AQA A-Level Sociology Beliefs in Society Definitions of religion Substantive: • Focuses on the belief in a supernatural power or God • Exclusive - Western bias Functional: • Focuses on social or psychological functions for an individual or society • Inclusive - Suggests a football chant is a religion Social Constructionist: • Focuses on how members of society define religion • Can not produce a universal definition + Deeper meaning - Impossible to generalise Features of religion BELIEFS – in the supernatural and/or incomprehensible powers (e.g. God) or sacred symbols (e.g. the Cross) THEOLOGY – a set of teachings and beliefs PRACTICE – rituals of ceremonies to express beliefs INSTITUTIONS – some form of organisation of worshippers (e.g. churches) CONSEQUENCES – a set of moral or ethical values to guide everyday behaviour Belief Systems Science Religion Open system Popper: Scientific research is open to scrutiny, criticism and testing by others Able to adapt to social change Herberg: May dilute beliefs to stay relevant – known as internal secularisation Closed system Kuhn: Science is based on a single paradigm Horton: It contains ‘clauses’ that prevent it which is ridiculed if challenged, unless from being disproved in the eyes of believers undermined by evidence Polanyi: Beliefs are self-sustained as they have three devices to undermine any contradictory evidence 1. Circularity – explaining religious ideas by using other religious components 2. Subsidiary explanations – religious leaders redirect focus when being challenged with some sort of explanation that does not contradict the religion 3. Denial of legitimacy to rivals – reject rival beliefs to show followers that they are only possible answer Azande and witchcraft: Case study by EvansPritchard • Azande believe natural events are not coincidental or by chance • Misfortune is down to witchcraft • This prevents grudges and encourages neighbourly behaviour • E.g. westerners would believe a snake bit someone because they were walking in the grass but the Azande would argue someone cast a spell on the snake Ideology Religion focuses on a spiritual meaning, but ideology focuses on the political impact Marxism Postmodernism Feminism Mannheim Marx: Revolution can not occur until the working class develop a class consciousness Lyotard: Religion and science are metanarratives. Religious teachings are no longer accepted as ‘truth’ in postmodern society due to the growth of scientific fact Oakley: Bowlby’s maternal deprivation is an example of science acting as an ideology, justifying gender inequality as children are damaged by working mothers All world views are produced without relation to everyday individuals so reflect the theorists views Gramsci: Ideological domination prevents class consciousness - Abercrombie: a fear of unemployment may prevent rebelling 2 types of world view: 1. Ideological thought – justify tradition to resist social change 2. Utopian thought – attempts to promote social change Science and religion Core principals: 1. Pursuit of facts, supported by evidence 2. Objective 3. Studies the impact of causeand-effect based on reliable data Impact of science on religion: • Can cause conflicts, e.g. around medical treatments • Can be seen as contributing to secularisation • Disproved many religious beliefs about the beginning of the world Merton: Science thrives as an institution as it is governed by CUDOS norms C Communism – scientific knowledge must be shared to grow U Universalism – scientific knowledge is judged by universal, objective criteria D Disinterestedness – scientists should publish honest findings, with no fraud or subjective bias OS Organised Scepticism – all knowledge is open to scrutiny Science and religion cont. Aldridge: transition from religious to scientific explanations 1. Theological stage – the world and human destiny are explained in terms of gods and spirits 2. Metaphysical stage – people see the world as being guided by an abstract power and is the combination of people having scientific views, but believing in a higher power 3. Scientific stage – scientific explanation based on observations and experiments which can be used to develop cause and effect relationships Perspectives on science and religion Interpretivism Scientific knowledge is socially constructed by social groups Knorr-Cetina: laboratory experiments are highly constructed Marxism All ideologies are manipulated by the ruling class to maintain and reproduce inequality Most discoveries are fuelled by gaining mass profit Feminism Ideologies promote patriarchy Postmodernism Lyotard: science is no different to other religions as they claim to know the truth about the world Functionalist perspective Durkheim Parsons Bellah Malinowski • There is a fundamental distinction between the sacred (special) and the profane (normal) • Worshipping symbols = worshipping society • Studied an Australian aboriginal clan who performed rituals involving a sacred totem • Regular shared religious experiences strengthen collective conscience • Helps people cope with unforeseen events and uncontrollable outcomes • Promotes consensus and social stability • Civil religion is a belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society itself • Creates stability in a multi-religion society • Provides psychological functions to cope with stress in two situations 1. Where the outcome is important but uncertain 2. At times of crises + Emphasises positive functions - Worsley: no sharp division between the sacred and profane - Hard