will push life rafts, people in life vests and even small boats away from the
helicopter. The trick is to move the helicopter fast enough over the people or vessels in
the water so as to get them within the calmer rotor wash area directly below the helicopter. This works in calm winds. In high winds, the calm area is nonexistent, except in a very
low hover.
The pilot's job is to hold the helicopter in a steady hover and monitor the aircraft
systems, particularly the engines and fuel. The hoist operator's job is to get the rescue
device, such as a stretcher or sling, to the people on the ground, in the water or on
the vessel (Fig. 9-21). Military and parapublic operations typically have a trained
rescue crewmember who rides the hoist down and makes sure the injured or sick
person is properly attached or strapped to the rescue device. If the hoist can handle
the weight, the rescue specialist can ride up the hoist with the survivor. If not, the
hoist operator will send the hoist down again to pick up the rescue specialist.
Once everyone is safely in the cabin, the hoist operator stows the rescue equipment,
closes the door, makes sure the passengers are belted in, and informs the pilot that the
cabin is secure and ready to depart.
Category A and B Helicopters and Operations
You won't run into Category A helicopters until you start flying twin-engine helicopters, and maybe not even then. Only twins are certified for Category A, but not all
twins are. And even when a twin is certified for Category A, it may be operated as a
Chapter Nine
r
*
Figure 9-21 The hoist operator's job is to get the rescue device, such as a stretcher or sling,
to the people on the ground, in the water or to the vessel: The hoist operator in an
AgustaWestland AW101. (Source: AgustaWestland)
Category B. All single-engine helicopters are certified Category B. On the surface, this
can appear to be a simple concept, but how it relates to specific models of helicopters
and their operation can become very complex.
In the United States, there is no mandate from the FAA for helicopter operators to use
Category A procedures. The most frequent users of Category A are offshore operators in
Alaska and the Gulf of Mexico. It is the oil companies that are requiring operators to
acquire aircraft that can operate Category A. Some VIP/corporate operators also use
Category A, if not all the time, then whenever they can. But the consensus of opinion
among industry professionals is that Category A will become more common in the United
States, as it is in Europe and elsewhere, in the coming years.
There are similarities in Category A operating procedures among helicopter models, but also some significant differences. If a helicopter is certified for Category A, the
aircraft flight manual must include information, procedures, diagrams, and charts
explaining how to operate the aircraft to meet category criteria (Fig. 9-22). If you get a
job where Category A helicopters are flown, you will be trained in how and when to fly
the correct procedures. For these reasons, I decided not to include information about
these procedures here. However, the following may be helpful in your understanding
of what Category A is all about.
As background, there is a broad, long, ongoing, and often contentious effort to harmonize aviation regulations and operations around the world under the auspices of the
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The FAA and the European Aviation
Safety Agency (EASA) are the primary players in this effort, but there are also some
Advanced Maneuvers
ACCELERATE TO
HEIGHT
SINGLE ENGINE
CLIMB AT VToss
DISTANCE
CDP
40 KIAS
1000 FEET
ACCELERATE
V
TOSS v
500 FEET
ACCELERATION
TO CDP
40 FEET
♦
4 FEET
35 FEET
t
TAKEOFF SPACE REQUIRED
TAKEOFF
FLIGHT PATH
Figure 9-22 To obtain approval for Category A operations for a particular twin-engine
helicopter model a manufacturer must provide a section in the helicopter's approved flight
manual on the subject. All-engines-operating (AEO) and one-engine-inoperative (OEI) procedures
must be defined for all takeoff and landing profiles desired for Category A approval. This
generic profile shows the Category A takeoff procedure from a "clear airfield," which could be
an airport runway or taxiway, or a heliport with an long enough obstacle-free area in the takeoff
direction, for an engine failure after the critical decision point (CDP), at which time the pilot
should continue the takeoff. After the engine failure, the pilot is permitted to use the
2.5-minute engine-power rating for up to two and a half minutes, and after that the 30-minute
engine rating. \/toss (55 kias) is takeoff safety speed. V (60 kias) is best-rate-of-climb speed.
Kias is indicated airspeed in knots.
other influential civil aviation authorities from other countries. While ICAO procedures
are voluntary, with exceptions permitted within countries, the civil aviation authorities
of many countries simply adopt ICAO's recommendations as their standard regulations. The United States is apparently the country with the most exceptions to ICAO's
recommendations.
This harmonization effort includes helicopter operations and in particular helicopters engaged in oil and gas operations. The work is driven indirectly by the oil and gas
industry, by worker and pilot unions, and by helicopter operators themselves, the latter
three groups primarily in Europe. Helicopter regulations regarding certification and
performance are part of this harmonization.
The following are some relevant definitions regarding categories A and B. According to FAA Part 29 Airworthiness Standards: Transport Category Rotorcraft (Subpart A,
paragraph 29.1 Applicability):
"(b) Transport category rotorcraft must be certificated in accordance with either the
Category A or Category B requirements of this part. A multiengine rotorcraft
may be type certificated as both Category A and Category B with appropriate
and different operating limitations for each category.
(c) Rotorcraft with a maximum weight greater than 20,000 pounds and 10 or more
passenger seats must be type certificated as Category A rotorcraft.
(d) Rotorcraft with a maximum weight greater than 20,000 pounds and nine or less
passenger seats may be type certificated as Category B rotorcraft provided the
Category A requirements of subparts C, D, E, and F of this part are met.
Chapter Nine
(e) Rotorcraft with a maximum weight of 20,000 pounds or less but with 10 or
more passenger seats may be type certificated as Category B rotorcraft provided
the Category A requirements of paragraphs 29.67(a) (2), 29.87, 29.1517, and
subparts C, D, E, and F of this part are met.
(f) Rotorcraft with a maximum weight of 20,000 pounds or less and nine or less
passenger seats may be type certificated as Category B rotorcraft."
Part 29 also requires that multiengine, transport category rotorcraft be designed
with engine and system isolation features and also be certified for takeoff and landing operations using the "critical engine failure concept," to ensure adequate surface
area and performance ability in the event of an engine failure. In addition, the pilot
must be able to calculate performance data so that one-engine-inoperative (OEI)
obstacle clearance from takeoff to climb to cruise to landing can be determined.
Included in this data must be standard takeoff/landing, distance and climb gradient,
heliport and helipad size limitations, and OEI climb graphs. The failed engine must
be isolated, so it does not damage the other engine. There are also flight instrument
requirements.
Category B helicopters are single-engine helicopters or multiengine helicopters that
do not meet the provisions of Category A, because they don't have guaranteed ability
to stay airborne in certain OEI flight regimes.
According to the European Aviation Safety Agency (Annex I Definitions for terms
used in Annexes II-VIII):
"Category A with respect to helicopters means a multiengine helicopter designed with
engine and system isolation features specified in the applicable airworthiness codes
and capable of operations using takeoff and landing data scheduled under a critical
engine failure concept that ensures adequate designated surface area and adequate performance capability for continued safe flight or safe rejected takeoff in the event of
engine failure."
"Category B with respect to helicopters means a single-engine or multiengine helicopter that does not meet Category A standards. Category B helicopters have no guaranteed capability to continue safe flight in the event of an engine failure, and unscheduled
landing is assumed."
"Operation in performance class 1 means an operation that, in the event of failure of
the critical engine, the helicopter is able to land within the rejected takeoff distance
available or safely continue the flight to an appropriate landing area, depending on
when the failure occurs."
"Operation in performance class 2 means an operation that, in the event of failure of
the critical engine, performance is available to enable the helicopter to safely continue the flight, except when the failure occurs early during the takeoff maneuver or
late in the landing maneuver, in which cases a forced landing may be required."
"Operation in performance class 3 means an operation that, in the event of an engine
failure at any time during the flight, a forced landing may be required in a multiengine
helicopter and will be required in a single-engine helicopter."
A key point regarding EASA regulations is that helicopters are certified in Category A or Category B and operated in performance classes 1, 2, or 3. The FAA has not
yet brought performance classes into play. But because operators in Europe and other
parts of the world are using the EASA regulations, helicopters there are operating
Advanced Maneuvers
using these performance classes and the helicopter manufacturers are designing and
certifying their new models to accommodate them. It is quite possible that helicopter
performance classes will someday become part of FAA's vocabulary, too.
Being prepared for any eventuality is one characteristic of a professional pilot.
The ability to troubleshoot and react to emergencies calmly and correctly is one of the
most important skills full-time pilots must develop. Common helicopter emergencies
are next.
This page has been intentionally left blank
CHAPTER
Emergencies
The thing is, helicopters are different from airplanes. An airplane by its nature wants to fly, and if it
is not interfered with too strongly by unusual events or a deliberately incompetent pilot, it will fly.
A helicopter does not want to fly. It is maintained in the air by a variety offerees and controls working in opposition to each other, and if there is any disturbance in this delicate balance, the helicopter
stops flying, immediately and disastrously. There is no such thing as a gliding helicopter.
This is why being a helicopter pilot is so different from being an airplane pilot, and why, in generality,
airplane pilots are open, clear-eyed buoyant extroverts and helicopter pilots are brooders, introspective
anticipators of trouble. They know if something bad has not happened it is about to.
Harry Reasoner
February 16,1971
The late Harry Reasoner, a well-known television journalist and commentator,
apparently never heard about autorotations. On the other hand, I have to agree
with him about helicopter pilots being "anticipators of trouble." I think all pilots
should be that way. I introduced the "Basic Four-Step Aircraft Emergency Procedure"
(Fig. 10-1) in Chap. 8. Now it's time to discuss it in more detail.
More about the Basic Aircraft Emergency Procedure
To reiterate, with any emergency or unusual occurrence in any type of aircraft, your main
concern is to keep the machine flying safely in the air until you can find a suitable place
to land. If you memorize the following procedure and follow it carefully every time you
have an in-flight emergency or problem, you will greatly enhance the probability of a safe
outcome.
Basic Four-Step Emergency Procedure for Helicopters
Step 1. Maintain rotor rpm and fly the aircraft
Step 2. See step #1
Step 3. Memory items
Step 4. Checklist
Step 1. Maintain Rotor RPM and Fly the Aircraft
This is your lifesaver (Fig. 10-1). Maintaining rotor rpm keeps the helicopter flying.
After you've done that, pay attention to attitude, heading, altitude, and airspeed, that's
what "fly the aircraft" means.
195
Chapter Ten
-
Figure 10-1 Test pilots, like those flying this experimental Sikorsky H-76, know their first concerns
during any emergency in a helicopter are to maintain rotor rpm and fly the aircraft. (Source: United
Technologies Sikorsky Aircraft)
It is almost unbelievable there have been, and no doubt will continue to be, so many
accidents caused by pilots' failure to fly the aircraft first and take care of the emergency
second.
The crash of Eastern Airlines Flight 401 in December 1972 is an oft-cited example
of pilots failing to fly the aircraft while they tried to solve a minor problem.
While on a night visual approach for Miami International Airport, the four
members of the cockpit crew of a Lockheed L-1011 noticed an unsafe nose-gear
light on the instrument panel after the landing gear had been extended. Because
they wanted to troubleshoot the problem, the crew requested permission from the
tower to hold west of the airport, over the unpopulated and unlit Florida Everglades. ATC approved the request.
Unfortunately, everyone in the cockpit became preoccupied with the nose-gear
light. Either the captain or the first officer inadvertently disengaged the autopilot.
No one noticed the slow descent toward the ground. The airliner crashed, killing
and injuring many people. Afterward, the accident investigation board determined
that the unsafe gear warning was due to a burned-out light bulb and that the airliner crashed because no one was flying the airplane.
Emergencies
Thirty-six years later in January 2009, the two pilots of U.S. Airways Flight 1549
flew their aircraft to a safe ditching in the Hudson River between New York City's
Manhattan island and Jersey City, New Jersey. Just two minutes after takeoff from
La Guardia Airport their Airbus A320 collided with a flock of Canadanian geese and
lost power in both engines. Captain Chesley "Sully" Sullenberger, who was pilot in
command and had more experience in the A320, immediately took control of the
airplane, and instructed copilot Jeffrey Sikes to handle the emergency checklist.
After considering a return to La Guardia and diversion to Teterboro Airport in New
Jersey, Sullenberger decided their best chance was ditching in the cold Hudson
River. From the time of the bird strike to the amazingly successful ditching just four
minutes elapsed, for a total flight time of six minutes. Sullenberger and Sikes handled this potentially fatal emergency perfectly. They clearly knew that their first
task was to fly the airplane.
In a helicopter, maintaining rotor rpm is an integral part of flying the aircraft. Without
rotor rpm, the helicopter simply cannot fly. And if you are not flying the helicopter properly, rotor rpm is difficult, if not impossible to maintain. (See Chap. 8, "Autorotation,"
for more about maintaining rotor rpm.)
So, etch step 1 into your memory right now, and remember it whenever you fly. If
something happens, it should pop out and flash a distinct message to you: "Maintain
rotor rpm and take care of attitude, altitude, airspeed, and heading while you work out
the problem."
Step 2. Remember Step 1
Obviously, step 2 forces you to slow down and consider step 1. Are you really flying the
aircraft, or have you gotten ahead of things in your eagerness to take care of the emergency? In reality, there are very few emergencies in a helicopter that require splitsecond response from the pilot to avoid a catastrophe—decreasing rotor rpm (from a
total loss of engine power or a main gearbox problem) and a tail-rotor drive system
failure are two notable exceptions. However, too many moments of inattention to the
attitude and position of the aircraft can easily lead to what accident reports call "controlled
flight into terrain."
As silly as step 2 may sound to you, I can almost guarantee you that the first time the
master caution light flickers or the engine coughs your whole being is going to be focused
on one thing and one thing alone: "What's wrong?" For those first, perhaps critical, seconds
you will forget about flying the aircraft, so shocked you will be. If you are lucky, and in most
cases you will be, the helicopter will just keep flying along with very little attention to you,
thank you very much. And then your brain will click in. You'll remember step 1 and you'll
quickly become the pilot again and not just a passenger.
This initial gut reaction to want to fix "What's wrong?" can be alleviated somewhat,
but not totally eliminated, by regular training, particularly in flight simulators. In my experience, seeing what emergencies look like in practice can help dampen this gut response,
but not totally make it go away in most people, including myself. But training, practice,
and having the second step send you back to the first step do help one remember to fly
the aircraft.
Step 3. Memory Items
This step refers to the items in every emergency checklist that you must know by heart
because they require immediate action.
Chapter Ten
--
v'■ :i\
INCINC rwc ON THC CBOUMD
' rS
'Km
•Ft
ENGINE FIRE IN FUCMT
::: • i
m
*M«W •'
•0 LM€l -*&
KUfceii
Figure 10-2 Memory items (for immediate action) in the Helikopter Service emergency checklist
are surrounded by a box.
Notice I said must know and not should know. The initial steps of important emergency procedures are usually memory items. These items are often printed in bold
face type or are surrounded by a box. The purpose is the same, to make them stand
out (Fig. 10-2).
Most aircraft have only a few emergencies that need correction so quickly there isn't
time to pull out and refer to an emergency checklist. (An engine failure in a singleengine helicopter and tail-rotor drive failures in all helicopters with tail rotors are two
notable examples.) On the other hand, a well-constructed emergency checklist will
keep the "must know" memory items to a minimum. It's counterproductive to require
pilots to memorize too many things.
Commit the "must know" items to memory soon after you start flying a particular
helicopter. Test yourself on them often. A good place to do this is on the ground in the
cockpit with everything turned off (be sure to get permission from your instructor before
doing this). Pretend you are in flight, cruising along without a care, and suddenly the
master caution light blinks on. You have an engine fire! What are the indications you can
expect? What are the memory items for this emergency?
As part of the simulation, place your hand or finger lightly on the switch, handle,
or control for each checklist item. This will instill in your mind an awareness of objects
Emergencies
A Good Rule to Follow All the Time
Never switch anything on or off without first checking that your finger is on the correct
switch (Fig. 10-3).
This might sound very simplistic, but if you follow it religiously, you'll
save yourself a lot of unnecessary trouble. Don't ever blindly reach up or reach
over to flick a switch without looking at it. What you think is the heater might
be the ground inverter or the landing light. You may put your finger on the
switch without looking, but please check it visually before moving it to another
setting.
One memorable training flight in a Sikorsky S-61N simulator in Norway, I
watched from my position in the instructor seat behind the cockpit as a senior
captain with more than 10,000 hours in helicopters very quickly and confidently reached up and shut down the good engine after the other engine had
failed shortly after takeoff. He realized his mistake as soon as he had pulled the
speed selector (engine speed control) to the shutdown position, but by then it
was too late.
Both of the S-61's big GE turboshaft engines were now spooling down and the
helicopter was flying at such a low altitude and airspeed that the two experienced
pilots had no time to even think about trying to restart the good engine. (If this
situation had occurred at 3,000 feet, for example, it might have been possible for
the nonflying pilot to do a successful restart of the good engine he had shut down,
while the other pilot flew the autorotation.)
The other pilot, who was the flying pilot for this portion of the training
session, could only lower the collective as quickly as he could and attempt to
enter autorotation. This was particularly difficult because they were practicing
an instrument-only takeoff when I had intentionally failed the first engine, so
the view out the simulator's windshield looked like we were flying inside the
proverbial ping-pong ball.
The point of this exercise was to practice a climb on one engine without outside
visual references, which was absolutely doable, so I had set the visibility and cloud
base in the simulator very low. As it happened, the flying pilot ended up attempting
an autorotation on instruments, an exercise which was not due to occur until later
in the training sequence. But the unexpected does happen in simulators just as it
does in actual flight, so I allowed the exercise to continue to the helicopter's inevitable rendezvous with the ground. It was not pretty, even in a simulator.
The crash, had it occurred in a real aircraft, would have been fatal. As we sat
waiting for the hydraulic legs of the simulator to wheeze us back up into the takeoff position, the captain could only shake is head, look forlornly at the other pilot
and say, with unaccustomed humility, "I am sorry. I am so, so sorry." He knew he
had thoroughly messed up for both of them.
Besides illustrating the point about checking a switch before moving it, this
incident also shows the value of simulator training. This high-time captain
relearned a valuable lesson that day, becoming much more aware of the danger of
reacting too quickly without thinking what his hands were doing. I would like to
think he never made this mistake again.
Chapter Ten
M.
i
9
.
Figure 10-3 A good rule in every cockpit: Never switch anything on or off without first checking
that your finger is on the correct switch: Schweizer 300 instrument console.
and actions instead of just words on a page in a flight manual. Do this with all the
emergencies that have memory items until you can repeat the actions without hesitation. Test yourself often enough that you do not forget. If you really want to cement the
actions in your memory, do this practice blindfolded.
Another time you can practice emergencies is in flight when not much else is happening. Flying is not 100 percent excitement all the time. During the calmer periods,
such as a long leg on a cross-country flight in good visual conditions and little traffic,
imagine you have a malfunction of some sort. Go through the emergency procedure
step by step, lightly touching, but not moving switches. Notice that it does take some
effort to continue following step 1 while doing step 3!
Not all emergency procedures have immediate action items. In fact, most do not.
This means a lot of things in your aircraft can fail that you really don't have to get too
Emergencies
excited about. For instance, a malfunction of a particular system may require a landing "as soon as practical." This means the problem is not so bad that you have to
immediately start switching things off and scream "Mayday, Mayday, Mayday!" into
the radio.
Actually, one of the worst things you can do is to indiscriminately start switching
things on and off before you really know what has happened. The odds are you'll grab the
wrong thing. If you don't make matters worse, you might inadvertently delay doing the
right thing.
Some airplane instructors even advocate that pilots immediately sit on their hands
when an emergency is discovered, to help avoid the wrong switch being moved. This
might be a useful idea for the nonflying pilot of a two-pilot helicopter crew or for the
single pilot of an airplane or helicopter who has a good autopilot, but for most pilots
flying alone, I would definitely recommend that you keep your hands on the controls
instead of sticking them under your butt in an emergency. But the point remains: "Look
before you flick!"
Step 4. Checklist
This last step refers the pilot specifically to the emergency checklist. After you have done
the memory items, if there are any, pull out the emergency checklist. It should be stored
in a readily accessible place in the cockpit. Don't do anything else, besides fly the aircraft,
until you have the checklist in hand.
By this step in any emergency, the imminent danger has passed. The aircraft is still
flying, you're in control and you've taken care of the immediate action items. Yes, there
are a few more things you must do, but you don't have to rush. Don't try to do more
things on the checklist by memory, even if you think you know exactly what to do next.
The potential to make a mistake is just too high and the consequence of doing the wrong
thing is just too great.
At this point, before doing the rest of the emergency checklist and if circumstances
require it, you could call air traffic control and inform them of your situation. You
should, of course, use the standard terminology as necessary, "Mayday, Mayday, Mayday" for life-threatening emergencies (grave or imminent threats requiring immediate
assistance) and "Pan-pan, Pan-pan, Pan-pan" for less serious ones (less urgent situations, such as a mechanical breakdown or a need for medical assistance). Some pilots
are reluctant to declare any emergency, but if you sincerely believe you have a real
emergency, no one is going to get too upset if you do declare it, unless it turns out to be
completely bogus.
Personally, if I feel I need to declare an emergency by making a Mayday call, then I
would do it now, if I have not already done so. If it were only a Pan-pan call, then I would
wait until I completed this step.
Okay, place the emergency checklist in your lap and make sure you find the correct
malfunction according the cockpit indications. In more sophisticated helicopters, the
symptoms of some malfunctions look dangerously similar. It is not going to help matters
if you perform the proper emergency items for the wrong malfunction. (I have seen this
done many times in simulators and I know from reading accident reports that it has happened in fight, too.)
Most checklists show or tell what indications you can expect for the various failures.
Confirm that you have those indications.
Chapter Ten
An important word of warning: In the heat of the moment it's very easy to misinterpret indications and see what you want to see, or expect to see. Be very critical of what
you think you're looking at and double-check that you are interpreting it correctly.
Then, if there are any memory items on the list, confirm that you did these properly. Go
on to the rest of the checklist only after you have done these two things.
Look at each item and the action required. Find the switch or lever or handle or
whatever, and put your finger or hand on it. Confirm visually that you have the correct
switch, lever, or handle. Then do the action. Think about your head movements, which
might induce vertigo, if you are flying into instrument meteorological conditions (IMC)
or at night.
This procedure may sound like an excessively time-consuming process, but it can
be accomplished rather quickly, probably in less than a minute for most emergencies,
which is certainly fast enough for most emergencies. By flying the aircraft, maintaining
rotor rpm and doing memory items, you will have taken care of the problems that do
require quick action in only seconds.
I hate to throw another old cliche at you, but it seems to fit: If you don't have time to
do it right the first time, how will you find the time do it over again?
Learning by a Bad Example
My first experience in how not to react to an emergency happened when I was
a first lieutenant on my first assignment as a qualified search-and-rescue helicopter pilot in Iceland. I was riding the cockpit jump seat of a Sikorsky HH-3E
Jolly Green Giant (the military version of the S-61), when the right engine
caught fire.
A major was flying in the right seat and a captain occupied the left seat, both
very high-time helicopter pilots, including experience flying combat rescue in
Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War. Although the aircraft commander (or
"AC," i.e., the "pilot in command") usually sat in the right seat, on this particular
flight it was the captain in the left seat who was the designated AC. Usually, the
highest ranking officer flew as AC, but the captain, who was an instructor pilot and
the squadron's chief training officer, was checking out the major, who had just
arrived in the unit, on local procedures. These two pilots had never flown together
before and had just met a few days earlier. What's more, the major was destined to
become the next operations officer and would therefore soon be the captain's direct
boss. So this wasn't your normal pilot/copilot relationship.
We were doing parachute operations with our pararescue jumpers (PJs) and
flying about 2,000 feet in level flight above a small, remote airport with no tower.
The major was flying. Without warning, the engine fire warning light flashed on.
About the same time, the flight mechanic in the cabin shouted over the intercom,
"There's fire coming out of the right engine!"
Chaos broke out in the cockpit. The captain, reacting first, yelled "Engine fire,"
and grabbed hold of the cyclic and collective, so he, as AC, could take control of the
aircraft. But the major refused to relinquish the controls to the captain and started
spouting out portions of the emergency checklist for an engine fire.
Emergencies
Each of them reached up to shut off the affected engine (like the S-61, the HH-3E's
engine controls are on the overhead console), but neither did. To reach the engine
controls, the major had to let go of the collective with his right hand while the captain
had to let go of the cyclic with his right hand. Since the cyclic is obviously the more
important control, the captain moved his left hand from the collective to the cyclic.
Hands flew all over the cockpit.
Both pilots tried to adjust the collective to maintain rotor rpm, but when one of
them lowered the collective the other one raised it. The engine and rotor indications
fluctuated so much that from my position in the jump seat I couldn't tell which was
the good engine and which one was the bad one.
In reality, we weren't in immediate danger of the rotor rpm decreasing because
both engines were still producing power. However, in the event the right engine
stopped, either because of the fire or because one of the pilots shut it down intentionally, we would have to pay closer attention to rotor rpm, because the helicopter was
heavily loaded.
After nearly a full minute of confusion, the major and captain finally stopped
trying to do everything on their own and jointly agreed which engine to shut
down and which fire extinguisher to activate. Fortunately, they chose correctly.
Within a few minutes we were on the ground with everyone safe and everything
shutdown.
The whole procedure would have gone much more smoothly and quickly
had one pilot concentrated on flying the aircraft (steps 1 and 2) and the other
pilot had concentrated on performing the emergency procedure (steps 3 and 4).
But as I mentioned before, this wasn't your normal pilot/copilot relationship
and both pilots felt they should be the boss of the situation. The result was poor
crew coordination and the increased risk of a real disaster.
Tail Rotor System Failures
One of the most feared helicopter emergencies is a malfunctioning tail rotor system.
Although some tail rotor failures are very serious, most are really not that bad. If you do
the procedure correctly, you should be able to put the craft down with minimal damage
and no injuries.
Tail rotor system malfunctions are normally divided into two categories:
•
Control system failures include those malfunctions that reduce, partially or
totally, the effectiveness of the pilot's control inputs to the tail rotor. The tail
rotor is still rotating and will continue to rotate. These failures are less serious,
although with improper pilot technique they could result in a crash.
•
Drive system failures include such things as complete stoppage of the tail rotor,
loss of a tail rotor blade, and separation of the tail rotor from the aircraft.
Obviously, drive failures are much worse than control failures. The potential for
a crash landing is much greater than with control-type tail rotor failures, but
there still is the possibility of making a non-crash landing.
Chapter Ten
Tail Rotor Control System Failures
A tail rotor control failure could be caused by something as simple as a dropped pen or
pencil, a forgotten screwdriver stuck in the pedal mechanism, a control cable binding,
or a jammed control in the pitch change mechanism. Theoretically, the pedals could
stick in just about any position: left full forward, right full forward, both neutral, and
every position in between. Chances are you won't notice the pedals are stuck until you
try to move them out of the current position. For example, if they get stuck in cruise,
you probably won't discover the problem until power is reduced for descent.
The collective pitch setting is the main determinant of tail rotor pedal position. The
more power you are pulling, the more you need to counteract torque, and the more left
pedal you need; less power, more right pedal. The extreme on the one hand would be a
full-power takeoff or an out-of-ground-effect hover: full left pedal. The other extreme
would be a steep descent in a lightly loaded helicopter in a right bank: a good deal of
right pedal, perhaps even full right pedal.
The position that the pedals become stuck in will determine your response to the
situation. A stuck left pedal will require a different action than a stuck right pedal. Let's
see what action is required in both situations.
Let's say the left pedal becomes locked while you are in cruise, which would place
it forward of neutral. As you lower the collective to start a descent, you notice you can't
compensate for the reduced torque effect by easing off the left pedal and the helicopter
consequently yaws to the left. You determine that the pedals are locked. Because the
power used in cruise is usually close to power required to hover, the main problem you
have now is the descent. Once you get close to the ground and pull in hover power,
you'll need nearly the same amount of left pedal that is now locked in and you'll be able
to hover with little or no yawing (Fig. 10-4).
You can cause the helicopter to descend three ways. First, increase airspeed while
maintaining the same power setting. Simply ease the cyclic forward to lower the nose.
As you get down to normal approach altitude, carefully bring back the cyclic to reduce
the airspeed without climbing.
The second way is to reduce power and engine rpm and accept the resulting left
yaw. As long as you maintain at least 50 to 60 knots, the streamlining effect of the
fuselage will prevent the aircraft from yawing excessively and you'll be able to make
normal turns.
The third way is to reduce rotor rpm slightly below the normal operating range, but
not reduced outside caution range, and lower the collective a corresponding amount to
cause a descent. This works because the main rotor produces less lift at a lower rpm and
therefore creates less torque effect. This method is very effective, but must be done very
cautiously. It should not be attempted without the benefit of instruction.
Regardless of the descent method, maintain airspeed above normal approach speed
until approximately one-third down final approach. At this point, start a slow deceleration, using as few collective changes as possible, so that you arrive in a low hover above
your expected touchdown spot just as translational lift is lost. Pull collective to stop the
rate of descent and allow the helicopter to make a landing to a spot. Don't try to hover even
though you might be able to, because descending from the hover could create a problem.
Get the helicopter on the ground as soon as possible.
Because reduced-power maneuvers, such a descents, require a right pedal input, you'll
usually be descending if the right pedal becomes locked forward of the neutral position.
Emergencies
\
u
I
;
./
»
Figure 10-4 If the Sikorsky SH-60B SeaHawk experiences a tail rotor control failure, the position
of the tail rotor pedals will determine if the pilots can make a safe landing on the helideck of the
U.S.S. Crommelin in the background. (Source: United Technologies Sikorsky Aircraft)
Hovering is therefore impossible because the higher power required to hover will cause
the helicopter to yaw left, usually at a rapid rate. The way to get the machine down
with a stuck right pedal is to do a running landing, which requires little or no increase
in power.
Level flight and climbs are a problem with a stuck right pedal because you cannot
counteract torque due to increases in power by adding left pedal. There are ways to do
it, though.
If the pedal locks while you are descending at a high speed, say 100 knots, you probably could obtain level flight by reducing the airspeed to a low cruise speed, for example
70 knots, as long as the rate of descent was not too high to begin with. To obtain the best
possible climb, reduce airspeed to the best-rate-of-climb airspeed.
If you don't climb or can't even maintain a level altitude at the best-rate-of-climb
speed, the only thing left to do is to increase collective. Do this carefully and in small
increments because the helicopter will yaw right. The more collective you pull, the
greater the right yaw. If you really must gain some altitude, hold your airspeed at the
best-rate-of-climb speed, pull collective, and allow the helicopter to spiral upwards
in a right turn.
Because you want to do a running landing, you'll have to find an airport or some
place with a long flat area. Do a shallow to normal approach and hold airspeed as close
to best-rate-of-climb speed as the locked pedal position will allow (in other words with
as little yaw as possible). This way, if you need to make a go-around, you'll already be
at the best possible airspeed.
Chapter Ten
Experiment with small collective inputs. You'll find that a slight increase in collective will cause the nose to move left, and a slight decrease will cause the nose to move
right. Now, freeze the collective and tell yourself you are not going to move it again
until just before touchdown if necessary to make a small yaw input.
Aim for the middle of the first third erf the runway or landing area, using cyclic control for alignment. At approximately 50 to 100 feet, depending on aircraft type, begin
bleeding off airspeed so that you arrive a few feet over the ground just above translational
lift. Whatever you do, don't allow your airspeed to decrease below this amount until you
are on the ground.
Touchdown one of two ways, depending on your engine controls. If your helicopter
has a motorcycle-type throttle grip, roll off some power and the helicopter will settle to
the runway like a floating leaf. Rolling off the throttle will usually kill any left yaw and
might even give you a slight right yaw. If it does, increase collective very slightly. This
will eliminate the right yaw and cushion the landing. After ground contact, carefully
reduce collective and throttle as necessary to maintain alignment with the runway and
reduce forward speed.
If the helicopter has an overhead throttle, or fuel flow control lever, as many turbine
helicopters do, reducing the throttle is impossible if you're the only pilot. For a twopilot crew, it's a difficult exercise in crew coordination. The landing then becomes a
very precise balancing act between cyclic and collective inputs. The key is to find an
airspeed that provides a 300- to 400-fpm descent and no yaw and to hold this airspeed
all the way to the ground. The only kicker is ground effect, which will cause the helicopter to level out a few feet above the ground. Now the balancing act begins.
You must bleed off a few knots of airspeed to get down. If you bleed off too much
airspeed too fast, the helicopter will start to descend too quickly toward the runway. If
you try to correct by increasing collective, you'll induce a big left yaw, airspeed will
drop even faster, and you'll pull more collective. Soon, the situation is hopeless.
Very, very carefully apply aft cyclic pressure as needed to bleed off just a few knots at
a time. If you do it correctly, you'll touchdown just at effective translational lift airspeed.
The aircraft will still want to yaw toward the right as you lower collective, but when
you're on the ground, the friction between the skids or wheels and the ground will help
reduce this tendency.
Precise control inputs are needed to make decent landings with control-type tail
rotor problems, but such landings are possible. As I mentioned before, tail rotor control
failures are not that serious, but with improper pilot technique they can easily cause a
crash.
Tail Rotor Drive System Failures
Complete stoppage of the tail rotor, loss of a tail rotor blade, and separation of the tail
rotor from the aircraft are extremely serious emergencies (Fig. 10-5), so serious that they
are impossible to effectively simulate in a real aircraft. The best an instructor can do in
training is push the right pedal cautiously forward to the stop, say "Simulated tail rotor
failure," and have the student do an autorotation to a power recovery.
With the development of good, six-axis, visual helicopter flight simulators, more
thorough training in tail rotor drive system failures is possible. It's still not the same as
the real thing, but there isn't a pilot around who would willingly try the real thing. It's
scary enough in a simulator.
Emergencies
Figure 10-5 Damage to a tail rotor blade might cause vibrations that are so severe that the
entire tail section separates from the aircraft: Agusta Westland AW139 tail rotor.
What a simulator shows us is that a tail rotor drive system failure is controllable to
some extent, if proper actions are taken quickly enough. The proper action, and the only
proper action, is to enter autorotation immediately.
This is fine if you are in cruise, but if you are in a hover or just taking off or landing, it's
almost impossible to land without crashing. Even from cruise flight, the probability of
crashing is very high because the autorotation will be unlike any normal engine-out autorotation you've ever done. But even though you might total the aircraft, you'll probably be
able to land with a slow forward speed and rate of descent that minimizes the consequences.
Fortunately, most tail rotor drive system failures do not come unannounced. Many
helicopters have chip detectors installed in the intermediate and tail gearboxes (Fig. 10-6).
Metallic flakes, chips, fuzz, and particles are attracted to a magnetic plug in the oil sump
of the gearbox. When enough metal accumulates to make an electrical connection, a chip
warning light illuminates in the cockpit. The normal emergency action is to land immediately, following the emergency procedure checklist, if applicable.
Other indications are unusual noises and vibrations. Because it is spinning faster
than the main rotor, a problem in the tail rotor will be felt as a high-frequency vibration,
often in the pedals themselves. Whenever strange vibrations are felt, an immediate
landing should be made and the source of the vibrations investigated. It doesn't take
long for a tail rotor to literally shake itself to pieces if it becomes unbalanced.
The ultimate indication of a complete tail rotor drive system failure is a sudden,
hard yaw to the right. If this happens, there are two basic rules to remember.
Chapter Ten
-
5
A.
i
Figure 10-6 Tail rotor gearbox of an Enstrom F 28F. The nut-like structure connected to the
electrical wire under the gearbox is the magnetic chip detector plug. The nut with the circular
glass window (just above the chip detector plug) is used to check the level of the oil in the
gearbox.
First, enter autorotation immediately. This means lower the collective all the way
down without hesitation. If you wait too long, the helicopter will quickly become
uncontrollable. It might exceed safe angles of yaw and roll or rotate so much that it will
be in rearward flight at a high airspeed. Recovery will be impossible.
Second, maintain forward airspeed in order to make use of the streamlining tendency of the fuselage. Aim for the best glide airspeed.
These procedures are easy to write and remember, but not so easy to perform. The
autorotation should stabilize the right yaw, but probably won't eliminate it completely;
to fly straight ahead, you'll need a left bank to compensate for the yaw; if you level the
wings, you'll turn right; turning left will require a very steep left bank and might be
impossible. Because of the bank, the rate of descent will be much higher than a normal
autorotation. You have control of the aircraft, but just barely.
Once you've established autorotation and have some semblance of control, some
flight manuals suggest that you carefully increase collective to see what happens. Perhaps you've only experienced a control system failure and can maintain level flight.
(Some control system failures can seem like drive system failures.) If the helicopter
begins to yaw right again, forget trying to regain level flight, lower the collective, and
shut down the engine. You're going to have to make an autorotation all the way to the
ground.
Emergencies
With a left bank to counteract the right yaw and a high rate of descent, the final phase
of the autorotation is going to be tough. You won't have much time to choose a landing
spot, but try to reach the biggest, flattest area you can. Plan to flare about 50 percent
higher than the normal flare height. As you flare, roll the wings level, then do the rest like
any other autorotation. Try to touch down with as little forward speed as possible
because chances are, you'll hit with some side force and this will cause the helicopter to
roll over. In any helicopter crash, you have a better chance surviving a straight vertical
drop without horizontal movement.
Main Gearbox Malfunctions
Ranking close to tail rotor drive system failures in severity are main gearbox failures.
The reason is easy to fathom; if the main gearbox fails in some way, the rotor stops turning; if the rotor stops turning, the helicopter can't fly.
Because it is one of the components in a helicopter that can't be backed up by
another system, main gearboxes are subject to exacting standards, constant inspection
(Fig. 10-7), and numerous monitoring systems. Even in the smallest of helicopters, the
pilot is provided with transmission oil pressure and an oil temperature gauge.
A
<
Figure 10-7 Helicopter main gearboxes are built to exacting standards and are inspected on a
regular basis: cutaway model of an MD500 main gearbox with input from the engine on the lower
right and output to the tail rotor on the upper right.
Chapter Ten
Many helicopters also have magnetic chip detectors in the main gearbox, with exactly
the same function as the chip detectors in the intermediate and tail rotor gearboxes.
Sophisticated helicopters have additional warning systems. The Aerospatiale Super
Puma, for example, has two separate main gearbox low oil pressure warning lights, an
emergency oil pump, a high oil temperature warning light, and a main gearbox fire warning system. Newer helicopters are now equipped with vibration monitors on the main
gearbox (as well as other systems). These health and usage monitoring systems (HUMS) can
detect subtle changes in the numerous vibrations emanating from the gearbox so that
very small cracks can be discovered long before they turn into serious problems.
Like tail rotor problems, main gearbox malfunctions usually don't come unannounced. Abnormal transmission oil temperature or pressure indications, leaking oil and
unusual noises or vibrations will be your most likely guide that something has failed or
is about to. Don't disregard these indications. Don't just hope they'll go away. Take them
seriously and follow the emergency procedures for your particular helicopter. After you
land, have the aircraft checked by a mechanic before flying the machine again.
Perhaps the most common main gearbox failure is a malfunction of the lubricating
system. Transmissions need oil and the surest way to make gears seize up is to run
them without oil. Although the newest helicopters are constructed to run for a minimum of 30 minutes after a complete loss of main gearbox oil, don't count on those
30 minutes . If you lose transmission oil pressure or see oil leaking out all over the place,
land immediately.
Engine Malfunctions
If the engine in a single-engine helicopter fails completely, there's only one thing you can
do: autorotate. (Autorotations are covered in Chap. 8.) However, an engine can malfunction and its performance can deteriorate without it completely failing.
If the engine is running so roughly that the engine and rotor rpm needles are split,
don't troubleshoot it, make an immediate autorotative landing to the most suitable
area. After entering autorotation, do not attempt to return to powered flight and be
ready for the engine to quit completely at any time.
If the engine is running roughly or loses power, but the engine and rotor rpm
needles are not split, you should check a few things before making a precautionary
landing.
The first suspect is fuel. "Am I running out of fuel?" is your immediate question. If the
helicopter has several tanks, is the tank feeding the engine nearly empty? If so, switch to
another tank. Perhaps you've just refueled and have reason to suspect the fuel is contaminated or the wrong type. Switch to a tank you know has good fuel in it, or make an
immediate precautionary landing. Also be sure to check the mixture control. Perhaps you
forgot to lock it in the full rich position and it has vibrated to a leaner setting.
Second, check the magnetos. Is the switch in the both position? If not, switch to both.
Perhaps one of the magneto systems is firing out of sequence. You can check this by
switching to right and left mags to see if there is any change in the operation of the
engine. Be very cautious when you do this because the engine might fail completely
when you switch to the faulty system.
If nothing helps and the engine continues to run roughly, proceed to the nearest
available landing area at an altitude that permits a safe autorotation. The engine might
fail completely at any time.
Emergencies
A frozen or stuck throttle in flight is an emergency condition that must be carefully
evaluated by the pilot. The throttle might freeze under any power setting from full on
to idle. A stuck throttle will require some experimentation to determine if a descent can
be made without encountering a low rpm condition or an overspeed.
If a descent can be made without creating an rpm problem, make a running landing
at the nearest airport or heliport. As soon as you are safely on the ground, shut down
the engine.
If the throttle is stuck in such a high setting that a descent cannot be made without
causing an overspeed, then an autorotation must be done. Fly to the nearest airport or
heliport and inform the controlling agency of your intention to make an autorotation.
Line up on final approach into the wind and when you are sure you can make the runway,
move the mixture control to full lean. Quickly return your hand to the collective and
lower it immediately to enter autorotation. It will probably take a few seconds for the
engine to quit, but don't wait for it. Get that collective down right away.
All helicopters have instruments to monitor engine conditions. At the very least,
you'll find an engine oil pressure gauge, an engine oil temperature gauge, and a tachometer. Warning lights might be associated with these gauges. For example, there might be
a low oil pressure warning light and a high oil temperature warning light. Gauge and
warning light indications should be considered when troubleshooting a problem. If the
gauge and warning light agree, for example the oil pressure gauge shows low pressure
and the low oil pressure light comes on, you probably have low oil pressure; however,
if the gauge and the warning light do not agree, there's a good chance that you have an
indication failure.
As a general rule, if engine oil pressure drops below the minimum required, make
an immediate precautionary landing and be ready for a complete engine failure on the
way down. If any other engine instrument goes above redline, make a precautionary
landing at the nearest available area and closely monitor the other engine instruments
for signs of trouble.
A tachometer failure can fool you. In flight, the engine rpm needle and rotor rpm
needle are matched. Because rotor rpm is so important, you'll be checking the tachometer frequently and will be alert for any deviation; however, if one of the needles should
fail, there's no reason to get alarmed. Either needle by itself can provide the information
necessary to safely continue flight to the nearest airport or heliport; therefore, you
should not enter autorotation if either rpm needle suddenly goes to zero, unless the
engine has obviously failed.
Fires
A fire in flight is one of the worst things that can happen in any aircraft. Unlike surface
vehicles, which can stop quickly and evacuate all occupants in case of fire, aircraft have
to get back down to earth before this can be done.
Engine Fire
Of course, there's always a big, hot fire going on inside the engine when it's operating
properly. But when the fire gets outside the engine, it becomes a real concern for the
pilot.
Broken fuel lines, broken oil lines, and casing burn-throughs are the most common
causes of engine fires. All helicopters have some kind of fire detection system on the engine.
Chapter Ten
These are thermal devices that illuminate a warning light in the cockpit if they detect an
unsafe high temperature. Although many fire warning systems are subject to false warnings, it's always prudent to take any fire warning seriously.
Because fire warning systems differ considerably from helicopter to helicopter, refer
to the flight manual for specific procedures. This is definitely one procedure you should
commit to memory.
All helicopters have an engine compartment fire extinguishing system consisting of a
container of extinguishing agent (bromotrifluoromethane or freon gas) under pressure and
the necessary plumbing to discharge the agent around the engine compartment. The gas
extinguishes the fire by displacing the oxygen, but doesn't linger very long in the engine
compartment. To maximize the effectiveness of the extinguishing agent, the flight manual
might put an airspeed limit on use of the fire extinguisher. Memorize this limit and abide by
it or the gas might not stay around long enough to put the fire out.
One very important thing to remember with any helicopter: If the emergency
procedure instructs you to shut the engine down, first lower the collective and enter
autorotation before you shut down the engine (if you're flying a single-engine
machine). By entering autorotation first, you avoid the problem of having to reestablish normal rotor rpm; if you shut the engine down first and then autorotate, you
might become distracted while dealing with the engine fire and forget to lower the
collective as you shut the engine down.
Remember: Maintain rotor rpm and fly the aircraft, even with a fire.
Electrical Fire
Most of the time, electrical fires are confined to one component, usually a short circuit
inside that component or an electrical connector. The standard flight manual procedure
is to isolate the damaged component from the rest of the circuit. You can normally do this
by turning the unit off or pulling its respective circuit breaker, or both to be extra sure.
Always check circuit breakers whenever you suspect any kind of electrical problem,
and even when you don't. You'll be amazed how many things in an aircraft are hooked
up to a circuit breaker.
The rule of thumb with a popped circuit breaker is to reset it one time and see what
happens. If it stays in, fine, go ahead and use the component; a momentary overvoltage in
the circuit probably caused the breaker to trip. If the breaker won't stay in or pops out again,
don't keep trying to reset it or use the component. Something is wrong and you might
aggravate the situation if you keep pushing in the breaker or hold it in against its will. Leave
the circuit breaker out and switch off the component, as an added safety measure.
Another Good Rule
If something is inoperative, turn it off. For example, if the landing light burns out, turn
off the landing light switch; if a fuel pump fails, turn off the fuel pump switch. In the
vast majority of cases, it probably won't make any difference, but you never know. The
open electrical circuit to the component could create more problems later on.
If switching off a burning component and pulling its appropriate circuit breaker
doesn't stop the electrical fire, you'll have to eliminate power to the electrical bus that
provides current to the unit. You might have to pull more circuit breakers or even switch
off one or more electrical producers, such as the generator, transformer rectifier, inverter,
or battery. In the very worst case, you might have to shut off all electrical producers.
Emergencies
Some flight manuals even recommend switching everything off first in order to quickly
stop the fire, then, after it goes out, you may turn various components back on one at a time.
A complete electrical shutdown is not a major problem in daylight. The helicopter
will still fly without electricity, although all instruments requiring electrical power will
not work. On the other hand, the nonelectrical instruments, such as the barometric altimeter, airspeed indicator, vertical speed indicator (all of which are pitot-static instruments), and the magnetic compass, will all continue to work.
At night, switching off all electrical power is more interesting. Obviously, the cockpit
becomes very dark. Always carry an alternate light source, ideally two flashlights with
spare batteries, when you fly at night.
Your first indication of an electrical fire might be the smell. Although acrid and
unpleasant, the smell of burning electrical wires is not hard to miss. Smoke might also
be present.
If there's a lot of smoke, you'll probably have to ventilate the cockpit. Do this cautiously because the addition of fresh air might feed the fire with oxygen. Ideally, isolate
the source of the fire before opening any windows.
Another indication of an electrical fire could be a plethora of unrelated warning
lights and malfunctions. Wires from several different systems are often bundled together
to make routing of the wires easier. If one or more of the wires becomes chafed and then
short-circuits against another wire or the fuselage, the resulting buildup of heat could be
enough to melt or burn the insulation around the other wires in the bundle.
The following incident, which occurred in a Super Puma, is typical of an electrical fire.
The first warnings the pilots saw were the engine malfunction warning lights. As they
worked on these, the autopilot cut out. Then warning flags appeared on a number of the
navigation instruments. Finally, both generators dropped off line. What appeared to be multiple unconnected problems ended up being caused by a short-circuit of some of the wires in
a bundle. Fortunately by cutting out all electrical power, they were able to stop the fire and
eventually make a safe landing.
The bottom line: Treat electrical fires with respect and carry two flashlights at night.
Cabin and Baggage Compartment Fire
Unfortunately, helicopters are often not well-equipped to fight fires in the cabin and baggage compartments. Even the largest helicopters carry only one or two small fire extinguishers. A few helicopters have fire detection systems in the cabin and baggage areas,
but automatic fire extinguishing systems for these areas are very rarely provided. The
common procedure in large helicopters is to send the copilot back to the cabin or baggage compartment to try to fight the fire.
In a small helicopter with one pilot, it's very difficult to fight a cabin fire and fly at
the same time. If you have passengers, you might be able to instruct them. Basically,
you do the best you can to extinguish the fire. Your main objective should be to get the
helicopter on the ground as quickly as possible, shut it down, and evacuate.
Mast Bumping
Some of the hazards of helicopter flying are clearly avoidable by the pilot, such as,
improper cargo distribution, running out of fuel, and continued flight into bad weather.
Other hazards are not as avoidable, including most failures due to mechanical breakage
or malfunction. One hazard that falls in between is mast bumping.
Chapter Ten
x
Figure 10-8 Only helicopters with two-bladed, semirigid rotor systems, such as the Robinson
R22 and R44, the Bell 206 series, and the Hiller UH-12, are susceptible to mast bumping:
Robinson R22. (Source: Hillsboro Aviation)
Mast bumping is for the most part avoidable, but there are some flight regimes in
which it becomes more likely. Turbulence can increase the chance of mast bumping as
does pushing the cyclic forward in level flight or at the top of a climb. Prevention is a
matter of avoiding those regimes whenever possible and being particularly alert for the
possibility of mast bumping, if such regimes cannot be avoided.
To alleviate some concern from the beginning, mast bumping can only occur in a
helicopter with a two-bladed, semirigid rotor system, such as the Robinson R22 and
R44, the Bell 206 series, and the Hiller UH-12 (Fig. 10-8). Furthermore, helicopters with
hub-restraining springs, such as the Bell 222 and 230 helicopters, are not susceptible to
mast bumping.
So what is mast bumping? It is not, as the name may suggest, the mast bumping
against something. Rather, it is something bumping against the mast. Specifically, the
rotor hub bangs against the mast.
If you look at the amount of space between the rotor hub and the mast, it doesn't
look as if it should be such a big deal when the two bump together, as there is not much
room between the two. But looks are deceiving because apparently the forces involved
are so large that the mast can be bent and even broken by having the rotor hub bang
against it. If mast bumping occurs, the helicopter may break up in flight or become
uncontrollable. Either way, the result is not pretty.
Mast bumping is a problem for helicopters with semirigid, or teetering, rotor heads
because these rely upon the forces of weight and thrust to keep the rotor disc and the
Emergencies
fuselage in their proper places. Hingeless/rigid rotor systems are not susceptible to
mast bumping. Fully articulated rotor heads have restraining devices (flap restrainers
and droop stops) to keep the rotor blades from moving too far and causing the rotor
hub to contact the rotor mast. Teetering rotor heads (except for those with the aforementioned hub-restraining springs) have no such restraining devices.
Semirigid rotor systems become susceptible to mast bumping when the aircraft enters
a low-G condition. Although a severe downdraft (such as that caused by windshear)
could theoretically do this, the more likely cause is pilot control input. Rapidly lowering
the collective and pushing forward on the cyclic is one way. Rapidly reversing the controls, such as applying full right cyclic and then full left cyclic, can cause mast bumping.
Another way to enter a low-G condition in an aircraft is to do a steep climb and then
pushover the top, like going over the top of a roller coaster. Military pilots flying nap-ofthe-earth sometimes do this—inadvertently or on purpose—when flying over power
lines, ridges, or other obstacles. (Low-G conditions are not inherently dangerous conditions in airplanes. If you fly a proper parabolic curve in an airplane, you can, in fact, create
a weightless condition, simulating space flight.)
If the main rotor blades become unloaded in a low-G condition, they no longer produce thrust (or only partial thrust) and in a sense get to do their own thing. The fuselage,
on the other hand, continues along on its merry way, subject to relative airspeed and the
force of the tail rotor, which is still creating its thrust. Very quickly the fuselage yaws and
rolls and the pilot, sensing this, is likely to make a control correction with cyclic. However, because the main rotor is not creating thrust, the cyclic movement is ineffective. The
fuselage keeps yawing and rolling, and the pilot is enticed to make an even larger correction. With the rotor blades flapping wildly, the rotor hub eventually and often quite
quickly hits the rotor mast. In severe mast-bumping situations, a main rotor blade could
hit the airframe or the main rotor could separate from the helicopter.
Make no mistake about it, mast bumping is something you absolutely want to
avoid.
So how do you avoid it? My mother was always full of sayings. One of her favorites
fits rather well here: "An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure," or, if you prefer metric, "A gram of prevention is worth a kilogram of cure." The best way to prevent
mast bumping is to avoid the conditions conducive to it.
First, don't put the helicopter in a low-G condition. Don't do pushovers at the top
of a climb and don't "yank and bank" rapidly. Avoid turbulence, if you can, but this is
often not possible. Reducing airspeed and making small control movements can help in
turbulence. If turbulence is really severe, then get on the ground. Bracing your cyclic
arm on your leg can help you avoid aggravating cyclic inputs in turbulence.
Two, if you ever do find yourself needing to make a quick climb to clear a set of
wires, a row of trees, a mountain ridge or whatever, level out smoothly after you clear
the obstacle. Shame on you for getting yourself in this situation in the first place, but at
least know how to avoid mast bumping after you clear the obstacle.
Three, if you must enter autorotation, move the cyclic aft and lower the collective
firmly. Don't jerk it down. Give the rotor system a second or two to stabilize in autorotation, and then adjust the collective to maintain rotor rpm within limits.
And finally, don't make abrupt cyclic movements. Be gentle with your helicopter.
Yes, there are some helicopters, specifically those with fully articulated, bearing-less
rotor systems, that can take a lot of rapid cyclic movement, but why subject the machine
to such abuse if you don't have to?
Chapter Ten
Now if you still find yourself in a mast-bumping situation, which would be indicated
by a pronounced low-G, seat-of-the-pants feeling, dirt and grit rising off the floor, and the
helicopter yawing and rolling to the right, then try not to panic and do the following.
One, maintain the position of the collective or even raise it slightly, unless you must,
out of necessity, entered autorotation.
Two, smoothly apply a small amount of aft cyclic. This helps load the main rotor
system, which will produce thrust.
Three, recover to level flight with left cyclic input. And four, vow never to do this
again.
Finally, if you do suspect that the rotor hub has or even just might have contacted
the mast, be sure to have a mechanic check this out asap.
We have reviewed the most serious helicopter emergencies. If you understand these,
have a good working knowledge of every possible emergency that's explained in your
aircraft's flight manual or pilot's operating handbook, and follow the four-step helicopter
emergency procedure, you will be well prepared for any eventuality.
Although it's possible to drive a car without knowing what the electronic throttle control does and it's possible to fly a helicopter without knowing how to put one together, the
serious pilot will always strive to learn more about his machine. Knowing the parts and
systems that make up your aircraft, how they work, how they interact with other parts and
systems, and how they can fail will help you cope with the numerous minor glitches that
occur and make you better prepared if something extremely serious happens.
Studying aircraft systems is an ongoing task that starts in Chap. 11.
CHAPTER
Aircraft Systems
Aviation in itself is not inherently dangerous. But to an even greater degree than the sea, it is terribly
unforgiving of any carelessness, incapacity or neglect.
Origin unknown
Fust as the Fords, Hondas, and Volkswagens are constructed differently, so are Bells,
I Enstroms, and Robinsons designed and built differently. No two helicopter types
i are alike, even those built by the same manufacturer. This is why the study of
aircraft systems is so important.
Not that you won't see general similarities in all helicopters. You will. And you'll
find even more similarities in the engineering designs of each manufacturer. For example, all Bell helicopters have common characteristics and there's a distinctive design
philosophy in all Sikorsky machines. Aerospatiale helicopters have their own special
French logic, the German engineers at MBB had their own way of doing things. After
the two companies came together in 1992 to form Eurocopter, the new helicopters given
the "EC" prefix show the influence of both companies.
But regardless their similarities. Bell 206s are different from Bell 412s, Sikorsky S-76s
are different from Sikorsky S-92s, Eurocopter AS 350s are different from Eurocopter, EC
145s and so on. To really get to know any particular helicopter model, to get the real nittygritty, you must read the flight manual or pilot's operating handbook for that helicopter.
For this reason, the following can only be a general introduction to the main systems
common to most helicopters.
Engines
The heart of every helicopter is the engine or engines. There are two types of engines
used in helicopters today: reciprocating (or internal-combustion piston) and turbine.
Because you'll most likely be starting out in a helicopter with a reciprocating engine
(Fig. 11-1), I'll cover piston engines in general here and turbine engines in the last section of this chapter.
The reciprocating engines used in helicopters are similar to the piston engines found
in automobiles and trucks. The engines have cylinders and spark plugs, pistons and oil
pumps, crankshafts and carburetors (or electronic fuel controls in newer models). Unlike
automotive engines, aircraft engines are lighter and built with more expensive materials.
Most are air-cooled, as opposed to liquid-cooled. Additional weight, complexity, and the
risk of losing the liquid coolant are reasons why air-cooling is preferred in aircraft engines.
Another difference between automobile and aircraft engines is the ignition system.
Instead of being comprised of a distributor, points, and voltage regulator (as in older
217
Chapter Eleven
Figure 11-1 Most helicopter pilots start their training in small helicopters with reciprocating
engines, like this Schweizer 300. (Source: United Technologies Sikorsky Aircraft)
car and truck engines), an aircraft reciprocating engine has magnetos. Of course, newer
reciprocating engines in both ground vehicles and aircraft have electronic ignition
systems.
Magnetos
Magnetos always seem a bit mysterious to the new pilot. Fortunately, you don't have to
know a whole lot about magnetos to use them and they're really not that complicated.
Magnetos are small, self-contained electrical generators whose sole function is to
generate enough power to make spark plugs spark. They are driven by a shaft taken off
the engine so that whenever the engine is turning, so are the magnetos. Each cylinder in
an aircraft engine has two spark plugs to provide for better combustion and more power.
Each engine also has two magnetos that are independent of each other. Each magneto
powers one spark plug in each cylinder so that if one magneto goes out, all the cylinders
still get a spark.
The magneto switch simply opens and closes a circuit to each magneto; in the both
position, the circuits to both magnetos are closed, meaning they are "on"; right, only the
right magneto's circuit is closed (on); left, only the left magneto's circuit is closed (on).
When the switch is in the off position, both circuits are open (magnetos off).
When the engine is not turning, switching on one or both magnetos does nothing,
because the magnetos aren't turning either and are therefore not producing any electrical
power. As soon as the engine turns over, the magnetos produce enough power to make a
spark. If you have ever started an airplane by turning the propeller by hand, you know it
doesn't take much of a rotation to start the engine.
Aircraft Systems
If you turn the magneto switch to off while the engine is running, the engine will
stop because, even though the magnetos would still be producing electrical power, the
circuits to the spark plugs are now broken.
You check the magnetos on run-up by switching off each one separately and
checking for a drop in engine rpm. A slight drop is normal because one spark plug in
each cylinder is now not sparking. If the drop is excessive or if the engine stalls when
you switch to one magneto, it's a sure sign that the magneto is bad because it can't
keep the engine running by itself. The good one you just switched off was keeping the
engine running.
You always want the redundancy of two magnetos. Never take off with one inoperative magneto unless you absolutely must—for example, if you're on a volcano that
was about to erupt. Otherwise, get the bad magneto fixed first.
Mixture Control
Older automobile engines with carburetors have a manual mixture control. It's one
of the small screws on the side of the carburetor. If you've ever driven a vehicle with
a carburetor over the Rocky Mountains, you probably noticed the engine ran
rougher and had less and less power the higher you climbed. This was because the
lower air density at higher elevations resulted in the engine's fuel-air mixture being
too rich. People who live in high places have the carburetor in their cars and trucks
adjusted to give a leaner fuel-air mixture than that of vehicles driven at lower elevations. A proper fuel-air mixture is the most important single factor affecting engine
power output.
A too lean fuel-air mixture (too little fuel for the amount of air, by weight, entering
the carburetor) will cause rough engine operation, overheating, backfiring, detonation,
and loss of power. A too-rich mixture (too much fuel for the amount of air) causes rough
engine operation and loss of power.
The electronic fuel controls in newer cars, trucks, airplanes, and helicopters automatically adjust the fuel-air mixture for air density. However, many airplanes and
helicopters still have carburetors and therefore need mixture controls.
The mixture control normally has a red knob-—an indication to the pilot to use caution when adjusting it (Fig. 11-2). The full rich position is with the control pushed all the
way forward. Pulling the control toward you will cause the mixture to become leaner,
meaning less fuel to air. Very delicate adjustments of the mixture control can be made
by turning the knob, screwing it in or out, as opposed to pushing and pulling.
Generally, aircraft carburetors are adjusted for sea-level operations. The correct
position of the mixture control for start-up, takeoff, and landing is therefore the full rich
position. At altitudes below 3,000 feet, there isn't usually much advantage to be gained
by adjusting the mixture control, particularly if you're going to be making a lot of excursions down to lower altitudes.
If you plan to fly a long distance above 3,000 feet, however, adjusting the mixture
control to the proper setting will provide a noticeable increase in power and decrease in
fuel consumption.
Caution! Because a helicopter engine does not have a flywheel like an airplane
engine, a helicopter engine will quit if the mixture is too lean. Some manufacturers
recommend that the mixture not be leaned in flight. Be sure to consult the pilot's operating handbook of your particular helicopter to find the proper use of the mixture
control.
Chapter Eleven
GBS/
<y ^
no.an
^5^,
*
O
X
r-M c-m
f
5
sP
u;ll
&
CiU
3 •
Figure 11-2 The mixture control in this Enstrom F-28F is labeled PULL FOR IDLE CUTOFF—TURN
TO LEAN. Note the key-operated magneto switch just above and to the left of the mixture control.
