Praise for The Reading Teacher’s
Book of Lists, 6th Ed.
“This comprehensive, invaluable volume should be in the hands of those involved in literacy instruction,
those who examine the varied components of language, and those who revel in the sheer joy of language.”
—Bonnie Johnson, Ph.D., Co-Editor, The Reading Professor,
an International Literacy Association SIG journal
“The Reading Teacher’s Book of Lists is a treasure box for reading professionals with some shiny new
baubles. The sixth edition adds resources from technology, academic vocabulary, and the Common Core
State Standards to an updated compendium of essential lists, making it a ‘must have’ for literacy educators
at all levels.”
—Camille Blachowicz, Ph.D., Co-director, The Reading Leadership Institute,
National-Louis University
“Teachers and parents must rush to get a copy of this fabulous resource, which will fuel every student’s
love of language and ensure success in reading and learning.”
—Diane Lapp, Ed.D., Distinguished Professor of Education,
San Diego State University
The Reading Teacher’s
Book of Lists
Sixth Edition
Jacqueline E. Kress, EdD
Edward B. Fry, PhD
Copyright © 2016 by Jacqueline E Kress.
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SIXTH EDITION
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CONTENTS
Common Core State Standards
xi
The Authors
xv
Preface to the Sixth Edition
xvii
SECTION 1: FOUNDATIONS
List 1
List 2
List 3
List 4
List 5
List 6
List 7
List 8
List 9
List 10
List 11
List 12
List 13
List 14
List 15
1
Typical Literacy Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Speech Sound Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sound-Awareness Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rhyming Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Predictable Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Books without Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Print Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Phonics Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rhyming Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Minimal Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Word Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Active Response Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Handwriting Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reading and Language Tips for Parents of Young Children . . . . . . . . . . .
Language Arts Glossary for Parents and Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SECTION 2: PHONICS
List 16
List 17
List 18
List 19
List 20
List 21
List 22
List 23
List 24
List 25
List 26
List 27
51
Suggested Phonics Teaching Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Consonant Sounds and Spellings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vowel Sounds and Spellings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Double Vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Final E Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sound Determined by Letter Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Phonics Example Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Most Common Phonograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Phonograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Phonically Irregular Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Standalones—Words without Rhymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syllabication Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SECTION 3: USEFUL WORDS
List 28
List 29
4
8
9
11
14
16
19
20
21
23
30
33
36
38
41
53
55
57
58
59
60
61
78
79
88
89
90
93
High-Frequency Instant Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Homophones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
v
95
102
List 30
List 31
List 32
List 33
List 34
List 35
List 36
List 37
List 38
List 39
List 40
Homographs and Heteronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Easily Confused Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Collective Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mass or Uncountable Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Compound Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nonreversible Word Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Similes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Metaphors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Collocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Common Word Idioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Idiomatic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SECTION 4: VOCABULARY BUILDERS
List 41
List 42
List 43
List 44
List 45
List 46
List 47
List 48
List 49
List 50
List 51
List 52
List 53
List 54
List 55
List 56
List 57
List 58
List 59
List 60
List 61
List 62
List 63
List 64
139
The Twenty Most Common Prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Prefixes of Number, Size, and Amount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
More Prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Twenty Most Common Suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inflectional Suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
More Suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Greek and Latin Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-Ology Word Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-Phobia and -Philia Word Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Synonyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Antonyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Words with Multiple Meanings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Onomatopoeia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Portmanteau or Blended Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Clipped Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oxymorons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sesquipedalian Superstars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eponyms and Toponyms—Words Based on Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Neologisms or New Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Words Borrowed from Other Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
French and Latin Phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
American and British English Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Words and Phrases from Mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shakespeare in Words and Phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SECTION 5: CONTENT LITERACY
List 65
List 66
List 67
List 68
List 69
List 70
List 71
List 72
List 73
List 74
List 75
110
119
122
124
126
129
130
131
132
133
135
142
143
145
149
150
151
155
160
161
162
165
168
171
173
175
176
177
181
186
191
194
196
198
203
205
High-Utility Academic Words—Primary Grades 1 to 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
High-Utility Academic Words—Intermediate Grades 4 to 8 . . . . . . . . . . .
Math Vocabulary—Primary Grades 1 to 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Math Vocabulary—Elementary Grades 4 to 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Math Vocabulary—Intermediate Grades 6 to 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
US Customary Measurement System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Metric System of Measurement (SI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Metric and Customary Equivalents and Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Roman Numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reading Math Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Social Studies Vocabulary—Primary Grades 1 to 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
208
210
213
217
220
224
226
228
230
231
233
CONTENTS
vi
List 76
List 77
List 78
List 79
List 80
List 81
List 82
List 83
List 84
List 85
Social Studies Vocabulary—Intermediate Grades 4 to 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Social Studies Vocabulary—Secondary Grades 9 to 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Geography Vocabulary—Primary Grades 1 to 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Geography Vocabulary—Intermediate Grades 4 to 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Geography Fast Facts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
US States and Their Capitals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
States of Mexico and Their Capitals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Provinces of Canada and Their Capitals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Science Vocabulary—Primary Grades 1 to 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Science Vocabulary—Elementary Grades 4 to 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SECTION 6: BOOKS
List 86
List 87
List 88
List 89
List 90
List 91
List 92
List 93
List 94
List 95
List 96
List 97
List 98
List 99
257
Book Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Genres and Text Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
New and Old Favorite Books to Read Aloud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Award-Winning Children’s Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Books for Word Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Children’s All-Time Favorite Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Books for Reluctant Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kids’ Magazines for Readers and Writers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Booklist Collections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Book Interest Arousers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fifty Postreading Response Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Fry Readability Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Readability Score Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exemplar Texts for ELA and Subject Area Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SECTION 7: COMPREHENSION
List 100
List 101
List 102
List 103
List 104
List 105
List 106
List 107
List 108
List 109
List 110
List 111
List 112
List 113
List 114
260
262
265
270
274
276
278
281
284
287
288
290
292
293
299
BDA Comprehension Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Context Clues and Word Meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syntax and Comprehension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Comprehension Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Question Starters for Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Proverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Graphic Organizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problem-Solving Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Paragraph and Text Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Character Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tone and Mood Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Point of View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Language Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Persuasive Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Literary Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SECTION 8: FLUENCY
List 115
List 116
List 117
List 118
234
238
240
241
243
245
247
248
249
252
302
304
306
307
309
310
316
321
322
325
330
333
335
338
339
343
Fluency Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sentence Tunes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fluency and Punctuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fluency Teaching Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS
vii
346
348
349
351
List 119 Oral Reading Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
List 120 Optimal Oral Reading Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
List 121 Oral Reading Fluency Rubric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SECTION 9: LANGUAGE
List 122
List 123
List 124
List 125
List 126
List 127
List 128
List 129
List 130
357
Common Features of Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Parts of Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Key Verb Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Common Verb Tenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Irregular Verb Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Basic Sentence Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Capitalization Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Contractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Punctuation Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SECTION 10: SPELLING
List 131
List 132
List 133
List 134
List 135
List 136
List 137
359
361
362
364
367
370
371
372
373
377
Spelling Demons—Elementary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spelling Demons—Intermediate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spelling Demons—National Spelling Bee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spelling Rules for Adding Suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plurals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spelling and Pronunciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Common Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SECTION 11: WRITING
List 138
List 139
List 140
List 141
List 142
List 143
List 144
List 145
List 146
List 147
List 148
List 149
List 150
List 151
List 152
List 153
List 154
List 155
List 156
353
355
356
380
381
383
384
386
388
389
393
Narrative and Informational Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Story Starters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Prompts for Expository Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Descriptive Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Color Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sense Words for Descriptive Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Signal and Transition Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
He Said/She Said . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Checklist for Narrative Writing—Primary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Checklist for Opinion Writing—Primary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Checklist for Informative or Explanatory Writing—Primary . . . . . . . . . . .
Checklist for Narrative Writing—Elementary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Checklist for Opinion/Argument Writing—Elementary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Checklist for Informative or Explanatory Writing—Elementary . . . . . . . .
Teacher’s Corrective Feedback Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Proofreading Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hyphenation Rules for Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nonbiased Language Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acronyms and Initializations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SECTION 12: TEACHING IDEAS
396
397
399
402
406
407
410
415
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
429
431
List 157 Tips for Reading Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
List 158 Games and Teaching Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
List 159 Language Development through Drama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
433
434
438
CONTENTS
viii
List 160
List 161
List 162
List 163
List 164
List 165
List 166
List 167
List 168
List 169
List 170
List 171
List 172
List 173
List 174
Word Wall Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Student/Group Project Planner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Working in Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Teamwork Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Teaching with Magazines and Newspapers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sample Reading Block Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Activities for Tutors and Volunteers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
One Hundred Ways to Praise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Activities for Multiple Intelligences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Multiple Intelligences Questionnaire—Elementary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Multiple Intelligences Questionnaire—Middle and High School . . . . . . .
Report Card Helpers—Euphemisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reading Organizations and Journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Publishers of Reading Materials and Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Education Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Initializations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SECTION 13: ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS
List 175
List 176
List 177
List 178
List 179
List 180
List 181
List 182
List 183
List 184
471
Teaching Tips for ELLs’ Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Realia and Manipulatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Class and School Vocabulary for ELLs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Students’ Language Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
English Sounds Not Used in Other Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problem English Sounds for ELLs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spanish Alphabet and Phonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Useful Spanish Words and Phrases for Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Three Hundred Most Frequently Used Spanish Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dichos—Spanish Proverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SECTION 14: ASSESSMENT
List 185
List 186
List 187
List 188
List 189
List 190
List 191
List 192
List 193
List 194
List 195
List 196
List 197
List 198
List 199
List 200
List 201
440
446
448
450
451
452
453
455
457
459
461
463
464
467
468
474
476
477
480
481
482
483
486
493
497
499
Assessment Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Assessment Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Normal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Study Skills Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Memory and Recall Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Test-taking Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Test Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interest Inventory—Primary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interest Inventory—Elementary/Intermediate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cloze Procedure Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Analogies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rubrics for Narrative Writing—Primary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rubrics for Opinion Writing—Primary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rubrics for Informative or Explanatory Writing—Primary . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rubrics for Narrative Writing—Elementary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rubrics for Opinion/Argument Writing—Elementary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rubrics for Informative or Explanatory Writing—Elementary . . . . . . . . .
SECTION 15: WORD PLAY
502
504
507
508
510
512
514
516
517
518
520
522
523
524
525
527
529
531
List 202 Jump Rope Rhymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
List 203 Tongue Twisters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS
ix
534
539
List 204
List 205
List 206
List 207
List 208
List 209
List 210
List 211
List 212
List 213
List 214
Children’s Humor: What Kids Say . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Popular First Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fun Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Curious Place Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Anagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Palindromes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Proverbs in Disguise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rools for Good Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Poetry for Language Laughs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surprising Reading Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wacky Wordies—Visual Word Puzzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SECTION 16: ALPHABETS AND SYMBOLS
List 215
List 216
List 217
List 218
List 219
List 220
List 221
List 222
List 223
List 224
List 225
567
Alphabet Letter Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Alphabet Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Different Alphabets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ancient Egyptian Alphabet—Hieroglyphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Native American Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
American Manual Alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
American Sign Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Braille Alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Radio Voice Alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Morse Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Traffic Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SECTION 17: INFORMATION LITERACY
List 226
List 227
List 228
List 229
List 230
List 231
List 232
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
577
578
583
Evaluating Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Developing Citation Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Making a Document Interactive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fifty Uses for Graphic Organizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dictionary and Glossary Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dictionary Pronunciation Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Library Classification Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SECTION 18: DIGITAL RESOURCES
List 233
List 234
List 235
List 236
List 237
List 238
542
544
547
548
550
552
554
555
557
559
560
586
588
590
592
594
596
598
601
Search Tips and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Simple Search Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Websites for Reading and Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Websites for Children’s Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Websites for Word Lovers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Virtual Reference Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Index
603
605
606
608
610
611
613
DOWNLOADABLE LISTS
Many of the lists in this book are available for free download from the publisher’s web site. To
access them, visit HYPERLINK "http://www.wiley.com/go/rtbl6" www.wiley.com/go/rtbl6.
CONTENTS
x
COMMON CORE STATE STANDARDS
College and Career Readiness
Anchor Standards for English Language Arts
Foundation Skills
List Numbers
Print Concepts
1
Demonstrate understanding of the organization and
basic features of print.
1, 6, 7, 12, 86, 87
Phonological Awareness
2
Demonstrate understanding of spoken words,
syllables, and sounds (phonemes).
1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, 18,
22, 177, 179, 180, 202, 203
Phonics and Word Recognition
3
Know and apply grade-level phonics and word
analysis skills in decoding words.
1, 3, 4, 11, 12, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21,
22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27
Fluency
4
Read with sufficient accuracy and fluency to support
comprehension.
Author Standards for Reading
1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 25, 26, 28, 38, 115, 116,
117, 118, 119, 120, 121
List Numbers
Key Ideas and Details
1
Read closely to determine what the text says explicitly
and to make logical inferences from it; cite specific
textual evidence when writing or speaking to support
conclusions drawn from the text.
96, 100, 102, 103, 104, 106, 108, 121
2
Determine central ideas or themes of a text and
analyze their development; summarize the key
supporting details and ideas.
96, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 108
3
Analyze how and why individuals, events, and ideas
develop and interact over the course of a text.
6, 96, 100, 103, 104, 106, 108, 109,
110, 141, 142, 143
(continued)
xi
Craft and Structure
4
Interpret words and phrases as they are used in a text,
including determining technical, connotative, and
figurative meanings, and analyze how specific word
choices shape meaning or tone.
9, 36, 37, 39, 40, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69,
70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79,
80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 101, 103, 104,
109, 110, 141, 142, 143
5
Analyze the structure of texts, including how specific
sentences, paragraphs, and larger portions of the text
(e.g., a section, chapter, scene, or stanza) relate to
each other and the whole.
86, 87, 103, 104, 106, 108, 138, 144,
145, 230, 231, 232, 237, 238
6
Assess how point of view or purpose shapes the
content and style of a text.
103, 104, 108, 111, 138
Integration of Knowledge and Ideas
7
Integrate and evaluate content presented in diverse
media and formats, including visually and
quantitatively, as well as in words.
6, 96, 106, 109, 110, 141, 142, 143,
226, 227, 233, 234, 235, 236
8
Delineate and evaluate the argument and specific
claims in a text, including the validity of the reasoning
as well as the relevance and sufficiency of the evidence.
96, 103, 104, 106, 108, 113
9
Analyze how two or more texts address similar
themes or topics in order to build knowledge or to
compare the approaches the authors take.
87, 103, 104, 106, 108, 229
Range of Reading and Level of Text Complexity
10
Read and comprehend complex literary and
informational texts independently and proficiently.
Author Standards for Writing
3, 4, 5, 6, 87, 88, 89, 91, 94, 99, 164
List Numbers
Text Types and Purposes
1
Write arguments to support claims in an analysis of
substantive topics or texts, using valid reasoning and
relevant and sufficient evidence.
13, 113, 144, 147, 150, 197, 200
2
Write informative or explanatory texts to examine
and convey complex ideas and information clearly
and accurately through the effective selection,
organization, and analysis of content.
13, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73,
74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83,
84, 85, 113, 140, 144, 148, 151, 198
3
Write narratives to develop real or imagined
experiences or events using effective technique,
well-chosen details, and well-structured event
sequences.
13, 139, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146,
149, 196, 199
C O MMO N C O RE ST A T E ST A NDA RDS
xii
Production and Distribution of Writing
4
Produce clear and coherent writing in which the
development, organization, and style are appropriate
to task, purpose, and audience.
108, 112, 113, 138, 144, 146, 147,
148, 149, 150, 151
5
Develop and strengthen writing as needed by
planning, revising, editing, rewriting, or trying a new
approach.
106, 108, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150,
151, 152, 153
6
Use technology, including the Internet, to produce
and publish writing and to interact and collaborate
with others.
226, 227, 228, 233, 234, 238
Research to Build and Present Knowledge
7
Conduct short as well as more sustained research
projects based on focused questions, demonstrating
understanding of the subject under investigation.
161, 162, 163, 226, 227, 232, 235,
236, 238
8
Gather relevant information from multiple print and
digital sources, assess the credibility and accuracy of
each source, and integrate the information while
avoiding plagiarism.
226, 227, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238
9
Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to
support analysis, reflection, and research.
226, 227, 228, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237
Range of Writing
10
Write routinely over extended time frames (time for
research, reflection, and revision) and shorter time
frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of
tasks, purposes, and audiences.
Author Standards for Speaking and Listening
96, 139, 140, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150,
151, 164
List Numbers
Comprehension and Collaboration
1
Prepare for and participate effectively in a range of
conversation and collaborations with diverse partners,
building on others’ ideas and expressing their own
clearly and persuasively.
159, 161, 162, 163, 188, 189
2
Integrate and evaluate information presented in
diverse media and formats, including visually,
quantitatively, and orally.
226, 227, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238
3
Evaluate a speaker’ point of view, reasoning, and use
of evidence and rhetoric.
111, 112, 113, 114
C O MMO N C O RE ST A T E ST A NDA RDS
xiii
Presentation of Knowledge and Ideas
4
Present information, findings, and supporting
evidence such that listeners can follow the line of
reasoning and the organization, development, and
style are appropriate to task, purpose, and
audience.
108, 112, 113, 141, 142, 143, 144, 147, 150
5
Demonstrate understanding of word relationships
and nuances in word meanings.
29, 30, 31, 50, 52, 54, 55, 58, 63, 64
6
Acquire and use accurately a range of general
academic and domain-specific words and phrases
sufficient for reading, writing, speaking, and
listening at the college- and career-readiness level;
demonstrate independence in gathering vocabulary
knowledge when encountering an unknown term
important to comprehension or expression.
52, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68,
69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80,
81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 101, 112, 230, 231, 237
Author Standards for Language
List Numbers
Conventions of Standard English
1
Demonstrate command of the conventions of
standard English grammar and usage when writing
or speaking.
13, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126,
127, 128, 129
2
Demonstrate command of the conventions of
standard English capitalization, punctuation, and
spelling when writing.
24, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134,
135, 136, 137, 154, 156, 227
Knowledge of Language
3
Apply knowledge of language to understand how
language functions in different context, to make
effective choices for meaning or style, and to
comprehend more fully when reading or listening.
32, 33, 34, 102, 112
Vocabulary Acquisition and Use
4
Determine or clarify the meaning of unknown and
multiple-meaning words and phrases by using
context clues, analyzing meaningful word parts,
and consulting general and specialized reference
materials, as appropriate.
29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42,
43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54,
55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 195,
230, 231, 238
5
Demonstrate understanding of figurative language,
word relationships, and nuances in word meanings.
36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 50, 51, 105, 184
6
Acquire and use accurately a range of general
academic and domain-specific words and phrases
sufficient for reading, writing, speaking, and
listening at the college- and career-readiness level;
demonstrate independence in gathering vocabulary
knowledge when encountering an unknown term
important to comprehension or expression.
50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61,
62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73,
74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84,
85, 87
C O MMO N C O RE ST A T E ST A NDA RDS
xiv
THE AUTHORS
Jacqueline E. Kress, EdD, is professor of education at Georgian Court University (Lakewood, New Jersey),
where she currently teaches graduate and undergraduate courses in literacy education, assessment, and
other core topics for the preservice and in-service development of teachers, administrators, and other
educators.
An experienced reading teacher, she taught developmental and remedial reading in urban elementary schools and worked with native and non-native speakers of English as a language arts classroom
teacher and reading specialist. She has designed numerous educational programs at the college and P–12
levels including programs to improve teacher preparation and to increase P–12 student literacy and school
achievement. She is nationally known for her practice-based teacher resource books The Reading Teacher’s
Book of Lists and The ESL/ELL Teacher’s Book of Lists published by Wiley/Jossey-Bass.
Dr. Kress also served as dean of the schools of education at Georgian Court University and at New
York Institute of Technology, where she was also dean of quality assurance for the institute’s global
programs. At Fordham University she was associate dean and director of graduate studies in the Graduate
School of Education. Prior to her deanships, Dr. Kress held several policy positions at the New Jersey
Department of Higher Education in planning, quality management, academic programming, and teacher
education.
Dr. Kress earned a doctorate in education from Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, where
she was honored with the Evelyn Headley Award for her research in eye movements and children’s reading
comprehension.
Edward B. Fry, PhD (1925–2010), was Professor Emeritus of Education at Rutgers University (New
Brunswick, New Jersey), where he taught graduate and undergraduate courses (1965–1987) in reading and
curriculum. Dr. Fry was director of Rutgers Reading Center, which provided diagnosis and remediation
for children with reading problems and clinical practice for reading educators. He also supervised doctoral
research in reading and educational psychology.
Dr. Fry, internationally known for his Readability Graph, was the author of more than 30 books and
100 articles on phonics, high-frequency words, spelling, vocabulary, and other literacy-related topics. He
was a Fulbright Scholar at Makerere University in Uganda and at the University of Zimbabwe. He also
established the University Press at Africa University.
Dr. Fry is a member of the Reading Teacher Hall of Fame. Through the Literacy Research Association,
he established the Edward B. Fry Book Award in 1995 to recognize contributions to reading and literacy
through the publication of research.
xv
This sixth edition of The Reading Teacher’s Book of Lists is dedicated
To Edward B. Fry (1925–2010)
mentor, colleague, and humanitarian
and
To Geraldine Kress Orner (1946–2014)
sister, friend, and my first reading teacher
with gratitude and great affection
PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION
Reading and language arts education continually evolves to meet the ever-increasing demands of life in the
twenty-first century. In the years since the publication of the first edition of The Reading Teacher’s Book of
Lists in 1984, much has changed, yet much remains the same. The goal of this edition, as each one before
it, is to be the go-to daily resource for the stuff of targeted, best-practice reading and literacy instruction.
Teachers today are challenged to meet the needs of a broader range of students. There is a greater
emphasis on in-class intervention and differentiation as well as a greater emphasis on standardized test
results. We find that standards and policies are frequently determined far from the local school and district.
And, the pace and impact of technology and globalization have permanently raised the bar on expectations
for what all our students need to know and be able to do by the time they leave high school.
What remains the same is the need, day after day, for teachers to engage and support students as they
progress from the basics of phoneme-grapheme correspondences needed for reading and writing to more
sophisticated and mature literacy skills, such as judging the credibility of information, appreciating author
craft, and writing persuasively.
This sixth edition is a significant revision and expansion of The Reading Teacher’s Book of Lists. It
contains more than fifty completely new lists. Some, such as “Evaluating Online Resources,” respond to the
new demands of information literacy; others address topics highlighted in reading and language standards,
for example, high-utility academic words. Still others address the need to monitor student progress against
learning standards through checklists and rubrics based on the Common Core State Standards. Speaking
of standards—a new, easy-to-use matrix identifies by list number support for each of the anchor standards
in the Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts and Literacy in History/Social Studies,
Science, and Technical Subjects. We invite you to browse the Table of Contents, or better yet, just open
the book and poke around. The sixth edition is brimming with important content, engaging activities, and
interesting bits for students and teachers in all grades.
One new feature we hope you find helpful is the section brief. Each of the eighteen sections of the book
begins with a research update that outlines current theory and instructional practices that have research
support. The section briefs provide a research rationale for using the instructional material in the section
and include citations for a number of excellent articles suitable for self-directed professional development.
From its earliest days, The Reading Teacher’s Book of Lists was meant to be a time-saving, practicefocused resource for teachers, literacy coaches, reading supervisors, teacher educators, and others. We are
honored by the more than half a million educators who have brought us into their classrooms and say thank
you for all the comments, reviews, and suggestions at conferences, online, and elsewhere. Many helped guide
the development of this edition. Thank you also for your contributions to the critically important work of
teaching children to read well.
Jacqueline E. Kress
February 14, 2015
xvii
SECTION 1
Foundations
List 1.
Typical Literacy Development
List 2.
Speech Sound Development
List 3.
Sound-Awareness Books
List 4.
Rhyming Books
List 5.
Predictable Books
List 6.
Books without Words
List 7.
Print Concepts
List 8.
Phonics Awareness
List 9.
Rhyming Words
List 10.
Minimal Pairs
List 11. Word Segmentation
List 12.
Active Response Activities
List 13.
Handwriting Charts
List 14. Reading and Language Tips for Parents of Young
Children
List 15. Language Arts Glossary for Parents and Others
T
he foundation for reading and literacy starts long before children enter school and begin
formal instruction. It emerges through the complex interactions of children’s physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development. Research shows this development proceeds more or
less in the same order for all children unless they have a disability and that most children learn
to speak by age three and learn to read by age seven. Knowing the progression of literacy-related
development from birth to age seven helps teachers and others recognize young children who
are typically developing and those who are not. It also aids planning and support for children’s
learning by pointing out the developmental progression of skills acquisition.
By the time children attend school there are discernable differences in their language use and
familiarity with print and other literacy-related activities. To help children be successful direct
instruction is needed. In direct instruction, teachers focus attention on specific skills and provide
lots of opportunity for practicing them. Research has helped target the most important skills.
The National Early Literacy Panel reviewed the findings of scientific research on literacy
development and identified several skills essential to young children’s literacy success (McGillFrazen, 2010): expressive and receptive oral language, knowledge of the alphabetic principle,
phonemic and phonological awareness, and knowledge of print concepts. These findings complemented those of the earlier National Reading Panel (NICHHD, 2000).
Children’s development in these areas occurs through their encounters with language—both
spoken and written. The most widely given advice for developing the skills needed for literacy is
talk to and read to each child—early and often. Much of what must be learned can be experienced
through listening and speaking and by engaging in dialogue around children’s books. Children
learn to anticipate and predict with books that have predictable phrases, sentences, and refrains.
They learn to attend to ending sounds with rhymes and books that rhyme. They learn to express
themselves, tell stories, and develop comprehension skills with wordless picture books.
While nestling side by side with an adult or older child and listening to stories being read
aloud, children learn a host of important print and literacy concepts, including how to hold a
book, when and how to turn the page, and the directionality of print from left to right and top
to bottom. As they watch and listen, children begin to understand the one-to-one relationship
between the word pointed to on the page and the spoken word. They also form the key understanding that print is speech written down. By talking about the stories they develop concepts
of characters, setting, and story line. Exposure to many books helps develop children’s listening
comprehension skills, which are stepping stones for comprehending what they will soon read and
enjoy on their own.
Play is child’s work. Playing with language, especially through rhymes, helps children recognize the rhythm of words and sentences and discern whether two sounds are the same or not.
Children’s ability to recognize, separate, and manipulate sounds in a word is a foundation skill
for reading, spelling, and writing. Using sound boxes to segment or break apart words into syllables and sounds has been found to be very effective in helping children understand sound-symbol
relationships.