to generalise to societies with 2+ religions - Neglects negative functions e.g. oppression of women Marxist perspective Religion as an ideology • Justifies suffering as inevitable and God-given, so will be favoured in the afterlife • Acts as an ideological state apparatus to legitimise the power of the ruling class • Lenin: it is a ‘spiritual gin’ as it doles out the masses to keep them in their societal position – a mystical fog that obscures reality Religion as a product of alienation • Religion is an opiate of the masses, as it cushions the pain of oppression and exploitation. It does this in three ways: 1. Promises an eventual escape from suffering with a good afterlife 2. Offers hope of supernatural intervention to solve problems on Earth, encouraging people to accept their position 3. Provides a religious explanation and justification for inequality • Existential security also causes people to become alienated as those with less security (e.g. in LEDC’s) have greater demand for religion + Supported by Hinduism and caste system - Ignores positive functions - Increasing secularisation – how much influence can it have in contemporary society? Neo-Marxist perspective Neo-Marxists agree with Marxism that religion exploits the poor, but they criticise Marxism as religion is not always part of the superstructure so the working class don’t always go along with the ruling class system. Dual nature of religion: • Bloch: religion is an expression of ‘the principle of hope’ – our dreams of a better life that contain images of Utopia, deceiving people with false promises of rewards in heaven • Gramsci: the ruling class use hegemony to establish popular consent but the vision of a better world may motivate people to challenge the powerful Religion as a force for social change: • Maduro: in societies where religion is dominant, the ruling class can only be overpowered with the support of the churches • Liberation theology: a movement in Christian theology which attempts to address the problems of poverty and social justice. E.g. overthrowing the communist regime in 1980’s Poland + Explains how religion can lead to social change - Feminists argue gender is a larger factor than social class Feminist perspective Maintain patriarchy: • Sacred texts mainly consist of strong, powerful males • Religious laws restrict female rights, such as dress codes • In Islam, menstruating women can not touch the Qur’an • Orthodox Judaism forbid women becoming priests + Armstrong: women’s exclusion from priesthood is evidence for marginalisation - Woodhead: the hijab symbolises resistance to oppression Second class believers: • De Beauvoir: religion maintains gender inequality by making women think they are equal to men in the eyes of God and will be compensated in the after life so they don’t challenge their position Stained glass ceiling: • Women are often found at the bottom of the religious career ladder • There was no female priests in the Church of England until 2015, and still was only an ‘assistant’ priest - Assumes all religions are patriarchal, the Greek believe in many goddesses Postmodernist perspective Lyotard Many religions see themselves as the true representative of God and do not tolerate challenges from rivals, so are usually conservative and inflexible Lyon Religious leaders turn to the media to publicise their belief system, which has created a spiritual marketplace for people to move around religions to find which one suits their identity Religious ideas have been disembedded as the media lifts them from their original context NAMs These focus on spirituality rather than devotion to God so are preferred in a postmodern society Hervieu-Leger There has been a dramatic decline in institutional religion as people become spiritual shoppers Pick ‘n’ mix People pick and mix beliefs and buy into, or reject, beliefs that most suit their lifestyle choices and the identity they want to project - Bruce: they have over exaggerated the demise of traditional religions Religion as a conservative force Functionalist Marxist Interpretivist Feminist Religion as a compensator Durkheim: all societies divide the world into the ‘sacred’ and the ‘profane’, helping with value consensus that promotes social order and stability Religion acts as an ‘opium of the people’ by cushioning the pain of oppression by promising an eventual escape, offering solutions to problems on Earth and explaining inequalities Berger: provides a universe of meaning which helps people make more sense of the world, creating a theodicy, but religion is now losing its role as a provider of a universe of meaning in modern society Many religions serve male interests, with beliefs that justify, reinforce and reproduce inequalities Stark and Bainbridge: Religions meets the needs of individuals when their sense of social order is disrupted by hardship e.g. death Malinowski: religion provides explanation for events that would otherwise be unexplainable and provide security in the face of uncertainty Parsons: Provides and underpins core values of culture and norms, while providing a ‘mechanism of adjustment It legitimises the power of the ruling class by suggesting inequalities are God-given and can not be challenged without challenging God This is achieved via subordinate roles in sacred texts, exclusion or restriction from higher levels of religious hierarchy and religious laws that give women fewer rights Religion is a general compensator – a belief that if individuals act in a certain way, they will eventually be