Carburetor Heat
Another engine control that aircraft reciprocating engines have that automobile engines
don't have is carburetor heat. Because the temperature of air passing through the carburetor can drop as much as 60 0F due to vaporization of the fuel-air mixture, moisture in the
air will freeze and accumulate as frost or ice on the inside walls of the carburetor, if the
resulting temperature is below 32 0F. The restriction to the airflow causes a decrease in
power and will eventually stall the engine.
The carburetor heater directs warm air into the carburetor to inhibit carburetor icing
or to melt ice that's already there. Warm air is obtained by ducting outside air around
Aircraft Systems
piping in an exhaust muffler. The outside air is not mixed with exhaust gases, only
heated by them. The carburetor heater control on the instrument panel simply opens
and closes a butterfly valve that directs either unheated or heated outside air to the
carburetor intake.
Because warm air is less dense than cold air, application of carburetor heat causes a
slight decrease in engine power, which is evidenced by a decrease in engine rpm. If
icing is already present when carburetor heat is applied, engine power should increase
after 10 to 20 seconds as the ice melts away.
If your helicopter is equipped with a fuel injection system, it will not have a carburetor and, therefore, there is no need for carburetor heat.
Engine Oil System
An important part of any engine is its oil system. Oil is used for lubrication of vital
moving parts inside the engine as well as for cooling. During operation of the engine, a
pump located in the oil sump and driven by a drive shaft geared to the engine, pumps
oil under pressure to bearings in the engine. The oil drains back to the sump, usually
after passing through a radiator-type cooler.
An oil temperature gauge and an oil pressure gauge are provided to monitor the
engine oil system. Of the two, the pressure gauge is the most important, but both should
be checked often during the flight.
Low or no oil pressure indicates possible oil loss and subsequent engine seizure; an
immediate landing should be made to investigate. High oil pressure could mean clogging
of the oil filter or of an oil line. Engine failure is not as imminent as with low pressure, but
the cause should be checked out soon.
Low oil temperature is usually due to low outside air temperature. If it's hot outside, it's probably an indicator failure. High oil temperature might be an indication of
loss of oil, particularly if accompanied by low oil pressure. If the outside air temperature is high and oil pressure is normal, oil temperature will be higher than normal.
Engine Tachometer
The engine tachometer is similar to tachometers found in some automobiles and trucks.
Like tachometers found in airplanes with constant-speed/variable-pitch propellers,
tachometers in helicopters measure the rotational speed of the engine. And like the
propeller control in such airplanes, the collective pitch lever in helicopters is the primary control of engine rpm during normal operation. (Some people argue that the
throttle is the primary control of engine rpm; I'll explain this in a few paragraphs.)
Because the collective varies the pitch of the main rotor blades, which changes the
power required to turn the blades, a special cam linkage, called a correlation device, is
provided to correlate collective position with engine power. As the collective is raised,
engine power is increased (in other words, the throttle valve progressively opens to
allow more air into the carburetor). As the collective is lowered, power is decreased (the
throttle valve closes). This correlation is not perfect, so the throttle control must be used
to make up the difference in order to keep rotor rpm constant; therefore, the throttle
control is considered the secondary control of engine rpm.
To make it easier to monitor both engine rpm and rotor rpm, most helicopters have
dual tachometers that indicate both parameters on the same gauge (Fig. 11-3). Although
the rotor turns much slower than the engine, the tachometer is geared so that both
needles show the same indication (often indicated in percent) under normal conditions;
Chapter Eleven
HOT* UO
\
~
^
f
*cufTCH
'-
Figure 11-3 Single-engine helicopters have dual tachometers: this single-engine dual
tachometer is in the lower-left corner of the panel. Twin-engine helicopters have triple
tachometers: one needle for each engine and one for rotor rpm.
therefore, as long as the engine and rotor rpm needles are matched in the green arc on
the dual tach, everything is okay. Helicopters with two engines have triple tachometers:
one needle for each engine and one for rotor rpm.
If the engine fails, the engine rpm needle will split off from the rotor rpm needle,
and eventually wind down to zero. When practicing autorotations, autorotative flight
is achieved only when the engine rpm falls below rotor rpm. If it doesn't split off, the
engine is still giving some power to the transmission, even if the rate of descent is as
great as in an actual autorotation. During practice autorotations, with engine rpm below
rotor rpm, the throttle has full control of both engine rpm and manifold pressure and
the collective has control of rotor rpm.
Too much throttle can cause engine and rotor rpm to go above the normal limits,
particularly in low collective pitch settings. For this reason, most helicopters are
equipped with engine governors that kick in and reduce engine output above a set rotor
speed.
At high collective pitch settings, it's possible to reach the limit of engine power. If
collective pitch is increased above this limit, rotor and engine rpm will begin to decrease
or "decay." Try as it might, the engine simply cannot keep the rotor turning any faster.
Engine rpm cannot go above rotor rpm unless there is a failure of the freewheeling
unit or the shaft between the engine and the transmission. If this happens, the transmission will be unpowered, even though the engine is still running, and autorotation must
be entered immediately.
Aircraft Systems
Manifold Pressure Gauge
The manifold pressure gauge measures power output. The gauge is an aneroid-type
barometer that measures the air pressure in inches of mercury at a certain point in the
induction (or intake) manifold of the engine (Fig. 11-4). For any given engine speed,
power output is proportional to the pressure inside the cylinders. The primary control
of the manifold pressure is the throttle and the secondary control is the collective,
although some people say it's the other way around.
When the engine is at rest, the manifold pressure gauge indicates ambient atmospheric
pressure (Fig. 11-5). Theoretically, this is the maximum pressure the engine can produce on
a given day, although in reality it will be two or three inches less. If the engine is supercharged or turbocharged, it's possible to obtain a manifold pressure above atmospheric
pressure. A turbocharger pressurizes the air in a small, fast-spinning turbine before directing it into the engine, which makes it possible for the engine to produce more power.
Piston
o
Valve
i
Fuel-air
mixture
[
Carburetor
Throttle
Manifold
pressure
gauge
3
Air
Intake manifold
Figure 11-4
engine.
Location of the manifold pressure gauge in the induction manifold of a reciprocating
Chapter Eleven
Figure 11-5 When a reciprocating, engine is shut down, its manifold pressure gauge will indicate
the outside ambient atmospheric pressure. In this Schweizer 300, the manifold pressure gauge
(lower right corner) is indicating just under 30 inches.
At idle speed the manifold pressure gauge will read quite low, usually 14 to 16 inches.
The difference between the idle pressure and the atmospheric pressure is the maximum
differential for that engine on that particular day.
You can check the accuracy of the manifold pressure gauge by comparing it to the pressure indicated in the Kollsman window of the barometric altimeter when you set the altimeter to zero altitude. If the altimeter is accurate and the manifold pressure gauge agrees
with the Kollsman window indication, the manifold pressure gauge is correct.
Recall previous statements that the collective is the primary control of engine and
rotor rpm and the throttle is the primary control of manifold pressure; also, the throttle
is the secondary control of engine and rotor rpm and the collective is the secondary
control of manifold pressure. Some sources on helicopter flying and many pilots say the
exact opposite. Think of it this way.
In an airplane with a constant-speed/variable-pitch propeller, the function of the
propeller control is to vary the angle of pitch of the propeller, similar to the way the collective varies the pitch of the main rotor blades in a helicopter. The instrument used to
determine pitch is the tachometer. To set the pitch you want, you move the prop control
until you obtain a certain engine rpm setting. As you increase the pitch of the propeller,
the engine rpm decreases because the propeller blades are taking a bigger bite out of the
air, producing more thrust and more drag. As you decrease the pitch of the propeller,
engine rpm increases for the opposite reason.
The manifold pressure gauge is the main source of engine power information in an
airplane with a constant-speed/variable-pitch propeller. The throttle is the control that
Aircraft Systems
varies the amount of air into the induction manifold and, therefore, manifold pressure.
Increase, or open, the throttle and manifold pressure increases. Decrease the throttle
and manifold pressure decreases. The same thing happens with a helicopter engine—
manifold pressure is a function of throttle position.
Most helicopters have a correlation device that automatically opens the throttle as the
collective is raised and closes it as the collective is lowered, but let's assume we have one
without a correlation device for the moment. In such a helicopter, there is no connection
between the engine and the collective. All you do when you move the collective is change
the pitch angle on all the main rotor blades, just as the prop control changes the pitch on
an airplane's propeller. As you raise the collective, rotor rpm decreases because of the
increase in drag. Engine rpm also decreases because it is connected to the main rotor via
the transmission. Lower the collective and both rotor and engine rpm increase.
Increase the throttle (power on) and manifold pressure goes up because it has to.
You've opened the throttle valve more and now more air is drawn into the induction
manifold. As manifold pressure goes up, so does the horsepower output of the engine.
This, in turn, will lead to a rise in engine and rotor rpm, if collective pitch is held constant. Decrease the throttle and the opposite happens.
Now the difference. To get the best performance out of an airplane you use a high
engine rpm setting for takeoff and a lower rpm setting for cruise. Helicopters, on the
other hand, fly best at a constant rotor rpm setting. Large variations in rotor rpm—and
engine rpm—are unacceptable.
To keep rpm constant in a helicopter, changes in collective pitch must be accompanied by changes in throttle. And because engine rpm and rotor rpm remain matched
during normal operations, the tachometer cannot be used to measure changes in the
power setting. It is the collective pitch that controls rpm, but its operation is hidden on
the tachometer because of the requirement to adjust throttle whenever the collective is
moved. The correlation device blurs the distinction between collective and throttle even
more. Almost by default, the manifold pressure gauge has become the main instrument
that indicates changes in engine power caused by both the collective and the throttle
because both controls must always be coordinated.
Ask enough helicopter pilots and you will find some who say the collective controls
manifold pressure and the throttle controls rpm and others who will say just the opposite. But all will agree that you really can't separate the functions of these two controls;
each must always be used in conjunction with the other.
The interrelationships among collective, throttle, engine rpm, and rotor rpm, and
manifold pressure cannot be overemphasized. The dual tachometer and the manifold
pressure gauge must be analyzed to determine which controls to use and how much.
This does not mean you will always have to adjust both controls to obtain a change
in rpm or manifold pressure. Because of their interrelationship each control can influence engine rpm and manifold pressure, as Fig. 11-6 illustrates.
In most cases a coordinated application of both collective and throttle will usually
be preferable. How much of which controls to use will be confusing at first, but after
some hours it will become second nature.
Main Transmission
Connected to the engine is the main transmission, or main gearbox. (These terms mean
exactly the same thing and are interchangeable. MGB is often used as the abbreviation.)
Chapter Eleven
PROBLEM
Engine rpm
Manifold Pressure
CORRECTIVE
ACTION
LOW
LOW
Increase throttle
Increasing the throttle opens the throttle valve, which increases manifold pressure and power
output of the engine. The increase in power output, at constant collective pitch, causes engine and
rotor rpm to increase.
Engine rpm
Manifold Pressure
ACTION
LOW
HIGH
Lower collective
Lowering the collective decreases the collective pitch angle of the rotor blades, which, at a
constant engine power output, causes engine and rotor rpm to increase: however, the correlation
device decreases engine power somewhat (by closing the throttle valve) so that manifold pressure
also decreases.
Engine rpm
Manifold Pressure
ACTION
HIGH
HIGH
Decrease throttle
Decreasing the throttle closes the throttle valve, which decreases engine power output. Manifold
pressure therefore decreases. Because collective pitch is held constant, engine and rotor rpm also
decrease.
Engine rpm
Manifold Pressure
ACTION
HIGH
LOW
Increase collective
Increasing the collective causes blade pitch angle to increase, which means more power is
needed to overcome the increase in drag. Engine and rotor rpm therefore decrease. The
correlation device opens the throttle valve as collective is raised so that manifold pressure also
increases.
Figure 11-6
pressure.
Interrelationship among collective, throttle, engine rpm, rotor rpm, and manifold
The transmission is the heaviest single component of the helicopter, and one of the most
critical. If the transmission stops, so does everything else.
The function of the main transmission is to transmit the power produced by the
engines to the main rotor and tail rotor blades. This involves not only changing the direction of the rotational force, but also reducing the speed of the rotation.
The largest reduction in rpm is between the engine and the main rotor. Reciprocating engines rotate at about 3,000 rpm while the main rotor rotates at about 250 to
400 rpm (these are only rough numbers). The rpm reduction is accomplished by a planetary and sun reduction gear system. The reduction from engine rpm to rotor rpm is
expressed as a ratio. For example, if the engine rotates at 2,800 rpm and the rotor rotates
at 350 rpm, the reduction ratio would be 8:1.
Tail rotors spin in the range of 2,500 rpm, so the gear reduction from engine to tail
rotor drive is much less. Turbine engines rotate even faster, 20,000 rpm and above, so
the gear reduction required by the transmission is even greater with a turbine engine.
All transmissions need oil. To supply the oil throughout the gearbox, at least one
pump is needed and is usually located in the oil sump at the bottom of the transmission.
The pump is driven by a shaft or gear connected to the gearbox itself so that oil pressure
is provided whenever the transmission is turning. Cooling of the transmission oil is
done by an oil cooler similar to a radiator found in a car. A sight gauge is always on the
oil sump housing to permit oil level checks. The transmission oil level should always be
checked during the pilot's preflight inspection.
Aircraft Systems
Because of their high rotational speed, the engine-to-transmission input shaft, gears,
and bearings are subject to the highest temperatures and most stress. It is essential that
the input section is continually provided with oil for lubrication and cooling. The other
parts of the gearbox require oil, too, but they can operate for a longer period of time
without oil. For this reason, the emergency oil systems of some helicopters provide
lubrication only to the input section of the transmission.
Although many newer helicopters can now fly at least 30 minutes without transmission oil, helicopter designers have not yet been unable to find a practical way to make a
backup system for the transmission; therefore, the pilot is provided with several ways to
monitor the condition of the gearbox (Fig. 11-7). The most important are two gauges that
are found in all helicopters: the transmission oil temperature gauge and the transmission oil pressure gauge. Often these gauges are supplemented with low pressure and
high temperature warning lights to catch the pilot's attention. Many helicopters also
have magnetic chip detectors in the transmission and warning lights that indicate if
the oil filter is clogged. Transmission fire indicators that consist of temperature sensors on the outside of the transmission are found on some helicopters. As mentioned
in Chap. 10, the newest helicopters are equipped with health and usage monitoring
systems (HUMS) that measure the vibrations produced by the gears inside the gearbox. Changes in the vibrations give an advance warning of mechanical problems and
possible failure.
The main transmission also transfers power to the tail rotor through the tail rotor
drive shaft. The gears are fixed so that main rotor rpm and tail rotor rpm are always
proportional.
(®
I
Figure 11-7 Boeing 234 pilots are provided with transmission oil pressure and temperature
gauges and a switch that allows them to select and monitor each of the 234's five gearboxes.
Transmission warning lights (XMSN) are also on the annunciator panel.
Chapter Eleven
Other items driven by the main transmission include electrical generators, hydraulic
pumps, the transmission oil cooler fan, the torque meter pump, and rotor tachometer.
Because each helicopter type is different, components powered by the accessory section
of the transmission vary.
The rotor brake is not driven by the transmission, but is attached to one of the shafts
driven by the transmission. Many small helicopters don't have the luxury of rotor
brakes. On larger machines, they are a necessity. A rotor brake is required to slow down
the rotation of the rotor blades after engine shutdown, and when engaging the rotors in
high winds. The brake is also used when the helicopter is parked.
Most rotor brakes are similar to automobile disc brakes. The brake disc is mounted
on either the tail rotor drive shaft or an accessory drive shaft. Pressure from a hydraulic
system is used to force together the brake pad pucks, which are located on either side of
the disc. The rotation of the disc slows and eventually stops the transmission, main
rotor shaft, rotor blades, and tail rotor, because they're all connected.
Clutch and Freewheeling Unit
Some helicopters have a clutch and a freewheeling unit; others have only a free-wheeling
unit because it functions as both a clutch and a freewheeling unit. The purpose of the
clutch is to make it possible to start the engine without it burdened down by the heavy
load of the rotor system. The purpose of the freewheeling unit is to permit autorotation
by freeing the rotor system from the engine.
Most helicopters use a centrifugal-type clutch or a freewheeling unit. There are several different types, but the basic operation is the same. The unit contains an inner shaft
that is driven by the engine and an outer sleeve that drives the main transmission.
Between the shaft and the sleeve are either spring-loaded clutch shoes (like drum
brakes in a car) or roller bearings. When the engine is at low rpm, centrifugal force is too
low to overcome the spring tension of the clutch shoes; therefore, the clutch shoes do
not press hard enough onto the outer sleeve to cause it to rotate. As engine rpm increases,
the shoes gradually press harder and harder onto the sleeve until both the shaft and
sleeve are rotating at the same rate.
If the unit has roller bearings instead of clutch shoes, centrifugal force causes the
bearings to move up small inclined planes on the inner shaft and thereby exert increasing pressure on the outer sleeve. As the pressure increases, the rotation of the inner
shaft is transmitted to the outer sleeve. When the engine and rotor rpm needles on the
dual tachometer are matched (one needle superimposed over the other), the clutch or
freewheeling unit is said to be fully engaged.
Some small helicopters have an idler clutch that requires manual operation by the
pilot to connect the transmission to the engine during rotor engagement. With an idler
clutch, the engine is started first with the clutch in the disengaged position. After the
engine is operating at a sufficient rpm, the clutch is engaged carefully by the pilot and
thereafter the transmission and rotors start to turn. During the normal shutdown procedure, the clutch is moved to the disengage position.
When the engine fails, the inner portion of the centrifugal clutch or freewheeling
unit slows down. The clutch shoes or roller bearings come out of contact with the outer
sleeve, which is now rotating faster than the inner shaft. The main transmission, main
rotor, and tail rotor are free to rotate without having the burden of turning the inoperative engine, too.
Aircraft Systems
Main Rotor System
The primary function of the transmission is to drive the main rotor shaft, or mast, which
rotates the rotor hub, which causes the rotor blades to turn. The rotor shaft, the hub, and
the blades comprise the main rotor system (Fig. 11-8). Integral to the main rotor shaft
are subassemblies that are needed to transmit control changes to the rotor blades and
devices that reduce the vibrations.
Rotor systems are classified three ways, depending upon how the rotor blades are
fastened to the rotor hub. Blades in fully articulated systems can move about in three
axes: flapping, dragging, and feathering. A horizontal hinge permits flapping of the rotor
blades (Fig. 11-9). Flapping helps equalize lift over the two halves of the rotor disc, as
explained in Chap. 2.
A vertical hinge permits the blades to move back and forth independently of each
other. The hinge is called a lead-lag, drag, or vertical hinge and the movement is called
lead-lagging, dragging, or hunting (Fig. 11-10). The ability to hunt is necessary to relieve
the stresses that build up in the blades due to the coriolis effect on the blades.
The action of a rotor blade around the span wise axis is called feathering and changes
the pitch of the blade. Feathering is not something the blades are free to do, like flapping
and dragging, but something the blades are directed to do by action of the pitch change
rods. When you move the cyclic and collective controls, you change the pitch angle of
the rotor blades around the feathering axis.
To be fully articulated, a helicopter must have three or more rotor blades. The rotor
system is semirigid if it has only two blades. In a semirigid system, the rotor blades are
rigidly interconnected at the hub that is free to tilt with respect to the main rotor shaft
(Fig. 11-11). The rotor blades can move within their respective drag and feathering axes,
but they flap together as a unit.
With rigid rotor systems, the rotor blades can be feathered, but do not flap or drag
about hinges. (Feathering is necessary or it would be impossible to control the helicopter.) Rigid rotor systems work because slight flapping and dragging is accomplished by
the use of elastic materials in the blades and the rotor hub.
Rotor Blades
The main rotor blades are a helicopter's wings and are just as important to a helicopter
as wings are to an airplane. Rotor blades create the lift that makes flight possible.
In contrast to airplane wings, which are usually asymmetrical, helicopter rotor blades
are symmetrical. This simply means that if you take a cross section of the wing, it is the
same on the top as it is on the bottom, or, to be more technical, it is the same above the chord
line as below it. The chord line is an imaginary line that joins the leading edge to the trailing
edge of the blade.
Rotor blades are manufactured out of a wide variety of materials. The earliest helicopters used wooden rotor blades. In the 1950s and 1960s, metal blades became more
commonplace. Today, the newest helicopters use blades made of composite materials
(Fig. 11-12). To protect the front edge of the blade and extend the life of the entire blade,
even composite blades have a layer of metal on the leading edge.
To reduce the weight without sacrificing strength, the core of metal blades consists
of a honeycomb construction. Composite blades usually have foam on the inside. Some
blades are pressurized with an inert gas and are equipped with indicating systems that
Chapter Eleven
—
n
~
Figure 11-8 Comparison of two fully-articulated rotor systems from a second generation
helicopter (top, Sikorsky S-61N) and a third generation helicopter (bottom, Aerospatiale AS 332).
The reduction in complexity of the newer AS 332 rotor system is readily apparent.
Aircraft Systems
i hu
S
Figure 11-9 The flapping hinges permit the rotor blades to flap up and down in order to equalize
the lift between the advancing blade half and the retreating blade half of the rotor disc: Enstrom
F-28F main rotor head. (See also Fig. 2-8.)
Drag hinges
O
O
o
Main rotor blade
Drag
hinge
Figure 11-10 The lead-lag, drag, or vertical hinges allow each rotor blade to move back and
forth independently of the others. The location of the hinge is chosen mainly with regard to
controlling vibration.
Chapter Eleven
Vr
Figure 11-11 Two-bladed rotor systems are classified as semirigid. The stabilizer bars on this
Bell 212 were invented by Arthur Young, designer of the Bell 47.
en Eisiii^:
Figure 11-12 Comparison between design of the metal main rotor blade (top) and composite
main rotor blade (bottom).
Aircraft Systems
show when the pressure of the gas has decreased. Lower pressure indicates a loss of gas
due to a leak that might be caused by a crack in the blade. If a helicopter has blade
inspection method (BIM) indicators, these should be checked on preflight.
Swashplates
One of the most fascinating subassemblies of the helicopter, at least in my opinion, is
the swashplate assembly, which consists of a stationary swashplate and a rotating
swashplate. Both swashplates encircle the rotor mast and are always parallel to each
other. The purpose of the swashplate assembly is to transmit the linear, nonrotating
control inputs of the pilot to the rotating components of the helicopter.
The stationary (lower) swashplate, also called the stationary star, is attached to the
transmission and does not rotate with the main rotor shaft, but is free to tilt and move
up and down the shaft. It is connected by control rods and scissor assemblies to the
cyclic and collective controls. The rotating (upper) swashplate, or rotating star, rotates
with the main rotor shaft and is also free to tilt and move up and down the shaft.
Pitch-change rods connected to the rotating swashplate transmit movement of the
swashplate to the main rotor blades.
When the collective is raised, both swashplates slide up the main rotor shaft,
the upper one causing the pitch of all the blades to increase an equal amount. When
the cyclic is raised, the swashplates tilt toward one side so that the blade pitch is
changed on each blade cyclically. If that's as clear as mud, it's because it's hard to
picture until you see the swashplate in operation with your eyes. Believe me, it's
cool and it works.
Vibration-Reducing Devices
Vibrations are inherent in helicopters. There are engineers who spend their entire
careers trying to find ways to reduce rotary-wing vibrations. Compared to early
machines, they've done quite well, but there is still much to be done.
The devices used on the rotor head include dampers, frequency adapters, and
bifalars. Suspension bars, flexible mounting plates, elastometric bearings, and flexure
assemblies are used to mount the transmission to the fuselage and reduce vibrations at
the same time.
A pilot cannot do anything to these devices except check that they are properly fastened, if possible. On many helicopters, it's physically impossible to see the devices unless
access panels are removed. The important point to remember is that an increase in vibration level or the onset of unusual vibrations could be caused by a problem with one or
more vibration-reduction devices and should be investigated as soon as practicable.
Fuel System
The fuel system of a helicopter is one of my favorite systems because it's one of the
easiest to understand. Even in the most sophisticated helicopters, the fuel system is
similar to that found in an ordinary automobile, except for some added gizmos and
safety features, and perhaps several, separate but interconnected fuel tanks.
The basic features of any fuel system are a fuel tank or fuel tanks, fuel lines to the
engine or engines, fuel pumps, filters and strainers, and an indicating system.
Chapter Eleven
TOTAL CAPACITY WITH AUXILIARY FUEL TANK-. 27J51
|PRESSURE REFUELW&I
■1 Mil. 1.W
I1-1' "n.
1 PRESSURE DEFUEUNGl
FfUEL F55/f«f«
I
I
Mf J
6
>
11
.
•
•
c
a
%
Figure 11-13 The Eurocopter EC175 can be refueled using a pressure system or gravity-feed
system. The filler connections for both systems are right next to each other, a clever, but unusual,
configuration.
Many different fuel tank configurations exist, even in helicopters of the same type.
In a machine with only one fuel tank, all the features will be concentrated in that one
tank. The tank will contain a drain valve in the lowest part of the sump, a device for
measuring fuel quantity, a filter or screen, a filler cap, a vent, a shut-off valve, and often
a fuel pump. Larger helicopters usually can be fueled from a gravity-feed hose (like an
automobile) and from a pressure system, which is much faster.
A system with several fuel tanks might have the elements distributed among the
different tanks. For example, if one tank is situated above another and always feeds into
the lower tank, the upper tank might have the filler cap and vent for both tanks while
the lower tank has the drain valve and screen
Multiple-tank fuel systems have provisions for transferring fuel from tank to tank.
Federal Aviation Regulations governing certification require that twin-engine aircraft
have separate, independent fuel systems for each engine and a cross-feed mechanism
that allows transfer of fuel from one system to the other in case of engine failure.
The drain valve is used to drain water and impurities from the fuel system, just like
in an airplane. Water is heavier than aviation fuel so it should sink to the bottom of the
fuel tank. Opening the drains is a part of every good preflight inspection.
Several strainers or screens are often located throughout a fuel system. Strainers
filter out larger particles and are usually inaccessible to the pilot. Most systems also
have fuel filters, some of which can be checked by the pilot.
Aircraft Systems
Sophisticated fuel filters have bypass valves that allow unfiltered fuel to continue to
flow to the engine in case the fuel filter becomes clogged. Unfiltered fuel is better than no
fuel at all. These filters usually have some sort of mechanical indicating system, for
example a small pop-out device, which becomes visible when the filter is clogged. On
more complex helicopters, a fuel filter warning light illuminates in the cockpit when this
happens.
Smaller helicopters usually have only one fuel pump per engine. The pump might
be electrical or driven by a shaft from the engine. Larger helicopters often have one or
more electrical boost pumps in the main fuel tanks in addition to the main enginedriven fuel pump.
The fuel quantity indicators are just like those in a car; however, measuring fuel quantity is not as precise as most people imagine. Particularly in older helicopters, fuel quantity
indications constantly fluctuate 5 to 10 percent due to aircraft movement, fluctuating more
in very turbulent conditions. Changes in temperature affect fuel quantity and the gauges
are never 100 percent accurate to begin with. So, take fuel quantity indicators with a grain
of salt and always figure on a bit less than what the gauges show.
The electronic fuel indicating systems in newer helicopters are usually more accurate than the mechanical indicators in older helicopters. However, it doesn't hurt to add a
few more pounds or gallons of fuel "for the wife and kids," as many pilots like to say.
Electrical System
At the Air Force Academy, we called our mandatory basic electrical engineering course
"Black Magic 101." As far as I'm concerned, electricity still is black magic. As soon as
any discussion of electricity goes past the analogy of electricity in a wire being similar
to water in a pipe, I'm lost.
Fortunately, one doesn't have to be an electrical engineer to be an informed user of
electrical systems in helicopters. I might never remember if it's high voltage or high
current that kills you, but I do okay in a cockpit.
Helicopter electrical systems, even those of small helicopters, are more complex
than most small airplanes, because the systems usually have direct current (DC) and
alternating current (AC).
The major components of a DC power system include a battery, a starter-generator, a
voltage regulator, relays, an inverter, and circuit breakers. The circuits are usually single
wire with a common ground return. The negative terminals of the starter-generator and
battery are grounded to the helicopter structure.
The main purpose of the battery in any aircraft is to motor the starter. Once the
engine is running, the battery really isn't needed. Some small airplanes, like the 1946
Taylorcraft I used to own, don't have a starter but need a battery and electrical system to
power the radios. To start the engine in my T-craft, all I had to do was to spin the prop
with the magnetos on.
All helicopters must have at least one battery, because the clutch or freewheeling
gear between the engine and the transmission makes it impossible to prop start a helicopter. Even if you could engage the clutch and turn the rotors by hand, the weight on
the engine from the transmission and the main and tail rotors would simply be too much
for the engine. It would be like trying to push-start a car with the transmission engaged
in first gear. You might be able do it, but you'd need a whole lot of people to get the car
moving.
Chapter Eleven
Helicopter batteries of choice are usually nickel-cadmium (ni-cad). Nickel-cadmium
batteries, like sulfuric acid-type batteries in cars, are rechargeable; however, they hold
the charge differently. Instead of being depleted in a more or less steady, straight-line
fashion like car batteries, nickel-cadmium batteries hold up to 80 percent of their amperage capacity for a longer period and then lose almost all of their charge in a very short
period of time.
With a ni-cad battery, the engine won't go RRRRRRRRRR, RRRRRrrrrr, rrrrrr- rrrr,
rrrrr, rrr, rr, r, r,
, like it does when the battery dies trying to start a car on a
cold morning. Instead, it will go RRRRRRRRRR, RRRRRRRRRR, RRRRRRRR, RRRRRRRR,
RRRRRRRR,
. Once a ni-cad has lost so much charge that it can no longer
motor the starter, it won't have enough charge left to power anything else either.
The battery is normally 24 volt and a certain rated amperage, for example, 17 amperehours. The electrical system will normally consist of both direct current and alternating
current circuits. The standard DC circuit is 28 volt and the standard AC circuits are 115 volt
and 26 volt. Some helicopters are equipped with a 200 volt AC system.
The starter-generator functions as a motor and an electrical generator. When starting
the engine, the starter-generator is powered by the battery and acts as a motor. After the
engine is started, the starter-generator is rotated by the engine and produces 28-volt DC
to supply the electrical system and keep the battery charged.
An inverter converts DC to AC. In some helicopters, vital engine instruments need AC
power. Because it's obviously not a good idea to start the engine unless you can monitor
what it's doing, these helicopters have a ground inverter that can be run off the battery. The
ground inverter provides AC power to the engine instruments during the start. As soon as
the transmission is engaged and the AC generators come on the line, the ground inverter
can be turned off. The ground inverter is also an emergency backup AC system in the
event the AC generators fail.
The 115-volt AC systems are needed to power the autopilot and gyros. Also, 26-volt
AC power is used for navigation equipment. Normally, 200-volt AC is only used to heat
windshields or power rotor blade deicing systems. Some helicopters are equipped with
transformer rectifiers that convert AC power to DC power.
All helicopters have provisions for external power. Some take only DC power, others
have receptacles for both DC and AC. The standard plugs and receptacles for DC and AC
power are different to prevent inserting an AC plug into DC receptacle and vice versa.
If you use external power, be sure to follow the manufacturer's guidelines carefully
because damage can be done to internal electrical components if switches are not in the
proper position. It's also wise to find out precisely what the external power advisory
light means for your particular helicopter. In some machines it means that external
power is plugged in and turned on (which makes the most sense). In others it means that
external power is plugged in, but could be on or off (if it's off, you might be draining
power from the battery). In still others, it simply means the access door to the external
power receptacles is open.
One last word about electrical systems: amperage (amps). The amount of power
consumed by radios, lights, windshield heaters, and the like, is measured in amps. The
rated power of a battery, when it is fully charged, is in amp-hours (AH). If a battery is
rated at 16 amp-hours, this means it can power one 16-amp electrical consumer for one
hour, or two 8-amp electrical consumers for one hour, or one 32-amp consumer for onehalf hour. You get the idea. If the battery isn't fully charged, however, it will provide
less than 16 amp-hours of power.
Aircraft Systems
If the generators fail and the only source of power left is the battery, be very careful about which electrical components you leave on. As a rule of thumb, components
that make heat use the most power, components that make light use a medium
amount of power, and navigation and communication items use the least amount of
power. Reduce electrical consumption during an emergency by turning off unneeded
components.
Hydraulic System
Small helicopters do not need hydraulic systems; however, the bigger the helicopter is,
the greater the dynamic loads on the rotor system become. Eventually, the loads become
so great that it is humanly impossible to displace the flight controls without hydraulic
boost.
For example, it's possible to fly a Bell 212 (max gross weight 11,500 pounds) with
both hydraulic systems shut off, but it is considered an emergency maneuver and normally not allowed in training. In contrast, the Sikorsky S-61 and Aerospatiale AS-332L,
both in the 19,000- to 21,000-pound range, cannot be flown without at least one hydraulic system in operation. For safety reasons, both these large helicopters have two separate, independent systems. If one system fails, it's considered a serious emergency and
a landing must be made as soon as possible.
Hydraulic systems are also used to operate many other components in large helicopters, such as landing gear, rotor brakes, and rescue hoists.
A standard hydraulic system consists of a reservoir, pumps, servos, tubing, and
associated switches and pressure gauges. Because normal hydraulic pressures are in the
1,500-psi range, tubing and connections must be strong. All hydraulic lines should be
inspected frequently because the most common cause of low hydraulic pressure is a
leak in the system.
The hydraulic pumps are driven by shafts from the main transmission so that
hydraulic pressure is always available even in the event of complete engine failure.
Hydraulic systems tend to be very complicated, particularly the servos connected
to the flight controls and autopilot system. I spent hours studying a cross-section drawing of the auxiliary servo in the S-61 before I obtained even a glimmering of how it
works. Twenty years later, the same drawing still looks like an impossible maze, and
I'm thankful that I don't need to know how it works to make it work.
The main thing you, as a pilot, need to know about hydraulic systems is how the
controls should feel when the system is working properly, how they should feel when
it is not, what the normal and abnormal instrument indications are, and what to do
when something malfunctions. The best way to learn all of these things is in a simulator. The second best way is from another pilot experienced in the machine, and to
study. The second way takes much more time, but it's the only way available for
many pilots.
Flight Instruments
Helicopters have the same basic flight instruments as airplanes (Fig. 11-14), divided into
three main categories: pitot-static, gyroscopic, and magnetic compass.
The pitot-static flight instruments are the airspeed indicator, the altimeter, and the
vertical speed indicator. The gyroscopic instruments are the turn-and-slip indicator.
Chapter Eleven
the heading indicator (directional gyro), and the attitude indicator (artificial horizon).
The magnetic compass is sometimes called the whiskey compass.
You should be familiar with the operation of all these instruments if you have any
previous flying experience, otherwise refer to one of the many fine texts on basic aeronautical knowledge.
That Was Then, This Is Now
You will still find many helicopters with flight and aircraft system instruments like those
shown in Fig.
However, most newer helicopters are now equipped with some
form of digital and "glass" systems. And many older helicopters have been upgraded
with such systems as well, as exhibited by this Bell UH-1 Huey, now outfitted for firefighting operations (Fig. 11-14b and c).
Matt Thurber, a coworker of mine at AIN Publications, is an accomplished pilot, an
airframe and powerplant mechanic, a former editor of Aviation Maintenance magazine
and an expert on avionics. He was kind enough to write the following section on glass
cockpits for this book, and also reviewed the section on turbine engines that follows it.
/
—
V
■ii
a
t
(a)
Figure 11-14 (a) Basic flight instruments. This was then: the instruments in an older Bell 212
(left to right): (top row) clock, barometric altimeter, attitude indicator, airspeed indicator; (middle
row) vertical speed indicator, turn and bank indicator (needle and ball) below the attitude
indicator, triple tachometer, VHF homer (not a standard instrument); (bottom row) radar altimeter
(behind cyclic), horizontal situation indicator (with VOR, IIS and NDB needles), torque meter
(primary power instrument in a turbine-powered helicopter), (b) This is now; Garmin G500H dualscreen electronic flight display in a military surplus Bell UH-1H operated by StarFlight of Travis
County, Texas, for firefighting operations, (c) The exterior of the Travis County Bell UFI-1 with the
Garmin G500H flight displays.
Aircraft Systems
IB
m
.-t
tI
Rc)l
Figure 11-14
{Continued)
Chapter Eleven
Glass Cockpits
Although learning to fly helicopters means much time spent manipulating the cyclic,
collective, and tail rotor pedals, it won't be long before your instructor adds the ship's
avionics to your busy list of tasks. Avionics, an abbreviation of aviation electronics, are
the interface to the outside world, helping the pilot to aviate, navigate, and communicate. And now modern avionics facilitate what pilots need to do with increasingly
sophisticated functions that enhance safety and efficiency.
For many years, helicopter avionics were fairly basic, especially in light training
rotorcraft, consisting of a simple radio and navigation package that varied little between
avionics manufacturers. Helicopter instruments, all mechanically driven, were also not
integrated with the avionics. While this made learning the avionics and instrument
systems simpler, much capability was left on the table until avionics manufacturers
began developing "glass" cockpits.
At first, cockpit glass simply replicated existing instruments. A cathode ray tube
(CRT)-based airspeed indicator, for example, replaced mechanical instruments. CRTs
are much more reliable than mechanical devices, but the advent of inexpensive liquid
crystal displays (LCDs) has led to an explosion of innovative avionics design. Now
many helicopters are equipped with fully integrated glass cockpits featuring large
LCDs with detailed moving-map navigation displays, flight instruments combined into
one panel, animated views of the outside world (synthetic vision), infrared video, and
terrain awareness and warning systems (TAWS).
LCDs are not only far more reliable than CRTs but also capable of displaying an
almost infinite variety of flight, navigation, and systems information. In fact, the challenge for avionics designers is how to avoid overwhelming pilots with too much information that is hard to assess quickly and effectively.
As much fun as it is to fly with the latest avionics, your job is first to learn how to
fly the helicopter thoroughly and safely; all the detailed features of the avionics come
later when you start flying cross-country.
Initial flight training will likely be in a simple helicopter with avionics that include
a radio for communicating with air traffic control towers, airports, and other aircraft.
Most trainers will also have basic navigation capability, such as a VOR (very high frequency omnidirectional range) navigation receiver, which helps you figure out your
position in relation to a ground station.
Many trainers now offer more sophisticated avionics, from combined communication
(com), navigation (nav), and GPS moving-map units such as Garmin's GNS430/530 series
or newer touchscreen GTN 650/750 to Aspen Avionics primary flight displays (PFDs) and
multifunction displays (MFDs). Larger light helicopters, particularly turbine singles, may
have a basic stability augmentation system (SAS) and autopilot, such as Cobham's HeliSAS, which provides limited control in pitch and roll (Fig. 11-15). Although this does not
make the helicopter legal for flight in instrument conditions, the additional stability does
allow the pilot to fly hands-off the cyclic.
The ultimate in helicopter avionics and autopilots are found in larger helicopters.
These are fully integrated systems with large LCDs, moving maps with synthetic vision,
and HeliTAWS features as well as sophisticated three- and four-axis autopilots. (Three
axis means pitch, roll, and yaw are controlled, therefore cyclic and pedals. Four axis
adds altitude control, including climbs and descents, therefore collective.) Some of
these include Garmin's G500H, G1000H, and G5000H systems, the Thales TopDeck in
Sikorsky's S-76D (Fig. 11-16), and systems by Honeywell, Rockwell Collins, and Sagem.
Aircraft Systems
com Freo' Psh Nav
V RNO A
lir*J
117?
mm
COM/
'VLOC
fcTl
KVGT • 122" 10.6^ ILS
twr 125.700 rwy 5005'.
KLSV • 099; 16.5; LOG
twr 132.550 rwy 10123'.
KLAS • 135; 18.1; ILS
twr 118.750 rwy 14510'.
•#>
HaHBAS
BC
S^§'" HDG
NAV
BC
ALT
VRT
Figure 11-15 The Cobham HeliSAS, shown here mounted below a Garmin 430 in the center
instrument console of a Bell 430, provides a basic stability augmentation system (SAS) and
autopilot functions, including heading (HDG) hold, navigation (NAV) and localizer back course (BC)
signal hold, altitude (ALT) hold, and ILS glide slope (VRT) hold.
Some specialized avionics target specific helicopter needs. Sandel's HeliTAWS, a dedicated moving map, includes a capability called WireWatch. This warns pilots with both
a visual and audible alert whenever they are flying too close to power lines, which are
extremely hard to see and are involved in a high number of accidents. WireWatch runs on
a dedicated Sandel display, and it will also be available on some Rockwell Collins displays, as Rockwell Collins has licensed the technology from Sandel.
GPS
The global positioning system (GPS) satellite network makes navigation simple—some
say too easy—and at the same time makes possible many new capabilities that benefit
helicopter pilots.
You'll see GPS navigation information on everything from simple portable GPS
units like the popular Garmin units, tablet computers running moving-map apps,
panel-mounted GPS navigators, and moving-map programs on glass cockpit MFDs.
GPS basically measures the time taken for signals to travel to and from a network of 24 satellites orbiting 11,000 miles above the earth's surface and receivers in
aircraft, trucks, automobiles, smartphones, and other devices. Using at least four
satellites, GPS can calculate the three-dimensional position of the receiver to a high
Chapter Eleven
#
)]
b- V.
:ls
rV-
I
CEC
b
Figure 11-16 (a) The Thales TopDeck avionics suite, as it is installed in the Sikorsky S-76D,
includes primary fight and navigation displays (PFD/ND), digital map, helicopter terrain and
awareness and warning (H-TAWS), helicopter synthetic vision (H-SVS), automatic flight control
(AFCS), comm and nav radios, electronic flight bag (EFB), and more, (b) Closeup of the TopDeck
PFD (right) and ND (left), which shows part of the ramp at JFK Airport in New York.
Aircraft Systems
Some Avionics Abbreviations and Definitions
Given the rapid advances in technology, there is a strong likelihood that you
will be exposed to glass avionics fairly early in your helicopter flying career. By
glass avionics, we mean large liquid crystal displays that replace mechanical
and electromechanical instruments. Here are some key elements that you'll
need to understand.
PFD. The primary flight display replaces the traditional six flight instruments
found in most instrument panels: airspeed indicator, attitude indicator, altimeter,
vertical speed indicator, directional gyro, and turn coordinator.
MFD. The multifunction display is a window into the outside world, usually
featuring at least a moving-map display that shows your helicopter's position overlaid on either a ground map or flight charts. On top of this you may be able to layer
additional information, such as weather via a satellite weather datalink, details of
ground features and airports, and external sensor inputs like enhanced vision {see
below). Often the PFD and MFD are interchangeable, and if one fails, all the primary
functions are displayed on the working flight display (Fig. 11-17).
AHRS. The attitude and heading reference system works behind the scenes
using a sophisticated array of electronic gyroscopes and accelerometers to help
create accurate images on the cockpit displays. Helicopter AHRS (pronounced
"A-Hars") are more sophisticated than those designed for fixed-wing aircraft,
because helicopters can hover and fly sidewards and backwards.
Flight path vector. With highly accurate AHRS and GPS sensors, some avionics
manufacturers are adding a flight path vector to PFDs. The flight path vector
shows where the helicopter is going (not pointed), if you don't change the ship's
current direction or attitude. If the flight path vector is pointing at a mountaintop
shown on synthetic vision {see below), then you're going to hit that mountain if
you don't turn or climb.
Enhanced vision, or FLIR. An infrared camera can help pilots see obstacles
clearly on dark nights and even through many types of clouds. FLIR stands for
forward-looking infrared, but systems designed for special operations, such as law
enforcement and search and rescue, can be pointed in any direction. A big benefit
of enhanced vision is the ability to see people, animals, or vehicles on the landing
zone and also to help avoid flying into hard-to-see clouds at night.
Synthetic vision. This artificial depiction of the world, which is displayed on the
PFD, uses GPS, gyros, and accelerometers to give the pilot a colorful animated
depiction of the view outside the cockpit, matching what you'd see looking
through the window on a clear day. Regardless the weather or time of day, it's
always clear and sunny in synthetic-vision world. Keep in mind that synthetic
vision does not show you what's really there. For example, synthetic vision will
not show another helicopter on the landing pad, a fueling truck on the ramp, or a
deer on a runway, like enhanced vision would likely do.
NVG. Night-vision goggles are a tremendous boon for nighttime helicopter
operations. With NVG, you can see anything that is illuminated by even minute
scraps of light. What looks to the naked eye like a pitch-black canyon can appear
brightly lit with NVG, enabling pilots to fly far more safely at night, especially
during challenging medivac flights and remote-area rescues. At $10,000 a pair.
Chapter Eleven
NVG aren't inexpensive, plus every lighted instrument and piece of avionics equipment in the helicopter must be night-vision compatible, but the benefits are well
worth the cost. In any case, many avionics and helicopter manufacturers are now
including NVG compatibility at no extra cost.
ELEC
OA
(
AFCS DISENGAGED
. Li. .
)
I ""I! J @
© r ».ov
>" -I
y | R ~
i
ic:*ua
-.2 Y
>0a
-<
>—
-<
>-
S
v21
«o«iI
ei
1164
©
A
A
A
A
A
A
Figure 11-17 Eurocopter uses the term "flight navigation displays" (FNDs) for its Helionix
multifunction displays, shown here in an EC175. The right END presents specific information in
sections: rotor and free-turbine rpm (top left); autopilot (top center/right); primary flight and limits area
(across the upper middle): navigation (across lower middle): and across the bottom, nav radios (left),
cautions and warnings (middle), and fuel data (right). The left FNG shows a schematic of the electrical
system and can also show many other things, including a digital map, H-TAWS, and Teas II.
degree of accuracy, by triangulating the signals and calculating distance based on
the time needed for the signals to travel. Although GPS signals are very weak and
susceptible to interference, systems are in place to supplement GPS accuracy so
that aircraft can use GPS for critical navigation, such as during instrument
approaches into fogbound airports. One such system is called the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), and that's why you'll see some GPS receivers labeled
as WAAS-compatible (Fig. 11-18).
Other countries are implementing their own GPS-type networks. Russia's Glonass,
for example, is operational, and many GPS receivers can receive signals from both the
U.S. GPS network (more accurately called Navstar) and Glonass. Upcoming systems
Aircraft Systems
Figure 11-18 The Bell 429 is certified for single- and dual-pilot IFR operation with WAAS
capabilities that enable point-in-space approaches with ceilings as low as 250 feet. It is equipped
with a Bell BasiA-Pro integrated avionics system, with two or three multifunction displays, dual,
digital three-axis autopilot, and integrated electronic data recorder.
will likely work together in the same fashion, including Europe's Galileo and China's
Compass.
No matter how the satellite network works, the result is a highly accurate depiction
of your helicopter's position on MFD moving maps, portable GPS receivers, and even
tablet computers and smartphones. Also available is information about how fast you are
flying, which direction, how much time to waypoints and the destination and even beautiful renderings of your flight-planned route, instrument approaches, holding patterns,
and missed approach procedures. In larger helicopters, the MFD can even display the
speed and direction of the wind, by combining GPS information with air data (airspeed
and outside pressure and temperature).
Keep in mind that installed equipment in the helicopter will be certified by regulators and thus can be considered trustworthy. The moving-maps depicted on tablet computers and smartphones should be considered as only advisory as these devices are not
certified by the FAA, although the time may come when they are.
Aviation Apps
Since Apple introduced the iPad in 2010, the aviation industry has adopted tablet
computers at an extraordinary pace. The capabilities of tablet and smartphone apps
Chapter Eleven
developed for aviation use have expanded tremendously and now equal, and in some
cases exceed, what many built-in avionics can do, including dedicated electronic
flight bags (EFBs).
While it might seem natural to rely on an iPad running a gorgeous moving-map app
with terrain display and other cool features, there is no legal framework for navigating
Popular Aviation Apps
ForeFlight Mobile. ForeFlight Mobile works on both the iPhone and iPad, including
the original iPad. With preflight planning, weather briefing, and moving-map
navigation, ForeFlight is a powerful piloting tool. A useful feature is ForeFlight's
Runway Proximity Advisor, which warns you when you're about to cross a runway. ForeFlight also includes a document storage and management system. The
basic version with VFR and IFR charts for the entire U.S. costs $75*" per year, while
the Pro version includes geo-referenced airport taxi diagrams and instrument
approach charts for $150 per year.
Garmin Pilot. The Garmin Pilot app mirrors some of the symbology used on
Garmin avionics, which makes sense as pilots used to flying with the G500H,
G1000H, or G5000H systems will find the Pilot app familiar. Garmin Pilot includes
all the charts, preflight, and inflight features typical of moving-map apps, as well
as Garmin's SafeTaxi airport diagrams and a unique "Panel Page" that dynamically replicates a traditional instrument panel. Annual cost for iPhone, iPad, or
Android devices is $50 plus $30 for SafeTaxi charts and $50 for geo-referenced
instrument approach charts.
Hilton Software WingX Pro. WingX has been a mobile device favorite for many
years, starting on older Windows phones and BlackBerrys. WingX also pioneered
the display of synthetic vision on the iPad, and even interfaces with an external
AHRS so the synthetic vision displays shows the aircraft turning and climbing or
descending. Recent new features include a pseudo radar altimeter, which shows
the GPS altitude above ground, very useful for helicopter flying, as well as detailed
terrain display and warnings. WingX Pro for iPhone and iPad costs $100 per year,
plus $75 for geo-referenced approach charts and $100 for synthetic vision. It is also
available for the Android and BlackBerry.
Jeppesen Mobile FliteDeck. Boeing-owned Jeppesen offers a clean, simple, and
uncluttered interface with its Mobile FliteDeck app, and few of the bells and whistles found in other aviation apps. Subscriptions are available for everything from a
small corner of the United States to the entire world, including all of the instrument
approach charts, and IFR high- and low-altitude chart data. Geo-referencing is
included on the high- and low-altitude charts, but not on approach plates (as of
early 2013). Also available is overlay of weather data onto the high- and low-altitude
chart display, available anytime that the iPad can connect to the Internet. Mobile
FliteDeck is free, but you'll need a subscription to JeppView and an unused product
key to download the data. A typical price is $100 per year for a California subscription (four product keys) or Western U.S. for $190 per year (two product keys).
'All prices are current manufacturers' list prices in 2013.
Aircraft Systems
by sole use of a tablet. These apps are advisory only; as this was written in 2013, no one
has tested them to the standards that apply to certified avionics.
Think of it this way: If you're flying in the vicinity of a temporary flight restriction (TFR), are you willing to bet that the tablet's GPS is accurately showing your
position outside the boundaries? That's not to say an iPad moving map isn't helpful
for backing up your other navigation efforts, but the FAA (or any aviation regulator
in another country) doesn't want you to rely on a noncertified device for critical
navigation.
The capabilities of aviation apps are growing by leaps and bounds, and updates
to popular software coming frequently. You may wonder which type of tablet to buy,
if you don't already own one. Aviation app development actually began with devices,
such as the Blackberry and Windows phones, well before the iPad came out. But
developers jumped on the iPad, thanks to strong support from Apple, and there are
still many more aviation apps for the Apple iOS devices than there are for Android
devices.
If you're going to use an iPad or other tablet, consider buying an external GPS
receiver. Some receivers can be placed on a dashboard with a good view of the sky and
connect via Bluetooth to the tablet, thus not relying on the ability of the tablet's GPS to
see the satellites. An external GPS will help improve the display of your position on
airport taxi diagrams and instrument approach charts, which is called either own-ship
position or geo-referencing.
Many iPad apps offer the ability to display free weather, including weather radar,
from the FAA's Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) ground station
network. You'll need an external ADS-B receiver, and these include a GPS receiver, too,
so you won't need another external GPS. One word of warning: These ADS-B receivers
don't all work with every iPad app, so if you like flying with a particular app, buy the
ADS-B receiver that works with that app.
Some apps like ForeFlight Mobile and WingX work with PC- or Mac-based "flight
simulator" software (X-Plane and Microsoft's Flight Simulator are examples). This
allows you to "fly" the simulator while using the iPad app's moving-map display to
show the geo-referenced position of your simulated aircraft, as if you were really flying.
This is a great way to practice and become familiar with the app and learn how to incorporate it into your normal procedures. It is much safer than trying to learn the app while
you're trying to fly the real aircraft. Incidentally, both X-Plane and Flight Simulator
include helicopters.
Many app makers offer a free-trial period, which is a great way to see how you like
the app before buying it.
Turbine Engines
Turbine engines power most modern helicopters designed to carry more than three or
four people. There are two good reasons for this: power and weight. Pound for pound,
turbine engines are able to deliver more power than piston engines over a wider range
of temperatures and altitudes. They are also generally more reliable, meaning they
don't fail as often. Flowever, with improvements being made continually in both types
of engines, this advantage is not as great as it used to be. Actually, the main cause of
most engine failures in flight is fuel starvation, something that is obviously not the
engine's fault. On the other side of the coin, turbine engines cost more and have higher
maintenance costs, as well.
Chapter Eleven
The terms "jet engine" and "gas turbine engine" are used interchangeably. Another
name is "combustion turbine." All refer to a type of air-breathing, internal-combustion
engine that has, at a minimum and in order of airflow through the engine, an air inlet,
a compressor, a combustor (or combustion chamber), a turbine, and an exhaust nozzle.
These are the essential elements of a turbine engine; the middle three (compressor, combustor, and turbine) are together called the "core."
When nonaviators talk about jet-powered aircraft, I have found they are usually
thinking of airplanes that don't not have propellers, such as fighter jets, business jets,
and airliners. But many helicopters and propeller-driven airplanes are also powered by
jet/gas/combustion turbine engines.
Maybe you have heard some folks call turbine engine-powered helicopters "jet helicopters." Strictly speaking, this is correct, but T think it plays on the layman's misperception of what a "jet" engine is. To be fair, some of the blame for this belongs to Bell
Helicopter Textron, which perhaps started the misuse of the word by calling its first civil,
turbine-powered helicopter the Bell 206 "JetRanger."
Turbojet Engines-The Original Jet Engine
The original gas turbines used in aircraft were all turbojets (Fig. 11-19). Basic turbojet
engines are the kind many people associate with "jet airplanes," such as fighters,
business jets, regional jets, and airliners, and they would be partially correct. Except
for old warbirds, and some Soviet-era and Chinese military aircraft, jet airplanes now
use variations of turbojets, which typically include a fan in front of the compressor
{see "Turbofan Engines" below).
The turbojet engine derives propulsive force, or thrust, by (to use very nontechnical
language) sucking in a whole lot of air in the front, compressing it to increase its pressure
and temperature, combining it with fuel in the donut-shaped combustor, or combustion
chamber, to create a continuous controlled explosion to drive the turbine (which drives
the compressor via a shaft that passes through the donut hole), and blowing hot gas out
Compressor
Shaft
Turbine
Nozzle
N
Combustion
chamber
Figure 11-19 A basic turbojet engine derives thrust from compressing air that enters through
the inlet on the left, combining the air with fuel sprayed into the combustion chamber where it is
ignited to create a continuous explosion, which then drives turbine wheels (that drive the
compressor wheels via a shaft through the combustor), while the hot gases blowing out via the
nozzle on the right provide forward thrust.
Aircraft Systems
the back through the exhaust nozzles to produce the forward thrust. This may not be the
same explanation you'd get from an aeronautical engineer, but it's basically correct.
A simple, although somewhat inaccurate, example of how a basic turbojet engine
works can be demonstrated with a balloon. Blow up an ordinary balloon and release it.
The air forced out the mouthpiece of the balloon pushes the entire balloon forward. Sir
Issac Newton had something to say about this and called it his third law: For every
action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
A turbojet engine achieves the same thing as a balloon by directing the force generated by the continuous burning of fuel in a combustion chamber out an exhaust nozzle.
This is similar to a rocket engine with two big differences.
First, a typical rocket engine doesn't need to suck in air from the outside ("airbreathing" rockets are being developed, however). Instead, a rocket carries all the fuel
and oxygen it needs for combustion. (This is why a balloon is more like a rocket engine
than a turbine engine.) Rockets are able to work outside the earth's atmosphere where
there is no air.
Second, a rocket uses all the power generated by combustion of its fuel for thrust. A
turbojet engine, on the other hand, uses perhaps only one-third of the power it generates for forward thrust. The other two-thirds are used to turn the multibladed turbine
aft of the combustion chamber. As mentioned above, the turbine (also called the turbine
wheel, gas-generator turbine, and compressor turbine) is connected by a shaft through
the combustor (combustion chamber) to the multibladed compressor (or compressor
wheel) in the front of the engine. The job of the compressor in the front is to suck in air
and compress it to a much higher pressure. It is quite common for an engine to have
multiple compressor and turbine wheels.
The faster the gas-generator turbine wheels turn, the faster the shaft (connecting
these turbine wheels to the compressor wheels) turn and the faster the compressor
wheels turn. The faster the compressor wheels turn, the greater the volume of air that is
sucked into the engine and, with the correct proportion of fuel (since there is always an
air-to-fuel ratio that gives the greatest power), the greater the thrust created. Interestingly, the majority of the air sucked in by the compressor, something like 75 percent or
so, is used for cooling the engine.
Although the operation of a turbojet engine is fairly straightforward, constructing
one that can withstand the high revolutionary forces and temperatures within the
engine is anything but a simple matter. Typically, turbine engines of all kinds burn fuel
at much greater rates than piston engines of equal power. Therefore, designing a turbine engine that is both fuel-efficient and doesn't blow itself apart is not an easy matter.
"Augmented" turbojet and turbofan engines are those with afterburners. An afterburner sprays additional fuel into the exhaust section to create even more thrust. (It's
located aft of the turbines, or "burner," thus the name "afterburner.") Running an
engine on afterburner consumes nearly double the fuel compared to running the engine
at the normal full-power setting, so it's normally used only for takeoff or when speed
becomes very important.
Turbofan Engines
A variation of a turbojet engine is called the "turbofan" (Fig. 11-20). The turbofan engine
has another multibladed wheel, or fan, mounted on the engine shaft in front of the compressor wheels. (When you look into the intake of a turbofan engine, the fan is what you
see.) This fan, which is driven by the aft turbine wheel via another shaft in through the
Chapter Eleven
Fan
Bypass
air
High-pressure
High-pressure
turbine
/
Low-pressure
Low-pressure
shaft
(Combustion
compressor
chamber
Low-pressure
turbine
Figure 11-20 A turbofan engine, adds a fan in front of the compressor section to increase the
flow of air into and around the engine. Turbofan engines power virtually all airliners and business
jets now flying.
combustor, draws air into the engine. Some of the air is sent to the compressor and the
combustor, while the rest (called "bypass air") bypasses these components through
ducts on the outside of the engine. In some high-bypass engines, as little as 10 percent
of the air pulled in by the fan passes through the core of the engine.
The fan improves the performance of the engine by increasing the airflow into the compressor, since the amount of thrust created by a turbojet engine is as much a function of
air-mass flow as it is of velocity. Thus, one can obtain the same thrust (or force) by increasing
air-mass flow and decreasing velocity. Virtually all civil airplanes (without propellers) are
powered by turbofan engines.
Most turbofan engines are high-bypass turbofans, where the ratio of bypass air to
the air directed into the compressor is 5:1 or greater. At subsonic speeds, high-bypass
turbofans are more fuel efficient and quieter than other types of jet engines, making
them well suited for commercial aircraft.
Turboprop Engines
Turboprop and turboshaft engines are also derivatives of the basic turbojet engine. In
common usage, a distinction is made between turboprop and turboshaft engines, the
former referring to the turbine engines that power propeller-driven airplanes and the
latter referring to turbine engines that power helicopters. The two types are very similar
and many engine manufacturers have used the same basic engine cores to design
engines for both airplanes and helicopters. The Allison 250 series and Pratt & Whitney
Canada PT6 series are two well-known examples; different models of each type power
both airplanes and helicopters.
In most turboprop engines (Fig. 11-21), the same gas-generator turbine wheel that
drives the compressor section also drives the propeller. However, the shaft does not
Aircraft Systems
Gearbox
Compressor
Turbine
Exhaust
Propeller
Shaft
Combustion
chamber
Figure 11-21 A turboprop engine drives a propeller at the front of the engine via a gearbox. The same
shaft that drives the compressor section drives the gearbox, which then reduces the output speed to
turn the propeller at its most efficient rotational speed.
drive the propeller directly, but rather powers a reduction gearbox, which allows both
the power turbine and constant-speed propeller to operate at their optimum speeds.
Instead of using the gas-generator turbines to drive both the compressors and the
propeller, some turboprop engines use a free-power turbine (or free turbine) on a separate
coaxial shaft (similar to a turboshaft engine) to drive the propeller. This enables the propeller to rotate freely, independent of compressor speed.
It is worth noting that both turboprop and turboshaft engines do not need to be
mounted with the air inlet in the front and exhaust in the back, like turbojet and turbofan engines. This is because turboprop and turboshaft engines do not need to use engine
thrust out the exhaust nozzle to propel the aircraft forward, but rather transfer the
power to a gearbox, which turns the propeller of the turboprop or the main and tail
rotors of a helicopter. (OK, some conventionally mounted turboprop engines do get
some power from the exhaust.) In fact, many turboprop and turboshaft engines are
mounted "backward," as this is often a way to make them more compact and reduce
the length of the shaft connecting the turbines to the propeller or gearbox.
The Helicopter's "Jet" Engine: The Turboshaft
A turboshaft engine (Fig. 11-22) is similar to the turboprop engine in that it does not use
engine thrust out the exhaust nozzle to propel the aircraft forward, but rather uses a
turbine wheel to turn a shaft that transfers the power to a gearbox, which turns the
propeller of the turboprop or the main and tail rotors of a helicopter. One difference is
that all helicopter turboshaft engines use a free-power turbine, while only some turboprop engines have this feature.