As children develop awareness of sounds and their spellings, they should be encouraged to
write. In the beginning their writing will appear as squiggles and curlicues, but as they become
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
2
more familiar with the upper- and lowercase letters and their sounds from stories and rhymes,
their writing will progress to more letter like symbols, to invented spellings not very related to
sounds, and then to spelling and writing that use the sound-symbol relationships they know.
Over time, and with learning to recognize some high-frequency words, children will use conventional spelling appropriate to their grade and age. These foundation skills set the stage for
more formal study of phonics, context clues, and word study, as well as vocabulary development,
comprehension, and other literacy skills.
All children benefit from active engagement and practice. Using active response activities
for skills development gives every child the opportunity to learn. Active response exercises are
effective with English language learners (ELLs) as well as English speakers and with children
across skill levels. Their fast pace and gamelike quality make learning and practice fun.
This section of the book contains lists and materials for each of the aspects of reading and
literacy foundations discussed. In addition, it includes tips to share with parents and others and
a glossary of terms related to early literacy.
Dunst, C. J., Meter, D., & Hamby, D. W. (2011). Relationship between young children’s nursery rhyme experiences
and knowledge and phonological and print-related abilities. CELLreviews, 4(1). (Funded by the US
Department of Education, Grant #H326B060010). Asheville, NC: Orelena Hawks Puckett Institute.
Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (2003). The early catastrophe. American Educator, Spring, 4–9.
McCarthy, P. A. (2007–2008). Using sound boxes systematically to develop phonemic awareness. The Reading
Teacher, 62(4), 346–349.
McGill-Frazen, A. (2010). The National Early Literacy Panel report: Summary, commentary, and reflections on
policies and practices to improve children’s early literacy. Educational Researcher, 39(4), 275–278.
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development NICHHD. (2000). Report of the National Reading
Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and
its implications for reading instruction (NIH Publication No. 00–4769). Washington, DC: US Government
Printing Office.
Pinnell, G., & Fountas, I. (1998). Word matters: Teaching phonics and spelling in the reading/writing classroom
(pp. 78–80). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Tracey, D. H., & Morrow, L.M. (2015). Best practices in early literacy. In L. B. Gambrell & L. M. Morrow (Eds.),
Best practices in literacy instruction (5th ed., pp. 85–106). New York: The Guilford Press.
F O U NDA T IO NS
3
LIST 1. TYPICAL LITERACY DEVELOPMENT
The foundations for children’s learning to read and write begin at birth. Research shows there is a gradual,
multifaceted process of learning to understand and use language for thinking and communication. This
process and its result are often referred to as emergent literacy. Though children do not take a lock-step
path, studies show there is a general order of literacy development that can be described as typical whether
the child is learning English, another language, or more than one language. Not all children reach milestones at the same age; however, most learn to speak by age three and learn to read by age seven. There
can be quantitative as well as qualitative differences among children’s development, even when they reach
milestones at about the same time. For example, two children may begin to use two-word sentences by age
two, but one might produce many more two-word utterances and have a larger repertoire of words to use
than the other child.
Children discover language through play, exploration, and interaction with others. The most salient
positive factor in language development is a language-rich environment that includes lots of interaction
with parents and caregivers who engage children with the spoken word using songs, rhymes, and stories,
lots of stories.
The following list shows the typical development of speech (producing sounds), language (attaching
meaning to spoken sounds), reading, and writing in young children—important information for teachers
and parents of preschool and primary grade children.
Zero to Six Months
• Use different sounding cries for different purposes
• Coo, babble, and make gurgling sounds
• Recognize and are soothed by caregivers’ voices
• Smile when spoken to
• Focus on the sounds of the language they hear and imitate these sounds
• Attend to music and sounds made by toys
• Respond to their names
• Track source of sounds with eyes or by turning head
• Respond to changes in tone
• Include /b/, /p/, and /m/ sounds in babbling
Six to Twelve Months
• Develop physical control and skills: roll over, sit up, bounce, crawl, stand up, and walk
• Play pat-a-cake and peek-a-boo
• Babble in short and long groups of sounds like syllables
• Use babble and gestures to communicate wants
• Begin to respond to commands such as give me and come here
• Understand simple words for common things such as milk, shoe, dog, dolly
• Say first words such as mama, dada, car, doggie
• Begin to name objects and respond to request to show me
One to Two Years
• Use one- and two-word sentences purposefully
• Have vocabulary of about twenty words, mostly nouns, by first birthday and acquire about 250 by
second birthday, including some verbs (go, see) and other parts of speech (more, no, big, dirty, pretty)
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
4
• Respond to simple directions or questions such as Where is your cup? and Point to your nose.
• Enjoy stories, rhymes, and songs with repetition
• Pose two-word questions such as More milk? for May I have more milk?
• Use many beginning consonant sounds
• Generalize labels to category of things such as doggie for all animals
Two to Three Years
• Can walk, run, jump, and climb
• Name many objects in environment
• Recognize that pictures are symbols, not the real thing, and can point to a picture of something in a
book when requested
• Begin using pronouns (me, you, mine) and prepositions (in, on, under)
• Use two-, three-, and four-word sentences
• Ask adults to read them stories and can recognize favorites by their covers
• Talk about characters in books
• Imitate adult reading by holding and looking at books, turning pages
• Have between one thousand and two thousand words in spoken vocabulary by third birthday
• Use /k/, /g/, /f/, /t/, /d/, and /n/ sounds
• Articulate well enough to be understood by most people
• Distinguish between writing and drawing and make marks or scribbles that resemble letters
• Ask for names of objects for which they do not have word as in What’s its name?
• Notice details in print such as the initial letter of their names
Three to Four Years
• Use three- and four-word sentences competently
• Begin using plurals and past tenses
• Understand questions dealing with their activities and surroundings
• Tell about own experiences and include description
• Understand and reply to questions that link circumstance to action such as What do you do when you
are hungry?
• Can give name, age, and gender
• Know basic colors and shapes by name
• Retell some key details of stories read to them
• Imitate tone and cadence of adults while pretend reading
• Demonstrate knowledge of print concepts such as directionality and one-to-one correspondence
between words printed and read
• Recognize lower- and uppercase letters and begin to write some letters
• Begin to match letters with sounds
• Begin to match written words with spoken words
• Demonstrate familiarity with beginning sounds and ending sounds that rhyme
• Begin to copy some words such as their names, mom, dad, I love you, family, a pet’s name
Four to Five Years
• Know names of most things in their environment, including names of common animals, community
helpers (doctor, firefighter, and police officer), school, church, store, numbers one to twenty, and so on
F O U NDA T IO NS
5
• Know and use relational prepositions correctly (in, on, under, over, next to, etc.)
• Have between 2,500 and 5,000 word vocabularies
• Can repeat four digits or four-syllable words
• Can produce most vowels and diphthong sounds
• Verbalize during and after activities using appropriate details and commentary
• Communicate with adults and other children readily
• Understand comparisons when visual objects are presented
• Understand and demonstrate knowledge of print concepts and phonological awareness such as print
carries meaning, sounds are represented by letters, the order of letters in a word is important, roles of
author and illustrator
• Attend to story and can answer the five W questions about it
• Articulate most sounds correctly and is understood by others even if articulation problem exists
• Read environmental print
• Tell a real or invented story and stay on topic
• Manipulate initial consonant sounds to make rhyming words
• Tell and understand puns or other jokes
• Dictate titles and sentences to go with drawings
• Begin to write sentences using known letter-sound associations, even if only using the initial sound of
the words
Five to Six Years
• Understand and use time concepts such as morning, night, day, tomorrow, yesterday, today, before,
and after
• Understand and provide common opposites such as top-bottom and big-small
• Use many descriptive adverbs and adjectives in speaking
• Articulate consonant and vowel sounds correctly with few exceptions and is understood by others
• Understand that writing is used for different purposes, such as signs, letters, stories, explanations, and
directions
• Attend to and repeat sentences of up to nine words
• Follow a sequence of three directions
• Recognize words that rhyme, that have the same beginning sound or that have the same medial sound
• Define objects by how they are used such as towel, bed, table, jacket
• Begin to use compound and complex sentences
• Apply conventions of grammar to speech
• Know the regular sound-letter correspondences for consonants and short and long vowels
• Read simple controlled vocabulary texts and retell the story
• Write stories using known letter-sound associations and learned spellings of high-frequency words
• Use capital letters at the beginning of a sentence and end punctuation
• Have a sight vocabulary of 100 to 150 words
• Sound out new words with support
• Make predictions based on a story’s title, illustrations, and parts read
• Understand and use common punctuation to guide oral reading intonation
Six to Seven Years
• Read and retell familiar stories
• Recall and discuss prior knowledge
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
6
• Use phonics and context clues to figure out unknown words
• Use word parts (prefixes, suffixes, root words) and similar known words to decode unfamiliar words
• Read familiar texts with fluency
• Give reasons for the actions of characters in a story
• Use a variety of repair strategies when they encounter a comprehension problem including rereading,
slowing down, reading to the end of the paragraph
• Make, confirm, and revise predictions based on reading
• Write using regular spellings of sounds and learned spellings of high-frequency words
• Use references such as a word wall or picture dictionary to find the correct spelling of words as needed
• Write in complete sentences and use initial capitalization, commas, and end punctuation correctly
• Have a sight vocabulary of five hundred words or more
• Articulate clearly all sounds in the language
• Know the less common sound-letter correspondences including hard and soft sounds of c and g,
blends, digraphs, and diphthongs, and use them in reading and writing
• Distinguish among different types of text including poems, fictional stories, fables, fairy tales, and
informational text
• Recognize the main elements of a story including characters, setting, action
• Compare the characters, settings, or actions of two or more stories
• Write a story of three of five sentences in response to a picture prompt
• Choose appropriate and varied words in speaking and writing
• Write legibly in manuscript
F O U NDA T IO NS
7
LIST 2. SPEECH SOUND DEVELOPMENT
Children’s repertoire of oral speech sounds (phonemes) develops slowly over five to six years. This chart
shows the age at which 75 percent of children have mastered each spoken phoneme. Sounds are shown
using the *International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
CONSONANTS
SYLLABLE
POSITION
IPA* Conventional
m
Age Age
2
2
Age
3
n
η
p
2
—
2
2
3
2
3
I
nt** ε
4
æ
Short I
Short E
Short A
Is
Met
At
4
3
4
brtrdr-
5
5
5
sl-
6
b
t
2
2
2
5
3
3
Λ
Short U
Schwa
Up
Alone
2
2
krgr-
5
5
swtw-
5
5
d
k
2
3
3
3
4
4
α
c
Broad A
Broad O
Father
Off
2
3
frθr-
5
6
kw-ηk
5
4
g
r
3
5
3
4
4
4
v
u
Short OO
Long OO
Look
Moon
4
2
plbl-
5
5
-ηg
-mp
5
3
l
f
v
4
3
5
4
3
5
4
3
4
klglfl-
5
5
5
-nt
-nd
spr-
4
6
5
5
5
nt
5
nt
nt
-ld
-lk
6
5
splstr-
5
5
5
5
5
3
5
3
ou
Long O
Go
2
-lf
-lv
5
5
skrskw-
5
5
5
nt
2
5
5
nt
5
nt
—
au
eI
aI
Ou
Long A
Long I
Out
May
Ice
3
4
3
-lz
smsn-
5
5
5
-ns
-ps
-ts
5
5
5
5
2
nt
2
—
—
I
OI
Boy
3
spst-
5
5
-mz
-nz
5
5
s
z
ℑ
h
(sh) shoe
(zh) measure
w
ju
c
(voiceless) thin
(th voiced) this
e
8
γ
(ng) sing
VOWELS
AND
DIPHTHONGS
IPA Conventional
i
Long E
Me
Long U
Use
CONSONANT
BLENDS
Age Blend Age Blend Age
2
pr5
3
j
t
(y) yes
(ch) chief
4
5
4
5
—
4
-st
sk-
6
5
-ηz
-dz
5
5
dℑ
(j) just
4
4
6
-ks
5
-gz
5
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
8
LIST 3. SOUND-AWARENESS BOOKS
Sound awareness books help young readers focus on recognizing and producing specific sounds. Repetition
of a consonant sound in the beginning or ending position in words or of a vowel sound in the middle of
words helps reinforce sound-symbol relationships—a critical foundation for emergent reading and writing.
The following lists highlight books that focus on either consonant sounds or vowel sounds. They include
old and new favorites enjoyed by children in preschool through grade 2.
Consonant Sounds
• Benji’s Blanket by Marc Brown
• Mrs. Wishy-Washy by Joy Cowley
• Bertie and the Bear by Pamela Allen
• The Napping House by Audrey Woods
• The Carrot Seed by Ruth Krauss
• One Fish, Two Fish by Dr. Seuss
• Cat’s Do, Dogs Don’t by Norma Simon
• Pancakes, Pancakes by Eric Carle
• Crow Boy by Taro Yashima
• Peter’s Chair by Ezra Jack Keats
• Dig, Drill, Dump, Fill by Tana Hoban
• Pingo the Plaid Panda by Loreen Leedy
• Digging up Dinosaurs by Aliki
• The Popcorn Book by Tomie dePaola
• Fish Is Fish by Leo Lionni
• Quick, Quack, Quick! by Marsha Arnold
• The Gingerbread Boy by Paul Galdone
• Red is Best by Kathy Stinson
• Gobble, Growl, Grunt by Peter Spier
• Sadie and the Snowman by Allan Morgan
• Hats, Hats, Hats by Ann Morris
• Shake My Sillies Out by Raffi
• A House Is a House for Me by Maryann Hoberman
• Sheep on a Ship by Nancy Shaw
• How Many Bugs in a Box? by David Carter
• Swan Sky by Keizaburo Tejima
• How Many Trucks Can a Tow Truck Tow? by
Charlotte Pomerantz
• A Tiger Called Thomas by Charlotte
Zolotow
• Jamberry by Bruce Degen
• Tom and His Tractor by Leslie Wood
• Joshua James Likes Trucks by Catherine Petrie
• The Very Busy Spider by Eric Carle
• Jump, Frog, Jump by Robert Kalan
• Where Does the Garbage Go? by Paul Showers
• Koko’s Kitten by Francine Patterson
• Yummy, Yummy by Judith Grey
• Lazy Lions, Lucky Lambs by Patricia R. Giff
• Zella, Zack, and Zodiac by Bill Peet
• Mickey’s Magnet by Franklyn Branley
• Zipping, Zapping, Zooming Bats by Ann
Earle
F O U NDA T IO NS
9
Vowel Sounds
A
All About Arthur by Eric Carle
The Cat Sat on the Mat by Alice Cameron
Jack and Jake by Aliki
Mrs. Brice’s Mice by Syd Hoff
Slim and Jim by Richard Egielski
Whistle for Willie by Ezra Jack Keats
O
The Paper Crane by Molly Bang
Skate, Kate, Skate by Patty Carratello
Taste the Raindrops by Anna Hines
Flossie and the Fox by Patricia C. McKissack
Fox in Socks by Dr. Seuss
Hop on Pop by Dr. Seuss
E
Joe and the Snow by Tomie dePaola
The Bee Tree by Patricia Polacco
Over in the Meadow by Olive Wadsworth
Emma’s Pet by David McPhail
Toad on the Road by Susan Schade and John
Buller
Hester the Jester by Ben Shecter
Sheep in a Jeep by Nancy Shaw
U
Ten Sleepy Sheep by Holly Keller
Who Has These Feet? by Laura Hulbert
I
The Bug in the Jug Wants a Hug by Brian Cleary
Duke the Blue Mule by Patty Carratello
One Duck Stuck by Phyllis Root
Iris Has a Virus by Arlene Alda
Sun Up, Sun Down by Gail Gibbons
Itchy, Itchy Chicken Pox by Grace Maccarone
Tubby the Tuba by Paul Tripp
The Missing Mitten Mystery by Steven Kellogg
Underwear by Mary Monsell
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
10
LIST 4. RHYMING BOOKS
If you ask adults to recall a favorite book from their childhood, many will name a rhyming book and
some will begin to recite it. Whether it’s one of the Dr. Seuss classics or another, such as Bemelmans,
Madeline, rhyming books have helped generations lay a foundation of phonological (sound) awareness and
readiness for reading. They still do. In addition to focusing attention on the ending sounds of words, books
that rhyme help children discriminate among sounds, recognize patterns, and develop memory skills—all
important foundation skills for literacy. Perhaps their most important contribution is that they happily
engage children in the pleasures of reading. This list contains the titles of more than one hundred rhyming
books for young children to enjoy.
• Aliens Love Underpants by Claire Freedman
• Altoona Baboona by Janie Bynum
• The Animals’ Song by David L. Harrison
• Baby Beluga by Raffi
• Baby Says “Moo!” by JoAnn Early Macken, illustrated by David Walker
• Bats in the Band by Brian Lies
• Bear Snores On by Karma Wilson, illustrated by Jane Chapman
• The Big Blue Spot by Peter Horowitz
• Big Honey Hunt by Stan Berenstain
• Bob & Rob & Corn on the Cob by Todd McQueen
• Bubble Gum, Bubble Gum by Lisa Wheeler
• Buzz Said the Bee by Wendy Cheyette Lewison
• By Day, By Night by Amy Gibson
• The Caboose Who Got Loose by Bill Peet
• A Camping Spree with Mr. Magee by Chris Van Dusen
• Cat in the Hat by Dr. Seuss
• Chick Chicka Boom Boom by Bill Martin Jr. and John Archambault
• Chicken Cheeks by Michael Ian Black
• Click, Clack, Moo: Cows That Type by Doreen Cronin and Betsy Lewin
• Construction by Sally Sutton
• The Cow Loves Cookies by Karma Wilson
• A Crowded Ride in the Countryside by Frank B. Edwards
• Dinosaur Roar! Board Book by Paul and Henrietta Stickland
• Do You Know Which Ones Will Grow? by Susan A. Shea
• Down by the Bay by Raffi
• Down to the Sea with Mr. Magee by Chris Van Dusen
• Drummer Hoff by Barbara and Ed Emberley
• Duck in the Truck by Jez Alborough
• Each Peach Pear Plum by Janet and Allan Ahlberg
• Everywhere Babies by Susan Meyers and Marla Frazee
• Farmer Joe and the Music Show by Tony Mitton
• Felicity Floo Visits the Zoo by E. S. Redmond
• Five Little Pumpkins by Iris Van Rynback
• Flashing Fire Engines by Tony Mitton, illustrated by Ant Parker
• Fox in Socks by Dr. Seuss
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• A Frog in the Bog by Karma Wilson
• The Frogs and Toads All Sang by Arnold Lobel
• Giraffes Can’t Dance by Giles Andreae
• Golden Domes and Silver Lanterns: A Muslim Book of Colors by Hena Khan
• Good Night, Sleep Tight by Mem Fox
• Good Sports: Rhymes about Running, Jumping, Throwing, and More by Jack Prelutsky
• Goodnight, Goodnight Construction Site by Sherri Duskey Rinker
• Granny Went to Market by Stella Blackstone
• Green Eggs and Ham by Dr. Seuss
• The Gruffalo by Julia Donaldson and Ariel Scheffler
• Hairy, Scary, Ordinary: What Is an Adjective? by Brian P. Cleary
• Have You Seen My New Blue Socks? by Eve Bunting
• Hello Toes! Hello Feet! by Ann Whitford Paul
• Hilda Must Be Dancing by Karma Wilson
• Horton Hears a Who! by Dr. Seuss
• The House Book by Keith Du Quette
• How Big Is a Pig? by Claire Beaton
• How Do Dinosaurs Eat Their Food? by Jane Yolen and Mark Teague
• How Do Dinosaurs Say Goodnight? by Jane Yolen and Mark Teague
• How Do You Hug a Porcupine? by Laurie Isop
• The Hungry Thing by Jane Slepian and Ann Seidler
• Hush Little One by John Butler
• Hush! A Thai Lullaby by Minfong Ho
• Hush, Little Alien by Daniel Kirk
• I Ain’t Gonna Paint No More! by Karen Beaumont
• I Am Cow, Hear Me Moo! by Jill Esbaum
• I Know a Rhino by Charles Fuge
• I Like Myself by Karen Beaumont
• I Went Walking by Sue Williams
• If All the Animals Came Inside by Eric Pinder
• If I Built a House by Chris Van Dusen
• Iggy Peck, Architect by Andrea Beaty
• Is There Really a Human Race? by Jamie Lee Curtis, illustrated by Laura Cornell
• Is Your Mama a Llama? by Deborah Guarino
• It’s Hard to Be Five by Jamie Lee Curtis
• Jamberry by Bruce Degen
• Jillian Jiggs by Phoebe Gilman
• Kermit the Hermit by Bill Peet
• A Leaf Can Be … by Laura Purdie Salas
• Let It Fall by Maryann Cocca-Leffler
• Little Blue Truck by Alice Schertle
• The Little School Bus by Margery Cuyler
• Llama Llama and the Bully Goat by Anna Dewdney
• Llama Llama Home with Mama by Anna Dewdney
• Mighty Dads by Joan Holub
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• The Monster Who Ate My Peas by Danny Schnitzlein
• Moo Baa La La La by Sandra Boynton
• Moose on the Loose by Carol P. Ocher
• Moses Supposes His Toeses Are Roses by Nancy Patz
• Mrs. McNosh Hangs Up Her Wash by Nadine Bernard Westcott
• My Granny Went to Market by Stella Blackstone
• My Truck Is Stuck! by Kevin Lewis, illustrated by Daniel Kirk
• Nelly Gnu and Daddy Too by Anna Dewdney
• The Night Parade by Lily Roscoe
• No Pirates Allowed! Said Library Lou by Rhonda Gowler Greene
• No Sleep for the Sheep! by Karen Beaumont
• No Two Alike by Keith Baker 2011
• Not Now! Said the Cow by Joanne Oppenheim
• One Big Pair of Underwear by Laura Gehl
• One Duck Stuck by Phyllis Root, illustrated by Jane Chapman
• One Fish Two Fish Red Fish Blue Fish by Dr. Seuss
• One Little Mouse by Dori Chaconas
• Oodles of Noodle by Lucia Hymes and James L. Hymes Jr.
• Parts by Tedd Arnold
• Pretend You’re a Cat by Jean Marzollo, illustrated by Jerry Pinkney
• The Recess Queen by Alexis O’Neill
• The Secret Science Project That Almost Ate the School by Judy Sierra
• Seven Silly Eaters by Mary Ann Hoberman
• Sheep in a Jeep by Nancy Shaw
• Sheep, Sheep, Sheep, Help Me Fall Asleep by Alan Alda
• Silly Tilly by Eileen Spinelli
• The Sneetches by Dr. Seuss
• Stand Back Said the Elephant, I’m Going to Sneeze! by Patricia Thomas
• Steam Train, Dream Train by Sherri Duskey Rinker
• Straight and Curvy, Meek and Nervy: More about Antonyms by Brian P. Cleary
• Ten on the Sled by Kim Norman, illustrated by Liza Woodruff
• This Little Chick by John Lawrence
• The Three Ninja Pigs by Corey Rosen Schwartz
• Tiptoe Joe by Ginger Foglesong Gibson
• Today I Feel Silly & Other Moods That Make My Day by Jamie Lee Curtis
• Train Song by Diane Siebert
• Trashy Town by Andrea Zimmerman and David Clemesha, illustrated by Dan Yaccarino
• Waking Beauty by Leah Wilcox
• When Dinosaurs Go Visiting by Linda Martin
• Whose Toes Are Those? by Jabari Asim
• Wild about Books by Judy Sierra
• Zin! Zin! Zin! A Violin by Lloyd Moss
• Zookeeper Sue by Chris Demarest
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LIST 5. PREDICTABLE BOOKS
Predictable books are stepping stones in early literacy. Their structures enable young readers to follow
along and participate in the reading of the story, holding their interest and aiding their comprehension.
In a cumulative story, each new thing or event is added to the previous ones and the list is repeated
(Bringing Rain to the Kapiti Plain by Verna Aardema, 1981). A circular story weaves the plot so that the
ending brings you back to the beginning (If You Give a Moose a Muffin by Laura Numeroff, 1991).
Some stories use a repeating question-answer format (Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See? by
Bill Martin Jr., 1992). Others use a familiar sequence, such as numbers, seasons, or days of the week, to
structure the story (Chicken Soup with Rice by Maurice Sendak, 1962).
Repeating pattern stories help children anticipate what is coming by repeating words, phrases, or
other story elements (The Little Red Hen by Paul Galdone, 2006). Last, authors often use strong rhyme
schemes that enable the reader to predict upcoming words or phrases (Is Your Mama a Llama? by Deborah
Guarino, 1989).
The following books will engage your young readers happily in following story lines, predicting what’s
next, and joining in the reading.
• 10 Bears in my My Bed by Stanley Mack, 1974
• Anansi Goes Fishing by Eric Kimmel, 1992
• Animal Numbers by Bert Kitchen, 1987
• Anno’s Counting Book by Mitsumasa Anno, 1977
• The Baby Beebee Bird by Diane Redfield Massie, 2000
• Barn Dance by Bill Martin, Jr., 1986
• Bringing the Rain to Kapiti Plain by Verna Aardema, 1981.
• Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See? by Bill Martin, Jr., 1967
• Buzz, Buzz, Buzz by Byron Barton, 1973
• Can I Keep Him? by Steven Kellogg, 1971
• Chester’s Way by Kevin Henkes, 1988
• Chicka Chicka Boom Boom by Bill Martin, Jr., 1989
• Count and See by Tana Hoban, 1972
• Counting Wildflowers by Bruce McMillan, 1986
• The Cow Who Clucked by Denise Fleming, 2006
• Dear Zoo by Rod Campbell, 2007
• Do You Know What I’ll Do? by Charlotte Zolotow, 1958
• Do You Know Which Ones Will Grow? by Susan Shea, 2012
• The Doorbell Rang by Pat Hutchins, 1986
• Each Peach Pear Plum by Janet and Allan Ahlberg, 1979
• Farmer Duck by Martin Waddell, 1995
• Give the Dog a Bone by Steven Kellogg, 2000
• Good Morning Chick by Mirra Ginsburg, 1980
• Goodnight Moon by Margaret Wise Brown, 1947
• The Grouchy Ladybug by Eric Carle, 1977
• Have You Seen My Duckling? By by Nancy Tafuri, 1984
• Have You Seen my My Cat? by Eric Carle, 1973
• Henny Penny by H. Werner Zimmerman, 1989
• The House That Jack Built by Rodney Peppe, 1985
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• If the Dinosaurs Came Back by Bernard Mast,1978
• If You Give a Moose a Muffin by Laura Numeroff, 1991
• If You Give a Pig a Pancake by Laura Numeroff, 1998
• If You Give Mouse a Cookie by Laura Numeroff, 1985
• If You Take a Mouse to School by Laura Numeroff, 2002
• In 1492 by Jean Marzollo, 1989
• Jesse Bear, What Will You Wear? by Nancy Carlstrom,1986
• The Lady with the Alligator Purse by Nadine B. Westcott, 1988
• Moira’s Birthday by Robert Munsch, 1987
• Mouse Paint by Ellen Walsh, 1989
• My Friend Rabbit by Eric Rohmann, 2002
• My Heart Is Like a Zoo by Michael Hall, 2009
• The Name of the Tree by Celia Lottridge, 1989
• Never Ever Shout in a Zoo by Karma Wilson, 2004
• One Fish Two Fish by Dr. Seuss, 1960
• One Hundred Angry Ants by Elinor Pinczes, 1993
• Over on the Farm by Christopher Gunson, 1997
• Polar Bear, Polar Bear, What Do You Hear? by Bill Martin, Jr., 1991
• Shoes by Elizabeth Winthrop, 1986
• Ten, Nine, Eight by Molly Bang, 1983
• The Teddy Bears’ Picnic by Jimmy Kennedy, 1987
• The Three Bears by Paul Galdone, 1972
• The Very Hungry Caterpillar by Eric Carle, 1969
• There Was an Old Lady Who Swallowed a Fly by Simms Taback, 1997
• This is the Bear by Sarah Hayes, 1986
• Too Much Noise by Ann McGovern, 1992
• Waving: A Counting Book by Peter Sis, 1988
• When Pigs Fly by Valerie Coulman, 2001
• Where Are You Going Little Mouse? by Robert Kraus, 1986
• Where There’s a Bear, There’s Trouble by Michael Catchpool, 2002
• Who’s Counting? by Nancy Tafuri, 1986
• Whose Hat? by Margaret Miller, 1988
• Whose Mouse Are You? by Robert Kraus, 1970
• Whose Shoe? by Margaret Miller, 1991
• Why Mosquitoes Buzz in People’s Ears by Verna Aardema, 1975
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LIST 6. BOOKS WITHOUT WORDS
Wordless picture books enable even very young children to enjoy stories and participate in their telling.
With some guidance they can learn to “read” the pictures and develop a host of emergent literacy skills,
including using vocabulary, sequencing, prediction, story line comprehension, characterization, inference
skills, setting, and more. Wordless books can also be used to introduce young English language learners to
common vocabulary in context. Early positive reading experiences through picture books motivate children
to learn to read. Here are some new and old favorites for your classroom library.
• 1 Hunter by Pat Hutchins
• The Adventures of Polo by Regis Faller
• Ah Ha! by Jeff Mack
• Alligator’s Toothache by Diane De Groat
• The Angel and the Soldier Boy by Peter Collington
• Animal Alphabet by Bert Kitchen
• Anno’s Flea Market by Mitsumasa Anno
• Anno’s Journey by Mitsumasa Anno
• Anno’s Spain by Mitsumasa Anno
• Anno’s U.S.A. by Mitsumasa Anno
• Another Story to Tell by Dick Bruna
• April Fools by Fernando Krahn
• Ball by Mary Sullivan
• A Ball for Daisy by Chris Raschka
• The Bear and the Fly by Paula Winter
• Big Ones, Little Ones by Tana Hoban
• Bluebird by Bob Staake
• Bow-Wow Bugs a Bug by Mark Newgarden and Megan Montague Cash
• A Boy, a Dog, a Frog and a Friend by Mercer Mayer
• A Boy, a Dog, and a Frog by Mercer Mayer
• The Boy, the Bear, the Baron, the Bard by Gregory Rogers
• Carl Goes Shopping by Alexandra Day
• Carl’s Birthday by Alexandra Day
• Carl’s Christmas by Alexandra Day
• Chalk by Bill Thomson
• Changes, Changes by Pat Hutchins
• Clementina’s Cactus by Ezra Jack Keats
• The Conductor by Laetitia Devernay
• Creepy Castle by John Goodall
• The Creepy Thing by Fernando Krahn
• Deep in the Forest by Brinton Turkle
• Do You Want to Be My Friend? by Eric Carle
• The Farmer and the Clown by Marla Frazee
• Flora and the Flamingo by Molly Idle
• Flotsam by David Wiesner
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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• The Flower Man by Mark Ludy
• Follow Carl! by Alexandra Day
• Follow Me! by Nancy Tafuri
• Free Fall by David Weisner
• Frog Goes to Dinner by Mercer Mayer
• Frog on His Own by Mercer Mayer
• Frog, Where Are You? by Mercer Mayer
• Good Dog, Carl by Alexandra Day
• Good Night, Garden Gnome by Jamichael Henterly
• Good Night, Gorilla by Peggy Rathmann
• The Great Cat Chase by Mercer Mayer
• The Grey Lady and the Strawberry Snatcher by Molly Bang
• Happy Birthday, Max by Hanne Turk
• Have You Seen My Duckling? by Nancy Tafuri
• Hiccup by Mercer Mayer
• Home by Jeannie Baker
• Hug by Jez Alborough
• The Hunter and the Animals by Tomie dePaola
• I Read Signs by Tana Hoban
• I Read Symbols by Tana Hoban
• Is It Red? Is It Yellow? Is It Blue? by Tana Hoban
• Island Dog by Rebecca Goodale
• Journey by Aaron Becker
• Junglewalk by Nancy Tafuri
• Last Night by Hyewon Yum
• The Lion & the Mouse by Jerry Pinkney
• Little Star by Antonin Louchard
• Looking Down by Steve Jenkins
• Max Packs by Hanne Turk
• Midsummer Knight by Gregory Rogers
• The Midnight Adventures of Kelly, Dot and Esmeralda by John Goodall
• Mirror by Jeannie Baker
• Moonlight by Jan Ormerod
• Museum Trip by Barbara Lehman
• Noah’s Ark by Peter Spier
• One Frog Too Many by Mercer Mayer and Marianna Mayer
• Oops by Arthur Geisert
• Over, Under, Through, and Other Spatial Concepts by Tana Hoban
• Paddy Pork’s Holiday by John Goodall
• Pancakes for Breakfast by Tomie dePaola
• The Paperboy by Dav Pilkey
• People by Peter Spier
• Peter Spier’s Rain by Peter Spier
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• Picnic by Emily Arnold McCully
• The Rabbit Problem by Emily Gravett
• Rainstorm by Barbara Lehman
• The Red Book by Barbara Lehman
• Re-Zoom by Istavan Banyai
• The Ring by Lisa Maizlish
• Rosie’s Walk by Pat Hutchins
• Sea of Dreams by Dennis Nolan
• The Secret in the Dungeon by Fernando Krahn
• Sector 7 by David Wiesner
• Shadow by Suzy Lee
• Sidewalk Circus by Paul Fleischman and Kevin Hawkes
• The Silver Pony by Lynd Ward
• Snapshot Max by Hanne Turk
• Snow by Isao Sasaki
• The Snowman by Raymond Briggs
• South by Patrick McDonnell
• Space Colony by Joe Burlson
• The Surprise Picnic by John Goodall
• Time Flies by Eric Rohmann
• Trainstop by Barbara Lehman
• The Tree House by Marije Tolman
• Truck by Donald Crews
• Tuesday by David Weisner
• The Tunnel Calamity by Edward Gorey
• The Umbrella by Ingrid Schubert
• The Umbrella by Jan Brett
• Wave by Suzy Lee
• Will’s Mammoth by Rafe Martin
• Window by Jeannie Baker
• The Yellow Balloon by Charlotte Demantons
• Yellow Umbrella by Jae-Soo Liu
• Zoom by Istavan Banyai
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LIST 7. PRINT CONCEPTS
Early experiences with books help young children develop an awareness of print and concepts related
to words, language, books, and reading that are important foundations for formal instruction. A child’s
interactions with adults and older students about books provide models that link books to excitement,
enjoyment, ideas, and the pleasures of sharing. These same experiences can also focus attention on fundamental behaviors and print knowledge.
When reading to children, it is a simple matter to point out different parts of a book and call attention
to specific details such as directionality, word boundaries, and punctuation marks. Later, ask the child to
show you where to begin reading, where to go next when the page is done, and so on. Pointing under each
word as you read helps children recognize the one-to-one correspondence between the written and spoken
word. Having the child point as you read demonstrates his or her understanding.
The following list includes concepts of print for children in prekindergarten and kindergarten. Use the
list to guide discussion during story time and as the basis for a print awareness assessment.
The student can do the following.
Recognize and can point to
Understand that
❏ the front of the book
❏ the back of the book
❏ the book spine
❏ the title of the book
❏ the author’s name
❏ an illustration or picture in the book
(realistic)
❏ page numbers
❏ table of contents (for a collection of stories)
❏ spoken words can be written down
❏ the words tell the story
❏ the illustrations are related to the story but
are not the story
❏ the one-to-one correspondence of words
read and the printed words
❏ the order of the letters is important
❏ space separates words
❏ punctuation marks have a purpose
Understand and can explain roles of
❏ the author
❏ the illustrator
❏ the reader
❏ the audience
Understand and can demonstrate
❏ how to hold a book
❏ how to turn pages
❏ reading from left to right in a line
❏ making a return sweep to next line
❏ reading from top to bottom of page
❏ reading from front to back of the book
Recognize and can point to
❏ letters, words, and punctuation marks
❏ a word and a sentence
❏ the first and last letter of a word
❏ the first and last word of a sentence
❏ a period, a question mark, an exclamation
mark, a comma
❏ a capital and a lowercase letter
Recognize and can name
❏ all upper- and lowercase letters
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LIST 8. PHONICS AWARENESS
American English language uses twenty-six alphabetic letters in more than one hundred combinations
to represent about forty-five speech sounds (the exact number depends on the specific regional variation).
Phonics helps new and experienced readers make connections between letter patterns and the speech sounds
for which they stand. It begins with an awareness and recognition of letters and sounds, then builds connections between them, starting with the most frequent and distinct correspondences.
Letter knowledge
Recognize, name, and distinguish upper- and lowercase letters.
Word segmentation
Recognize or separate individual words within a sentence.
Example: “I went to the store.” (five words)
Syllable segmentation
Recognize and separate syllables within words. Examples:
Bill-y, Ton-ya, a-bout, talk-ing
Syllable blending
Listen to two spoken word parts and blend them into a single
word. Example: let-ter → letter
Phonemic awareness—consonants
Tell whether the initial consonant sounds of two or more
words are the same or different. Examples: mat/sat, big/beg,
pay/pit/pen, lip/fit/like
Tell whether the final consonant sounds of two or more words
are the same or different. Examples: sat/sad, met/mat, five/hive,
fin/stem/men
Phonemic awareness—Vowels
Tell whether the vowel sound in two or more words is the same
or different. Examples: mane/cane; pin/pen; stick/stock/stuck
Phonemic blending
Blend two or more phonemes or speech sounds together to form
a word. Example: /t/ /o/ /m/ → Tom
Phonemic segmentation
Separate and pronounce the individual sounds of a word.
Example: cat → /c/ /a/ /t/
Rhyming
Recognize and produce rhyming pairs. Examples: tan/pan,
big/pig, get/set; tap/map
Onset substitution
Remove the initial consonant sound from the beginning of a
word and substitute it with another consonant sound to form a
different word in a word family. Example: mat → /m/ + at, /s/ +
at = sat, /f/ + at = fat; /k/ + at = cat
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LIST 9. RHYMING WORDS
Rhyming is an important link to other emergent reading skills. Rhyming involves auditory attention and
discrimination, the ability to manipulate beginning sounds to produce different words that have the same
ending, and the ability to group or separate words by their sounds. Many studies have shown that children
who are intentionally exposed to rhyming in their preschool years are more likely to be successful in early
reading.
After exposure to books and nursery or other favorite rhymes that have strong rhythm and rhyme
schemes, games and other activities that lead children to recognize and produce rhyming words are important. Here are some rhyming words to get them started. Remember, rhyming words end in the same sounds,
not necessarily the same letter.
my
lie
try
fly
cry
spy
die
sky
fry
dry
make
cake
take
steak
bake
break
fake
Jake
flake
lake
day
pay
stay
say
may
way
play
pray
spray
tray
ball
wall
Paul
small
call
hall
fall
stall
tall
crawl
bell
tell
fell
sell
smell
well
spell
yell
shell
cell
need
bleed
seed
weed
feed
read
lead
bead
speed
freed
best
dressed
test
guest
rest
nest
messed
west
pressed
pest
sit
quit
fit
hit
bit
pit
knit
split
spit
lit
fine
shine
dine
nine
line
mine
vine
pine
spine
whine
Jill
hill
fill
kill
bill
chill
pill
sill
will
mill
bite
sight
light
bright
night
white
fight
write
kite
sprite
king
thing
ring
sting
sing
string
bring
ding
wing
spring
pot
spot
got
shot
hot
lot
knot
cot
rot
dot
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store
sore
floor
pour
tour
four
more
door
core
chore
Bob
job
slob
blob
knob
snob
rob
mob
cob
sob
Chuck
luck
duck
tuck
stuck
cluck
truck
buck
muck
struck
jump
lump
hump
pump
stump
clump
bump
grump
dump
plump
go
dough
slow
know
snow
grow
throw
show
blow
sew
ate
gate
date
late
plate
wait
great
crate
state
skate
air
stare
care
share
bear
there
chair
square
dare
fair
Sam
pam
am
bam
jam
lamb
yam
clam
ham
slam
back
snack
pack
black
sack
whack
rack
track
quack
stack
bum
plum
some
rum
gum
chum
hum
glum
drum
strum
stop
flop
cop
drop
mop
shop
top
chop
pop
hop
ink
wink
think
sink
blink
link
stink
pink
drink
shrink
zip
flip
lip
chip
skip
ship
dip
whip
rip
trip
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LIST 10. MINIMAL PAIRS
Minimal pairs are sets of words that differ by only one phoneme or sound. The difference may be in the
initial, medial, or final position of the words as in pit/bit, pit/pat, and pit/pin. A single sound difference
changes the word. Being able to distinguish sounds and produce each one is important to understanding
spoken language, speaking, learning phonics, and spelling. Small-group or one-to-one practice with minimal pairs is especially helpful to students whose language background is not Standard American English.
The following lists focus on sounds that students often find difficult to differentiate.
To practice producing the sounds, pronounce the word pair and then have the students echo your
pronunciation. Repeat three times before moving on to the next pair. The repetition helps students correct
their auditory discrimination before altering their sound production.
To practice sound differentiation, give students two cards, one labeled same and the other labeled
different. Ask students to listen to the pairs of words and to hold up one of the cards to show whether they
are the same or different. Intermix pairs of identical words with the minimal pairs. A sample discrimination
practice set is provided in the following. When contrasting two sounds, practice with each presented first,
as in pig/big, big/pig.
Sample Practice Set
bit/pit
bet/pet
pit/bit
big/big
but/putt
big/pig
pig/big
bet/bet
pet/bet
pat/pat
putt/putt
putt/but
bat/pat
but/putt
pat/bat
Consonant Sounds
b
bag tag
ban van
bat pat
bark park
bee pea
boo zoo
but hut
Ben yen
buy dye
bun sun
bet pet
bay pay
beg Peg
back shack
bin chin
ball wall
bee key
boom zoo,
bin pin
beep peep
big pig
bird third
beef leaf
bun run
bus Gus
back Zack
bug pug
beach peach
bees peas
bake shake
beep jeep
bunch lunch
bin fin
buy rye
bath path
bye pie
beep sheep
bees these
book cook
base lace
hard c
(k)
call Paul
calm palm
cone bone
kale bale
cool tool
cat fat
cap gap
coat goat
cook look
call shawl
cot yacht
cat gnat
cast fast
curl girl
cold gold
keep sheep
cake lake
kite white
calf laugh
cool fool
coal goal
coast toast
kick thick
kin win
code load
kick Rick
kin fin
card guard
cap zap
cat chat
Ken when
case race
camp lamp
king zing
cage gauge
keel kneel
cage wage
cow wow
coke yolk
coal pole
chin gin
chess jess
chunk junk
chop pop
chair dare
chimp limp
chest vest
chop cop
cheap jeep
cello Jello
chive jive
chest best
cheer year
chop mop
chain vane
cheap keep
chest jest
chip gyp
cheese g’s
chair bear
chick wick
chase lace
chose foes
chin Lynn
cheer jeer
chose joe’s
cherry Gerry
chew two
chase race
chair mare
charm farm
chick Mick
chill Jill
choke joke
chain Jane
chip dip
chime rhyme
chalk hawk
chum come
chose nose
ch
F O U NDA T IO NS
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Consonant Sounds (Continued)
d
dim Tim
dip tip
dine pine
deal peel
deep seep
down gown
dirty thirty
dean mean
dusk tusk
down town
dough bow
dark park
deer veer
dare care
den then
day yay
den ten
dart tart
duck buck
date Kate
debt vet
deer fear
Doug hug
dill will
Dee tea
die tie
din kin
den Zen
dole coal
dough hoe
dart heart
dig jig
door tore
dot tot
Dale bale
dial vial
dig big
Dick thick
dye why
deep jeep
f
fat vat
file vile
fable table
far car
fake cake
fawn yawn
fog log
fell yell
fan tan
fail veil
fair pair
fun done
fame game
fun one
fees these
fog jog
fear veer
fan pan
fold hold
fill dill
fed said
fine shine
fade jade
foes those
fender vendor
fee peel
fear deer
fit kit
fade shade
folk yolk
fax Jack’s
funny money
fine vine
fine dine
fall ball
fool cool
foam gnome
phone loan
fight height
foe sew
hard g
got pot
gap cap
guard bard
gig rig
goal roll
gust rust
gill chill
goat moat
goo boo
goat vote
gown down
gave wave
gourd lord
gave shave
gorge George
got not
gun pun
go dough
goal coal
guest rest
give live
gun sun
get jet
gear near
got tot
guest vest
go foe
Gail rail
goose juice
gum thumb
gear cheer
gale whale
get vet
gear fear
get yet
go woe
got hot
gape shape
gill mill
go though
h
hop pop
hub tub
heat wheat
hawk chalk
horn corn
hoe though
hello mellow
high why
hook book
hen pen
heap leap
hum chum
hush lush
hiss this
ham yam
hurt shirt
hay bay
hast taste
hip whip
hair pair
hack back
haze ways
hose shows
hash rash
heart part
horde cord
host toast
hatch latch
host most
hard yard
herd third
head shed
hi bye
hold bold
hear year
hoist moist
hail whale
hole roll
hank thank
hope nope
j (dg)
jig pig
jar car
jump pump
jeep heap
jest test
gel cell
jaw saw
jute shoot
jack back
jail tail
Jill gill
jaw thaw
jeer beer
jade raid
jest vest
Joan moan
joke poke
Jane pain
Jake shake
job cob
jelly belly
jog log
junk punk
Jake rake
gin tin
jet pet
jam lamb
jeans beans
jeep weep
jack’s sax
germ worm
joe though
jade paid
joke yoke
Jen ten
jess less
just gust
jam yam
Jane lane
jay they
l
lick pick
lace face
lash cash
laugh half
loose goose
leech peach
line wine
law thaw
loss toss
leap peep
leaf thief
load code
lock rock
lunch bunch
lawn yawn
lake take
light bite
lame fame
lark park
latch thatch
lag gag
link wink
lone tone
lamb ram
lard guard
load toad
less guess
lane pane
lip whip
lush hush
leeks beaks
lunch munch
licks fix
let bet
lash mash
locks fox
leak peak
lay weigh
lick thick
linger finger
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
24
Consonant Sounds (Continued)
r
rack lack
rink link
right light
rain pain
roll goal
rook nook
runny money
road load
race lace
rocket locket
rock lock
rig fig
rake cake
rug bug
rail shale
rink think
rice lice
row low
rate late
rare fair
road toad
reap jeep
rook look
rest nest
reach leech
red led
rush lush
rocks fox
rule pool
rose those
reef sheaf
wrestle trestle
rain lane
rug lug
ramp lamp
raid fade
rail pale
rash cash
ram lamb
rat that
s
sip pip
seek leak
sight kite
sign mine
sun pun
sack shack
sail tail
sank thank
sum yum
seep peep
sign line
seal real
sink think
scene bean
saw thaw
sink zinc
sob cob
sigh why
sage page
sunk junk
sash rash
sum thumb
sage cage
sock shock
sue you
six licks
surf turf
sign pine
source horse
sage wage
seat sheet
sank bank
soak coke
sour tower
silly chilly
sink rink
seat Pete
sigh thigh
sick wick
sour shower
sh
shy pie
sheaf thief
shows rose
shoes choose
sheep peep
shark lark
show though
shawl wall
show sew
shark park
shower sour
shack bake
shock sock
shoe ewe
ship zip
shine sign
shirt Bert
shook rook
shark bark
shop chop
shed wed
sheaf leaf
shirt dirt
shy dye
shack rack
shine pine
shoe chew
shore tore
shop top
shy thy
ship whip
shoot suit
shower power
shut rut
shine wine
she thee
shell tell
share their
shell cell
chic leak
t
ten den
table label
test west
teal wheel
town gown
taping gaping
tight bite
teak week
tick think
tore door
tight white
tool cool
toast host
taste haste
team beam
tin gin
table fable
tank thank
town down
took look
two chew
tease these
test nest
torn horn
tax fax
test guest
toss loss
tart dart
toes those
typed wiped
ted bed
tone moan
tail veil
table gable
ten then
torn thorn
tie dye
ticket wicket
tile vial
tax backs
Voiceless th
thick pick
thaw gnaw
thumb dumb
thick lick
thimble nimble
thumb yum
thank tank
thatch latch
third bird
thick wick
think pink
thin fin
thorn born
think kink
thumb come
thigh pie
thaw jaw
thanks banks
thorn born
thatch patch
think link
thumb numb
thick sick
thanks tanks
thirty dirty
thick tick
thief leaf
think mink
three free
thirsty Kirsty
thief sheaf
thumb gum
thorn mourn
thigh thy
third nerd
thief beef
thunder wonder
thread Fred
thick kick
third gird
Voiced th
then wren
they yay
there where
that hat
then ken
those foes
those rose
these g’s
these wheeze
that gnat
they may
those chose
thigh thy
these cheese
thy lie
these mare
though row
those woes
though joe
that rat
though show
then Len
that cat
those hose
their wear
then when
this miss
then men
this kiss
these knees
thee sea
them hem
they ray
those nose
thee knee
they lay
thee lee
though sew
that hat
that vat
F O U NDA T IO NS
25
Consonant Sounds (Continued)
v
vet yet
vat gnat
vast cast
vein lane
v sea
vote note
V’s these
veer gear
van ran
veer year
veal kneel
vest guest
vane sane
vest west
vat chat
vile file
vote wrote
vow cow
vein Wayne
vie sigh
verse nurse
vine shine
vent dent
veil sail
veil rail
vet net
veil kale
vine wine
vie lie
Vaughan yawn
vest best
vine sign
veal real
vine line
vet wet
V’s wheeze
veer deer
vial mile
vine pine
veer sheer
z
Zack yak
zoo Lou
zest rest
Zen Len
zone phone
Zen when
zinc wink
zest guest
zoom room
zone lone
Zen yen
zone Joan
zest nest
zap gap
zoo shoe
zoom boom
zip whip
zinc rink
zap map
zap yap
Zack Jack
zing ring
zeal veal
zing king
zest west
zip lip
Zack rack
zit knit
zoos choose
zit wit
zest chest
zap cap
Z’s wheeze
zap wrap
zip rip
zinc mink
zipper ripper
zoo two
zoo due
zone cone
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
26
Vowel Sounds
ā ă
bake back
base bass
played plaid
brain bran
gale gal
fade fad
rain ran
rake rack
mate mat
lace lass
cape cap
haze has
shame sham
slate slat
aid add
fate fat
snake snack
made mad
same Sam
cane can
plane plan
tape tap
ate at
Kate cat
bait bat
ā ĕ
bait bet
aid Ed
paper pepper
Yale yell
taste test
late let
raid red
fade fed
sale sell
wade wed
gate get
rake wreck
wait wet
lace less
waist west
pain pen
fail fell
date debt
Wayne when
trade tread
main men
mate met
Nate net
shade shed
shale shell
ē ĕ
bead bed
meat met
keen Ken
deal dell
need Ned
bean ben
Pete pet
dean den
jean Jen
lead led
heed head
seat set
feed fed
peep pep
weak wed
deed dead
teen ten
weed wed
feel fell
speak speck
beet bet
mean men
read red
seal sell
speed sped
ē ı̆
Pete pit
feet fit
sleep slip
week wick
sleek slick
meat mitt
deep dip
seek sick
teen tin
bean bin
read rid
seen sin
seat sit
wheeze whiz
fleet flit
lead lid
feel fill
leave live
keen kin
leap lip
deal dill
team Tim
heal hill
sheep ship
heap hip
ı̄ ı̆
like lick
side Sid
light lit
quite quit
heist hissed
hide hid
fine fin
time Tim
pike pick
mice miss
slide slid
wine win
fight fit
might mitt
pipe pip
sight sit
bite bit
sign sin
spite spit
stripe strip
dime dim
dine din
ripe rip
kite kit
diaper dipper
ı̄ ā
pie pay
buy bay
rise raise
right rate
ride raid
lie lay
dye day
time tame
light late
dime dame
rye ray
sty stay
rice race
spy spay
prize praise
pine pain
high hey
spice space
spry spray
guise gaze
sign sane
line lane
height hate
ply play
my may
ı̄ ă
kite cat
dime dam
brine bran
lice lass
stripe strap
might mat
fine fan
died dad
mice mass
bike back
fight fat
Mike Mack
flight flat
bride brad
riper wrapper
dine Dan
like lack
ripe wrap
plied plaid
tide tad
mine man
climb clam
grind grand
bite bat
yipes yaps
ō ŏ
road rod
folks fox
slope slop
robe rob
coat cot
hope hop
holy holly
smoke smock
cloak clock
mope mop
goat got
note not
soak sock
cone con
tote tot
wrote rot
joke jock
cope cop
toad Todd
code cod
dote dot
poke pock
Joan John
node nod
roan Ron
ō ı̄
doe dye
road ride
boat bite
tone tine
sown sign
toe tie
load lied
coat kite
dome dime
phoned find
low lie
crows cries
sewed side
phone fine
stow sty
so sigh
flows flies
float flight
load line
flow fly
go guy
note night
bloat blight
moan mine
crow cry
F O U NDA T IO NS
27
Vowel Sounds (Continued)
ū ŭ
cube cub
mute mutt
fuel full
mood mud
tube tub
Luke luck
puke puck
boot but
cute cut
rune run
mule mull
roof rough
dune done
dude dud
root rut
boon bun
Jude Judd
duke duck
stewed stud
gloom glum
ă ĕ
pack peck
sat set
mat met
dance dense
pan pen
mass mess
lad led
land lend
pat pet
laughed left
dad dead
vary very
bag beg
land lend
past pest
sand send
lag leg
rack wreck
Dan den
sad said
ham hem
batter better
band bend
bad bed
tan ten
ă ı̆
pan pin
sat sit
stack stick
draft drift
slam slim
ban pin
lacks licks
pack pick
wax wicks
drank drink
knack nick
cat kit
cast kissed
track trick
dad did
span spin
Dan din
panned pinned
Tammy Timmy
lack lick
can kin
fan fin
ram rim
tax ticks
fat fit
ă ŏ
hat hot
hag hog
rat rot
rack rock
black block
pat pot
mass moss
sap sop
cad cod
pad pod
cat cot
lack lock
flack flock
axe ox
chap chop
bag bog
map mop
fax fox
add odd
jag jog
racket rocket
sacks sox
Nat not
jack jock
Mack mock
ă ŭ
rag rug
back buck
lag lug
patter putter
badge budge
calf cuff
branch brunch
track truck
dance dunce
rash rush
ankle uncle
gal gull
slam slum
rang rung
bank bunk
fan fun
damp dump
stack stuck
ramble rumble
ran run
sang sung
ram rum
stamp stump
dank dunk
bash bush
ĕ ı̆
let lit
check chick
hell hill
weather wither
better bitter
pet pit
ten tin
peg pig
left lift
bell bill
set sit
spell spill
etch itch
mess miss
lest list
fell fill
pen pin
when win
dead did
sense since
hem him
tell till
bed bid
rest wrist
peck pick
ĕ ŏ
pep pop
check chock
said sod
yet yacht
flex flocks
den don
net not
penned pond
debt dot
ken con
fender fonder
deck dock
pet pot
fleck flock
fend fond
ted Todd
beg bog
leg log
red rod
friend frond
read rod
bend bond
keg cog
Ned nod
get got
ĕ ŭ
bed bud
meddle muddle
desk dusk
peg pug
wrestle rustle
pep pup
pen pun
dell dull
leg lug
ready ruddy
best bust
pedal puddle
flesh flush
Meg mug
settle subtle
dead dud
check chuck
dense dunce
crest crust
best bust
bet but
deck duck
bench bunch
rest rust
jest just
ı̆ ŏ
pit pot
nib knob
flick flock
click clock
rickets rockets
tip top
kid cod
tick tock
nick knock
spit spot
clip clop
Sid sod
lick lock
picket pocket
slit slot
kit cot
knit not
fib fob
stick stock
hip hop
lip lop
slip slop
jib job
ship shop
drip drop
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
28
Vowel Sounds (Continued)
ı̆ ŭ
pin pun
sin sun
bid bud
lick luck
miss muss
bin bun
din done
tin ton
trick truck
tress truss
rim rum
biddy buddy
fin fun
stick stuck
mitt mutt
pink punk
stint stunt
shrink shrunk
hint hunt
spin spun
sink sunk
drink drunk
kiss cuss
gist just
bid bud
ŏ ŭ
pot put
boss bus
dog dug
pop pup
cot cut
lost lust
model muddle
hot hut
shot shut
dock duck
lock luck
rot rut
gosh gush
robbed rubbed
smog smug
mom mum
knot nut
cob cub
spotter sputter
robber rubber
jots juts
shot shut
knob nub
rob rub
sob sub
ŏ aw
odd awed
tot taught
hock hawk
don dawn
cot caught
stock stalk
not naught
sod sawed
knotty naughty
pod pawed
body bawdy
fond fawned
pond pawned
clod clawed
collar caller
ŭ aw
done dawn
cull call
cruller crawler
dug dog
gull gall
bus boss
sun sawn
fun fawn
flood flawed
hunch haunch
punch paunch
thud thawed
lunch launch
bubble bauble
bud baud
̆
ŭ oo
tuck took
stud stood
luck look
putt put
buck book
Huck’s hooks
huff hoof
cud could
shuck shook
puff poof
F O U NDA T IO NS
29
LIST 11. WORD SEGMENTATION
Children’s ability to recognize and manipulate the different sounds in a word is a key skill in beginning
reading, spelling, and writing. Over many years researchers have found that pairing a physical action with
segmenting a word into its component sounds helps students differentiate sounds, segment words into their
component sounds, and recognize sound-symbol correspondences more easily. The following technique
makes the segmentation of words into individual sounds a multisensory experience involving auditory,
visual, and kinesthetic-tactile senses.