rewarded – which inevitably contributes to social order Religion as a force for social change Calvinist beliefs: • Predestination – God has already decided who will be going to heaven or hell, and those selected to go to heaven are called ‘the elect’ • Devine transcendence – God is so above and beyond this world that there is no way to understand what he is thinking or has decided • Worldly asceticism – a calling to a career path as a religious duty • Calvinism led to capitalism as Calvinists were ascetic so saved all of their wealth, and so they used this money to invest and became richer and so on – they carried this on as they felt that this wealth was God’s way of saying He was happy with their hard work - Kautsky – Weber underestimates economic factors as capitalism precedes Calvinism Is religion a force for social change, or a conservative force? McGuire/Robinson – factors that determine if religion is a conservative force or a force for social change: 1. The nature and extent of religious beliefs – if most people hold religious beliefs and it has strong moral codes that conflict the rest of society, it is more likely to lead to social change 2. Significance of religion in a culture – if religion is central to society it is more likely to be used to justify behaviour and act as a conservative force 3. Extent of the social involvement of religion – if religious figures play a role in political and economic life, it is more likely to influence social change 4. Degree of central authority in religious organisations – if it is at the centre of society, it has the power to promote or prevent change Religion and social protest American civil rights movement New Christian right • • • • • • 1960-70s Led by Dr Martin Luther King Used religion as an ideological resource, appealing to all Christians Why it worked: peaceful protest, achieved public support, negotiated with opposition, shamed those who had conflicting prejudicial values • • 1960s Believed certain behaviours are immoral and should be illegal E.g. homosexuality, divorce, abortion, teaching sex education and evolution in school Reasons for failure: negative message tone led to criticism by the media, lack of corporation Liberation theology Millenarian movements • • • • • • 1960-70s Catholics created a liberation theology movement as a response of the failure of the Vatican to help followers facing poverty and exploitation Nicaraguan dictator Somoza was overthrown by the Sandinista revolution Priests involved were excommunicated • Melanesia Cargo cults combined Christian teaching of Jesus’ eventual resurrection with Melanesia’s mythical ancestors who would become powerful beings and bring the dead back to life Millennium occurred when the ancestors would return in steamships bringing European goods and initiating a social order reversal Bruce: ideological resource (e.g. civil rights) Channelling dissent – MLK’s funeral was a key rallying point for the cause Acting as an honest broker – respected by both sides, seen as above politics Mobilising public opinion Taking the moral high ground – pointing out the hypocrisy of white clergy who supported segregation Religious organisations Church (Troeltsch) Denomination (Neibuhr) Sect (Neibuhr) Size Large and worldwide with inclusive members (born into it) Usually international, national or regional – appeal to those who are poorer in society Small memberships Characteristics • • • • • • Multi-layered hierarchal structure Professional clergy Long life spans Few demands on members • • • Attitude to wider society Do not agree with new legalisations, e.g. abortion Examples Roman catholic church Tend to originate as a sect Professional clergy, but require assistance from volunteers Some have long lifespans (Methodist church) or are more recent (Pentecostal) Rely on members for active involvement • • Charismatic leader who claims he was chosen by a supernatural power Short lifespan Often demand total dedication New age movement • • • Promote self spirituality No hierarchy as everyone customises their own experiences Used to fill a spiritual void Audience cults e.g. UFOs Client cults e.g. Feng Shui Pentecostalism ISIS Yoga Religious organisations cont. Cult New religious movement Size Small memberships who buy into a service but rarely meet as a group Varies from small to large depending on type Characteristic s • • • • • World-affirming: • Cults • Charge fees • Optimistic and enhance lives • Attractive to professionals World-accommodating: • Denominations • Focus on improving lives while conforming to society • Popular with the vulnerable and those unhappy with societal change World-rejecting: • Sects • Leave old lives behind and create new identities • Millenarian – use divine power to judge those who sin • Focus on literal truth of text Loose structure Wrongly confused with sects by the media Lifespan varies on market demand Rarely demand strong commitments Attract those looking for spiritual fulfilment Stark and Bainbridge: Audience – transmit ideas through the media e.g. astrology Client – personal connection between leader and followers Cultic movements – specific commitments e.g. paying for courses Attitude to wider society Examples W-aff: accept the world in its current state W-acc: do not like current state but make the most of it to achieve salvation W-rej: demand social change Scientology W-aff: scientology W-acc: Pentecostalism W-rej: Moonies Growth of religious new movements Practical and pragmatic reasons Secularisation Postmodernism Wallis: offer