This free-power turbine rotates independently of the gas-generator turbines and the
compressors (which the gas-generator turbines drive), because the power turbine is not
Chapter Eleven
Exhaust
Compressor
Compressor
(or gas-generator)
turbine
Power
shaft
Combustion
chamber
Free (power)
turbine
Figure 11-22 All helicopter jet engines are turboshaft engines. The free, or power, turbine, which
has no connection to the compressor turbines, drives a shaft that transfers the rotational power
of the engine to the main gearbox, which turns the main rotor and tail rotor blades.
mounted on the same shaft, and consequently rotates at speeds different than the compressors and gas-generator turbines. Hence, it is also called the "free turbine." The power turbine
is, however, driven by the same exhaust gases that turn the gas-generator turbines (Fig. 11-23).
The free-power turbine transmits rotational power to the main gearbox, which
turns the main rotor blades and tail rotor blades of a helicopter. In some twin-engine
helicopters (the Bell 212 and 412, for example), the output shafts from each free-power
turbine are connected to a combining gearbox, which is in turn connected to the main
gearbox. The combining gearbox is needed to reduce the high-speed rotation of the
power turbine shaft to a more manageable rpm; it is therefore often referred to as a
reduction gearbox. The gearbox may also be used to change the direction of rotation.
Because the helicopter rotor system is designed to run at a constant rpm, the power
turbine is kept at a constant rpm as well. Increasing or decreasing fuel flow to the engine
to change power output causes a corresponding increase or decrease in rpm of gas generators and compressors but the power turbine speed will remain more or less constant.
Therefore, the gas generators and the power turbine do not run at the same rpm. For
example, the Pratt & Whitney Canada FT6T-powered Bell 212, has the following typical
rotational speeds: gas generator (Nl), 38,100 rpm; power turbine (N2), 33,000 rpm;
combining gearbox output to main gearbox, 6,600 rpm; rotor (NR), 324 rpm; tail rotor,
1,653 rpm.
Integral to the engine-to-gearbox connection is a freewheeling unit, which disconnects the engine from the gearbox in case of engine slowdown or complete failure. This
keeps the slower turning engine from dragging down the speed of the main gearbox,
and with it the speed of the main and tail rotors.
Turboshaft Engine Parameters, Ratings, and Limitations
Four main engine parameters concern the pilot of a helicopter powered by a turboshaft
engine: gas-generator (or compressor) rpm; temperature; power-turbine rpm; and torque.
Aircraft Systems
•«
rrv
1
,»
.
m
j
&
Figure 11-23 In this cutaway model of Pratt & Whitney PT6C-67 turboshaft engine, the airflow
enters from the right in the light gray area of the compressor section, flows through the dark gray
combustion section in the middle, past the single compressor (or gas-generator) turbine, then
past the two free-power turbines and finally flows out through the exhaust on the upper left side.
One can see that there are two separate, unconnected shafts running through the center of the
engine: (1) one shaft on the right connecting the five compressor wheels on the right to the
compressor turbine in the center and (2) another shaft running from the two free-power turbines
in the center to the connection on the far left to the main gearbox (not shown). The PT6C-67
powers the AgustaWestland AW139 and Eurocopter EC175.
The gas-generator/compressor rpm (or speed) is the measure of how hard the engine is working. The rotational speed could be measured at the gas-generator turbine or the compressor; it doesn't matter because they are connected by a shaft and therefore turning at
the same speed. The abbreviation for this parameter is usually N1 or Ng. Nl/Ng is
important to monitor when starting the engine and when one requires maximum power
from the engine. It has an upper limit.
The temperature of the engine is another very important parameter. There are actually
numerous temperatures within a turbine engine, from relatively cool intake to the
extremely hot combustion chamber, which can be hotter than 2,500 0C. This temperature
is actually so hot that it melts most metals, which is why a turbine engine requires so
much cooling air. A very thin layer of high-pressure air surrounds the fireball inside the
combustion chamber and keeps it from touching the metal sides of the combustor.
Engine designers choose to measure the engine temperature at a location that is representative of the combustion chamber temperature, but is considerably cooler.
Where the temperature is taken determines the abbreviation. You'll see TOT (turbine outlet temperature), TIT (turbine inlet temperature), T4 (temperature in the fourth
stage of the engine), T5 (temperature in the fifth stage), MGT (measured gas temperature). Whatever the abbreviation, the function is the same and various limits apply.
You'll note that both Nl/Ng and engine temperatures have upper limits. Usually, the
engine reaches one or the other of these limits first, and rarely both at the same time.
Chapter Eleven
A pilot might say, for example, "the engine maxed out on TOT." This means it reached
its temperature limit while N1 was still below its maximum limit. Whichever limit the
engine reaches first is the one that applies at the time.
The maximum power of an engine is limited by engine rpm and temperature, with
the limiting component within the engine usually being the power turbine. This is
because it is subjected to a combination of high temperature and high centrifugal forces,
which cause the turbine blades to stretch and eventually crack, if they are not changed
in time. The useful life of the blades may be greatly reduced, if the temperature and rpm
limits are exceeded. The damage will probably not be evident to the pilot or even the
trained eye of an engine mechanic, but there will be some permanent stretch and minute cracks in the blades. These will reduce the useful life of the engine.
Poiuer turbine rpm (N2, NF, NP) is usually found on the tachometer along with the rotor
rpm (NR). Because it is the power turbine that drives the main gearbox and hence the
main rotor system, there is normally a correlation between the speed of the two, even
though the power turbine is rotating at a much higher speed. Therefore, during normal
operations, N2/NF/NP and NR move up and down together, like a happily married
couple. However, if the engine fails, N2/NF/NP and Nl/Ng both decrease to zero as
the engine winds down (because with the engine stopped there's nothing to turn either
the power turbine or the gas-generator turbines), but as long as the pilot enters autorotation by lowering the collective, NR will remain in the normal operating range. To
facilitate this, the freewheeling unit disconnects the power turbine from the main rotor
system.
In most turbine-powered helicopters, torque (TQ) is the main measure of power. Torque
tells the pilot how much power the engine is providing to the main gearbox. This is an
important figure because, under most conditions, the engine is able to produce more
power than the gearbox can handle. If a pilot "overtorques" the main gearbox by pulling up the collective so that torque exceeds its limit, the gearbox can be seriously damaged. The engine might also be damaged in this way, if it is operated for a period of time
that exceeds its limitations. (Some helicopters, including may Eurocopter helicopters
use a measurement of collective pitch as the primary indicator of the power setting.)
Twin-engine helicopters have two torque limitations: one for normal, dual-engine
operation; the other for single-, or one-engine inoperative (OEI) operation. The OEI
limit is higher than the twin-engine limit because, with only one engine powering the
main gearbox, there is much less total torque.
Other important turbine engine instruments include oil pressure and oil temperature indicators. Many helicopters also have associated warning lights, such as low oil pressure
and high oil temperature.
Learning to Fly a Turbine-Powered Helicopter
Here's the good news: flying a helicopter with a turboshaft engine is easier than flying
one with a piston engine. In fact, when I transitioned from the Lycoming piston-powered
Hughes 269A in primary training with the Army to advanced training in a much larger
Pratt & Whitney Canada turbine-powered Bell UH-1 Huey, I was pleasantly surprised
how much easier it was with the turbine. I was a bit intimidated with the size, speed, and
power of the Huey, but I remember thinking how much easier it would have been to
learn to fly in a helicopter with a turbine engine.
As turbine engines have evolved, operating them has become even easier. The Bell
429 light twin-engine helicopter has a run/off switch for both engines and another for
Aircraft Systems
Figure 11-24 The Bell 429 engine control panel has three switches. Once an engine is running,
the automatic fuel control takes care of the rest.
starting the engines. From then on the automatic fuel control pretty much takes care of
everything else (Fig. 11-24). I'm exaggerating, but it is much easier than the old Huey.
The most time you'll spend in learning to fly a turbine helicopter will be spent in the
books and classroom, studying what you need know about operating the particular
turbine you'll be flying. This is important because while turbine engines can take a lot,
damaging one by exceeding limitations can be very costly for the owner, operator, and
possibly the pilot.
There are several engine manufacturers and numerous engine models flying in helicopters today. While there are many similarities among them, there are more differences.
It is therefore impossible to try to cover their operation in more than a general sense.
The material in this section should provide you with the basic information you need
to help you better understand how turbine engines work and help you learn to operate
them properly, efficiently, and safely. Make friends with your helicopter's Pilot Operating
Handbook, ask your flight instructor questions, and talk to other pilots and mechanics
about the helicopter.
Other Systems
The larger and more complex a helicopter becomes, the more systems it has. A particular
helicopter type might have some or all of the following systems: retractable landing gear,
fire protection, heating and ventilation, ice and rain protection, lighting, automatic pilot.
Chapter Eleven
navigation, emergency flotation gear, life rafts, hoists, cargo sling. Military helicopters
commonly have many other optional items, as well.
Aircraft systems is one subject of two that you can never learn too much about.
The other subject is flight regulations and procedures. Study and discussion about
these subjects take up most of the professional pilot's training and study time, but
it is time well spent. The more you know about your aircraft, the better equipped
you'll be when problems occur.
Knowing the correct way to operate all the various systems in your helicopter will
help you avoid many problems and deal with the ones that do occur. How you fly a
helicopter also has a significant influence on safety. The next chapter is about low-level
flying and the hazards this entails.
CHAPTER
Hazards of Low-Level
Flying
The pilot ivas following a highway in cruise flight at 400feet AGL when the ceiling rapidly became
lower and the pilot entered IMC. Moments later, zohile cruising at 65 knots, the pilot saw marker
balls, which indicated that power lines were directly in front of the helicopter.
National Transportation Safety Board
In general, helicopters fly lower than most airplanes. While this does not have to be
inherently dangerous, it can be. Vigilance is required at all times to avoid unexpected hazards, both on the ground and in the air.
Low clouds and power lines are two of the big hazards of low-level flying, as is
aptly illustrated in the quote above, which is from a report of an accident in 2011. Fortunately, the pilot of the Hughes 369D was not hurt. After he saw the marker balls (Fig.
12-1), he made a diving right turn in an attempt to avoid the power lines, but a main
rotor blade struck a wire. According to the NTSB report, "The rotor speed remained
within limits, but the helicopter began to vibrate, so the pilot decided to land in a nearby
field." The post-accident examination of the aircraft showed that the main rotor blade
that had contacted the power line had substantial damage.
Birds are another low-level hazard in typical "helicopter airspace."
Scud Running
The term scud running perhaps had its origin in the term "rum running." A rum-runner
is a person or ship engaged in bringing prohibited liquor ashore or across a border.
Rum running in the United States had its heyday during Prohibition (1920 to 1933).
Scud running, on the other hand, is still very popular.
Scud is defined as "loose, vapory clouds driven swiftly by the wind; a slight sudden
shower; and mist, rain, snow, or spray driven by the wind." Some pilots think of scud
as the thin, misty clouds that hang below thicker clouds and don't necessarily relate it
to being driven by the wind. Patchy fog is considered scud by many pilots. Whatever
scud is, everyone agrees that it reduces visibility and makes visual flying more difficult.
A scud runner is a pilot who flies at a low height below low clouds in scud. Low
clouds and ceilings are often accompanied by low visibility, but sometimes you can
have a solid overcast at a low height above the ground with unlimited visibility below
it. Technically speaking, you would not be flying in scud, but some people still might
call you a scud runner.
Scud running is not necessarily illegal, but it can be. Scud running is not necessarily
unsafe, but it often is. If the visibility is greater than 10 miles, the ceiling is well defined
and above your normal traffic pattern altitude, it is daylight and you're flying over
257
Chapter Twelve
Figure 12-1 Marker balls on power lines are hard enough to see even when there is good
visibility. If fog or low clouds obscure the lines, they can't be seen at all.
uncongested areas, most pilots would probably agree that the flight can be conducted
safely. If any one of these conditions changes for the worse—less than 10 miles visibility,
ceiling ragged or variable and hanging below normal traffic-pattern altitude, darkness,
or flying over a congested area—the safety margin gets squeezed. And flying might be
in violation of the FARs, as well.
Perhaps the greatest danger with scud running is that conditions might deteriorate
as you fly on. Either the ceiling drops lower and lower, or the precipitation level
increases and restricts visibility even more, or both. The pilot starts descending to stay
out of the clouds and to maintain visual contact with the ground. If the terrain slopes
upward, the terrain and clouds will likely meet at some point. Even if the terrain is
level, heavier rain or thicker fog or mist might form a misty "wall" that drops visibility
to virtually zero with little warning. During daylight, this is bad enough; at night, it is
100 times worse.
Hazards of Low-Level Flying
Figure 12-2 As the sun goes down, it's not unusual for temperatures to drop and clouds and fog
to form. If you are flying VFR above a scattered layer of clouds, you could end up with a solid layer
soon after sunset.
You can also find yourself facing a scud-running situation when flying VFR above
a scattered or broken layer of clouds (Fig. 12-2.). As the temperature drops as day
evolves into night, that scattered layer may become broken and the broken layer a solid
overcast. Lower layers of clouds and fog may form below them. As your fuel reserves
decrease, you may have no choice but to descend.
Special VFR
Helicopter pilots are particularly susceptible to scud running because the Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) make it legal for them to do it, almost to the point of setting
them up for an accident. Take the requirements for Special VFR (visual flight rules) in
FAR 91.157 Special VFR Weather Minimums, for example. The visibility during daytime needs to be at least one statute mile for ATC to grant airplane pilots a Special VFR
clearance, and the flight must be conducted clear of clouds. Helicopter pilots need only
to stay clear of clouds. Furthermore, at night (between sunset and sunrise), airplane
pilots must also be instrument rated and flying an airplane equipped for instrument
flight. Not so with helicopter pilots. I think the Special VFR Weather Minimums should
be in FAR 91.007. If this is not a license to kill oneself and one's passengers in an aircraft,
I don't know what is.
Chapter Twelve
Note that even normal VFR minimums give helicopter pilots quite a lot of freedom,
particularly in Class G airspace, where "A helicopter may be operated clear of clouds if
operated at a speed that allows the pilot adequate opportunity to see any air traffic or
obstruction in time to avoid a collision" (Fig. 12-3).
I'm not saying the Special VFR is all bad. Often it can be a very quick, easy, and safe
way to enter, depart, and transit the controlled airspace around an airport (B, C, or D
airspace) when the ceiling is below 1,200 feet and the visibility is less than three miles,
in other words below normal VFR weather minimums. For example, airports in coastal
(a) Except as provided in paragraph (b) of this section and 91.157, no person may operate an
aircraft under VFR when the flight visibility is less, or at a distance from clouds that is less, than
that prescribed for the corresponding altitude and class of airspace in the following table:
Airspace
Flight visibility
Distance from clouds
Class A
Not Applicable
Not Applicable.
Class B
3 statute miles
Clear of Clouds.
Class C
3 statute miles
500 feet below. 1,000 feet
above. 2,000 feet horizontal.
Class D
3 statute miles
500 feet below. 1,000 feet
above. 2,000 feet horizontal.
Less than 10,000 feet MSL
3 statute miles
500 feet below. 1,000 feet
above. 2,000 feet horizontal
At or above 10,000 feet MSL
5 statute miles
1,000 feet below. 1,000 feet
above. 1 statute mile horizontal.
Day, except as provided in 91.155(b)
1 statute mile
Clear of clouds.
Night, except as provided in 91.155(b)
3 statute miles
500 feet below. 1,000 feet
above. 2,000 feet horizontal.
Day
1 statute mile
500 feet below. 1,000 feet
above. 2,000 feet horizontal.
Night
3 statute miles
500 feet below. 1,000 feet
above. 2,000 feet horizontal.
More than 1,200 feet above the surface
and at or above 10,000 feet MSL
5 statute miles
500 feet below. 1,000 feet
above. 2,000 feet horizontal.
Class E:
Class G;
1,200 feet or less above the surface
(regardless of MSL altitude)
More than 1,200 feet above the surface
but less than 10,000 feet MSL
(b) Class G Airspace. Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraph (a) of this section, the
following operations may be conducted in Class G airspace below 1,200 feet above the surface:
(1) Helicopter. A helicopter may be operated clear of clouds if operated at a speed that allows
the pilot adequate opportunity to see any air traffic or obstruction in time to avoid a collision.
(2) Airplane, powered parachute, or weight-shift-control aircraft. If the visibility is less than
3 statute miles but not less than 1 statute mile during night hours and you are operating in
an airport traffic pattern within 1/2 mile of the runway, you may operate an airplane, powered
parachute, or weight-shift-control aircraft clear of clouds.
Figure 12-3
Federal Aviation Regulation 91.155 Basic VFR Weather Minimums.
Hazards of Low-Level Flying
areas or near lakes and rivers often experience low clouds and visibilities in a portion of
the airport's control area, which makes the whole airport area officially IFR. FAR 91.157
gives the pilot the option of requesting Special VFR and ATC the option of granting it,
instead of requiring that everyone depart from, arrive at, or transit through the airport
while operating under instrument flight rules.
Not mentioned in the FARs are any requirements that pilots flying Special VFR
have any particular familiarity with the airport or that they be particularly proficient in
flying near the ground in low visibility. The ability of a pilot to fly Special VFR safely is
more or less assumed by ATC when a pilot requests it, although tower controllers at
airports where much training takes place often know from experience the various ways
student and low-time pilots can get themselves into trouble. It should go without saying (but I'll say it anyway) that you have a much better chance of success flying Special
VFR when you know the area intimately and have the ability to maintain control of
your aircraft in low visibilities.
Rules for Scud Running
An issue of Aviation Safety magazine (published March 1,1992) carried an article titled,
"Scud Running," by John W. Conrad. The author presented a good case against scud
running, but accepted the fact that some pilots are still going to do it. So he gave some
tips on how to make it safer.
In the months that followed, a storm of letters from readers either condemned
Conrad and the publication for promoting scud running or praised them for addressing
a controversial subject with more than the typical advice of "Just don't do it."
Conrad's article and the readers' letters showed that there are good arguments on
both sides of the fence, which is not uncommon in aviation. This makes it difficult to
give hard-and-fast rules for scud running, leaving one, instead with opinions. Therefore, the following "rules" for scud running, which are based on the opinions of many
pilots and a few notes from Conrad's article, must be considered.
•
A pilot who does not have an instrument rating should avoid scud running like
the plague. Your very limited training in instrument flying to get a private pilot
license in airplanes will be of little help. If the weather briefer says, "VFR is not
recommended," don't go. As mentioned before, helicopter pilots do not even
need this limited training in instrument flying to obtain their private license.
•
A low-time, instrument-rated pilot should avoid scud running, too. (Arbitrarily,
I would define "low time" as less than 200 hours of actual or simulated
instrument flight time.) An instrument rating provides you with the skills to fly
in the IFR system, but scud running is a whole different ball of wax. True, you
have a better chance of coping with the IFR system than a noninstrument-rated
pilot, but your limited experience in the clouds, under the hood or in a simulator
is going to make extricating yourself from the inadvertent flight into instrument
conditions very difficult.
•
An experienced instrument-rated pilot who is flying an aircraft without IFR
instrumentation, such as most training and light helicopters, should not scud run.
•
An instrument-rated pilot who is not current in IFR flying (six hours of IFR
flight time and six approaches within the last six months) should not scud run.
Chapter Twelve
This leaves us with instrument-rated pilots who have at least 200 hours of actual or
simulated instrument flying experience, who are current in IFR flying, and who are flying IFR-instrumented aircraft. If you don't fit in this group, you should definitely not
scud run.
If you are in this group, here are a few more caveats:
•
•
Don't scud run at night. There is just too much you can't see.
Don't scud run just to circumvent the IFR system. If there's a way to legally
reach your destination by flying IFR, take it.
•
Don't scud run over unknown territory—unknown to you, that is—even with
GPS navigation and a moving map display. As good as sectional maps and
moving maps are, they don't portray every obstacle. New obstructions might
have been erected since the charts were published. Best bet: If you have not
flown over the same route at a low height (1,000 feet or less) recently, consider
it unknown territory, and don't scud run over it.
•
Don't scud run over an area that is not wide enough to make a 180-degree
normal turn at a steady airspeed above translational-lift airspeed. Imagine
flying up a valley or canyon with the ground rising, the clouds descending, and
the hills or mountains on each side getting closer and closer. Make your decision
to do a 180 before it is too late to do a safe 180. You don't want to get yourself in
a position where the helicopter is hovering and you can't see anything outside
the windows, or just glimpses of the ground below your feet.
•
Don't scud run into an area that does not give you the option of climbing into
the clouds and obtaining an IFR clearance. In other words, if there's nothing
above you but warm, cloudy skies, you're all right. But if you are surrounded
by mountainous terrain, the clouds above have ice, or there's heavy IFR traffic
in the terminal area that lies ahead, don't go.
Finally, don't ignore the ace in a hole that helicopter pilots usually have and airplane
pilots often don't—the precautionary landing. If you find yourself stuck between a rock
and hard place, don't be afraid to land your helicopter in any space where it will fit.
Your goal, of course, should be to avoid getting yourself into a situation where this
is your most prudent option. But stuff happens and we all make mistakes and miscalculations. Make a precautionary landing and deal with the consequences afterward,
which will probably be minimal. Your passengers, your employer, your insurance
company, your friends and your family will all be much happier. When push comes to
shove: land and live.
The Lowenstrasse Scud Run
When I first started working at Helikopter Service in Norway, the heliport for the
company was located about two and a half miles from Stavanger Airport at Sola,
which is on the coast of the North Sea. When the airport was below VFR minimums, offshore helicopter pilots would fly an ITS approach to Sola until visual
below the clouds and then proceed to the Helikopter Service heliport on a special
VFR clearance. If the weather was too poor, however, we had to land at the airport
and a bus would be sent from the heliport to pick up the passengers and crew.
Hazards of Low-Level Flying
This inconvenienced passengers, pilots, and operations, so pilots had an incentive
to push the minimums.
Nevertheless, the procedure was more-or-less safe for several reasons. The
pilots were experienced in low-visibility, low-altitude flying offshore; they flew the
route between Stavanger Airport and the heliport often; and they knew, or thought
they knew, every tree, building, and rock along the way. But this nearly routine
scud running sometimes pushed the envelope between safe and unsafe. Luckily,
there had been no accidents.
Then one year in the fall, new power lines were erected between the airport
and the heliport. We saw the towers going up, of course, and notices were posted
in the flight office. The big masts reached to about 150 feet AGL.
A few months later, I was returning from an offshore flight at night in a
Sikorsky S-61N. The weather was crummy, with the clouds close to the 200-foot
ceiling minimum for the ITS at Sola, and the visibility was about a mile and a half
in rain—a borderline visibility not quite bad enough to force us to land at Sola and
call for a bus. Borderline should always raise your awareness when flying.
As the copilot on this flight, I was in the left seat and flew the return leg while
the captain did the radio work, kept the flight log, read the checklist, and backed
me up on the instrument approach. We saw the approach lights just before decision height and got a visual of the runway, but couldn't see much else of the airport. But other flights before us had flown over to the heliport without apparent
difficulty, so before we requested it, the tower cleared us special VFR to cross the
field. Like lemmings, we followed, continuing across the airport, which was easy
to see because the runway was well lit. When things are borderline, it usually takes
a brave soul to say, "Enough is enough!" and buck the trend.
I followed the usual, but unwritten, scud-running track between the airport
and heliport. At the end of the runway I turned left to 90 degrees, which took us to
a well-lit service station off the airport. The ceiling was about 300 feet, but ragged,
so I stayed at 250 feet to keep below the clouds and held airspeed at 70 knots, well
below our normal cruise speed of 120 knots.
At the service station, I picked up the wide road that wound its way to the
heliport. Called "Lowenstrasse," the road had been built by the Germans when
they occupied Norway during World War II to serve as a high-speed taxiway for
fighters between Sola Airport and another airport where our heliport now stood.
("Strasse" is German for street.) The road had no streetlights, but the headlights of
a few cars helped us follow it.
The Germans built the second airfield in Forus, because it had a flat basin surrounded by four hills where they could and did place antiaircraft batteries to protect
the airfield from enemy (the Allied Powers) aircraft. Avoiding these hills was our
main concern. I looked for a lighted, greenhouse where Lowenstrasse turned left to
go through the gap between the second and third hills and descended in the mist to
keep the road in sight. Just before I was about to do a 180-degree turn back to the
safety of Sola, I spotted the greenhouse. "This is not good," I said to the captain. He
agreed. I glanced at him and saw he was looking out the cockpit windows as intently
as I was. But we knew the clouds tended to be higher on the other side of the gap, so
I kept going and slowed to 65 knots.
Once through the gap, I stopped following Lowenstrasse, because it veered
away from the heliport. We fully expected to clearly see the heliport's lights.
Chapter Twelve
because they were the brightest in the basin, but all we could see was their glow,
diffused in the mist and clouds. Nevertheless, we felt safe being back on our home
turf and so close to landing.
Seconds later and without warning, the captain grabbed the controls, banked
hard left, changing the heading about 40 degrees, quickly rolled back level and said
tersely, "We almost hit a tower." I looked past him out the right window and saw the
top of another tower and wires flash by at our level. "That was close," said the captain, and then, "You have control."
As often happens after a close call in flight, one doesn't have time to stop and think
about it—or comment. You must quickly clear your thoughts, keep flying and attend
to the tasks at hand. In seconds, our well-lit heliport came into full view. I doublechecked wheels down, parking brake off and power up, made the landing and taxied
to a parking spot. We shut down, unloaded the passengers and baggage and then
walked in silence to the flight office. It wasn't until we were inside, out of the rain and
sipping coffee, that the full consequence of what could have happened hit us.
It was odd, actually. We didn't need to say, "We could have been killed out
there." We both knew it. One of us said something like, "I think I'm going to raise
my night minimums with those new towers out there," and the other agreed. There
wasn't much else to say.
I was very relieved a few years later when all our offshore operations were transferred to a new terminal at Stavanger Airport, effectively ending the Lowenstrasse
scud run. But more than 30 years later, I still can picture that tower and the wires
flashing by outside the right cockpit window of our S-61.
Avoiding Power Lines
Towers, poles, and their electrical lines might not always be readily visible. Most are not
required to be marked under the FAA criteria that determine what is considered to be
an obstruction to air navigation. Also, under some conditions, such as sun glare or haze,
it can be difficult to see the lines running between the support structures. Taking two
simple steps can greatly reduce the chances of accidentally contacting electrical facilities while you're flying.
First, take time for safety prior to the flight. Check the aeronautical charts for obstructions when you plan the route. Certain electrical lines are charted because of their height.
Also, airport directories carry warnings of power lines located close to runways.
Then, observe the minimum altitude requirements while airborne, especially the
1,000-foot minimum over populated areas. It's also a good idea to stay above 1,000 feet
when flying over lakes, rivers, or canyons to avoid any power line crossings.
This step-by-step list is an excellent summation:
1. Before you take off, check the airport directory for warnings about power lines
at your destination.
2. Check your route and be familiar with marked obstructions.
3. Always observe altitude minima.
4. Do not allow adverse weather conditions to force you to fly too close to the
ground. Check aviation weather forecasts to make sure cloud heights provide
an adequate ceiling for safe visual flying.
Hazards of Low-Level Flying
5. Remember that sun glare can make power lines nearly invisible.
6. Maintain a safe altitude over rivers, lakes, and other waterways.
7. When visibility is poor, increase your altitude above minima or fly instrument
flight rules (IFR).
8. Be aware that power lines and towers are marked only near airports and at
certain water crossings (Fig. 12-4).
Figure 12-4 Pilots need to understand that power lines and towers are marked only near
airports and at certain water crossings. Only a small part of these power lines, which are less
than 2,100 feet from the end of Runway 25 at Sky Manor Airport in New Jersey (see Fig. 12-1),
has marker balls.
Chapter Twelve
9. When you're using private airports, check for nearby power lines. Call ahead
for information about any obstruction at any private field you're planning to
use.
10. When flying through a gap or over a mountain ridge, watch for winds and
turbulence that could force you into a power line crossing.
(This list is courtesy of the Pennsylvania Power & Light Company in conjunction
with the FAA.)
Birdstrikes
Birds are equal-opportunity hazards to aviators. They will strike any aircraft that happens to be in their way.
The bad news for helicopter pilots is that most birdstrikes happen in "helicopter
airspace." According to a 2012 report, "Wildlife Strikes to Civil Aircraft in the United
States, 1990-2011 [http: / / www.faa.gov/airports/airport_safety / wildlife/resources/
media/bash90-ll.pdf], 75 percent of general aviation birdstrikes occur at or below
500 feet above ground level (AGL) and 97 percent occurred at or below 3,500 feet AGL.
Less than 1 percent of general aviation birdstrikes occurred above 7,500 feet AGL. General aviation includes both helicopters and airplanes. The report was produced by the
FAA in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Flealth
Inspection Service (APHIS), wildlife services.
The total number of all wildlife strikes (birds, terrestrial mammals, bats, and reptiles) reported by commercial aircraft and general aviation increased more than fivefold
from 1,804 in 1990 to 10,083 in 2011, and totaled 119,917 for the years 1990-2011. Birds
were involved in 97.1 percent of these strikes, terrestrial mammals in 2.3 percent, bats
in 0.5 percent, and reptiles in 0.1 percent.
Prior to the emergency forced landing of U.S. Airways Flight 1549 (an Airbus 320)
in the Hudson River after it was struck by a flock of Canadian geese in January 2009,
there was an average of 20 reported wildlife strikes/day during the five years between
2004 and 2008. This increased to an average of 27.6 reported strikes per day in 2011.
"The 25-percent increase in reported strikes from 2008 to 2009-2011 was likely a result
of an increased awareness of the wildlife strike issue and cooperation within the aviation industry to report strikes following the Airbus 320," according to the FAA report.
Strikes reported by general aviation aircraft operators increased 38.5 percent from 2008
to 2011 (648 strikes per year to 898, respectively). Although the number of reported
strikes has steadily increased, the number of reported damaging strikes has actually
declined from 765 in 2000 to 541 in 2011.
The good news for helicopters is that they fly much slower than airplanes, and particularly jets. Speed really does kill when it comes to collisions between birds and aircraft. The faster you fly, the greater the hazard, because a bird will impact harder at
higher speeds. The equation for force says it all: Force = ma (force equals mass times
acceleration). The mass (weight) of a bird is not much compared to the mass of an aircraft and it might not be traveling very fast, but the closure rate between the two is high.
That acceleration times the mass of the bird creates the force that can damage and disable an aircraft, even at a helicopter's lower airspeeds.
Hazards of Low-Level Flying
The FAA's wildlife-strike report does not break out numbers for helicopters and airplanes. However, it does highlight two significant strikes involving helicopters in 2011,
among 21 other significant strikes involving airplanes. In one, a U.S.-registered Bell 427
was departing La Isabela International Airport in the Dominican Republic when at least
two birds (a mallard and a gadwall) struck the tail rotor as the helicopter climbed through
90 feet AGL. The twin-engine helicopter crashed about two miles from the airport, injuring both pilots and breaking into two pieces. The aircraft may have been considered
destroyed, as the cost of repair was estimated at $1.5 million.
The second accident mentioned in the report concerned a Eurocopter EC135, which
was struck by two birds (identified as lesser scaups). The air medical helicopter was
flying en route with a patient. About four miles from Jackson, Mississippi, birds collided with the aircraft and broke through its right windshield. The injured pilot, who
was hit in the face, made a safe landing at Jackson-Evers International Airport.
So what can you do to avoid birdstrikes? Often, you can't do anything, but here are
some things to consider.
Birds are most active at dawn and dusk, because that's the time they eat. You might
want to avoid flying at these times, if you can.
Peak months for birdstrikes are during migratory periods, which vary by location.
In the United States, the "birdstrike" season is from about April to November. During
this time, some 100 million ducks, 8 million geese, several hundred thousand cranes
and swans, and large numbers of smaller birds migrate in North America. In the spring,
the most strikes occur from March to May. In the summer and fall, July, August,
September, and October see a large number. June and November have lower numbers
of strikes, but still a substantial amount. Actually, the numbers don't drop significantly
until December. To put it another way, when the weather is generally good for flying,
both birds and humans take to the sky.
You can find migratory routes in the Airman's Information Manual, but I doubt there
are many pilots who consult the manual and decide not to fly a certain route on a certain day because it crosses a "live" migratory route.
However, you should definitely strive to avoid flying over garbage dumps, protected bird refuges, and other areas where birds regularly congregate, feed, and nest, as
these places obviously attract a good deal of birds. If your concern about bird strikes is
not enough reason to avoid sanctuaries, here's another. Many bird sanctuaries also have
restrictions against low-flying aircraft. Binocular-brandishing "birders" could be enjoying their hobby when you pass over in your noisy flying machine. They just might take
down your aircraft's N-number to pass on to the FAA.
If birds see or hear an aircraft coming, they will often try to get out of the way. Flying with your landing light on may help them see you better. Inconclusive studies have
shown that turning on the weather radar may help as well. If your helicopter has windshield heat, turn it on when its cold and birds are present. A cold windshield is more
likely to shatter than a warm one.
When a birdstrike appears inevitable, you will probably have only seconds to react.
Maintain steady control and try to protect your face and body. This is easier to do in
airplanes than in helicopters, which usually have more plexiglass and smaller and
lower instrument panels to hide behind than airplanes. And you should keep both
hands and feet on the controls. In an airplane, you can free up your throttle hand to
protect your face.
Chapter Twelve
After a strike, assess controllability of the helicopter. If you have any doubts, make
a precautionary landing ASAP, shut down and check the aircraft thoroughly for damage.
Inform ATC what you are doing, if possible. If the bird seems to have missed the aircraft
or just glanced off it, check the engine and other instruments for any abnormalities. If
there are any concerns, make a precautionary landing. After you land, check for damage and have a mechanic do a more thorough check, as well.
If there is damage of a birdstrike, fill out an electronic or paper copy of FAA Form
5200-7, "Bird/Other Wildlife Strike Report."
CHAPTER
Flight Training Tips
The moment you doubt whether you can fly, you cease forever to be able to do it.
J. M. Barrie, "Peter Pan"
Reading about learning to fly helicopters is only going to get you so far. If you
really want to learn how to fly, whether you want to become a professional
helicopter pilot, fly for your own business, or just fly for fun, you're going
to have to get flight training and pilot certificates. That's what this chapter is all
about.
The Basics
Pilots in the United States learn to fly in one of three ways: as civilian pilots, as military
pilots, or both. Licensed civilian pilots are not allowed to fly in the military, unless they go
through military flight training, or are flying a civil aircraft under contract for the military.
Pilots trained in the military, no matter how much flight time they accrue or how many
different aircraft they fly, may not legally fly civilian aircraft unless they obtain the
required civil licenses, as issued by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).
To log flight time with a civilian instructor pilot, you need at least a Class 3 medical
certificate and a student pilot certificate. The FAA makes it easy to get a student pilot
certificate, because it is included with the Class 3 medical. (Note that the requirements of
other countries can be and often are considerably different from the FA A's requirements.)
These are the specific requirements for an FAA student pilot certificate:
1. You must be at least 16 years old. If you plan to pilot a glider or balloon, you
must be at least 14 years old.
2. You can read, speak, and understand English.
3. You hold at least a current Class 3 medical certificate. If you plan to pilot a
glider or balloon, you only have to certify that you have no medical defect that
would make you unable to pilot a glider or balloon.
After you've had the required training and are approved by an instructor pilot, you
will be able to fly solo with a student pilot certificate. Some restrictions apply, of course,
and one of them is that you are not allowed to carry passengers. A student pilot certificate is good for 24 months.
You may have heard about the FAA's sport pilot certificates, which have fewer
requirements than a private certificate, but additional restrictions. While sport pilot
269
Chapter Thirteen
certificates do open the skies to many pilots, including those who want to fly gyroplanes,
this certificate does not apply to helicopters. However, getting a sport plane license
before a private license will give a person experience in many aviation skills and could
reduce learning time when training for a private license. To obtain a private pilot license,
however, a person with a sport plane license must still fulfill the FAA training and certificate requirements for the private license.
Flying helicopters is expensive, even in the most popular trainers, the Robinson
R22, Sikorsky/Schweizer 300, and Enstrom F-28. {See the section "How Much Will Civil
Flight Training Cost?" in this chapter.) If you plan to fly privately, you might have to give
up buying a late-model used car. If you plan to become a professional pilot (assuming
you get a commercial license and instrument and instructor ratings), you will have to
invest about the equivalent of a two-year college education at a state college. You should
figure out how to pay for your training before you start.
Generally, it is better to train at a consistent, steady rate from one certificate to the
next. So the best situation is when you don't have to worry about the money, by having saved it before you start or obtained financing from a reputable lender or other
source (parents, for example). Some pilots manage to train at a steady rate without
incurring any debt by taking one flying lesson a week and working one or two jobs
the rest of the week for as long as it takes them to get the certificates and ratings they
need to get a flying job. This is not easy and it takes dedication and persistence, but it
works.
The Civilian Flight Training Route
You need a certified flight instructor (CFI) to obtain flight training that counts toward a
certificate. In the United States, the CFI may be a one-man band, who works on his or
her own. She may take students full time or be employed as a full-time pilot with a commercial operator or in another profession, doing flight training on the side. He may be
retired and flight instructing just to stay in the game. Your CFI may be a relative or a
friend of a friend. Just make sure his instructor certificate is current. (You'll quickly find
out that your CFI must verify the entries in your pilot logbook for every one of your
training flights.) These CFIs will provide instruction under 14 CFR Part 61. (CFR stands
for Code of Federal Regulations.) However, you may find it difficult to find such a CFI
as there are not many active helicopter pilots with CFI ratings who are working as CFIs
and are not affiliated with flight schools.
Flight schools can provide training under Part 61 or under the more stringent Part 141
(Fig. 13-1). Before conducting training. Part 141 schools must be evaluated and approved
by the FAA as meeting required standards for curriculum and management structure. Of
course, like individual flight instructors, no two Part 141 schools are alike, and there are
differences in quality. Training under Part 61 can offer more flexibility in lesson content
and sequence, which may be helpful for part-time students. On the other hand. Veterans
Administration benefits (the GI Bill) and some financial aid programs qualify only under
Part 141.
Several colleges and universities offer flight training as part of their curriculums, either with the institution's own flight training staff or in conjunction with an
established, independent flight training school. Some examples are Embry-Riddle
Aeronautical University (ERAU), Kansas State University, Mid-South Community
Flight Training Tips
-
t
5
i PHHH
Figure 13-1 Flight schools provide training under Part 61 or Part 141, although many Part 141
schools also offer Part 61 training. Hillsboro Aviation in Oregon is a school that offers both: A
certified flight instructor and student pilot in a Robinson R22. (Source: Hillsboro Aviation)
College, Salt Lake Community College, the University of North Dakota, and Utah
Valley University.
Will you get better training from a Part 61 CFI, a Part 61 flight school, or a Part 141
flight school? That's impossible to say, because so much will depend on the individual
instructor, how you relate to him or her, and the flight school itself. Cost and time are,
of course, other matters. If a good CFI is 10 miles from your home at your local airport,
has his own training helicopter, and you can only fly on weekends, then that may be the
best choice for you. However, weather and lack of availability of the instructor or the
aircraft, could drag out your training for more months than expected.
If time is critical to you and money is not a big problem, a faster route to training
would be with a flight school, either Part 61 or 141 (many Part 141 schools also provide
Part 61 training). One advantage of a flight school over a single CFI is that you should
be able to easily switch to another instructor, if the one you are using does not work out.
Requirements for a Private Pilot Certificate with a Helicopter Rating
The requirements for a U.S. private pilot certificate with a helicopter class rating issued
by the FAA are as follows:
1. Meet minimum age requirements (with few exceptions, 17 years old).
2. Read, speak, write, and understand the English language.
3. Receive appropriate flight training, with an instructor's logbook endorsement
confirming the training. This training must include a minimum of 40 hours of
Chapter Thirteen
flight time that includes at least 20 hours of flight training from an authorized
instructor and 10 hours of solo flight training in the areas of operation listed in
FAR 61.107(b)(3), and the training must include at least:
a.
Three hours of cross-country flight training in a helicopter
b.
Except as provided in § 61.110 of this part, three hours of night flight training
in a helicopter that includes (1) one cross-country flight of over 50 nautical
miles total distance; and (2) 10 takeoffs and 10 landings to a full stop (with
each landing involving a flight in the traffic pattern) at an airport
c.
Three hours of flight training with an authorized instructor in a
helicopter in preparation for the practical test, which must have been
performed within the preceding two calendar months from the month
of the test
d.
Ten hours of solo flight time in a helicopter, consisting of at least (1) three
hours cross-country time; (2) one solo cross country flight of 100 nautical
miles total distance, with landings at three points, and one segment of the
flight being a straight-line distance of more than 25 nautical miles between
the takeoff and landing locations; and (3) three takeoffs and three landings
to a full stop (with each landing involving a flight in the traffic pattern) at
an airport with an operating control tower
4. Pass a written, oral, and practical test.
For complete information about the practical test see Chap. 14.
Becoming a Professional Pilot
If you plan to become a professional helicopter pilot, the next step is to obtain a commercial certificate and an instrument rating.
The Bristow Academy (www.heli.com) has developed a "road map" that shows the
path to becoming a professional pilot (Fig. 13-2). This road map may not be for you and
there is no guarantee it will work for everyone. But it does cover the main steps in a
logical sequence. If you mange to complete all the steps, even if not in the same order,
I think you will have a very high chance of success of reaching your goal of becoming
a professional helicopter pilot.
A community college in California, which offers an associate degree in "Professional Pilot—Helicopter," recommends that students create a career plan and provides
an abbreviated guide on its website to help them do this. (Unfortunately, the college
was in danger of losing its accreditation in 2013 and may be closed by the time you read
this.) Nevertheless, its "Helicopter Career Guide Primer" (abbreviated here) does provide some good information, and may still be online, if the college is still open. What
follows are highlights from that guide.
As you can see, there are similarities and differences in these two general career
models. For more variations, see Chap. 17 for the different paths taken by 17 professional helicopter pilots who are in various stages of their careers (Fig. 13-3).
-a o S
ro E =
m 1|
3 gO g TO
0 03 "O
w i= >
O r- P
O) .i=
O=
Q.
—
O0 -C
U)
0 MJ= O
0 E
0 -?>
13
0
I
00 .EO)
/— >>
o u_
30 u.0
00
00 0
0 O0 OIJZ0
O) c .£ Q_
o
Q. 8 3 0
0 o 130 >
0 "O 0
O)
13 00 0tc ^0
>wo "O
0
CL >c
CL 3
"O w 0
c
0
< >0
>- c
0 .9>
•"5 ^ 0
"O
RTO ^ 2
—
O TO '5
0- Q-jd
§^1
0=
0 0
> O
1 E
c
TO 9g
SI
TO ¥ T3 —
O) C : 3
CO C/j
TO o
TO LU
•3 o
TO "Oto TO
"3CD .2;
TO
c
TO a:
q.,E
<oai .E
r* to
TO
to o
^M TO
>•
r0 oCO
0
cO 0
00 ^
0 0
o
0
— 13
0 0 0
0- QIT 0
0 o
a.
Q. c
0
O)
C
S E
TO TO
TO X!
TO Q>
Q.-J=
cn
a> cl
CD
TO TO
P "O
-n
(/)
CO(0iS s
o
ircn ■=
TO O)
c x:
nDCL TO ■o
TO O
TO "2TO =O)
P "ga.
DC
"0 ^
- >
00 -n
0
00) ~
^
O ^
0 0
•-0 0)
0 0-0 O)
•O '-Q) 0
0 "O
cn to
—0 0
0
= 0
— C
o1
-TO
(/)
m
CD
E
o
CO
2
§
o-rr E
So S.
TO o .E
9
TO
0 0-0
Q.
c 03
0 *0
^
§.
O)
O) c0 c
0
0 oo 0
sz
I o0
O) 00
< cc jO
CO
0 oCL
<
LU
-O c
00
00 0
0 o0 cn x:0
O) c .E □o o 3 0
CL o ■O >
0 o 0 0
0 "D O)
13 00 0c *=
0
o>w 13CL t 0>
c
0. 3
O QJ
(0
■C
c
o
E
D)
C CD
'c CD
co
c s:
CO Q.
Q.
O)
= w
- a.
CO
c
o
E
co
C\J
CD
O
r— CD
L_
C
,0) iu
"i— —
0 Z3
Q. CQ
X
LU
-C0
c
o
E
CSI
CM
E
CD
"a
ro
o
<
CO c
CD
O
i_ E
CD >.
E o
E Q.
o E
O LU
o
'5.
q3
Q.
o
_o
q3
-C
ro
c
o
CD
CD
O
CD
CD
E
o
o
CD
X3
Q.
CD
E
"O
CD
O
CNI
CO
H
LU
tr
D
a
273
Chapter Thirteen
7
*
f
Figure 13-3 Maggie Mutahi Beseda, who is now flying sightseeing tours in Hawaii, is one of
17 pilots who provided their career stories for Chap. 17: Bell 430.
Helicopter Career Guide Primer
Step 1: Complete your FA A flight training through commercial certificate and instrument rating (150 flight hours).
Step 2: Become a certified flight instructor (150 to 200 flight hours), including obtaining your CFII rating to teach instrument flying. You should also be qualified to
instruct in both the Robinson R22 and R44, as these are the most popular training
helicopters. (The college estimated that only 20 to 30 percent of schools use the
Schweizer 300.) You need 200 hours to instruct in a Robinson helicopter.
Step 3: Work as a CFI/CFII (200 to 1,200 flight hours). This is where your professional
reputation gets built. Work hard, be a model employee, and take care of your students.
The industry is small and everyone talks to each other.
Step 4: Obtain experience flying turbine-powered helicopters (1,200 to 2,000 flight
hours). The school claimed that some tour companies in Alaska and Las Vegas will
hire piston-only helicopter pilots with 1,200 hours to fly their turbine-powered helicopters. It also said that some companies serving the oil and gas industry in the
Gulf of Mexico will hire pilots with only flight instruction experience and without
a turbine-engine rating, preferring to train these pilots to fly turbines the way the
company wants them to.
Step 5: Go wherever you want to go (2,000 to 10,000 flight hours). At 2,000 hours total
flight time and turbine experience, air medical, long-line, firefighting, corporate,
and other operators will start considering you. Think hard what you really want to
do in the industry, because your first full-time job flying turbines (after step 4) may
affect your future opportunities.
Flight Training Tips
Requirements for a Commercial Pilot Certificate with a Helicopter Rating
The requirements for a commercial certificate with a rotorcraft category and helicopter
class rating issued by the FAA include:
1. Meet minimum age requirements (18 years old).
2. Read, speak, write, and understand the English language.
3. Receive appropriate flight training, with an instructor's logbook endorsement
confirming the training.
4. Must log at least 150 hours of flight time as a pilot that consists of at least:
a.
One hundred hours in powered aircraft, of which 50 hours must be in
helicopters.
b.
One hundred hours of pilot-in-command flight time, which includes at
least (1) 35 hours in helicopters; and (2) 10 hours in cross-country flight in
helicopters.
c.
Twenty hours of training on the areas of operation listed in § 61.127(b)(3) of
this part that includes at least: (1) Five hours on the control and maneuvering
of a helicopter solely by reference to instruments using a view-limiting
device including attitude instrument flying, partial panel skills, recovery
from unusual flight attitudes, and intercepting and tracking navigational
systems. This aeronautical experience may be performed in an aircraft,
flight simulator, flight training device, or an aviation training device. (2) One
two-hour cross-country flight in a helicopter in daytime conditions that
consists of a total straight-line distance of more than 50 nautical miles from
the original point of departure. (3) One two-hour cross-country flight in a
helicopter in nighttime conditions that consists of a total straight-line
distance of more than 50 nautical miles from the original point of departure.
(4) Three hours in a helicopter with an authorized instructor in preparation
for the practical test within the preceding two calendar months from the
month of the test.
d.
Ten hours of solo flight time in a helicopter or 10 hours of flight time
performing the duties of pilot in command in a helicopter with an authorized
instructor onboard (either of which may be credited toward the flight time
requirement under paragraph (c)(2) of this section), on the areas of operation
listed under § 61.127(b)(3) that includes: (1) one cross-country flight with
landings at a minimum of three points, with one segment consisting of a
straight-line distance of at least 50 nautical miles from the original point of
departure; and (2) five hours in night VPR conditions with 10 takeoffs and
10 landings (with each landing involving a flight in the traffic pattern).
5. Pass a written, oral, and practical test.
How to Find and Select a Flight Training School
Laura McColm of the Bristow Academy and Daniel Jones of Hillsboro Aviation provided suggestions on how to find a flight school. I have combined their thoughts with
information from other pilots to create the following steps and questions to help you
find and select a flight school.
Chapter Thirteen
Step One: Search
Talk to pilots, ideally ones you know and trust, for schools they would recommend.
Most pilots will be happy to give their advice. Ask them for other pilots you could talk
to. Network, network, network. Even before you start training, meet everyone you can
in the industry.
Look for schools with good reputations, and ones that have been around for a long
time (10 years or more was suggested). If a school has tripled in size in just two years,
be wary.
Search the Internet, but realize that companies naturally try to put their best face
on their websites and some information may be out of date. Photographs can and
do lie.
Go to the website for the Helicopter Association International (www.rotor.com).
Look for the "HAI Membership Directory." Where it says, "Type of Product or Service,"
select "Pilot Training." About 200 HAI members offer pilot training. HAI requires the
payment of annual membership dues and has a code of ethics regarding technical
standards (flight operations, flight personnel, and maintenance) and another code of
ethics regarding business standards. The board of directors also has the authority to
"implement sanctions as reasonable and necessary," including termination of membership. (By the way, full- and part-time pilot and mechanic students can join HAI for free
the first year. After that, a membership costs $35 per year.)
The FAA also lists pilot training schools on its website: http://av-info.faa.gov/
PilotSchool.asp
Other civilian flight school resources are Aviation Schools Online (http://www
.aviationschoolsonline.com, select "Helicopter Pilot Training"), BestAviaiton.net
(www.bestaviation.net, select "Helicopter Schools"), Helicopter Links (www.helicopterlinks
.com, select "Helicopter Pilot Flight Training Schools"), Just Helicopters (www
.justhelicopters.com, select "School Locator"). Be aware that these sites obtain their
revenue from advertising, paid listings, or lead generation. These are legitimate
ways for companies to reach potential customers and clients, and often can be more
reliable than finding companies via a plain Google search.
Non-U.S. citizens may also train in the United States, but must go through some
hoops. The procedures for obtaining the necessary approvals for pilot training for
non-U.S. citizens can be found on Association of Pilots and Owners at this Web
address: http://www.aopa.org/tsa_rule/. Most larger flight schools, and some smaller
ones, will assist non-U.S. students in obtaining the necessary approvals. (AOPA offers
free six-month subscriptions to flight students.)
Step Two: Narrow Your Search to Five to Ten Schools
Consider location. Schools located in areas where the weather is generally good VFR
most of the year probably have an advantage over schools that are located elsewhere.
Average temperatures can also be a concern. A fellow student from Alaska in my Army
flight class had a terrible time during the mid-summer temperatures in Texas. But cold
and stormy weather can create difficulties, too. You can probably figure out the locations with a preponderance of inclement weather. Other considerations are the terrain,
population density, and airspace near and around the home airport.
Would you like to live in the area? You may end up being there for a number of
years. Are there opportunities to have fun outside of flying?
Flight Training Tips
Step Three: Call the Schools for Information
Here are questions to ask.
1. How much will the training cost? Expect there to be caveats to these estimates.
If not, be wary.
2. How long will the training take? Again, expect caveats.
3. How many helicopters does the school have? A one- or two-ship flight school
will have limited availability on popular training days and no availability when
the aircraft is down for maintenance or repair.
4. Does the school have its own maintenance facility? How many certified
mechanics does it have on staff?
5. How many instructors does the school have? What is their experience, both in
hours, number of previous students, and in other operations? Are they full- or
part-time? What are their schedules? Is training provided seven days a week?
How many students are they training at a time? Will the CFIs also be tasked
with flying other missions? This is good for their experience, but could make
them less available when you want to fly.
6. What is the school's safety program? What is its accident record? This can be
searched online, using the NTSB accident database.
7. What percentage of students finish their training goals? How many continue to
become professional pilots?
8. Does the school hire graduates to work as flight instructors? Do they hire
female, minority, and foreign pilots?
9. Does the school have and use aviation-training devices (ATDs), flight-training
devices (FTDs), or even simulators? Some people claim that training first in an
ATD or simulator before flying in a real helicopter can cut the time it takes a
new pilot to learn how to hover in a real helicopter.
10. Where will the flight training take place? Are approved training areas nearby or
will you have to spend much of your training time just flying to a designated
training area?
11. If you visit the school, could you take a demonstration flight? Would this be
with an instructor? How long would it last and how much will it cost?
12. Does the operator offer other helicopter services, such as air tours, charter, and
photo flights? This is not unusual, but depending on the size of the school,
there may be fewer hours available for training when instructors and aircraft
are off doing these more lucrative revenue flights. On the other hand, there may
be greater opportunities of employment with the outfit after one finishes
training and acquires enough flight hours.
13. Ask for contact information of graduates from the school who you could talk to,
realizing, of course, that the school will probably give you contacts who are happy
with their experience. But sometimes it's what people don't say that is telling.
14. Ask if the school is open to visits from prospective students and when would
be the best times for a visit? Ask if the school will provide a demonstration
flight during the visit and how much this would cost?
Chapter Thirteen
Step Four: Select Three to Five Schools and Visit Them
Decide on the schools you want to visit, call them, and set up dates and times. During
your visits, ask all the same questions you asked in Step Three, just to confirm the information has not changed, and get answers to the following questions, by both asking
and observing.
Important! When you visit the school to check it out, the school's staff will be checking you out as well, both as a prospective student and possibly as a prospective future
instructor. Be presentable and professional. Do your homework. Ask questions politely,
but don't give up if your questions are not answered. A quick change in a student's
attitude in the final stages of training is not going to be as convincing as consistent performance throughout.
1. Does the school explicitly state that it provides high-quality training to students?
2. Do the instructors seem friendly and happy?
3. Do the students seem friendly and happy?
4. Can you meet and speak with management and maintenance people? Do they
seem friendly and happy?
5. What is your overall impression and feeling about the school?
If you do feel good about the school and it offers demo flights, then ask to take one.
Remember the suggestions in Chap. 4 about learning from this flight and evaluate it at
after you land, using the following questions.
Did you have a good time? Did it feel safe? Did you get a good preflight briefing
from the pilot? Did you like the pilot? Would you like him or her as an instructor?
Finally, don't let yourself be beguiled into putting money down for training on the
spot, even if a discount is offered. You need a few days away from the school to consider.
If the school won't extend the discount offer for several days or more, be very wary.
Step Five: Decide Which School You Will Attend
If you did a thorough search and asked all or most of the questions when you called the
flight schools, you could find that all the schools you visited are good ones. If not, you
probably can eliminate the not-so-good ones fairly quickly. Now you need to make a
decision between only good options, which means details about each school will have
more significance for you. This is a nice position to be in, because you probably can't
make a bad decision at this point. Consider all the factors and make your choice.
Congratulations! You've made the first big decision on your way to becoming a
helicopter pilot.
How Much Will Civil Flight Training Cost?
The cost depends on your goal and the licenses and ratings you need to get to reach that
goal. But a bit of advice first. Have available enough money to complete at least one
phase of training, such as your private license, before stopping training to save more. It
is much better to complete the phase and stop, than stopping partway and later trying
to get yourself back up to check-ride standards again. You will forget much and retraining can be very costly. Bristow's Laura McColm said she has seen way too many students stop right before a check ride, and later come to regret it.
Flight Training Tips
If you only want to fly privately and only in good weather under visual flight rules
(VFR), then a private pilot license is all you need. If you want to add the capability to
fly under instrument flight rules (IFR), you will need to get an instrument rating. Actually, many pilots recommend you obtain an instrument rating, even if you don't intend
to fly under IFR, because this training will improve your flying skills and give you the
ability to safely extract yourself from low-visibility situations, also called "inadvertent
IMC" for instrument meteorological conditions (see Chap. 12). Many pilots, particularly
airplane pilots, fly under IFR regardless how good the weather, because air traffic
control provides flight following and separation from other aircraft flying IFR.
If you want to become a professional pilot, you will need at minimum a commercial
pilot license, which allows you to fly for compensation or hire. This requires a minimum
of 150 hours total time. You don't need an instrument rating to obtain a commercial
license, but many employers require it. However, it is next to impossible to get a job flying
helicopters with only 150 flight hours. The most probable next step is to become a flight
instructor.
If you want to become a certified flight instructor (CFI), you'll need to add this rating. Most pilots seeking to become professional pilots via the civil route become CFIs.
There's also an instrument rating that adds to the instructor rating, the CFII.
For the top paying helicopter jobs, you'll need to get an air transport pilot (ATP)
license, which requires a minimum of 1,500 hours total time, in addition to a commercial license and instrument rating. However, few pilots can pay for all these hours on
their own, so they must find flying jobs that help them build time. Many ATP jobs
require the applicant to have a turbine-engine rating, too, meaning a minimum number
of hours in a turbine-powered helicopter. Turbine engines are expensive and operating
them improperly can cost more to repair than most pilots can afford to pay.
Ground school is required for the private and instrument ratings. You'll have to pay
to rent the helicopter and for fuel. You'll pay the instructor an hourly rate.
If you decide to train with a flight academy far from your home, you'll need to figure in the costs of renting a place to stay, meals, travel costs, and other living costs.
Because you will likely be reading this book years after it was published in late 2013
and the requirements for licenses and ratings could change, adding hours required and
costs, any cost figures I can give you now can be only estimates. This is why finding out
current prices from flight schools is so important.
However, to give you some idea of the costs as you read this book, here is a general
guide, using the prices of automobiles (sort of like using the prices of Big Macs in different countries to obtain a comparison of purchasing power). These ballpark estimates
may be somewhat higher than some flight schools, but then, you may also need additional flight time. These estimates don't include living and other expenses.
How Much Will Civil Flight Training Cost?
A private pilot helicopter license will cost about the equivalent of a new small
coupe or SUV, such as a Honda Civic Coupe or CRV and Toyota Camry or RAV4,
at the manufacturer's retail sales price (MSRP). Therefore, the cost would be, in
round numbers in 2013, about $18,000 to $22,000.
Adding an instrument rating to the private license will cost about half this
much, or about $10,000 to $11,000.
Chapter Thirteen
A full "professional pilot package," including private and commercial pilot
certificates, and instrument, CFI, CFII, and turbine-engine helicopter ratings, will
set you back the cost of a high-end luxury car, such as a Mercedes-Benz CLS-550 or
Jaguar F-Type or K Coupe at MSRP. In round 2013 numbers this is about $75,000 to
$85,000. If you use automobiles in these classes for comparative pricing in the
future, I think you'll come fairly close to the cost of helicopter flight training.
How Do I Pay for Flight Training?
This is probably the most important question for prospective pilots, and the one that
stops many in their tracks. Even if a private license is within your means, continuing to
rent helicopters after getting the license may make continued flying an unsustainable
hobby. For some people, just getting the certificate is enough. If you are flying for business reasons, cost may not be as great a concern.
If you want to become a professional pilot, the issue is obviously more serious. The
military route will be less costly, monetarily, but this may not be possible or desirable.
So, the civil route is for many people.
As I mentioned before, training and flying regularly on a consistent basis is preferable to doing it on a haphazard basis. This means having a big chunk of money to draw
from and the time to take the training.
You can earn and save the money, borrow it, or do both, depending on your circumstances. Some flight schools are affiliated with universities, through which you can
obtain federal student loans, like any other student loans. You may be required to enroll
in the college or university, and major in aviation studies. The terms of such loans are
usually better than what you can get from private banks.
Some stand-alone flight schools (those not affiliated with colleges or universities)
may offer student loans (funded by the school itself or via "a special arrangement" with
a bank or other lending institution), and promise you a job after training to help you pay
back the loan. I find this is a huge conflict of interest. Google "Silver State Helicopters"
and read what happened to some 2,700 helicopter flight students who had obtained
loans of $69,900 from a bank arranged by Silver State, which had also promised them
jobs as flight instructors after they graduated. I think a flight school should be in the
business of flight training, not banking.
If this is the only route available for you, be sure to read the fine print, ask questions,
and get advice from someone you trust and who knows about financing. The for-profit
college model has left many students with big debts and no or worthless degrees. To be
clear, this is different from obtaining a student loan from the government, a university,
or your own bank.
The dirty, little secret about civil flight training is that many schools chum out low-time
instructor pilots, whom they can then employ at minimum wages to train the next crop of
budding low-time pilots. So you frequently have low-time pilots training no-time pilots.
When the instructors have enough hours to get other flying jobs, the new low-time instmctors are ready and willing to take their places. The good flight training schools at least pay
their CFIs a fair wage and have a safe and well-run training organization, exceptional maintenance, and a sufficient number of training helicopters to keep their students flying.
Buyer beware!
Flight Training Tips
The Military Flight School Route
Learning to fly helicopters in the military has many advantages over the civil route.
Cost, obviously, is a big one, and so is getting paid while training. The training itself is
another benefit. The military does not skimp on the training of its pilots. Another is
having a job as a pilot when you complete training.
The military, of course, expects the pilot trainee to pay back the cost of training in
time and dedication. And there's also the risk of washing out of training at several different levels. If that happens, you will still likely be required to continue in the service
for at least a few years.