The procedure is simple. The student is given a paper strip or sheet with two squares printed on it,
each square being large enough to fit a marker or token. Next, the student listens to a word pronounced
slowly and repeats it, moving one token or marker into a box for each sound heard. Given a two-phoneme
word such as it, the student would move, one two tokens into each of the two boxes. Practice segmenting
words using this technique for five to ten minutes daily to focus on sounds being taught as well as those
previously learned. As skills develop, move to longer and less frequently used words.
Tips for practice exercises, lists of practice words, variations for using this technique, and templates for
two-, three-, and four-phoneme words are provided in the following.
Tips for Practice Exercises
1. Have same-color bingo markers or tokens available and prepare paper strips with two, three, and four
squares of a size to fit the markers or tokens. Laminating them makes them reusable for many weeks.
2. Model the process by saying a word slowly, articulating it sound by sound; for each sound, move a
bingo marker into the next slot, left to right. [Be sure you are seated beside the student so the order of
the sounds in the words and the order of placing the markers are correct or use a document camera to
show the class.]
3. Do a think-aloud to explain what you are doing. “I will stretch out the word while I am saying it so I
can listen and hear all of its sounds. I will move a marker into its box when I hear a different sound. I
will put only one marker in each box, so I can see how many sounds the word has.”
4. When the student understands the process, give the student markers and the strip with boxes. Tell the
student to listen to the word as you say it, and then say it with you s-l-o-w-l-y. Then have the student
repeat the word slowly moving a marker into a corresponding box for each sound.
5. Progress through words of increasing difficulty, beginning with words having two or three phonemes to
words having six phonemes.
6. Progress from the teacher saying the word, stretching it, and having the student repeat the stretched
word, to the teacher providing the word and the student stretching it to isolate the sounds.
Variations for Segmenting Words into Sounds
1. Show a picture for the word to help students remember the word they are working on.
2. Prepare worksheets with multiple sets of boxes to accommodate up to ten words per page.
3. Work with a small group of two to five students with each having his or her own markers and box
strips. Students will repeat the word together, stretching it out and moving the markers into
appropriate boxes.
4. Set up the exercise on a smart board and allow students to take turns sliding an icon into each box.
5. For advanced students, instead of moving markers, have students write the appropriate spelling of the
phonemes in the boxes. For example, rain has three phonemes. The student will write r, ai, n in the three
boxes. Note: Vowel and consonant digraphs (ch, ow, th, etc.) will have two letters in one box.
6. Use two colors of markers, one for consonant sounds and one for vowel sounds.
7. For advanced students, use the same technique to divide words into syllables.
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
30
Practice Words
The following practice words are grouped in general teaching order beginning with short vowels and regular
consonants. Note: Each letter of a blend has its own box; the two letters of a digraph have only one box.
Two-phoneme words (VC)
am
an
as
at
ax
Ed
if
in
it
on
ox
up
us
Three-phoneme words (CVC) ă, ĕ, ı̆
dad
Sam
had
tap
sad
cat
bed
sat
let
get
hen
men
sit
can
did
van
ran
jam
map
fat
lip
win
hat
cab
pit
mix
fix
pet
ten
bag
dan
rat
net
hid
fed
dip
him
bat
zip
pen
six
set
man
red
wet
set
lit
nap
mat
Three-phoneme words (CVC) ŏ, ŭ
Bob
mud
hum
fun
run
cut
nut
dug
top
hug
got
rob
mop
pop
bus
rub
job
rug
fox
dot
sub
hop
but
hog
mom
nod
not
cup
mug
fog
box
jog
sun
yum
pot
hot
tub
bug
cop
cot
log
pup
Four-phoneme words (CCVC) with initial blends
crab
drip
frog
trap
snap
clam
Brad
slam
glad
club
stem
clap
slip
flip
drop
plum
stop
grab
drum
spot
crib
trip
slim
trot
flop
clip
clop
plot
flag
slid
plan
sled
swim
trim
skip
skin
clog
slot
snip
slap
spin
flat
Four-phoneme words (CVCC) with end blends
mist
hint
sank
bent
test
limp
just
best
cent
link
felt
land
bump
fact
dump
tilt
wink
went
lift
gust
lamp
lint
nest
mend
rest
belt
held
dent
sand
gift
must
mint
lump
bend
tent
bunk
hunt
sunk
tank
hunt
pink
send
sank
hand
pond
dust
sift
vest
list
is
F O U NDA T IO NS
31
Three-phoneme words (CVC) with vowel digraphs
rain
keep
feet
read
seem
paid
wait
neat
soap
deal
tail
leaf
meat
weak
coat
beat
wait
loaf
load
fail
mail
goal
loan
goat
feel
week
jail
coal
moan
rail
pain
sail
foam
toad
gain
Three-phoneme words (CVCe)
make
five
pete
line
hope
June
note
home
made
ride
rule
tune
vote
mine
name
tube
late
time
mile
rake
joke
bite
wave
fine
same
life
size
vine
like
gave
bike
came
side
wide
wife
hide
bone
base
pole
state
nine
pipe
wipe
ripe
poke
dave
kite
rake
gate
tape
save
game
cake
date
lime
dime
Three-phoneme words with consonant digraphs (CCVC or CVCC)
that
bath
chat
with
much
wrap
such
chin
rush
fish
hush
then
ring
dish
shut
this
than
thin
wing
whip
knot
whim
song
knit
chip
lash
dish
math
sing
cash
lung
rash
Josh
path
Beth
mush
wish
inch
ship
shot
shop
chop
Sound Squares Template
A full-size version of these templates is available for free download at the book’s website.
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
32
LIST 12. ACTIVE RESPONSE ACTIVITIES
An active response activity is one that engages all students in the learning exercise at the same time. In a
traditional question-and-answer session, the teacher calls on one student at a time. As a result, each student
may have a one-in-fifteen or one-in-twenty opportunity to respond and get feedback. In an active response
activity, the teacher asks a question, makes a statement, or shows a flashcard, and all students answer by
holding up a response card. For example, using yes-no response cards, students would hold up either the
yes card or the no card to answer questions, such as, Is today Friday? Is this a vowel? In this way, every
student has the opportunity to respond to and get feedback on every task.
Active response activities are useful for groups of varying skill levels. They are also an effective way to
include English language learners before they feel confident enough to respond singly. Using a variety of
active response cards, students can practice and demonstrate their acquisition of target phonics knowledge,
vocabulary, comprehension skills, idioms, language structures, and more. Active response can be used as
a review, either with true-false or multiple-choice responses. Prompts can be spoken or shown as cards or
slides.
ACTIVITY: PROCEDURES
1. Photocopy the set of active response cards you want to use (yes-no, true-false, same-different,
before-after, 1-2-3-4, A-B-C-D) onto heavy paper called index stock (or card stock) making one set for
each student. Use a different color for each response (e.g., green—yes, red—no).
2. Distribute a set to each student. Explain how the cards will be used in class. Model putting the cards
face up on the desk. Then demonstrate how to select and show the answer. Yes-no example: Ask:
Are peaches a type of fruit? Tell students they are to show the answer quickly and that you will check
that all have answered before moving on. Show the yes card to the class. Tell students the signal you
will use for them to return their cards to the desk (head nod or OK comment). Then ask the next
question: Are peas a type of fruit? Show the no card. Use your signal and then return the card to the
desk. When students indicate they understand how to participate in the activity, begin the practice
exercise.
3. Begin slowly and wait until everyone has responded, picking up the pace when everyone has
understood the question-response pattern. Repeat challenging items throughout the session to
enable students to correct an earlier wrong response and show their learning.
4. Provide a plastic sandwich-sized bag with a zipper lock to each student and write the student’s name
on the bag with a waterproof marker.
Following are examples of active response activities using yes-no, true-false, same-different, beforeafter, 1-2-3-4, or A-B-C-D) response cards.
YES-NO RESPONSE CARDS
Is Hector a boy? Is Anna a boy?
Do birds fly? Do cats bark?
Are baby lions called kittens?
Can you use a paddle to write?
Do you see with your ears?
Is this blue? (Show card or object.)
Is this California? (Point to x state on map.)
F O U NDA T IO NS
33
Is this breakfast? (Show picture of meal.)
Is this a sweater? (Show picture of clothing.)
Same-Different Response Cards
The sounds at the beginning of pit-pen
The sounds at the beginning of sight-slight
The sounds at the beginning of big-pig
The sounds at the end of pat-pad
The sounds at the end of bang-bank
The sounds at the end of hit-hid
Before-After Response Cards
Study: before or after a test?
Practice: before or after a performance?
Pay: before or after picking a sandwich?
Wet: before or after the rain?
Sleepy: before or after nap?
True-False Response Cards
Ms. Polk is the science teacher.
It is raining today.
It snowed yesterday.
The custodian cleans the school.
Rene has red hair.
The American flag has twenty-five stars.
George Washington is president.
New York City is the capital of New York.
1-2-3-4 or A-B-C-D response cards∗
Where do you sleep? 1. table, 2. desk, 3. bed, 4. lamp
Which one goes with parties? 1, 2, 3, or 4 (show pictures)
I have a toothache. Call: A. the nurse, B. the dentist, C. the clerk, D. the minister
The boy in the story had: A. a dog, B. a cat, C. a monkey, D. a pony
∗ To minimize memory issues and focus on vocabulary knowledge, show the images with their corresponding letter or number using
presentation software.
Variations
ELLs. Students can respond aloud as well as showing the card (works well with young children). ELL
students benefit from patterned sentences. For the previous example, you might have them
respond by showing their cards and saying: Yes, peaches are a type of fruit, or No, peas are not fruit.
Content subjects. In content subjects, response cards can be prepared for any yes-no, true-false, or
multiple-choice question.
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A full-size version of these templates is available for free download at the book’s website.
Yes
No
true
false
same
different
A
B
C
D
before
after
1
2
3
4
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LIST 13. HANDWRITING CHARTS
The ability to recognize upper- and lowercase letters by name is an important foundation skill in early literacy. Letter features and production are also a part of early exploration of sounds and the symbols we use to
represent them. Young students need lots of practice forming letters. The two styles of manuscript printing
presented in the following are simple and enable an easy transition to their cursive cousins. Although some
schools have deemphasized cursive handwriting in their curricula to make room for keyboarding skills, all
students should be given the opportunity to transition and practice cursive handwriting. These two writing
systems are here to help.
Zaner-Bloser Manuscript Alphabet
From Zaner-Bloser Handwriting © Zaner-Bloser, Inc. Used with permission from
Zaner-Bloser, Inc. All rights reserved.
Zaner-Bloser Cursive Alphabet
From Zaner-Bloser Handwriting © Zaner-Bloser, Inc. Used with permission from
Zaner-Bloser, Inc. All rights reserved.
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D’Nealian Manuscript Alphabet
Used with permission from D’Nealian‸ Home/School Activities: Manuscript Practice for Grades
1–3, Copyright © 1986 Scott, Foresman and Company.
D’Nealian Cursive Alphabet
Used with permission from D’Nealian‸ Home/School Activities: Manuscript Practice for Grades
1–3, Copyright © 1986 Scott, Foresman and Company.
D’Nealian Numbers
Used with permission from D’Nealian‸ Home/School Activities: Manuscript Practice for Grades
1–3, Copyright © 1986 Scott, Foresman and Company.
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LIST 14. READING AND LANGUAGE TIPS
FOR PARENTS OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Parents are children’s first reading and language teachers. Young children develop early reading and language skills naturally through play, conversation, and imitation. Helping children get ready to read is easy,
fun, and rewarding. Here are fifty ways parents and others can make a positive difference in a child’s early
learning and literacy development.
1. Read to your child every day. It’s never too early to start. Even before they understand words,
children respond to the flow and sounds of language.
2. Recite or sing nursery rhymes and children’s songs often, even to very young children. Rhythm,
rhyme, and music stimulate children’s brains and help them recognize and respond to sound patterns.
3. Talk to your child as much as possible. The more words a child hears the more he or she understands.
4. Point out and name things in the child’s environment: Look! There’s a butterfly. See the yellow
butterfly? Can you say but-ter-fly? There’s another butterfly. Now we have two butterflies! Repeating the
word helps children learn to recognize its sound pattern and link it to the image.
5. Pick a variety of books to share including rhyming books, picture books, and predictable books that
repeat key words or phrases. Pick books on topics the children enjoy and on topics that are new to
them. This keeps children interested and expands what they know.
6. Read and reread favorites. Rereading helps develop children’s memory for the story, an awareness of
how words and sentence work, and other skills, such as recognizing a story’s beginning, middle, and
ending.
7. Don’t be surprised if the child begins to recite parts of a favorite story with you. This demonstrates
interest in the story and the development of memory and language skills. Show your approval with
praise: Wow! What a good memory you have!
8. Use picture books without words to help the child learn to interpret pictures and tell a story. Pictures
give a lot of information to children that an author could not provide using the limited number of
words that a new reader knows.
9. Point to the words as you read them. After a while, have your child point to each word as you read.
This process helps children learn to read from left to right, from the top of the page to the bottom,
and to turn to the next page and start at the top left again. Pointing while reading has also helped
children match the sound of the spoken word to the visual image of the word.
10. Use the pictures in books to help your child understand the story. Have your child point to details in
the pictures and tell you about them.
11. Let your child “read” you the pictures in a familiar picture book. Ask questions: What happens next?
Then what? Where did it go? How do you know that? Questions like these help children connect
meaning to print.
12. Use book words when talking to your child. Point out the book’s cover, the title (the name of the
story), the author (the name of the person who wrote the book), the illustrator (the name of
the person who drew the pictures), the pages (each sheet of paper in the book,), and so on. Knowing
these book-related words enables the child to talk about books. Oops, there’s jelly on the cover! Read
Llama Llama Red Pajama, please, Mommy!
13. Look at magazines, brochures, store flyers, or other print media with your child. Ask him to tell you
what he sees in the pictures.
14. Share your delight in the world around you by pointing out interesting sights. For example, Look at
that beautiful seashell. See the pretty colors inside? Is that pink or orange? Using descriptive words and
pointing to details helps build a child’s word knowledge and ability to notice little things as well as big
things.
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15. Help develop attention and memory using books with lots of repetition by pausing for your child to
supply the repeated word.
16. Engage your child in conversations about her day, her likes and favorite things, the weather, the
garden, the family, or any topic. The more a child speaks the more practice she has thinking and
putting her thoughts into words to express herself. This practice builds language skills that will help
her to read and to write.
17. Encourage your child to “read” signs and graphics in your neighborhood and places you visit often.
In no time, children learn to identify their favorite fast-food restaurants, stop signs, exit signs, and
particular stores and products by their logos and names. Linking meaning to a visual image (red exit
signs, male and female icons for restrooms, or the words Kix, Coke, and Pepsi) is a precursor to
reading.
18. Help preschoolers make their own books by picking out pictures in discarded magazines to cut and
paste into “books.” Some book ideas: a yellow book (all things yellow), a happy book, a fast book, a
sleepy book, a numbers book, a people book, a hungry book. Sorting and picking things that belong
to the same category helps children make logical connections.
19. Pick a letter for the day. Draw a large one, then have your child find more of them on a page from a
discarded magazine. Your child can mark the letters with a washable highlighter.
20. Read the weekly supermarket ads with your child, using them as a way to teach the names of fruit,
vegetables, and other food and household items.
21. Enlist your child’s help “writing” a grocery shopping list. Allow him to use child-safe scissors to cut
out pictures of food items and to glue them to paper with a glue stick to make a shopping list.
22. Use the pictures in books to expand your child’s vocabulary. Provide synonyms for words he or she
knows. (Sometimes we call that a … Do you know another name for … )
23. Help your child organize knowledge by reviewing related words. (What other car words can you think
of? Food words? Feeling words?)
24. Take your child to story time at your local library or bookstore—sharing books with other children
increases enjoyment and connects children in a different social setting.
25. Give your junk mail to children to pretend read. Imitating reading behaviors develops children’s
interest in reading and makes them pay attention to the details of what readers do (how to hold a
book or paper, turning pages, etc.).
26. Try tongue twisters in the car as you travel. They focus attention on specific sounds and improve
children’s speech. Start slow, then speed up. Tongue twister competitions always end in laughter.
27. Provide paper and pencils and encourage your child to pretend to write while you are writing a
shopping list, paying bills, writing greeting cards.
28. When reading to your child, stop periodically and talk about what has happened so far. Ask your
child to tell what he or she thinks will happen next, then read to find out.
29. Help your child get a library card in his or her own name as early as your library allows. Have your
child help pick a special place to keep the library card so it doesn’t get lost or damaged. This will
show it is valuable.
30. Use a book to begin a conversation about a difficult life topic, such as a trip to the hospital, the birth
of a sibling, divorce, the death of a grandparent.
31. Treat books as though they are special. Your child will also.
32. Offer choices for your read-aloud time: Which would you like today? A story about a family on a trip or
a story about a boy and his new friend?
33. Read with expression to help communicate meaning as well as hold interest.
34. Give books as presents or to commemorate a special event.
35. Record some favorite books so you can read to your child, even if you are not home or are busy.
36. Start your child’s use of reference books early with a picture dictionary.
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37. Set an example as an avid reader. Let your child see you reading a book, magazine, the newspaper, an
online article, or e-mail.
38. Take a photo of your child having fun and print it or paste it to a piece of paper. Then, have your
child dictate a title or caption for the picture. Over time, encourage your child to suggest a phrase,
then a sentence, and eventually a three- to five-sentence story about the experience. Practice reading
the captions together.
39. Make a costume for your child based on his or her favorite book character.
40. Make rebus recipe cards (using small pictures and diagrams) and help your child make a favorite
snack by reading the recipe. Some are available on the web or in bookstores.
41. Help your child recognize cereal names and other common food stuff and help read the labels in the
supermarket.
42. Show your child how to act out a story character’s part with a finger puppet, dolls, or action figures.
Then both of you take parts and tell the story together with your puppets or dolls.
43. Encourage response to stories by providing different kinds of art materials and ideas for creating
after-reading artwork, for example, finger paint, paper-plate masks, sponge paintings, and potato
stamps.
44. Take favorite books or books on tape in the car, on vacation, to grandparents’ homes, wherever you
travel. Children’s travel restlessness is often easy to overcome with a familiar favorite story.
45. Encourage and respond to children’s interests by helping them pick out books on special topics, for
example, pets, dinosaurs, bugs, horses, building things, how things work.
46. Use new sights and experiences as teaching tools for new words. Explain new things, tell stories about
new places, tell the names of new objects and their uses.
47. Discuss the difference between real and make-believe. Can animals talk like people do? Are there
really magic stones?
48. Use a book character as the theme for a birthday party.
49. Use similes to help define a new concept. This helps bridge something your child knows to
understanding something new. It’s like a train but it has …
50. Play “before and after” for a familiar sequence. For example: Do you put your shoes on before or after
your socks? Do you get a bowl before or after you pour your cereal? Have your child ask you before and
after questions as well.
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LIST 15. LANGUAGE ARTS GLOSSARY
FOR PARENTS AND OTHERS
Every field and profession has its own specialized vocabulary, including reading and the other language
arts. As teachers, we learn our key terms from textbooks, research articles, and colleagues in schools. By
contrast, parents, aides, volunteers, and others are often confronted with our terminology through their
children’s homework, websites, report cards, and answers to the perennial parent inquiry, “What did you
learn in school today?” Even the title of this list can raise questions: What are language arts? Isn’t a glossary
the same as a dictionary?
The following definitions explain, in nontechnical language, terms frequently used in reading and language arts instruction. Use them on your class website, in communications with families about current and
upcoming learning goals, and during orientations with aides and others. They may also be helpful to adults
who did not complete their education in the United States.
affixes
Affixes are word parts that are added to either the beginning of a word (prefixes
such as un- and pre-) or the end of a word (suffixes such as -ing and -able). See
prefixes and suffixes.
alphabetic principle
The alphabetic principle refers to an understanding that oral language is made
of speech sounds and that written language uses specific letters to represent
those speech sounds.
antonyms
Antonyms are words that have meanings opposite to each other. These word
pairs are antonyms: most-least, cry-laugh, front-back, and fresh-stale.
association
An association is a connection between things. In reading, making associations
among ideas or parts in text is a basic task of comprehension. It enables the
reader to identify a main idea and supporting details or words that contribute
to a theme or setting.
atlas
An atlas is a book of maps.
auditory acuity
Auditory acuity means the ability of the ear to hear accurately across the range
of sounds used by humans.
auditory
discrimination
Auditory discrimination means the ability to tell one sound from another, for
example: pit/pat, big/bit.
authentic assessment
An authentic assessment is an evaluation or test that uses a real-life task to
check someone’s knowledge and skills.
automaticity
Automaticity means a reader’s ability to read words without appearing to make
an effort to figure them out; the ability to know words as soon as they are seen.
balanced reading
instruction
Balanced reading instruction focuses students’ attention on comprehension, or
gaining meaning from, print from the beginning of reading instruction. Even
when students can read only a limited number of words, they are encouraged
to discuss and respond to what the words say. Balanced reading programs use
phonics to teach word recognition skills and begin writing instruction as soon
as students know some letter-sound associations.
basal readers
A basal reader is a textbook used for reading instruction. The word basal means
basic. Basal readers are often simply called readers or reading books. A basal
reader contains short stories and informational pieces that are appropriate for
each skill and grade level.
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BDA strategies
BDA stands for before, during and after. Students learn a number of thinking
strategies to use before reading, during reading, and after reading to help them
recognize words and understand the text.
best work portfolio
A best work portfolio is a collection of a student’s work that includes the student’s best work to date and is updated as skills and knowledge progress. Best
work portfolios are often used at the end of the school year to evaluate progress
made.
blending
Blending means to put parts together to make a whole. In reading, we blend
individual sounds to make words.
book words
Book words are the labels used for different parts of a book. They include the
title, the author’s name, the illustrator’s name, page numbers, spine, illustrations,
cover, table of contents, headings, and so on.
breve
A breve is a mark printed or written above a vowel to show that it is a short
vowel. A short a is spelled like this ă and has the sound of the a in the word cat.
closed syllable
A closed syllable ends in a consonant sound and its vowel has a short sound as
in sı̆t.
comparison
A comparison is a statement that tells how two or more things are alike.
compound word
A compound word is formed by connecting two words together. Homework,
headache, ice cream, and merry-go-round are examples of compound words.
comprehension skills
Comprehension skills include recognizing a main idea and its supporting
details, sequencing or putting events in a logical order, making inferences, predicting, locating evidence or facts to support an idea, and adjusting reading
speed to the material to be read.
consonant
A consonant is a letter of the alphabet that represents a brief speech sound.