knowledge, techniques and therapies to unlock potential, reduce stress and find career success Herberg: NRMs benefit from internal secularisation Drane: it is part of a shift towards a postmodern society, which comes with a loss of faith in metanarratives Globalisation and media Marginalisation Protest Bauman: increasing globalisation and pressure to accept a cosmopolitan culture is pushing people to join radical NRMs Weber: attract individuals who do not belong to the majority as they provide reasons for unfortunate situations and give access to communities with similar experiences Glock and stark: NRMs emerge as a form of religious or social protest, used to search for new alternative beliefs and lifestyles Anomie and social change Relative deprivation Status frustration Wilson: in times of rapid social change, people may feel a sense of anomie and anxiety but NRMs relieve this anxiety Barker: middle-class children feel neglected by career-orientated parents so suffer relative deprivation so NRMs provide an alternative family Wallis: NRMS provide support for an identity and status to relieve status frustration Dynamics of sects Types of sects (Wilson): 1. Conversionist – seek to save those in the outside world by converting them to their movement 2. Introversionist – cut themselves off from wider society and are often viewed as threatening 3. Advent – hold millenarian beliefs that only those within the sect are rewarded in the afterlife Why are sects short lived? (Neibuhr) • The movement loses momentum when the leader dies • The children of sect members do not have the same intensity of belief as their parents so the movement dies out with the second generation • The movement becomes a denomination by developing a professional hierarchy instead of relying on a charismatic individual • It begins to compromise with the outside world and so dilutes its beliefs Are all sects necessarily short lived? (Aldridge) • Many sects have existed for a long time while keeping their features • Not all sects rely on charismatic leadership • Many sects are successful at socialising children to accept their beliefs • Case study 1 – Jehovah’s witnesses: • World-rejecting, Christian Adventist millenarian sect • Maintained religious intensity whilst not isolating members or being lead by charismatic leaders • Protect members from ‘evil’, including birthdays and Christmas • Encourage friendship with other members but still go to ordinary state schools • Knock on doors in the hope of converting people • Case study 2 – Amish: • Christian introversionist sect based in Pennsylvania, USA • They do not try to convert others and are totally cut from society • They live in communities modelled on the past e.g. use horse drawn carriages Evaluation: Gender and religion Ways religion is patriarchal • Women are portrayed in subordinate positions in sacred texts • Women are often barred from priesthoods • Stained glass ceiling • Many religious doctrines contain ideology that focus on traditional roles • The veiling of women can be seen as making women invisible and anonymous • Women are portrayed to not have sexual desires and sex should only take place for reproduction • Women have fewer rights e.g. men can have multiple wives but women can only have one husband The facts: Women are more likely to: • Express greater interest in religion and have a firmer belief in God • Have a stronger personal faith in life after death • Involve themselves in rituals and worship • Practice private prayer • Join NRMs and NAMs (Bruce) Reasons for gender and religiosity: • Greater life expectancy – women are more likely to be widowed and live on their own as they get older • Social deprivation – women are more likely to experience poverty, marginalisation and personal problems • Status frustration – women may lack status due to being confined to the home or having an unsatisfying lowermiddle class job • Motherhood – women are expected to help with the socialisation of children, including their religious beliefs • Femininity – women see religion as being linked to traditional femininity e.g. love and comfort • Socialisation – women are less confrontational and more caring, and are more tuned to the spiritual dimensions of human existence - Many ancient religions were polythetic and worshipped many Goddesses - Some use the veil as a symbol of identity and resists patriarchy - Woodhead: the changing position of women in society changes how they engage with religion 1. Home centred – those who stay at home have conservative values and focus on traditional religions 2. Work centred – more likely to be secular as they don’t have time and can’t relate to women in scriptures 3. Jugglers – balance work with family life so use religion for guidance, but engage mostly with NAMs that don’t require much commitment - Aune et al: many factors could be causing a decline in female participant • Feminism has caused more women to question traditional female roles in religion • Women are now in paid work so don’t have as much time, and gain status from working • Family diversity is disapproved of by many religions so are alienated Ethnicity and religion • African-Caribbean groups focus on Christianity, and set up Pentecostalism (Christian denomination) as a response to the racism they faced in traditional Christian churches, with services involving exorcism, clapping and dancing • Those from Pakistan, Bangladesh and India focus on Islam, Hinduism and Sikhism The facts: • African-Caribbean people made up 17% of church-goers on an