Another risk is the national budget. Military budgets change every year. You may
be promised a slot in flight training that may be delayed for months or years, or may
never happen at all. Nevertheless, the many positives of military training often outweigh the risks for many budding pilots.
All the services require aptitude testing and meeting certain physical requirements
(height, weight, eyesight). All require candidates to be at least 18 years old, but have
different maximum age limits for pilot candidates. Be aware that the minimum requirements for military officer training are high and the requirement for pilots are even
higher. The competition to get in is tough, the training is intense and the washout rate
is high. The services spend much money on pilot training, they know how to find the
type of people they want and they continually evaluate their pilot trainees throughout
the flight-training program, looking for those who should continue and those who
should be washed out.
Please understand that the information here may have changed by the time you
read this. Go to the websites of each service to find out the current requirements. Then
talk to recruiters for the services you are interested in. Many of the sites have chat
rooms, which I found out work quite well. Finally, find some current or retired military
pilots in your community and talk to them about their experiences.
U.S. Army (www.goarmy.com, www.army.mil)
The vast majority of helicopter pilots who learn how to fly in the U.S. military get their
training in the Army, for two reasons. First, the Army trains more helicopter pilots than
any of the other services, because it operates the most helicopters (it also operates some
airplanes). Second, one does not need to be a commissioned officer to be an Army pilot,
although many Army pilots are commissioned officers. To attend Army Aviation School,
however, one must be a warrant officer or a commissioned officer.
To become a warrant officer, you must have at least a high school diploma, be at
least 18 years old at the time of enlistment, and not passed your 33rd birthday at the
time of selection. Age waivers will be considered on a case-by-case basis. You also must
score 90 or higher on the revised Flight Aptitude Selection Test (FAST) and earn a minimum of 110 General Technical (GT) score, which is one component of the Armed Forces
Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB).
You must also meet the active duty Army's height and weight standards; take a
complete physical examination at a Military Entrance Processing Station (MEPS), meet
entry medical fitness standards no more than 18 months prior to the date of application,
and pass a Class 1A flight physical and have the results approved by flight surgeons at
Fort Rucker, Alabama, prior to the selection board. The flight physical must also be less
than 18 months old.
Chapter Thirteen
Like the Navy, Marines, Air Force, and Coast Guard, to become a commissioned
officer in the Army, you must have a bachelor's degree from a U.S. service academy,
typically for the Army, the U.S. Military Academy in West Point, New York, or from a
civilian college or university. Many flight candidates participate in the Army Reserve
Officers Training Corps (ROTC) in college. Others attend Officers Candidate School
after graduating from college.
U.S. Navy (www.navy.com)
The Navy operates airplanes and helicopters. The service requires its pilots to be officers
and have a bachelor's degree from a U.S. service academy, typically for the Navy, the U.S.
Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, or a civilian college or university. Many flight
candidates participate in the Navy ROTC in college. Others attend Officers Candidate
School after graduating from college. A cumulative CPA of 2.5 on a 4.0 scale is required.
There are no restrictions on college major, but technical disciplines are preferred.
All Naval pilots go through the same primary training in airplanes. After completing
primary training, helicopter pilots and airplane pilots receive specialized training in their
respective aircraft. Advanced naval flight training, focusing on mission specifics, follows.
Upon its completion, pilots are awarded their "wings of gold" and report to their respective Fleet Replacement Squadrons for further training specific to their aircraft.
Applicants must be at least 19 years old and not older than 26 on commissioning.
The commitment for a Naval aviator is eight years of service after completion of flight
training.
U.S. Marine Corps (www.marines.com, www.marines.mil)
The Marine Corps operates airplanes, helicopters, and tilt-rotors. The service requires
its pilots to be officers and have a bachelor's degree from a U.S. service academy, typically for the Marines, the U.S. Naval Academy (because the Marines do not have their
own academy) or a civilian college or university. Many flight candidates participate in
the Navy ROTC in college. Others attend Officers Candidate School after graduating
from college. Marine pilots undergo the same training as Navy pilots.
Aviator candidates must be at least 18 years old when enlisting, at least 20 years old
when entering an officer candidate program, and no older than 27 years old when
receiving their commissions.
U.S. Air Force (www.airforce.com, http://www.baseops.net/ft_rucker/,
http://www.baseops.net/militarypilot/roadtowings.html)
The Air Force operates many more airplanes than it does helicopters, and therefore trains
fewer helicopter pilots than the Army. It also operates tilt-rotors. The service requires its
pilots to be officers and have a bachelor's degree from a U.S. service academy, typically
for the Air Force, the U.S. Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs, Colorado, or a civilian
college or university. Many flight candidates participate in the Air Force ROTC in college.
Others attend Officers Training School (OTS) after graduating from college.
Your college CPA must be a 3.4 or above on a 4.0 scale and science degrees are preferred over the humanities. Aspiring pilots must appear before the selection board that
commissions officers before turning 28, be between 64 and 77 inches in height, have
distance vision no worse than 20/70, correctable to 20/20, near vision 20/20, uncorrected, and normal color vision.
Flight Training Tips
The commitment for an Air Force Pilot is 10 years of active duty service after completion of pilot training.
U.S. Coast Guard (www.uscg.mil)
The Coast Guard operates helicopters and airplanes. To become a Coast Guard pilot,
you must first become a commissioned Coast Guard officer or be a graduate of
another armed service's flight school, and have served on active duty as a military
pilot. Officers who are already in the Coast Guard apply for flight school and are
selected from a pool of qualified candidates. Coast Guard pilots selected for flight
school train with the Navy.
To become an officer in the Coast Guard you must graduate from the Coast Guard
Academy in New London, Connecticut, successfully complete Officers Candidate School
(OCS) or enter through one of several direct-commissioning programs. The obligated
service requirement for flight training is eight years after completion of flight school.
This is added to the service requirement incurred in becoming an officer.
Prior-service military pilots may apply for Direct Commission Aviator programs. To
apply, one must be over 21 and under 32, must have at least 500 hours as a rated military
pilot, and must have full-time flying experience within two years of the application.
U.S. Merchant Marine Academy (http://www.usmma.edu/)
The U.S. Merchant Marine Academy (USMMA) in Kings Point, New York, is a federal
service that educates and graduates licensed Merchant Marine officers. The United
States Merchant Marine is a fleet of U.S. civilian-owned merchant vessels, which are
operated by either the government or the private sector. In wartime, the Merchant
Marine becomes an auxiliary of the U.S. Navy.
Graduates of USMMA receive a Bachelor of Science degree, a U.S. Coast Guard license,
and an officer's commission in the U.S. Armed Forces. All graduates incur a service obligation. They may choose to work five years in the U.S. maritime industry with eight years
of service as an officer in any reserve unit of the nation's armed forces or serve five years
active duty in any of the armed forces. As a member of the Army, Navy, Marines, Air
Force, or Coast Guard, USMMA graduates may apply for pilot training in accordance
with the requirements of that service.
Candidates for admission to USMMA must be at least 17 years old, and not have
passed their 25th birthday, before 1 July of the year of admission.
How Can Military Pilots Obtain Civil Pilot's Licenses?
According to FA A regulation § 61.73, current and former military pilots who can document that they are or were qualified pilots in the U.S Armed Forces, that they graduated
from a U.S. Armed Forces undergraduate pilot training school and received a rating
qualification as a military pilot, and that they passed a pilot proficiency check and
instrument proficiency check, may apply for a commercial pilot's certificate, along with
an instrument rating and any type ratings as appropriate for aircraft flown. Similar
requirements under the same U.S. regulation apply to military pilot instructors and
military pilot examiners seeking a civilian flight instructor's certificate.
However, any military pilot who had been removed for flying status for lack of
proficiency or because of disciplinary action involving aircraft operations is not eligible
to obtain FAA licenses in this way. More details are laid out in FAR 61.73.
284
Chapter Thirteen
Other Flight Training Considerations
If My Goal Is to Be a Helicopter Pilot, Should I Train in Airplanes First or Go
Right to Helicopters?
The short answer to this is "yes," because both ways work. If you ask enough helicopter
pilots this question, you'll get good reasons to do one or the other. I did this when
I asked to pilots about their careers as professional helicopter pilots for Chap. 17. If you
have not read their replies to this question yet, now would be a good time to page ahead
to Chap. 17 and read it.
Personally, I think most pilots favor the way they happened to learn. If they had
time in airplanes before flying helicopters, they favor this way. If they learned in helicopters first, they favor that way. But there are exceptions. You'll just have to weigh the
various reasons for one way or the other and make your own decision.
Airplane or Helicopter Training First?
I had about 30 flight hours in an Air Force Academy T-41 (Cessna 172) before
I went to primary flight training for helicopters with the Army. I loved flying the
T-41 and I think knowing about airmanship, navigation, flight instruments,
weather, aircraft engines, and all the other common elements about flying gave me
a leg up when I trained in helicopters.
One advantage of flying an airplane first was that I got over the jitters of my
first-ever solo flight. The night before that flight I remember thinking, "I could
crash and burn tomorrow. Maybe I should go out and party tonight for the last
time." But then T thought, "If I don't party, I'll probably have a better chance of not
killing myself." I didn't party.
I should mention here that on my very first T-41 flight I got airsick to the point
of using the barf bag. Worse than my embarrassment in front of my instructor was
the thought that my whole career as a pilot was over. I was required to see the
flight surgeon. After just a few minutes, he assured me it was just first-flight nervousness. He told me to forget about it and relax. I wasn't convinced but did what
he said, or at least tried to be more relaxed. It apparently worked and I've never
needed a barf bag in flight again.
Back to my first solo. As it happened, I did fine on my first airplane solo and
that first takeoff without the instructor sitting next to me in the T-41 was one of the
greatest thrills of my life. After climbing to pattern altitude and turning on downwind in the traffic pattern, I shouted out loud to myself, "I'm flying! I'm really
flying!" Then I settled down and made myself concentrate on making a good touch
and go and two more patterns. I felt great after landing.
In spite of my 35 hours in the T-41, it took me a long time to feel comfortable
flying the TH-55A (Hughes 269A) in primary helicopter training. And perhaps
my loss of confidence in not being able to master flying a helicopter as quickly as
I did flying an airplane may have slowed down my progress somewhat.
Flight Training Tips
I certainly did not get as much of a thrill when I soloed the helicopter the first
time as I did when I soloed the T-41, because I didn't feel as confident in TH-55A.
I was actually quite nervous, although I worried more about failing than dying.
Moira, my young wife, lovingly got up early to cook bacon and eggs for me, but I
couldn't eat more than toast. The orange juice seemed to curdle in my stomach
with the coffee. The fact that I had flown solo in an airplane many times before
didn't seem to help at all.
I did OK during my first helicopter solo, but not great. I did everything by the
numbers as best I could. At least, I didn't break anything or hurt myself. I wasn't
really happy with how I did, but my instructor passed me, and he was no pushover. After about another 10 hours in the TH-55,1 felt more comfortable flying it
solo, too.
Adding a Helicopter Rating to an Airplane Certificate
If you hold a private pilot airplane certificate or higher and a current third class or
higher medical certificate, you must complete a minimum of 20 hours dual instruction
and 10 hours of solo flight in helicopters to obtain a helicopter rating. You will need to
pass an oral examination and check ride. You will not need to take the written examination applicable to the airplane certificate you have again.
Veterans Administration Benefits (http://www.gibill.va.gov/resources/
education_resources/programs/flight_training.html)
To qualify for Veterans Administration (VA) flight benefits, which include rotary-wing
training, a member or veteran of the U.S. armed services must have a private pilot's
license and a valid medical certificate before beginning training.
According to the VA, all GI Bill programs have the same participation requirements,
but the amount the programs pay varies according the program you use and the type of
flight school you attend.
If you use the Montgomery GI Bill or Reserve Educational Assistance Program
(REAP), the VA will reimburse you for 60 percent of approved charges.
If you use the post-9/11 GI Bill, payments for flight training vary based upon the
type of flight training course in which you enroll and the kind of school you attend. The
following relates to the post-9/11 GI Bill program.
•
If you are enrolled in a degree program at a public institution of higher learning,
you can be reimbursed up to the public school in-state cost of the training, and
receive a monthly housing allowance and stipend for books and supplies.
•
If you are enrolled in a degree program at a private institution of higher learning,
you can be reimbursed up to the full cost of the training or the national maximum
($18,077.50 in 2013) per academic year, whichever is less. You may also receive a
monthly housing allowance and the stipend for books and supplies. The Yellow
Ribbon may also apply to those enrolled in degree programs.
•
If you are enrolled in a vocational flight-training program, you can be
reimbursed the lesser of (a) the full cost of training or (b) the annual maximum
Chapter Thirteen
amount that is in effect, the day you begin training in your flight course. You
will not receive a housing allowance nor a stipend for books and supplies. The
maximum amount you can receive depends on the academic year you begin
training.
What Really Is a "Flight Simulator"?
The term "flight simulator" gets bandied about in both flying and nonflying circles. You
can blame personal computers and Mircrosoft's "Flight Simulator" video game (and
other such games) for much of this, but there was confusion long before one could "fly"
an aircraft on a desktop computer.
Flight simulators go back to the dawn of powered flight, as early as 1909, and gained
popularity during World War II (Fig. 13-4). Flashing forward to the 1980s, the primary
distinction was between full-flight simulators (FFS) and flight training devices (FTDs).
It was simple: simulators had motion; FTDs did not. This was before visual systems.
Simulators cost a lot of money, and still do, and the lowest level FTDs, which were quite
useful, as well, did not cost nearly as much.
Gradually, both simulators and FTDs became more and more sophisticated, with
the top-level sims adding visual displays (black-and-white televisions and computer
Figure 13-4 A refurbished link trainer, which helped train military pilots in basic instrument flying
during and after World War II. The U.S. Army's flight school at Fort Pucker was still giving (forcing)
pilots to get some hours in these when the author trained there in 1973, before "graduating"
them to Bell 47s outfitted for initial instrument flight training and later Bell UH-1H Hueys.
Flight Training Tips
monitors in the beginning) and more realistic motion. Some FTDs got visual displays,
too, since the motion was much more costly than a couple of TV screens. All sorts of
training devices that were already on the scene began being grouped in various categories: cockpit procedure trainers (CPTs), aviation training devices (ATDs), basic
instrument training devices (BITDs), and integrated procedures trainers (IPTs) to
name some.
As visual and motion realism increased, the airlines wanted the FAA to credit
more hours spent in simulators toward pilot training (for both initial type ratings
and currency training). Simulator training is obviously much less expensive than
training in real aircraft, and safer as well, as emergencies that would be dangerous
or even impossible to do in the air are completely safe on the ground and can be
practiced over and over.
The FAA still uses motion as the main dividing line between sims and FTDs. An
FTD might have visual displays as good as those on the best full-flight simulators, but
without motion, it cannot be called a simulator. And the FAA does not credit as much
training time in FTDs as it does in full-motion simulators.
The top-line simulators are now so realistic that pilots can obtain a type rating by
training only in a simulator designed and approved for a specific aircraft model (Fig. 13-5).
V^
'
—
ft
1
••
I
*•••
Jl
1
i
•' Vi
•••v.. •v.*
ft
A
Figure 13-5 Advanced flight simulators, such as this Helisim level D Full Flight Simulator for the
Eurocopter AS332L, can be qualified by the FAA, European Aviation Safety Agency, and other
national civil aviation authorities for type ratings and recurrent training, based on the realism
provided by their cockpit instrumentation, visual displays, and motion systems.
Chapter Thirteen
Line pilots may need to fly some hours as a copilot or first officer in the real aircraft
before they can fly as captain on the aircraft, but the type rating is still valid.
Meanwhile, the computer industry moves on, creating faster, smaller and more
powerful computers and databases, while the visual display manufacturers have made
improvements in flat screens and projection systems to the point that just about anyone
can afford a powerful laptop and a huge high-definition display.
After doing much research into the use of flight training devices (Embry-Riddle
Aeronautical University and the University of Illinois, under a FAA research grant,
evaluated the training effectiveness of various ATD configurations), the FAA issued an
Advisory Circular on the subject on July 14, 2008. This is how the FAA explained the
purpose of AC-136 FAA Approval of Basic Aviation Training Devices (BATD) and
Advanced Aviation Training Devices (AATD).
"This advisory circular provides information and guidance for Aviation Training
Device (ATD) manufacturers seeking Federal Aviation Administration approval of
basic aviation training devices (BATD) or advanced aviation training devices (AATD)
under Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 61, paragraph 61.4(c).
This AC also provides guidance for those persons who intend to use a BATD or AATD
for activities involving pilot training or certification, other than for aircraft type specific
training or for an aircraft type rating. The FAA will determine and approve appropriate
uses for an ATD."
The FAA determined that "flight task procedural skills" and "flight task operational performance skills" could be successfully taught using flight simulation devices
as described in the AC. Finally, it said, "The FAA has determined that there is sufficient justification to allow specifically approved use of qualified ATDs. Pilots and
instructors may use ATDs to meet the certain training requirements under the applicable rules of part 61 or part 141. However, instructors are encouraged to use either
an approved BATD or an AATD in support of an integrated ground and flight training syllabus."
If you are interested, you can find AC 61-16 at this link: http;//www.faa.gov/
regulations_policies/advisory_circulars/index, cfm/go/ document.information/
documentID /74438.
What this means to you as a student is that the qualification of the "flight simulation device" that a flight school has determines how much time in the device you
can log toward the experience requirements of various ratings. For example, an
AATD may be used for logging instrument flight experience, specifically: a private
pilot certificate (2.5 hours); an instrument rating (20 hours); a commercial pilot certificate (50 hours); an airline transport pilot certificate (25 hours); and an instrument
proficiency check.
However, one flight simulation device manufacturer apparently snuck under the
wire in 2002, before AC 61-16 took effect, and the FAA permits up to 7.5 hours of the
40 hours required for VFR helicopter rating to be credited in its flight training device
(Fig. 13-6).
I'm not suggesting that you seek out flight schools which have any particular
manufacturer's FSDs, A ATDs, or FTDs, just to save some money on renting the real
aircraft.
I do suggest that you question flight schools about how they use flight simulation
devices and find out the specific qualification of the devices they use. Don't let the school
Flight Training Tips
OS,
-0,
M I
»
■» .
Stj
Figure 13-6 The realism offered by low-end aviation training devices, such as this Flylt flight
training device, gets better with every upgrade. Note the shadow of the helicopter on the runway.
pull the wool over your eyes and tell you it has "simulators" and touts all the money
you can save by flying in a certain device instead of the real aircraft. Make them be
specific.
Finally, there is no doubt that flight simulation devices, from the lowliest BATDs to the
most sophisticated Level D full-flight simulators are amazingly effective and safe ways to
learn and improve a pilot's flying skills. These amazing machines will only get better as the
years go on.
This page has been intentionally left blank
CHAPTER
Private
Pilot Practical Test
Standards for Helicopters
The Wright Brothers created the single greatest cultural force since the invention of writing. The airplane
became the first World Wide Web, bringing people, languages, ideas, and values together.
Bill Gates
The Private Pilot—Rotorcraft (Helicopter and Gyroplane) Practical Test Standards
(PTS) book (FAA-S-8081-15A) is published by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to establish the standards for private pilot certification practical tests
for the rotorcraft category, helicopter and gyroplane classes. FAA inspectors and designated pilot examiners shall conduct practical tests in compliance with these standards.
Flight instructors and applicants should find these standards helpful during training
and when preparing for the practical test.
The material in FAA-S-8081-15A as reproduced here in this 2013 edition of Learning
to Fly Helicopters became effective on July 1, 2005, and was the most recent edition of
the FAA-S-8081-15A available. All previous editions of the Private Pilot—Rotorcraft
(Helicopter and Gyroplane) Practical Test Standards became obsolete on July 1, 2005.
General Information
The Flight Standards Service of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) developed the practical test book as the standard that shall be used by FAA inspectors
and designated pilot examiners when conducting private pilot rotorcraft practical
tests. Flight instructors are expected to use this book when preparing applicants for
practical tests.
Applicants should be familiar with this book and refer to these standards during
their training. Information considered directive in nature is described in this practical
test book in terms, such as "shall" and "must" indicating the actions are mandatory.
Guidance information is described in terms, such as "should" and "may" indicating the
actions are desirable or permissive but not mandatory.
The practical test standard (PTS) book may be purchased from the Superintendent
of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC 20402-9325, or
from http:/ /bookstore.gpo.gov.
This PTS is also available for download, in pdf format, from the Flight Standards
Service website at http://av-info.faa.gov. This PTS is published by the U.S. Department
of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman Testing Standards Branch,
291
Chapter Fourteen
AFS-630, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125. Comments regarding this handbook should be sent, in e-mail form, to AFS630comments@faa.gov.
Practical Test Standards Concept
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 61 specifies the areas in which
knowledge and skill must be demonstrated by the applicant before the issuance of a
Private Pilot Certificate or rating. The CFRs provide the flexibility to permit the FAA to
publish practical test standards containing the Areas of Operation and specific Tasks in
which pilot competency shall be demonstrated. The FAA will revise this PTS whenever
it is determined that changes are needed in the interest of safety. Adherence to the provisions of the regulations and the practical test standards is mandatory for the evaluation of private pilot applicants.
Practical Test Book Description
This test book contains the following Private Pilot Practical Test Standards: Section 1
Rotorcraft—Helicopter; Section 2 Rotorcraft—Gyroplane [Note: Section 2 is not included
in Learning to Fly Helicopters].
The Private Pilot Rotorcraft Practical Test Standards includes the Areas of Operation
and TASKS for the issuance of an initial Private Pilot Certificate and for the addition of
category and/or class ratings to that certificate.
Areas of operation are phases of the practical test arranged in a logical sequence
within each standard. They begin with preflight preparation and end with postflight
procedures. The examiner may conduct the practical test in any sequence that will
result in a complete and efficient test; however, the ground portion of the practical test
shall be accomplished before the flight portion.
Tasks are titles of knowledge areas, flight procedures, or maneuvers appropriate to
an "area of operation." Notes are used to emphasize special considerations required in
the area of operation or task.
References identify the publication(s) that describe(s) the task. (Descriptions of
tasks are not included in the standards because this information can be found in the
current issue of the listed reference.)
Publications other than those listed may be used for references if their content conveys substantially the same meaning as the referenced publications.
References
These practical test standards are based on the following references:
14 CFR part 43 Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, Rebuilding, and Alteration
14 CFR part 61 Certification: Pilots and Flight Instructors
14 CFR part 67 Medical Standards and Certification
14 CFR part 91 General Operating and Flight Rules
NTSB Part 830 Notification and Reporting of Aircraft Accidents and Incidents
AC 00-6 Aviation Weather
AC 00-45 Aviation Weather Services
FAA-H-8083-1 Aircraft Weight and Balance Handbook
FAA-H-8083-21 Rotorcraft Flying Handbook
Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Helicopters
FAA-H-8083-25 Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge
AC 60-22 Aeronautical Decision Making
AC 60-28 English Language Skill Standards Required by 14 CFR parts 61,63, and 65
AC 61-65 Certification: Pilots and Flight Instructors and Ground Instructors
AC 61-84 Role of Preflight Preparation
AC 61-134 General Aviation Controlled Flight into Terrain Awareness
AC 90-48 Pilots' Role in Collision Avoidance
AC 90-87 Helicopter Dynamic Rollover
AC 90-95 Unanticipated Right Yaw in Helicopters
AC 91-13 Cold Weather Operation of Aircraft
AC 91-32 Safety In and Around Helicopters
AC 91-42 Hazards of Rotating Propeller and Helicopter Rotor Blades
AC 91-55 Reduction of Electrical System Failures Following Aircraft Engine Starting
AIM Aeronautical Information Manual
AFD Airport Facility Directory
FDC NOTAM National Flight Data Center Notices to Airmen
OTHER Pertinent Pilot's Operating Handbooks
FAA-Approved Flight Manuals
Navigation Charts
Objectives
The objective lists the important elements that must be satisfactorily performed to demonstrate competency in a task. The objective includes:
1. Specifically what the applicant should be able to do
2. The conditions under which the task is to be performed
3. The acceptable standards of performance
Abbreviations
14 CFR—Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations
ADM—Aeronautical Decision Making
AIRMETS—Airman's Meteorological Information
ATC—Air Traffic Control
ATIS—Automatic Terminal Information Service
ATS—Air Traffic Service
CFIT—Controlled Flight Into Terrain
CRM—Cockpit Resource Management
FAA—Federal Aviation Administration
FSDO—Flight Standards District Office
GPO—Government Printing Office
Chapter Fourteen
NAVAID—Navigation Aid
NDB—Nondirectional Beacon (Automatic Direction Finder)
NOTAM—Notice to Airmen
NWS—National Weather Service
PTS—Practical Test Standard
SIGMETS—Significant Meteorological Advisory
Use of the Practical Test Standards
The Private Pilot Rotorcraft Practical Test Standards are designed to evaluate competency in both knowledge and skill.
The FAA requires that all practical tests be conducted in accordance with the appropriate practical test standards and the policies set forth in this introduction. Private
pilot applicants shall be evaluated in all tasks included in each area of operation of the
appropriate practical test standard, unless otherwise noted.
An applicant, who holds at least a Private Pilot Certificate seeking an additional
rotorcraft category rating and/or class rating at the private pilot level shall be evaluated
in the areas of operation and tasks listed in the additional rating task table. At the discretion of the examiner, an evaluation of the applicant's competence in the remaining
areas of operation and tasks may be conducted.
If the applicant holds two or more category or class ratings at least at the private
level, and the rating table indicates differing required tasks, the "least restrictive" entry
applies. For example, if "ALL" and "NONE" are indicated for one area of operation, the
"NONE" entry applies. If "B" and "B, C" are indicated, the "B" entry applies.
Plan of Action
In preparation for each practical test, the examiner shall develop a written "plan of
action" for each practical test. The "plan of action" is a tool, for the sole use of the
examiner, to be used in evaluating the applicant. The plan of action need not be
grammatically correct or in any formal format. The plan of action must contain all
of the required areas of operation and tasks and any optional tasks selected by the
examiner.
The "plan of action" shall incorporate one or more scenarios that will be used
during the practical test. The examiner should try to include as many of the tasks
into the scenario portion of the test as possible, but maintain the flexibility to change
due to unexpected situations as they arise and still result in an efficient and valid
test. Any task selected for evaluation during a practical test shall be evaluated in its
entirety.
The examiner is not required to follow the precise order in which the areas of
operation and tasks appear in this book. The examiner may change the sequence or
combine tasks with similar objectives to have an orderly and efficient flow of the
practical test. For example, radio communications and ATC light signals may be combined with traffic patterns. The examiner's "plan of action" shall include the order
and combination of tasks to be demonstrated by the applicant in a manner that will
result in an efficient and valid test.
Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Helicopters
The examiner is expected to use good judgment in the performance of simulated
emergency procedures. The use of the safest means for simulation is expected.
Consideration must be given to local conditions, both meteorological and topographical, at the time of the test, as well as the applicant's workload, and the condition of the
aircraft used. If the procedure being evaluated would jeopardize safety, it is expected
that the applicant shall simulate that portion of the maneuver.
Special Emphasis Areas
Examiners shall place special emphasis upon areas of aircraft operation considered
critical to flight safety. Among these are:
1. Positive aircraft control
2. Procedures for positive exchange of flight controls (who is flying the aircraft)
3. Collision avoidance
4. Wake turbulence avoidance
5. Runway incursion avoidance
6. CFIT
7. Wire strike avoidance
8. ADM and risk management
9. Checklist usage
10. Other areas deemed appropriate to any phase of the practical test
Although these areas may not be specifically addressed under each task, they are
essential to flight safety and will be evaluated during the practical test. In all instances,
the applicant's actions will relate to the complete situation.
Private Pilot-Rotorcraft Practical Test Prerequisites
An applicant for the Private Pilot Rotorcraft Practical Test is required by 14 CFR part 61 to:
1. Be at least 17 years of age
2. Be able to read, speak, write, and understand the English language; if there is a
doubt, use AC 60-28, English Language Skill Standards
3. Have passed the appropriate private pilot knowledge test since the beginning
of the 24th month before the month in which practical test is completed have
satisfactorily accomplished the required training and obtained the aeronautical
experience prescribed
4. Possess at least a current Third-Class Medical Certificate
5. Have an endorsement from an authorized instructor certifying that the
applicant has received and logged training time within 60 days preceding the
date of application
6. Also have an endorsement certifying that the applicant has demonstrated
satisfactory knowledge of the subject areas in which the applicant was deficient
on the airman knowledge test
Chapter Fourteen
Aircraft and Equipment Required for the Practical Test
The private pilot rotorcraft applicant is required by 14 CFR part 61, section 61.45 to
provide an airworthy, certificated aircraft for use during the practical test. This section
further requires that the aircraft must:
1. Be of United States, foreign, or military registry of the same category, class, and
type, if applicable, for the certificate and/or rating for which the applicant is
apptying
2. Have fully functioning dual controls, except as provided in 14 CFR part 61,
section 61.45(c) and (e)
3. Be capable of performing ALL areas of operation appropriate to the rating
sought and have no operating limitations, which prohibit its use in any of the
areas of operation, required for the practical test
Flight Instructor Responsibility
An appropriately rated flight instructor is responsible for training the private pilot
applicant to acceptable standards in ALL subject matter areas, procedures, and maneuvers included in the tasks within the appropriate Private Pilot Practical Test Standard.
Because of the impact of their teaching activities in developing safe, proficient
pilots, flight instructors should exhibit a high level of knowledge, skill, and the ability
to impart that knowledge and skill to students. Additionally, the flight instructor must
certify that the applicant is able to perform safely as a private pilot and is competent to
pass the required practical test.
Throughout the applicant's training, the flight instructor is responsible for emphasizing the performance of effective visual scanning, collision avoidance, and runway
incursion avoidance procedures. These areas are covered, in part, in AC 90-48, Pilot's
Role in Collision Avoidance; FAA-H- 8083-25, Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge; and the Aeronautical Information Manual.
Examiner Responsibility
The examiner conducting the practical test is responsible for determining that the applicant meets the acceptable standards of knowledge and skill of each task within the
appropriate practical test standard. Since there is no formal division between the "oral"
and "skill" portions of the practical test, this becomes an ongoing process throughout
the test. (Note that the word "examiner" denotes either the FAA inspector or FAA designated pilot examiner who conducts the practical test.)
Oral questioning, to determine the applicant's knowledge of tasks and related
safety factors, should be used judiciously at all times, especially during the flight portion of the practical test.
Examiners shall test to the greatest extent practicable the applicant's correlative
abilities rather than mere rote enumeration of facts throughout the practical test.
If the examiner determines that a task is incomplete, or the outcome uncertain, the
examiner may require the applicant to repeat that task, or portions of that task. This
provision has been made in the interest of fairness and does not mean that instruction.
Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Helicopters
practice, or the repeating of an unsatisfactory task is permitted during the certification
process. Throughout the flight portion of the practical test, the examiner shall evaluate
the applicant's use of visual scanning and collision avoidance procedures.
Satisfactory Performance
Satisfactory performance to meet the requirements for certification is based on the
applicant's ability to safely:
1. Perform the tasks specified in the areas of operation for the certificate or rating
sought within the approved standards.
2. Demonstrate mastery of the aircraft with the successful outcome of each task
performed never seriously in doubt.
3. Demonstrate satisfactory proficiency and competency within the approved
standards.
4. Demonstrate sound judgment and ADM.
5. Demonstrate single-pilot competence if the aircraft is type certificated for
single-pilot operations.
Unsatisfactory Performance
The tolerances represent the performance expected in good flying conditions. If, in the
judgment of the examiner, the applicant does not meet the standards of performance of
any task performed, the associated area of operation is failed and therefore, the practical test is failed.
The examiner or applicant may discontinue the test at any time when the failure of
an area of operation makes the applicant ineligible for the certificate or rating sought.
The test may be continued only with the consent of the applicant. If the test is discontinued, the applicant is entitled credit for only those areas of operation and their associated tasks satisfactorily performed. However, during the retest and at the discretion of
the examiner, any task may be reevaluated including those previously passed.
Typical Areas of Unsatisfactory Performance
Typical areas of unsatisfactory performance and grounds for disqualification are:
1. Any action or lack of action by the applicant that requires corrective intervention
by the examiner to maintain safe flight.
2. Failure to use proper and effective visual scanning techniques to clear the area
before and while performing maneuvers.
3. Consistently exceeding tolerances stated in the Objectives.
4. Failure to take prompt corrective action when tolerances are exceeded.
When a disapproval notice is issued, the examiner shall record the applicant's
unsatisfactory performance in terms of area of operations and specific task(s) not meeting the standard appropriate to the practical test conducted. The area(s) of operation/
task(s) not tested and the number of practical test failures shall also be recorded. If the
Chapter Fourteen
applicant fails the practical test because of a special emphasis area, the Notice of Disapproval shall indicate the associated task, i.e., "AREA OF OPERATION VIII, Settlingwith-Power, failure to use proper collision avoidance procedures."
Letter of Discontinuance
When a practical test is discontinued for reasons other than unsatisfactory performance
(i.e., equipment failure, weather, or illness), FAA Form 8700-1 Airman Certificate and/or
Rating Application, and, if applicable, the Airman Knowledge Test Report, shall be
returned to the applicant. The examiner at that time shall prepare, sign, and issue a Letter
of Discontinuance to the applicant. The Letter of Discontinuance should identify the areas
of operation and their associated tasks of the practical test that were successfully completed. The applicant shall be advised that the Letter of Discontinuance shall be presented
to the examiner when the practical test is resumed, and made part of the certification file.
General Areas Evaluated
Aeronautical Decision Making and Risk Management
The examiner shall evaluate the applicant's ability throughout the practical test to use
good aeronautical decision-making procedures in order to evaluate risks. The examiner
shall accomplish this requirement by developing scenarios that incorporate as many
tasks as possible to evaluate the applicant's risk management in making safe aeronautical decisions. For example, the examiner may develop a scenario that incorporates
weather decisions and performance planning.
The applicant's ability to utilize all the assets available in making a risk analysis to
determine the safest course of action is essential for satisfactory performance. The scenarios
should be realistic and within the capabilities of the aircraft used for the practical test.
Single-Pilot Resource Management
Single-pilot resource management refers to the effective use of all available resources:
human resources, hardware, and information. It is similar to crew resource management (CRM) procedures that are being emphasized in multi-crewmember operations
except that only one crewmember (the pilot) is involved. Human resources "...includes
all other groups routinely working with the pilot who are involved in decisions that are
required to operate a flight safely. These groups include, but are not limited to: dispatchers, weather briefers, maintenance personnel, and air traffic controllers." Pilot
resource management is not a single task; it is a set of skill competencies that must be
evident in all tasks in this practical test standard as applied to single-pilot operation.
Applicant's Use of Checklists
Throughout the practical test, the applicant is evaluated on the use of an appropriate
checklist. Proper use is dependent on the specific task being evaluated. The situation
may be such that the use of the checklist, while accomplishing the elements of an objective, would be either unsafe or impractical, especially in a single-pilot operation. In this
case, a review of the checklist after the elements have been accomplished would be
appropriate. Division of attention and proper visual scanning should be considered
when using a checklist.
Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Helicopters
Use of Distractions during Practical Tests
Numerous studies indicate that many accidents have occurred when the pilot has been
distracted during critical phases of flight. To evaluate the applicant's ability to utilize
proper control technique while dividing attention both inside and/or outside the cockpit,
the examiner shall cause a realistic distraction during the flight portion of the practical
test to evaluate the applicant's ability to divide attention while maintaining safe flight.
Positive Exchange of Flight Controls
During flight, there must always be a clear understanding between pilots who has control
of the aircraft. Prior to flight, a briefing should be conducted that includes the procedure
for the exchange of flight controls. A positive three-step process in the exchange of flight
controls between pilots is a proven procedure and one that is strongly recommended.
When one pilot wishes to give the other pilot control of the aircraft, he or she will
say, "You have the flight controls." The other pilot acknowledges immediately by saying, "I have the flight controls." The first pilot again says, "You have the flight controls."
When control is returned to the first pilot, follow the same procedure. A visual check is
recommended to verify that the exchange has occurred. There should never be any
doubt as to who is flying the aircraft.
Applicant's Practical Test Checklist (Helicopter)
Appointment with Examiner
Examiner's name
Location
Date/ time
Acceptable Aircraft
Aircraft documents: airworthiness certificate, registration, certificate, operating
limitations
Aircraft maintenance records: logbook record of airworthiness inspections and ad
compliance
Pilot's operating handbook and FAA-approved helicopter flight manual
FCC station license
Personal Equipment
Current aeronautical charts
Computer and plotter
Flight plan form
Flight logs
Current AIM, Airport Facility Directory, and appropriate publications
Personal Records
Identification—photo/signature ID
Pilot certificate
Current and appropriate medical certificate
Completed FAA Form 8710-1, airman certificate and/or rating application with
instructor's signature (if applicable)
Chapter Fourteen
AC Form 8080-2, airman written test report or computer test report
Pilot logbook with appropriate instructor endorsements
FAA Form 8060-5, notice of disapproval (if applicable)
Approved school graduation certificate (if applicable)
Examiner's fee (if applicable)
Examiner's Practical Test Checklist (Helicopter)
Applicant's name
Location
Date/time
Area of Operation: Preflight Preparation
Note: The examiner shall develop a scenario based on real-time weather to evaluate
Tasks C, D, E, and F.
Task: Certificates and Documents
References: 14 CFR parts 43, 61, 67, 91; FAA-H-8083-21, FAA-H-8083-25; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant exhibits knowledge of the elements related
to certificates and documents by:
1. Explaining:
a. Private pilot certificate privileges, limitations, and recent flight experience
requirements
b. Medical certificate class and duration
c. Pilot logbook or flight records
2. Locating and explaining:
a.
Airworthiness and registration certificates
b. Operating limitations, placards, instrument markings, and POH/RFM
c. Weight and balance data and equipment list
Task: Airworthiness Requirements
References: 14 CFR part 91; FAA-H-8083-21.
Objective
To determine that the applicant exhibits knowledge of the elements related
to airworthiness requirements by:
1. Explaining:
a.
Required instruments and equipment for day/night VFR
b. Procedures and limitations for determining airworthiness of the helicopter
with inoperative instruments and equipment with and without an MEL
c.
Requirements and procedures for obtaining a special flight permit
Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Helicopters
2. Locating and explaining:
a. Airworthiness directives
b. Compliance records
c. Maintenance/inspection requirements
d.
Appropriate record keeping
Task: Weather Information
References: 14 CFR part 91; AC 00-6, AC 00-45, AC 61-84; FAA-H-8083-25; AIM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to weather information by
analyzing weather reports, charts, and forecasts from various sources with
emphasis on:
a. METAR, TAF, and FA
b. Surface analysis chart
c.
Radar summary chart
d. Winds and temperature aloft chart
e. Significant weather prognostic charts
/. AWOS, ASOS, and ATIS reports
2. Makes a competent "go/no-go" decision based on available weather information.
Task: Cross-Country Flight Planning
References: 14 CFR part 91; FAA-H-8083-25; AC 61-84; Navigation Charts; Airport/
Facility Directory; FDC NOTAMs; AIM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to cross-country flight planning by
presenting and explaining a preplanned VFR cross-country flight, as previously
assigned by the examiner. On the day of the practical test, the final flight plan
shall be to the first fuel stop, based on maximum allowable passengers, baggage,
and/or cargo loads using real-time weather.
2. Uses appropriate and current aeronautical charts.
3. Properly identifies airspace, obstructions, and terrain features, including
discussion of wire strike avoidance techniques.
4. Selects easily identifiable en route checkpoints.
5. Selects the most favorable altitudes, considering weather conditions and
equipment capabilities.
6. Computes headings, flight time, and fuel requirements.
7. Selects appropriate navigation systems/facilities and communication frequencies.
8. Applies pertinent information from FDC NOTAMs, AFD, and other flight
publications.
9. Completes a navigation log and simulates filing a VFR flight plan.
Chapter Fourteen
Task: National Airspace System
References: 14 CFR parts 71, 91; Navigation Charts; AIM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant exhibits knowledge of the elements related
to the National Airspace System by explaining:
1. Basic VFR Weather Minimums—for all classes of airspace.
2. Airspace classes—their operating rules, pilot certification, and helicopter
equipment requirements for the following:
a. Class A
b. Class B
c.
Class C
d. Class D
e.
Class E
f
Class G
3. Special use airspace and other airspace areas.
Task: Performance and Limitations
References: FAA-H-8083-1, FAA-H-8083-21; AC 61-84, AC 90-95; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to performance and limitations by
explaining the use of charts, tables, and data to determine performance and the
adverse effects of exceeding limitations.
2. Computes weight and balance. Determines the computed weight and center of
gravity is within the helicopter's operating limitations and if the weight and
center of gravity will remain within limits during all phases of flight.
3. Demonstrates the use of appropriate performance charts, tables, and data.
4. Describes the effects of atmospheric conditions on the helicopter's performance.
5. Understands the cause and effects of retreating blade stall.
6. Considers circumstances when operating within "avoid areas" of the height/
velocity diagram.
7. Is aware of situations that lead to loss of tail-rotor/antitorque effectiveness
(unanticipated yaw).
Task: Operation of Systems
References: FAA-H-8083-21; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant exhibits knowledge of the elements related
to the operation of systems on the helicopter provided for the flight test by explaining
at least three of the following systems:
1. Primary flight controls, trim, and, if installed, stability control
2. Power plant
Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Helicopters
3. Main rotor and antitorque
4. Landing gear, brakes, steering, skids, or floats, as applicable
5. Fuel, oil, and hydraulic
6. Electrical
7. Pitot-static, vacuum/pressure, and associated flight instruments, if applicable
8. Environmental
9. Anti-icing, including carburetor heat, if applicable
10. Avionics equipment
Task: Aeromedical Factors
References: FAA-H-8083-25; AIM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant exhibits knowledge of the elements related
to aeromedical factors by explaining:
1. The symptoms, causes, effects, and corrective actions of at least three of the
following:
a.
Hypoxia
b.
Hyperventilation
c.
Middle ear and sinus problems.
d.
Spatial disorientation
e. Motion sickness
f
Carbon monoxide poisoning
§■
h.
Stress and fatigue
Dehydration
2. The effects of alcohol, drugs, and over-the-counter drugs
3. The effects of excess nitrogen during scuba dives upon a pilot or passenger
in flight
Area of Operation: Preflight Procedures
Task: Preflight Inspection
References: FAA-H-8083-21; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to preflight inspection. This shall
include which items must be inspected, the reasons for checking each item, and
how to detect possible defects.
2. Inspects the helicopter with reference to an appropriate checklist.
3. Verifies the helicopter is in condition for safe flight.
Task: Cockpit Management
References: 14 CFR part 91; POH/RFM.
Chapter Fourteen
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related cockpit management procedures.
2. Ensures all loose items in the cockpit and cabin are secured.
3. Organizes material and equipment in an efficient manner so they are readily
available.
4. Briefs the occupants on the use of safety belts, shoulder harnesses, doors, rotor
blade avoidance, and emergency procedures.
Task: Engine Starting and Rotor Engagement
References: FAA-H-8083-21; AC 91-13, AC 91-42, AC 91-55; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to correct engine starting procedures.
This shall include the use of an external power source, starting under various
atmospheric conditions.
2. Positions the helicopter properly considering structures, surface conditions,
other aircraft, and the safety of nearby persons and property.
3. Utilizes the appropriate checklist for starting procedure.
Task: Before Takeoff Check
References: FAA-H-8083-21; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to the before takeoff check. This
shall include the reasons for checking each item and how to detect malfunctions.
2. Positions the helicopter properly considering other aircraft, wind, and surface
conditions.
3. Divides attention inside and outside the cockpit.
4. Ensures that the engine temperature and pressure are suitable for run-up and
takeoff.
5. Accomplishes the before takeoff check and ensures that the helicopter is in safe
operating condition.
6. Reviews takeoff performance airspeeds, takeoff distances departure, and
emergency procedures.
7. Avoids runway incursions and/or ensures no conflict with traffic prior to
takeoff.
Area of Operation: Airport and Heliport Operations
Task: Radio Communications and ATC Light Signals
Reference: 14 CFR part 91; FAA-H-8083-25; AIM.
Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Helicopters
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to radio communications and ATC
light signals.
2. Selects appropriate frequencies.
3. Transmits using recommended phraseology.
4. Acknowledges radio communications and complies with instructions.
Task: Traffic Patterns
References: 14 CFR part 91; FAA-H-8083-21; AIM; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to traffic patterns. This shall include
procedures at airports and heliports with and without operating control towers,
prevention of runway incursions, collision avoidance, wake turbulence
avoidance, and wind shear.
2. Complies with proper traffic pattern procedures.
3. Maintains proper spacing from other traffic or avoids the flow of fixed wing
aircraft.
4. Corrects for wind drift to maintain proper ground track.
5. Maintains orientation with runway/landing area in use.
6. Maintains traffic pattern altitude, ±100 feet and the appropriate airspeed,
±10 knots.
Task: Airport/Heliport Runway, Helipad, Taxiway Signs, Markings, and Lighting
References: 14 CFR part 91; FAA-H-8083-25; AIM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to airport/heliport runway and
taxiway operations with emphasis on runway incursion avoidance.
2. Properly identifies and interprets airport/heliport, runway, and taxiway signs,
markings, and lighting.
Area of Operation: Hovering Maneuvers
Task: Vertical Takeoff and Landing
References: FAA-H-8083-21; AC 90-95; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to a vertical takeoff to a hover and
landing from a hover.
2. Ascends to and maintains recommended hovering altitude, and descends from
recommended hovering altitude in head-wind, crosswind, and tailwind conditions.
Chapter Fourteen
3. Maintains RPM within normal limits.
4. Establishes recommended hovering altitude, ±1/2 of that altitude within 10 feet
of the surface; if above 10 feet, ±5 feet.
5. Avoids conditions that might lead to loss of tail-rotor/antitorque effectiveness.
6. Maintains position within 4 feet of a designated point, with no aft movement.
7. Descends vertically to within 4 feet of the designated touchdown point.
8. Maintains specified heading, ±10 degrees.
Task: Slope Operations
References: FAA-H-8083-21; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to slope operations.
2. Selects a suitable slope, approach, and direction considering wind effect,
obstacles, dynamic rollover avoidance, and discharging passengers.
3. Properly moves toward the slope.
4. Maintains RPM within normal limits.
5. Makes a smooth positive descent to touch the upslope skid on the sloping surface.
6. Maintains positive control while lowering the downslope skid or landing gear
to touchdown.
7. Recognizes if slope is too steep and abandons the operation prior to reaching
cyclic control stops.
8. Makes a smooth transition from the slope to a stabilized hover parallel to the slope.
9. Properly moves away from the slope.
10. Maintains the specified heading throughout the operation, ±10 degrees.
Task: Surface Taxi
References: FAA-H-8083-21; AIM; POH/RFM.
Note: This Task applies to only helicopters equipped with wheel-type landing gear.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to surface taxiing.
2. Surface taxies the helicopter from one point to another under headwind, crosswind,
and tailwind conditions, with the landing gear in contact with the surface, avoiding
conditions that might lead to loss of tail-rotor/antitorque effectiveness.
3. Properly uses cyclic, collective, and brakes to control speed while taxiing.
4. Properly positions nosewheel/tailwheel, if applicable, locked, or unlocked.
5. Maintains RPM within normal limits.
6. Maintains appropriate speed for existing conditions.
Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Helicopters
7. Stops helicopter within 4 feet of a specified point.
8. Maintains specified track within ±4 feet.
Task: Hover Taxi
References: FAA-H-8083-21; AIM; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to hover taxiing.
2. Hover taxies over specified ground references, demonstrating forward,
sideward, and rearward hovering and hovering turns.
3. Maintains RPM within normal limits.
4. Maintains specified ground track within ±4 feet of a designated reference on
straight legs.
5. Maintains constant rate of turn at pivot points.
6. Maintains position within 4 feet of each pivot point during turns.
7. Makes a 360-degree pivoting turn, left and right, stopping within 10 degrees of
a specified heading.
8. Maintains recommended hovering altitude, ±1/2 of that altitude within 10 feet
of the surface, if above 10 feet, ±5 feet.
Task: Air Taxi
References: FAA-H-8083-21; AC 90-95; AIM; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to air taxiing.
2. Air taxies the helicopter from one point to another under headwind and
crosswind conditions.
3. Maintains RPM within normal limits.
4. Selects a safe airspeed and altitude.
5. Maintains desired
track and
groundspeed in headwind
and
crosswind
conditions, avoiding conditions that might lead to loss of tail rotor/antitorque
effectiveness.
6. Maintains a specific altitude of ±10 feet.
Area of Operation: Takeoffs, Landings, and Go-Arounds
References: FAA-H-8083-21; POH/RFM.
Note: The examiner shall select task A, B, C, D, E, and at least one other task.
Task: Normal and Crosswind Approach
Note: If a calm wind weather condition exists, the applicant's knowledge of the crosswind elements shall be evaluated through oral testing; otherwise a crosswind approach
and landing shall be demonstrated.
Chapter Fourteen
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to normal and crosswind approach.
2. Considers performance data, to include height/velocity information.
3. Considers the wind conditions, landing surface, and obstacles.
4. Selects a suitable touchdown point.
5. Establishes and maintains the normal approach angle, and proper rate of
closure.
6. Remains aware of the possibility of wind shear and/or wake turbulence.
7. Avoids situations that may result in settling-with-power.
8. Maintains proper ground track with crosswind correction, if necessary.
9. Arrives over the touchdown point, on the surface or at a stabilized hover,
±4 feet.
10. Completes the prescribed checklist, if applicable.
Task: Maximum Performance Takeoff and Climb
References: FAA-H-8083-21; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to a maximum performance takeoff
and climb.
2. Considers situations where this maneuver is recommended and factors related
to takeoff and climb performance, to include height/velocity information.
3. Maintains RPM within normal limits.
4. Utilizes proper control technique to initiate takeoff and forward climb airspeed
attitude.
5. Utilizes the maximum available takeoff power.
6. After clearing all obstacles, transitions to normal climb attitude, airspeed, ±10
knots, and power setting.
7. Remains aware of the possibility of wind shear and/or wake turbulence.
8. Maintains proper ground track with crosswind correction, if necessary.
Task: Steep Approach
References: FAA-H-8083-21; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to a steep approach.
2. Considers situations where this maneuver is recommended and factors related
to a steep approach, to include height/velocity information.
3. Considers the wind conditions, landing surface, and obstacles.
4. Selects a suitable termination point.
Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Helicopters
5. Establishes and maintains a steep approach angle (15 degrees maximum), and
proper rate of closure.
6. Avoids situations that can result in settling-with-power.
7. Remains aware of the possibility of wind shear and/or wake turbulence.
8. Maintains proper ground track with crosswind correction, if necessary.
9. Arrives at the termination point, on the surface or at a stabilized hover,
±4 feet.
Task: Rolling Takeoff
References: FAA-H-8083-21; POH/RFM.
Note: This task applies only to helicopters equipped with wheel-type landing gear.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to a rolling takeoff.
2. Considers situations where this maneuver is recommended and factors related
to takeoff and climb performance, to include height/velocity information.
3. Maintains RPM within normal limits.
4. Utilizes proper preparatory technique prior to initiating takeoff.
5. Initiates forward accelerating movement on the surface.
6. Transitions to a normal climb airspeed, ±10 knots, and power setting.
7. Remains aware of the possibility of wind shear and/or wake turbulence.
8. Maintains proper ground track with crosswind correction, if necessary.
9. Completes the prescribed checklist, if applicable.
Task: Confined Area Operation
References: FA A-H-8083-21; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to confined area operations.
2. Accomplishes a proper high and low reconnaissance.
3. Selects a suitable approach path, termination point, and departure path.
4. Tracks the selected approach path at an acceptable approach angle and rate of
closure to the termination point.
5. Maintains RPM within normal limits.
6. Avoids situations that can result in settling-with-power.
7. Terminates at a hover or on the surface, as conditions allow.
8. Accomplishes a proper ground reconnaissance.
9. Selects a suitable takeoff point, considers factors affecting takeoff and climb
performance under various conditions.
Chapter Fourteen
Task: Pinnacle/Platform Operations
References: FAA-H-8083-21; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to pinnacle/platform operations.
2. Accomplishes a proper high and low reconnaissance.
3. Selects a suitable approach path, termination point, and departure path.
4. Tracks the selected approach path at an acceptable approach angle and rate of
closure to the termination point.
5. Maintains RPM within normal limits.
6. Terminates at a hover or on the surface, as conditions allow.
7. Accomplishes a proper ground reconnaissance.
8. Selects a suitable takeoff point, considers factors affecting takeoff and climb
performance under various conditions.
Task: Shallow Approach and Running/Roll-On Landing
References: FA A-H-8083-21; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to shallow approach and running/
roll-on landing, including the purpose of the maneuver, factors affecting
performance data, to include height/velocity information, and effect of landing
surface texture.
2. Maintains RPM within normal limits.
3. Considers obstacles and other hazards.
4. Establishes and maintains the recommended approach angle, and proper rate
of closure.
5. Remains aware of the possibility of wind shear and/or wake turbulence.
6. Maintains proper ground track with crosswind correction, if necessary.
7. Maintains a speed that will take advantage of effective translational lift during
surface contact with landing gear parallel with the ground track.
8. Utilizes proper flight control technique after surface contact.
9. Completes the prescribed checklist, if applicable.
Task: Go-Around
References: FA A-H-8083-21; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to a go-around and when it is necessary.
2. Makes a timely decision to discontinue the approach to landing.
Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Helicopters
3. Maintains RPM within normal limits.
4. Establishes proper control input to stop descent and initiate climb.
5. Retracts the landing gear, if applicable, after a positive rate-of-climb
indication.
6. Maintains proper ground track with crosswind correction, if necessary.
7. Transitions to a normal climb airspeed, ±10 knots.
8. Completes the prescribed checklist, if applicable.
Area of Operation: Performance Maneuvers
Note: The examiner shall select task A and at least one other task.
Task: Rapid Deceleration
References: FAA-H-8083-21; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to rapid deceleration.
2. Maintains RPM within normal limits.
3. Properly coordinates all controls throughout the execution of the maneuver.
4. Maintains an altitude that will permit safe clearance between the tailboom and
the surface.
5. Decelerates and terminates in a stationary hover at the recommended hovering
altitude.
6. Maintains heading throughout the maneuver, ±10 degrees.
Task: Straight-ln Autorotation
References: FAA-H-8083-21; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to a straight-in autorotation terminating with a power recovery to a hover.
2. Selects a suitable touchdown area.
3. Initiates the maneuver at the proper point.
4. Establishes proper aircraft trim and autorotation airspeed, ±5 knots.
5. Maintains rotor RPM within normal limits.
6. Compensates for wind speed and direction as necessary to avoid undershooting
or overshooting the selected landing area.
7. Utilizes proper deceleration, collective pitch application to a hover.
8. Comes to a hover within 200 feet of a designated point.
Chapter Fourteen
Task: 180-Degree Autorotation
References: FAA-H-8083-21; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to a 180-degree autorotation terminating
with a power recovery to a hover.
2. Selects a suitable touchdown area.
3. Initiates the maneuver at the proper point.
4. Establishes proper aircraft trim and autorotation airspeed, ±5 knots.
5. Maintains rotor RPM within normal limits.
6. Compensates for wind speed and direction as necessary to avoid undershooting
or overshooting the selected landing area.
7. Utilizes proper deceleration, collective pitch application to a hover.
8. Comes to a hover within 200 feet of a designated point.
Area of Operation: Navigation
Task: Pilotage and Dead Reckoning
References: FAA-H-8083-25; AC 61-84.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to pilotage and dead reckoning.
2. Follows the preplanned course by reference to landmarks.
3. Identifies landmarks by relating the surface features to chart symbols.
4. Navigates by means of precomputed headings, groundspeeds, and elapsed time.
5. Corrects for, and records, the differences between preflight fuel, groundspeed,
and heading calculations and those determined en route.
6. Verifies the helicopter's position within three nautical miles of the flight-planned
route.
7. Arrives at the en route checkpoints within five minutes of the initial or revised
ETA and provides a destination estimate.
8. Maintains the appropriate altitude, ±200 feet and established heading, ±15 degrees.
Task: Navigation Systems and Radar Services
References: FAA-H-8083-25; AC 61-84; Navigation Equipment Operation Manuals; AIM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to radio navigation and ATC radar
services.
2. Demonstrates the ability to use an airborne electronic navigation system.
3. Locates the helicopter's position using the navigation system.
Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Helicopters
4. Intercepts and tracks a given course, radial or bearing, as appropriate.
5. Recognizes and describes the indication of station or waypoint passage, if
appropriate.
6. Recognizes signal loss and takes appropriate action.
7. Uses proper communication procedures when utilizing radar services.
8. Maintains the appropriate altitude, ±200 feet and headings, ±15 degrees.
Task: Diversion
References: FAA-H-8083-21; AIM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to diversion.
2. Selects an appropriate alternate airport or heliport and route.
3. Promptly, diverts toward the alternate airport or heliport.
4. Makes an accurate estimate of heading, groundspeed, arrival time, and fuel
consumption to the alternate airport or heliport.
5. Maintains the appropriate altitude, ±200 feet and established heading, ±15 degrees.
Task: Lost Procedures
References: FAA-H-8083-21; AIM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to lost procedures.
2. Selects an appropriate course of action.
3. Maintains an appropriate heading and climbs, if necessary.
4. Identifies prominent landmark(s).
5. Uses navigation systems/facilities and /or contacts an ATC facility for assistance
as appropriate.
6. Plans a precautionary landing if deteriorating weather and/or fuel exhaustion
is impending.
Area of Operation: Emergency Operations
Note: Tasks F through I are knowledge-only tasks.
Task: Power Failure at a Hover
References: FAA-H-8083-21; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to power failure at a hover.
2. Determines that the terrain below the aircraft is suitable for a safe touchdown.
3. Performs autorotation from a stationary or forward hover into the wind at
recommended altitude, and RPM, while maintaining an established heading,
±10 degrees.
Chapter Fourteen
4. Touches down with minimum sideward movement, and no rearward movement.
5. Exhibits orientation, division of attention, and proper planning.
Task: Power Failure at Altitude
References: FAA-H-8083-21; POH/RFM.
Note: Simulated power failure at altitude shall be given over areas where actual touchdowns can safely be completed in the event of an actual power plant failure.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to power failure at altitude.
2. Establishes an autorotation and selects a suitable landing area.
3. Establishes proper aircraft trim and autorotation airspeed, ±5 knots.
4. Maintains rotor RPM within normal limits.
5. Compensates for wind speed and direction as necessary to avoid undershooting
or overshooting the selected landing area.
6. Terminates approach with a power recovery at a safe altitude when directed by
the examiner.
Task: Systems and Equipment Malfunctions
References: FAA-H-8083-21; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to causes, indications, and pilot
actions for various systems and equipment malfunctions.
2. Analyzes the situation and takes action, appropriate to the helicopter used for
the practical test, in at least three of the following areas:
a. Engine/oil and fuel
b. Hydraulic, if applicable
c. Electrical
d. Carburetor or induction icing
e. Smoke and/or fire
/. Flight control/trim
g. Pitot static/vacuum and associated flight instruments, if applicable
h.
Rotor and /or antitorque
i. Various frequency vibrations and the possible components that may be affected
j.
Any other emergency unique to the helicopter flown
Task: Settling-with-Power
References: FAA-H-8083-21; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to settling-with-power.
2. Selects an altitude that will allow recovery to be completed no less than 1,000 feet
AGE or, if applicable, the manufacturer's recommended altitude, whichever is
higher.
Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Helicopters
3. Promptly recognizes and recovers at the onset of settling-with-power.
4. Utilizes the appropriate recovery procedure.
Task: Low Rotor RPM Recovery
References: FAA-H-8083-21; Appropriate Manufacturer's Safety Notices; POH/RFM.
Note: The examiner may test the applicant orally on this Task if helicopter used for the
practical test has a governor that cannot be disabled.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to low rotor RPM recovery,
including the combination of conditions that are likely to lead to this situation.
2. Detects the development of low rotor RPM and initiates prompt corrective action.
3. Utilizes the appropriate recovery procedure.
Task: Antitorque System Failure
References: FAA-H-8083-21; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to antitorque system failure by
describing:
a. The aerodynamic indications of the types of possible system failure(s) associated
with the helicopter.
b. Manufacturers' recommended procedures for dealing with the different
types of system(s) failures.
Task: Dynamic Rollover
References: FAA-H-8083-21; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to the aerodynamics of dynamic
rollover.
2. Understands the interaction between the antitorque thrust, crosswind, slope,
CG, cyclic, and collective pitch control in contributing to dynamic rollover.
3. Explains preventive flight technique during takeoffs, landings, and slope
operations.
Task: Ground Resonance
References: FAA-H-8083-21; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to a fully articulated rotor system
and the aerodynamics of ground resonance.
Chapter Fourteen
2. Understands the conditions that contribute to ground resonance.
3. Explains preventive flight technique during takeoffs and landings.
Task: Low G Conditions
References: FAA-H-8083-21, POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to low G conditions.
2. Understands and recognizes the situations that contribute to low G conditions.
3. Explains proper recovery procedures.
Task: Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear
References: FAA-H-8083-21; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to emergency equipment and survival
gear appropriate to the helicopter environment encountered during flight.