These are consonants: b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, and y.
content neutral
prompt
A content neutral prompt is one that encourages and guides students’ thinking
but does not give the answer to the question asked. Examples of content neutral
prompts include What happened next? Why do you think the character did that?
Tell me how the problem was resolved.
context clues
A context clue is a hint that a writer gives to help readers understand the meaning of important vocabulary in text.
contrast
A contrast is a statement that tells how two or more things are different.
controlled vocabulary
text
A controlled vocabulary text is a book for new readers that uses a limited number of words that occur frequently in the language and that are decodable using
consistent spelling patterns. See decodable texts.
decodable text
A decodable text is a book for new readers that uses a limited number of words
that occur frequently in the language and that are decodable using phonics. See
controlled vocabulary texts.
decoding
Decoding is the communication process by which we unlock or discover the
ideas or meaning represented by words or symbols. See encoding.
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denotation and
connotation
Denotation means the dictionary definition of a word. Connotation means the
feeling or idea that a word gives in addition to its dictionary meaning. For
example, these words all mean a place to sleep: bed, cot, crib, bunk, sack, and
cradle. Each of these words is appropriate in some, but not all, circumstances.
derivational suffix
A derivational suffix is a word part that can be added to the end of a word to
change its meaning and make a new word. For example, adding the derivational
suffix -able to drink makes the word drinkable; adding the suffix -ful to hope
makes the word hopeful.
dictionary
A dictionary is a reference book containing words listed in alphabetical order
and providing information about word meanings, pronunciation, and origins.
digraph
A digraph is a two-letter symbol that represents one speech sound, for example,
the digraph ph represents the sound /f/.
diphthong
A diphthong is a two-letter symbol that represents a single vowel sound that
seems to glide from the first sound into the second sound, for example, the
diphthong oi that represents the vowel sound in oil.
directed reading
thinking activity
(DRTA)
DRTA is a reading instruction sequence that encourages students to think about
what they are reading. The sequence starts by asking students to predict what
the story is about based on its title and other clues; next students read to find out
whether their predictions were accurate. The process of prediction and reading
to find out is repeated throughout the text.
ELA
ELA is an abbreviation of English language arts.
ELLs
ELLs is an abbreviation of English language learners and refers to students who
are learning English as a second or possibly third language.
emergent literacy
Emergent literacy refers to children’s early activities of awareness, exploration,
and imitation of language, reading, and writing that evolve over time toward
standard language use and conventional reading and writing.
encoding
Encoding is the communication process by which we express ideas using words
or symbols. See decoding.
English language arts
(twenty-first
century)
The six English language arts for the twenty-first century are reading, listening,
viewing, writing, speaking, and presenting.
English language arts
(traditional)
The four traditional English language arts are reading, writing, listening, and
speaking.
environmental print
Environmental print is print found in the physical environment around us and
includes signs, labels, billboards, logos, and so on.
expressive language
arts
The expressive language arts are those used to express ideas, feelings, and information. They are writing, speaking, and presenting. See receptive language arts.
fable
A fable is a short story that often has animals as characters and that teaches a
lesson. An example of a fable is the story about the tortoise and the hare.
fact
A fact is an idea that is shared and has evidence to support it.
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fairy tale
A fairy tale is an imaginary story about fairies, elves, and magical deeds.
fiction
Fiction is writing that is based on invented information.
figurative language
Figurative language is language that cannot be understood literally. Authors use
figurative language to help readers visualize or picture what is being described.
fluency
Fluency in reading has three elements: accurate word recognition, appropriate
speed, and changes in intonation that show understanding of what is being read.
folktales
Folktales are stories passed from one generation to another through storytelling. Folktales include fairy tales, myths, and legends.
frustration level
Books and other reading material are at a student’s frustration level if many
words are unknown and need to be sounded out. When students struggle with
recognizing words and have to stop frequently to sound them out, they can
lose track of the meaning and will have difficulty explaining or retelling what
was read. Books that are too far above students’ word knowledge or decoding skill level will be frustrating and may cause students to dislike and avoid
reading.
genres
Genres are the categories of literature including fiction, poetry, and nonfiction.
Each has many subcategories.
glossary
A glossary is an alphabetical list of key words with their definitions as they are
used in a specific book or field.
graphic organizers
A graphic organizer is a visual display that shows the relationships among facts,
concepts, ideas, or other types of information.
growth portfolio
A growth portfolio is a collection of a student’s work that shows the development of knowledge and skills over a period of time.
hearing
Hearing is the physical sense by which sound is perceived as a result of sound
waves hitting membranes in the ear.
high-frequency words
High-frequency words are those that are used most often. They are usually
taught to young children as sight words because they are very useful and
because many are not phonically regular.
homonyms
Homonyms are words that sound alike but have different meanings.
idioms
An idiom is a phrase that cannot be understood from the meaning of its individual words. For example, It was raining cats and dogs.
independent level
Books and other reading material are at a student’s independent level if nearly
all the words (nine out of ten) are easily recognized and the student has no
difficulty explaining or retelling what he or she has read. The independent level
is best for reading for pleasure. Reading books at the independent level helps
students develop reading speed and accuracy.
inference
An inference is meaning that is implied or based on information not explicitly
stated. Some inferences are based on hints in the text; others are based on the
reader’s knowledge.
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inflectional suffix
An inflectional suffix is added to a word to change its grammatical form and
use. Inflectional suffixes do not change the core meaning of the word. These are
the most frequently used inflectional suffixes:
-s or -es (indicate plural)
-y, -ish, -ic, -like, -ese (indicate adjectives)
-ly (indicates it is an adverb)
-ed (indicates past tense)
-ing (indicates present participle—going on in the present)
informational text
Informational text is written material that explains something. Books about
animals, the weather, and trains are examples of informational texts.
instructional level
Books and other reading material are at a student’s instructional level if most
of the words (eight out of ten) are easily recognized and the student can figure
out the rest with a little help. The student should also be able to explain or
retell what he or she has read. Reading at the instructional level gives students
opportunities to learn new words and skills but is not so challenging that they
want to avoid reading.
KWL chart
A KWL chart is a graphic organizer that identifies what students already know,
want to learn, and have learned.
L1 and L2
L1 means a person’s first language or home language. L2 means the second
language that a person is learning.
language experience
approach (LEA)
The language experience approach is an early reading strategy often used in
P–2 classes. The steps include have a group experience, discuss it, dictate story,
review story, reading story (teacher, then teacher with students), reread story
and parts, cut copy into strips, match to whole story, reread, cut strips into
words, manipulate words, and put words in word book.
legend
A legend is a type of folktale handed down from one generation to another. Legends are usually based in fact. They change over time but retain their meaning
and cultural symbolism.
levels of text
Based on a student’s reading skills, library books and other reading materials
will be just right for reading without help (independent level), best for reading
with a teacher or other more skilled reader (instructional level), or too difficult
for the student (frustration level). See independent level, instructional level, and
frustration level for more information. See also listening level.
Lexile measures
Lexile measures refer to two different things. The first is a Lexile measure of
a specific text. It is an estimate of the level of difficulty it presents to a reader
and is based on a computer application that uses word frequency and sentence
length to determine a score. The second measure is a score based on a student’s
standardized test results that estimates his or her reading ability. Lexile measures are intended to match students with reading material at a level of difficulty
appropriate to their abilities.
listening
Listening is a mental process that focuses on sounds heard by the ears, interprets
the sounds, and derives meaning from them.
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listening level
Books and audio recordings are at a student’s listening level if the student can
listen to and understand most of the words and ideas presented. Students’ listening levels do not take into account their reading skills. They are an indication of
the level of vocabulary and concepts students can understand. Sometimes listening levels are used to estimate the gap between where students are based on their
current word recognition skills and where they could be if their reading skills are
improved.
literacy
Literacy is the use of the six language arts to process and communicate feelings,
ideas, and information.
literacy coach
A literacy coach is a reading specialist who provides support and professional
development for teachers. A literacy coach may suggest instructional methods
or strategies for helping struggling students and support the classroom teacher
as she or he uses the new approach.
logography
Logography refers to reading a logo or symbol and getting meaning. Most young
children can pick out their favorite restaurant by its logo, for example, recognizing a McDonalds restaurant by its golden arches not by the word McDonalds.
long vowel sound
There are six long vowel sounds in American English:
/ā/ as in apron, /ē/ as in equal, /ı̄/ as in ice cream,
/ō/ as in opal, /ū/ as in rule, ∕oo∕ as in moon.
The long vowel sounds have many different spellings. For example, /ā/ is spelled
a, ay, a_e, ai, ei, and eigh.
See short vowel sound, syllable patterns.
macron
A macron is a mark printed or written above a vowel to show that it is a long
vowel. One of the spellings of the long e is ē. It has the sound of the e in the word
equal.
morpheme
A morpheme is the smallest unit of sound with meaning. For example, the suffix
-er is a morpheme that means one who does. It adds this meaning when it is
attached at the end of a word as in work + er = worker.
morphology
Morphology is the study of word parts (roots and affixes) and how they are
arranged to form words. See root word, affixes.
myth
A myth is a fictional explanation of how parts of our world came to be and work,
such as why there is night and day. Myths are handed down from generation to
generation. Greek and Roman myths are best known, but most cultures have
myths.
narratives
A narrative is a type of writing that tells a story. Narratives can be based on
true facts (nonfiction) or they can be based on imagined events and characters
(fiction).
narrator
A narrator is the person telling a story.
nonfiction
Nonfiction is writing based on real people, things, places, or events.
onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeias are words that sound like their meanings. For example, Bam!
Bam! I heard the cabinet doors slam shut.
open syllable
An open syllable ends in a vowel sound; the vowel sound is long in the word gō.
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opinion
An opinion is a person’s thoughts about something that may not have evidence
to support it.
orthography
Orthography refers to spelling patterns and the specific order of letters in words.
pangram
A pangram is a sentence that uses all the letters of the alphabet. Pangrams are
used for handwriting and keyboarding practice or assessment.
paraphrase
A paraphrase is a retelling of something using our own words. A paraphrase is
like a synonym for text.
phoneme
A phoneme is a speech sound. American English uses about forty-five different
sounds. Phonemes are represented by letters. To show that we mean the sound
and not the letter, we write phonemes between forward leaning lines (/). This is
how we write the sound that goes with the letter b: /b/.
phonemic awareness
Phonemic awareness means a person recognizes the sounds of speech as different from other sounds around them.
phonemic substitution
Phonemic substitution means replacing one phoneme, or speech sound, with
another. See phonogram.
phonics
Phonics is the system of sound-to-letter relationships used in a language.
phonogram
A phonogram is a spelling pattern. It is made of a vowel plus a final consonant
sound. Phonograms are also called rimes. To make a word with a phonogram,
you add a consonant to the beginning of the phonogram. The consonant is
called the onset. See consonant, vowel, rime, onset, and word family.
phonological
awareness
Phonological awareness is the recognition that sounds form spoken words and
that the order of sounds changes the words. It also includes recognition of
rhymes, syllables, beginning (onset) sounds of words, and ending sounds of
words.
point of view
Point of view refers to who is narrating or telling the story: A story told from
a first-person point of view uses the word I as in I opened the door. In writing
with a second person point of view, the author or the main character talks to
you as in To stay healthy, you must get enough exercise. In writing that has a
third-person point of view, the narrator seems to be watching from outside the
story and uses he, she, it, and they in the telling the story as in First, he opened
the window and helped her climb in.
prediction
A prediction is a statement about the future based on information and events
already known. Predictions can be based on information stated in the text or
the knowledge and experiences of the reader or information from both the story
and the reader.
prefixes
Prefixes are morphemes, or letters or groups of letters that have meaning. When
a prefix is added to the beginning of a word it changes its meaning. For example,
when the prefix un-, which means not, is added to the word happy, the word that
is formed, unhappy, means not happy.
readability level
The readability level of text is an estimate of its level of difficulty or complexity.
Readability measures usually consider the difficulty of the vocabulary words
and the difficulty or complexity of the sentences. Lexiles measures, DRP levels,
and the Fry Readability Graph are three commonly used measures of readability levels.
F O U NDA T IO NS
47
reader-response
strategies
Reader-response strategies are the way a person reacts to reading or listening
to a text. Each person interacts with the work differently. Some strategies used
to encourage and record these responses include having students draw pictures,
write about it, and act out parts.
reading
Reading is the thinking process through which we construct meaning from
print.
reading specialist
A reading specialist is a teacher who has advanced education, usually a master’s
degree, in the field of reading or literacy instruction. A reading specialist can
evaluate students’ reading skills and identify areas of strength and areas that
need improvement. Reading specialists are also skilled in research-based strategies to remediate or improve reading achievement for individual students. Reading specialists often provide instruction in reading to small groups or individual
children in addition to the instruction provided in the students’ classrooms.
receptive language
arts
The receptive language arts are those that provide information to the individual.
They are reading, listening, and viewing. See expressive language arts.
repair strategies
When readers notice that they do not understand what they are reading, they
can use a variety of strategies to repair their comprehension including rereading
a section; reading to the end of the sentence or paragraph and thinking about
it; looking back at an earlier section; checking a fact, word, or idea; slowing
down their reading; looking at the illustrations; using a reference; or asking a
question.
repetition
Repetition means to say or do something again. In literature, repetition is used
for emphasis.
resource room
A resource room is a separate classroom where students who are having difficulty learning to read or do math may go for part of the school day to have
extra individualized or small group instruction in the area of difficulty.
retell
To retell a story means to restate the story using the same or different words
but preserving the story and much of the detail. Retelling is an effective way to
check students’ reading comprehension.
rhyme
Rhyme occurs when two or more words end with the same sound.
rhythm
Rhythm is the regular, repeated pattern of sounds or movements.
root word
A root word (also called base word) is the main part of a word that carries the
meaning. A root word is the base to which prefixes and suffixes can be added.
For example, we can add a prefix and a suffix to the root word tell:
re+tell = retell
tell+ing = telling
re+tell+ing = retelling
running record
A running record is an oral reading assessment that gives information about a
student’s skills in word recognition, fluency, and reading comprehension. For
a running record, the student reads a passage aloud while the teacher marks
a copy to show how the student read each word. The student then retells the
passage as an indicator of comprehension.
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
48
scaffolding
Scaffolding means the support and guidance given by the teacher that enables a
student to do what he or she could not do without the support.
schema (pl.
schemata)
A schema is a packet of information about a topic that is based on a person’s
experiences and stored in his or her brain. Schemata fill in missing details in
understanding and enable readers to make predictions and inferences based on
the logical relationships they understood from past experiences.
segmentation
Segmentation means taking something apart or separating it into its parts. In
reading, we segment sentences into words, words into syllables, and syllables into
speech sounds.
semantics
Semantics refers to the particular meanings of words.
sequence
Sequence refers to the time order, logical order, or pattern of occurrences.
Sequence helps readers draw conclusions, see cause and effect, and make predictions. Some words that signal sequence include first, second, next, before, after,
last, then.
shared reading
Shared reading is an experience in which students read with a teacher or other
competent reader. In shared reading the teacher usually reads first and then
rereads with students. Shared reading enables students to participate in reading
materials they cannot read on their own.
short vowel sounds
There are six short vowel sounds in American English:
/ă/ as in at; /ĕ/ as in send, bread; /ı̆/ as in in, sync;
̆ as in book, push
/ŏ/ as in on; /ŭ/ as in hug; and /oo/
See long vowel sounds, syllable patterns.
signal words
Signal words are used by the author to help readers understand how text is organized or what is important. Signal words can show order (first, second, before,
next), cause (because, since), contrast (but, however), sameness (like, also), or
results (therefore, so). Signal words are also called transition words.
simile
A simile is a comparison of two things using the word like or as. For example,
Her golden hair shone like the sun. It was as smooth as silk.
suffix
A suffix is a letter or group of letters that are added to the end of a word or word
stem to change its meaning or alter its use. See derivational suffix and inflectional
suffix.
summarize
To summarize, the reader retells the main idea and important points of a story
in a logical sequence, combining and condensing description and rewording the
text.
syllable
A syllable is a pronounceable word part that has a vowel sound. Every syllable
must have a vowel sound and may also have consonant sounds. A vowel by itself
can be a syllable as in a•ble, but a consonant by itself cannot be a syllable.
syllable patterns
A syllable pattern is the arrangement of vowels (v) and consonants (c) in the
syllables of a word. The pattern helps determine how to pronounce the word.
Syllable patterns for long vowel sounds: cv, vcv, cvcle
Syllable patterns for short vowel sounds: vc, cvc, cvccvc
See open syllable and closed syllable.
F O U NDA T IO NS
49
synonyms
Synonyms are words that have similar meanings. For example:
look, glance at, see; supply, provide, furnish; help, aid, assist; heal, mend, cure;
carry, tote, lug; children, youngsters, tots
syntax
Syntax refers to the rules for using different types of words, called parts of speech,
in sentences. Another word for syntax is grammar.
tall tale
A tall tale is a humorous story based on a real person who is said to accomplish
amazing things far beyond what is possible, for example, stories about Johnny
Appleseed or Paul Bunyan.
transition words
Transition words are used by the author to help readers understand how text
is organized or what is important. Signal words can show order (first, second,
before, next), cause (because, since), contrast (but, however), sameness (like, also),
or results (therefore, so). Transition words are also called signal words.
virgule
A virgule is a forward-leaning line that is used to write sounds. To show that we
mean the sound (a phoneme) and not the letter that represents the sound, we
write phonemes between virgules (/). This is how we write the sound that goes
with the letters sh: /sh/.
visual acuity
Visual acuity means the ability of the eyes to see accurately in the range of visual
expected for humans.
visual
discrimination
Visual discrimination means the ability to tell one thing from another by site, for
example, tell one letter from another as in P/R.
voiced consonant
Voiced consonants are consonant sounds produced using the vocal cords and
include v, th, z, and zh (as in measure)
voiceless consonant
Voiceless consonants are consonant sounds produced without using the vocal
cords.
vowel
A vowel is a letter of the alphabet that represents a speech sound that allows air
to flow. These are vowel letters: a, e, i, o, u. The letters u, w, y are sometimes used
to show vowel sounds as in auto, awful, and my.
vowel teams
A vowel team is made of two vowel letters that together make one sound. These
are some of the vowel teams: ay, ai, aw, ea, ee, ew, ie, oa, oe, oi, oo, ou, ow, oy, and
ue.
word family
A set of words formed by adding different beginning sounds to a spelling pattern or phonogram (-ack: back, sack, black, tack, etc.). See onset, rhyme, and
phonogram.
word shapes
Word shapes are visual shapes created by the letters that spell a word. Length
and shape are used by readers to help recognize words. For example, if you saw
the outline but not the letters for these words, you could easily tell which shape
was the and which was elephant.
word wall
A word wall is a visual tool that supports independent reading and writing. As
words are learned they are listed alphabetically on a wall or board so that students
can refer to them for spelling and as reminders of known words.
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
50
SECTION 2
Phonics
List 16.
Suggested Phonics Teaching Order
List 17. Consonant Sounds and Spellings
List 18. Vowel Sounds and Spellings
List 19.
Double Vowels
List 20.
The Final E Rule
List 21. Sound Determined by Letter Position
List 22.
Phonics Example Words
List 23. The Most Common Phonograms
List 24. Phonograms
List 25. Phonically Irregular Words
List 26. Standalones—Words without Rhymes
List 27.
Syllabication Rules
S
cientific studies of what works in reading instruction demonstrate the importance of teaching
children phonics to quickly decode unfamiliar-looking words. At the same time, the studies
stress that phonics alone is not enough. Effective reading instruction pairs phonics with activities that focus on gaining meaning from print and developing students’ vocabularies, reading
strategies, and writing skills.
Studies of phonics conclude that a systematic approach to teaching and learning sound-letter
correspondences is most effective but that no one phonics program is consistently superior to
another. Some researchers report the best approach to phonics combines letter-sound instruction
with word building using phonograms or spelling patterns.
Phonics instruction builds on early experiences with rhyming and sound discrimination. It
also develops the foundation skills of separating a word into its parts (segmentation) and putting
sounds together to form words (blending) systematically providing instruction and experience
with all forty-five sounds in American English. Recognizing the patterns of open (e.g., cv) and
closed (e.g., cvc) syllables also helps students decode unknown words.
This section of the book includes a suggested phonics teaching order, sound-spelling lists, and
rules for double vowels, final e, and syllabication. There are example words for each phoneme and
its varied spellings and a very complete list of phonograms.
Cunningham, P. (2013). Phonics they use: Words for reading and writing (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education.
Cunningham, P. (2015). Best practices in teaching phonological awareness and phonics. In L. B. Gambrell & L. M.
Morrow (Eds.), Best practices in literacy instruction (5th ed.). New York: The Guilford Press.
Jeul, C., & Minden-Cupp, C. (2000). Learning to read words: Linguistic units and instructional strategies. Reading
Research Quarterly, 35, 458–492.
McCutchen, D., Green, L., & Abbott, R. D. (2008). Children’s morphological knowledge: Links to literacy. Reading
Psychology, 29, 289–314.
National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research
literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction (National Institute of Health Publication No.
00–4769). Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
Yopp, H. K., & Yopp, R. H. (2000). Supporting phonemic awareness development in the classroom. The Reading
Teacher, 54, 130–143.
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
52
LIST 16. SUGGESTED PHONICS
TEACHING ORDER
This suggested teaching order is based on research that considered the frequency of each phonemegrapheme (sound-spelling) correspondence in text. It combines consonants and vowels for use in the
classroom. Most reading programs use a similar order for introducing phonics elements.
Letter(s)
t
n
r
m
d
s
Sound
/t/
/n/
/r/
/m/
/d/
/s/
Example
tap
nap
rat
mat
dog
sat
Letter(s)
l
c
p
b
f
v
Sound
/l/
/k/
/p/
/b/
/f/
/v/
Example
lap
cat
pat
bat
fat
vet
Short vowels
a
e
i
ă
ĕ
ı̆
cat
let
hit
o
u
ŏ
ŭ
hot
cut
Long vowels (final e rule)
a_e
e_e
i_e
/ā/
/ē/
/ı̄/
make
these
nine
o_e
u_e
/ō/
/ū/
bone
use
Long vowels (open syllable
rule)
Other single consonants
e
/ē/
me
o
/ō/
go
g
h
k
w
j
/g/
/h/
/k/
/w/
/j/
get
hot
kit
wet
jet
x
qu
y
z
/ks/
/kw/
/y/
/z/
box
quit
yes
zip
Initial consonant digraphs
th
th
ch
/th/
/th/
/ch/
thin
these
chin
sh
wh
/sh/
/hw/
ship
when
Y vowels
-y
/ı̄/
my
-y
/ē/
funny
Consonant second sounds
c
s
/s/
/z/
city
his
g
x
/j/
/gz /
gym
exam
Long vowel digraphs
ai
ay
ea
/ ā/
/ā/
/ē/
pain
day
meat
ee
oa
ow
/ē/
/ō/
/ō/
feet
boat
snow
Initial consonant blends
pr
tr
gr
br
cr
dr
sm
sn
pl
cl
bl
/pr/
/tr/
/gr/
/br/
/cr
/dr/
/sm/
/sn/
/pl/
/cl/
/bl/
prize
trip
greet
Brad
crib
drive
smell
snap
play
clip
blip
fr
st
sp
sk
sc
sw
fl
sl
gl
tw
str
/fr/
/st/
/sp/
/sk/
/sc/
/sw/
/fl/
/sl/
/gl/
/tw/
/str/
free
step
spin
skip
scan
swim
flip
slap
glow
twin
street
Easy consonants (high
frequency—high
contrast)
PHO NIC S
53
Letter(s)
ld
lf
sk
st
nk
Sound
/ld/
/lf/
/sk/
/st/
/nk/
Example
cold
elf
ask
pest
ink
Letter(s)
nt
mb
mp
ng
Sound
/nt/
/mb/
/mp/
/ng/
Example
ant
lamb
camp
sing
Vowels + r
ar
er
ir
or
ur
/är/
/ûr/
/ûr/
/ôr/
/ûr/
far
her
fir
for
fur
air
are
ear
eer
/âr/
/âr/
/e-r/
/e-r/
fair
bare
tear
beer
Broad o vowels
aw
au
/aw/
/aw/
awful
auto
al
o
/aw/
/aw/
also
off
Other vowels—diphthongs
ow
ou
/ou/
/ou/
owl
out
oi
oy
/oi/
/oi/
boil
boy
Double o vowels
oo
oo
∕oo∕
̆
∕oo∕
pool
foot
u
u
∕oo∕
̆
∕oo∕
truth
push
Schwa in an unaccented
syllable
a
e
i
gn
ph
/ /
/ /
/ /
/n/
/f/
about
letter
holiday
gnu
phone
o
u
/ // /
e e
cannon
circus
kn
wr
/n/
/r/
knew
write
ough
/aw/
ought
igh
/i/
sight
Other spellings/silent letters
Other vowel spellings
e
e
e
Final consonant blends
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
54
LIST 17. CONSONANT SOUNDS
AND SPELLINGS
Consonant sounds are made by stopping or partially blocking air flow during speech. There are twenty-one
consonant letters in our alphabet, but there are twenty-six consonant sounds in American English.∗ Some
sounds, called digraphs, are spelled using two letters. Syllables that end with consonant sounds are called
closed syllables. To distinguish between sounds and letters, we write sounds between virgules or forward
slash marks. This is the sound for the letter b: /b/.
Consonant Sounds
Sound
/b/
/d/
/f/
/g/
/h/
/j/
/k/
/ks/
/l/
/m/
/n/
Spellings
b
d
f
g
h
j, g
k, c
x
l
m
n
Sample Words
bat
dog
fin
gate
hand
jar, germ
kid, can
box
lit
man
not
Sound
/ng/
/p/
/kw/
/r/
/s/
/t/
/v/
/w/
/y/
/z/
/zh/
Spellings
ng
p
qu
r
s, c
t
v
w
y
z
-s-
Sample Words
ring
pen
quit
rib
six, city
top
vase
wish
yes
zero
treasure
Sample Words
show
chip
Sound
/th/
/th/
Spellings
th
th
Sample Words
thing1
then1
Consonant Digraph Sounds
Sound
/sh/
/ch/
Spellings
sh
ch
1 The voiceless sound of th (/th/) as in thing does not use the voice box; the voiced th (/th/) uses the voice box.
Alternate Spellings for Consonant Sounds
Sound
/f/
/j/
/z/
Spellings
ph
dge
s, x
Sample Words
phone
edge
wise, xylophone
Sound
/k/
/ks/
/sh/
Spellings
ck
cks
ch, ti
Sample Words
tick
clocks
chef, action
Silent Consonants
Sound
/l/
/m/
/n/
/r/
Spellings
ll
mb
kn, gn
wr
Sample Words
llama
thumb
knot, gnat
write
Sound
/f/
/k/
/l/
Spellings
lf
gh
lk
ble, dle, tle,
Sample Words
calf
high
walk
bubble, needle, little
∗ The English language includes words that originated in other languages with different spelling patterns. This is why English has
many sounds and words that have “irregular” spellings.