average Sunday in 2007, which is 5x their proportion is society • 79% of Muslims, 74% of Sikhs and 70% of Hindus practiced their religion in 2010 compared to 33% of Christians • In 1961, there were 7 mosques, 3 Sikh temples, 1 Hindu temple and 55,000 Christian temples • In 2005, there were 1700 mosques and 47,600 Christian churches Reasons for ethnic minority religiosity: • Cultural defence (Bruce): used to unite a community in the face of hostility from wider society • Culture transition (Bruce): used as a form of cultural transition as it helps to integrate people into society but as they integrate they may leave religion behind • Social deprivation and marginality (Weber): NRMs are attractive to minorities as they feel marginalised so provides guidance on how to overcome this and develop a ‘protestant work ethic’ which could lead to their economic success • Social identity: provides people with many markers of identity which helps prevent the devaluing of their own culture due to racism Age and religion Trends in age and religion (Brierley): • Only those aged 65+ have shown a rise in church attendance • Since the 1980s, the number of under-15s regularly attending church has halved • By 2025, only 2.5% of church attendees with be aged 15-19 • 50% of English churches have no one younger than 20 in their congregation Why are the elderly more religious? Why are the young less religious? Ageing effect – as people come closer to the end of Socialisation (Arweck and Beckford) – parents are their life, they are more likely to attend church as they now less likely to pass religious beliefs onto children, are concerned about the afterlife and desire whilst Sunday schools are also now very rare forgiveness for sins Generational effect – the current elderly generation grew up during WW2 so use religion as a source of support and security Ritualism and tradition (Brierley) – 87% of 10-14 year olds found church boring and old fashioned, with traditional teachings not relating to their life Individualisation (Collins-Mayo) – religion is now a personal choice rather than an expectation in postmodern society, whilst faith-based schools focus on moral messages rather than sacred fundamentals Social class and religion Overview In theory, religious participation is highest in in the most deprived classes to help cope with poverty and oppression, while the dominant class use it to establish hegemony and justify their power and control In practice, religion is usually inclusive as it is experienced by all classes Churches and • Upper, upper-middle class and women are all over-represented in churches denominations • YouGov (2015) found >60% of those attending church are middle class, whilst 38% are working class • CofE leaders come from privileged backgrounds • The working class had the lowest proportion of regular church goers • Denominations appeal to higher and lower-middle classes Sects, cults and • Sects are most supported by the deprived and marginalised groups new age • New age client cults and world-affirming NRMs appeal to affluent members of the middle class as they have to buy products to gain access in the hope of filling a spiritual void • New age ideas, such as yoga, appeal mostly to middle class women whilst astrology appeal to the working class women Secularisation in the UK vs USA Evidence of secularisation in the UK Long term 1841 census – 40% attended church 2006 church census – 6% Religious practice Less people now attend church, and less people go to church ceremonies such as baptisms Religious influence Religion now has little influence on politics so our lives no longer revolve around it Arguments against secularisation in the UK Believing without belonging Davie: religious belief has become privatised but this does not necessarily mean a decline in personal religious belief. Vicarious religion is now the norm, in which the active minority pray on behalf of the community Online religion Helland: globalisation and the media means many people now express religious beliefs online, and attendance can no longer measure religiosity Religion online – movements communicate with followers Online religion – online communities where people discuss beliefs Secularisation in the UK vs USA cont. Evidence of secularisation in the USA Wilson 1962 45% americans attended church on sundays, possibly due to just following the way of American life rather than strong religious beliefs – it is secular as it is now superficial Declining church attendance Hadaway et al: head counts and interviews suggested attendance was 83% higher than estimated but people have exaggerated church attendance since 1970s Secularisation from within Bruce: religions go through a process of internal secularisation in order to stay relevant in modern society and remain popular Religious diversity Bruce: found a trend of practical relativism – acceptance that others can hold different beliefs Lynd and Lynd: in 1924, 94% of young churchgoers believed Christianity was the one true religion, but this dropped to 41% in 1977 Religious market theory: Stark and Bainbridge Eurocentric secularisation The study of secularisation is Eurocentric so the research can not be applied to America Religion tends to flow through cycles, temporary periods of secularisation and then a revival due to new religions and NAMs, rather than a golden age and gradually fading Religious market Two assumptions about human nature and its influence on how people interact with religion: theory people are naturally religious so there