2. Identifies appropriate equipment that should be aboard the helicopter.
Area of Operation: Night Operation
Task: Night Preparation
References: FAA-H-8083-21, FAA-H-8083-25; AIM; POH/AFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant exhibits knowledge of the elements related
to night operations by explaining:
1. Physiological aspects of night flying as it relates to vision.
2. Lighting systems identifying airports/heliports, runways, taxiways, and obstructions, and pilot controlled lighting.
3. Helicopter lighting systems.
4. Personal equipment essential for night flight.
5. Night orientation, navigation, and chart reading techniques.
6. Safety precautions and emergencies unique to night flying.
Area of Operation: Postflight Procedures
Task: After Landing and Securing
References: FAA-H-8083-21; POH/RFM.
Objective
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to after-landing, parking and
securing procedures.
Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Helicopters
2. Minimizes the hazardous effects of rotor downwash during hovering.
3. Parks in an appropriate area, considering the safety of nearby persons and
property.
4. Follows the appropriate procedure for engine shutdown.
5. Completes the appropriate checklist.
6. Conducts an appropriate postflight inspection and secures the aircraft.
This page has been intentionally left blank
CHAPTER
The Ten Commandments
for Helicopter Flying
So Moses went down to the people and told them.
Exodus 19:25
Before you hover off into the sunset, I want to leave you with a list of rules to fly
by. I'm not sure of the origin of "The Ten Commandments for Helicopter Flying"
(Fig. 15-1), although I can assure you they weren't presented to humanity by
Moses. I do know they were all over Fort Wolters, Texas, and Fort Rucker, Alabama,
when I went through helicopter primary flight school with the U.S. Army. Copies of the
commandments were printed on plaques, on prints suitable for framing, on beer mugs,
on wallet-size cards, on poster-size posters, and many other items.
A lot of wives bought the commandments for their pilot-husbands as a graduation
gift, perhaps in the hope that it would help prevent the wives from becoming widows.
My wife, Moira, being of true Scottish blood, thought the plaques were too expensive.
She made one instead, laboriously decoupaging one of the prints onto a piece of wood.
It did come out rather nice and it still hangs on a wall in my home office.
The helicopter commandments are admittedly tongue-in-cheek, but they aren't
fluff. There are a lot of ways to get yourself into trouble flying helicopters, but if you
follow these commandments, you'll avoid most of them.
At least, they've worked for me.
L He who inspecteth not his aircraft gives his angels cause to concern him. For
some reason, as most pilots gain experience and flight time, they become more and
more blase with their preflight inspections. Apparently, the "it-won't-happen-to-me"
attitude becomes stronger the longer one flies and nothing does happen. All pilots,
private or professional, male or female, young or old, are susceptible to this attitude.
The macho, devil-may-care image most pilots emulate practically demands that one
take a relaxed attitude toward preflights. In reality, the quick walk-arounds of some older
captains are not due so much to their competency ("Yes, ma'am. Old Joe's been flyin' so
long he can spot an oil leak a hundert yards away with one eye closed!") as they are to
plain old laziness and complacency ("Hey man, it worked yesterday and Bob the
mechanic never misses a thing").
But sometimes "Bob the mechanic," good as he is, does miss something, forgets something, or just plain screws up. I've found wrenches, rags, open panels, screwdrivers,
unlocked fasteners, fuel caps missing or not properly attached, excessive oil on the fuselage.
319
Chapter Fifteen
The Ten Commandments for Helicopter Flyinq
I. He who inspecteth not his aircraft gives his angels
cause to concern him.
Inspect your aicraft carefully before each flight
11. Thou shalt not become airborne without first ascertaining
the level of thy propellant
It's better to spend minutes refueling than hours regretting.
IE. Let infinite discretion govern thy movement near the ground
for thy area of destruction is vast.
Use extra caution while operating on or near the ground.
IV. Thy rotor rpm is thy staff of life, without it thou shall surely perish.
Low rpm is really dangerous. Keep it within the safe operating range.
V. Thou shalt maintain thy speed between ten and four hundred feet
lest the earth rise and smite thee.
Complete recovery is doubtful in case of power failure.
VL Thou shalt not make trial of thy center of gravity
lest thou dash thy foot against a stone.
A few misplaced pounds may exceed the limits of your controls.
VII. Thou shalt not let thy confidence exceed thy ability
for broad is the way to destruction.
*7 think I can make it " is on the list of famous last words.
Vm. He that doeth his approach and alloweth the wind to turn behind
him shall surely make restitution.
Make all approaches into the wind.
IX. He who allows his tail rotor to catch in the thorns,
curseth his children and his children's children.
Avoid tail low attitude while near the ground.
X. Observe thou this parable lest on the morrow- thy friends mourn
thee.
Safety dwells with the safest man who Hies his bird as safe he can.
Figure 15-1
The Ten Commandments for Helicopter Flying.
The Ten Commandments for Helicopter Flying
^ *
,5
-C- _ *v- w
- - >
- - w
-
..«• ■
5^
, f^M "
%
•w M X
X w —
A
X *
-
>>
»»
>
• •
w•
Figure 15-2 Check that the fuel caps are screwed on properly. The cap on this Enstrom F-28F
has been painted with a white line; therefore, the pilot can quickly verify that the cap is in the
correct position.
and many relatively minor problems (Fig. 15-2). The repair is usually simple. Most of the
time "Bob" simply removes the "foreign object," closes the panel, fastens the fastener, finds
another fuel cap, or wipes away the oil (spilled when refilling a reservoir), all the while with
a rather sheepish smile on his face. But a few times the smile turns to a look of concern.
I've heard of incidents where pilots found a hole in the tailboom from the previous
flight and tail rotor blades mounted on backward after an overhaul. Such things are obviously more serious. I know of one incident when the line mechanics and the pilots didn't
notice that the star-shaped gust lock was still attached to the tail rotor of a Sikorsky S-61.
When the pilots lifted the helicopter into a hover, they discovered they had very limited
yaw control. Their immediate landing was just as hard as it was embarrassing.
It's not hard to embarrass yourself with a less than sterling preflight. Once, I was
about to hit the starter of a Beechcraft Sundowner I had rented when the owner of the
FBO suddenly appeared waving his arms for me to stop what T was doing. He made me
get out of the airplane and pointed to the tow bar that was still fastened to the nose wheel.
I had forgotten to remove the tow bar because I became preoccupied with brushing snow
from the wings, per regulations, but there was no excuse for the oversight. I was lucky he
still let me rent his airplane and even luckier he'd caught me before I started the engine.
When you preflight any aircraft after any maintenance work, visually check that
everything is properly positioned and installed. A mechanic might ensure that everything has been properly handled when he signs off the logbooks; however, he might not
be the last person to handle the aircraft before you climb aboard (Fig. 15-3).
What do you look for on a preflight inspection? Each helicopter is different and if
you have a mechanic doing a daily inspection before you arrive, your inspection will be
less detailed than if you have to do the inspection yourself.
Chapter Fifteen
r
RVICE
« \
.
f
741
j
Figure 15-3 Anyone who works around any aircraft might not want to admit to damage for fear
of reprimand.
Basically, you look for the unusual: check the oil levels of the engine and gearboxes; look for unfastened fasteners and open inspection doors; remove all temporary
covers; check the pitot tube and static ports for obstructions; drain some fuel from the
sumps to check for water and look for excessive oil leaks; check fuel quantity, ideally
visually checking the tanks, or checking the gauges; check the landing gear for condition and the tires for proper inflation; check that the temperature indicated on
temperature-sensitive tapes is not too high; ensure that every nut and bolt that should
be safety-wired is still safety-wired; check for bends, cracks, dents, and defects.
The best, most relied upon preflight inspection is the aptly named walk-around.
Start at one spot on the fuselage and walk around the machine, checking components
as you go (Fig. 15-4). It doesn't matter if you start at the tail, or at the nose, or at the
pilot's door. It doesn't matter if you walk around the craft clockwise or counterclockwise, do it the same way every time and do it with genuine interest. Do it as if, during
the next hour or two, the condition of this machine will have a greater influence upon
your life than nearly everything else in the world, because it will.
Your instructor will show you what to check (Fig. 15-5). If he doesn't show you a
good preflight, request it. If he still doesn't, get another instructor. After you have some
time on the machine, ask him to go through a complete preflight again. You'll be surprised how much more you understand and therefore remember. When you check out
in a different helicopter or airplane, be sure to go through a complete preflight with a
pilot experienced in the machine.
The Ten Commandments for Helicopter Flying
0*
iVi
/
Figure 15-4 The walk-around inspection starts at one point on the fuselage and continues all
the way around the aircraft: Bell 412. (Source: Bell Helicopter Textron)
Then it's up to you to be a professional about your preflight inspections every time,
whether you fly for hire or for fun.
Don't give the angels cause to concern you. Inspect your aircraft carefully before
each flight.
II. Thou shalt not become airborne without first ascertaining the level of thy
propellant. Checking how much fuel you have on board is an important part of a thorough preflight, so important that whoever thought of these commandments in the first
place figured it should have its own commandment. Not a bad thought.
Aircraft engines have become extremely reliable since the early days of aviation and
although things mechanical still sometimes go awry, the most common cause of engine
failure is fuel starvation. Fuel starvation is usually the pilot's fault. Accident reports
often call it "poor fuel management."
According to an old saying, "There are old pilots and there are bold pilots, but there
aren't any old, bold pilots."
Chapter Fifteen
Figure 15-5 Your instructor should show you what to inspect during the preflight inspection of
your helicopter and will likely trust you to do it correctly after you've done it a few times. Don't be
afraid to ask questions, if you don't understand something, or to ask your instructor to show you
the whole preflight again: Robinson R22. (Source: Hillsboro Aviation)
Old pilots know that Murphy's Law tends to make most flights longer than planned
and that the best way to guard against the inevitable is to add fuel (Fig. 15-6). In the
United States, you are allowed to fly a helicopter under visual flight rules with a fuel
reserve of only 20 minutes. That is precious little fuel, believe me. Some pilots make it a
habit to take on an additional 15 minutes of fuel for the wife and another 15 minutes for
each of their children. Others habitually round up all estimations when doing their fuel
calculations. Whatever they do, the result is the same: an extra reserve above that required
by the regulation.
There are two basic ways to check your fuel and two ways to keep track of how
much you have.
The first way to check the fuel is to physically look inside the tanks and confirm
that, yes, there's fuel in them thar tanks. If the tanks are full to the top, this is a very
good way to determine that you do, in fact, have full fuel, as long as the helicopter is on
level ground. This is the accepted method for checking fuel on small helicopters, and
even on the largest of machines, you can check fuel this way; however, if you have less
than full fuel, figuring out how much you have becomes more difficult.
Some tanks have visual fuel indicators with graduated scales on the sides that allow
you to read directly how much fuel is in the tank (Fig. 15-7). This is a fairly accurate
method, again, as long as the machine is on level ground. If the helicopter is sitting on
a slope, the gauge might indicate more or less than the actual amount.
Other tanks have dipsticks that are usually fastened inside the tank or attached to
the fuel cap. Some people make their own metal or wooden sticks for measuring the
- >'£A,
"
1
'4
s
r
i
la
irySi
i.
h
,<
r"Hi
i
/
c;
r-
Figure 15-6
Be prepared for Murphy's Law and add extra fuel.
'i
967
OAIS
Si
V
GALS
%
j
• 83
^s.
I
\
o
Figure 15-7 The auxiliary fuel tank on this Bell 206B JetRanger has a sight gauge to visually
check the fuel quantity.
325
Chapter Fifteen
fuel quantity. The dipsticks are graduated and are fairly accurate... you got it, as long as
the ship is on level ground. A minor disadvantage is that it's sometimes hard to see the
permanently mounted stick under some light conditions, which is why you might see a
pilot carrying a flashlight while doing his preflight, even in bright sunlight.
Most large helicopters don't have visual indicators or dipsticks and the only way to
check the fuel quantity, if it's not full, is to read the fuel gauges. Be sure to know what
unit of measure the gauges on your machine read. Most helicopters manufactured in
the United States show fuel in pounds, but some show it in gallons. European helicopters
often measure fuel in pounds, in deference to the U.S. market, but might use liters
or kilograms, too. Obviously, you'll be in for a big surprise if what you thought was
100 gallons of fuel turns out to be 100 liters—only one-fourth as much.
Contrary to popular belief, the indicator needles in fuel gauges don't always drop
to zero when electrical power is turned off. In some aircraft, the needles freeze in
position until the power is turned on again. (The fuel gauge in some cars does the same
thing.) It's always prudent to switch on the power source to the gauges when checking
them during preflight because you never know if someone refueled or defueled the
machine or if fuel you left there the day before has leaked out, for example, because of
a stuck drain valve.
What power source you switch on, depends on the helicopter type. On most
machines, switching on one or more of the batteries is sufficient since the fuel gauges
run on DC power. If the gauges, or the indicating system, need AC power, you'll have
to switch on a ground inverter, too.
Do fuel gauges ever lie? You bet they do. Sometimes they fail outright and drop to
zero. Then you're lucky, relatively speaking. At least a zero indication will catch your
attention and alert you to the problem.
Unfortunately, most gauge failures are more insidious and harder to detect. A common failure is for the needle to freeze in some position while flying. Unless you're
monitoring your fuel burn closely, it will probably be some time before you notice the
gauge indicates there's more fuel on board than there should be. And it will go an even
longer time before you figure out for sure that the gauge is showing too much and by
then you really won't know how much you have.
Even sneakier are the gauges that decrease slightly or not at all and then suddenly
jump down to what looks like the correct amount. Needles that stick (in all types of
gauges and indicators) have plagued pilots for so long that the first action most pilots
do when confronted with any odd indication is to tap the glass on the gauge. Of course,
if your aircraft has electronic/digital displays instead of gauges you can bang them all
you want and the digital readouts will remain unchanged (until the screen breaks), but
on the old electromechanical-type gauges you can often get a response.
Checking the fuel gauges is one way to determine your fuel load before flight and
the main way to keep track of it while you're flying. The second way to keep track of
your fuel is with your watch.
Using time to estimate fuel remaining is akin to dead reckoning navigation. It's
sometimes imprecise, sometimes incredibly accurate, and always better than nothing
at all.
Every airplane and every helicopter has a rule-of-thumb fuel burn. The rate of fuel
consumption varies with power, temperature, altitude, humidity, fuel control adjustment,
and other factors, but unless you're doing an awful lot of hovering or other high-power
maneuvers, your fuel consumption will pretty much average to within 5 to 10 percent
The Ten Commandments for Helicopter Flying
of the rule of thumb. If you are doing a lot of hovering, you can always figure out a " fuel
consumption while hovering" rule of thumb and use that instead of the standard "cruise
flight" rule of thumb.
Always have a ballpark figure in your head when comparing time aloft and fuel
remaining. It's a good double check of the gauges and a backup if you become suspicious of the fuel indication system.
For example, if you took off with three hours of fuel on board and, after one hour of
flight, the fuel gauges still show three hours of fuel remaining, you can be fairly certain
you have an indication or sensor failure. But if your gauges only show 45 minutes of
fuel left, maybe it's the gauge acting up, or maybe it's because a fuel line has sprung a
leak or the lineman didn't tighten the fuel cap down after refueling. The most prudent
thing to do is land as soon as possible and check it out.
Remember to check your propellant during your preflight walk-around and always
try to add more than you think you'll need. Often this isn't possible in a commercial
operation when you must sacrifice some of your extra reserve to keep your payload
as high as possible, but when you have room for more fuel, take it.
It's better to spend a few extra minutes refueling than hours regretting.
III. Let infinite discretion govern thy movement near the ground for thy area of
destruction is vast. Airplanes excel over other forms of transportation by virtue of their
speed. Helicopters, to repeat the obvious, are different. The physical, aerodynamic laws
governing all flight put a speed limit on helicopters at about 200 knots (although hybrid
and experimental rotorcraft, such as Bell's and AgustaWestland's tilt-rotors, Eurocopter's
X3 and Sikorsky's X2, have surpassed 200 knots). As a consequence, conventional helicopters will never be the speed demons many of their fixed-wing cousins are.
What does all this have to do with movement close to the ground? Everything. Helicopters can't compete against airplanes in speed. If you have to go somewhere fast, you
take an airplane. Because the air is thinner and offers less resistance at higher altitudes,
greater speeds and better fuel efficiency are obtained at higher altitudes (up to a point);
therefore, when you need to fly fast, you fly high. But many of the things you can do
with aircraft require neither great speed nor great height; helicopters excel in these areas.
If you want to spot a robbery suspect making a getaway (Fig. 15-8), or take photographs of a disaster site, or transport an accident victim directly to a hospital, or
airlift and set 100 air conditioning units onto a roof, or inspect a power line, you use
a helicopter.
Statistics show that most airplane accidents occur during takeoff or landing, the
time when airplanes are closest to the ground. The same is true for helicopters, but,
by the nature of the jobs that are done with helicopters, they are close to the ground
more often than airplanes. Many jobs helicopter pilots do place them constantly
below altitudes that airplane pilots would consider safe. {See Chap. 12 for the hazards
of low-level flying.)
By the nature of the beast and the object of your mission as a helicopter pilot, you'll
be exposing yourself to the danger of operating close to the ground much more often
than if you were an airplane pilot (Fig. 15-9). That's just the way it is.
Extra vigilance is required. As a helicopter pilot, you'll have to be extremely aware
of the space occupied by the helicopter, especially the rotors. This isn't easy. Except in
very small helicopters, you can't look out the back and see where the tail rotor is. If you
plan to hover backward, you better be sure the area behind you is clear.
Chapter Fifteen
Figure 15-8 Flying a helicopter is often the best way to follow a suspect fleeing the scene of a
crime: Bell 206 JetRanger. (Source: Bell Helicopter Textron)
r
i
■
9^
I
i
;v ^
I
Figure 15-9 Helicopters are low altitude vehicles—that's just the way it is: Bell 206 JetRanger.
(Source: Bell Helicopter Textron)
The Ten Commandments for Helicopter Flying
Without the advantage of rearward sight, it's impossible to imagine what's behind
you. Even when you know the exact dimensions of the aircraft, how do you tell if there's
5 feet or 50 feet from the tail rotor to the concrete wall?
You can avoid the problem by not hovering backward, but hovering sidewards
instead. Or, if you can't turn to hover sidewards, you can land where you are, walk back
to where you want to go, and place a marker to tell you where to stop hovering backward. It might sound like a lot of bother just to check a few feet of space, but it will save
you from a lot of embarrassment, or worse.
Care when flying close to the ground is for the benefit of other people, too. The
main and tail rotors are obvious danger areas and the pilot must always ensure that
people and objects are clear of his rotors.
The most dangerous time for other people is when the helicopter is on the ground
with the rotors turning. The more hazardous of the two rotors is the tail rotor for three
reasons. First, it spins so quickly that it is all but invisible; second, it's much closer to the
ground and on small helicopters just about the right (or wrong) height for a person to
walk into; and third, it's behind the pilot so there's a good chance he won't see someone
walking toward it (Fig. 15-10).
This is not to say that the main rotors aren't dangerous, too, but most people do
seem more aware of the big fan on top. Maybe it's from seeing helicopters on TV and in
films, but just about everyone who walks under a spinning main rotor bends down.
This is not a bad procedure, but when the rotor system has reached normal operating
rpm, it is usually unnecessary.
On the other hand, during rotor engagement and disengagement, nobody should
stand under the rotor disc (Fig. 15-11). When the rotors are below normal operating rpm.
I
il.f
•v
£
Figure 15-10 The protected fenestron-type tail rotor of the Aerospatiale SA-365N Dauphin is
much safer than conventional tail rotors, but even it should be treated with respect.
Chapter Fifteen
k
H
i
Figure 15-11 No one should be allowed underneath the rotor disc during rotor engagement and
shutdown: Aerospatiale AS 332 Super Puma.
they are more susceptible to the variance of the wind and are therefore not fully controllable by the pilot.
The reason has to do with aerodynamics and physics: the faster the blades spin, the
"stiffer" they become because of centrifugal force. To keep the blades from dipping too
low many helicopters have droop stops that operate below a certain rotor rpm. Above
the specified rpm during rotor engagement, the droop stops slip out of position so that
the rotor blades can flap down to their limit, which might be a few feet above the
ground, but ideally the pilot has control of the rotor disc by the time it spins up to
"droop stop out rpm." Conversely, during disengagement the droop stops slip back in
at a certain rpm to keep the blades from flapping down too low as they slow down.
Sudden gusts of wind will cause the blades to flap down. Because wind is unpredictable, and gusty winds are even more unpredictable, and because one never knows
when a droop stop might not work properly, it's always a good idea to keep people
outside the area directly below the rotor disc during rotor engagements and disengagements. It's also a good idea to keep your hands and feet on the controls until the rotors
come to a complete stop. There have been incidents, and there will undoubtedly be
more, of main rotor blades hitting the top of the cockpit, smacking into the ground, and
even severing the entire tailboom during engagements and disengagements.
Another hazard of low-flying helicopters, often unrecognized by pilots as well as
groundlings, is rotorwash. Rotorwash, like the wind, is invisible, but the effects are
noticeable enough.
Small helicopters blow up quite a storm close to the ground. The big ones create
minor hurricanes. The damage they cause can be considerable. For example, constant
buffeting by Boeing 234 Chinook rotorwash over a period of five years caused structural damage to a terminal building at Norway's Forus Heliport.
The Ten Commandments for Helicopter Flying
Most people unfamiliar with helicopters don't realize how windy it can get when a
helicopter lands, hovers, and takes off. I had to chuckle during a movie when one of the
characters was waiting for someone to arrive by helicopter. He carefully combed his
hair while the helicopter approached and then walked toward the landing spot.
Seconds later the downwash hit him, not only mussing his hair, but covering him in
dust as well.
When you're coming in to land and people are waiting for you, about the only thing
you can do to warn them about the rotorwash is to stop in a high hover and descend
slowly to the spot. This way the full force of the rotorwash won't hit all at once. Sometimes, conditions make this impossible and all you can do is hope that people have
sense enough to cover their eyes or turn away. In the worst case, you might have to
abandon the landing to avoid hurting someone.
Before taking off, you should take the time to warn anyone who will be standing
nearby about rotorwash. They might not heed your advice, but at least you tried.
Finally, be aware of the possibilities of property damage by your helicopter's rotorwash when operating near the surface. Pay particular attention to lightweight objects,
flimsy signs, and anything on wheels. I remember watching helplessly as the rotorwash
of the helicopter 1 was taxiing caught an aluminum maintenance stand and pushed it
across the ramp until it rolled into the fuselage of another helicopter. The mechanic who
had last used the stand had apparently forgotten to set the wheel brakes.
Always watch what you do with a helicopter for your sake and the sake of others,
and use extra caution while operating on or near the ground.
IV. Thy rotor rpm is thy staff of life, without it thou shall surely perish. All of
these commandments are vital and I would be hard-pressed to list them in order of
importance. But if I had to choose just one to place before all the others, the choice
would be easy. It's this one.
If you remember nothing else from this book except this one commandment, you'll
have at least learned the most important rule of helicopter flying (Fig. 15-12).
Why is proper rotor rpm so important? Recall that if the rotor isn't spinning fast
enough, it can't make enough lift, nor can the tail rotor, and that's even worse because
you'll lose yaw control even though the main rotor is still producing some lift. Because
the tail rotor is spinning about five times faster than the main rotor and lift varies as the
square of the velocity, the loss of yaw control might be more of a problem than the loss
of lift from the main rotor.
If you let the rotor rpm increase too much, if it gets too high above the upper limit,
there's no telling what might happen. Ideally, you'll be able to bring it back down into
limits and you'll only have to scrap the transmission, the rotor head, the tail rotor drive
shaft and gearbox, the intermediate gearbox, and all the rotor blades.
Fortunately, maintaining proper rotor rpm during normal operations is a simple
matter. With a reciprocating engine, you only need to monitor and adjust the throttle
whenever you make collective changes. With turbine-powered helicopters, the fuel
control unit will normally keep rotor rpm within limits for you.
During abnormal operations, remember the first step from the four-part helicopter
emergency procedure; Maintain rotor rpm and fly the aircraft. Follow this procedure,
discussed in Chap. 10, and you will live to fly another day. You get the point.
Low rpm is very dangerous, likewise excessive rpm. Keep rotor rpm within the
green arc on the tachometer.
Chapter Fifteen
<
"V
R
Figure 15-12 Rotor rpm is your staff of life in any helicopter: Schweizer 300. (Source: United
Technologies Sikorsky Aircraft)
V. Thou shall maintain thy speed between ten and four hundred feet lest the
earth rise and smite thee. This commandment refers to the height-velocity diagram
(dead man's curve). Every helicopter has such a curve (Fig. 15-13) and the exact figures
vary by type, so consider 10 feet and 400 feet as rules of thumb only. On the other hand,
as rules of thumb go, this one isn't too bad.
Chapter 8 explains autorotations and the height-velocity diagram. If you are at all
unsure why you should maintain airspeed between 10 and 400 feet, reread the section
explaining the dead man's curve.
Remember, if you operate in the unsafe areas of the height-velocity diagram, complete recovery is doubtful in case of power failure.
The Ten Commandments for Helicopter Flying
Avoid Operation in Shaded Areas
700
650
600
550
7000 ft. Density-AI itude @ 2100 bs
500
450
-1 400
X
<
1— 350
Ui
LU
U. 300
Sea Level @ 2400 lbs
X
X
X
250
X
X
X
200
X
200
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
30
40
150
10
X
50 _
X
X
X
X
Recommended
Takeoff Profile
X
0
0
10
20
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
KIAS
Height-Velocity Diagram
Figure 15-13 Every helicopter has its own height-velocity curve, so check the operating
handbook or flight manual.
VI. Thou shalt not make trial of thy center of gravity lest thou dash thy foot
against a stone. Helicopters can be very sensitive to weight and balance and changes in
center of gravity {see Chap. 16). Fortunately, lateral (side-by-side) center of gravity (CG)
problems are less a concern in helicopters than in airplanes. The main reason is that
airplanes carry fuel in their wings and the farther out on the wing you go, the longer the
moment arm. If the fuel tanks in the right wing are full and the tanks in the left wing are
empty, you would definitely notice it in an airplane.
Helicopters don't have wing tanks (obviously), although some have tanks along the
sides of the fuselage or in sponsons over the wheels. These tanks are so close to the rotor
mast that even if one is empty and the other is full, the change in the lateral center of
gravity is barely noticeable.
Military helicopters often have wider sponsons to accommodate armament and
external fuel tanks and these make lateral CG a more serious concern. For example,
the USAF HH-3E flight manual carries this warning: "Asymmetric jettison of the
external tanks during climb can result in rapid attainment of excessive roll rates and
Chapter Fifteen
roll attitudes (20 degrees roll in 0.2 second)." But for the pilot of civilian helicopters,
lateral CG is rarely a problem.
Longitudinal (front to rear) center of gravity is another matter. Virtually every
helicopter can be loaded so that the CG ends up outside either the forward or aft limit,
or both. The difference can be as small as an extra person in the front seat or a few
bags or boxes in a cargo compartment (Fig. 15-14). In most cases, the problem won't
be any more serious than a slightly more nose-down attitude in forward flight or more
nose-up attitude in the flare. In the worst case, you might not even be able to lift into
a hover.
I know of one accident in an old Hiller 12E that was caused by improper loading of
the small helicopter. With one person in the cockpit, the battery could be in either the
front or the aft battery rack. With two people in the front, the battery was supposed to
be in the aft rack.
The pilot picked up a passenger, but didn't move the battery to the aft rack. When
he tried to take off, the machine nosed over so much the pilot couldn't move the cyclic
far enough aft to prevent flying into the ground. Because the FAA determined that the
cause of the accident was pilot error, the insurance company refused to pay up. The
owner of the helicopter lost all he had.
Pilots often overlook CG changes due to fuel usage. This is particularly a problem
in machines that have additional fuel tanks. Helicopter designers usually try to put the
standard tanks as close as possible to the rotor mast because this causes the least
CG change, but extra tanks often have to be placed farther and farther away from the mast.
If the helicopter is loaded near the forward or aft limit when the tanks are full, improper
1
If) p
•
i
M
rx
r~
a
■
*
4
Figure 15-14 Always check that cargo is loaded and secured properly. Check the position of the
center of gravity before takeoff: Sikorsky S-61.
The Ten Commandments for Helicopter Flying
fuel management in flight might cause the craft to go out of limits after a certain amount
of fuel is burned off.
Last but not least, baggage compartments can be real culprits because they're often
located in the aft part of the fuselage or even in the tailboom itself. A full load of baggage might not be problem if passengers are carried in the cabin, but if the passengers
are let out at one place and the baggage is kept onboard to deliver to another spot, the
aft CG limit could be exceeded. It's an unnerving experience to lift up into a hover and
find that full forward cyclic is insufficient to keep the helicopter from nosing up and
moving backwards.
So, as boring as the subject might be, learn and abide by the weight and balance limits
of your helicopter. A few misplaced pounds might exceed the limits of your controls.
VII. Thou shalt not let they confidence exceed thy ability, for broad is the way to
destruction. Ah, confidence. If only those who have too little could get some from those
who have too much. Psychologists say lack of confidence is one of the great inhibitors
to success in this world while accident investigators know, without a doubt, that too
much confidence easily leads to destruction. The line between the two is thin, indeed.
It's been said that the young pilot's enemy is inexperience and the old pilot's enemy
is complacency. Overconfidence, however, can hit every pilot, at any experience level.
It's just a matter of degree.
If you're good at doing something, touch-and-goes, hovering sidewards, confined
area landings, and the like, you can become overconfident about it, even if you don't
have much flight time. High-time pilots are just good at a lot more things than low-time
pilots; therefore, there's a lot more they can become overconfident about.
On the other hand, low-time pilots seem more prone to become puffed up with their
own, albeit limited, abilities. Good high-time pilots usually know their limits much better than low-time pilots. If they're really good, they not only know what they're good at
but also what they tend to get lazy about. They know the situations that are conducive
to mistakes and force themselves to continually check and double-check their own
actions. This is what distinguishes the great pilots from the good ones.
"Know themself," is one of the inscriptions at the Delphic Oracle in Ancient Greece,
attributed to the Seven Sages, approximately 600 B.C. It's a good axiom for pilots in the
21st century. "Watch this!" and "I think I can make if'are really bad axioms.
VIII. He that doeth his approach and alloweth the wind to turn behind him shall
surely make restitution. Airplane pilots have it easy because they usually take off and
land on nice, long, smooth runways. An airport with multiple runways means that a
pilot can usually take off within 45 degrees into the wind. If a pilot must take off downwind, he can open up a book or check the flight management system to find out how
long the takeoff run is going to be and compare that to the runway length. He can call
up the tower and find out what the wind is to the knot and degree. If the airport doesn't
have a tower, he can look at the wind sock.
Helicopter pilots aren't so lucky. Well, all right, at an airport we all get the same
information airplane pilots get and thereafter we usually can take off directly into the
wind regardless of the runway direction. But that's only at airports.
Helicopters are the ultimate off-road vehicles and there are few places in the boondocks that have 24-hour ATIS broadcasts. How to find the wind direction and estimate
its speed is something every helicopter pilot must learn. Taking off and landing downwind is asking for trouble.
Chapter Fifteen
The section regarding wind in Chap. 7 explains in detail the hazards of taking off
and landing downwind or crosswind. Go back and read it again, if you've forgotten.
Sometimes you'll have no choice and won't be able to take off directly into the
wind. If you know the potential problems involved when you do this, you can prepare
yourself to meet the challenge. But the general rule is, if you have a choice, make all
your approaches and takeoffs into the wind.
IX. He who allows his tail rotor to catch in the thorns, curseth his children and his
children's children. Making an approach and landing, or trying to land, downwind is
one good way to catch your tail rotor in the thorns. Another way is to be inattentive while
hovering in a confined area (Fig. 15-15). You can also do it by applying too much aft cyclic
while in a low hover or by allowing the aircraft to descend while hovering backwards.
iFtT1
. it
Kif/'
*1
v.;
-
, %
f
M
-iV
SM
LJL
k ^#
3$?
j'i ■
2L
as
:
'■i
Figure 15-15 Be acutely aware of the tail rotor's position and its relationship to obstacles:
McDonnell Douglas MD 500. (Source: MD Helicopters)
The Ten Commandments for Helicopter Flying
A center of gravity near the aft limit (or beyond) will give the helicopter a tail-low attitude
and increase the chance of the tail rotor hitting the ground.
Why is this bad? Besides putting a groove in the ground where there shouldn't be
one, it could also cause you serious control problems. Unless you just kiss the ground
with the very tips of the blades, a tail strike will probably ruin your whole day, and a lot
more days to come. But even just grazing the tips may damage the blades enough to
cause problems later.
Tail rotors are incredibly fine-tuned and balanced and the loss of only ounces from
just one blade can be enough to create an imbalance and horrendous vibrations. Some,
if not all, yaw control will be lost. If you don't lose all of it right away, there's a good
chance you will after a matter of seconds, if the vibrations are severe enough. The tail
rotor gearbox, intermediate gearbox (if there is one), and tail rotor shaft are built to
withstand a lot of punishment, but not that induced by a damaged tail rotor. The helicopter could literally shake itself to pieces.
This commandment is next to last and there isn't much left to say about it.
Nevertheless, it's vitally important. Avoid a tail-low attitude when near the ground.
X. Observe thou this parable lest on the morrow thy friends mourn thee.
Can reading this book make you a safe pilot? No.
Can your instructor make you a safe pilot? No.
Can the FAA make you a safe pilot? Not really. The Feds can make you a safe former
pilot by revoking your certificate, if you are a chronically unsafe operator, but they can't
really make you a safe pilot.
Figure 15-16 What kind of helicopter pilot will you be? Alain de Bianca, Eurocopter chief test
pilot for the EC175 and a true professional, knows "when to push it and when to back off."
Chapter Fifteen
The only person who can make you a safe pilot is you. You must have the desire,
the knowledge, the maturity, and, sometimes, the courage to be a safe pilot. You have to
make the decision yourself. It's completely on your shoulders.
I'm reminded of the old joke about how many psychiatrists it takes to change a light
bulb: "Only one, but the light bulb has to want to change."
The joke is funny because the inference is true, at least in its allusion to psychiatry
and human nature. A psychiatrist can't make your mental health better. He can only
help you find out what's bugging you and show you ways and techniques to point you
in the right direction. If you want to change, you have to do that yourself. The good
news is that most psychiatrists, psychologists, and psychotherapists believe you really
can control your behavior, despite your past (and contrary to what was generally
believed by Freud and his early followers).
So it's up to you. You have to make the choice. Are you going to be a safe pilot and
a credit to yourself, your employer, and the helicopter profession (Fig. 15-16), or are you
going to be the opposite?
If you follow these commandments religiously, you will be a safe pilot. If you don't,
sooner or later you'll give your friends and family cause to mourn you.
The decision is yours.
Safety dwells with the safest man who flies his aircraft as safe as he can.
CHAPTER
Weight and
Passenger
and
Balance,
Briefings,
Hand Signals
I would rather be "down there" and wishing I were "up here" than "up here" and wishing I were
"down there."
Unknown pilot
This chapter presents a few thoughts on weight and balance, preflight passenger
briefings, and hand signals used by ground personnel, all of which are relevant
to many, if not most, helicopter flights. Weight and balance is certainly of importance on all flights, passenger briefings are relevant only when you carry passengers,
and hand signals depend on where you are operating and what you are doing.
Weight and Balance
If there ever were a popularity contest for aviation ground school topics, I suspect
weight and balance would finish dead last, far behind everything else. I know of no
other subject that consistently elicits so many moans and groans in the classroom and
causes eyeballs to glaze over so quickly.
I'm not quite sure why this is. Weight and balance problems require no more than
basic mathematics, nothing really complicated. At worst, the problems can be a little
tedious to do using pencil and paper, but with just an ordinary electronic calculator the
calculations really aren't that bad. With a simple spreadsheet or app and a laptop computer, they are a snap. And, of course, there are apps for tablets and mobile devices and
onboard avionics that make weight and balance calculations a no brainer, although the
careful pilot will make sure the results make sense. Perhaps the subject gets a bad rap
because a small error done early in the calculations can cause an answer that is not only
in left field, but completely out of the ballpark.
I have not provided detailed information about calculating weight and balance and
center of gravity (CG) here. As mentioned before, this is a ground school subject that
you will definitely get, if you have not already, whether you train in helicopters or
airplanes. In addition, you can easily find instruction on how to calculate weight and
balance and CG in the aircraft flight manual, pilot's operating handbook, many other
texts, and on the Web, including several good YouTube videos. (Search online for
339
Chapter Sixteen
"helicopter weight and balance," "calculating weight and balance aircraft," or "aviation
W&B calculator.") And as mentioned above, there are several excellent apps for calculating weight and balance and CG, many of which can be tailored to specific aircraft.
Instead, allow me to give you some basics on the subject to hopefully help your
understanding of what weight and balance is and why it is important.
Weight a Minute
Weight is a good starting point. Most mechanical things that carry a load, such as
wheelbarrows, wagons, trailers, cars, trucks, elevators, and aircraft, have a maximum
weight limit. Add weight above this limit and there's a good possibility something on
the device will break. Put the load on the platform unevenly and the platform will move
with difficulty and may even tip over.
During the certification process, an aircraft manufacturer must prove to the FAA or
other civil aviation authority that the aircraft will perform as specified up to its maximum gross weight (MGW). Because aircraft burn fuel and fuel obviously has weight,
maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) is usually considered to be the most an aircraft
should weigh on any given flight, because as soon as the aircraft starts burning fuel, its
weight will decrease. (Airplanes often have a maximum taxi weight, which is slightly
greater than their MTOW, to account for fuel burned while the airplane taxis from the
ramp to the runway.)
After an aircraft takes off, I can think of a few ways an airplane's weight could
become greater than MTOW or a helicopter's weight being greater than MGW. First,
any aircraft flying in icing conditions soon after takeoff could conceivably pick up so
much ice that its maximum allowable weight could be exceeded.
Second, a helicopter engaged in external-lift operations could quite easily exceed its
MGW, if the load is heavier than expected or the pilot is not paying attention to the aircraft's
internal weight plus the weight of the load. (Many helicopters are actually approved to fly
at a weight greater than MGW when carrying an external load, but this is a limit, too.)
And third, airplanes and helicopters that have the ability to slurp up water from a lake
or other source for firefighting operations could take on too much water and inadvertently
exceed their maximum weight limits.
An aircraft's total weight consists of several things: the empty weight of the aircraft
itself; the weight of consumables, mainly fuel and oil; the weight of the flight crew; and
the weight of the payload, meaning passengers and cargo. In fact, it includes everything
on the aircraft. These are specifically defined as follows.
Empty weight consists of the airframe, engine(s), and all items of operating equipment that have fixed locations and are permanently installed in the aircraft. It also
includes optional and special equipment, fixed ballast, hydraulic fluid, and fuel and oil
that cannot be drained.
Useful load is the weight of the pilots, passengers, baggage, unusable fuel, and
drainable oil. Useful load is the aircraft's empty weight subtracted from the MGW.
Basic operating weight (BOW) is the empty weight plus the pilots. It does not
include the payload or fuel.
Just a Moment
Weight and balance discussions get interesting when one adds moments. But before we
do that, I want you to think about a piece of playground equipment you probably
haven't played on for a long time, the seesaw, or teeter-totter.
Weight and Balance, Passenger Briefings, and Hand Signals
Do you remember the big kid who could sit on one end of a seesaw and it took at
least three kids on the other end to make it go down? You no doubt learned fairly
quickly that the weight on both ends of the seesaw had to be equal for it to balance. And
probably after a little experimentation, you learned that if you made the big kid sit
closer to the support (or fulcrum) in the center, then the seesaw would balance with
only one smaller child on the far end. Without realizing it, you were using moments.
So think of an aircraft as a seesaw, or actually two seesaws (one longer than the
other), fastened in their centers to form the shape of a cross. The longer seesaw represents the longitudinal axis of the aircraft, which normally runs through center of the
fuselage, and the shorter seesaw represents the lateral access of the aircraft, which normally runs through the wings. The balance point of these two seesaws is in the exact
center of the cross. At the center of this cross, as long as the two seesaws are of uniform
material and weight, is the center of gravity, or CG. In a normally balanced helicopter,
the center of gravity is typically directly below the main rotor mast or very close to it.
It is important to note that while the fulcrum of a seesaw is fixed, its CG is not. The
CG of a seesaw will be directly over the fulcrum only when the seesaw is perfectly balanced. The center of gravity moves depending on changes in weight on the arms of the
seesaw. The same applies to aircraft. The CG moves depending on the location of weight
in the aircraft, as distributed in the fuselage (longitudinally) and the wings (laterally).
An aircraft (as well as any three-dimensional object) also has a vertical axis, but it is
not a big concern to the pilot in flight. It is a factor in aircraft design, however, and engineers consider it when determining the placement of heavy items (or potentially heavy
items), such as engines, fuel tanks, gearboxes, cargo and baggage compartments, and
such, as well as the placement of landing gear. Pilots of helicopters must pay attention
to the relative "top heaviness" of most helicopters (compared to airplanes) when operating from uneven surfaces and slopes, but there is not much they can do to change the
location of the vertical CG when loading the aircraft internally. Slinging external loads
does lower the helicopter's vertical CG considerably, but this lower CG only becomes a
problem if the load begins to swing uncontrollably.
Back to the seesaw. If you place a one-pound weight at the front end of the longitudinal axis of the seesaw, that end of the seesaw will go down slightly because you have
moved the CG slightly toward it. The resulting CG is now slightly forward.
The distance from the one-pound weight to the original CG (or the "reference
datum," see below) is called the arm. The moment is defined as weight times arm. So if
the weight is in pounds and the arm in feet, the moment is expressed in foot-pounds.
If you take the first one-pound weight and move it halfway back toward the original CG, you'll see the front end rise slightly, indicating that the CG has moved back
toward its original position. The weight is the same, but its effect on the longitudinal
CG has been reduced by half, because its arm is now half of what it was before and so
is its moment. It is also now closer to the original center of gravity. The farther away a
weight gets from the CG, the more its effect on the CG. The effect of weight on the position of the CG is directly proportional to how far the weight is from the airplane's
original CG (Fig. 16-1).
The same effect of weight occurs on the lateral axis. It's easy to imagine the effect of
a heavy weight, such as external fuel tanks, attached to the tips of both wings of an
airplane. If there is more fuel in the left tank than in the right one, it's logical that the
center of gravity in the lateral axis will be to the left of the original center of gravity.
How far left of the new CG is and whether this new CG is within the operational limits
of the aircraft is the reason for weight and balance calculations.
Chapter Sixteen
5ft
10ft
10 lb
5 lb
Seesaw
Fulcrum
-50 IN
-100 IN-
C.G. (Center of Gravity)
u
200 LBS
50 IN
-10,000 IN-LBS
200 LBS
Fulcrum
/100 LBSX
100 LBS
100 IN
+10,000 IN-LBS
Figure 16-1 The top diagram shows a seesaw with a 10-pound weight placed 5 feet (the arm)
from the fulcrum on the left side, and a 5-pound weight placed 10 feet from the fulcrum on the
right side. Calculation of the moments (weight times arm) shows that they are the same (50 footpounds each) and the seesaw is therefore in balance with the center of gravity (CG) at the
fulcrum. Similarly, determination of an aircraft's CG is accomplished by calculating the moments
for all weight in the helicopter to make sure that the CG is within the limits, as defined by a chart
provided in the aircraft flight manual.
Center of Gravity or Reference Datum?
In the simple example above, I defined the "original" center of gravity as the central point
of the two seesaws. Aircraft are obviously much more complicated, and it is rare that two
examples of the exact same model have exactly the same CG location when they come off
the assembly line. To help make weight and balance calculations consistent from one aircraft to the next, the manufacturer arbitrarily defines a "reference datum," for the longitudinal and lateral axes. The horizontal reference datum for the longitudinal axis is often
placed a certain distance in front of the nose of the helicopter or under the rotor mast. The
lateral reference datum is usually located on the centerline of the helicopter when seen
from the front or from overhead; the main rotor mast typically defines this centerline.
Longitudinal and Lateral CG Limits
Your purpose for calculating CG before takeoff is to make sure that the aircraft's center
of gravity is within both the longitudinal and lateral CG limits of the aircraft. With a
too-far-forward longitudinal CG, or "nose heavy" CG, the pilot of an airplane may
Weight and Balance, Passenger Briefings, and Hand Signals
have problems controlling and raising the nose, particularly during takeoff and landing,
and may not be able to takeoff at all. If he does get the airplane in the air, he may find that
the excessive forward CG makes it impossible for him to flare the airplane for landing.
In a helicopter with a too-far-forward CG, the pilot may find she does not have
enough aft cyclic to keep the nose from dropping as she lifts the helicopter into a hover.
In extreme cases, she risks the main rotor hitting the tailboom when applying aft cyclic
to raise the nose. If she does take off with an excessive forward CG, she'll find that she
may not have enough aft cyclic to slow the helicopter to a stop. In autorotation after
engine failure, making a proper landing flare may not be possible.
If the CG is too far aft, an airplane's capability to right itself after maneuvering or in
turbulence is decreased, making it more difficult or even impossible to recover the airplane from a stall or spin.
In a helicopter, a too-far-aft CG will cause the nose to rotate upwards when lifting
into a hover. Our unfortunate pilot may find she does not have enough forward-cyclic
control to keep the tail rotor from hitting the ground. If the aft CG condition is not too
excessive and she manages a takeoff, she'll find that forward airspeed will be limited,
because of the forward limits of the cyclic. Or she may find she cannot stop the helicopter from hovering backward.
For airplanes, the lateral CG and longitudinal CG are about equally critical, because
an airplane's fixed wings often support engines, landing gear, fuel and military hardware, with associated large moments.
For civil helicopters, longitudinal CG is usually far more critical than lateral CG, because
helicopter fuselages are usually longer than they are wide. For many helicopters, it is actually impossible to load the helicopter in a way that it will exceed its lateral CG limits.
However, lateral CG could be a problem for military helicopters, which may carry
external auxiliary fuel tanks, weapons and other equipment on sponsons or stub wings
attached to the sides of the fuselage. Often these sponsons also hold the landing gear to
give the helicopter a wider footprint. The HH-3E helicopter I flew in the Air Force had
sponsons for the main landing gear and auxiliary fuel tanks could be attached to these
sponsons to provide longer range (Fig. 16-2). It was possible to jettison these fuel tanks
r
T" .
JL
Figure 16-2 The Sikorsky HH-3E carried one external, auxiliary fuel tank on the landing-gear
sponson on each side of the fuselage. When full of fuel (200 gallons), each tank weighed almost
1,400 pounds. This weight and the distance (arm) from the lateral centerline created a large enough
difference in lateral CG that if a malfunction caused the tanks to be jettisoned asymmetrically,
meaning not at the same time, while the helicopter was in a climb, the aircraft would roll 20 degrees
in only two-tenths of a second, creating serious control difficulties for the pilots.
Chapter Sixteen
in flight. During running takeoffs at MGW, when the helicopter did not have enough
power to hover, the nonflying pilot would keep his hand on the fuel-tank jettison handle, to be ready to drop the tanks to lose the weight, so that the helicopter could continue
flying if one engine failed before reaching climb speed. But a warning in the flight manual stated: "Asymmetric jettison of the external tanks during climb can result in rapid
attainment of excessive roll rates and roll attitudes (20 degrees of roll in 0.2 seconds)."
Since we had no control over whether the jettison of the tanks happened symmetrically
or asymmetrically, I didn't find this warning very helpful.
Finally, the pilot must be aware of changes in CG during flight, primarily because
of fuel consumption, although this is typically of more concern to airplane pilots than
helicopter pilots (other CG changes could be caused by the changes in weight are
mentioned earlier in this chapter). However, large helicopters usually have multiple
fuel tanks and the pilots may need to monitor which tanks are feeding the engines. In
newer helicopters, this is often handled automatically, but systems do occasionally
fail and when this happens, the pilots may have to control fuel distribution to avoid
exceeding CG limits.
A Tip and a Story
Weigh your passengers and their baggage. Small helicopters, such as those used in
flight training and for tour operations, don't have much leeway when it comes to
weight and CG. Standard passenger weights could be much lower than actual
weight by 50 or more pounds each. Asking a person his or her weight usually
results in lower-than-actual weight by at least 10 pounds. The only sure way to
obtain a passenger's actual weight is to use a scale.
Being weighed in front of others is embarrassing to some people, so try having
a trusted or neutral person observe, record, and total the weights for you. Overweight helicopters don't fly well.
During primary flight training at Fort Wolters in Mineral Wells, Texas, we
heard a story about two (rather large) flight instructors who found they had unintentionally landed their Hughes 269 (Schweizer 300) in a farmer's watermelon
patch on a hot August day. Considering this an opportunity knocking, they loaded
up as many of the big, Texas-sized watermelons as they could fit in the small, twoseat cockpit, but found the helicopter could not lift up into a hover. Off went about
half of the watermelons. Still no takeoff. Then they offloaded all but two melons.
Finally, the helicopter could manage a low hover. The pilots coaxed a slow acceleration by skimming just above the watermelon patch until the small helicopter
reached translational lift and started to climb.
Flying with Passengers
Probably one of the first things every new private pilot wants to do as soon as the ink
has dried on his or her new private pilot license is to take a passenger for a ride. This is
only natural. You have a new skill and the legal paper that shows you can do it. Often
the first person a pilot thinks of as a first passenger is a loved one or very close friend.
Again, this is only natural.
Weight and Balance, Passenger Briefings, and Hand Signals
Not to rain on your parade, but I recommend that you do not carry passengers until
you log more hours in your logbook, such as about 100 or more. (While you are still a
student pilot, don't even think about taking a passenger up for a ride—it is against FAA
regulations.) I have two reasons for recommending this.
First, you still have a lot to learn about flying and taking on the responsibility of a
passenger will add a completely new variable to the equation. Sure, you have flown
with another person in the cockpit before: your instructors and the examiner who gave
you the check ride. Maybe you have even flown with another pilot. But these people are
different from passengers. They know what to expect. And, if they are more experienced than you are, they can help you out of trouble, if you get into it.
The second reason has to do with your passenger, whom I'm assuming is someone
close to you. (Why would anyone take a stranger for a ride unless he or she was being
paid to do it? As a private pilot, you're not supposed to do this, and you could lose your
license, if the FAA finds out.) Maybe your spouse, or significant other, or sibling, or parent, or child, or buddy is really excited about going for a ride with you in a helicopter.
That can be good and bad. In their exuberance, they might encourage you to do something you know you really shouldn't do, such as flying too low over the old homestead
or showing off to a friend.
On the other hand, perhaps your passenger is more on the timid side and really
doesn't want to go up with you, but agrees to do it because he or she knows you really
want him or her to fly with you. Because of your obvious excitement in being a licensed
(albeit private) helicopter pilot, this person wants to share the experience with you. In
this case, you might end up with someone who becomes airsick, or extremely nervous,
or even extremely frightened and hysterical. Are you ready to cope with this kind of
passenger?
A Not-Quite-So-Romantic Marriage Proposal
The fiance of a friend of my wife asked me if I could fly the couple past the west
side of Manhattan over the Hudson River in a four-seat Piper Archer, so that he
could surprise her with a proposal of marriage in flight. It sounded a bit strange to
me, but I jump at any chance to fly, so I readily accepted.
The day dawned bright and sunny, but a bit windy and turbulent. When we
were passing by the Statue of Liberty, the future husband popped the question as
he popped open a bottle of champagne. His fiancee said, "yes," took a sip of
champagne and promptly vomited. So much for his romantic proposal!
I had several thousands of flight hours by then and knew there wasn't much I
could do to help the situation with my passengers, except fly the airplane as
smoothly as I could and get back on ground as soon as possible. So I made a gentle
turn back toward home and tried to find an airspeed that reduced the bumps, but
didn't slow us down too much.
I didn't think about the preflight briefing I had given the couple before we
took off until after I had shut down the aircraft. The budding groom had apparently paid attention because he was holding up the bulging airsickness bag for
me to see. He knew right where to look for it and had grabbed it just in time to
hand to his fiancee.
Chapter Sixteen
Passenger Preflight Safety Briefing
Regardless of how much flight time you personally have, it's always good to give your
passengers a preflight briefing. FAA regulations (FAR 91.107(a)(1) and FAR 91.107(a)
(2)) state only that you (a) tell your passenger how the seat belts work and (b) that seat
belts must be fastened. However, the FAA does offer a suggested passenger briefing
checklist, which uses the word "safety" as a memory device. I have modified this
slightly for helicopters, particularly small ones.
But before you even get to this "SAFETY" briefing, it would be good to talk
about boarding and deboarding the helicopter. First, warn passengers to stay away
from the tail rotor, even if it is not turning. If the passengers will be boarding while
the rotors are turning, it would be preferable to have a person knowledgeable about
helicopters escort them to the helicopter. If the passengers approach on their own,
have them keep eye contact with the pilot, presumably you. Also, remind them to
watch out for the skids, which are easy to trip over, while they keep eye contact
with you.
"S" stands for seat belts and shoulder harnesses, including how to fasten and
unfasten them and keeping them fastened during the entire flight. It also stands for
seat, how to adjust its position, if possible, and keep it locked in place.
"A" is for air vents, meaning their location and how they are operated,
is for fire extinguisher, its location and its operation.
"E" is for exit doors, including how to close, secure, and open them. It also stands for
an emergency evacuation plan (wait until the rotors stop before exiting and then meet 20
yards in front of the nose); and the location and contents of the emergency equipment on
the aircraft, including the survival kit and life vests (PFDs), if flying over water.
"T" refers to traffic, meaning other flight and ground traffic, and a reminder to
notify the pilot when the passenger sees it. It also refers to not talking to the pilot in
high-traffic environments about other things beside traffic, especially during takeoff
and landing, in effect using the sterile-cockpit procedure that airline pilots use when
flying below 10,000 feet.
"Y"—as in "Why?"—is to give passengers a chance to ask you questions and
encourage them to speak up, if they see anything out of the ordinary.
Other subjects you should cover are smoking in the aircraft (preferably not at all,
but definitely not during takeoff and landing), use of cell phones (not allowed at all in
2013, but could be permissible in the future, though not during takeoff and landing),
flash photography at night (ask the pilot first before doing it), the location of airsickness
bags (please use them!), and no alcohol or drugs permitted in the cockpit (an FAA regulation). I would advise that no alcohol or drugs be allowed anywhere near the aircraft,
just in case there is an accident and your own use of alcohol and illegal drugs come into
question, although in some operations, pilots have no control over alcohol use in the
cabin. Drugs are a completely different matter and should definitely not be permitted
on any aircraft you are flying.
Some pilots add information about what to do in a crash, although this can freak
out some people. You could say, example, "I don't expect this to happen, but if we experience a hard landing and the aircraft tips over, keep your seat belt fastened until everything comes to a complete stop. You may be disoriented, so to find your seat buckle, put
your hands on your hips to locate your seat belt, move your hands forward to find the
buckle and then release the buckle. After you leave the helicopter, move to a spot in
front of the nose of the helicopter, where we will all gather."
Weight and Balance, Passenger Briefings, and Hand Signals
As I said, this might disturb some people, but the fact that it does bother them may
help them to remember your instructions in a crash.
Commonly Used Hand Signals
Helicopter operations around the world commonly understand a prescribed set of
hand signals. Ground personnel working near flying helicopters should wear safety
glasses, hard hats, and hearing protection {see Fig. 16-3).
w
ft *
Figure 16-3 With his arms extended horizontally sideways, beckoning downwards, with palms
turned down, a rescue man signals to the pilots in a Eurocopter EC-225 to move the helicopter
downward to a landing spot. (Source: Eurocopter)
348
Chapter Sixteen
Move forward:
DAY
Arms a little aside, palms facing backward
and repeatedly moved upward-backward
from shoulder height.
NIGHT
Move rearward:
DAY
Arms by sides, palms facing forward,
arms swept forward and upward
repeatedly to shoulder height.
NIGHT
s a
A
Move to left:
DAY
Right arm extended horizontally sideways in
direction of movement and other arm swung
in front of body in same direction, in a
repeating movement.
! i
NIGHT
A
Weight and Balance, Passenger Briefings, and Hand Signals
Takeoff:
DAY
The right hand is moved in a circular motion
overhead, ending in a throwing motion in the
direction of takeoff. Also means load clear,
hookup good.
NIGHT
DAY
Move downward:
Arms extended horizontally sideways,
beckoning downward, with palms
turned down.
□
y./
NIGHT
v!
r\
iV
A
s
□AY
V*
a
1 V
Move upward:
Arms extended horizontally sideways,
beckoning upward, with palms up.
B
A
349
Move to right:
Left arm extended horizontally sideways in
direction of movement and other arm
swung overhead in same direction, in a
repeating movement.
NIGHT
□
]
C
A
Negative signal:
Hand raised, thumb down.
NIGHT
A
Affirmative signal:
Hand raised, thumb up.
NIGHT
nd Balance, Passenger Briefings, and Hand Signals
Move to right:
Left arm extended horizontally sideways in
direction of movement and other arm
swung overhead in same direction, in a
repeating movement.
NIGHT
□
]
C
A
Hookup:
Hands raised alternately above the head in a
"rope climbing" motion to take up slack.
NIGHT
a
A
Release sling load:
Left arm extended forward
horizontally, fist clenched, right hand
making horizontal slicing movement
below the left fist, palm downward.
NIGHT
A
351
352
Chapter Sixteen
Stop:
DAY
Arms held crossed overhead.
NIGHT
a
3
A
DAY
Land:
Arms crossed and extended downward in front of
the body.
NtGHT
DAY
Cut engine(s):
Either arm and hand level with shoulder,
hand moving across throat.
NIGHT
PART
Flying Helicopters
Professionally
Chapter 17
Employment Opportunities
Chapter 2i
Resources for Helicopter Pilots
Chapter is
Human Factors and Safety
Chapter 22
Civil Helicopters
Chapter is
A Flight to Remember
Chapter 23
There But for the Grace of God
Chapter 20
Born-Again Copilots
Chapter 24
Postflight
This page has been intentionally left blank
CHAPTER
17
Employment Opportunities
We fly, but we have not "conquered" the air. Nature presides in all her dignity, permitting us
the study and the use of such of her forces as we may understand. It is when we presume to
intimacy, having been granted only tolerance, that the harsh stick falls across our impudent
knuckles and ive rub the pain, staring upward, startled by our ignorance.
Beryl Markham, "West with the Night"
Flying professionally is risky business for both helicopter and airplane pilots, and I
don't mean just the flying. The employment part is risky, too.
I had my eyes opened at Trump Air, which flew scheduled flights between Manhattan and Atlantic City, soon after I first started working for the company in 1989. I had
learned to fly in the Air Force and five months after mustering out in 1977,1 had been
hired by Helikopter Service in Norway to fly Sikorsky S-61Ns in North Sea offshore oil
operations. I flew there for 12 years before returning to the United States. After another
former Helikopter Service pilot recommended me, I got an interview with Trump Air at
Linden Airport, New Jersey, and was offered a job, which I eagerly accepted.
What opened my eyes was another Trump pilot's comment to me that I was not "a
real helicopter pilot." As I had some 8,000 hours of helicopter time by then, I had to ask
him what he meant by this. He said it was because I had never worked for a helicopter
company that had gone out of business, as had been the experience of most other pilots
at Trump. He then proceeded to tell me about all the civilian flying jobs he had had
since he left the Army some 15 years before.
As it happened, I was "furloughed" from Trump Air after nine months. Six months
later the entire operation shut down. (Donald Trump kept his private Aerospatiale
AS332 Super Puma and Boeing 727 in operation.) So I suppose I could claim that my
dismissal from the soon-to-be-shutdown Trump operation qualified me as a "real helicopter pilot."
Things have not changed much since that happened in 1990, and I don't expect
them to change much in the future. Long employment with one company as a helicopter pilot is unusual, although not uncommon with the larger helicopter operators. (I
could have stayed with Helikopter Service until retirement, for example.) But even
when employed by one company, a pilot will often find himself or herself traveling
away from home to fly where the work needs to be done. In Norway, for example, I was
based for a week or more at a time on offshore platforms, at other bases around the
country, and internationally.
For many pilots, this is part of the appeal of being a helicopter pilot, as it was for me.
But frequent travel and long stretches away from home can make it difficult for spouses
355
Chapter Seventeen
and children. And, of course, short-term contracts with helicopter operators and inconsistent income can create problems, too.
So it is not surprising that a lot of helicopter pilots, as they begin raising a family,
advance in their careers or just get older, often gravitate toward jobs that provide more
stability with respect to income and travel. Not everyone, of course, but some. There
will always be pilots who make a career of going from job to job, state to state, country
to country, and thoroughly enjoy it for as long as they can keep their medical.
Which brings up one other important consideration about flying as a career: the
required annual or biannual (depending on the requirements of the job) medical exam. If
you don't pass your medical for any reason, you will lose your medical certificate and
likely be out of work. Therefore, prudence and good planning suggest that you take care
of your health. An FAA violation can also put you out of work, too, even if you are innocent,
as it might take a long time to prove your innocence. So you need to have a backup plan,
meaning another job skill and preferably one you can jump right into without much delay.
Loss of license insurance can help you through a period of unemployment, caused
by loss of your pilot's license. Some of the larger helicopter companies provide lossof-license insurance for their pilots as part of their benefits plan. Some pilots pay for
their own policies.
Military or Civilian?
The paths to employment as a helicopter pilot are perhaps as varied as helicopter pilots
themselves. In general, however, most paths begin from one of two starting points,
based on one's initial training: military or civilian, and often involve both.
Military flight experience usually gives one a leg up in the search for employment.
The lack of financial debt that comes from not having to pay for training via the civil
route is another big plus. Service experience also provides the military helicopter pilot
that "golden ticket" to higher paying civil helicopter flying jobs, namely flight time in
turbine-powered rotorcraft. There are, frankly, precious few good, solid, well-paying
jobs for helicopter pilots in piston-powered helicopters.