PHO NIC S
55
Initial Consonant Blends
R blend: br, cr, dr, fr, gr, pr, tr, wr
S two-letter blend: sc, sk, sm, sn, sp, st, sw
No family blends: dw, tw, thr
L blend: bl, cl, fl, gl, pl, sl
S three-letter blend: sch, scr, squ, str, spr, spl, shr
Final Consonant Blends
ct, ft, ld, lm, lp, lt, mp, nch, nd, nk, nt, pt, rd, rt, sk, sp, st
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
56
LIST 18. VOWEL SOUNDS AND SPELLINGS
Vowel sounds allow air flow during speech. Only seven letters are used to represent the twenty-one vowel
sounds (a, e, i, o, u, w, y). Vowel sounds in phonics are usually divided into the following categories. Syllables that end with vowel sounds are called open syllables; the vowel sound in an open syllable is long. To
distinguish between sounds and letters, we write sounds between virgules or forward slash marks. This is
the sound for long a: /ā/.
Y as a Vowel
y
/ı̄/
y
/ē/
y
/ı̆/
try, cycle
funny
sync
Schwa
a
e
i
o
u
le
al
ul
ago
happen
pencil
cannon
circus
candle
pedal
awful
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ l/
/ l/
/ l/
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
Diphthongs
oi
/oi/
oy
/oi/
oil
boy
Long Vowels—Final E
a
/ā/
e
/ē/
i
/ı̄/
o
/ō/
u
/ū/
Long Vowel Digraphs
ai
/ā/
ay
/ā/
ea
/ē/
ee
/ē/
oa
/ō/
ow
/ō/
ew
/ū/
aid
say
eat
see
oat
own
new
Long Vowels—Open Syllable
a
/ā/
baby
e
/ē/
we
i
/ı̄/
tiger
o
/ō/
open
Vowel + R
ar
er
ir
or
ur
e
cat
end
sip
hot
cup
/är/
/ r/
/ r/
/ôr/
/ r/
far
her
sir
for
fur
Double O
oo
∕oo∕
u
∕oo∕
̆
oo
∕oo∕
̆
u
∕oo∕
soon
truth
good
put
Broad O
o
a(l)
a(u)
a(w)
/ô/
/ô/
/ô/
/ô/
long
also
auto
Saw
ou
ow
out
cow
/ou/
/ou/
PHO NIC S
57
make
these
five
hope
cube
e
e
Short Vowels
a
/ă/
e
/ĕ/
i
/ı̆/
o
/ŏ/
u
/ ŭ/
LIST 19. DOUBLE VOWELS
The following are long vowel digraphs contrasted with short vowels in closed syllables. These pairs make
an excellent focus for auditory discrimination as well as for spelling study.
Long a
/ā/
laid
maid
paid
claim
main
pain
rain
vain
brain
plain
Spain
paint
bait
Short a
/ă/
lad
mad
pad
clam
man
pan
ran
van
bran
plan
span
pant
bat
Long e
/ē/
reed
bead
feed
lead
need
weed
bleed
breed
freed
speed
steam
bean
keen
mean
teen
fiend
peep
reap
steep
beet
beat
meet
meat
neat
peat
seat
dean
beast
Short e
/ē/
red
bed
fed
led
Ned
wed
bled
bred
Fred
sped
stem
Ben
Ken
men
ten
fend
pep
rep
step
bet
bet
met
met
net
pet
set
den
best
Long i
/ı̄/
died
lied
Short i
/ı̄/
did
lid
Long o
/ō/
croak
cloak
road
soap
coat
goat
Short o
/ŏ/
crock
clock
rod
sop
cot
got
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
58
LIST 20. THE FINAL E RULE
Often, an e at the end of a word makes the preceding vowel long. Here are some short vowel words contrasted with long vowel words that illustrate this rule. Use these pairs for interesting and instructive word
walls, flash cards, and spelling lessons.
A Words
fad—fade
stag—stage
mat—mate
can—cane
Sam—same
tap—tape
rag—rage
hat—hate
sham—shame
pan—pane
cap—cape
scrap—scrape
wag—wage
dam—dame
ban—bane
gap—gape
fat—fate
rat—rate
hid—hide
dim—dime
grim—grime
din—dine
shin—shine
twin—twine
grip—gripe
bit—bite
quit—quite
rid—ride
rim—rime
prim—prime
fin—fine
spin—spine
win—wine
snip—snipe
kit—kite
spit—spite
slid—slide
Tim—time
slim—slime
pin—pine
tin—tine
rip—ripe
strip—stripe
lit—lite
sit—site
lob—lobe
cod—code
cop—cope
pop—pope
rob—robe
nod—node
hop—hope
slop—slope
glob—globe
rod—rode
mop—mope
tot—tote
cub—cube
tub—tube
cut—cute
I Words
O Words
U Words
Exceptions to the final e rule. At the end of a word, the letter e is usually silent.
Here are some words that have a silent final e, but do not follow the final e rule.
• Most words ending in -le: circle, cattle, middle, apple, single, trouble
• Most words ending in -ce: since, notice, voice, force, dance, office, practice
• Most words ending in -se: house, else, horse, course, praise, sense, else, whose, please
• Most words ending in -re: before, sure, figure, are, measure, square, store
• Most words ending in -ve: give, love, believe, have, serve
• Others: come, some, one, there, large, eye, edge, gone, done
PHO NIC S
59
LIST 21. SOUND DETERMINED
BY LETTER POSITION
One approach to phonics is to consider how the sounds are determined by their positions within words.
For example, group 1 shows that many consonants make the same sound no matter where they are, but
group 2 shows that the position in a syllable or other factors changes the sound.
3. Marker-dependent letter correspondences
(A marker is another letter in the word that
changes a sound.)
Final E Rule (always vce)
a /ā / cake
o /ō/ home
e /ē/ these
u /ū/ use
i /ı̄/ ice
When a single vowel is followed by a single consonant and a silent final e, the vowel is long.
Consonant Second Sounds
c /k/ cake
(followed by a, o, u)
c /s/ city
(followed by i, e, y)
g /g/ gate
(followed by a, o, u)
g /j/ gem
(followed by i, e, y)
R-Modified Vowels (always where r follows)
a /är/ far
o /ôr/ for
e / r/ her
u / r/ fur
i / r / fir
4. Digraph correspondences (two letters positioned
together)
Consonant Digraphs
Double O
sh /sh/ shoe
oo ∕oo∕ moon
̆ look
ch /ch/ church
oo ∕oo∕
th /th/ thing
th /th/ this
Exceptions
wh /hw/ white
qu /kw/ quick
ea /e/ bread
Long Vowel Digraphs
ph /f/ phone
ea /ē/ eat
ng /ng/ sing
ee /ē/ see
ai /ā/ aid
Silent Consonants
ay /ā/ say
gn /n/ gnat
oa /ō/ oat
kn /n/ knife
ow /ō/ know
wr /r/ write
ck /k/ back
Broad O Digraphs
au /ô/ auto
Diphthongs
aw /ô/ saw
ou /ou/ out
al /ô/ also
ow /ow/ now
oi /oi/ oil
oy /oi/ boy
ew /ew/ few
e
1. Position-independent letter correspondences
(doesn’t matter where the letter is)
Single Consonants
b /b/ book
n /n/ nut
d /d/ dog
p /p/ pen
f /f/ fish
r /r/ ring
h /h/ hand
t /t/ top
j /j/ jar
v /v/ valentine
k /k/ kite
w /w/ window
l /l/ letter
z /z/ zebra
m /m/ man
2. Position-dependent letter correspondences
(position changes sound)
Closed Syllable Rule (If syllable ends in a
consonant, the vowel is short.)
a /ă/ at
e /ĕ/ end
i /ı̆/ sip
o /ŏ/ hot
u / ŭ/ pup
Second Sounds
s /s/ saw (at the beginning)
s /z/ his (frequently at the end)
y /y/ yes (at the beginning)
y /ı̄/ my (at end of syllable or short word)
y /ē/ pony (at end of a two or more syllable word)
Open Syllable Rule (If syllable ends in a vowel,
the vowel is long.)
a /ā/ table
o /ō/ donut
e /ē/ before
u /ū/ music
i /ı̄/ tiny
Schwa (always in an unaccented syllable)
a / / principal o / / cannon
e / / happen u / / circus
i / / pencil
Letter X (always at end)
x /ks/ box
e
e
e
e
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
60
e
e
e
LIST 22. PHONICS EXAMPLE WORDS
This key list for teaching sound-letter patterns presents ninety-nine single phonemes (speech sounds) and
consonant blends (usually two phonemes) in alphabetical order with example words using the sounds in initial, medial, and final positions in words. These examples illustrate the ways speech sounds are represented
by spelling patterns. Use them for auditory recognition training as well as phonics instruction.
/ă/ Short A, Closed Syllable Rule
Initial
act
add
Africa
after
an
and
answer
ant
ask
at
adjective
am
animal
as
ax
Medial
back
can
hand
last
stand
began
fast
happen
man
than
black
had
has
plant
that
/ā/ Long A, Open Syllable Rule
Initial
able
ached
acre
agent
alias
alien
apex
April
apron
Asia
atrium
aviary
Medial
baby
enable
label
lazy
radio
vacation
basic
equator
labor
navy
relation
vapor
basis
flavor
ladle
paper
station
vibration
crazy
hazy
lady
potato
tomato
volcano
/ā/ Long A, Final E Rule
Initial
Medial
ace
base
age
game
ale
made
ape
plane
ate
state
brake
gave
make
same
tale
came
grace
name
shade
trace
face
jade
pace
shape
trade
flake
late
place
space
wave
/ā/ Long A, Ai Digraph
Initial
Medial
aid
afraid
aide
explain
ail
jail
ailment
paid
aim
sail
brain
fail
laid
plain
strait
chain
faint
mail
rail
tail
claim
gain
main
rain
train
detail
grain
obtain
remain
wait
/ā/ Long A, Ay Digraph
Medial
always
daylight
jaywalk
layer
mayor
payment
haystack
maybe
player
Final
away
day
highway
play
stay
bay
gray
may
repay
today
birthday
hay
pay
say
way
PHO NIC S
61
/ / Schwa, A Spelling
Initial
about
appear
above
away
ago
again
alone
ahead
America
another
alike
agree
e
/ô/ Al Digraph Spelling
Initial
all
altogether
always
alternate
also
altar
already
almost
almanac
although
all
altogether
/ô/ Au Digraph Spelling
Initial
auburn
auction
audience
auditorium
Australia
authentic
autograph
automatic
auburn
auction
/ô/ Aw Digraph Spelling
Initial
Medial
awe
crawl
awful
hawk
awkward
lawyer
awl
squawk
awning
Medial
breakfast
carnival
distance
magazine
purchase
thousand
canvas
compass
familiar
medical
senator
tropical
career
diagram
husband
national
several
vegetable
Final
algebra
banana
China
comma
idea
parka
Medial
chalk
false
halt
scald
walk
fallen
falter
salt
talk
walnut
Final
baseball
fall
overall
small
tall
call
hall
recall
stall
wall
audible
August
author
autumn
audible
Medial
because
caution
exhaust
haul
overhaul
caught
daughter
faucet
launch
sauce
cause
dinosaur
fault
laundry
sausage
drawer
lawful
scrawl
tawny
drawn
lawn
shawl
yawn
Final
caw
draw
gnaw
law
straw
claw
flaw
jaw
paw
thaw
Final
aware
care
fare
rare
spare
bare
dare
glare
share
square
Final
bar
car
jar
par
tar
bazaar
far
mar
scar
tsar
/air/ Air Vowel, Ar and Are Spellings
Initial
Medial
area
beware
canary
daring
declare
flare
January
primary
scarcely
secretary
vary
careful
February
parent
scare
wary
/ar/ Ar Vowel, Ar Spelling
Initial
arbor
arch
arctic
are
argument
ark
arm
armor
army
art
article
artist
dark
garden
large
part
spark
yard
Medial
card
farm
hard
March
party
start
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
62
/b/ Regular B Consonant Sound
Initial
back
be
before
below
better
big
box
boy
but
by
Medial
baby
object
problem
remember
submarine
number
probably
rabbit
subject
tabby
Final
adverb
cab
grab
rib
tub
bulb
club
job
rub
verb
/bl/ Consonant Blend
Initial
black
blade
blanket
blast
blend
blind
bloom
blossom
blue
blue
blame
bleach
blink
blot
blunt
blank
bleed
blond
blow
blur
Medial
ablaze
gambler
nosebleed
obliterate
rambling
emblem
grumbling
oblige
oblivious
tumbler
/br/ Consonant Blend
Initial
brain
branch
brave
breakfast
brick
bridge
bring
broad
brother
brown
brass
breeze
bright
broken
brush
Medial
abroad
cobra
embrace
membrane
unbroken
algebra
daybreak
library
outbreak
vibrate
celebrate
debrief
lubricate
umbrella
zebra
/k/ Hard C, Regular Consonant K Sound
Initial
Medial
came
camp
account
can
car
across
carry
cold
arcade
color
come
because
could
country
hurricane
cub
cut
quickly
accurate
American
barcode
become
picture
second
Final
back
check
kick
music
rock
stick
black
electric
lock
pick
sick
thick
/s/ Soft C, Regular Consonant S Sound
Initial
certain
cigar
cinder
cease
ceiling
celebrate
cent
center
cereal
celery
cell
cellar
civil
cycle
cyclone
circle
circus
city
Medial
peaceful
acid
fancy
dancing
process
percent
pencil
concert
Pacific
decide
sincere
precise
Final
balance
face
ice
since
trace
truce
/ch/ Ch Consonant Digraph Sound
Initial
chain
chance
change
chart
chase
check
cheer
chest
chief
children
chin
church
attached
marching
parchment
pitcher
searching
teacher
Final
branch
each
much
rich
teach
watch
catch
inch
reach
such
touch
which
Medial
archer
exchange
merchant
patches
purchase
stretched
PHO NIC S
63
/cl/ Consonant Blend
Initial
claim
clap
claws
clay
clear
clerk
click
cliff
clip
close
cloud
club
class
clean
clever
climb
cloth
clues
/cr/ Consonant Blend
Initial
crack
crash
crazy
cream
credit
creek
cried
crop
crowd
crown
crayon
create
crew
cross
cry
Medial
across
decrease
increase
sacred
secret
/d/ Regular D Consonant Sound
Initial
day
dear
deep
did
different
do
does
don’t
done
door
down
during
Medial
body
India
order
predict
redone
study
/dr/ Consonant Blend
Initial
dragon
drain
dream
drench
drill
drink
drive
drop
drug
drum
Medial
acclaim
declare
eclipse
exclude
proclaim
conclude
decline
enclose
incline
reclaim
cyclone
disclose
exclaim
include
aircraft
decree
microscope
scarecrow
concrete
democrat
recruit
screen
idea
odor
pardon
puddle
Riddle
under
Final
and
did
find
had
old
said
around
end
good
need
red
would
draw
drift
drip
drove
dry
Medial
address
dandruff
eardrum
hydrogen
redress
cathedral
daydream
hundred
laundress
undress
children
dewdrop
hydrant
laundry
withdraw
/ă/ Short E, Closed Syllable Rule
Initial
edge
egg
else
empty
enemy
energy
enjoy
enter
every
explain
elf
end
engine
ever
extra
Medial
get
let
red
tell
well
help
men
set
them
went
left
next
spell
very
when
/ē/ Long E, Open Syllable Rule
Initial
ecology
ego
Egypt
emir
emit
equal
ether
Eva
even
evil
Medial
being
female
meter
react
secret
demon
legal
prefix
recent
zebra
Final
be
maybe
she
he
me
we
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
64
/ē/ Long E, Ee Digraph
Initial
Medial
eel
feel
eerie
keep
seem
street
week
Final
agree
fee
knee
spree
bee
free
referee
three
degree
glee
see
tree
eagle
easily
eastern
eaten
Medial
beat
deal
leaf
meat
peach
clean
feast
least
read
weak
Final
flea
pea
plea
sea
tea
breakfast
feather
instead
pleasure
threaten
breath
gingerbread
leather
ready
treasure
dead
head
meadow
spread
weapon
dear
heading
measure
steady
weather
Medial
absent
children
given
item
problem
agent
different
happen
label
quiet
arithmetic
even
heaven
level
scientist
calendar
fuel
hundred
often
united
/er/ Er Vowel, Er Spelling
Medial
afternoon
allergy
bakery
battery
camera
dangerous
federal
liberty
operate
wonderful
Final
after
ever
mother
river
water
another
her
offer
shower
were
baker
liver
other
sister
winter
better
lower
over
under
wonder
/f/ Regular F Consonant Sound
Initial
face
family
father
fed
few
find
fix
follow
food
funny
Medial
Africa
beautiful
careful
infant
often
after
before
different
information
waterfall
Final
chief
elf
if
myself
stuff
cliff
half
leaf
off
wolf
/ē / Long E, Ea Digraph
Initial
each
eager
ease
easel
east
Easter
easy
eat
eaves
/ĕ/ Short E, Ea Spelling
Medial
ahead
already
death
dread
heaven
heavy
overhead
pleasant
sweat
thread
/ / Schwa, E Spelling
Initial
efface
effect
effective
efficiency
efficient
erratic
erroneous
essential
green
screen
sleep
sweet
wheel
e
PHO NIC S
65
/fl/ Consonant Blend
Initial
flame
flap
flat
flavor
fleet
flip
flock
floor
fluke
flute
flash
flea
float
flow
fly
/fr/ Consonant Blend
Initial
fraction
fragile
France
Frank
freedom
fresh
Friday
friend
from
front
frozen
fruit
/g/ Regular G Consonant Sound
Initial
game
garden
gas
gave
get
gift
girl
goat
gone
good
got
gun
Medial
afflict
conflict
inflate
influence
aflame
deflate
inflexible
reflect
afloat
inflame
inflict
snowflake
frame
free
freshman
frisky
frost
fry
Medial
affront
befriend
confront
infrequent
refrain
unframed
afraid
bullfrog
defraud
infringe
refresh
upfront
Africa
carefree
defrost
leapfrog
subfreezing
unfrozen
Medial
again
began
figure
jogging
segment
sugar
ago
eggs
foggy
regular
signal
wagon
Final
bag
dog
fig
frog
log
stag
brag
egg
flag
leg
pig
tag
/j/ Soft G, Regular Consonant J Sound
Initial
Medial
gem
general
danger
generous
genius
engine
gentle
genuine
original
geography
germ
pageant
gesture
giant
Regina
ginger
gypsy
stranger
energy
legend
oxygen
pigeon
region
vegetable
Final
age
change
large
pledge
ridge
strange
bridge
huge
page
range
stage
village
/gl/ Consonant Blend
Initial
glad
glance
glass
glaze
glee
glider
glisten
glitter
glow
glue
glare
gleam
glimpse
glove
glum
Medial
angler
eyeglass
jingling
singly
spyglass
bugler
gurgling
juggler
smuggler
wiggling
dangling
hourglass
ringlets
spangled
wrangler
/gr/ Consonant Blend
Initial
grab
gradual
grand
grandpa
gravity
gray
green
grew
ground
group
grain
grant
great
grin
grow
Medial
aggressive
Congress
disgrace
fragrant
paragraph
agree
degrade
engrave
hungry
program
angry
degree
engross
outgrow
regret
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
66
/h/ Regular H Consonant Sound
Initial
had
happy
has
have
hen
her
hero
hide
hill
him
home
house
hard
help
here
high
hit
how
Medial
ahead
behavior
cohort
overheard
rehash
unhelpful
ahoy
behind
hardhat
perhaps
rehearse
unhook
behave
behold
inhuman
prehistoric
unhappy
uphill
/ı̆/ Short I, Closed Syllable Rule
Initial
if
ill
in
inch
increase
index
insect
inside
instead
interest
invent
isn’t
important
include
indicate
instant
into
it
Medial
begin
did
kit
miss
still
which
big
him
lint
mix
this
will
city
his
little
pin
until
with
/ı̄/ Long I, Open Syllable Rule
Initial
I
ibis
icicle
icy
Ida
idea
iodine
Iowa
iris
Irish
item
ivory
Medial
bicycle
climate
dial
lion
silent
triangle
biology
climax
diner
pilot
spider
triceps
biome
diagonal
dinosaur
quiet
tiny
tricycle
China
diagram
giant
rifle
title
variety
/ı̄/ Long I, Final E Rule
Initial
Medial
I’ve
bite
idle
life
ire
nine
isle
white
bribe
like
ride
wide
drive
line
side
wife
fire
mile
size
wire
five
mine
time
write
/er/ Er Vowel, Ir Spelling
Medial
affirm
birth
confirm
dirt
girl
shirt
thirsty
thirteen
circle
firm
skirt
thirty
circus
first
third
Virginia
Final
astir
sir
tapir
fir
stir
whir
/j/ Regular J Consonant Sound
Initial
jacket
January
jet
job
joke
joy
July
jump
jungle
junior
jaw
join
juice
June
Just
Medial
adjective
dejected
major
overjoyed
rejoice
adjust
enjoy
majority
project
subject
banjo
majesty
object
reject
unjust
PHO NIC S
67
/k/ Regular K Consonant Sound
Initial
keen
keep
kettle
key
kick
kid
kill
kin
kind
king
kiss
kitten
Medial
banker
blinker
market
okay
stroking
turkey
blanket
broken
monkey
packing
taken
worker
Final
book
brink
cook
look
mark
speak
break
cake
like
make
milk
work
/n/ Sound, Kn Spelling
Initial
knack
knapsack
kneecap
kneel
knickers
knife
knob
knock
knotty
know
knave
knell
knight
knockout
knowledge
knead
knelt
knit
knoll
known
knee
knew
knitted
knothole
knuckle
Medial
acknowledge
doorknob
knickknack
penknife
unknown
/l/ Regular L Consonant Sound
Initial
land
large
last
learn
left
light
like
line
little
live
long
look
Medial
along
cellar
family
only
pillow
welfare
below
children
follow
pillar
really
wellness
Final
all
oil
shall
spell
until
well
girl
school
small
tell
vowel
will
/m/ Regular M Consonant Sound
Initial
made
make
many
men
mice
mitten
more
mother
move
much
must
my
Medial
American
ember
family
improper
something
tumble
complete
example
important
number
Tommy
tummy
Final
arm
farm
from
room
seem
them
bottom
form
him
Sam
team
warm
/n/ Regular N Consonant Sound
Initial
name
nation
natural
need
never
new
next
night
not
note
nothing
notice
Medial
animal
any
cinder
kinder
many
penny
answer
binder
country
kindergarten
pencil
sunny
Final
arson
can
even
man
own
plan
been
crayon
inn
open
pin
than
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
68
/ng/ Consonant Digraph Sound
Medial
finger
gangster
gangway
hanger
kingdom
lengthen
longing
singer
slingshot
youngster
Final
bang
gang
lung
spring
thing
bring
going
ring
string
wing
fang
hang
sing
strong
wrong
fling
long
song
swing
young
/ŏ/ Short O, Closed Syllable Rule
Initial
occupy
October
odd
offence
often
olive
opera
operate
opportunity
oppose
Medial
body
cannot
cotton
got
pop
bond
clock
drop
hot
problem
bottle
contact
follow
mommy
product
bottom
copy
fox
not
rock
/ō/ Long O, Open Syllable Rule
Initial
obey
oboe
ocean
odor
Ohio
omit
open
over
overalls
overcome
Medial
broken
motor
poem
professor
Roman
moment
October
professional
program
total
Final
ago
auto
echo
piano
volcano
also
cargo
hero
potato
zero
/ō/ Long O, Final E Rule
Initial
Medial
owe
alone
globe
note
slope
stove
awoke
home
phone
smoke
those
bone
hope
pole
spoke
tone
code
joke
rode
stoke
vote
drove
nose
rose
stone
whole
/ō/ Long O, Oa Digraph
Initial
Medial
oaf
approach
oak
coast
oat
goal
oath
loan
oatmeal
soak
boast
coat
goat
moan
soap
cloak
croak
groan
roach
throat
coach
float
load
road
toad
coal
foam
loaf
roast
toast
/ō/ Long O, Ow Digraph
Initial
Medial
owe
bowl
Owen
flowing
owing
known
own
mowed
owner
slowed
snowy
bowling
glowing
lower
mower
snowball
stowaway
Final
arrow
crow
glow
low
show
throw
blow
flow
grow
mow
slow
tomorrow
borrow
follow
know
row
snow
yellow
PHO NIC S
69
/ow/ Ow Diphthong, Ow Spelling
Medial
brown
chowder
crowd
crown
downward
flower
power
shower
tower
town
cowboy
down
powder
towel
vowel
Final
allow
chow
eyebrow
plow
snowplow
bow
cow
how
prow
sow
brow
endow
now
scow
vow
/oi/ Oi Diphthong, Oy Spelling
Initial
Medial
oyster
annoyed
boyhood
employer
joyful
loyal
royal
boycott
boyish
enjoyment
joyous
loyalty
voyage
Final
alloy
corduroy
decoy
enjoy
newsboy
toy
annoy
cowboy
destroy
envoy
ploy
Troy
convoy
coy
employ
joy
soy
viceroy
/ / Schwa, O Spelling
Initial
Objection
oblige
observe
obsess
occasion
occult
opinion
opossum
oppress
original
observatory
obstruct
official
oppose
other
Medial
action
canyon
money
nation
second
atom
method
mother
riot
weapon
/oi/ Oi Diphthong, Oi Spelling
Initial
Medial
oil
avoid
oilcloth
coil
oil well
exploit
oily
point
ointment
spoil
boil
coin
join
poison
toil
broil
disappoint
joint
rejoice
turmoil
broiler
doily
moisture
sirloin
voice
choice
embroider
noisy
soil
void
/ow/ Ow Diphthong, Ou Spelling
Initial
ouch
ounce
ourselves
oust
outcry
outdoors
outfield
outline
outside
outright
our
out
outer
outlook
outlast
Medial
about
around
council
found
mountain
aloud
boundary
count
ground
scout
amount
cloud
doubt
hour
sound
/ô/ O Spelling
Initial
off
office
offshoot
often
onto
offhand
offset
offspring
onset
ostrich
Medial
across
cloth
cross
moth
strong
along
coffee
frost
soft
toss
belong
cost
long
song
wrong
e
offer
officer
offshore
oncoming
onward
Final
kimono
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
70
/or/ Or Vowel, Or Spelling