is always a demand, and all humans want the biggest rewards for the smallest costs Supply led religion European countries have one dominant religion but America has a supply-led religious market so have to compete for survival e.g. televangelism Arguments for and against secularisation For Against • A decline in religious thinking and belief - internal secularisation • A decline in religious belief – census show an attendance drop from 40% (1851) to 6% (2006) • Wilson argues that a reduction in marriage, and increasing divorce and cohabitation are signs of secularisation • Decline of power and influence – Wilson states that church is no longer involved in politics and politicians no longer aim to make policies suit religious beliefs • Religion only has a symbolic meaning now as we take guidance from the mass media • Religious thinking is not in decline – davie says religion is just taking a more privatised form • Religious practice is not in decline – Roof and McKinney members of conservative protestant groups in the USA are more likely than other groups to attend church and strongly support traditional morality • Institutions are not in decline – Televangelism has become so popular they are having to build megachurches Fundamentalism Fundamentalism is a form of religion that upholds the belief in the strict, literal interpretation of scripture Types of fundamentalism: 1. Western (Christian) (Bruce): attempting to battle with their own community to bring back traditional values that have been eroded due to cosmopolitanism 2. Third world (Islamic) (Bruce): use religion as a form of cultural defence to protect their belief systems and heritage as external influences erode their way of life through secular and liberal values 3. Secular (Davie): triggered by increasing globalisation and secularisation, but can be applied to certain movements (e.g. politics) that are not connected to traditional religions Characteristics of fundamentalism Literalism: believe in the exact wording of sacred texts Them and us: have a worldrejecting attitude Aggressive action: attempt to shock the population through strong views of acts of terrorism Modern technology: technology is used to promote their message and recruit followers Patriarchy: Hawley – patriarchal in nature due to conservative value base Prophecy: many proclaim the relevance of prophecy to contemporary events Conspiracy: many believe that powerful, evil forces are in control of human destiny Fundamentalism cont. Causes of fundamentalism Giddens Globalisation has triggered the recent rise in fundamentalism due to the rapid promotion of cosmopolitan values – those with conservative values feel threatened by this as well as the internal secularisation of religions Bauman Uncertainty caused by globalisation has led to a rise in fundamentalism as they use religion as a source of truth in a postmodern society, where media outlets lie in order to make more profit Castells Postmodernity has led to two responses: 1. Resistance identity – turn to fundamentalism to protect conservative values 2. Project identity – embrace change by joining NAMs or progressive environmentalist or political groups Clash of civilisations – Huntington 1996 7 civilisations Explanations of fundamentalism Evaluation Western Latin American Confucian Hindu Slavic-orthodox Japanese Islamic • Each civilisation has a common cultural background and is closely identified with a traditional religion • Religious differences have become a major source of identity • Globalisation has made contact between civilisations easier, increasing the likelihood of conflicts World values survey found sexuality was causing the conflict Jackson: this work is orientalist as it stereotypes Eastern people as untrustworthy and inferior - Beckford: ignore how globalisation affects all other religions - Beckford: talk of fundamentalism as a whole but there are many different forms Globalisation and religion Cultural defence case studies Nanda – Hinduism and India Pentecostalism in South America Poland 1945-89: the catholic church symbolised resistance to the communist regime backed by the soviet union and served as a popular rallying point Globalisation has brought a wealth of opportunities to support the surge of global demand in certain industries which has led to a young, professional middle class that is more secular but Nanda argues the opposite has taken place Berger: the rapid spread of Pentecostalism has had a similar impact to Calvinism in Europe It is a strong rival to Catholicism as it encourages followers to work their way out of poverty rather than wait for salvation in the afterlife, stimulating economic growth as people develop a protestant work ethic Iran: Islam became the focus for opposition to a corrupt, brutal and western-backed monarchy led the Shah but, in 1979, an Islamic inspired revolution removed the Shah from power and led to the creation of an Islamic republic Tele-gurus have led to a surge in Hinduism’s popularity and have changed how Hindus view wealth and prosperity Traditional – wealth is a sin Contemporary – wealth is a sign of divine favour Many Indians believe Hindu values have stimulated their economy and success in the global market Ultra-nationalism – worship of culture rather than focusing on Gods Lehmann: after analysing Pentecostalism in China and South Korea, he builds on Berger’s work to suggest that Pentecostalism denominations have similar global messages but adapt to local concerns to gain followers and create a local identity