On the other hand, military flight training does incur another debt, namely a commitment of time in the service, which is not necessarily a bad thing for a person, but is
certainly a consideration. One must plan to move away from one's hometown after
joining the military and you will be deployed from your home base, possibly to war
zones, for long periods of time. And when the military pilot gets ready to muster out
after fulfilling his or her commitment or retiring, there's no way of knowing what the
state of employment will be in the civil helicopter industry.
Military pilots are also usually valued in the civil marketplace. Some helicopter
operators, especially those who are veterans themselves, may favor military pilots for
their experience and the sacrifices they made for their country.
But prejudice can work both ways and some employers may have a bias against military pilots. One is the perception that military pilots, especially officers, "are pampered."
Another is that they have not "paid their dues" in the same way that many civilian pilots
have, for example, by building time and valuable experience as flight instructors in piston-powered helicopters. Or perhaps military pilots are not "real helicopter pilots," in the
same way that I was not when I started with Trump Air.
In a perfect world, I would like to think that the best, most successful jobs for helicopter pilots are with employers who know the qualities, skills, and weaknesses that
Employment Opportunities
both military and civilian pilots bring to the job and hire pilots as the individuals they
are, and not just by what is on their resumes. But realistically, I know this is not always
the case.
Ideally, a military pilot right out of the service and a civilian pilot who has built time
in piston helicopters and flown some hours in turbine helicopters—who both have varied flying experience, about the same total flight time, and associate or bachelor degrees
related to the job—would be considered as more or less equal for the same job. What
could make the difference between them is their actual flying experience—the specific
work they have done in the helicopters they've flown.
Helicopters can do many jobs (as shown in Fig. 9-1). If a particular job requires sling
work in the mountains, for example, then a Navy pilot who flew Sikorsky Seahawks off
ships may not be considered as qualified for this job as the civil pilot who has spent
those last four summers doing logging operations in the mountains of Alaska in
Bell 412s. Conversely, an offshore oil operator might consider the Navy pilot's overwater and ship-operations experience more appropriate for the offshore job than the civil
pilot's logging experience. A private company looking for a copilot to fly its VIP/corporate
AgustaWestland AW139 with experience flying in the New York or Los Angeles metropolitan areas might not consider either pilot for the job.
Descriptions of helicopter jobs are often very specific, which can be both good and
bad for a pilot looking for work. For example, logging, firefighting, and construction all
require flying with sling loads under the helicopter. But erecting ski-lift and radio towers using a long line is particularly difficult work. When I worked at Carson Helicopters
after my stint at Trump, only one of the pilots there did the "lifts" for the really high
towers, hundreds of feet tall. This was very specialized work, at which he excelled and
was well paid, but it did not come up very often. Most of the time he flew "ordinary"
construction work for the company, lifting HVAC units, pipes, and other stuff onto the
roofs of one-story buildings.
So what should the budding professional helicopter pilot do to prepare for
employment?
There's no easy answer. Some people may have a specific flying job in mind before
they start training and make plans to reach that goal. Perhaps you are already in law
enforcement and decide you want to be a police helicopter pilot. Maybe you are in
high school and want to fly Army Apache helicopters in combat. Perhaps you rode in
an air-tour helicopter when on vacation and think that would be a cool, or watched an
air-ambulance helicopter flying from a local hospital and feel that would be a fulfilling
job for you.
Others may have no specific career goal in mind beyond "I want to fly helicopters"
and plan to take the best, or even first, job offer they can find. Sometimes you must take
any flying job you can get, just to put food on the table. This is not necessarily a bad
thing, because it will at least give you more flight time and new contacts, and maybe
broader experience, all of which could help you later in your career.
I did not decide until I was in my third year at the Air Force Academy that T wanted
to fly helicopters and specifically rescue helicopters. So I worked toward that goal and
reached it. But when I got out of the Air Force, I just wanted to find a civil flying job—
any job—and ended up flying offshore in Norway, because that was the door that
opened for me.
Like a trail up a mountain, the path to your goal to become and stay a professional
helicopter pilot will probably encounter several turns, switchbacks, and dead ends.
Chapter Seventeen
Agriculture
Air carrier (Part 127)
Air taxi/charter (Part 135)
Bank paper transportation
Commuter/scheduled
Construction
Corporate/not for hire (Part 91)
Air ambulance/emergency medical service (EMS)
Electronic news gathering
Executive transport
Exploration
External cargo (Part 133)
Fire control/support
Flight school
Forestry
Government agency/not for hire
Government contracting
Herding (stock, wildlife)
Law enforcement (not for hire)
Logging
Offshore/oil and gas
Photography
Pollution detection/monitoring
Private owner/personal use
Sightseeing/air touring
Skiing/heli-skiing
Traffic surveillance/reporting
Utilities patrol and construction
Figure 17-1 Types of Helicopter Operations. The Helicopter Association International (HAI)
provides this list of operations in the form on its website (http://www.rotor.com/Membership/
SearchMembershipDirectory.aspx), which allows anyone to search its membership directory. By
selecting any one "Type of Operation," you will find the names and contact information for
companies doing this operation.
Before you start out, do your homework. Explore your options (see Fig. 17-1). Research
online. Talk to helicopter pilots—most will be happy to share their experiences with
you. Take an introductory flight at a flight school and talk to the pilot there and the
owner. Be honest and friendly with everyone in the industry you meet. You don't know
who may someday help you get your next job.
Then make a plan and be ready to change direction when you must—sort of like
hovering over a spot in gusty winds.
One Way to Find Helicopter Operators
The Helicopter Association International (HAI) has defined the various operations and
industries that helicopters serve (Fig. 17-1).
Although there are many similarities among them, this list is different from the list of
things that helicopters can do (Fig. 9-1), because it focuses on operations rather than
Employment Opportunities
specific tasks. For example. Fig. 17-1 lists "Agriculture," where Fig. 9-1 gives crop dusting,
crop seeding, crop fertilizing, and move trees.
HAI (www.rotor.com) provides this list of operations in an online form on its website (http://www.rotor.com/Membership/SearchMembershipDirectory.aspx), which
allows anyone to search its membership directory. By selecting any one "Type of Operation," you will find the names and contact information for companies doing this
operation. You can also search by "Helicopter Type," or more correctly, helicopter
model. The models listed are quite specific.
At the writing of this chapter in 2013, the industries employing the most helicopter
pilots were offshore/oil and gas, air ambulance/emergency medical service (EMS), law
enforcement, utilities patrol and construction, and sightseeing/air touring.
Careers of Professional Helicopter Pilots
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the paths to employment as a helicopter pilot are
perhaps as varied as helicopter pilots themselves. So what better way to illustrate this
than with the actual career stories of several professional helicopter pilots?
Some of the professionals who gave their accounts below are early in their careers,
some are midway, and others are retired. All have interesting stories to tell and lessons
to impart. Although many are also rated in airplanes, I decided to list them in order of
their total time in helicopters only.
Not all types of helicopter operations, as listed by HAI in Fig. 17-1, are covered.
Nevertheless, the stories that follow, when taken together, should give you a good idea
of what is needed to become a successful, professional helicopter pilot.
Note: In Chap. 23, "There by the Grace of God," many of these same pilots relate
some significant lessons they learned while flying helicopters.
General Utility Operations
David Okita, pilot/manager. Volcano Helicopters, flying MD 500E in all types of
government-contracted work, law enforcement, search and rescue, power-line support, forestry, animal capture, precision external load, crop spraying and so on,
basically anything a helicopter may be called upon to do (Fig. 17-2).
What are the minimum requirements for this job? Commercial Rotorcraft helicopter,
2,500 hours.
What was your career path to this job? Started out of flight school.
How many years of experience and flight hours did you have before getting this
job? 500 hours.
How did you find or get this job? My father owned the company. He and I are now
partners.
What do you consider to be the best part of this job? Everything; the type of flying I do.
What do you consider to be the worst part of this job? Dealing with the FAA.
What is your favorite helicopter and why? MD 500, because it has a high powerto-weight ratio.
Training
Where did you get your training as a pilot? Flight Trails, Carlsbad, California, which
moved to Mesa, Arizona, after I left.
If you are dual rated (helicopter and airplane), which rating did you get first?
Airplane.
Chapter Seventeen
km
f*
w'v* ^2
vf- ..;
1
■
t*
iV?
K
■ ■*
Figure 17-2 David Okita, flying USGS geologists in a Volcano Helicopter MD 500E to the
Kamoamoa Fissure eruption in 2010.
Based on your experience, would you recommend that new pilots obtain an airplane rating before training in helicopters, or should they train in helicopters first? It
doesn't matter, because the insurance underwriters require a lot of hours nowadays.
You have to do flight instruction for many years to build time.
Career Advice
What would you have done differently or would you change in your career as a helicopter pilot? Nothing.
What advice would you give to "budding" helicopter pilots? Be conservative. The
only way you'll survive is not to take extraordinary risks. Helicopter operations are
already on the high end of the risk spectrum.
Flight Experience, Licenses, and Ratings
Helicopters
Total flight time: 25,000 hours.
Licenses and ratings: Commercial Rotorcraft helicopter.
Models flown: Bell 206 and 206L3, Aerospatiale AS 315B, MD Helicopters MD 500E.
Airplanes
Total flight time: 500 hours.
Employment Opportunities
Licenses and ratings: Private, SEL (Single-Engine Land).
Models flown: Cessna C172, Mooney M20J.
Search and Rescue, Firefighting, Public Service
Lee Benson, 63, chief pilot (retired), for the Los Angeles County Fire Department
(LACOFD), flying Bell 206, Bell 412, Sikorsky Black Hawk; now runs own consulting
business in the helicopter market.
What was your career path to this job? Hard work, military flight school, one tour
in Vietnam, maintenance test pilot school, one year in Alaska, three years firefighting in
the lower 48 in the summer and utility work in the winter, six years offshore in the winter and Alaska in the summer.
How many years of experience and flight hours did you have before getting your last
job? Three years military, 10 years civil with a total of 9,000 hours. I was hired by LACOFD
in 1981 as a line pilot, became safety training officer in 1985, and chief pilot in 1996.1 was
program manager for the acquisition of the Sikorsky Blackhawks in 2000.1 retired in 2008.
What are the minimum requirements for this job? Minimum flight time for a line
pilot position is 5,000 hours as an aircraft commander in turbine helicopters. In addition, 1,500 hours in mountainous terrain doing utility work, such as firefighting, survey,
and so on.
How did you find or get this job? I took an open competitive test. Out of 200 pilots
who met the qualifications, the department hired two.
What do you consider to be the best part of this job? Knowing that I made a positive impact in other people's lives, either through search and rescue or firefighting.
Each New Year's Eve I could reminisce about the people we saved and the homes and
commercial property that were still standing.
What do you consider to be the worst part of this job? Seeing firsthand the damage
done accidently and on purpose by one human being to another. The worst was the kids.
What is your favorite helicopter? My favorite helicopter for work is the Sikorsky
Black Hawk. The thing is a beast. At LACOFD, we were snorkeling 1,000 gallons of
water in 40 seconds, that's 138 pounds a second. The Firehawk is flown single-pilot day
and night (aided and not aided by night-vision goggles). It can convert from a two-litter,
search-and-rescue ship to a 13-seat, fire-crew configuration in about three minutes.
My favorite helicopter to fly for fun is the MBB B105. It's not nearly as capable as a
Hawk, but very much a true pilot's machine. You get out of it what you put in, with no
help from electronics. This makes it a difficult ship to fly, but flown well, it is really
satisfying from a pilot's perspective.
Training
Where did you get your initial training as a pilot? U.S. Army.
Based on your experience, would you recommend that new pilots obtain an airplane rating before training in helicopters, or should they train in helicopters first?
Get training in helicopters in the U.S. Army. You cannot replicate the training available
with the military, so why try? Go into the military, serve your country and get a master's (degree)-level education for free.
Career Advice
What would you have done differently or would you change in your career as a
helicopter pilot? When I went to college after the service, my major was aeronautical
Chapter Seventeen
management. That was shortsighted. I should have majored in something besides
aviation, just in case I needed a second career due to health, or some other unforeseen
circumstance.
What advice would you give to "budding" helicopter pilots? Flying helicopters is
the best job in the world. I never saw what I did as work. That said, it was work and at
times physically and mentally very difficult work. You do not start out in this business
making any kind of money, so you better love it for its own rewards.
Flight Experience, Licenses, and Ratings
Helicopters
Total flight time: 15,557 hours.
Licenses and ratings: Commercial Rotorcraft helicopter.
Models flown: Bell 47, 204, 205, 206, 212, 412 Cobra; Hiller OH-23D, 12E, FH1100
Comet; Sikorsky S-55, -58J, -58 Twinpac, Black Hawk; MBB 105C, CBS, 117.
Airplanes
Total flight time: 400.
Licenses and ratings: [not provided].
Models flown: [not provided].
Air Medical/Emergency Medical Services
Terry Austin, 54, lead pilot. Air Methods Corp., managing EMS helicopter base and
flying Eurocopter EC 135P2 for inter-hospital and on-scene flights (Fig. 17-3).
What are the minimum requirements for this job? 2,000 hours total helicopter
flight time. Commercial and Instrument rating.
What was your career path to this job? Worked in law enforcement aviation for
30 years prior to retiring and taking this position.
How many years of experience and flight hours did you have before getting this
job? 25 years and 8,000 hours.
How did you find or get this job? I was approached by the administrators of the
hospital and asked to take this position.
What do you consider to be the best part of this job? Flying, schedule.
What do you consider to be the worst part of this job? Long hours.
What would you have done differently or would you change in your career as a helicopter pilot? Obtain ATP prior to retiring from previous job.
What is your favorite helicopter? Bell 407. Low cost to operate and plenty of power.
Very smooth helicopter to fly.
Training
Where did you get your training as a pilot? I obtained my fixed-wing rating on my
own and the State Police provided me the helicopter rating.
If you are dual rated (helicopter and airplane), which rating did you get first?
Airplane.
Career Advice
Based on your experience, would you recommend that new pilots obtain an airplane rating before training in helicopters, or should they train in helicopters first?
Employment Opportunities
' iini
E vac
Figure 17-3 Top, Terry Austin flying an Air Methods Eurocopter EC 135P2 near Petersburg, Virginia, in
2011. Bottom, Austin with Catherine Dolan, daughter of pilot Tom Dolan (Fig. 17-10), who is considering
becoming a pilot herself.
Fixed-wing rating first. Cost is cheaper to go that path as you can learn navigation
cheaper in fixed wing.
What advice would you give to "budding" helicopter pilots? Study! Know all there
is to know about the helicopter, both as a pilot and its mechanical components as well.
Chapter Seventeen
Good understanding of mechanical and moving parts and all pilot knowledge are very
important in being the best you can be.
Flight Experience, Licenses, and Ratings
Helicopters
Total flight time: 8,200 hours.
Licenses and ratings: Commercial and CFII (Certified Flight Instructor, Instrument).
Models flown: Bell 206, 222, 407; Eurocopter EC 135; MBB BO 105, BK 117.
Airplanes
Total flight time: 3,000 hours.
Licenses and ratings: Commercial and CEIL
Models flown: Cessna 150,172,182.
Production Test Pilot, Helicopter Manufacturer
Stacy Sheard, 33, test pilot for Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation, Stratford, Connecticut,
involved in the production and completion flight tests of Sikorsky S-76 and S-92 helicopters, aircraft deliveries, and the instruction of customer pilots (Fig. 17-4).
What are the minimum requirements for this job? 1,500 flight hours, ATP (Airline
Transport Pilot), CFI, CFII, military, engineering, and maintenance flight test experience
highly desired. Individual experience, skills, accomplishments, and attributes are also
considered.
!■
Figure 17-4
Stacy Sheard flying a Bell 430 over Los Angeles.
Employment Opportunities
What was your career path to this job? I began my U.S. military career in Intelligence,
working as a Russian linguist for the National Security Agency. I was later accepted into
the U.S. Army flight program to fly Huey and Black Hawk helicopters. After 11 years of
active military service, I decided to pursue a civilian flying career and gained experience
flying helicopter charters and tours in Las Vegas and the Grand Canyon; emergency
medical flights in Los Angeles; and news, corporate, and Screen Actors Guild flying for
television and commercials.
How many years of experience and flight hours did you have before getting this
job? Eleven years military experience, 13 years flying experience, and 4,700 flight hours.
How did you find or get this job? Helicopter industry networking, attending
events such as the Helicopter Association International's (HAI) Heli-Expo, and becoming involved in many aviation organizations and events.
What do you consider to be the best part of this job? Being able to fly Sikorsky
S-76s and S-92s with customers around the world. I've come to relish the customer
interaction and the international travel.
What do you consider to be the worst part of this job? Every job has its undesirable aspects; however, I'm often reminded of how lucky I am to work for a company
that manufactures an absolutely remarkable collection of helicopters. I consider myself
one of the lucky few who do something they absolutely love for a living.
What is your favorite helicopter and why? That's tough because there are so many
attributes I love about many different helicopters. I like the S-76, because it's fast, sporty,
powerful, and proven; the Black Hawk for its sheer power, good looks, and multifaceted usefulness; the Bell 430 (with retractable gear) for its smooth flight; and Airwolf for
its beauty.
Training
Where did you get your training as a pilot? U.S. Army.
If you are dual rated (helicopter and airplane), which rating did you get first?
Helicopter, still working on my airplane rating.
Based on your experience, would you recommend that new pilots obtain an airplane rating before training in helicopters, or should they train in helicopters first?
Fly airplanes if you want to, but you won't really be saving money. In the United States
today, if you start by flying airplanes and then move into helicopters, it will just take
you longer and cost more.
If you're looking to save money, you only need to buy a flight simulator that you
can play on your computer or iPad to learn the basics. Rent some time in an actual flight
simulator to practice.
Don't get me wrong. Learning air sense skills are good, and you would never be
wasting your time flying airplanes, but airplanes are different. So why fly them first, if
what you really want is to fly helicopters?
Career Advice
What would you have done differently or would you change in your career as a helicopter pilot? A good friend once told me, "We are all where we are for a reason." If you
want something bad enough, you'll get to where you need to be.
What advice would you give to "budding" helicopter pilots? If you want to fly
helicopters, then learn to fly them any way you can. If you're young and don't have
cash, start by asking for an aviation birthday fund, or an introductory helicopter ride.
Chapter Seventeen
Join aviation organizations and apply for aviation scholarships. There are many out
there; you just need to do some research.
Find a mentor (or many mentors), attend as many aviation events and conferences
as possible, and be a friend people want to have. Your network of aviation friends and
their support will build itself.
Flying Experience, Licenses, and Ratings
Helicopters
Total flight time: 6,970 hours.
Licenses and ratings: ATP, CFI; Type Ratings: S-70 and S-92.
Models flown: Bell 205, 430, UH-1; Eurocopter AS350; Sikorsky S-70, S-76, S-92,
UH-60.
Airplanes
Total flight time: 56 hours.
Licenses and ratings: Not yet.
Models flown: Cessna 172.
Flight-Test Engineering, Academic Instruction on Flight-Test Training
and Airworthiness Certification
Shawn Coyle, 62, Director of Academics, Transport Canada, delegated Airworthiness
Representative Flight Analyst Helicopters, expert witness on helicopter accidents. Marinvent Corporation, St-Bruno, Quebec (Fig. 17-5).
Figure 17-5
Shawn Coyle.
Employment Opportunities
What are the minimum requirements for this job? Graduation from School of
Flight Testing (i.e., test pilot school), engineering degree.
What was your career path to this job? Flight training in Canadian Air Force, operational tour in support of Army, test pilot school, worked for Transport Canada as engineering test pilot, taught at several test pilot schools.
How many years of experience and flight hours did you have before getting this
job? Thirty-plus years of experience in helicopter flying, 30-plus years of experience in
helicopter flight test and evaluation; three years experience certifying helicopter flight
training devices; 6,500 hours, 50-plus helicopter and fixed-wing types flown.
How did you find or get this job? I was asked to apply for the position.
What do you consider to be the best part of this job? The variety of challenges in
teaching flight test, and the variety of challenges presented by each expert-witness case.
What do you consider to be the worst part of this job? The complexity of the certification process and the lack of basic understanding of this by those outside the profession.
Training
Where did you get your training as a pilot? I had my Private fixed-wing license courtesy of Royal Canadian Air Cadets before I had a driver's license. Military training on
jets and helicopters via Canadian Air Force. Flight test training at Empire Test Pilot
School in Boscombe Down, UK.
If you are dual rated (helicopter and airplane), which rating did you get first? I
learned on fixed-wing first (both private and military), then got helicopter training.
Based on your experience, would you recommend that new pilots obtain an airplane rating before training in helicopters, or should they train in helicopters first?
Learn on fixed-wing aircraft first to get used to aviation environment and get fixedwing Instrument rating.
What is your favorite helicopter and why? It depends on the mission. For general
flying, the Bell 206 JetRanger, due to its simplicity and honesty of response. For throwing
around and having fun, the Aerospatiale Gazelle. For lifting loads, the Boeing Chinook
tops everything.
Career Advice
What would you have done differently or would you change in your career as a helicopter pilot? Perhaps take better care of my health so I could keep flying.
What advice would you give to "budding" helicopter pilots? Fly a variety of
types, and learn the differences in procedures and techniques. Fixed-wing pilots have
to do a lot of changing of the way they fly when they change types of airplanes, and
rotary-wing pilots seem to treat all helicopters the same way. They're not the same.
Flying Experience, Licenses, and Ratings
All my licenses have lapsed, as my medical is no longer valid.
Helicopters
Total flight time: 6,500 hours.
Licenses and ratings: Canada Commercial Rotorcraft, IFR; U.S. ATP Rotorcraft;
British (ATP) and Polish licenses.
Models flown: Bell 47, 206, 222, 407, 427, 429, 430, UH-1N; Boeing CH-46, CH-47
Chinook; Sikorsky S-55, S-61, Black Hawk, Seahawk; Westland Lynx, Scout,
Wessex; Aeorospatiale/Eurocopter AS365 (U.S. Coast Guard version); Gazelle,
Chapter Seventeen
Puma, Super Puma; Kamov KA-32; Mil Mi-2, Mi-26; PZL W-3 Sokol; Ultrasport
331, Baby Belle (now Safari).
Airplanes
Total flight time: [Not provided].
Licenses and ratings: Canada Commercial, SEL, MEL (Multi-Engine Land), TFR;
U.S. Commercial SEL, MEL, IFR.
Models flown: Beechcraft Bonanza, Debonair, King Air; Cessna 150,172; Canadair
Tutor, CF-5; Piper Colt.
Helicopter Sales and Brokering, Primarily in the Private/Executive
Marketplace
Ron Bower, 71, retired, self-employed, part-time consulting, but still active doing ad hoc
flying, primarily Bell 206 JetRangers and LongRangers, part owner Austin Jet (Fig. 17-6).
What are the minimum requirements for this job? Varies. One does not really need
to be a pilot to sell helicopters and airplanes, but it helps. I started flying in 1962 when
I was 20, after being selected for a U.S. Army-sponsored ROTC "preflight" program in
college. I had never been in any type of aircraft (not even on an airliner) prior to my first
lesson in a civilian Cessna 140 taildragger. My qualifications? I had passed the military
20/20 eye exam and a written aptitude test.
What was your career path to this job? At the end of the ROTC preflight program,
I received an FAA Airplane-Single-Engine Private Pilot License at 35 hours. The Army
iiik
Figure 17-6
Ron Bower (standing) with his crew in front of their Bell UH-1 Huey in Vietnam.
Employment Opportunities
agreed to send me to flight school, if I extended my obligation from two to three years.
After graduating from college in 1963,1 served nine months as an Armor (tanks) officer
before getting orders for helicopter flight school.
Upon graduation from Army Officer's Rotary Wing flight training in 1965,1 took a
written FAA test and received my FAA Commercial Rotorcraft/Helicopter license. The
Army then sent me to Korea, to fly Fliller OFI-23 observation helicopters along the stillcontentious de-militarized zone (DMZ) boundary with North Korea. Meanwhile, the
major Vietnam build-up began. I was reassigned to Vietnam, where I flew Bell UF1-1B
"Fluey" gunships in support of ground troops from 1965 to 1966.
Returning from Vietnam, I began graduate school for an MBA, using the G.I. Bill. I
was still obligated to spend three years in the active reserve, so in the fall of 1966,1 began
flying OF[-23s with the Army National Guard.
Though I strongly desired to have a full-time flying job, I opted initially to pursue
flying as an avocation, for family reasons. So, I went to work for IBM, providing technical assistance and sales to large-computer users. I did this for 15 years before I left a good
paying job at age 40 to go into aviation full time. I earned numerous ratings to improve
my skills, flew as a flight instructor (gratis) to build flight time and for 16 years at Austin
Jet, flew extensively as part of my buying and selling role. I also owned a small share of
a Piper Cherokee for 25 years along with two doctors, who owned the rest. I taught them
to fly, then kept them current and safe and managed the airplane. Though I did all the
piloting roles, I never viewed myself as a paid pilot.
What is your favorite helicopter and why? I have come to appreciate certain characteristics of "legacy aircraft," such as the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom, Lockheed
C-130, and Bell UH-1 Fluey, which have stood the test of time. In the commercial helicopter
market, my favorite is the Bell 206 series. I have flown all Bell 206 models: JetRangers
(As to B-3s) and LongRangers (straight Ls to L-4s, which are still in production). When I
got into aircraft sales in 1983,1 decided to sell Bell 206s, because they had the best safety
record, the highest reliability, and proven maintainability and service. And there were
plenty of pilots and mechanics who could fly and maintain them.
Training
Where did you get your training as a pilot? U.S. Army.
If you are dual rated (helicopter and airplane), which rating did you get first?
Airplane.
Based on your experience, would you recommend that new pilots obtain an airplane rating before training in helicopters, or should they train in helicopters first?
Airplane flying is typically considerably less expensive than helicopter flying. Therefore,
building transferrable skills, such as communications, navigation, instrument practice,
can be gained at lower costs.
Career Advice
What advice would you give to "budding" helicopter pilots? I am not sure I would now
consider going into the military, based on current leadership. But, like the old Uncle Sam
poster that read, "Join the Army. Learn a Skill," my time with the Army paid off for me.
Although I benefited greatly from military flight training, in retrospect I realized that
I really learned to fly when I became a civilian flight instructor, because I had to answer
students' questions. "Why does this happen?" they asked, and then I had to be able to
demonstrate the practical effects. Being an instructor helps you learn what you don't
know, broadens you career opportunities, and develops effective communication skills.
Chapter Seventeen
Flight instructing can also expand your contact base. (For Ron Bower's "Words of Wisdom for Aspiring Pilots," see Chap. 24.)
Flying Experience, Licenses, and Ratings
Helicopters
Total flight time: 5,500 hours.
Licenses and ratings: Rotorcraft/Helicopter: ATP, CFI, CFII.
Flight Instructor: CFI, CFII.
Models flown: Numerous, including all Bell 206 models.
Airplanes
Total flight time: 3,500 hours.
Licenses and ratings: Airplane ATP, SEL, MEL; Cessna Citation type rating;
Commercial Airplane SES (Single-Engine Sea); Glider; Ground Instructor—
Advanced, Instrument.
Models flown: Beech Bonanza, King Air (various models); Cessna 140, 150, 172,
182, 310 Citations; Mitsubishi MLJ-2; Piper Cherokee line.
Corporate/Not for Hire (Part 91)
Heidi Udwary, 47, captain, Sikorsky S-76C+ and Citation XLS.
What are the minimum requirements for this job? Commercial Helicopter certificate (ATP required for upgrade), 3,500 hours total time, four-year college degree.
What was your career path to this job? Military pilot (UH-60), airline pilot (CRJ-200),
fractional-shares pilot (Bell 430).
How many years of experience and flight hours did you have before getting this
job? 17 years; 4,500 hours.
How did you find or get this job? Job fairs and networking.
What do you consider to be the best part of this job? Every day is different and I
get to do what I love.
What do you consider to be the worst part of this job? Occasionally, weather
complicates the schedule.
What is your favorite helicopter and why? Sikorsky S-76 C+/-H-, due to reliability
and smooth handling.
Training
Where did you get your training as a pilot? U.S. Army.
If you are dual rated (helicopter and airplane), which rating did you get first? Rated
in helicopters first, then finished the airplane ratings as category and class add-ons.
Based on your experience, would you recommend that new pilots obtain an airplane rating before training in helicopters, or should they train in helicopters first?
Somewhat depends: if military, helicopter first, as it is the more expensive to obtain. If
civilian/self-pay: then airplane first, with helicopter as an add-on category and class.
Career Advice
What would you have done differently or would you change in your career as a helicopter pilot? I would have started earlier. Some corporations "encourage" retirement
by age of 65. This limits the flying opportunities on the backside of a flying career.
Employment Opportunities
What advice would you give to "budding" helicopter pilots? Don't put it off! If
flying is something you want to do, find a way to start. Starting is the hardest part. Then
find flying friends/buddies to keep each other motivated through training and share
costs. They will become friends and contacts for the rest of your life and career.
Flying Experience, Licenses, and Ratings
Helicopters
Total flight time: 5,520 hours.
Licenses and ratings: ATP Rotorcraft-Helicopter.
Models flown: Bell 206B, 206L, 430, UH-60A; Sikorsky S-76C+.
Airplanes
Total flight time: 1,930 hours.
Licenses and ratings: ATP Airplane, MEL.
Models flown: Cessna Citation II, XLS+; Bombardier CRJ-200.
Corporate/Executive Transport
Tom McCormick, 49, chief pilot, flying Eurocopter EC155B1 and Gulfstream G550,
supervisory position overseeing the operations of these aircraft and their associated
administrative, training, and safety requirements, US News & World Report (Fig. 17-7).
i
1
.XiW
Figure 17-7
Tom McCormick flying a Eurocopter EC120 over New York City.
Chapter Seventeen
What are the minimum requirements for this job? ATP, 3,000 hours, bachelor's
degree, 10 years experience operating in the New York City metropolitan area.
What was your career path to this job? Twenty-two years military flying (U.S. Army,
U.S. Coast Guard, British RAF), corporate line pilot NYC for five years.
How many years of experience and flight hours did you have before getting this job?
Twenty-five years and 4,500 hours.
How did you find or get this job? Word of mouth, networking.
What do you consider to be the best part of this job? It's dynamic—no two days
are the same.
What do you consider to be the worst part of this job? Not having a published
schedule can be difficult to work around.
What is your favorite helicopter and why? The venerable Boeing CH-47D. It is fast,
powerful, and remarkably agile.
Training
Where did you get your training as a pilot? U.S. Army, Ft. Rucker, Alabama, combined
with additional coursework with the U.S. Coast Guard, British Royal Air Force, and British
Royal Navy.
If you are dual rated (helicopter and airplane), which rating did you get first?
Helicopter.
Based on your experience, would you recommend that new pilots obtain an airplane rating before training in helicopters, or should they train in helicopters first?
I think it is more cost effective to begin in airplanes.
Career Advice
What would you have done differently or would you change in your career as a helicopter pilot? Nothing.
What advice would you give to "budding" helicopter pilots? First and foremost, pursue excellence in the aircraft. Once you have become a truly accomplished
pilot, expand upon your education to increase your management and interpersonal
skills. Leadership positions aren't just a function of years in service; they require
vision, business acumen, and the ability to communicate effectively with business
decision makers.
My favorite motivational poster says it best: "PRIDE: Take Pride in Your Work."
Quality, craftsmanship, and tradition are the threads that secure excellence.
Flying Experience, Licenses, and Ratings
Helicopters
Total flight time: 5,000 hours.
Licenses and ratings: ATP, CFI/CFII.
Models flown: Aerospatiale Gazelle; Bell 205; Boeing BV-234, Eurocopter AS365N1,
-N2, -N3 EC120B, EC155B1, Gazelle; Hughes 300; Sikorsky Sea King (S-61); HAR3.
Airplanes
Total flight time: 175 hours.
Licenses and ratings: Commercial, Instrument, MEL, SEL.
Models flown: Cessna C-172; Gulfstream G550; Piper PA-30.
Employment Opportunities
Oil and Gas Offshore
Offshore helicopter pilot (name withheld on request), 50, flying Bell 206 series, 212 and
412, for Era and Evergreen, Gulf of Mexico.
How did you find or get these jobs? Networking!
What do you consider to be the best part of these jobs? The offshore business offers
variety and unique challenges, from rapidly changing weather and fuel availability, to
meeting demanding customer requirements. Working closely with crewmembers is critical to accomplishing safe operations. Landing sites include production platforms and
oil rigs, as well as ships performing drilling, construction, and seismic work.
Sometimes you may be asked to ferry an aircraft to another base of operations in the
Gulf of Mexico, across the United States, or internationally. Disaster assistance is also inherent in this business. Hurricanes, explosions, worker injuries, or aircraft and workboat mishaps don't happen often, but they do happen. While these events are not the "best" part of
the job, someday you may be in the right place at the right time to make a difference.
Overall, I have had the pleasure of flying with great aviation professionals, many of
whom provided mentorship and others who have become longtime friends.
What do you consider to be the worst part of these jobs? I don't consider there
being a "worst" part of the job, but there are challenges that may be valuable for those
considering offshore flying. Most days start out the usual way, but often fuel, weather,
and mechanical problems can change plans. One company I worked for did not have as
many fuel platforms or agreements with other companies. Another had numerous
stops and agreements to share fuel.
As for weather and mechanicals, one minute the sky is clear and then suddenly fog
rolls in or a storm cell develops. Or your aircraft breaks on a platform and it is necessary
to stay offshore or at a different base overnight. As an offshore pilot, you'll only forget
to bring an emergency overnight bag once.
What are the minimum requirements for this job? Era helicopters: 3,000 hours total
time (IT) preferred, 2,000 hours TT required; 1,500 hours PIC required, 100 hours offshore preferred; ATP preferred (required for IFR captains).
Evergreen: 2,000 hours TT required, 1,500 hours PIC required. Note that Evergreen is
no longer in the Gulf of Mexico, although the company has international positions that
require offshore experience.
What is your favorite helicopter and why? The more advanced helicopters are
really cool and it's easy to get spoiled by the gee-whiz technology. But, sometimes I
miss the simplicity of a Bell 206.
Training
Where did you get your training as a pilot? At a Part 141 flight training academy.
If you are dual rated (helicopter and airplane), which rating did you get first? Not
applicable.
Based on your experience, would you recommend that new pilots obtain an airplane
rating before training in helicopters, or should they train in helicopters first? It depends
primarily on one's career goals and whether or not future plans may require a dual rating.
More education and training are valuable, however, finances also dictate training decisions.
Career Advice
What would you have done differently or would you change in your career as a helicopter pilot? I wish 1 had been bitten by the helicopter bug sooner in life. If my finances
Chapter Seventeen
had permitted, I would have obtained all of my ratings before getting a full-time flying
position {see advice below).
What advice would you give to "budding" helicopter pilots?
1. It's never too soon to start networking, even before you start training or if you
have only a few hours of flight time. Building a solid base of relationships with
industry professionals early on will result in future job opportunities and
valuable resources for information exchanges, as well as great friendships.
2. If possible, assemble your financing to allow full focus on flight training. Treat
your training as if it were a college degree, and obtain all ratings through CPU
(and ATP, if you meet the requirements). It's much easier to train and get ratings
before you begin a full-time job.
3. More helicopter operators are now requiring college degrees. A degree is also
good for career growth, as well as for contingency planning. A medical
certificate can be lost regardless your age. And with a degree, you'll have a
fallback when you stop flying or decide to retire.
4. Continue to study and use basic flying skills and techniques, regardless of the
advancements in cockpit technology and electronic gadgets. One day you'll be
flying along and that technology will fail, perhaps during a critical phase of
flight. Falling back on nonelectronic knowledge may save your behind.
5. Keep your head in the books, even after you become an experienced pilot.
Flying Experience, Licenses, and Ratings
Helicopters
Total flight time: 3,200 hours.
Licenses and ratings: ATP.
Models flown: AgustaWestland AW139; Bell 206, 212, 412; Robinson R22, R44;
Sikorsky/Schweizer 300.
Airplanes
Total flight time: 19 hours.
Licenses and ratings: None.
Models flown: Cessna 152,182, 206.
Air Medical
Tomas Rozar, 33, captain, medevac pilot for PHI Air Medical, flying Eurocopter EC-135
and Bell 407.
What are the minimum requirements for this job? 2,000 hours total time, 500 hours
turbine, 100 hours night. Commercial Helicopter, Instrument Helicopter.
What was your career path to this job? I flew tours in Atlantic City, New Jersey, and
instructed. Then I worked in the oil and gas division of PHI Inc.
How many years of experience and flight hours did you have before getting this
job? Four years experience and 2,700 hours.
How did you find or get this job? I got hired by PHI for oil and gas by being persistent. I got into EMS by applying for an internal job posting.
Employment Opportunities
What do you consider to be the best part of this job? Helping people in need,
teaching helicopter safety, and the downtime.
What do you consider to be the worst part of this job? Night flying, by far. The
terrain and weather patterns can create very challenging flight conditions.
What is your favorite helicopter and why? Eurocopter EC135. It's stable and fully
automated, and has a great maintenance record.
Training
Where did you get your training as a pilot? Palm Beach Helicopters, Lantana, Florida.
It's a private school. My training cost was $80,000.
If you are dual rated (helicopter and airplane), which rating did you get first? Not
applicable.
Based on your experience, would you recommend that new pilots obtain an airplane rating before training in helicopters, or should they train in helicopters first?
Pick one and stick with it. The flight characteristics are very different.
Career Advice
What would you have done differently or would you change in your career as a helicopter pilot? 1 would have started my career much earlier, at 19 to 20 years old, instead of at 28.
What advice would you give to "budding" helicopter pilots? Don't be a cowboy.
Always be vigilant and stay conservative with the weather. Don't push things, just wait
it out. Do your preflight.
Flying Experience, Licenses, and Ratings
Helicopters
Total flight time: 2,900 hours.
Licenses and ratings: ATP Helicopter, CFI-CFII Helicopter.
Models flown: Bell 206B, 206L3,206L4,407; Eurocopter EC135; Robinson R22, R44;
Sikorsky S-76C++, S-92.
Flight Instruction, Photo Flights, Helicopter Tours, Aerial Advertising
Robert "Bootcamp" Shapiro, 28, chief helicopter pilot, flight instructor, owner, operator,
Bootcamp Helicopters, LLC, flying Robinson R22s and R44s in commercial operations
consisting of photo flights, tours, and aerial advertising; also in charge of directing maintenance, scheduling flights, and keeping the financial books (Fig. 17-8).
What are the minimum requirements for this job? Commercial Pilot license with
helicopter rating, R22 or R44 endorsement (both are encouraged), CFI-Helicopter also
encouraged, only hour requirements are those required to get these ratings/endorsements.
What was your career path to this job? I traveled around the country for several
years, working for four different flight schools and one tour operator. All four flight
schools went out of business, prompting the move. After the fourth one closed, I thought
to myself, "I could do this better." So I acquired a helicopter and started my own business, one of only two helicopter flight schools in Maryland.
How many years of experience and flight hours did you have before getting this
job? Two years.
How did you find or get this job? I created this job myself. I find that the best jobs
in any industry in this country are the ones we create ourselves, whether it is being in
business for oneself or convincing others the need for a new position.
Chapter Seventeen
Figure 17-8 Robert "Bootcamp" Shapiro hovering a Robinson R22 belonging to Steel Piers
Helicopters, a tour operator, in Atlantic City, New Jersey.
What do you consider to be the best part of this job? I have the freedom to schedule flights when I want them. I am also not reliant on this job as a primary means of
income.
What do you consider to be the worst part of this job? Flying in the winter is not
much fun. Sometimes I need to get up before dark and in subfreezing temperatures to
preflight a helicopter and preheat it with a kerosene heater. Because I own the business,
along with flying comes all the other stress, including dealing with large expenses, dissatisfied pilots (and customers), and marketing the business.
What is your favorite helicopter? The Robinson R44. It is easy to fly, inexpensive,
fast, and has good carrying capacity; you can also land it in very tight areas.
Training
Where did you get your training as a pilot? I earned my Private, Instrument, and
Commercial helicopter ratings at Advanced Helicopter Concepts. I earned my Airplane Single-Engine Land (ASEL) Private rating at Fort Meade Flying Activity, my
ASEL Instrument rating at Wings Flight School, and my ASEL Commercial rating at
Brett Aviation. I am currently slotted to go to U.S. Army flight school at Fort Rucker as
a second lieutenant.
If you are dual rated (helicopter and airplane), which rating did you get first?
Helicopter.
Based on your experience, would you recommend that new pilots obtain an airplane rating before training in helicopters, or should they train in helicopters first?
Employment Opportunities
Helicopter first. It is much easier to learn how to fly an airplane after you already have
a helicopter rating than vice versa. The controls of a helicopter are much more sensitive,
so learning them first teaches the finer touch that a helicopter requires.
Career Advice
What would you have done differently or would you change in your career as a helicopter pilot? I would have bought a helicopter before starting my training and done all
my training in it. Then I would have started my own business from the beginning,
rather than traveling around the country, making less than $500 per week, and living on
an air mattress on hangar floors.
Flight Experience, Licenses, and Ratings
Helicopters
Total flight time: 2,128 hours.
Licenses and ratings: Commercial, Instrument, CFI, CF1I, no type ratings, R22
endorsement, R44 endorsement.
Models flown: Bell JetRanger/OH-58; Enstrom; Robinson R22, R44.
Airplanes
Total flight time: 335.
Licenses and ratings: Commercial and Instrument (working on CFI and CFII), no
type ratings.
Models flown: Cessna C152, C172, C182; Piper Cherokee, Archer, Arrow.
Air Tours
Maggie Mutahi Beseda, 36, air tour pilot, flying Eurocopter AS350, Makani Kai Helicopters,
Hawaii (Fig. 17-9).
What are the minimum requirements for this job? Commercial Pilot license,
1,000 hours helicopter, 200 hours turbine helicopter.
What was your career path to this job? My goal was to fly a turbine helicopter.
Some of the companies operating turbine helicopters require a minimum of 1,000 hours
of helicopter flights. The only way for me to get there was to become a flight instructor.
I started instructing straight out of flight school. I returned to my home in Kenya and
started flying AS350 helicopters there.
How many years of experience and flight hours did you have before getting this
job? Six years of experience and 1,400 hours.
How did you find or get this job? I sent a blind application with my resume to all
helicopter companies operating in the Island of Oahu.
What do you consider to be the best part of this job? Flying. That's the best part of
my job.
What do you consider to be the worst part of this job? On bumpy days some passengers get airsick and though they use what we call the "aloha bag," there is nothing
we can do about the smell.
What is your favorite helicopter and why? The AS350, because it is a powerful
well-built machine. Its instrumentation is very intuitive. Some pilots complain about
the landing being very "squirrely," which it is at first. But once you master it, you can
grease it on every time.
Chapter Seventeen
'
>
A
2
A
r;
/
-
Figure 17-9 Maggie Mutahi Beseda in the left seat of a Bell 430, in which she flew as copilot for
a few hours with her mentor, Stacy Sheard.
Training
Where did you get your training as a pilot? I trained in California, Private and
Commercial at Western Helicopters in Rialto and the Twin Air Helicopters for my
Instrument and CFI.
If you are dual rated (helicopter and airplane), which rating did you get first? I
am not dual rated.
Based on your experience, would you recommend that new pilots obtain an airplane rating before training in helicopters, or should they train in helicopters first? I
would recommend that the students take a fixed-wing rating first, even if it's just a Private
license. Apart from the cost savings, most of the lessons are the same in helicopter and
airplane, except aerodynamics.
Career Advice
What would you have done differently or would you change in your career as a helicopter pilot? Nothing. I have had ups and downs, but when you have passion for something, you ride the waves. I have no regrets and continue to learn each day.
Employment Opportunities
What advice would you give to "budding" helicopter pilots? Do your research! I
honestly thought someone would hire me the moment I got my Commercial license
with 200 hours. How will you get from 200 to 1,000 hours?
The romance of flying helicopters may blind you to the fact that just like many jobs,
flying helicopters can sometimes be demanding and tough. Look up the specific helicopter job you want and find out what it takes. Will you be gone from home for weeks on
end on a firefighting contract? Will you be living on an oil platform in the North Sea?
How much does it pay? Go to the helicopter job websites and check out the pay
packages offered, the benefits, and so forth. How many hours do you need for that job?
If you have a student loan, will you be able to make the payments?
I am still paying on my student loan ($75,000), which I obtained in 2005.
Flying Experience, Licenses, and Ratings
Helicopters
Total flight time: 2,000 hours.
Licenses and ratings: Commercial Helicopter, Instrument, and CFI.
Models flown: Bell 206,407; Enstrom 280; Eurocopter AS350; MBB BK117; Robinson
R22, R44.
Charter/Air Tour
Christopher Apadula, 27, helicopter captain, flying AS350, Liberty Helicopters.
What are the minimum requirements for this job? 1,000 hours pilot in command
(PIC), Part 135 pilot requirements and must pass 135 check ride.
What was your career path to this job? Four-year college degree. Part 61 flight
school, CFII.
How many years of experience and flight hours did you have before getting this
job? 1,050 hours as pilot-in-command.
How did you find or get this job? My CFI worked there and got me a referral there.
What do you consider to be the best part of this job? Flying alongside the Manhattan
skyline and the other pilots I get to work with.
What do you consider to be the worst part of this job? The sometime repetitiveness of narrating the same tour 15 to 20 times a day.
What is your favorite helicopter and why? Eurocopter AS350. Plenty of power and
very reliable.
Training
Where did you get your training as a pilot? Part 61 school in Princeton, New Jersey.
If you are dual rated (helicopter and airplane), which rating did you get first? Not
dual rated.
Based on your experience, would you recommend that new pilots obtain an airplane rating before training in helicopters, or should they train in helicopters first?
I would definitely train in helicopters first. Airplane control inputs tend to be more
aggressive and dramatic, where as helicopter control inputs require more finesse. Training in an airplane first would make it harder for your muscle memory to learn to use
smaller gentler inputs with the helicopters. Even the Robinson POH [Pilot's Operating
Handbook] has a safety notice warning about the dangers of being an airplane pilot
training in a Robinson helicopters because of the tendency of airplane pilots being
aggressive with the control inputs.
Chapter Seventeen
Career Advice
What would you have done differently or would you change in your career as a helicopter pilot? I would have started flight training right out of high school.
What advice would you give to "budding" helicopter pilots? Always have a
positive and professional attitude during flight training. Not only will a good attitude
help you get through the tough times of flight training, but the people you are receiving training from or training alongside may be the people helping you are giving you
a job in the future.
Flying Experience, Licenses, and Ratings
Helicopters
Total flight time: 1,700 PIC.
Licenses and ratings: Commercial Helicopter, CPU; 135 Pilot.
Models flown: Eurocopter AS350.
Law Enforcement
Tom Dolan, police officer pilot (retired), flying Bell 206 and 206L3, Nassau County
Police Department, Aviation Bureau, New York (Fig. 17-10).
What was your career path to this job? After flying for New York Helicopter, a Part
135 operation which was sort of a training and time-building position (or as some called
it, "the revolving door"), I resigned from NY Helicopter to enter the police academy
where I doubled my pay in a matter of days. A few days less than a year after I became
an officer, a position for a police officer pilot became available.
'
j*111Biinb^r^'
N47781
Figure 17-10
circa 1985.
Tom Dolan with a New York Airways Sikorsky S-58T at JFK International Airport,
Employment Opportunities
What are the minimum requirements for this job? Two years of college for the
police department, and a Commercial helicopter license for the Aviation Bureau.
How many years of experience and flight hours did you have before getting this
job? It was roughly three years and about 930 hours of flight time.
How did you find or get this job? My future mother-in-law recommended that
I take the police exam. My father introduced to me one of the police helicopter pilots,
who advised me to put my request in for a flight position as soon as I graduated from
the police academy, saying, "You never know if you'll get lucky or not." He was right:
I had six days to go on my probation when I got extremely lucky!
What do you consider to be the best part of this job? The thrill of being able to fly
into areas and situations, which you would not normally encounter in normal flying.
What do you consider to be the worst part of this job? If the helicopter was needed
for a medical transport, we would usually pick up people who were barely clinging on
to life, often with mangled bodies, severed body parts, and so on.
Training
Where did you get your training as a pilot? Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University;
Bell Helicopter Flight School—Transition Course.
If you are dual rated (helicopter and airplane), which rating did you get first?
Airplane.
Based on your experience, would you recommend that new pilots obtain an airplane rating before training in helicopters, or should they train in helicopters first? If
cost is a concern, as it was with me, I would recommend obtaining an airplane rating
first, then get the helicopter add-on. It will also give you more options when job hunting, if that helicopter position you want is not available.
Career Advice
What would you have done differently or would you change in your career as a helicopter pilot? I probably would have continued to expand and achieve additional ratings, while
I was in my position at the police department, to increase my job prospects after retirement.
What advice would you give to "budding" helicopter pilots? Persevere.
Flight Experience, Licenses, and Ratings
Helicopters
Total flight time: 1,555 hours.
Licenses and ratings; Commercial Helicopter, Instrument; type rating Sikorsky S-58T.
Models flown: Sikorsky S-58T, S-76; Bell 206, 206L3; Eurocopter AS355; AS350;
AgustaWestland A109; MBB B105.
Airplanes
Total flight time: 340 hours total; SEE 318 hours, MEL 22 hours.
Licenses and ratings: Commercial Instrument SEL, Private MEL.
Models flown: Cessna 152,172,18; Piper PA32-200, PA28-180, PA44-180.
Military, U.S. Coast Guard, Maritime Law Enforcement, Search and Rescue
Michael Garvey, 35, lieutenant commander, helicopter aircraft commander, U.S. Coast
Guard, flying Eurocopter HH-65B and HH-65C at Air Stations Miami and Kodiak.
Chapter Seventeen
What are the minimum requirements for this job? All Coast Guard pilots are officers, so you must complete an officer-commissioning program (Coast Guard Academy,
Coast Guard Officer Candidate School [OCS]), or direct commissioning from another
military service, if you are already a qualified military helicopter pilot. You then must
complete Naval Flight Training at NAS Pensacola and NAS Whiting.
What was your career path to this job? I applied for and was accepted into an OCS
class directly following college.
How many years of experience and flight hours did you have before getting this
job? I completed one tour (18 months) as a Deck Watch Officer on a Coast Guard cutter,
with patrols to the North Atlantic and Caribbean. Toward the end of that first tour
I submitted a flight training application package to the aviation training board at Coast
Guard Headquarters. Flight training applications require a Commanding Officer's
endorsement, which I received.
How did you find or get this job? A fellow martial arts student, who was a law
school professor at my university, told me about the Coast Guard. His brother was the
Commanding Officer of a cutter in the South Pacific. It sounded cool. I didn't know
much about this particular service. In my research of the Coast Guard I discovered the
HH-65 Dolphin, and just had to fly that aircraft.
What do you consider to be the best part of this job? Knowing that there are folks
walking around today whose lives you had a part in saving. And the camaraderie you
get in military aviation is better than pretty much anywhere else. It's kind of like family.
What do you consider to be the worst part of this job? Deskwork. Endless patrols
where nothing happens and it's either too hot, too cold, or just boring. And the seats are
designed for safety not comfort.
What is your favorite helicopter and why? The HH-65. We saved two guys from
drowning in Hurricane Katrina, one of only two helicopters to fly in it. Plus, it got me
through two winters on the Bering Sea. It's a good plane.
Training
Where did you get your training as a pilot? The Coast Guard pilots train at NAS
Pensacola and NAS Whiting Field with the Navy and Marine Corps. Additionally,
some Air Force students as well as a large contingent of foreign military students
train there. There are a small number of Coast Guard instructor pilots along with
Navy and Marine Corps instructor pilots. Your training partners may be from any of
the three sea services or even a foreign military student. All the training is conducted
in English, obviously.
If you are dual rated (helicopter and airplane), which rating did you get first?
Unlike the Army student pilots at Fort Rucker who train only in helicopters, all students at NAS Pensacola, NAS Whiting Field, and NAS Corpus Christi train first in fixed
wing (T34C, but now the T6B Texan) through solo, and then move into one of the three
advanced "pipelines"; tactical (jets), multiengine (props), or rotary (helos). Once you
complete the advanced curriculum you get your wings. The whole program takes
approximately 15 to 18 months on average, depending on various circumstances.
Based on your experience, would you recommend that new pilots obtain an airplane rating before training in helicopters, or should they train in helicopters first? I
think it's helpful to at least take a lesson or two before entering a military pilot training
program, just to see if you like the feeling of being in a small aircraft and flying. It's
good to know that you may get sick at first and that's okay. As I was going through
Employment Opportunities
flight school, they began to institute a new program that put students through a civilian
flight school before even starting ground school at NAS Pensacola.
Career Advice
What would you have done differently or would you change in your career as a helicopter pilot? I'm pretty lucky to have experienced both Miami and Kodiak. Both locations are unique in the Coast Guard in that you deploy often. You cover more territory.
I chose the HH-65 because it deploys on cutters, which is cool, challenging, and sometimes dangerous. The HH-60 can land on some Coast Guard cutters but does not deploy
on them. It has much more power, endurance, and range, all of which are appealing to
a pilot. The HH-65 requires greater skill and tough to operate though, as the safety
margins are much more narrow; especially in Alaska on the Bering Sea. Also, if you
choose rotary wing in the Coast Guard, it may be difficult, but not impossible, to transition to fixed-wing equipment, such as C-130s. Think carefully about the kind of flying
that will hold your interest long term before you choose rotary or fixed wing.
What advice would you give to "budding" helicopter pilots? Nr = Life. (Nr is
rotor rpm.) Know your emergency procedures cold. Trust what the old guy says,
usually.
Flying Experience, Licenses, and Ratings
Helicopters
Total flight time: 1,500 hours.
Licenses and ratings: ATP Rotorcraft-Helicopter.
Models flown: Eurocopter HH-65B, -65C (Dolphin), Bell TH-57 (JetRanger).
Airplanes
Total flight time: 300 hours.
Licenses and ratings: Commercial SEL and SES, Commercial MEL, Instrument
Airplane.
Models flown: T-34C, PA-44, J-3.
Air Tours and Helicopter Aviation Education
Angie Griffin, 51, pilot consultant. Dragonfly Copters; also, a part-time CEI working
with Skyline Columbus; budding author of books about helicopters for children; creator
and founder of "Science and Math R Fly," a nonprofit educational program (Fig. 17-11).
What are the minimum requirements for this job? 500 hours. Commercial, CEI
rotor rating.
What was your career path to this job? I was working at a university in a bad
neighborhood and every day I would see police helicopters operating nearby. I kept
thinking, "If I don't get out there with those guys, this boring job is going to kill me!"
So, I sold my beach house and got my Private airplane license. I then moved from
Houston, Texas, to Atlanta, Georgia, to get my Private and Commercial helicopter
licenses. After completing my Commercial, I worked for the same company at poverty
wages while searching for a business partner so I could start a company to do air tours
at St. Simons Island, Georgia.
After finding a partner and almost a year later, I opened Dragonfly Copters. Some
three and a half years later, I was flying my Robinson R44 to Orlando when the engine quit.
Chapter Seventeen
i
f
II
Figure 17-11
Angie Griffin in Dragonfly Helicopter's Robinson R44.
I did a good autorotation and landed safely without damage or injury. But then one
mechanical thing after another began to happen. Dragonfly Copters did not have enough
business to support the $25,000 the R44 needed for repairs, so T had to close the doors.
I now hire out as a pilot consultant under the Dragonfly Copters name, doing air tours,
rides at fairs, photo flights, flight instruction, and power-line patrol. After visiting some
schools to talk about exciting applications of math and science, I developed my nonprofit,
"Science and Math R Fly." I am writing a children's book about Ruby the Red Robbie (helicopter). When I operated Dragonfly Copters, I called my R44 "Ruby" and children loved her.
How many years of experience and flight hours did you have before getting this
job? Two years and about 500 hours before opening Dragonfly Copters.
How did you find or get this job? The best jobs I have had in the helicopter industry are jobs I have created myself. I intend to do that some more.
What do you consider to be the best part of this job? I love sharing my love of
helicopter flight with novice fliers and helping others conquer a fear of flying with
gentle helicopter maneuvers. Teaching a new student is great, too.
What do you consider to be the worst part of this job? The lack of consistent
opportunity, the fact that the pay does not equal the pay of airplane pilots (for the most
part), and the huge bite a bad economy took out of a wonderful industry.
Employment Opportunities
What is your favorite helicopter and why? I will always love my Robinson Raven II.
I have the most time in that helicopter. I am comfortable with it and it's about as affordable
as a helicopter can be. However, flying an EC145 was probably one of the best days of my life.
Training
Where did you get your training as a pilot? I got my ASEL from Success Aviation at Houston Southwest Airport and my Private and Commercial rotor from Prestige Helicopters in
Atlanta. I got my CFI from Blue Ridge Helicopters of Lawrenceville and am completing
my rotor Instrument rating there (with the help of a Whirly Girls scholarship in 2012).
If you are dual rated (helicopter and airplane), which rating did you get first?
I earned an airplane SEE first.
Based on your experience, would you recommend that new pilots obtain an airplane
rating before training in helicopters, or should they train in helicopters first? If I had to do it
over again, I would just go straight to helicopters. I thought I would save money doing it with
airplanes first, but I really didn't. I don't enjoy flying airplanes the way I enjoy helicopters.
Career Advice
What would you have done differently or would you change in your career as a helicopter pilot? I would have started earlier, and gotten my CFI earlier. I wish I only spent
my training time in helicopters. I often wonder if I would still be in business in
St. Simons, if I had gotten my CFI and Part 135 approval sooner.
What advice would you give to "budding" helicopter pilots? Listen to the advice
of other pilots and follow your heart 100 percent. Do prepare in all the best ways, with
the Instrument rating and the CFI. Make yourself as marketable as you can. Educate
yourself as much as you can. Never, say never. Just when I think, "OK, I guess I won't
get to fly anymore," a wonderful opportunity comes along. It may not be a straight path
to glory, but if you are persistent, your training and preparation will serve you well.
Flying Experience, Licenses, and Ratings
Helicopters
Total flight time: 1,020 hours.
Licenses and ratings: Private, Commercial, CFI Helicopter (3/4 of the way through
my Instrument rating.
Models flown: Bell 206L; Eurocopter EC145; MBB BO105; Robinson R22, Astro,
R44 Raven I, R44 Raven II; Sikorsky/Schweizer 269B, 300C.
Airplanes
Total flight time: 139 hours.
Licenses and ratings: Airplane SEL.
Models flown: Cessna 172; Piper Cub.
Military Pilot, U.S. Army
James Garvey, 22, second lieutenant, helicopter flight student, U.S. Army, flying
TH-67 Creek (Bell 206-B3).
What are the minimum requirements for this job? Commissioned or Warrant Officer in the U.S. Army. Foreign students from allied nations can get slots as well, but
I have next to no idea about how that process works on their end.
Chapter Seventeen
What was your career path to this job? Four years of Reserve Officers' Training
Corps (ROTC) at the University of Connecticut and branched aviation after commissioning as a second lieutenant.
How many years of experience and flight hours did you have before getting this job? Zero.
How did you find or get this job? I joined the Army with the goal of securing a
flight school slot and did well enough in college (and was lucky enough) that they
decided to take a shot on me. Going into ROTC, there is no guarantee that you will actually secure a flight school slot. Getting in is based on a combination of your college GPA,
your performance in ROTC, and sheer luck of the draw. If you decide you want to be a
commissioned Army Aviation officer, strongly consider whether you want to be in the
Army only if you can fly helicopters or whether you are fine with doing other jobs as
well. If the former, I would not suggest Army ROTC as a career path.
What do you consider to be the best part of this job? I get paid to learn how to fly
helicopters. Also, the Army lets you do full autorotations to the ground in the primary
phase of flight school, which is quite fun.
What do you consider to be the worst part of this job? If you aren't studying every waking moment, you are wrong (as my flight commander is constantly reminding my class).
What is your favorite helicopter and why? Everything that's not a TH-67.
Training
Where did you get your training as a pilot? U.S. Army, Ft. Rucker.
If you are dual rated (helicopter and airplane), which rating did you get first? Not
applicable.
Based on your experience, would you recommend that new pilots obtain an airplane rating before training in helicopters, or should they train in helicopters first?
Based on what I've seen from members of my class, the students who come in with
previous flight experience do have a considerably easier time with understanding basic
flight concepts in the initial phase of training and have a slight advantage in terms of
basic aircraft control, but I wouldn't say that it's absolutely critical. Their primary
advantage is having a background of aviation knowledge to draw from, which any
student can achieve with prior preparation before heading to the flight line.
Career Advice
What would you have done differently or would you change in your career as a helicopter pilot? I haven't come far enough along in my training to have serious career
regrets. I suppose in hindsight, had I learned the basic emergency procedures and limits
of the TH-67 before even getting to flight school, it would have made the primary phase
(first contact) considerably less stressful.
What advice would you give to "budding" helicopter pilots? Learning to hover is
going to feel absolutely impossible for the first 6 to 10 hours. (Unless you're damn
lucky, in which case I salute you.) Don't give up. It will come to you with time and hard
work, like everything else about flying.
Flying Experience, Licenses, and Ratings
Helicopters
Total flight time: 66 hours.
Licenses and ratings: N/ A.
Models flown: Bell TH-67 (206B-3), OH-58.