Initial
or
oral
orbit
orchard
orchestra
orchid
order
orderly
ordinary
ore
Oregon
organ
Medial
before
cordial
Force
horn
north
short
born
corn
forget
horse
report
store
cord
corner
form
important
score
story
̆ Short Double O, Oo Spelling
∕oo∕
Medial
afoot
book
crooked
dogwood
handbook
hood
nook
notebook
stood
took
brook
foot
hoof
rook
understood
cook
football
look
rookie
wood
cookie
good
lookout
shook
wooden
crook
goodbye
neighborhood
soot
wool
∕oo∕ Long Double O, Oo Spelling
Initial
Medial
ooze
bamboo
coo
igloo
peek-a-boo
tattoo
woo
boo
cuckoo
kangaroo
shampoo
too
zoo
Final
balloon
food
mood
roof
shoot
took
boot
goose
noon
room
smooth
tooth
cool
loose
pool
school
soon
troop
/p/ Regular P Consonant Sound
Initial
pack
page
pair
part
pass
person
Pete
picture
piece
pine
point
put
Medial
apple
flipper
open
pepper
popping
supper
example
happy
paper
perhaps
sloppy
upon
Final
deep
group
jump
ship
step
top
drop
help
map
sleep
stop
up
/f/ Sound, Ph Spelling
Initial
phantom
pharmacy
phase
pheasant
phoenix
phone
phonics
photo
phrase
physical
Medial
alphabet
emphasis
gopher
nephew
sophomore
cellophane
geography
graphic
orphan
trophy
Final
autograph
epitaph
paragraph
photograph
telegraph
caliph
graph
phonograph
pictograph
triumph
/pl/ Consonant Blend
Initial
place
plain
plane
planets
plant
plastic
player
pleasant
plot
plug
plan
plank
plate
please
plus
Medial
applaud
displace
explain
perplex
supply
apply
display
imply
replace
supplying
complain
employ
multiply
reply
surplus
PHO NIC S
71
Final
for
more
nor
/pr/ Consonant Blend
Initial
practice
pray
president
press
prince
print
produce
products
property
proud
prepare
pretty
probably
program
prove
present
price
problem
propeller
provide
Medial
approach
approve
April
Express
improve
appropriate
Approximate
apron
impression
surprise
/kw/ Qu Consonant Blend Sound
Initial
quack
quail
quality
quart
question
quick
quill
quilt
quite
quiz
quake
queer
quiet
quit
quote
Medial
equal
equipment
inquire
sequence
squeak
equation
equivalent
liquid
square
squirm
equator
frequent
require
squash
squirrel
/r/ Regular R Consonant Sound
Initial
ran
rat
red
rest
ride
right
road
rock
rod
run
Medial
around
current
error
terrific
very
arrive
direct
fearful
unreal
whirring
Final
after
for
near
over
year
dear
her
our
water
your
/s/ Regular S Consonant Sound
Initial
said
same
say
see
sentence
set
side
some
soon
sound
Medial
also
grassy
inside
resell
sensible
answer
himself
person
reset
Sussex
Final
across
dress
its
likes
miss
bus
gas
less
makes
perhaps
/z/ Z Consonant Sound, S Spelling
Medial
busy
desert
museum
music
poison
present
raisin
raising
resume
season
easy
observe
presume
result
surprised
Final
as
days
news
says
was
because
has
odds
these
wise
cheese
his
please
songs
yours
/sc/ Consonant Blend
Initial
scab
scald
scallop
scalp
scare
scared
scary
scatter
score
scout
scale
scar
scarf
scoop
scurry
Medial
ascend
describe
escape
inscribe
rascal
biscuit
discard
escarole
microscope
telescope
cascade
discount
escort
muscle
unscrew
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
72
/sh/ Consonant Blend
Initial
shaggy
shape
she
sheet
shell
ship
shirt
shop
short
shot
show
shut
Medial
ashes
bushel
dashed
friendship
lashes
sunshine
bishop
cashew
fisherman
hushed
splashing
worship
Final
bush
dish
finish
flash
push
wash
crash
establish
fish
fresh
rush
wish
/sk/ Consonant Blend
Initial
skate
skeleton
skid
skill
skillet
skin
skinny
skip
skit
skull
skunk
sky
Medial
Alaska
asking
dusky
husky
musket
taskbar
askew
basket
frisky
masked
pesky
whiskers
Final
ask
desk
dusk
husk
risk
tusk
brisk
disk
flask
mask
task
whisk
/sl/ Consonant Blend
Initial
slant
slave
sleek
sleep
sleeve
slept
slight
slipper
slow
slump
sled
sleet
slice
slope
sly
Medial
asleep
dogsled
manslaughter
oversleep
tousled
bobsled
enslave
Muslim
paisley
tussle
coleslaw
landslide
nonslip
parsley
unsliced
/sm/ Consonant Blend
Initial
small
smear
smell
smile
smock
smog
smoky
smother
smudge
smuggle
Medial
blacksmith
cosmetics
gunsmith
nonsmoker
silversmith
charisma
cosmos
locksmith
plasma
unsmiling
Final
autism
chasm
prism
sarcasm
tourism
baptism
organism
racism
spasm
truism
/sn/ Consonant Blend
Initial
snack
snail
snatch
sneak
sniffle
snip
snore
snorkel
snowman
snowy
snake
sneakers
snob
snort
snub
snap
sneer
snoop
snout
snuff
snare
sneeze
snooty
snow
snug
snarl
sniff
snooze
snowball
snuggle
/sp/ Consonant Blend
Initial
space
spark
speak
speed
spell
spend
spider
spoke
sports
spring
Medial
aspirin
despair
despite
inspire
respond
bedspread
despise
inspect
respect
unspeakable
Final
asp
crisp
grasp
lisp
wasp
clasp
gasp
hasp
rasp
wisp
PHO NIC S
73
/st/ Consonant Blend
Initial
stand
state
stay
step
stick
still
stone
stood
store
study
Medial
crusty
hasty
instead
poster
rusty
destroy
haystack
musty
restore
tasty
Final
beast
cast
fist
lost
past
best
dust
least
must
west
/sw/ Consonant Blend
Initial
swagger
swallow
swarm
swarthy
sweep
sweet
swift
swim
swish
switch
swam
swat
swell
swindle
swollen
swamp
sway
swelter
swine
swoop
swan
swear
swept
swing
sworn
swap
sweat
swerve
swirl
swung
/t/ Regular T Consonant Sound
Initial
take
talk
tame
tell
ten
tilt
time
today
told
took
tuck
turn
Medial
after
city
later
otter
sentence
until
butter
into
letter
pattern
tasty
water
Final
but
gust
part
quilt
short
want
get
out
put
set
sweet
what
/th/ Voiceless Th Consonant Digraph Sound
Initial
Medial
thank
thick
athlete
thing
think
bathtub
third
thirty
filthy
thought
thread
myths
threat
threw
python
thumb
thunder
toothbrush
author
faithful
healthy
nothing
something
wealthy
Final
bath
cloth
faith
ninth
teeth
with
both
death
moth
south
truth
worth
/th/ Voiced Th Consonant Digraph Sound
Initial
than
that
the
their
them
then
thence
there
these
they
this
thou
though
thus
thy
Medial
although
brother
farther
leather
other
bother
clothing
father
mother
rhythm
breathing
either
gather
northern
weather
/tr/ Consonant Blend
Initial
track
trade
train
trap
trek
trend
tribe
trick
trip
trouble
truly
trust
Medial
attract
contract
country
extra
patrol
sentry
central
contrast
electric
metric
patron
subtract
citrus
control
entry
pastry
poetry
waitress
traffic
tree
triangle
trim
true
try
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
74
/tw/ Consonant Blend
Initial
Twang
tweak
twelfth
twelve
twig
twilight
twinkle
twirl
tweed
twenty
twin
twist
tweet
twice
twine
twitch
tweezers
twiddle
twinge
twitter
Medial
between
entwine
intertwine
untwist
/ ŭ/ Short U, Closed Syllable Rule
Initial
ugly
ulcer
umpire
uncle
unless
until
up
upon
upset
usher
ulna
under
unusual
uproar
utter
Medial
bump
funny
hunt
must
study
but
fuss
jump
number
such
drum
hundred
just
run
summer
/ū / Long U, Open Syllable Rule
Initial
uniform
unify
unique
unit
united
universe
university
usual
Utah
utilize
Medial
beautiful
continuous
future
humor
musician
bugle
cubic
human
January
pupil
communicate
fuel
humid
museum
valuable
̆ Short Double O, U Spelling
∕oo∕
Medial
ambush
armful
bulletin
bullfight
bush
bushel
full
fully
pullet
pulley
bull’s-eye
bullfrog
bushy
handful
pulpit
bulldog
bully
butcher
output
push
bulldozer
bulwark
cushion
pudding
put
fulfill
pull
sugar
∕oo∕ Long Double O, U, and U_E Spellings
Medial
amuse
conclude
crude
duty
February
flute
June
junior
numeral
prune
reduce
rhubarb
solution
truly
truth
cruel
humid
nutrition
ruby
tube
cube
influence
parachute
ruin
tuna
cupid
July
prudent
rule
tune
/er/ Er Vowel, Ur Spelling
Initial
Medial
urban
burn
urchin
curb
urge
nurse
urgent
slurp
urn
Thursday
church
hurt
purse
surface
turn
Final
blur
femur
murmur
purr
spur
concur
fur
occur
slur
sulfur
burst
curl
purple
surf
turkey
PHO NIC S
75
Final
menu
bullet
/v/ Regular V Consonant Sound
Initial
valley
van
vase
verb
vest
view
violin
visit
vote
vowel
Medial
avert
covert
favor
never
river
cover
even
however
over
several
Final
above
five
give
leave
move
believe
gave
have
love
wave
/w/ Regular W Consonant Sound
Initial
wait
want
water
wave
week
well
will
win
woman
work
was
way
wife
with
woven
Medial
awake
backward
halfway
reward
sidewalk
aware
dwarf
highway
sandwich
unwind
away
forward
midway
seaweed
upward
/wh/ Wh Consonant Blend Sound
Initial
whack
whale
wheat
wheeze
whether
which
whimper
whip
whistle
white
wharf
when
whiff
whiskey
whiz
what
where
while
whisper
why
Medial
anywhere
bobwhite
everywhere
meanwhile
overwhelm
awhile
cartwheel
flywheel
nowhere
somewhere
/r/ Sound, Wr Spelling
Initial
wrap
wrapper
wreckage
wren
wriggle
wring
wristlet
write
wrong
wrote
wreath
wrench
wrinkle
writing
wrung
wreck
wrestle
wrist
written
wry
Medial
awry
dowry
playwright
shipwreck
typewriter
cowry
handwriting
rewrite
skywriting
unwrap
/ks/ Regular X Consonant Sound
Medial
boxcar
excite
expert
explain
foxes
galaxy
mixture
oxen
sixty
taxes
excuse
extreme
Mexico
Oxford
Texas
Final
coax
fix
lox
prefix
suffix
complex
fox
mix
relax
tax
context
index
perplex
six
wax
/y/ Regular Y Consonant Sound
Initial
yacht
yak
yard
yawn
yell
yellow
yew
yodel
you
young
yam
year
yen
yolk
your
yank
yeast
yet
yonder
youth
Medial
backyard
beyond
courtyard
lawyer
papaya
barnyard
canyon
dooryard
mayoral
vineyard
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
76
/ē/ Long E, Y Spelling
Medial
anyone
anything
anytime
babysit
bodyguard
copycat
everyone
everything
katydid
ladybug
Final
any
early
funny
money
really
body
easy
happy
pretty
story
city
every
lady
quickly
study
country
family
many
ready
very
/ı̄/ Long I, Y Spelling
Medial
bylaws
cycle
dying
hyena
hyphen
lying
myself
nylon
rhyme
style
cyclone
hyper
lyre
python
type
Final
ally
cry
fry
reply
sly
apply
deny
July
shy
spy
buy
dry
pry
sky
why
/z/ Regular Z Consonant Sound
Initial
zebra
zenith
zero
zest
zigzag
zinc
zinnia
zipper
zodiac
zone
zoo
zoom
Medial
azure
citizen
crazy
frozen
guzzle
magazine
blazer
cozy
dozen
grazing
lazy
puzzle
Final
breeze
fizz
jazz
prize
realize
size
buzz
freeze
organize
quiz
seize
whiz
PHO NIC S
77
LIST 23. THE MOST COMMON
PHONOGRAMS
A phonogram, or rime, is a frequently occurring combination of a vowel sound plus a consonant sound.
A phonogram is often less than a syllable and, therefore, less than a word. When consonant sounds are
added at the beginning, or as onsets, to the phonogram, they form many recognizable words. Adding single
consonants or consonant blends to common phonograms is an excellent way to quickly build reading and
spelling vocabulary. This list includes the most common phonograms ranked in the order of the number of
words they can form.
Rime
-ay
-ill
-ip
-at
-am
-ag
-ack
-ank
-ick
-ell
-ot
-ing
-ap
-unk
-ail
-ain
-eed
-y
-out
-ug
-op
-in
-an
-est
-ink
-ow
-ew
-ore
-ed
-ab
-ob
-ock
-ake
-ine
-ight
-im
-uck
-um
Example Words
jay
hill
dip
cat
ham
bag
back
bank
sick
bell
pot
ring
cap
bunk
pail
rain
feed
my
pout
rug
mop
pin
pan
best
pink
low
new
more
bed
cab
cob
sock
cake
line
light
him
duck
gum
say
Bill
ship
fat
jam
rag
sack
sank
Dick
sell
not
sing
map
sunk
jail
pain
seed
by
trout
bug
cop
tin
man
nest
sink
slow
few
sore
red
dab
job
rock
lake
nine
night
Kim
luck
bum
pay
will
tip
bat
dam
tag
Jack
tank
pick
fell
hot
king
tap
junk
nail
main
weed
dry
scout
hug
pop
win
ran
pest
rink
grow
chew
tore
fed
jab
rob
lock
make
pine
right
rim
buck
hum
day
fill
skip
rat
ram
wag
black
blank
quick
tell
dot
wing
clap
skunk
sail
chain
need
try
shout
dug
top
chin
tan
rest
link
show
grew
store
led
lab
Bob
dock
take
fine
fight
grim
truck
drum
play
spill
trip
sat
Sam
sag
track
drank
chick
yell
got
thing
trap
trunk
tail
plain
freed
fly
spout
tug
hop
thin
Dan
test
drink
snow
stew
score
Ted
crab
knob
block
brake
shine
sight
brim
stuck
plum
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
78
LIST 24. PHONOGRAMS
Phonograms, or rimes, have been used in the teaching of reading since colonial times and continue to be
an instructional mainstay in regular classrooms, remedial and corrective reading instruction, English as a
second language classes, and adult literacy instruction. The phonograms in this comprehensive list are all
one-syllable words; however, the same phonograms appear in many polysyllabic words. Use these patterned
words for phonics practice and spelling.
-ab
/a/
cab
dab
gab
jab
lab
nab
tab
blab
crab
drab
flab
grab
scab
slab
stab
-ace
/ā/
face
lace
mace
pace
race
brace
grace
place
space
trace
-ack
/a/
back
hack
Jack
lack
Mack
pack
quack
rack
sack
tack
black
clack
crack
knack
shack
slack
smack
snack
stack
track
whack
-act
/a/
fact
pact
tact
tract
-ad
/a/
bad
cad
dad
fad
gad
had
lad
mad
pad
sad
tad
Brad
Chad
clad
glad
shad
-ade
/ā/
bade
fade
jade
made
wade
blade
glade
grade
shade
spade
trade
-aff
/a/
gaff
chaff
quaff
staff
-aft
/a/
daft
raft
waft
craft
draft
graft
shaft
-ag
/a/
bag
gag
hag
jag
lag
nag
rag
sag
tag
wag
brag
crag
drag
flag
shag
slag
snag
stag
swag
mail
nail
pail
quail
rail
sail
tail
wail
flail
snail
trail
-air
/air/
-age
-ain
/ā/
/ā/
cage
gage
page
rage
sage
wage
stage
lain
main
pain
rain
vain
wain
brain
chain
drain
grain
plain
slain
Spain
sprain
stain
strain
train
raise
braise
chaise
praise
-aid
/ā/
laid
maid
paid
raid
braid
staid
-ail
-aint
/ā/
/ā/
bail
fail
Gail
hail
jail
faint
paint
saint
taint
quaint
PHO NIC S
79
fair
hair
lair
pair
chair
flair
stair
-aise
/ā/
-ait
/ā/
bait
gait
wait
strait
trait
-ake
/ā/
bake
cake
fake
Jake
lake
make
quake
rake
take
wake
brake
drake
flake
shake
snake
stake
small
squall
stall
-ale
/ā/
-alt
/aw/
bale
dale
gale
hale
male
pale
sale
tale
scale
shale
stale
whale
-alk
/aw/
balk
calk
talk
walk
chalk
stalk
-all
/ô/
ball
call
fall
gall
hall
mall
pall
tall
wall
halt
malt
salt
-am
/a/
cam
dam
ham
jam
Pam
ram
Sam
tam
yam
clam
cram
dram
gram
scam
scram
sham
slam
swam
tram
-ame
/ā/
came
dame
fame
game
lame
name
same
tame
blame
flame
frame
shame
-amp
/a/
camp
damp
lamp
ramp
tamp
vamp
champ
clamp
cramp
scamp
stamp
tramp
-an
/a/
ban
can
Dan
fan
man
pan
ran
tan
van
bran
clan
flan
plan
scan
span
than
-ance
/a/
dance
lance
chance
France
glance
prance
stance
trance
-anch
/a/
ranch
blanch
branch
stanch
-and
/a/
band
hand
land
sand
bland
brand
gland
stand
strand
-ane
/ā/
bane
cane
Jane
lane
mane
pane
sane
vane
wane
crane
plane
-ang
/ā/
bang
fang
gang
hang
pang
rang
sang
tang
clang
slang
sprang
twang
-ank
/ā/
bank
dank
hank
lank
rank
sank
tank
yank
blank
clank
crank
drank
flank
Frank
plank
prank
shank
stank
thank
-ant
/a/
can’t
pant
rant
chant
grant
plant
scant
slant
-ap
/a/
cap
gap
lap
map
nap
pap
rap
sap
tap
yap
chap
clap
flap
scrap
slap
snap
strap
trap
wrap
-ape
/ā/
cape
gape
nape
rape
tape
drape
grape
scrape
shape
-ar
/ar/
bar
car
far
jar
mar
par
tar
char
scar
spar
star
-ard
/ar/
bard
card
guard
hard
lard
yard
shard
-are
/air/
bare
care
dare
fare
hare
mare
pare
rare
ware
blare
flare
glare
scare
share
snare
spare
square
stare
-art
/ar/
-asp
/a/
cart
dart
mart
part
tart
chart
smart
start
-ast
/a/
-arge
/ar/
base
case
vase
chase
barge
large
charge
-ase
/ā/
-ash
/a/
-ark
/ar/
bark
dark
hark
lark
mark
park
Clark
shark
spark
stark
-arm
/ar/
farm
harm
charm
bash
cash
dash
gash
hash
lash
mash
rash
sash
brash
clash
flash
slash
smash
stash
thrash
trash
-arn
/ar/
-ask
/a/
barn
darn
yarn
ask
cask
mask
task
flask
-arp
/ar/
carp
harp
tarp
sharp
-asm
/a/
chasm
spasm
gasp
hasp
rasp
clasp
grasp
cast
fast
last
mast
past
vast
blast
-aste
/ā/
baste
haste
paste
taste
waste
chaste
-ass
/a/
bass
lass
mass
pass
brass
class
glass
grass
-at
/a/
bat
cat
fat
gnat
hat
mat
pat
rat
sat
tat
vat
brat
chat
drat
flat
scat
slat
spat
that
-atch
/a/
batch
catch
hatch
latch
match
patch
scratch
thatch
-ate
/ā/
date
fate
gate
hate
Kate
late
mate
rate
crate
grate
plate
skate
state
-ath
/a/
bath
lath
math
path
wrath
-aught
/aw/
caught
naught
taught
fraught
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
80
-aunch
/aw/
haunch
launch
paunch
-aunt
/aw/
daunt
gaunt
haunt
jaunt
taunt
flaunt
-ave
/ā/
cave
Dave
gave
pave
rave
save
wave
brave
crave
grave
shave
slave
stave
-aw
/aw/
caw
gnaw
jaw
law
paw
raw
saw
claw
draw
flaw
slaw
squaw
straw
-awl
/aw/
bawl
brawl
crawl
drawl
shawl
scrawl
trawl
spray
stay
stray
sway
tray
-awn
-aze
/ā/
/aw/
dawn
fawn
lawn
pawn
yawn
brawn
drawn
prawn
spawn
-ax
/a/
lax
Max
tax
wax
flax
-ay
/ā/
bay
day
gay
hay
jay
lay
may
nay
pay
quay
ray
say
way
bray
clay
cray
fray
gray
play
pray
slay
daze
faze
gaze
haze
maze
raze
blaze
craze
glaze
graze
-ea
/ē/
pea
sea
tea
flea
plea
-each
/ē/
beach
leach
peach
reach
teach
bleach
breach
preach
screech
-ead
/e/
dead
head
lead
read
bread
dread
spread
thread
tread
-ead
/ē/
bead
lead
read
knead
plead
-eak
/ē/
beak
leak
peak
teak
weak
bleak
creak
freak
sneak
speak
squeak
streak
tweak
-eal
/ē/
deal
heal
meal
peal
real
seal
teal
veal
zeal
squeal
steal
-ealth
/e/
health
wealth
stealth
-eam
/ē/
beam
ream
seam
cream
dream
gleam
scream
steam
stream
team
-ean
/ē/
bean
dean
Jean
lean
mean
wean
clean
glean
-eap
/ē/
heap
leap
reap
cheap
-ear
/ē/
dear
fear
gear
hear
near
rear
sear
tear
year
clear
shear
smear
spear
-ear
/e/
bear
pear
wear
swear
-east
/ē/
beast
feast
PHO NIC S
81
least
yeast
-eat
/ē/
beat
feat
heat
meat
neat
peat
seat
bleat
cheat
cleat
pleat
treat
wheat
-eave
/ē/
heave
leave
weave
cleave
sheave
-eck
/e/
deck
heck
neck
peck
check
fleck
speck
wreck
-ed
/e/
bed
fed
led
Ned
red
Ted
wed
led
bred
fled
Fred
shed
shred
sled
sped
-edge
/e/
hedge
ledge
wedge
dredge
pledge
sledge
-ee
/ē/
bee
fee
knee
lee
see
tee
wee
flee
free
glee
tree
-eech
/ē/
beech
leech
breech
screech
speech
-eed
/ē
deed
feed
heed
kneed
need
reed
seed
weed
bleed
breed
creed
freed
greed
speed
steed
treed
tweed
-eek
/ē/
leek
meek
peek
reek
seek
week
cheek
creek
Greek
Sleek
-eel
/ē/
feel
heel
keel
peel
reel
creel
steel
wheel
-eem
/ē
deem
seem
teem
-een
/ē/
keen
queen
seen
teen
green
preen
screen
sheen
-eep
/ē/
beep
deep
Jeep
keep
peep
seep
weep
cheep
creep
sheep
sleep
steep
sweep
-eer
/ē/
beer
deer
jeer
leer
peer
queer
seer
sneer
steer
-eet
/ē/
beet
feet
meet
fleet
greet
sheet
skeet
sleet
street
sweet
tweet
-eeze
/ē/
breeze
freeze
sneeze
squeeze
tweeze
wheeze
-eft
/e/
deft
heft
left
cleft
theft
-eg
/e/
beg
keg
leg
Meg
peg
-eigh
/ā/
-elt
/e/
-end
/e/
belt
felt
knelt
melt
pelt
welt
dwelt
smelt
bend
end
fend
lend
mend
rend
send
tend
vend
wend
blend
spend
trend
-em
/e/
neigh
weigh
sleigh
gem
hem
stem
them
-eld
/e/
-en
/e/
held
meld
weld
Ben
den
hen
Ken
men
pen
ten
yen
glen
then
when
wren
-ell
/e/
bell
cell
dell
fell
hell
jell
knell
Nell
sell
tell
well
yell
dwell
quell
shell
smell
spell
swell
-elp
/e/
help
kelp
yelp
-erk
/er/
jerk
clerk
-erm
/er/
-ense
/e/
dense
sense
tense
-ern
/er/
-ent
/e/
fern
tern
stern
-ence
/e/
fence
hence
whence
-ep
/e/
bench
wench
clench
drench
French
quench
stench
trench
wrench
merge
serge
verge
berm
germ
term
sperm
bent
cent
dent
gent
Kent
lent
rent
sent
tent
vent
went
scent
spent
-ench
/e/
-erge
/er/
pep
rep
prep
step
-ept
/e/
kept
wept
crept
slept
swept
-erve
/er/
nerve
serve
verve
swerve
-esh
/e/
mesh
flesh
fresh
-ess
/e/
Bess
guess
less
mess
bless
chess
dress
press
stress
tress
-est
/e/
best
guest
jest
lest
nest
pest
rest
test
vest
west
zest
blest
chest
crest
quest
wrest
-et
/e/
bet
get
jet
let
met
net
pet
set
wet
yet
Chet
fret
whet
-etch
/e/
fetch
retch
sketch
wretch
-ew
∕oo∕
dew
few
hew
Jew
knew
new
pew
blew
brew
chew
-ex
/e/
hex
sex
vex
flex
-ey
/ā/
hey
gray
prey
they
whey
-ib
/i/
bib
fib
jib
rib
crib
glib
-ibe
/ı̄/
jibe
bribe
scribe
tribe
-ice
/ı̄/
dice
lice
mice
nice
rice
vice
price
slice
splice
thrice
twice
-ick
/i/
Dick
hick
kick
lick
Nick
pick
quick
Rick
sick
tick
wick
brick
chick
click
flick
slick
stick
thick
trick
-id
/i/
bid
did
hid
kid
lid
mid
quid
rid
grid
skid
slid
-ide
/ı̄/
bide
hide
ride
side
tide
wide
bride
chide
glide
pride
slide
snide
stride
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
82
-ie
/ı̄/
die
fie
lie
pie
tie
vie
-ied
/ı̄/
died
lied
dried
fried
tried
-ief
/ē/
brief
chief
grief
thief
-ield
/ē/
field
yield
shield
-ier
/ı̄/
brier
crier
drier
flier
-ies
/ı̄/
dies
lies
pies
ties
cries
dries
flies
fries
skies
tries
-ife
/ı̄/
-ight
/ı̄/
fife
knife
life
rife
wife
strife
knight
light
might
night
right
sight
tight
blight
bright
flight
fright
plight
slight
-iff
/i/
miff
tiff
cliff
skiff
sniff
whiff
-ift
/i/
gift
lift
rift
sift
drift
shift
swift
thrift
-ig
/i/
big
dig
fig
gig
jig
pig
rig
wig
brig
sprig
swig
twig
-igh
/ı̄/
high
nigh
sigh
thigh
-ike
/ı̄/
bike
dike
hike
like
Mike
pike
spike
strike
-ild
/ı̄/
mild
wild
child
-ile
/ı̄/
bile
file
mile
Nile
pile
tile
vile
smile
stile
while
-ilk
/i/
bilk
milk
silk
-ill
/i/
bill
dill
fill
gill
hill
ill
Jill
kill
mill
pill
quill
rill
sill
till
will
chill
drill
frill
grill
skill
spill
still
swill
thrill
trill
twill
-ilt
/i/
gilt
jilt
hilt
kilt
tilt
wilt
quilt
stilt
-im
/i/
dim
him
Jim
Kim
rim
Tim
vim
brim
grim
prim
slim
swim
trim
whim
-ince
/i/
-ime
/ı̄/
cinch
finch
pinch
winch
clinch
flinch
ring
sing
wing
zing
bring
cling
fling
sling
spring
sting
string
swing
thing
wring
-ind
/ı̄/
-inge
/i/
dime
lime
mime
time
chime
clime
crime
grime
prime
slime
-imp
/i/
limp
chimp
crimp
primp
skimp
blimp
-in
/i/
bin
din
fin
gin
kin
pin
sin
tin
win
chin
grin
shin
skin
spin
thin
twin
PHO NIC S
83
mince
since
wince
prince
-inch
/i/
bind
find
hind
kind
mind
rind
wind
blind
grind
-ine
/ı̄/
dine
fine
line
mine
nine
pine
tine
vine
wine
brine
shine
shrine
spine
swine
whine
-ing
/i/
bing
ding
king
ping
binge
hinge
singe
tinge
cringe
fringe
twinge
-ink
/i/
kink
link
mink
pink
rink
sink
wink
blink
brink
chink
clink
drink
shrink
slink
stink
think
mint
tint
glint
print
splint
sprint
squint
stint
-ip
/i/
dip
hip
lip
nip
quip
rip
sip
tip
zip
blip
chip
clip
drip
flip
grip
ship
skip
slip
snip
strip
trip
whip