CHAPTER
Human
Factors and Safety
Another 20 minutes, and I had left the thunderstorm grumbling behind. The Hudson River flowed
beneath my wings, and once more I coidd pose as a leather-clad swashbuckler. Yet subconsciously I had
discovered one of the primary truths of the aviator who might expect longevity. Prudence was necessary,
but as in all things it could be ruinous if overdone. Elan was beneficial as long as it did not involve stupid
sacrifice upon the altar of courage. Now I knew that the most priceless attribute of all was humility:
regardless of training or equipment or time, we are all little men, self-pitted against forces often beyond
human measure. Later, when my logbooks were heavy with hours flown all over the world, the lesson I had
learned that tumultuous afternoon was many times confirmed: those who failed to recognize their true
significance rarely survived.
Ernest K. Gann, "A Hostage to Fortune"
Be suspicious of yourself. We are entering the realm of human factors, that dark
and mysterious field filled with psychobabble words like stimulus-response,
man-machine interface, ergonomics, and other words that make many pilots
wince. Actually, human factors engineers and researchers are trying to make things
easier for us. The difficulty lies in the fact that we are all different.
Accident statistics have proven that 70 to 80 percent of incidents and accidents are
caused by human factors. In recent years, the aviation industry has gone through extensive development. The products delivered from manufacturers have reached a high
technical standard, and materials have become more reliable. Automatic, computercontrolled systems are standard equipment on many aircraft.
In many ways, flying is easier, but along with technical progress, demands on the
pilot have changed in character and in some ways have become more complex.
In the early days of aviation, technical failures were a natural part of a pilot's
working conditions. The pilot had to be constantly alert to anticipate and tackle problems. If you doubt this, then read the works of Ernest Gann, Neville Shute, Antoine de
Saint-Exupery, Charles Lindbergh, and other early pilots.
Today pilots' tasks have become monitoring, registering, and reporting. As technical progress continues, this trend will no doubt continue, too.
It seems that it has become more and more difficult to keep the pilot "in the loop" or
completely aware of what's happening and what's going to happen. Staying ahead of the
aircraft remains just as important as it has always been, but automatic systems have made
it all too easy to become complacent. One reason why human factors have an increasing
influence on incident and accident statistics might be the changing function of the pilot.
Fortunately, acceptance of the importance of human factors is also increasing,
too. Previously, one talked only of "pilot error," and it was a question of finding
faults and mistakes. The tendency was to blame pilots in order to assess guilt and
hand out punishment.
387
Chapter Eighteen
That did not solve the problem. Finding fault only indicates that something has
gone wrong. There is seldom one factor that leads to an accident. Numerous factors are
usually involved.
It is important to find a reason for the occurrence. Why did it happen? Realization
of the causal factors leads to a better understanding of how to introduce preventive
measures. This is the role of human factors information.
A Brief Introduction to Human Factors
Most of the time, people adapt rather well to many of the design deficiencies in their working environments, even though overall working efficiency might be reduced. The purpose
of the applied technology human factors, or ergonomics, is to improve the efficiency of the
system while providing for the well being of the individual. When this objective is achieved,
an increase in both safety and efficiency of the man-machine interface is realized.
The field of human factors is very broad. Some of the areas of study used by human
factors specialists are physiology, psychology, anthropometry, biometrics, chronobiology,
genetics, and statistics. Some of the subjects studied with specific application to aviation
are operating procedures, format of manuals, checklist design, language of information,
symbology, graph and tabulation design, controls, displays, warning systems, safety
equipment, seat design, cabin facilities, temperature, noise, vibration, humidity, pressure,
light, pollution, circadian and biorhythmic cycles, leadership, communications, crew
coordination, personal relations, and discipline.
You'll find whole books, college courses, and even degree programs on human factors. Engineers, researchers, scientists, and professors with PhDs spend their whole
careers on ergonomics. It's obviously impossible to cover the topic completely in one
chapter, so I have decided to concentrate mainly on the man-machine interface problems in aircraft. For the sake of brevity, I divided these human factors problems into two
main groups.
The first group concerns the problems associated with cockpit layout and the cockpit's switches and instruments. Remedying ergonomic problems is relatively straightforward, although not necessarily inexpensive.
The second group concerns problems that originate more with the person than with
the machine. These are the mental things, the so-called "psychological baggage," the
pilot brings into the cockpit. They are not so easily fixed because diagnosing psychological baggage might be extremely difficult.
Ergonomic Problems
One of the most well-known ergonomic problems was "discovered" during World War
II and concerned the control quadrants (Fig. 18-10 of the North American B-25 Mitchell
bomber (Fig. 18-10/ Douglas C-47 Skytrain transport (Fig. 18-lc), and Fairchild C-82
Packet cargo airplanes (Fig. 18-10. Pilots who flew all three of these twin-engine airplanes reported that they accidentally cut the throttle or mixture controls when they
intended to reduce engine rpm with the propeller control. Safety officers looked into
the matter and quickly realized the arrangement of the controls caused the errors. The
typical man-machine interface problem had been found.
If you are already a pilot, you have probably run across numerous ergonomic problems in the airplanes you have flown. Perhaps you have reached down to pull on the
Human Factors and Safety
Placement of the Throttle, Prop, and Mixture Controls
in the B-25, C-47, and C-82
Aircraft
Left
Center
Right
B-25
Throttle
Propeller
Mixture
C-47
Propeller
Throttle
Mixture
C-82
Mixture
Throttle
Propeller
Figure 18-la World War II pilots who flew all three of these twin-engine airplanes reported that
they accidentally cut the throttle or mixture controls when they intended to reduce engine rpm with
the propeller control.
Figure 18-lb
North American B-25 Mitchell.
••
rs.
Figure 18-lc
Douglas C-47 Skytrain.
Figure 18-ld
Fairchild C-82 Packet.
Chapter Eighteen
cabin air and pulled the cabin heat instead. Or you wanted to turn on the navigation
lights, but switched on the strobe light.
Not-yet-pilots have probably experienced similar things in ground vehicles, switching
on the windshield wipers when they meant to flick on the headlights. Pilots might have also
transferred some ergonomic problems from airplanes to cars, and vice versa, as well as from
other areas. And probably everyone has made errors adjusting to different computers,
mobile devices, GPSs, and phones, and even household appliances and gadgets.
Many of these small mistakes can be attributed to a lack of standardization among
the many devices we all use every day. Aircraft have the same problems. Even aircraft
built by the same manufacturer are rarely 100 percent standardized. Fortunately, aircraft manufacturers have become more and more concerned with human factors problems, and the cockpits designed for newer aircraft generally are better than those in the
older ones. Of course, the newer ones also have more sophisticated systems, so there are
many more potential problems, too.
In theory, ergonomic problems can be eliminated by redesigning the system. It might
take much time and money to modify a cockpit, but it can be done. If you often flick the
wrong switch in a cockpit, chances are other pilots are making the same mistake. Let the
manufacturer know there is a problem, and it might be corrected in the next redesign.
To be realistic, however, we are probably going to have to cope with ergonomic
problems for a long time, if not forever. The best way I have found to avoid flicking the
wrong switch is to look at it and confirm that my finger is on the switch I really want to
manipulate before I actually move it. This is sometimes difficult to do at night or in the
clouds. Quickly moving your head might induce vertigo, but moving your head so you
can look directly at the switch is the only sure way to do it right.
Theoretically, it is possible to eliminate all cockpit ergonomic problems. However, it is
probably impossible to design a totally foolproof (i.e., human-proof) cockpit, because the
second group of man-machine interface problems originates with the human in the cockpit.
Psychological Baggage
Every pilot who steps into the cockpit of an aircraft carries a psychological flight bag of
experience, baggage, and conditioned responses to outside stimuli. On the surface, we
might all look like we're stamped from the same mold, but inside we are all very different. We are human. And despite the concerted efforts of instructors to standardize our
behavior in the cockpit, there will always be that element of unconscious psychological
control that might cause us to act in a manner diametrically opposed to what even we
ourselves know is correct.
A personal example: When I first started flying helicopters, every so often while
hovering, I would press the wrong pedal when I wanted to turn one way or the other
(Fig. 18-2). Intuitively, I knew that I should press the right pedal to turn right and the
left pedal turn left, but sometimes a seat-of-the-pants reaction caused me to press the
opposite pedal first, before I could catch myself doing it. "Why?" I asked myself.
Steering a machine with my feet was an unfamiliar action, especially after I had driven
a car for several years before I learned to fly helicopters. But it was also vaguely familiar.
"What are other things I have steered with my feet?" I wondered. Then I remembered.
Have you ever gone sledding? When you sit on a sled, the only way you can steer
it is with your feet. To turn the sled to the left you push your right foot forward; to turn
it to the right you push your left foot forward. Being from Pennsylvania, I did a lot of
sledding when I was a kid. In the stress of learning how to hover, every now and then.
Human Factors and Safety
Figure 18-2 Sometimes while hovering I would press the left tail-rotor pedal forward, which
made the helicopter turn left, when I actually wanted the helicopter to turn to the right, and vice
versa. "Why am I doing this?" I asked myself; Robinson R22. (Source; Hillsboro Aviation)
my unconscious mind would takeover and tell my right leg to push the nose of the
helicopter around to the left, and vice versa.
It was a response that I had learned years before I started flying. Psychologically,
my emotional state when I sledded as a kid was probably not much different from my
emotional state when I was learning how to fly helicopters. Both experiences were
exciting, fun, and a little scary.
Another example: When I first learned to taxi a small plane, I had to concentrate to
remember to turn with the rudder pedals and not the yoke. But even after hundreds of
hours in small airplanes, I have found myself sometimes turning the yoke in the direction I wanted to turn while taxiing, even though my feet are doing the steering.
If you are already a pilot, have you ever caught yourself unconsciously pressing on the
toe breaks of an airplane or helicopter when on final and you noticed your speed was a little
too fast? I have. Somewhere in my brain the automatic response to the cognitive input "too
much speed on final" sent a signal to my feet to press on the toe brakes, as if the aircraft were
rolling too fast on a runway or taxiway. When I bought a 1946 Taylorcraft BC-12D, I was
surprised to learn it had heel brakes, which I had never heard of before. I had to continually
remind myself to use my heels instead of my toes for braking in my T-craft, because my feet
had more than 8,000 flight hours of toe-braking experience.
These are human-factor reactions that most of us overcome with habit and experience during normal operations. But when things start to get stressful, it's hard to know
what your unconscious mind might dredge up.
Compensating for every pilot's psychological baggage and stimulus-response habit
patterns is impossible. That is all the more reason to get the ergonomic problems out of
the cockpit. The only way is to standardize cockpits and procedures as much as possible. Additionally, the alert pilot must be must be constantly on guard for his or her
personal man-machine interface problems.
392
Chapter Eighteen
I am convinced that subtle human-factor issues are involved in most aircraft incidents and accidents. How could they not be involved? The very fact that whenever
something goes wrong the pilots are placed in a stressful situation is reason enough to
suspect that their unconscious minds influence their responses to stress-producing
stimuli.
In fact, both ergonomics and psychological baggage may contribute to the same
incident. Consider the following case.
Hangar Story
A pitch link on the tail rotor of a Eurocopter AS332L Super Puma helicopter
broke while the aircraft was outbound on an offshore flight over the North Sea.
The pilots made it safely to a ship after determining, correctly, that something
was seriously wrong with the tail rotor. No one was hurt, there was minimal
damage to the aircraft, the press reports were more accurate than usual, and
everyone felt the pilots had done a good job. The investigation report concentrated on the pitch link and maintenance procedures, without saying anything
about human factors.
But listen to this. Shortly after unusual vibrations started, the copilot had suggested they should turn off both autopilot lanes, one at a time, to see if the problem
lay there. The captain, who was at the controls, looked down at the autopilot panel,
and to his surprise, saw that both lanes were already disengaged. The copilot
turned the autopilot lanes back on, and they both worked normally. The point is,
although the captain did not consciously remember cutting out the autopilot, he
obviously must have done so, because he was at the controls all the time. (The pitch
link and autopilot are not connected in any way.)
There are two possible reasons why the captain might have done this. The first
reason is pure cockpit ergonomics. The second reason is more psychological.
In the first case, he might have been trying to uncouple the autopilot's altitude
and heading holds while still keeping the autopilot on, but accidentally hit the
wrong button on the cyclic, because the coupler release button and the autopilot
disengage button are both on the cyclic (Fig. 18-3). This is a typical ergonomics
problem and every Super Puma pilot has probably made this error a few times.
The other cause might have been rooted deeply in the captain's unconscious.
This particular pilot had more than 14,000 flight hours in helicopters at the time of
the incident, with 8,000 of these in Sikorsky S-61s. The automatic flight control
system (AFCS) release button on the S-61 is located in the exact same position on
the cyclic as the autopilot release button on the AS332L (a sensible bit of
standardization) (Fig. 18-4). Furthermore, a yaw problem in an S-61 could be a
hydraulic servo hardover, for which the first two emergency actions are (1) to
switch off the AFCS and (2) to switch off the auxiliary servo. This procedure was a
part of the captain's active conscious for more than 8,000 flying hours. So it is possible that, while his conscious mind was telling him he had a yaw problem with his
aircraft, his unconscious mind sent a signal to the ring finger on his right hand.
This could have been the reason he switched off the Super Puma's autopilot, but
had no memory of doing it.
Human Factors and Safety
m
Figure 18-3 The autopilot release switch in the Eurocopter AS332L Super Puma is
the lower left button on the cyclic. The coupler release button (for the autopilot's
altitude and heading holds) is the top, far right button on the cyclic.
Figure 18-4
the cyclic.
The AFCS release switch in the Sikorsky S-61 is the lower left button on
You might wonder how any cockpit engineer could ever design for this
kind of problem. To be fair, an engineer probably could not. Recall that every
pilot enters the cockpit with a vast collection of experiences and subconscious
reactions. That collection puts the whole weight of the matter on the pilot's
shoulders.
Chapter Eighteen
Eliminating Human Factor Errors
Pilots can do something about the psychological baggage they bring into the cockpit.
First, we must recognize that we are human, and we might not act under stress the way
we want to or should. We have to be suspicious of ourselves.
Second, we can determine our subconscious responses to stress. A good session in a
simulator will expose our gut reactions to numerous situations. On normal flights you
can be alert to your subconscious signals. For example, after you fly an unfamiliar
instrument approach to minimums, review the procedure. Did you forget anything,
such as starting the timing at the outer marker or verifying that the landing gear was
down? Ask yourself, "Why did I forget this?" Then make a conscious effort to change
your habit patterns.
Finally, if you discover something in the cockpit that could cause a human-factors
problem, let the manufacturer know. We all can tough it out and make mental notes not
to turn on switch A when we really want to turn
switch B. But know that if something
strange has happened to you in the cockpit, if you've ever been confused about a warning light indication or a switch position, then the same thing has probably happened to
someone else. And it will likely happen to you or someone else again, so take time to
notify the manufacturer.
Three More Common Human Factor Problems
Not all human factors problems stem from the man-machine interface. Some are
rooted solely in the pilot. Overconfidence, complacency, and a gung-ho attitude fall in
this group.
Overconfidence
When I was a young pilot flying Jolly Green Giant HH-3Es in the Air Force, one of
the HC-130 Hercules pilots in our rescue squadron told me his personal credo for
staying out of trouble: "I try not to get too creative in the cockpit," he said. I never
forgot that.
There are ways to get the job done, and there are ways to get the job done. When a
pilot is flying difficult rescue missions in the harsh environment of the North Atlantic,
as we were at that time, it was easy to find ways to cut corners and bend regulations
(Fig. 18-5). The "Air Force Way" was often quite laborious and time-consuming, but it
did get the job done, most of the time. There was essentially no need to get creative in
the cockpit.
The slightest hint of urgency in the mission enticed a lot of Air Force pilots, including myself, to succumb to an attitude of "regulations be damned, let's get the job done."
I had to grudgingly admire the Hercules pilot's more mature attitude. His confidence
level was in perfect balance between too much and too little.
A Trump Air pilot I used to fly with had a simple trick he liked to use to catch mistakes made by himself and his copilot. Several times during a flight, when no urgent
tasks were at hand, he would look thoughtfully at the instruments and switches in front
of us and ask, "What's wrong with this picture?" (Fig. 18-6). Then we would both check
to see if there was a switch that was in the wrong position, or a radio or navaid that
should be tuned to another frequency, or an instrument that was giving an unusual
indication. Sometimes we would find something minor, but most of the time we did
Human Factors and Safety
SH
8840
wm^
Figure 18-5 It's tempting to cut corners when the mission is critical, but it's not healthy to get
too creative in the cockpit: Lockheed Martin HC-130 refueling Sikorsky CH-53E Super Stallions.
(Source: United Technologies Sikorsky Aircraft)
&
&
&
o*
:
r
z
s
-V
*
s
9
*>
*
7
y*
Figure 18-6 "What's wrong with this picture?" When things are quiet in the cockpit, ask yourself
this question and then look around at every switch and gauge to see if you can find something
amiss: Overhead panel of a Bell 430.
Chapter Eighteen
not. Looking was the important thing. We did not do anything more than we should
have been doing already, but this seasoned professional had enough experience to
know that all pilots sometimes need a reminder.
One of the most difficult things about flying is knowing your own limits and the
limits of your aircraft. Strictly speaking, the only way you can really know a limit is by
exceeding it, and then backing off a notch. That is not a wise way to find your limits
unless you happen to be training in the simulator. Of course, the manufacturer has very
kindly given us the aircrafts' limits for a number of things, and you would be indisputably unwise if you exceeded these on purpose.
Some limits, however, are rather vague and left up to the judgment and interpretation of the pilot. How do you know when you reached these limits? You don't know
unless something breaks. The only sensible thing to do is to play it extra safe by staying
well within the flight manual limitations for your aircraft.
Your own ability is even harder to gauge than the capability of the aircraft, because
your ability is constantly changing. As you gain hours and experience, your ability in a
particular aircraft increases. You will climb a new learning curve when you switch to
another aircraft, although you won't be back to square one.
If you lay off flying for a few days, your skill level will deteriorate a bit. Lay off for
a few weeks, and you will really feel rusty. Lay off for a few months, and you will be
embarrassed by how much you have forgotten.
If you fly several hours every day for three weeks in a row, your skill level will be
way up but so will your fatigue level. At some point, fabgue will cause your skill level
to drop. I almost had to fail one of the best pilots I have ever known on his six-month
check ride in the simulator, because he was so fatigued from working extra days that
both his judgment and skill level were way down. He even looked overtired. I passed
him for two reasons, which I made sure he understood. First, I knew from other check
rides that he could have done much better, if he had been rested. Second, he was going
home for an extended time as soon as we were finished. Failing him would have only
delayed the remedy to the problem.
Your own skill level will change during a long flight as your body tires and your
attention level wanes. Physiological factors, such as blood-sugar level, sleep (or lack of
it), and biorhythms, also play a part. When you think about it, it is amazing that any of
us ever flies safely. The only way to stay safe is to put extra limits around your limits
and cushions around your capabilities. Don't fly consistently on the edge of your capabilities; fly inside a more limited regime. That way, when you need another "extra
something" to pull yourself out of a hairy situation, you will have it.
Also remember that legal minimums are just that, minimums. Just because a flight
can be done legally doesn't necessarily mean it can be done safely. Stack the odds in
your favor by carrying more fuel then the regulations require. Make your personal
weather minimums higher than those set by the FARs, particularly when you're going
somewhere for the first time. Remember that airline and commuter pilots have to be
checked out over every single route they fly. That is one reason the airlines have an
overall better safety record than general aviation.
Complacency
As mentioned before, complacency is usually a problem for more experienced pilots.
On the other hand, 1 have seen some very low-time pilots who did quite well in the
Human Factors and Safety
Symptoms of Complacency in the Cockpit
1. The acceptance of lower standards. "It's good enough for
government work."
2. The lack of desire to remain proficient. "I have 3,000 hours.
Why should I practice?"
3. Satisfaction with the status quo. "Don't rock the boat;
everything is fine the way it is."
3. Boredom and inattention. "I've flown this route a thousand
times, why bother turning on the GPS?"
4. Inappropriate feeling of well-being. "The weather is great! I
got a date tonight. What's that song you're whistling?"
5. Overconfidence and a feeling of invulnerability. "Nothing will
happen to me. If it does, I can handle it."
6. Preoccupation. "The autopilot has me established on this
straight-in ILS approach. I've never been here before, so I'll
check out the airport guide to find an FBO, rental car, and
hotel, while waiting to catch the glide slope."
Figure 18-7 What is complacency? It's when you're so laid back that you don't pay attention to
what's happening around you.
complacency department. Perhaps they were trying to look more experienced by emulating the complacent demeanor of a more experienced pilot they admired. Not too
smart.
I had always thought I knew what complacency was until I started searching
articles on the subject in aviation magazines. Apparently, the term remains somewhat ill defined, even though most aviation professionals assume they know what
it means. Nevertheless, my favorite definition is: "a conscious or unconscious relaxation of one's usual standards in making decisions and taking action." In other
words, complacency is when you're so laid back that you don't care what's happening (Fig. 18-7).
Everyone occasionally gets in a mood like this, but in the cockpit it has proven to be
a real killer. One study found that prior to a fair number of in-flight mishaps, one or
more members of the crew were heard to be whistling, as recorded by the cockpit voice
recorder. Think about when your spirit moves you to whistle. Unless you are a professional whistler and perform on stage, you probably only whistle when everything is
"just fine" and you feel kind of mellow.
In the Air Force we had an expression for people who had recently received their
orders to be transferred to another assignment and, consequently, had lost most of their
motivation to do a decent job at their present assignment. They were described as
"figmo," an acronym for "forget it, got my orders." It was hard to get figmo people to
do their job well. They were just plain complacent.
Chapter Eighteen
So what are the factors that lead pilots to become complacent or figmo? Ironically
some of the same factors and conditions that are usually associated with safe flying also
lead to complacency.
Ideal weather conditions, for example, tend to make us not bother about checking
the forecasts. A reliable aircraft that never breaks leads us to be slack about inspections.
A familiar routine and a low workload can almost hypnotize us into daydreaming
about other things. Did you ever miss a highway exit while driving because you were
just tootling along listening to music and not really paying attention to where you
were? The same thing can happen in flight.
If you fly with other crewmembers whom you trust, or an experienced nonpilot
passenger who helps out with the flying duties, it's not hard to let down your guard
and relax a little too much. Sometimes the worst possible combination is two very experienced pilots flying together. Each pilot thinks that it is okay to take it easy because the
other one is so experienced.
Combat complacency by first recognizing that you have it, and then by resolving to
purge it from your attitude. Flying is mostly a safe activity, but it does involve certain
risks. The only way to minimize those risks is to stay on top of them. Face reality, and
don't let complacency overcome your good sense that tells you Murphy's Law can
strike at any time.
Gung-Ho Attitude
The military is a great one for promoting the "can do" spirit, and for good reason.
Sometimes the only way to win the battle is on the intestinal fortitude of the troops. In
aviation, however, and especially in civilian flying, it is different.
In aviation, "can do" and "gung ho" must be tempered with a good dose of reality.
Just because you really want to continue a flight this isn't going to make the weather
improve or fuel to materialize in the tanks. Countless accidents have been caused
because pilots "just knew" the visibility would definitely get better ahead or that they
could fly the last five miles to the airport on fumes. With all respect to author Richard
Bach's philosophy, an aircraft is a machine operating on scientific principles, not a soulful being that will go the extra mile for you just because you love it. (One of my favorite
aviation writers. Bach wrote Jonathan Livingston Seagull and many other books about
flight, life, and his personal philosophies of both.)
There's another side to the gung-ho/can-do spirit. For lack of a name, I call it the
"will-do spirit." Psychologists have found, not surprisingly, that many pilots often
exhibit a "serve other people" personality trait. Medevac pilots, corporate pilots, and
search and rescue pilots are particularly susceptible to allowing outside elements affect
their decision making: the sick baby, the important meeting, the sinking boat.
"Get-there-itis" is another common manifestation of an inflated can-do or will-do attitude.
Will-do pilots must continually remind themselves that outside factors have no
relation at all to the factors that the pilot should be basing all decisions upon: weather,
fuel, obstacle clearances, and so on. Weather won't improve miraculously because the
baby is dying. Fuel burn won't be less than normal because it's crucial for the CEO to
get to a meeting. High mountains blocking the direct route to the sea won't part just
because the ship is sinking.
Private pilots can easily find themselves unduly influenced by any number of outside factors: vacation time running out, credit card charges mounting, kids getting sick
in the cabin. Anything that takes one's mind away from the principal task at hand is an
Human Factors and Safety
outside factor. Flying is the crucial task at hand. As important as outside factors might
seem, they must be considered secondary to the factors that have a direct influence
upon the safe conduct of the flight.
Don't let "can-do" and "will do" make you do things you know you shouldn't do.
The Decision Is Yours
Chuck Yeager, retired U.S. Air Force general and the first person to fly faster than the
speed of sound, puts it this way: "If you want to grow old as a pilot, you've got to know
when to push it, and when to back off."
Kenny Rogers, the country-western singer, put it another way, "You got to know
when to hold 'em, know when to fold 'em, know when to walk away and know when
to run." His song "The Gambler" is as much about life as it is about poker, and also
applies to flying.
So be suspicious of yourself. In the final analysis, the only person who can make
you a safe pilot is you. You have to have the desire, knowledge, maturity, and sometimes the courage to be a safe pilot. You have to make the decision yourself. It is completely on your shoulders.
Be Suspicious of Others
Being suspicious of other people does not mean that you should think everyone is out
to get you. Rather, you should be constantly aware that other people can do things and
make mistakes that could adversely affect you. It's probably unintentional. Perhaps it's
a matter of circumstance. Whatever the case, another person's mistake might be the
mistake that causes your accident.
Human factors issues do not apply solely to pilots in cockpits. Stress does not occur
only to the person at the controls. Studies show that air traffic controllers are subject to
more stress than most pilots. Controlling a sector of airspace is like flying an ILS
approach to minimums over and over again for eight hours straight. (Controllers do
take breaks, but it's still a tough job.)
Mechanics are not usually as stressed out as controllers and some pilots. However,
mechanics often toil long hours, sometimes have to rush to get the job done, frequently
work in poor environmental conditions, and might not have the necessary tools. They
make mistakes, too.
If you want a good example of how numerous people outside the cockpit can affect
safety of flight, read Arthur Haley's book Airport. It inspired the "airport" movies and
the subsequent "airplane" comedies. The book is by far better than any of the films. It
should be on the mandatory reading list of all pilots.
Remember that every individual you deal with is subject to the same human weaknesses that you have, and today might just be someone else's "bad hair day." For your
own sake, be respectfully skeptical of how well someone else is doing a job that could
affect your safety.
What does this mean in a practical, nontheoretical sense?
It means doing a good preflight inspection and test flying an aircraft after the
mechanic has done maintenance. (Maybe the mechanic's spouse became sick, which
caused a rush job to get home sooner.)
Chapter Eighteen
It means double-checking the weather with another source. (Maybe the person who
was supposed to update the latest forecast or warning was distracted by severe weather
and didn't do it on time.)
It means being aware of the minimum safe altitude for the area you're flying over.
(Maybe the controller mixed up your aircraft with another aircraft.)
It means looking out for other aircraft, regardless of the weather. (Maybe the other
pilot has his head in the cockpit while he adjusts a radio or navigation aid and is not
looking out for other traffic.)
You get the idea.
CHAPTER
A
Flight to
Remember
Flying is so many parts skill, so many parts planning, so many parts maintenance, and so many
parts luck. The trick is to reduce the luck by increasing the others.
David L. Baker
Every pilot has hangar stories. Some are funny. Some are serious. Some are tragic.
Some are almost tragic. Most are memorable, or they wouldn't be hangar stories.
Some are true, many (perhaps most) have been embellished (some a lot!) and not
a small number are complete fabrications. Many, even some made-up ones, have "lessons
learned" for the storyteller and listeners.
This story is 100 percent true. I can guarantee it because I was on this flight. I was
the pilot.
Flight Data
Date: December 24,1985.
Pilot: Male, age 35, flight instructor, line pilot, offshore oil operations.
License: ATP-Helicopter, Commercial-Airplane.
Pilot-in-command time: 3,091 hours.
Helicopter: Aerospatiale AS332L Super Puma.
Flight plan: Forus Heliport, Stavanger, Norway to Heliport de Paris, France, and
return.
Purpose of flight: Cross-country training.
Preflight
The whole thing started as a half-serious joke.
Since the beginning of December, the pilot and several other instructors of the Norwegian offshore helicopter operator had been involved in training five Japanese
Defense Force (JDF) pilots in the Super Puma. As Christmas approached, the Japanese
pilots and their two interpreters (one a Japanese former aircraft mechanic and the other
a French woman, who often did freelance interpreting for Aerospatiale) found out that
their hotel in Stavanger, Norway, planned to close down for two days over Christmas.
Because they would have to move to another hotel anyway and because each pilot was
to receive 100 hours flight time, someone got the idea to use the opportunity to make a
long cross-country flight.
401
Chapter Nineteen
The JDF pilots had military passports with visas for Norway, France, and the United
Kingdom. They knew they would see much of Norway during their training, and Aberdeen, Scotland (the closest destination in the United Kingdom), didn't seem very exciting, so Paris was suggested. The French interpreter readily endorsed the idea, because
she knew a reasonable hotel in Paris and could arrange to have her family travel up
from southern France so they could be together over Christmas.
A quick look at the charts showed that the flight could be done with one or two
refueling stops, either in Denmark or Holland, or both.
The only thing lacking was an instructor who wouldn't mind leaving home over
Christmas to make the trip. The pilot volunteered, if he could take his family along. Since
there were plenty of seats available in the 18-seat cabin, space didn't pose a problem.
The pilot's wife did. She wasn't particularly fond of flying and only did so when necessary. She had never been in any aircraft flown by her husband, nor had she ever ridden
in a helicopter. Still, the idea of spending Christmas in Paris was enticing. The temptation
proved irresistible and she agreed to go along because their children wanted to go, too.
The chief of training approved the flight (since the JDF was paying by the flight
hour, it didn't matter over what country the training took place) and suggested a
mechanic go along, just in case. One was found who was willing to go, and he brought
his wife, too.
The vice president of operations approved the flight "in principle," a phrase that
would take on a deeper meaning only later. The plan was to fly to Paris on the 24th,
spend the night there, and return on the 25th, because the helicopter was needed for the
normal flight schedule on the 26th.
Never having flown to France before, the pilot knew that preparation was the key
to making a safe journey. He talked to other pilots who had flown on "the Continent"
and they assured him that it was a "piece of cake," much easier than flying offshore,
because the flight would always under the radar control.
Nevertheless, the pilot instructed all the Japanese pilots to work out their own routes
using IFR airways and to check their work against each other. All the pilots were instrument-rated. For his own peace of mind, the pilot did his own flight planning and used
this as his "master copy," against which he compared the JDF pilots' work (Fig. 19-1).
Each JDF pilot would fly one leg of the trip in the right seat (captain's seat of a helicopter), while the pilot would fly the entire trip from the left seat.
The pilot also carefully checked the airport section in Jeppesen and the NOTAMs
available in his company flight office to be sure the airports he planned to use had Jet
A fuel and would be open during Christmas.
The most worrisome part of the journey was the last 10 miles. Paris has a heliport not
far from the center of the city. It only made sense to land there instead of at Orly, Charles
de Gaulle, Le Bourget, or one of the other outlying airports. The chief of training knew
the chief pilot of a French helicopter operator based at Heliport de Paris, also known as
Issy Les Moulineaux Aerodome, and permission was given to refuel the helicopter there
and park it overnight.
However, flying to and finding the heliport could be a problem. Issy Les Moulineaux was strictly a VFR facility, with no navaids indicating its location. The Super Puma
was equipped with a VLF/OMEGA, which the pilot knew could be as accurate as onehalf mile or as inaccurate as five or six miles, not good enough when trying to find a
small heliport in a big city. On the other hand, he had no qualms about relying on the
VLF/OMEGA when en route and out of range of VOR stations.
fl Flight to Remember
A
At
¥
V/
V
*
Figure 19-1 Two Japanese Defense Force pilots, the Japanese interpreter, and Helikopter
Service instructor pilot Svein Odegaard planning a cross-country flight.
From the French helicopter operator the pilot learned that the standard procedure
for getting into Issy Les Moulineaux Heliport in bad weather, was to shoot an ILS
approach to Pontoise airport northwest of Paris, break out below the clouds, fly in a
southerly direction until one found the Seine River, and then follow the river to the
heliport. The pilot was assured that this was a perfectly safe procedure. He had visited
the heliport on the ground once, but had never flown to it; he realized it wasn't going
to be easy to find. But if push came to shove, he reasoned, he could always contact Orly
approach and land there instead.
Two days before the flight the pilot checked the long-range forecast. There was a
low-pressure system over Scotland and a high over Italy. A cold front was moving
northwestward over the North Sea and was expected to leave relatively good flying
conditions in its wake, except for 20- to 25-knot winds from the south. It wasn't the
greatest of forecasts, but ceilings and visibilities would be more or less VMC. The en
route visibility conditions didn't bother the pilot much, because they'd be going IFR
anyway, and after eight years of offshore North Sea flying, IMC didn't bother him at all.
It was the weather in Paris that had to be VMC. The pilot also worried that he'd have to
tell his wife it could be fairly turbulent and she might decide not to go. He really wanted
her to go along.
The pilot checked the weather on the morning of the 23rd and again in the afternoon.
The cold front was passing over Stavanger and it was raining, but it was forecast to clear
by morning. A warm front was moving eastward off the Atlantic toward the continent
and wasn't expected over Paris until later in the afternoon on the 24th. The flight was a
Chapter Nineteen
5
3
I
Figure 19-2
Helikopter Service AS332 Super Puma starting up at Forus Heliport in Norway.
"go," but the pilot couldn't promise his wife a smooth ride all the way. The late evening
forecast was more optimistic, and the pilot's wife decided to go, as long as the forecast
wasn't much worse the next day.
Everything was set for a 0700 departure. With luck, they'd be in Paris by 1500, in
time to do some shopping before the stores closed at 1900 on Christmas Eve.
The pilot and his family arrived at Forus Heliport at 0600, shortly before the Japanese pilots and their translators. He checked the weather again and called customs at
nearby Sola Airport to find out if they had to fly there for clearance before leaving the
country. Perhaps because it was Christmas Eve, the customs officer cleared them to
leave directly from Forus (Fig. 19-2).
The mechanic had already preflighted LNOMD and filled the tanks. With 3,900 pounds
of fuel, a true airspeed of 130 knots, and a fuel oil burn of 1,000 pounds per hour, the pilot
figured they could make it to Gronningen, Holland, a distance of 385 nautical miles, with
as much as a 17-knot head wind. If they ended up with less than a 113-knot groundspeed,
they would have to refuel at Esbjerg, Denmark, and again at Gronningen before continuing to Paris, a distance of 329 nautical miles.
fl Flight to Remember
J
m
11,
i:
Figure 19-3
A Japanese pilot in cockpit with a Norwegian instructor pilot.
Unfortunately, the winds were southwesterly, almost direct head winds, so the pilot
figured they'd have to refuel at Esbjerg, unless they did better on fuel than he expected.
He decided to maintain a closer-than-normal check on the fuel burn.
It took longer than usual to load the passengers and baggage, but the pilot was satisfied when they lifted off at 0718. It was still dark and an overcast hid the clouds. The pilot
felt comfortable flying with the Japanese pilots and the interpreters (Fig. 19-3). He
figured he had planned as best he could, and they were on their way.
The First Leg
They flew the first 44 miles toward Lista, Norway, slightly off the coast at 1,500 feet
altitude. Abeam the Lista NDB (nondirectional beacon), they altered course more to the
south and flew toward Esbjerg. The pilot could have chosen a more direct route from
Stavanger to Gronningen, which would have required they use one of the many oil
platforms in the North Sea for a refueling stop, but he didn't like risking a ditching
so far out to sea with his family on board. The route he chose took them no more than
30 miles from land at any one point.
The sun came up about two hours after takeoff and through breaks in the clouds the
pilots and passengers could see the coast of Denmark toward the east. The wind was
more southerly than forecast, which gave them a direct head wind, and they had been
able to average only 105 knots on this leg. Using the information from the VLF/ OMEGA
and a handheld, E-6B flight computer (a nonelectronic navigation calculator), the pilot
figured they would make nearly 120 knots en route to Gronningen and they could
Chapter Nineteen
safely do it with the fuel remaining. He decided to bypass Esbjerg and turned right
25 degrees toward Holland.
Fifteen minutes later he regretted his decision. Instead of holding at 180 degrees, the
wind seemed to have followed the helicopter in the turn and was still dead on the nose.
Groundspeed fluctuated between 105 and 110 knots. There was still enough fuel, but
they would cut into their 30-minute reserve, and the pilot knew some of that was unusable. Gronningen was reporting CAVOK ("ceiling and visibility okay," the European
equivalent of the American CAVU—"ceiling and visibility unlimited"), so weather
wasn't a problem.
Soon the coast of Holland was in sight, and the specter of running out of fuel over
water was gone. But the remaining 20 miles to Gronningen seemed to take an unusually
long time. At last, the airport appeared. The Japanese pilot in the right seat made the
landing. As they taxied toward the terminal, the "LOW FUEL" warning light came on.
A good-natured Dutch customs and immigration official had no problem with a
Norwegian-registered aircraft and its Japanese, American, French, and Norwegian
crew and passengers. The Shell fuel truck driver, however, was another matter; he
wouldn't accept any of the credit cards the aircraft or the pilot carried. After some discussion, he finally agreed to accept the Japanese/English translator's American Express
card (for almost 2,500 liters of jet fuel).
NOTAM Problems
The pilot's problems had only just begun. In Gronningen's flight-planning room, he
learned that Gronningen Airport, where he planned to refuel on the return flight the
following day (December 25), would be closed that day. This came as a complete surprise to him, because he had checked the airport information in Jeppesen and the
NOTAMs listed in his company operations, and had found nothing about the airport
being closed for Christmas. His mistake was that he had not checked the International
NOTAMs, which apparently his company didn't list because most of its flights were in
Norwegian airspace.
The pilot found a chart and began looking for an alternate return route and checking
it against the international NOTAMs. What he learned was that different European
countries celebrate Christmas at different times. Some countries close down their airports on the 24th (Christmas Eve), some close them down on the 25th (Christmas Day),
some close them down on the 26th (Boxing Day), and some use a combination of the
above. The bottom line was that the earliest they would be able to return to Norway was
on the 26th, using their originally planned route. None of the alternate routes was any
better.
Complicating matters right then was the weather, which was forecast to deteriorate
over Paris sooner than previously forecast. The pilot realized they would have to navigate from Pontoise to Issy Les Moulineaux below the clouds, and he wanted to do this
in daylight. If they were going to continue the trip to Paris, they had to leave very soon.
It was time for a command decision. If they continued to Paris, they were committed
to returning to Norway a day late. The prudent, respectable decision at this point would
have been to scrap the rest of the trip and return home that very day. This would spoil
the exciting adventure for everyone. What the hell, the pilot thought, he would just have
to tell the company he didn't find out he couldn't return on the 25th until after they had
arrived in Paris, and take whatever consequences that caused when he returned.
fl Flight to Remember
sue*
Figure 19-4
Japanese interpreter in the jump seat of the Super Puma.
They took off from Gronningen at 1221, expecting to make the 329-nautical-mile trip
to Heliport de Paris in about three hours (Fig. 19-4). The pilot had filed for FL80 (8,000 feet
pressure altitude) in an attempt to reduce the head-wind effect of the forecast winds. They
received FL50, and the winds weren't too bad; but the temperature was below freezing,
and they were flying in a thin haze. Soon the pilot noticed the torque readings on both
engines increasing and felt the telltale increase in vibrations that indicated the rotor blades
were icing up. His only choice was to descend.
They leveled off at 4,000 feet but were still picking up ice, so continued down to
3,000. The ice melted away, but the wind was up to 40 knots and right on the nose.
As they flew southwestward toward Paris and the approaching warm front, patchy,
scattered clouds appeared below them and quickly gathered into a solid layer. For
the second time that day, the pilot began to worry seriously about fuel.
Calculations showed that they could make it to the heliport and the alternate, Orly,
but would have precious little as a reserve for holding or delays. Each forecast showed
successively lower ceilings in the Paris area, and it just didn't make sense to the pilot to
try to scud run an unknown area as fuel ran out. He would have liked at least another
1,000 pounds to play with and that meant another refueling stop. But where?
He hadn't planned on refueling after Gronningen and was completely unprepared.
The IFR chart showed airports all over the place, but not all of them had Jet A fuel. The
only thing the pilot could do was to find an airport on the chart, and then laboriously
look it up in the airport section of the Jeppesen manual. He wanted to find an airport
close to their route so as to waste as little time as possible, but it had to have the right
fuel and be open. As Christmas Eve progressed, airports closed below them.
Chapter Nineteen
Compounding the problem were the Japanese pilots. They were flying the aircraft
while the pilot did the radio work, changed frequencies, maintained the flight log, kept
an eye on the instruments to be sure nothing went wrong, and now looked for another
airport. Every time a controller gave the crew a new heading or instruction, the pilot had
to repeat the instructions to the interpreter, who sat in a jump seat between the pilots,
and the interpreter repeated the instruction to the Japanese pilot, who usually asked for
confirmation from the interpreter before turning toward the new heading or whatever.
It made crew coordination very cumbersome and often caused errors (Fig. 19-4). The
pilot found he had to cross-check repeatedly to make sure what he said actually got
done. After a frantic half hour, the pilot found an airport close to their route that, according to Jeppesen, was open and had the fuel they needed. The French ATC controller
confirmed that fuel was available there, gave the crew a revised clearance, and eventually cleared them for an ILS approach to Lille, France (Fig. 19-5).
The Super Puma broke out some 300 feet above minimums. The tower instructed
them to land on an intersecting runway closer to the general aviation terminal. From
the airport diagram the pilot knew the other runway was to the right, but he couldn't
see it. Figuring his Japanese counterpart couldn't see it either and may not have understood the instructions as well, the pilot took the controls and flew in, what he hoped,
was the right direction.
They soon saw the runway and a helipad right next to the runway threshold, so the
pilot gave the controls back to the Japanese pilot so he could make the landing on the
pad. For what ever reason, the JDF pilot landed on the runway past the pad. As they
turned around to taxi back toward the pad, the tower asked them to clear the runway,
because another aircraft was on final. The pilot looked up to see a Dassault Falcon business jet fast approaching them, wheels down. The Japanese pilot didn't react, so the
pilot quickly took the controls again and hovered off the runway toward the general
aviation terminal.
The terminal was a disappointment to the pilot and passengers alike. It was after
1400 and everyone was hungry; but there were no facilities except for one toilet, a cigarette machine, and some hard chairs. To make matters worse, they had to obtain customs
clearance to enter France, and the customs officials were at the main terminal.
Again there was a problem paying for the fuel. The ELF fuel truck driver would
only take an ELF credit card, so the Japanese interpreter couldn't use his American
Express card again. Fortunately, the driver agreed to accept a personal check from
the French interpreter, and she had enough in her French bank account to pay for
1,000 liters of Jet A.
It seemed like forever before the customs official arrived, and as always he had
forms to fill out. Fortunately, the pilot had the forethought to make several copies of his
passenger manifest before leaving Norway, and this saved some time. The ICAO flight
plan was also in French but followed a standard format. Calling it in took longer than
normal because the pilot didn't speak French and had to use the French interpreter. The
meteorologist told them ceilings at the Paris airports were getting lower with each
weather report (the heliport itself didn't report weather); the warm front had obviously
reached the area.
At last they took off at 1705 for the final leg of the flight (Fig. 19-6). The pilot expected
the flight to take about 1:15 hours, and with luck the ladies might still get some shopping
in before the stores closed at 1900.
fl Flight to Remember
JEPPESEIM
-ATis 119.32
LiHa Approach (R) 127.9
HUE Tower 118.35
Giound 121.6
All Set; hPa
Rwy Elev:5hPa
3 FEB89 01-2)
LILLE, FRANCE
LESQUIN
VHf/Df
2200"
Trans level: By ATC
Trans ah: 4000Y3869-;
.<1^/
\c^
VORILS Rwy 26
loc
2000'
MSA
If O VO«
110.1
LL
Ap». £lev 157'
PROCEDURE AUTHORIZED
AT ATC DISCRETION ONLY
E«R) 25
50-<0
us
261° 1 lOTlLLj
558'
Hazard
453'
279°
804
Oppo
JPJ""
784
OAF)
'Vi
uc
HUE
1
|<t>109.61EQ
V
->j—ULlt ,
| 332 U
I—1
/
\
-50-30
A568'
02-50
■
03410
0310
1 .
03^20
Start
L
VOR
9Ai 081^/7
2000'
080
(I869-J
(1869-)
after LOM
MM
GS1400(
10
OCA<H) RWY 26
GS32Tf~96)
IIS A.- 27V (UT)
1400'
B: 288'f I57'J
(1269") intercept
C: 3007162-;
G5
0: 3J47J83*;
TCH dispf
ihreih 52'
GSout 5557424';
RWY 26131'
1.9
APT, 157'
0 '
0-5
3.8
TO DISPLACED THRESHOLD
MISSED APPROACH: Climb STRAIGHT AHEAD To 2000' (1869'), then turn LEFT {MAX IAS
220 KT) and continue climb to 3000" {2869'J to LL Lctr, or as directed.
Do not turn before pa»ir»9 MAP. Climb to 2000(1869';prior to level acceleralipn
CWCLE-TO-IANO
STRAIGHT IN LANDING RWY 26
LOC (GS out)
D
AUtMOC I ZED OPERATORS IIS
DM") 33 1 '(200')
udmh) 5707439-;
o*inj33l'(20<r)
ALS out
TDZcrCLoul ALSoot
FULL IDZ or CL out FU
tv«
800m
6607529vis
«v»720mi
«v»
ws 600m
1000m
660'(529';
550m n •v«720m.1 ;vi
•v« 1500m
VIS *■ v« 800m sa
1200m
vis
7600m
800m
1150m
8707739-; *Zom
800m
710-•600m H »»» 720m _
(rv»
1500m
n
1200'
900m
v800m vis 800m
T706y; 3600m
VIS 7600m
Kit
H'M mi'M ■ r:-i ifr-i mi ■ rT-i ♦Prance aoth
ETTM B ♦ 500m (RVRAOOm). O ♦ 550m. 8 ♦650m.
ttS GS
3.00° fwa prra FSH
ftOCO«r«m(wifael5.2%| 3691 4741 527 1 632 1 738 ! 843 IP ♦ CAT A 550m. CAT 8 650m,O+1500m.
CHANGES- ATIS acMed
Z JEPPESEN SANDEPSON. INC.. 1986. 5389,
ALL BIGHTS RESERVED
Figure 19-5
3rd ed.)
VOR ILS approach at Lille, France. (Source: From page 167, of Cross-Country Flying,
Chapter Nineteen
\
ft
mn
7vr
\
.
.
i
&
Figure 19-6
Taxiing for takeoff.
They climbed to 3,000 feet again, and broke through the solid overcast at 2,500 feet.
The sun was setting with brilliant hues of orange, pink, and purple, but the pilot had
little time to enjoy it. He had been up since 0530, after a restless night and less than six
hours sleep. He had already flown more than six hours on what was turning out to be
one of the most stressful flights of his flying career. Having his family in the back only
raised the stakes. And now daylight was fading.
Language Problems
The pilot had decided before leaving Norway to use the French interpreter on the leg into
France. She proved invaluable in helping the pilot (who spoke no French) understand the
French controllers, as well as doing her primary job of translating English to Japanese.
The pilot kept telling the controllers they were going to "Moulinex Heliport" instead of
"Moulineaux," which amused the interpreter. Moulinex makes food processors.
During the last legs of the flight, the pilot realized his JDF copilots/students had a
basic misunderstanding of the instruction "track to such-and-such a beacon or VOR,"
or perhaps the instruction was not being translated properly. Whatever the case the
result was the same: the JDF pilots would home toward the navaid instead of tracking
toward it. No amount of correction or explanation seemed to work, and the pilot's only
recourse was to maintain a constant check of the nav instruments.
The French controllers directed LNOMD toward Pontoise Airport. The pilot had
studied the Pontoise ILS 05 approach plate before the flight, and he studied it again
A Flight to Remember
while he set up the radios and instruments (Fig. 19-7). Then he briefed the JDF pilot as
best he could through the interpreter. They received radar vectors from approach control, which complicated matters, because the French interpreter sometimes had to clarify to the pilot what the controller had said and then relay the instruction to the JDF
pilot who was flying. Before the pilot expected it, the controller cleared them for a
straight-in approach.
The pilot looked at the CDI (course deviation indicator), confirming they were on
an intercept angle to the localizer and above the glide slope. Fie had tuned the VOR
located on the airport to the number one receiver, and the ITS to number two. An Outer
Marker identified the final approach fix. As they passed the Outer Marker, they still had
not intercepted the localizer.
The pilot knew they were close to the Outer Marker because of the VOR pointer;
he knew the ceiling was reported at 600 feet agl (decision height was 545 feet msl, 220
feet agl) and the visibility was six kilometers; he knew that they were close to the airport; he knew if they didn't descend soon they'd never catch the glide slope and may
have to go missed approach; and he knew it was getting darker by the minute. He
decided to do something he normally never would have accepted. He told the JDF
pilot to start descend.
When the JDF pilot didn't respond quickly enough the pilot pushed the collective down for him. They passed the Outer Marker above glide-slope intercept altitude and on an intercept to the localizer. The light faded as they descended further
into the overcast. Finally, the CDI started to move toward the center, but the glide
slope never appeared. They turned to the final approach course of 048 degrees and
descended through 1,100 feet, 1,000 feet, and 900 feet msl, still apparently well
above the glide slope. At 850 feet, the clouds began to thin out and lights were visible on the surface. At 800 feet, the pilot could make out ground features. He had
the JDF pilot level out at 750 feet msl, while he looked for Pontoise Airport (elevation
325 feet msl) and the Seine River.
Southwest of Pontoise Airport is another small airport, and to the south of Pontoise
is a heliport. Both are marked on the approach chart, and both are to the right of the
localizer course. Flying at 100 knots, the helicopter passed over a small dimly lit area
that the pilot figured was the small airport. That satisfied him that they were on the
right track, and they continued on a course of 048 degrees, looking for the approach
lights of Pontoise Airport. The pilot could only assume that they had descended above
the normal glide slope the whole time and had luckily broken out of the clouds.
Where the H- Is Pontoise?
After one minute, the pilot became worried. Where were the approach lights? He
should have seen them by now. Less than 30 seconds later, he was really worried. Something was definitely wrong. The only things he could see in front of them were farms
and small villages.
He checked his navigation instruments. The VOR needle pointed ominously to the
tail of the aircraft, meaning they had passed the VOR at Pontoise. The VLF/OMEGA
indicated they were northeast of the field. The pilot wasn't sure how they had managed
to miss the airport, but he knew it was behind them. He took the controls, did a
180-degree turn to get them headed toward the VOR again, and gave control back to the
JDF pilot.
411
Chapter Nineteen
JEPPESEIM
3NOV89 Q l-l)
.ai.s 124.12
VHf/Of
♦PONIOlSt AppfOKh 118.8
•PONTCMSETo~e> 1 18.8 119.7
Crovnd 121.2
Tr.ni l^rel: By ATC
All Set hPa
Tr.ot .It: 4000 , 3675J
PONTOISE, FRANCE
CORMEILLES-EN-VEXIN
3000
IIS Rwy 05
toe *108.1 CVN
2800
/ MSA
PON VOft
C3OTV
925LF(R)-120 836
Apt. Eicv 325'
lf(R)-120 631
«S-II
MHA 1800
max 3000 \
MA* IAS 150X1/
LF(R)-120 838
r
- 1728' ✓
>J
✓ lF(R)-120 A26
^ yf tF(R)-120 B26
O&
OS
e^v
— PONTOISE —|
MM
111.6 PON
IF(R)-120 A33
LF(R) 120B33 co
cn
1332
A
MS
CO^Q8JCVN)om
fb
a.
LF(R)-120
B23
&
768
A
s
273
4! 3.
738
CergyPonloi*e
Mv>eovA
IF(R)-120 A2A
IF(R)-120 B24
784
o
IF{R)-120 B35
IF(R)-120 B20
LF(R)-120 A30
IF(R)-120 B30
902
A
II 40
01 SO
Final approach bated on max 150 KT TAS.
OM
D25.0 Cfit VOR
-2280M.
(1475 (,
-048o^SS16I0'. '285 ) •BY ATC
toe
1610(1285/1
07 03
0? 10
VOR
ooft0—-■
2800'
—-AAO
1(2475)
—-228
1800'
(1475)
MM
OCl RWY 05
05 538(213')
ms
IIS
533 (208)
GS out 611' (286 )
TCH 4 r
3.4
OX
o"
325'
missed approach; Climb on R-055 outbound VOR to 1300' (975'j,then turn LEFT and
return to VOR at 1800' (1475').
STRAIGHT IN LANDING RWY 05
CIRCIE-TO LAND
its
IOC (GS out)
CAT AB; Within 2.7NM.
C:3.2NM FromARP
oxw 545'(220 )
*ioa«)630'(305';
AlS ou'
_FUIL
-AllssL
.Clii VIS.
.UOAI"!n 1200m
11307805-;
540 2000m
»»» 1500m
a 1200m
1200m
«$ 1600m
1250m
1 1 307805';
540 2800m
NOT APPUCABIE
CHANGES See olher sOc
Figure 19-7
3rd ed.)
NOT APPLICABLE
® JEPPTSEN
INC , 1986. 1989
Al 1SANDERSON,
QinuTC occco./cri
ILS approach at Pontioise, France. (Source: From page 170, of Cross-Country Flying,
fl Flight to Remember
Then the pilot noticed his most dangerous mistake. His CDI control switch was set
to the number one receiver instead of the number two navaid. That meant they had
flown the ITS approach using navigation signals from the VOR. He had meant to flick
the switch from the number one navradio to the number two when they were inbound
on the procedure turn, but they had received radar vectors to final and he had forgotten. It was a simple, stupid mistake caused by stress and fatigue. But it was unforgiveable and could have cost them all their lives, and the pilot knew it. He thought about his
family in the back, a newspaper headline about a helicopter crash in France, and an
accident report concluding that the cause had been "pilot error." He felt the need to
apologize to someone for his mistake, but there was no one he could talk to.
Besides, he didn't have time to dwell on past mistakes and their possible consequences. They were approaching Pontoise again, and the pilot still didn't see it. If he
couldn't find an entire airport with navaids how was he ever going to find the Seine
River and Issy Les Moulineaux Heliport?
It was then that serendipity saved the flight.
At the general aviation terminal back in Lille the French interpreter had met a
French businessman who was on his way to Paris for Christmas. He had planned to
take the train from Lille, a trip of several hours, but when he learned that a helicopter
was going that direction, he asked if he could ride along. There were extra seats in the
aircraft, and weight was no problem, so the pilot agreed. It wouldn't make any difference in aircraft weight, and besides, it was Christmas. It wasn't until weeks later that
the pilot realized he should have at least had his new passenger fill out a standard passenger ticket, absolving the company of liability in case of an accident, but he had never
even thought of it at the time.
Shortly after they had made the 180-degree turn, the French businessman squeezed
behind the French interpreter in the cockpit. It turned out he was also a private pilot and
knew Paris well. As the VOR pointer began to fluctuate, he pointed out Pontoise to the pilot.
It was the same airfield they had flown right over before—the one the pilot had mistaken
for the small airport indicated on the approach chart—and it was still unlit, no approach
lights, no runway lights. The French pilot explained later he had seen Pontoise the first time
they flew over it and wondered why they hadn't turned south toward the Seine.
There was no time for discussion. The tower operator at Pontoise didn't seem to
care that LNOMD had passed over the field once without a word and was now passing
over the field again from the opposite direction. There was no other traffic. The French
pilot picked out the Seine and started giving directions.
By now it was definitely dark. The ceiling was solid at 800 feet msl, and the tops of
some apartments on the higher hills along the Seine disappeared into the overcast. The
pilot had a detailed map of the area, he had the VLF/OMEGA programmed to the heliport, and he had plotted bearings from two NDBs to help locate Issy Les Moulineaux;
but it was the French pilot who helped him navigate the most. At least, they didn't have
to worry about fuel.
The pilot soon learned that following the Seine at night at low attitude was more
difficult than he had thought it would be. The river twists and curves and turns back on
itself constantly. Flying a precise track over the river would have meant continuous
banking, which would have made it extremely uncomfortable for the passengers and
was unnecessary, as long as one could determine the general direction of the river. The
pilot was having trouble keeping track of the river, but fortunately the French pilot
seemed to know its general direction.
Chapter Nineteen
About halfway between Pontoise and the heliport, the pilot switched to the heliport
frequency. The heliport didn't have a tower, but in a small terminal building with large
windows overlooking the area sat a young woman who told them the wind was southerly and there was no other traffic. The pilot knew it was just a matter of time before
they found the heliport.
Engine Problems
Then, without warning, the red "ALARM" light on the instrument panel flashed on.
The pilot checked the master warning panel, saw the red "DIFF ENG" light, and knew
immediately they had an engine problem. He checked the Ng and T4 gauges and
determined that the number one engine had decelerated to ground idle. It hadn't quit
completely, but neither was it providing any power to the main transmission. The pilot
couldn't believe his eyes.
He knew the problem was not inherently dangerous because they were in level flight
and the other engine easily took over the load. The landing would require both engines,
however, and fortunately the pilot could use the emergency position of the fuel control
lever to get power from the malfunctioned engine. If the engine failed altogether they
would have a serious problem, because the heliport didn't have a runway and a singleengine running landing requires a runway. A single-engine landing to a helipad is easier
in a Super Puma then most twin-engine helicopters, but the pilot was in no mood to tax
his skills to that degree on this flight unless he had to. He was already stressed enough.
The JDF pilot flying at the time was the one who knew the least English, but the one
the pilot considered to be the best "stick." Two weeks earlier they had flown VFR off the
coast of Norway below a 400-foot ceiling, and the JDF pilot had been completely at ease.
The pilot had no worries about letting the JDF pilot do the flying (with instructions
from the French pilot through the French interpreter).
On the other hand, not two days before in the simulator, the pilot had given this
same JDF pilot the same emergency they were now experiencing, and he had crashed
on landing, which was completely unnecessary. The pilot felt he had no choice but to
handle the emergency himself while he let the JDF pilot fly.
He used the emergency checklist, even though he knew the procedure by heart, having done it so many times in the simulator. After his mistake with the GDI switch, the
pilot wasn't taking any chances. Soon, the engine was delivering flight power again, and
the only thing the pilot had to remember was to pull back the fuel control lever after
landing, but before lowering the collective all the way, to avoid having the rotors overspeed, which could cause considerable damage to themselves and the transmission.
The French pilot was calling out landmarks all the time—there's this, there's that,
there's the Eiffel Tower—but after the engine problem, the pilot was somewhat disoriented and never even saw the famous landmark until the next day. He knew from
studying the map that the heliport was close to the Seine and just south of a highway,
the Peripherique, which roughly describes an oval around the center of Paris. If he
could find the intersection of the Peripherique and the Seine, he felt he could find the
heliport. But just following the Seine was proving hard enough.
The pilot knew they were getting close to Issy Les Moulineaux, but before he really
started worrying about missing it, the woman sitting in the terminal building radioed,
"LNOMD, I have you in sight. You are on a right downwind for the heliport. Wind from
the south at five knots."
fl Flight to Remember
They were right over the Seine at the time, and this observation from the girl in the
heliport didn't make sense to the pilot. They were supposed to be flying in a generally
southerly direction toward the heliport, but she said they were on downwind with a
southerly wind and that meant they were heading north. The pilot checked the compass and it confirmed they really were heading north. For a moment he thought they
might have had a compass failure, but this was very unlikely, and he had to accept the
extent of his own disorientation caused by the serpentine route of the Seine and his loss
of position sense when he took care of the engine. With the lights of downtown Paris
quickly approaching them, the pilot didn't have much choice but to take the woman in
the heliport at her word. They were on downwind for landing, and the heliport was
somewhere out there to their right. From the left seat and looking across the cockpit, the
pilot could not see the heliport and there didn't seem much point in trying to get the
Japanese pilot in the right seat to look for it.
The heavy Christmas Eve traffic made the Peripherique easy to pick out about one
mile distant. On the east side of the river, a large power plant with stacks about 150 feet
high spewed out a cloud of thick whitish smoke, and the helicopter was heading right
for the cloud. The pilot thought the JDF pilot would surely alter his course a few degrees
left to avoid the cloud. After, all, they were VFR under an 800-foot ceiling above one of
the biggest cities in the world, at night, and with their landing spot not yet in sight.
But no, he flew right into it. They were IMC for only a few moments but for the second
time in about five minutes—the pilot couldn't believe this was happening to him. He
took the controls and said very loudly and distinctly, "I HAVE CONTROL." It was the
one English phrase the pilot personally had made sure all the JDF pilots understood.
There was no time for a complete landing checklist and passenger briefing—the
mechanics of having the JDF pilot do a complete "challenge-and-response" checklist
escaped the pilot anyway. He lowered the gear and switched on the "SEAT BELT" and
"NO SMOKING" signs.
The Peripherique appeared below the nose of the aircraft, and the pilot figured that
was good enough for a base leg and turned right 90 degrees. If he had been sitting on
the right side of the cockpit, he might have seen the heliport on base, but from the left
seat he could only guess where it was. He didn't bother to ask the JDF pilot if he saw it.
There just wasn't time to explain the whole thing through the interpreter. The pilot
continued on base for a few seconds and turned onto final.
Compared to everything else lit up in Paris, the heliport looked smaller than a postage stamp. It is actually the site of the first airfield in Paris and had been frequented by
many well-known French aviators. At the age of 19, Igor Sikorsky, father of the modern
helicopter, had met Louis Bleriot and Ferdinand Ferber there. But on this day, Issy Les
Moulineaux Aerodrome was only a shadow of its former glory, not much bigger than a
football field.
But it did have helipad lights. There were eight lights that outlined a square. The
pilot was used to this. All the helipads on the North Sea platforms are outlined in
similar lights. He felt at home as he made his approach.
One Final Hazard
Prudence and having one engine on manual control dictated an approach to a hover
instead of directly to the ground. The pilot stopped over the lights and looked
down, intending to descend straight onto the lighted pad. To his surprise, he saw
Chapter Nineteen
that the lights were mounted on three-foot poles, not the kind of thing you want
land a helicopter on. The helipad, an unlit asphalt area, was behind them. The
lighted square was apparently some sort of visual approach aid to the pad.
Thankful to the gods watching over them that a single-engine approach to a spot
hadn't been necessary (or he would have landed on the poles for sure), the pilot turned
the helicopter 90 degrees, hovered left until they were now over the asphalt, and then
slowly lowered the collective lever until the wheels were on the ground. He let go of the
collective and took hold of the cyclic with his left hand, reached up with his right hand
to the fuel control lever, and brought the malfunctioning engine back to ground idle.
The engine responded as advertised, the rest of the landing was uneventful and the
shutdown was normal.
At 1835 the passengers piled out of the cabin. The pilot opened his door and climbed
to the ground, his legs shaking uncontrollably. His wife, who had been through her own
ordeal, was the last one out. She carried their two-and-a-half-year-old son, their youngest,
who 10 minutes earlier had thrown up on her. She was also tired and hungry, but glad to
have survived her first trip in a helicopter and to be in Paris at last. "Why didn't you tell
us when we were going to land?" she asked the pilot before kissing him on the cheek.
"I didn't have time," he answered softly. "You won't believe all that happened."
It was a long time before he got the courage to tell her everything.
Analysis
What is intriguing about this flight is that for every good thing that happened, something bad occurred; for every bit of good luck the pilot had, a bit of bad made the situation a little worse; and for every right decision the pilot made, a poor decision somehow
nullified it. In the end, the good things and the bad things seemed to just balance out,
or perhaps, the good ended up ahead by one. If just one more bad thing had happened,
one more mistake been made, it's quite likely there would have been an accident.
The pilot thought he had prepared sufficiently for the flight and had checked everything he needed to check. But he should have checked international NOTAMs at an
airport (instead of only at the company heliport) and called ahead to each airport where
he expected to land. Had he done that, he would have learned of the problems with
closing times and fuel availability over the Christmas holidays. The whole trip might
have been scrubbed before takeoff, or perhaps rescheduled to a more appropriate time.
Paying for the fuel was something the pilot had not even considered. He assumed
the fuel credit cards carried in the helicopter would be accepted at any airport, but this
was not the case. It was fortunate the Japanese interpreter had an American Express
card and the French interpreter had enough money in her checking account, but it was
the pilot's responsibility in the first place.
The weather almost got the better of the pilot. Even though he updated the weather
constantly, the front had moved faster than forecast over France and the delay of the
extra fuel stop at Lille resulted in a lower ceiling and visibility over Paris than the pilot
had originally planned for. The pilot was well experienced with IFR and accustomed to
using minimums of 200 feet and one-half mile visibility when flying offshore, so the
800- to 900-foot ceilings that were forecast over Paris didn't seem that difficult to him.
But flying 500 feet agl over a city is a lot different than flying 500 feet over water. The
pilot should have required higher weather minima for himself, especially considering
he was unfamiliar with the route and destination.
fl Flight to Remember
Perhaps the most important factor influencing the entire flight was that the pilot
had a near-fatal case of "get-there-itis." It wasn't that he wanted to get to Paris so much
for himself (he had been there before), but rather that he wanted to get there for his passengers. This intense desire to complete the flight clouded his normally conservative
judgment.
Symptomatic of his "can-do" attitude was the "go" decision he made at Gronningen, despite the fact that he knew he'd have to stay an extra night in Paris, if they
continued. The pilot just couldn't stand the thought of being the "bad guy" by making the decision to return and, instead, took the risk of incurring a reprimand from
the company for returning the aircraft a day later than approved. His willingness to
make such a decision should have set off alarms in his head, alerting him to the fact
that he was allowing outside factors to influence his judgment.
Outside factors, like the primary factors, tend to increase a pilot's stress level. Stress
improves performance to a degree, but past a certain point, everyone starts to make
mistakes when they are stressed. The pilot's most glaring piloting error on this particular flight, failing to check the GDI switch so that they ended up flying the ITS approach
on VOR indications, was the result of a combination of numerous events that had
increased his level of stress. Apprehension, expectation, the desire to find the heliport
before dark, the close turn onto final by ATC, the difficulty in understanding the French
controllers, the constant requirement to double-check the Japanese pilots flying, the
problems with fuel, and the fear of making mistakes with his family on board, all combined to make the forgetting of one switch almost inevitable. If they had crashed, the
human factors specialist on the accident investigation team would have had a field day.
The specialist would have also cited supervisory error as a contributing factor,
arguing that the flight should have never been allowed to go in the first place. It's easy
to think of a cross-country trip mainly in terms of distance and aircraft capability: If the
aircraft has the range, the trip is possible. Theoretically this may be true, but practically
it may not be. In this day and age, much more must also be considered. A trip from
Stavanger to Paris by helicopter would have been difficult enough for two qualified
pilots who had never flown the route or been to the destination before. At least, they
could have shared the workload. The burden of having to do virtually everything alone,
being an instructor, and being unfamiliar with flying internationally was really too
much for one pilot. Having to go through an interpreter to give instructions to the Japanese pilots made it all the more difficult.
To the pilot's credit, he managed to remain calm with an awful lot going against
him. He didn't break even after realizing his error with the switch and still maintained
a professional attitude when dealing with the engine malfunction. The fact that he
didn't land on top of the light posts at the Paris heliport showed that he still had at least
a few wits about him even though, by this point, he was very close to his wits end.
Lessons Learned
Four lessons stand out from this flight.
First, you can never plan too much, especially when you're going to a destination
you haven't been to before. Call ahead to your destination and refueling stops to confirm
that they have what you need and will be open when you get there.
Second, know thyself. Aviation safety experts tell us that 70 to 80 percent of all accidents are caused by human factors. Try to mentally remove yourself from the situation
Chapter Nineteen
and examine it objectively. Are you allowing "outside factors" to cause you to make
decisions you wouldn't ordinarily make?
Third, know your own capabilities. Legal minimums are just that, minimums. Just
because a flight can be done legally doesn't necessarily mean it can be done safely. Stack
the odds in your favor by carrying more fuel than legally required and making your
personal weather minima higher than those set by the regulations, particularly when
you're going somewhere for the first time. Remember that airline and commuter pilots
have to be checked out over every single route they fly. That's one reason the airlines
have an overall better safety record then general aviation.
And finally, what Yogi Berra said about baseball is true about flying, "it ain't over 'til
it's over." Even after the most harrowing of flights, you can't let your guard down for a
second until you have walked away from your parked aircraft and into the terminal
building.
The Return Flight, Almost
Strange as it may seem, the return trip to Norway generated more attention in the company then the trip down.
On Christmas Day, while everyone else toured the "City of Lights," the pilot and
mechanic returned to the heliport to try to find out the problem with the engine. But
when they started it up again, it worked perfectly. Try as they might, they couldn't
duplicate the malfunction. Obviously, there had been a problem before, but unless it
manifested itself again, it was hard for the mechanic to know what to fix or replace.
Both he and the pilot suspected the fault was in the electronic fuel control unit, but as
long as it was working okay on the 25th, they really couldn't justify the expense of
changing it in Paris.
The mechanic shrugged his shoulders and suggested they just fly the thing home
and keep a close watch on the engine. The pilot accepted this because, one, the malfunction was something he knew he could live with and still keep flying (he had already
done it once!) and, two, the mechanic and his wife would be flying with him in the back.
Mechanics sometimes try to snow job pilots, but not when they're going to be riding
along in the same aircraft.
(As it eventually turned out, the identical engine malfunction occurred again about
three weeks later during a flight to an offshore oil platform. The crew brought LNOMD
back to land without a problem. The occurrence of the malfunction twice within one
month was enough to justify changing the fuel control unit.)
The morning of the 26th dawned clear, crisp, and cool. They took off from Heliport
de Paris heading south, passed safely by the smokestacks that had looked so ominous
two days earlier, and then turned northward toward the Pontoise VOR (Fig. 19-8).
There was a scattered layer of white, fluffy cumulus between 3,000 and 4,000 feet
and a 30-knot tailwind at their flight level of 5,000 feet. The air was smooth, ATC cleared
LNOMD as requested, and the required airports were open. The pilot felt good: the
weather was better, they had flown this way before, and he wasn't tired. After a sleepless night on the 24th, when his mind had insisted on replaying the flight to Paris all
night long, the pilot had finally slept well on the 25th. The odds were in their favor
again.
About 30 minutes out of Gronningen, the controller radioed, "LNOMD, do you
know fuel is not available at Gronningen today?"
fl Flight to Remember
Figure 19-8
Looking from the cabin forward to the cockpit.
"Roger," the pilot replied. "We made arrangements with the fuel operator on the
24th and he said he would take care of us today."
"Oscar Mike Delta, that's not the information we have. According to Gronningen
tower, they have no fuel service today."
"Could you check that for us, please? I even put a note in our flight plan to notify
the Shell operator for us."
"Standby, Mike Delta."
While they waited, the pilot thought, "Here we go again!" and began to go through
that Jeppesen airport section to find another place to refuel. With considerably less trouble than the previous flight, he found a Dutch Air Force Base, and ATC confirmed they
had Jet A fuel and would allow them to buy some. The pilot was about to ask for a
revised clearance, when the controller said, "LNOMD, Gronningen confirms that they
will have fuel available for you." One crisis resolved.
Unfortunately, a more serious one was waiting in the wings.
Fifteen minutes out of Gronningen, the "CHIP DET" (chip detector) light illuminated. This warning light is connected to a magnetic plug in the oil sump of the main
gearbox. Its purpose is to detect the presence of metallic particles in the transmission oil,
a possible indication of a gearbox failure. A helicopter can fly without a lot of things, but
an operating gearbox is not one of them, so pilots and mechanics take chip lights seriously.
On the other hand, normal wear of the gears in the transmission often produces
minute slivers of metal. These slivers collect on the magnetic chip over time, and when
there are enough of them, the collection of metallic fuzz can cause the "CHIP DET" light
to illuminate. Since this is considered normal, some helicopters are equipped with a
Chapter Nineteen
"fuzz burner," essentially a switch that sends a shot of electricity to burn the metallic
fuzz off the magnetic plug. If the light stays on after activating the fuzz burner once, the
pilot knows that the particle on the plug is more than just fuzz and there's a good
chance the main gearbox is deteriorating. If the light goes out, the pilot can continue the
flight unless and until the light comes on again.
The pilot hit the "fuzz burner" switch and the light went out. So far so good, he
thought. If the light stayed off, they were all right.
But no. About two minutes from the runway at Gronningen, the light came on
again. They landed and taxied to the terminal.
Despite the seriousness of the indication, the decision was an easy one to make.
Maintenance procedures prescribed that the magnetic plug be checked and cleaned.
The mechanic pulled off the plug and found a chip of indefinite size: it could be either
normal wear or something more serious. The pilot ran up the helicopter to test the
system, and the light remained off.
The passengers boarded, and the helicopter taxied to the runway for takeoff. But
before they got there, the chip light came on again. Again the decision was easy: Taxi
back and shut down. This time the mechanic found a collection of small metallic flakes
on the plug, as well as a few small slivers on the oil-filter screens. The light stayed off
during the second run-up.
The passengers boarded a second time, but LNOMD didn't even make it out of the
parking spot before the chip light came on again. They disembarked and the mechanic
checked the plug and strainers; more chips were found on both. Now the main gearbox
oil had to be completely changed, in accordance with the maintenance procedure.
Fortunately, the mechanic had the forethought to have brought along enough oil to
do the job. He went to work, and about two hours later the helicopter was ready for a
30-minute test flight. The pilot went out with a JDF pilot and translator and hovered
over the taxiway for 30 minutes, much to the delight and interest of the local residents
of Gronningen, who had come to the airport restaurant for their Boxing Day dinner.
The chip light remained off during the test flight, and this bothered both the pilot
and the mechanic. Enough chips had already been found to make them wary of the
gearbox. They had a three-and-one-half-hour flight ahead of them, most of it over
water, and it would be dark soon. Neither treasured the thought of the light coming on
again halfway into the flight. They also had an engine that, although working normally
for them today, had malfunctioned earlier. Things just didn't seem quite right.
As it turned out, the magnetic plug made the decision for them. The mechanic
pulled the plug and found another good-sized chip that had fastened itself in such a
way that it hadn't made the electrical connection that causes the warning light to come
on. When the mechanic nudged the chip just a little, the "CHIP DET" light illuminated.
That was enough for the pilot. He wasn't taking this helicopter anywhere until the main
gearbox was changed. The mechanic agreed.
They had kept their company continually informed of the chip problem from their
first landing at Gronningen that day, so it didn't come as any great surprise to the staff
back home that the transmission had to be changed. Arrangements were made to have
a Sikorsky S-61N flown down the next day with a new transmission, the necessary
tools, and a couple more mechanics.
The crew and passengers of LNOMD spent a second unscheduled night, this time
in Gronningen. By now everyone had run out of clean clothes, but at least the hotel had
a swimming pool and good food.
fl Flight to Remember
CiANDEMBALUME
1
mA\
3* !• ■
UMt '"'XI.1
-i
rT t ^
V
mniiii
^
UILIU - .UU
\ y
HfLlMPrER SERVICE
J
Figure 19-9
1
rt
\
Returning to Forus.
They all returned to Norway on the 27th of December in an S-61N. The Sikorsky
didn't have the range of the Super Puma, so they had to refuel at Esbjerg, Denmark.
The pilot sat in the cabin with his family, the JDF pilots, and the interpreters. He was
disappointed he couldn't complete the flight in his own aircraft but was also relieved
to be out of the hot seat for a while. The Super Puma returned to Forus a few days
later (Fig. 19-9).
Postflight
A week later the vice president of operations called the pilot to his office. "Who authorized the training flight to Paris?" he asked the pilot.
"I thought you did," the pilot answered.
"No, I didn't."
"But you said you approved the trip in principle."
"Yes, I approved it in principle, but only if it could be done without problems.
I didn't approve that particular flight."
"But there was no way we could have predicted the chip warning light or the engine
problem. They could have happened at any time. Even on an offshore flight."
"That's not the point. The point is I didn't approve that particular flight. Understand?"
"No."
"Well, that doesn't matter. Just remember I only approved the flight in principle,
but not that particular flight."
Chapter Nineteen
i
i -•
-J
2i!
Figure 19-10 The five Japanese Defense Force pilots and two of their Helikopter Service
instructors prior to one of their last training flights, all of which took place in Norway following the
eventful cross-county trip to Paris.
"I understand," the pilot answered, but he really didn't. He thought, Well, who did
approve the flight then?
"And one last thing," the vice president of operations continued. "There won't be
any more training flights outside Norway (Fig. 19-10). Not without my specific approval
for each fight."
The pilot nodded, "Okay."
"And I'm not going to approve any more. Understand?"
The pilot nodded again. Now he understood. The vice president of operations was
afraid of getting a black eye for the expenses incurred because the transmission had to
be changed in Gronningen. He must have figured he could distance himself from the
flight by hanging onto his "in principle approval" and making a retroactive policy decision. The logic didn't seem all that great to the pilot, but if the V-P thought it would
work and no one would get into trouble, the pilot wasn't about to complain. The trip
had caused him more-than-enough stress already.
The V-P's plan worked.
A version of this chapter originally appeared in Cross-Country Flying, Third Edition, by R. Randall
Padfield, published in 1991 by TAB Books.
CHAPTER
20
Born-Again Copilots
A superior pilot is one who stays out of trouble by using his superior judgment to avoid situations
which might require the use of his superior skill.
Directorate of Flight Safety
Royal Air Force
If you pursue a career as a helicopter pilot, you will eventually find yourself in the
position of "born-again" copilot. This isn't a religious thing, but part of normal
career progression.
I wrote the following article for Vertiflite, the official publication of the American
Helicopter Society. Hopefully anyone aspiring to become a professional helicopter pilot
will find it useful.
One Step Backward, Two Steps Forward
Moving up a career ladder is standard in any profession. For the professional pilot it can
mean moving from single-engine piston helicopters and airplanes to turbine-powered
aircraft to twin-engine machines and eventually to even bigger multiengine craft. Certificates progress from student to private to commercial to airline transport pilot.
Job progression in a two-pilot cockpit is generally from copilot to captain. This is
often considered the natural order of an aviation career. Much ado is made along each
step of the way: more stripes, more responsibility, more pay.
But moving up is not always a straight-line progression. Sometimes a pilot takes
one step back in order to take two steps forward later. Often a pilot moves from a position with ultimate authority and responsibility to a subordinate position with less
authority and responsibility. In other words, sometimes during his or her aviation
career, the typical pilot becomes a "born-again" copilot.
This captain-to-copilot transition is not as unusual as it might seem at first glance.
Think, for example, of an airline pilot upgrading from the left seat of a Boeing 737 to the
right seat of a Boeing 747 or of a helicopter pilot moving up from right seat of Bell
JetRanger to the left seat of a Bell 214ST (Fig. 20-1). Pilots who change companies often
find themselves in the copilot's seat, at least for a few flight hours anyway. Most companies routinely schedule low-time captains with high-time captains as copilots to give
the low-timers more pilot-in-command time.
Not much thought or discussion or training is given to whatever problems are associated with born-again copilots. It's generally assumed that good captains also make
good copilots. I don't agree.
423
Chapter Twenty
i
Figure 20-1
An experienced Bell 206 pilot might find himself as a copilot in a Bell 214ST.
Passive Copilots
The main problems with born-again copilots are not so much physical as they are psychological. The problems have more to do with a person's perception of the role of
being a copilot rather than his or her ability to fly the aircraft. In my experience, there
are two types of born-again copilots and different problems associated with both types.
The first type of born-again copilots includes those pilots who have recently
changed companies or aircraft and find themselves flying as copilots on a regular basis
for the first time in a long time.
The biggest problem with this copilot is passivity, caused, in part, by a feeling of
inferiority. Few pilots would admit they ever have an inferiority complex, but if they
are at all honest with themselves, I think most pilots will confess to some feelings of
inadequacy when confronted with a new aircraft or operation. (There is, after all, only
one Chuck Yeager.)
We might hide our true feelings behind a facade of well-practiced bravado—we
do have our images to uphold, don't we?—but deep inside there's one, the knowledge that we don't know everything we should know and two, a very strong desire
not to screw up.
So what happens? A company hires an experienced pilot with bags of pilot-incommand time or promotes one of their prize Sikorsky S-76 captains to the left seat of
their Eurocopter AS332 or EC225. He's good and he's already proven himself.
They check him out in the aircraft, perhaps send him off somewhere for expensive
but worthwhile simulator training, schedule an instructor to fly with him for a while,
and then put him on the line. For most practical purposes, this pilot is as ready as he'll
ever be. He can fly the machine, read the charts, handle the radios, outwit the autopilot,
run the checklist, and file the flight plan like the pro that he is.
Born-Again Copilots
If he really is a pro, he knows he's still a step or two behind most of the pilots who
have more time in the aircraft or with the company. He has an inferiority complex with
respect to those pilots who are more experienced in the job he's just begun to do. This is
healthy, in a way, because in some respects he is inferior. But the point is, when the chips
are down, this guy is going to be more prone to acquiesce to the decisions of a captain
whom he perceives as having superior knowledge.
Not the Right Stuff
Unfortunately, I speak from experience. I had more than 1,600 total hours and 1,000 hours
in type when I left the Air Force for my first civilian flying job. I had flown as aircraft commander on some pretty hairy rescue missions in Iceland and Alaska. Offshore flying
would be a piece of cake, I thought.
It wasn't. Wake-ups at 0200, instrument takeoffs from rigs at night in the middle of
snowstorms, and seven to eight hours of continuous shuttle flying with 20 or 30 landings and breaks only for hot refueling were quite a change from the almost leisurely
pace of military flying. During that first year, I flew more than I had averaged in two
years in the Air Force.
I flew as copilot with captains who already had years of offshore experience, captains who really knew what they were doing. I was with one such captain when I realized I was not as good a copilot as I thought I was.
We had just taken off for an early morning flight to an oil field (Fig. 20-2). Shortly
after I had finished reading the after takeoff checklist, the engine oil pressure low light
blinked on. We simultaneously checked the gauges immediately: The number one
engine oil pressure had dropped to just below the redline.
The captain decided to return for landing and instructed me to retard the malfunctioning engine to ground idle. Even though it was good VFR and the runway was 7,000 feet,
he decided to keep the engine with low oil-pressure running at ground idle, just in case it
was needed for a go-around.
7
mvuiii
Figure 20-2 Shortly after takeoff, we noticed that the engine low oil-pressure warning light had
come on: Sikorsky S-61N.
Chapter Twenty
In the back of my mind, I remembered something about the loss of engine oil
pressure and the inevitability of the engine seizing soon after all oil is lost. I thought
I remembered the book procedure for an engine oil low pressure light was to shut
down the engine immediately. Although it did not seem unreasonable to me to
leave the engine at ground idle, I couldn't remember anything in the book about
such a procedure. "Well," I thought, "it's possible I've forgotten the correct procedure or got it mixed up or never knew it well enough in the first place. Besides, this
captain has much more experience than I do, and he's probably right. Who am I to
question him?"
On the other hand, I did recall once seeing an oil-starved engine seize and catch fire
in an Air Force simulator. I really hoped that wasn't going to happen (if it did we still
had the fire bottles). I really thought I should say something. But I just couldn't do it. I
kept my mouth in the shut-off position, even though I was fairly certain that was what
we should have done to the engine.
The engine kept running, temperature normal and steady, pressure steady but
below the redline, during the captain's finely executed landing. We shut the engine
down while taxiing to the hangar. Fortunately for the company, the mechanics, and
ourselves, some oil remained in the engine and no damage was done by our failure not
to shut it down sooner. We got another aircraft for our flight and took off.
On return, we had an appointment with the chief pilot. Fie explained, in no uncertain terms, that the correct procedure in the event of a loss of engine oil pressure is, as I
had thought, to shut down the engine as soon as possible.
I realized that day that I had failed my "captain-to-copilot" transition and I had taken
the wrong approach to being a born-again copilot. I wrote in a notebook: "Be more aggressive. When you know something, or are even fairly sure of something, express it. If the
captain does something wrong, tell him. You must not allow yourself to be caught in an
unsafe or incorrect situation due to the improper action of the captain."
From that day on I became more expressive and assertive about things happening
in the cockpit. For a while, it was difficult to point out mistakes to some captains, even
tactfully. Let's face it, there are some people who just don't like being corrected. But I
did it, and it usually wasn't as hard as I thought it would be.
Now that I do most of my flying from the captain's seat, I try to impress upon my
copilots, especially those with much less experience than myself, than they should not
be afraid to point out anything that I am doing unsafely or incorrectly.
Captain/Copilots
Which brings us to the other type of born-again copilots. These are captains who occasionally find themselves flying as copilots in aircraft that they usually command. The
biggest problem with these "captain/copilots" is not passivity, but apathy.
Because the "heavy mantle of responsibility" has been lifted from their shoulders,
captains who fly as copilots might feel they can now take it easy and let the other captain do the worrying for both of them. As in the case of the passive copilot, the cockpit
is being managed by only half the team.
New captains soon learn there are some senior captains they would rather not have
as their copilot because the young captain often ends up doing both jobs, captain's and
copilot's. Senior captains, I suspect, become so used to being assisted by other crewmembers that they forget how to be good assistants themselves.
Born-Again Copilots
If one adds apathy to the out-of-practice captain/copilot, the situation can really get
interesting. Unlike the passive copilot, the captain/copilot would probably have few
reservations about pointing out irregularities to his cockpit mate. The question is
whether or not he would be alert enough to notice the irregularities in the first place.
With respect to safety, or rather lack of it, it's probably a toss-up between the passive
copilot and the apathetic captain/copilot. I wouldn't put my money on either. The
captain/copilot would possibly have more experience than the passive copilot, but this
wouldn't count for much if he is too laid back to use it. Worse, the captain/copilot
might cause the other captain to relax, too.
On one side of the cockpit, you have the captain thinking, "Since my copilot today
is captain-qualified, I don't have to watch him as closely and I can take it easy"
(Fig. 20-3). On the other side, you have the copilot thinking, "What a relief to not be
flying as pilot in command today. Now I can relax and not worry about making any
decisions." If such a crew isn't an accident waiting for a place to happen, I don't know
what is.
Figure 20-3 With an experienced captain flying as copilot, the pilot in command might lower his
guard and not be as attentive as he would be with an inexperienced copilot.
Chapter Twenty
Being a good copilot, no matter what one's experience level, takes work. Personally,
I've found I require a strong conscious effort to avoid the "he's-got-it" mind-set when I
fly as copilot. It's easy to be an apathetic captain/copilot, but the easy way is not the
right way.
What to Do
What's the solution to the problems of born-again copilots? Half the battle is recognizing the problems. Unfortunately, the captain-to-copilot transition is virtually ignored in
most training programs. How to be a good copilot needs to be reiterated, not just to
"standard" copilots, but to captains as well.
Born-again copilots must remember that being a good copilot means more than simply relieving the captain of purely mechanical tasks. He or she must be more than just an
extra pair of eyes, hands, and feet—the captain needs the copilot's brain, too.
The captain, as pilot in command, still has the responsibility to make the decisions
for the safe conduct of the flight, but the copilot should actively assist in the decisionmaking process. Perhaps more importantly, the copilot must function as a backup to the
captain, keeping tabs on the whole situation, visually checking actions, mentally
reviewing decisions, and verbally questioning anything he does not understand, thinks
is being done improperly, or believes is unsafe.
One thing is certain: Neither the passive nor the apathetic copilot has a place in the
cockpit of any aircraft.
CHAPTER
21
Resources for
Helicopter Pilots
Aviation Associations
All association membership costs are current for 2013.
Airborne Law Enforcement Association (ALEA), www.alea.org. The association's mission is to support, promote, and advance safe and effective use of aircraft by governmental agencies in support of public safety through training, networking, advocacy,
and educational programs. ALEA holds an annual conference and regional events
throughout the year.
Association of Air Medical Services (AAMS), www.aams.org. The association is an
international association which serves providers of air and surface medical transport
systems. The association, a voluntary nonprofit organization, encourages and supports
its members in maintaining a standard of performance reflecting safe operations and
efficient, high-quality patient care. The AAMS annual Air Medical Transport Conference
is a good place for airmed pilots to network. See website for membership information.
Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA), www.eaa.org. This is the association that
holds the annual Airventure Oshkosh every July in Wisconsin, a must-attend event for
aviation enthusiasts. EAA offers numerous services and is one of the largest aviation
associations. Individual memberships cost is $40 per year and includes many benefits.
The Helicopter Association of Canada, www.h-a-c.ca. The association's objectives are to
ensure the financial viability of the Canadian civil helicopter industry; to educate members, civil servants, and the general public about issues important to the industry; to
promote the continued enhancement of flight safety; and to develop expanded utilization of helicopter transport at all levels of Canadian life; and to exchange maintenance
practices and common issues among members. The website provides guidelines and
best practices for heliskiing, mountain flying training techniques, fixed, long-line
Class D; utility flight operations.
Helicopter Association International, www.rotor.com. HAI is the largest association of
helicopter operators and manufacturers in the world. Its mission is provide its members
with services that directly benefit their operations, and to advance the international helicopter community by providing programs that enhance safety, encourage professionalism, and economic viability while promoting the unique contributions vertical flight
offers society. HAI offers full- and part-time pilot and mechanic students a free membership for the first year. After that, a membership costs $35 per year. HAI hosts the annual
Heli-Expo, a great networking event.
429
Chapter Twenty-One
The Helicopter Foundation of International, www.helicopterfoundation.org. Closely
tied with Helicopter Association International, HFI "strives to ensure that the dreams of
future industry professionals are met and expanded" by, among other things, offering
limited scholarships for pilots and maintenance technicians and providing "guidance
and encouragement to all students as they continue on their career path."
National Business Aviation Association (NBAA), www.nbaa.org. The leading business
aviation association in the world. It holds an annual convention in the United States
and is also involved with conventions in Europe (EBACE), Dubai (MEBA), and China
(ABACE). Membership is limited to companies, but individuals may attend any of the
conventions.
North East Regional Helicopter Council, www.erhc.org. The council was formed by
helicopter pilots in the Northeast who wanted to increase the availability of IFR flight
for rotorcraft. It incorporated in 1979 as a nonprofit association to represent their interests in aviation. Individuals may join for $30 a year.
National EMS Pilots Association, www.nemspa.org. Formed in 1984, NEMSPA strives
to be the voice of all EMS pilots. Membership ($45 per year in the U.S.; $55 international) is open to helicopter and fixed-wing pilots who are currently flying for a civil,
public service, or government air medical transport service provider. If you don't meet
these criteria, you can be an affiliate member for $38 per year. Membership services and
benefits are found on the website.
National ENG Pilots Association (NEHA), www.rotor.com. This association for airborne electronic news gathering pilots promotes networking and safety in the industry.
A full membership is free of charge to anyone who works in an ENG operation, including pilots, reporters, videographers, and aviation mechanics and engineers.
USMC Combat Helicopter Association, www.popasmoke.com. An organization of
marine helicopter pilots and aircrew who flew combat missions together in combat.
Vietnam Helicopter Pilots Association, www.vhpa.org. The VHPA is a nonprofit war
veterans' organization. It is dedicated to the helicopter pilots who served in the Vietnam War.
Women in Aviation International (WAI), www.wai.org. The association is dedicated
to the encouragement and advancement of women in all aviation career fields and
interests. Its membership of more than 9,000 includes astronauts, corporate pilots,
maintenance technicians, air traffic controllers, business owners, educators, journalists, flight attendants, high school and university students, air show performers, airport managers and many others. Member benefits are extensive and include a
subscription to Aviation for Women Magazine. A regular membership (U.S.) costs $39
per year ($29 for students).
Broad Aviation Web Sources (Supported by Advertising)
BestAviaiton.net, www.bestaviation.net. An information-sharing platform dedicated to
sharing free information and connecting students with schools, and professionals with
future employers. Its goal is to deliver relevant and up-to-date information about the
aviation industry.
Helicopter Links, www.helicopterlinks.com. Provides literally hundreds of links to
companies, associations, and government entities worldwide in more than 70 categories, from "Air Charter Companies" to "Work Platforms" (such as maintenance stands).
Companies get one free listing, so if a company has not asked to be listed, it's not. Not
Resources for Helicopter Pilots
completely up to date, as I found several sites with outdated information or not working at all.
Just Helicopters, www.justhelicopters.com. In November 2009, Rotorcraft Pro Magazine, Justhelicopters.com, Justhelicopters.TV, and VerticalReference.com merged to
create a media partnership called Rotorcraft Pro Media Network (RPMN). The partnership provides the helicopter industry access to media content that includes print,
e-news, video, audio, Web, and social networking.
Aviation Publications
Aviation International News, www.ainonline.com, has a strong helicopter section, along
with news about business and commercial aviation, which is its main focus. You can
find many of my helicopter pilot reports in the "Resource Center" online. Subscriptions
are free to people in the industry. AIN also publishes and distributes three daily issues
of HAI Convention Neius at Heli-Expo every year. See website for subscription information. (In the spirit of full disclosure, I freelanced for AIN from 1989 to 1993 and have
been employed full time by the company since 1993.)
Aviation Week and Space Technology, www.aviationweek.com. Av Week, a weekly
publication, covers the entire aerospace industry, including the helicopter industry. See
website for subscription information.
Business and Commercial Aviation, www.aviationweek.com/BusinessAviation.aspx.
A monthly publication, BCA's main focus is business and commercial aviation, but it
does cover the helicopter industry as well. Bill Garvey, who wrote the introduction for
this book, is the editor. See website for subscription information.
Flight International, www.flightglobal.com. Like Aviation Week, Flight International,
which is based in the United Kingdom, covers the entire aerospace industry. See website for subscription information.
Heliops, www.heliopsmag.com. Based in New Zealand, Heliops covers the global
civil helicopter industry from offshore in the United Kingdom and Gulf of Mexico to
Seismic work in the Jungles of Indonesia. See website for subscription information.
Professional Pilot, www.propilotmag.com. Pro Pilot focuses on, well, professional pilots
(including helicopter pilots), sort of like People magazine focuses on people, and it always
features a flight department on its cover. See website for subscription information.
Rotor & Wing International, www.aviationtoday.com, covers military and civil helicopter
news. Lee Benson (see Chap. 17) writes a monthly column called "Public Service" for R&WI.
See website for subscription information.
Vertical Magazine, www.verticalmag.com. Based in Canada, Vertical Magazine covers
the civil helicopter industry in North America. It is published six times a year. See website for subscription information.
A Few Books for Helicopter Pilots
All prices are publisher list prices in 2013.
Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3A), Federal Aviation Administration,
Skyhorse Publishing, 2011, 288 pages, 570 color illustrations, $16.95. The official FAA
guide to piloting aircraft, an essential resource for airplane pilots, and a really beautifully done book. You'll need this if you want to get your airplane certificates and it is a
good source for helicopter pilots, too.
Chapter Twenty-One
The Art of the Helicopter, John Watkinson, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 2004,
390 pages, more than 400 black and white diagrams, $116. If you accept that I wrote Learning
to Fly Helicopters on the level of high-school graduates, which is what I tried to do, then this
book is on the level of a serious college student. I suspect it is used as a college textbook. The
back cover says it is invaluable for "pilots, trainees and students," but unless you plan to go
into helicopter engineering and design or flight testing as a pilot or flight engineer, then I
think you'll find this book somewhat too technical until you get a fair amount of flight time
in your logbook. The book's many diagrams are well done and very helpful.
The Art and Science of Flying Helicopters, Shawn Coyle, Iowa State University
Press, 1996, numerous black and white illustrations, $47.95.1 know Shawn and he contributed his career story for this book. If I were teaching an introductory course on flying helicopters, I would (in all modesty) have you read my book first, using the FAA's
Rotorcraft Flying Handbook as an additional reference, then read this book by Shawn
along with Cyclic and Collective and The Little Book of Autorotations, also by Shawn (see
listings below). A highly experienced pilot, test pilot, and instructor, Shawn writes in a
conversationally, yet technically oriented way. I highly recommend this book. Cyclic and
Collective, and The Little Book of Autorotations to you. You will not be disappointed.
Cyclic and Collective, Shawn Coyle, Eagle Eye Solutions, 2009, 536 pages, $47.95.
See listing above. A must-have book as well, and I don't say this because I'm trying to
line Shawn's pockets. This is an excellent book for helicopter pilots and instructors. I
wish I had written it. You will not be disappointed.
Helicopter Maneuvers Manual, A Step-by-Step Illustrated Guide to Performing
All Helicopter Flight Operations, Ryan Dale, ASA (Aviation Supplies & Academics),
2011, 98 pages, $19.95. The purpose of this spiral-bound book is "to help new pilots
visualize each flight maneuver before stepping into the helicopter and provide instructors with a resource to help transfer knowledge to the student." When you open the
book to each maneuver, on the left page is text describing the purpose of the maneuver,
a numbered, step-by-step description of how to do it, common errors, and tips. On the
right page are one or two well-drawn, color diagrams showing the maneuver, with each
numbered step indicated. A really well done book for home, classroom, and flightinstruction use. I highly recommend it for students and flight instructors.
Lift Is Where You Find It...What Helicopter People Do for People, Joe Stein, The
Zig Zag Papers, 1986, 212 page, out of print, various used prices. A neat little book of
firsthand accounts of stories about helicopters doing what they do best, lifting people
and things. It gives you an appreciation for the pioneer work of early helicopter pilots
and crews and what today's crews do today.
The Little Book of Autorotations, Shawn Coyle, Eagle Eye Solutions, 2013, illustrated, 112 pages, $19.95. See The Art and Science of Flying Helicopters above. Shawn sent
me a digital copy of The Little Book of Autorotations, as I was writing this second edition
of LTFH. I was embarrassed by what I did not know. Autorotations is definitely a mustread for anyone planning to become a helicopter flight instructor. It will serve you well,
and maybe save your bacon someday. If you plan to be a private or professional pilot,
read it, too, and then find a CFI who will teach you autorotations the way Shawn
describes how to do it in this book.
Pilot's Encyclopedia of Aeronautical Knowledge, Federal Aviation Administration, Skyhorse Publishing, 2007, hundreds of illustrations, $24.95. "This handbook, created by the FAA, is the official reference manual for pilots at all levels. It deals with all
aspects of aeronautical information: aircraft structure, principles of aerodynamics, flight
controls, aircraft systems, and flight instruments. Flight manuals and documentation
Resources for Helicopter Pilots
are also covered, as is specialized information on such matters as weight and balance,
aircraft performance, weather, navigation, airport operations, aeromedical factors, and
decision making while flying. Filled with hundreds of concise, colorful illustrations,
charts, diagrams, and maps." I could not have said it better myself.
Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25A), Federal Aviation Administration, Skyhorse Publishing, 368 pages, 300 color and 100 black and white
illustrations, $24.95. This is the official FAA reference manual of aeronautical knowledge for pilots of all aircraft and at all levels. It is somewhat redundant with the Pilot's
Encyclopedia of Aeronautical Knowledge, so you can probably get by with one or the other.
Rotorcraft Flying Handbook, Federal Aviation Administration, Skyhorse Publishing, 208 pages, 500 color illustrations, $14.95. An essential book for helicopter pilots
"designed as a technical manual for applicants who are preparing for their private,
commercial, or flight instructor pilot certificates with a helicopter or gyroplane class
rating. Certificated flight instructors may find this handbook a valuable training aid,
since detailed coverage of aerodynamics, flight controls, systems, performance, flight
maneuvers, emergencies, and aeronautical decision making is included."
To Fly Like a Bird, Joe Mashman, as told to R. Randall Padfield, Phillips Publishing, 1992, 194 pages, numerous black and white photos, out of print, various used
prices. Joe Mashman was Bell Helicopter's second helicopter test pilot, who soon
became its chief helicopter pilot after his predecessor died in a crash. His career as
Bell's main demonstration pilot took him all over the world, during which he accomplished many helicopter firsts and flew numerous chiefs of state, including four U.S.
presidents. I considered it an honor just to meet him. Writing his career story, which
closely parallels the development of the helicopter from 1945 to 1990, remains one of
the highlights of my life.
Vertical Flight, The Age of the Helicopter, edited by Walter J. Boyne and Donald S.
Lopez, National Air and Space Museum, 1984, 258 pages. This is a compilation of stories about the history of helicopter technology, some of them as told by the pioneers
themselves. Chock full of photographs. Also includes a "selective" autobiography that
nonetheless "illuminates the history, technology and practical use of helicopters." Out
of print and hard to find, but worth getting, if you can find it.
Flight Training Resources
Aviation Schools Online, www.aviationschoolsonline.com. Select "Helicopter Pilot
Training"
Best Aviation.net, www.bestaviation.net. Select "Helicopter Schools"
FAA's list of flight schools, http://av-info.faa.gov/PilotSchool.asp
Helicopter Links, www.helicopterlinks.com. Select "Helicopter Pilot Flight Training
Schools"
Just Helicopters, www.justhelicopters.com. Select "School Locator"
TSA regulations for non-U.S. citizens, http;/ /www.aopa.org/tsa_rule/
U.S. Air Force, www.airforce.com
U.S. Army, www.goarmy.com,www.army.mil
U.S. Coast Guard Pilot, www.uscg.mil
U.S. Marines, www.marines.com
Chapter Twenty-One
U.S. Merchant Marines Academy, www.usmma.com
U.S. Navy, www.navy.com
Aviation Apps
All prices are current manufacturers' list prices in 2013.
Aero Weather. Free. Get current and precise weather conditions (METAR) as well as
weather forecasts (TAF), which are used by pilots for their flight preparations. You can
choose worldwide airport weather stations from the built-in database by either name,
ICAO code, or based on your current location. Data will be shown in its original format
or fully decoded into easy understandable texts.
AirNav f BO. Free. Provides updated fuel prices at airports and fixed-base operations
(FBOs) around the United States, as well as airport data and airport diagrams showing
where the FBOs are located. User can rate the service you get at FBOs and provide comments, which are saved by date for others to read as well.
Airplane Flying Handbook. Free. FAA publication designed as a technical manual to
introduce basic pilot skills and knowledge that are essential for piloting airplanes.
Airport Map. Free. AirportMap uses the mapping capabilities of the iPhone/iPod Touch
to display the air facilities in the United States. The app uses FAA data to display airports,
heliports, glider fields, ultralight airfields, seaplane bases, and even balloon ports.
FAA Aircraft Weight and Balance Handbook. $2.99. The FAA Handbook in eBook format.
ForeFlight Mobile. ForeFlight Mobile works on both the iPhone and iPad, including
the original iPad, and provides preflight planning, weather briefing, and moving-map
navigation. The basic version with VFR and IFR charts for the entire United States costs
$75 per year, while the pro version includes geo-referenced airport diagrams and instrument approach charts for $150 per year.
Garmin Pilot. The Garmin Pilot app mirrors some of the symbology used on Garmin
avionics, including the G500H, G1000H, or G5000H, and includes all the charts, preflight and inflight features typical of moving-map apps, and Garmin's SafeTaxi airport
diagrams. Annual cost for iPhone, iPad, or Android devices is $50 plus $30 for SafeTaxi
charts and $50 for geo-referenced instrument approach charts.
HeliCalc R44 Raven Calculator. $6.99. Calculates several performance parameters for
the Robinson R44, including weight and balance, center of gravity, fuel endurance, max
fuel and passenger loading, hover in- and out-of-ground effect, max continuous power,
and max takeoff power.
HeliCheck R44 Raven Checklist. $0.99. No-frills checklist for R44 with three lists for
preflight, starting, and shutdown. Includes an integrated flashlight function for inspecting dark places.
Hilton Software WingX Pro. WingX pioneered the display of synthetic vision on the
iPad, interfaces with an external AHRS and includes a pseudo-radar altimeter, which
shows the GPS altitude above ground, a detailed terrain display, and warnings. WingX
Pro for iPhone and iPad costs $100 per year, plus $75 for geo-referenced approach charts
and $100 for synthetic vision. It is also available for Android and Blackberry.
Instrument Flying Handbook. $2.99. Instrument Flying Handbook is the primary reference text for the Instrument Rating FAA Knowledge Exam and includes hundreds of
pages of content. Instrument Elying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15A) is designed for use by
instrument flight instructors and pilots preparing for instrument rating tests. Instructors
find this handbook a valuable training aid as it includes basic reference material for
knowledge testing and instrument flight training.
Resources for Helicopter Pilots
Jeppesen Mobile FliteDeck. Boeing-owned Jeppesen offers a clean, simple, and uncluttered interface with its Mobile FliteDeck app. Subscriptions are available for everything
from a small corner of the United States to the entire world, including all of the instrument approach charts and IFR high- and low-altitude chart data. Also available is an
overlay of weather data onto the high- and low-altitude chart display, available anytime that the iPad can connect to the Internet. Mobile FliteDeck is free, but you'll need
a subscription to JeppView. A typical price is $100 year for a California subscription
(four product keys) or Western United States for $190 (two product keys).
Live AFC. $2.99. LiveATC Air Radio provides a quick and easy way to listen in on
live conversations between pilots and air traffic controllers near many airports around
the world. LiveATC Air Radio lets you easily browse by U.S. state, Canadian province,
or by country to find an airport of interest.
MyE6B. $8.99. myE6B includes more than 75 aviation calculations and unit conversions to help the student pilot and seasoned pilots alike solve the most common planning and navigating problems related to flying. In addition to a comprehensive set of
E-6B calculations and unit conversions, myE6B includes convenient access to worldwide METAR, TAF, AIR/SIGMET, and PIREP reports and a search facility for finding
unknown ICAO weather station codes.
PilotFAR/AlM. Not really free. You get the app all right and it looks quite useful, but
to see anything beyond abbreviations and parts of regulations you need pay $5.99 for a
one-time update or $6.99 for a 12-month subscription for FAR and Aeronautical Information Manual updates.
Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knoiuledge. $1.99. FAA publication that contains all
the essential information needed for pilots and student pilots. Most of the questions on
the FAA knowledge exams come from information in this handbook.
RobCheck R22 Alpha, Beta Checklist. $0.99. No-frills checklist for R22 with three lists
for preflight, starting, and shutdown. Includes an integrated flashlight function for
inspecting dark places.
Miscellaneous
Helitech International, http:/ /www.helitechevents.com, is the organizer of the largest
annual event in Europe devoted exclusively to rotary-wing aviation.
International Helicopter Safety Team (IHST), www.ihst.org. A team of government and
industry leaders formed to address the factors affecting an unacceptable international
civil helicopter accident rate. IHST seeks to establish international partnerships in countries with significant helicopter operations and encourage development and implementation of safety interventions by sharing lessons learned through accident analysis.
Sporty's Pilot Shop, www.sportys.com. A great place to find just about anything a pilot
or aircraft owner needs, and a lot of things they don't need, but really want to have.
Blogs
Hover Power, by Tim McAdams. http://blog.aopa.org/helicopter/.
An Eclectic Mind, blog by Maria Langer, writer, commercial helicopter pilot and
photographer.
The Author
Please feel free to contact me on my public Facebook page: R. Randall Padfield
This page has been intentionally left blank
CHAPTER
Civil
Helicopters
"I glanced out the window and saw giant boulders ... the size of cars and trucks/' said Astronaut Neil
Armstrong, as he approached the moon. "Realizing I xvas on the edge of a crater, I elected to utilize
my God-given right to take over the manual mode to hover to a clear area." (Armstrong was a trained
helicopter pilot.) "The final seconds fuel exhaustion warning sounded," he continued. "1 don't know
who landed the ship."
Jack Schweibold, test pilot, "In the Safety of His Wings"
Like in the first edition of Learning to Fly Helicopters, this chapter contains common
civil helicopters flying today. I considered including only helicopters that are
currently being manufactured, but decided that would have been too limiting.
There are just too many, still-popular, out-of-production helicopters that are still flying.
The iconic example is the Bell 47, which was granted its FAA certification on March 8,
1946, making it the first helicopter ever certified for civil use. You'll find many Model 47s
flying today in all sorts of operations, including flight training. There is also a company,
Scott's—Bell 47, Inc., which bought the type certificate from Bell Helicopter. Scott's
builds spares and does upgrades for the Bell 47. In March 2013, the company announced
that it would bring the model back into production, powered by a Rolls-Royce RR300
turboshaft engine in place of the helicopter's Lycoming piston engine. The new model
will be designated the Bell 47GT-6. So Bell 47s will continue flying commercial operations well into the 21st century, which is quite impressive.
The Bell 47 also has a special place in my heart, because it was the second helicopter model I ever flew, way back in 1973. At that time, it was used for initial
instrument training at the Army's flight school at Fort Rucker, Alabama. Yes, instrument training. The Bell TH-13T (47G-3B-1) was never certified for instrument flight,
so we trained while flying VFR with a big sheet of cardboard blocking the view in
front of the student. I hated flying the Bell 47 at first, but grew to appreciate the old
bird. I also quickly understood the old adage about flying "under the hood" on
instruments: "A quick peek (out the window) is worth a thousand cross checks (of
the flight instruments)."
So, you'll find some out-of-production helicopters in this chapter; I have tagged
them, logically enough, as "out of production." If I have not included one of your
favorites, I apologize. However, before sending an irate letter or email to me via
the publisher, please search the list for a derivative model of your favorite, which
may even be listed under a different manufacturer. For example, the Sikorsky S-64
Skycrane is now being remanufactured by Erickson Air-Crane as the S-64 Air-Crane.
You can also look elsewhere in this book, as I have included photos of older helicopters in other chapters.
437
Chapter Twenty-Two
One thing you will quickly learn about the helicopter business is that it's always in
a state of flux. Many of the older helicopter companies, as well as the type and
production certificates of the aircraft they produced, have been bought by other companies. A good example is the Hughes 269, originally certified and built by the aircraft
division of the Hughes Tool Company in California which was later spun off as Hughes
Helicopters. I mentioned in the first edition of this book that the current model at that
time, the 300, was then manufactured by Schweizer Aircraft Company in Elmira, New
York. It is still manufactured at the same Schweizer facility, but Schweizer is now a division of Sikorsky Aircraft, which is based in Stratford, Connecticut. The 300, by whatever
forename, is an excellent training helicopter, in fact, the one I first trained in with the
U.S. Army (designated as the TH-55A).
I also wrote in the first edition about the merger of MBB Helicopters with Aerospatiale to form European Helicopters. Now European Helicopters is known as Eurocopter
and is part of a much larger aerospace group known as the European Aeronautic
Defence and Space Company. Often simply called by its acronym, EADS, this global
group also includes Airbus, Airbus Military, and space companies. Eurocopter continues to upgrade and manufacture some previous Aerospatiale models (with the AS prefix) and MBB models (with MBB and BO prefixes), but most of these models have been
modified enough so that their newer Eurocopter derivatives all have EC prefixes. The
AS350 and AS332L2 Super Puma are exceptions.
However, serving as another example of frequent change in the helicopter industry
and coincidentally as this book neared completion, EADS officials announced on July 31,
2013, that they planned to change the name of the group to Airbus Group and rebrand
Eurocopter as Airbus Helicopters, with implementation of these and other changes to
start on January 1, 2014. Explaining the change, a spokesperson told me, "Eurocopter
has grown to be the most international company in the EADS group. Over the past
decade, we have developed our global footprint in the most emerging markets and are
also well known in key countries such as the U.S., Brazil and even in Asia. Our name no
longer limits itself to just Europe." She added that "Discussions are still in progress as
to the details of how the new name will be implemented within the company," so no
information was available at the time regarding the letter prefixes to the model numbers of Eurocopter helicopters.
Along these same lines, the larger merged corporations see advantages in creating
"families" of helicopter models which share commonalities, especially in avionics,
cockpit and systems design, cabin appointments, and other ways. The AgustaWestland
AW139, AW169, and AW189 helicopters are examples (Fig. 22-1).
Because so many older helicopters are still flying along with their newer derivatives, it's easy to get confused about their current manufacturers and names. Not a
problem. Most helicopter people will understand if you call a Sikorsky 300, a Schweizer 300, or even a Hughes 300. The models will have some differences, which
could be significant, but for many helicopter people, they are all the same model,
although with some variations.
Some Points about the Helicopters in This Chapter
I obtained the information provided for the in-production helicopters in this section
directly from the manufacturers' websites. Although one can often find slightly different numbers elsewhere, I wanted to use the manufacturers' information as the common
denominator. The data provided is current as of the publishing date of this book.
Civil Helicopters
li
u
f'
#-
.•
« •
Figure 22-1
The AgustaWestland AW139, AW169, and AW189 family. (Source: AgustaWestland)
Nevertheless, it is quite likely that some of the information in this chapter will be out
of date by the time you read it. After all, the first edition of Learning to Fly Helicopters was
in print for 20 years, and this second edition may last just as long. That's a very long time
in the helicopter industry, which introduces new improvements and modifications to
in-production helicopters nearly every year, and sometimes upgraded or even completely
new engines. In fact, it is possible that some models included in this edition will be superseded by improved models, or even taken out of production, after this book has been in
print for only a few years.
For not-yet-certified helicopters, which I've indicated as "in development," I have
listed the data that is available at the time of publishing. The information for these helicopters is obviously subject to change.
For the out-of-production helicopters, which are not found on the manufacturers'
websites, I used what I considered the best available information I could find. Sources
include pilot operating handbooks, product data guides, marketing brochures, and
other websites, such as Wikipedia. As with the data from the manufacturers' websites,
you will likely find different numbers elsewhere. I mention this only because some purists get upset when they find what they consider to be incorrect data. I am sorry if I've
made any egregious mistakes. I tried as best I could to be accurate. Also note that I have
listed the out-of-production helicopters in the section for current manufacturer that
evolved from the manufacturer that originally built the helicopter. Thus, the Aerospatiale SA315B Lama is under Eurocopter.
Normal and Transport Category Helicopters
As you get more involved in helicopters you will come across the terms "normal category" and "transport category" helicopters. These refer to the FAA certification criteria.
Chapter Twenty-Two
or "airworthiness standards," used to certify the helicopters. While these standards are
quite specific and extremely detailed, the current dividing line in 2013 between the two
categories is quite simple: it is based on the helicopter's maximum certified weight. If a
helicopter model has a maximum weight of 7,000 pounds, it may be certified under
Part 27 Normal Category. If its maximum weight is greater than 7,000 pounds, then it
must be certified under Part 29 Transport Category.
Because Part 29,s airworthiness standards are more demanding than Part 27's,
the cost of certifying and building a helicopter to Part 29 is much greater. Therefore,
you'll find many helicopters weighing in just under the 7,000-pound limit. A manufacturer may request a waiver to certify under Part 27 a helicopter that has a maximum weight greater than 7,000 pounds, but there's no guarantee the FAA will
approve it. This typically happens when a model, originally designed for Part 27,
gains weight during the development process, which is quite typical. The higherthan-planned empty weight then reduces the model's operating capability, since it
cannot carry as much payload (in fuel, passengers, or cargo) as was originally promised to potential customers.
The Bell 429 has just such a weight problem. But when Bell asked the FAA for a
waiver for a higher maximum weight under Part 27, the FAA refused to grant it, saying
it would give the Bell 429 an unfair advantage over other Part 27-certified helicopters.
However, many other civil aviations authorities around the world have granted waivers for the model. So as this is being written, the Part 27-certified Bell 429 is limited to
7,000 pounds maximum weight in the United States and 7,500 pounds in many, if not
most, other countries.
There is a separate, but related, movement to increase the maximum weight limit of
helicopters certified under Part 27 Normal Category, but this is likely to take several
years before being approved and implemented, if at all.
The Data Explained
Descriptive terms after model names. As mentioned above, the FAA divides helicopters into only two categories. Normal and Transport, using 7,000 pounds maximum
gross weight as the dividing line. This results in only two rather broad groups.
Helicopter manufacturers have found it useful to divide their models into smaller
groupings, primarily for marketing purposes. While there are some similarities
among manufacturers, there is no common, accepted standard for these groups.
Thus, one manufacturer's "light helicopter" may be quite similar to another's
"light intermediate helicopter." Some manufacturers don't find it necessary to
divide their product lines in this way. For the purposes of this chapter, I've included
these nonstandard descriptors for those manufacturers who use them on their
websites.
Engine. For in-production helicopters, the engine model is the one given on the
helicopter manufacturer's website. For out-of-production helicopters, it is for the
model listed.
Civil Helicopters
Pilots/passengers. This number can be a bit confusing because many helicopters can
be flown with one or two pilots, and often a passenger may be allowed to sit in one
pilot's seat (typically with the flight controls removed). In addition, several seating
configurations may be offered, especially in larger helicopters. I've given the highest
number of passenger seats possible, as provided by the manufacturer.
Main rotor diameter. I have provided this in feet. If the manufacturer gave the
dimension in meters, I converted it.
Max gross weight. This weight is important and should not be confusing, but manufacturers report it in many different ways: "maximum gross weight," "maximum
approved gross weight for takeoff and landing," "maximum internal gross weight,"
"standard internal gross weight," "external gross weight," "maximum external gross
weight," "maximum gross weight with an external load," "maximum takeoff gross
weight," "maximum allowable weight," and "maximum approved gross mass," to
cite a few examples. I settled on "max gross weight" to mean "the heaviest weight
permissible for this helicopter to take off with an internal load." Often, helicopters
are approved to take off with a higher max gross weight when lifting an external
load, but because the number of passengers is included in the data, I decided to
show only the maximum gross weight with internal loads. If given in kilograms, I
converted the number to feet.
Max speed (VNE/cruise). "VNE" stands for "never exceed speed," which means
one should never ever fly faster than this speed in this aircraft. Depending on the
helicopter, you might be able to reach this speed only when at full power and in a
dive. ("V" speed designations are quite common in aviation. There are many.) I use
"cruise" speed to mean either the normal or the highest cruise speed, whichever was
listed by the manufacturer. Sometimes the highest cruise speed is so uncomfortable
for the pilots and passengers, due to the level of vibrations and noise, that pilots
avoid it in normal operations. I've given the speed in knots.
Max range (no reserve). "Max range" means you fly at the airspeed that gives you
the best range (VBR) and in no-wind conditions, which is possible, but unlikely. "No
reserve" means that you'll run the fuel tanks dry and presumably have to autorotate to the ground—obviously unrealistic. Whether you fly a single- or twin-engine
helicopter, by yourself or with others, and under visual or instrument conditions,
you must have a fuel reserve. Nevertheless, helicopter manufacturers often list range
using this "no reserve" parameter. At least, this provides the semblance of a level
playing field, something one can use to compare with other helicopters. Just don't
expect to ever go the "max range" distance given for your helicopter. I've given the
range in nautical miles.
Ancestry. This is a judgment call on my part. While we humans can trace our
ancestries via genomes encoded in our DNA and RNA back to homo sapiens in
Africa some 200,000 to 150,000 years ago, there is no similar way to trace the
ancestry of mechanical devices. I selected the helicopter model or models, which
I feel best represent each particular helicopter's ancestry. I did not try to include
nonproduction prototypes. I could be wrong. Feel free to let me know if you disagree and why.
Chapter Twenty-Two
The Helicopters
AgustaWestland, a Finmeccanica Company
%
£
Figure 22-2
AgustaWestland AW119Kx, Light. (Source: AgustaWestland)
Engine: one Pratt & Whitney PT6B-37A
Pilots/Passengers: 1 + 7
Main rotor diameter: 35.53 feet
Max gross weight; 6,283 pounds
Max speed (VNE/cruise): 152/138 knots
Max range (no reserve): 515 nautical miles
Ancestry: Agusta A119 Koala
L //
r ■ //
^
■
i\ na
Figure 22-3
AgustaWestland AW109 Power, Light. (Source: AgustaWestland)
Engine: two Pratt & Whitney PW206C, or two Turbomeca Arrius 2K1
Pilots/Passengers: 1 + 7
Main rotor diameter: 36.09 feet
Max gross weight; 6,283 pounds
Max speed (VNE/cruise): 168/145 knots
Max range (no reserve): 512 nautical miles
Ancestry: Agusta A109
Civil Helicopters
Figure 22-4
AgustaWestland GrandNew, Light. (Source: AgustaWestland)
Engine: two Pratt & Whitney PW207C
Pilots/Passengers: 1-2 + 6-7
Main rotor diameter: 35.5 feet
Max gross weight: 7,000 pounds
Max speed (VNE/cruise): 168/156 knots
Max range (no reserve): 464 nautical miles
Ancestry: Agusta A109
• »
m
m
A
Figure 22-5
AgustaWestland AW139, Intermediate. (Source: AgustaWestland)
Engine: two Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6C-67C
Pi lots/Passengers: 1-2 + 15
Main rotor diameter: 45.28 feet
Max gross weight: 14,991 pounds
Max speed (VNE/cruise): 167/165 knots
Max range (no reserve): 675 nautical miles
Ancestry: new design
Chapter Twenty-Two
4.
(
Figure 22-6 AgustaWestland AW169, Light Intermediate (in development).
(Source: AgustaWestland)
Engine: two Pratt & Whitney Canada PW210A
Pilots/Passengers: 1-2 + 8-10
Main rotor diameter: n/a
Max gross weight: about 9,900 pounds
Max speed (VNE/cruise): cruise est. 140+ knots
Max range (no reserve): n/a
Ancestry: new design
■"
s
Figure 22-7
® I-RA1H
AgustaWestland AW189, Medium (in development). (Source: AgustaWestland)
Engine: two General Electric GE CT7-2E1
Pilots/Passengers: 1-2 + 16-18
Main rotor diameter: 47.9 feet
Max gross weight: about 17,600 pounds
Max speed (VNE/cruise): cruise 145 to 150 knots
Max range (no reserve): n/a
Ancestry: new design
Civil Helicopters
Figure 22-8
AgustaWestland AW101, Medium/Heavy. (Source: AgustaWestland)
Engine: three General Electric CT7-8E
Pilots/Passengers: 2 + 30
Main rotor diameter: 61.0 feet
Max gross weight: 34,392 pounds
Max speed (VNE/cruise): cruise 150 knots
Max range (no reserve): 570 nautical miles (VVIP)
Ancestry: European Industries EH101
St
Figure 22-9
AgustaWestland AW609 Tiltrotor (in development). (Source: AgustaWestland)
Engine: two Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6C-67A
Pilots/Passengers: 2 + 9
Prop rotor diameter: 26 feet
Max gross weight: 16,800 pounds
Max speed (demonstrated/cruise): 333/275 knots
Max range (no reserve): 700 nautical miles
Ancestry: Bell Helicopter experimental XV-15 tilt-rotor
Chapter Twenty-Two
Bell Helicopter, a Textron Company
/
tt
j\
Figure 22-10
Bell 47G-4 (out of production).
Engine: one Franklin or Avco Lycoming piston engine
Pilots/Passengers: 1-2 + 1 (3 seats)
Main rotor diameter: 37.1 feet
Max gross weight: up to 2,950 pounds
Max speed (VNE/cruise): 106/73 knots
Max range (no reserve): about 220 nautical miles
Ancestry: Model 30, original design by Arthur Young
Note: Scott's—Bell 47, Inc. plans to remanufactu