-ipe
/ı̄/
pipe
ripe
wipe
gripe
snipe
stripe
swipe
tripe
-int
/i/
-ir
hint
lint
fir
sir
/er/
stir
whir
-ird
/er/
bird
gird
third
-ire
/ı̄/
fire
hire
tire
wire
spire
-irk
/er/
quirk
shirk
smirk
-irt
/er/
dirt
flirt
shirt
skirt
squirt
-irth
/er/
birth
firth
girth
mirth
-ise
/ı̄/
guise
rise
wise
-ish
/i/
dish
fish
wish
swish
-isk
-itch
/i/
/i/
disk
risk
brisk
frisk
whisk
ditch
hitch
pitch
witch
switch
-isp
-ite
/i/
/ı̄/
lisp
wisp
crisp
-iss
/i/
hiss
kiss
miss
bliss
Swiss
bite
kite
mite
quite
rite
site
white
write
sprite
-ive
/ı̄/
-ist
/i/
fist
list
mist
wrist
grist
twist
dive
five
hive
jive
live
chive
drive
strive
thrive
-it
-ix
/i/
/i/
bit
fit
hit
kit
knit
lit
pit
quit
sit
wit
flit
grit
skit
slit
spit
split
twit
fix
mix
six
-o
∕oo∕
do
to
who
-o
-oach
/ō/
-oat
coach
poach
roach
broach
boat
coat
goat
moat
gloat
float
throat
-oad
/ō/
goad
load
road
toad
-oak
/ō/
soak
cloak
croak
-oal
/ō/
coal
foal
goal
shoal
-oam
/ō/
foam
loam
roam
-oan
/ō/
Joan
loan
moan
groan
-oar
/or/
boar
roar
soar
/ō/
-oast
/ō/
go
no
so
pro
boast
coast
roast
toast
smock
stock
/ō/
-ob
/o/
Bob
cob
fob
gob
job
knob
lob
mob
rob
sob
blob
glob
slob
snob
-od
/o/
cod
God
mod
nod
pod
rod
sod
Tod
clod
plod
prod
shod
trod
-ode
/ō/
code
lode
mode
node
rode
strode
-obe
/ō/
-oe
lobe
robe
globe
probe
/ō/
-ock
/o/
dock
hock
knock
lock
mock
rock
sock
tock
block
clock
crock
flock
frock
shock
doe
foe
hoe
Joe
toe
woe
-og
/o/
bog
cog
dog
fog
hog
jog
log
tog
clog
flog
frog
grog
slog
smog
-ogue
/ō/
brogue
rogue
vogue
-oil
/oi/
boil
coil
foil
soil
toil
spoil
broil
-oin
/oi/
coin
join
loin
groin
-oist
/oi/
foist
hoist
joist
moist
-oke
/ō/
gold
hold
mold
old
sold
told
scold
-ole
/ō/
dole
hole
mole
pole
role
stole
whole
-oll
/ō/
poll
roll
toll
droll
knoll
scroll
stroll
troll
-oll
/o/
doll
loll
moll
-olt
/ō/
coke
joke
poke
woke
yoke
broke
choke
smoke
spoke
stoke
stroke
bolt
colt
jolt
molt
volt
-old
/ō/
-ome
/ō/
bold
cold
fold
dome
home
Nome
-om
/o/
Mom
Tom
Prom
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
84
Rome
tome
gnome
chrome
-ome
/u/
long
song
tong
prong
strong
thong
wrong
come
some
-oo
-omp
/o/
pomp
romp
chomp
stomp
-on
/u/
son
ton
won
-ond
/o/
bond
fond
pond
blond
frond
-one
/ō/
bone
cone
hone
lone
tone
zone
clone
crone
drone
phone
prone
shone
stone
-ong
/aw/
bong
dong
gong
∕oo∕
boo
coo
goo
moo
poo
too
woo
zoo
shoo
-ood
̆
∕oo∕
good
hood
wood
stood
-ood
∕oo∕
food
mood
brood
-ool
∕oo∕
cool
fool
pool
tool
drool
school
spool
stool
goof
roof
proof
spoof
-ook
̆
∕oo∕
book
cook
hook
look
nook
took
brook
crook
shook
-oose
∕oo∕
goose
loose
moose
noose
-oom
-oot
∕oo∕
∕oo∕
boom
doom
loom
room
zoom
bloom
broom
gloom
groom
boot
hoot
loot
moot
root
toot
scoot
shoot
-oon
-op
∕oo∕
/o/
coon
loon
moon
noon
soon
croon
spoon
swoon
-oof
∕oo∕
moor
spoor
-oop
∕oo∕
coop
hoop
loop
droop
scoop
sloop
snoop
stoop
swoop
troop
-oor
/or/
poor
boor
bop
cop
hop
mop
pop
sop
top
chop
crop
drop
flop
plop
prop
shop
slop
stop
-ope
/ō/
cope
dope
hope
lope
mope
nope
pope
rope
grope
scope
slope
-orch
/or/
porch
torch
scorch
-ord
/or/
cord
ford
lord
chord
sword
-ore
/or/
bore
core
fore
gore
more
pore
sore
tore
wore
chore
score
shore
snore
spore
store
swore
-ork
/or/
cork
fork
pork
York
Stork
-orm
/or/
dorm
form
norm
storm
PHO NIC S
85
-orn
/or/
born
corn
horn
morn
torn
worn
scorn
shorn
sworn
thorn
-ort
/or/
fort
Mort
port
sort
short
snort
sport
-ose
/ō/
hose
nose
pose
rose
chose
close
prose
those
-oss
/aw/
boss
loss
moss
toss
cross
floss
gloss
-ost
/aw/
cost
lost
frost
-ost
/ō/
-ouch
/ow/
host
most
post
ghost
couch
pouch
vouch
crouch
grouch
slouch
-ot
/o/
cot
dot
got
hot
jot
knot
lot
not
pot
rot
tot
blot
clot
plot
shot
slot
spot
trot
-otch
/o/
botch
notch
blotch
crotch
Scotch
-ote
/ō/
note
quote
rote
vote
wrote
-oth
/aw/
moth
broth
cloth
froth
sloth
-oud
/ow/
loud
cloud
proud
-ough
/u/
rough
rough
slough
-ought
/aw/
bought
fought
ought
sought
brought
thought
-ould
/oo/
could
would
should
-ounce
/ow/
bounce
pounce
flounce
trounce
-ound
/ow/
bound
found
hound
mound
pound
round
sound
wound
ground
-oup
∕oo∕
soup
croup
group
stoup
-our
/ow/
hour
sour
flour
scour
-ouse
/ow/
douse
house
louse
mouse
rouse
souse
blouse
grouse
spouse
-out
/ow/
bout
gout
lout
pout
rout
tout
clout
flout
grout
scout
shout
snout
spout
sprout
stout
trout
-outh
/ow/
mouth
south
-ove
/ō/
cove
wove
clove
drove
grove
stove
trove
-ove
/u/
dove
love
glove
shove
-ow
/ō/
bow
know
low
mow
row
sow
tow
blow
crow
flow
glow
grow
show
slow
snow
stow
-ow
/ow/
bow
cow
how
now
row
sow
vow
brow
chow
plow
prow
scow
-owl
/ow/
fowl
howl
jowl
growl
prowl
scowl
-own
/ow/
down
gown
town
brown
clown
crown
drown
frown
-own
/ō/
known
mown
sown
blown
flown
grown
shown
thrown
-owse
/ow/
dowse
browse
drowse
-ox
/o/
box
fox
lox
pox
-oy
/oi/
boy
coy
joy
Roy
soy
toy
ploy
-ub
/u/
cub
dub
hub
nub
pub
rub
sub
tub
club
drub
flub
grub
scrub
shrub
snub
stub
-ube
∕oo∕
cube
rube
tube
-uck
/u/
buck
duck
luck
muck
puck
suck
tuck
Chuck
cluck
pluck
shuck
stuck
struck
truck
-ud
/u/
bud
cud
dud
mud
spud
stud
thud
sluff
snuff
stuff
lull
mull
skull
-ude
-ug
/u/
bug
dug
hug
jug
lug
mug
pug
rug
tug
chug
drug
plug
shrug
slug
smug
snug
thug
-ull
̆
∕oo∕
∕oo∕
dude
nude
rude
crude
prude
-udge
/u/
budge
fudge
judge
nudge
drudge
grudge
sludge
smudge
trudge
-uke
∕oo∕
-ue
∕oo∕
cue
due
hue
Sue
blue
clue
flue
glue
true
duke
nuke
puke
fluke
-ule
/ū/
mule
pule
rule
Yule
-uff
/u/
-ulk
/u/
buff
cuff
huff
muff
puff
ruff
bluff
fluff
gruff
scuff
bulk
hulk
sulk
-ull
/u/
cull
dull
gull
hull
bull
full
pull
-um
/u/
bum
gum
hum
mum
rum
sum
chum
drum
glum
plum
scum
slum
strum
swum
-umb
/u/
dumb
numb
crumb
plumb
thumb
-ume
∕oo∕
fume
flume
plume
spume
-ump
/u/
bump
dump
hump
jump
lump
pump
rump
chump
clump
frump
grump
plump
slump
stump
thump
trump
-un
/u/
bun
fun
gun
nun
pun
run
sun
shun
spun
stun
-unch
/u/
bunch
hunch
lunch
munch
punch
brunch
crunch
-une
/ū/
June
tune
prune
-ung
/u/
dung
hung
lung
rung
sung
clung
flung
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
86
sprung
stung
strung
swung
wrung
-unk
/u/
bunk
dunk
funk
hunk
junk
punk
sunk
chunk
drunk
flunk
plunk
shrunk
skunk
slunk
spunk
stunk
trunk
-unt
/u/
bunt
hunt
punt
runt
blunt
grunt
shunt
stunt
-up
/u/
cup
pup
sup
-ur
/er/
cur
fur
blur
slur
spur
-ure
/ū/
nurse
purse
cure
lure
pure
sure
-urt
/er/
-url
/er/
burl
curl
furl
hurl
purl
churl
knurl
-urn
/er/
burn
turn
churn
spurn
curt
hurt
blurt
spurt
-us
/u/
bus
pus
plus
thus
-use
/ū
fuse
muse
ruse
-urse
/er/
-ush
/u/
curse
gush
hush
lush
mush
rush
blush
brush
crush
flush
plush
slush
thrush
-uss
/u/
buss
cuss
fuss
muss
truss
-ust
/u/
bust
dust
gust
PHO NIC S
87
just
lust
must
rust
crust
thrust
trust
-ut
/u/
but
cut
gut
hut
jut
nut
rut
Tut
glut
shut
smut
strut
-utch
/u/
Dutch
hutch
clutch
crutch
-ute
/ū/
cute
jute
lute
mute
brute
chute
flute
-utt
/u/
butt
mutt
putt
-y
/ı̄/
by
my
cry
dry
fly
fry
ply
pry
shy
sky
sly
spy
spry
try
why
-ye
/ı̄/
aye
dye
eye
lye
rye
LIST 25. PHONICALLY IRREGULAR WORDS
Many words in the English language had their origins in other languages and, as a consequence, cannot be
pronounced using a simple one sound–one letter system of phonics and spelling. The words in the following
list are common words that do not fit our regular phonics rules and need to be recognized on sight and
spelled from memory. The first thirty words are among the one hundred most frequently used words and
should be taught as sight words in kindergarten or first grade. Word searches and other games that require
students to use correct letter sequences are fun ways to learn these words.
Group 1
a
are
as
been
come
could
do
find
from
have
his
is
of
on
one
or
people
said
the
their
there
they
to
two
was
water
were
words
would
you
Group 2
ache
acre
adjective
again
although
answer
any
become
bologna
both
bread
brought
castle
circuit
climb
cold
color
country
depot
design
does
door
dumb
earth
enough
eyes
father
feather
few
four
friends
give
great
group
heard
height
island
journey
kind
know
learn
light
listen
machine
many
measure
most
mother
move
ocean
off
often
old
once
only
other
pharaoh
picture
piece
rough
science
should
sign
some
straight
stretch
subtle
sure
though
thought
through
today
too
trough
unique
vegetable
want
watch
Wednesday
what
where
who
whose
woman
women
work
world
young
your
youth
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
88
LIST 26. STANDALONES —WORDS WITHOUT RHYMES
Words in the English language often follow patterns of sounds and spellings. Just take a look at the number
of phonograms in List 24. Or think about how easy it is to rhyme most words. The following list contains
words from a to z that have no close cousins or rhymes. Can you think of any other word for which there
is no true rhyme?
angst
arugula
breadth
bulb
chaos
circle
cusp
dangerous
depth
dreamt
druggist
eighth
else
exit
film
gulf
hundred
hungry
infant
midst
month
music
ninth
noisy
nothing
opus
orange
pint
plankton
plinth
PHO NIC S
89
purple
rhythm
scalp
silver
siren
sixth
tablet
toilet
twelfth
wasp
Wednesday
width
wolf
woman
zebra
LIST 27. SYLLABICATION RULES
Syllabication, or segmentation, is the separation of words into their component parts. By second grade,
about 30 percent of words students see in text have more than one syllable. By sixth grade, about 80 percent
of words students encounter are polysyllabic. For students to read new words and develop vocabulary
independently, especially in content area texts, they need to apply word recognition and decoding skills to
words of more than one syllable. Students can use the following rules to divide most unfamiliar words into
syllables before using their knowledge of phonics to pronounce them.
Important Ideas
1. Each syllable must have one vowel sound.
2. The vowels are: a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes y or w.
3. The number of syllables in a word equals the number of different vowel sounds in the word, not the
number of vowel letters.
4. Digraphs and diphthongs use more than one letter to make their sounds. Do not separate the letters in
digraphs or diphthongs.
5. A word’s consonant-vowel (cv) pattern helps determine where to divide the word. It also helps
determine whether the vowel sound is short (vc) or long (cv).
6. The schwa sound / / takes the place of the vowel sound in unaccented syllables.
7. Use the hyphen (-) to show where words are divided: syl-la-ble.
8. Begin to divide words into syllables by following the rules for dividing compound words and for
removing prefixes and suffixes, then apply the other rules.
e
Syllabication Rules
compound words
pre +
A compound word is first divided between its two words; then each of the
two words is divided if it has more than one vowel sound.
If a word begins with a prefix, divide the word between the prefix and the
root word.
1. The prefixes be-, de-, ex-, and re- form their own syllables.
2. Some prefixes have more than one syllable and will need to be further
divided (un-der, quat-tro-, in-ter-, coun-ter).
+ suf
If a word ends with a suffix, divide the word between the suffix and the root
word. (Some suffixes have more than one syllable and will need to be
further divided.)
1. If the suffix begins with a vowel and is preceded by a consonant, divide
before the consonant unless it is part of a digraph.
2. If the suffix is -ed, it forms a syllable only when preceded by a d or t.
3. The suffixes -tion and -ture form their own syllables.
4. The suffix -ly usually forms its own syllable.
5. Some words have more than one suffix.
vccv
When two consonants are between two vowels, divide between the two
consonants except when the two consonants form a digraph (ch, th, sh, ph,
or wh), which represents one sound or a blend (sw, sk, st, wr).
vcccv
When three consonants are between two vowels, divide between two
consonants keeping the consonant blends together.
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
90
Syllabication Rules (Continued)
cvvc
When two vowels are together and they are not a vowel digraph or
diphthong, divide between the two vowels (li-on po-em).
cvvc
When two vowels form a vowel digraph, do not divide between them (beast,
clown, spoil, pause, gloat).
vcv
When there is one consonant between two vowels, divide before the
consonant. This forms an open syllable and makes the first vowel sound
long. If this does not result in an English word, divide after the consonant
to make the first vowel sound short (mo-tel/mot-el de-nim/den-im).
v+r
When a word includes a vowel + r, do not divide between the vowel and the r.
c + le
If a word ends in a consonant followed by -le, divide the word before the
consonant.
ck or x
When a word contains a ck or an x, divide after the ck or x.
PHO NIC S
91
SECTION 3
Useful Words
List 28. High-Frequency Instant Words
List 29. Homophones
List 30. Homographs and Heteronyms
List 31.
Easily Confused Words
List 32.
Collective Nouns
List 33. Mass or Uncountable Nouns
List 34. Compound Words
List 35.
Nonreversible Word Pairs
List 36.
Similes
List 37. Metaphors
List 38.
Collocations
List 39. Common Word Idioms
List 40. Idiomatic Expressions
T
eachers are familiar with high-frequency words—those most often occurring in a language.
But did you know that the one hundred most frequently used words make up about half of all
written material in English? These one hundred are like a glue that holds sentences together: the,
and, was, are, I, you, them, will, no, with, he … Because high-frequency words are such a prominent
element in texts of all types, it is important that children learn to recognize them rapidly, freeing
up their cognitive energy to decode important but less common words.
Another category of high-frequency vocabulary is figurative language. Figurative language,
broadly speaking, cannot be understood by the literal meaning of the individual words. Figurative language of many types (e.g., idioms, similes, and metaphors) is very common in our
everyday communications. In fact, research by Pollio et al. (1977) estimates most English speakers use about seven thousand idioms per week! These words and phrases add color and dash to our
speech and writing (Palmer & Brooks, 2004) and have been called our language’s “special effects”
(Harris & Hodges, 1995). Students’ ability to understand and use figurative language develops
over time and with experience beginning with the simple recognition that words don’t always
mean what they say. There are many engaging activities that help students develop awareness of
the metaphoric nature of language and the ability to use figurative language. Experience with
figurative language, according to James (2002), also helps students put inexpressible thoughts
and feelings into symbolic thought and language. Recent research by Palmer and Brooks (2004)
found that instruction in figurative language expanded students’ capabilities for creative thought
and communication and enabled them to comprehend oral and written language on a deeper and
more meaningful level.
The lists in this section will help your students meet expectations to determine the meaning
of a broad array of high-frequency and figurative language, including similes, metaphors, idioms,
and idiomatic phrases. In addition this section provides lists of other specialized word groups,
such as collective nouns, nonreversible word pairs, and collocations, which also contribute to
fluency and comprehension.
Boers, F. (2000). Enhancing metaphoric awareness in specialized reading. English for Specific Purposes, 19, 137–147.
Gunning, T. (2011). Creating literacy instruction for all students (8th ed.). Boston: Pearson.
Harris, T., & Hodges, R. (Eds.). (1995). The literacy dictionary: The vocabulary of reading and writing. Newark, DE:
International Reading Association.
James, P. (2002). Ideas in practice: Fostering metaphoric thinking. Journal of Developmental Education, 25, 26–33.
Palmer, B., & Brooks, M. (2004). Reading until the cows come home: Figurative language and reading
comprehension. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 47(5), 370–378.
Pollio, H., Barlow, J., Fine, H., & Pollio, M. (1977). Psychology and the poetics of growth: Figurative language in
psychology, psychotherapy, and education. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
94
LIST 28. HIGH-FREQUENCY INSTANT WORDS
These are the most common words in English, ranked in frequency order. The first twenty-five make up
about a third of all printed material. The first one hundred make up about half of all written material, and
the first three hundred make up about 65 percent of all written material. Is it any wonder that all students
must learn to recognize these words instantly and to spell them correctly also? Being able to recognize
these words on sight contributes significantly to reading fluency. Adding inflectional endings and common
suffixes is an easy way to enlarge students’ sight vocabulary.
Words 1−25
the
of
and
a
to
in
is
you
it
he
was
for
on
are
as
with
his
they
I
at
be
this
have
from
Words 26−50
or
one
had
by
word
but
not
what
were
we
when
your
can
said
there
use
an
each
which
she
do
how
their
if
Words 51−75
will
up
other
about
out
many
then
them
so
some
her
would
make
like
him
into
time
has
look
two
more
write
go
see
Common suffixes: -s, -ing, -ed, -er, -ly, -est
USEFUL WORDS
95
Words 75−100
number
no
way
could
people
my
than
first
been
call
who
oil
its
now
find
long
down
day
did
get
come
made
may
part
Words 101−125
Words 126−150
Words 151−175
Words 176−200
over
say
set
try
new
great
put
kind
take
help
does
picture
only
through
another
again
little
much
well
change
work
before
large
off
know
line
must
play
place
right
big
spell
year
too
even
air
live
mean
such
away
me
old
because
animal
back
any
turn
house
give
same
here
point
most
tell
why
page
very
boy
ask
letter
after
follow
went
mother
thing
came
men
answer
our
want
read
found
just
show
need
study
name
also
land
still
good
around
different
learn
sentence
form
home
should
man
three
us
America
think
small
move
world
Common suffixes: -s, -ing, -ed, -er, -ly, -est
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
96
Words 201−225
Words 226−250
Words 251−275
Words 275−300
high
saw
important
miss
every
left
until
idea
near
don’t
children
enough
add
few
side
eat
food
while
feet
facet
between
along
car
watch
own
might
mile
far
below
close
night
Indian
country
something
walk
really
plant
seem
white
almost
last
next
sea
let
school
hard
began
above
father
open
grow
girl
keep
example
took
sometimes
tree
begin
river
mountain
never
life
four
cut
start
always
carry
young
city
those
state
talk
earth
both
once
soon
eye
paper
book
list
light
together
hear
song
thought
got
stop
being
head
group
without
leave
under
often
second
family
story
run
later
it’s
Common suffixes: -s, -ing, -ed, -er, -ly, -est
USEFUL WORDS
97
Words 301–320
body
music
color
stand
sun
question
fish
area
mark
dog
horse
birds
problem
complete
room
knew
since
ever
piece
told
Words 321–340
usually
didn’t
friends
easy
heard
order
red
door
sure
become
top
ship
across
today
during
short
better
best
however
low
Words 341–360
hours
black
products
happened
whole
measure
remember
early
waves
reached
listen
wind
rock
space
covered
fast
several
hold
himself
toward
Words 361–380
five
step
morning
passed
vowel
true
hundred
against
pattern
numeral
table
north
slowly
money
map
farm
pulled
draw
voice
seen
Words 381–400
cold
cried
plan
notice
south
sing
war
ground
fall
king
town
I’ll
unit
figure
certain
field
travel
wood
fire
upon
Words 401–420
done
English
road
halt
ten
fly
gave
box
finally
wait
correct
oh
quickly
person
became
shown
minutes
strong
verb
stars
Words 421–440
front
feel
fact
inches
street
decided
contain
course
surface
produce
building
ocean
class
note
nothing
rest
carefully
scientists
inside
wheels
Words 441–460
stay
green
known
island
week
less
machine
base
ago
stood
plane
system
behind
ran
round
boat
game
force
brought
understand
Words 461–480
warm
common
bring
explain
dry
though
language
shape
deep
thousands
yes
clear
equation
yet
government
filled
heat
full
hot
check
Words 481–500
object
bread
rule
among
noun
power
cannot
able
six
size
dark
ball
material
special
heavy
fine
pair
circle
include
built
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
98
Words 501–520
can’t
matter
square
syllables
perhaps
bill
felt
suddenly
test
direction
center
farmers
ready
anything
divided
general
energy
subject
Europe
moon
Words 521–540
region
return
believe
dance
members
picked
simple
cells
paint
mind
love
cause
rain
exercise
eggs
train
blue
wish
drop
developed
Words 541–560
window
difference
distance
heart
sit
sum
summer
wall
forest
probably
legs
sat
main
winter
wide
written
length
reason
kept
interest
Words 561–580
arms
brother
race
present
beautiful
store
job
edge
past
sign
record
finished
discovered
wild
happy
beside
gone
sky
glass
million
Words 581–600
west
lay
weather
root
instruments
meet
third
months
paragraph
raised
represent
soft
whether
clothes
flowers
shall
teacher
held
describe
drive
Words 601–620
cross
speak
solve
appear
metal
son
either
ice
sleep
village
factors
result
jumped
snow
ride
care
floor
hill
pushed
baby
Words 621–640
buy
century
outside
everything
tall
already
instead
phrase
soil
bed
copy
free
hope
spring
case
laughed
nation
quite
type
themselves
Words 641–660
temperature
bright
lead
everyone
method
section
lake
consonant
within
dictionary
hair
age
amount
scale
pounds
although
per
broken
moment
tiny
Words 661–680
possible
gold
milk
quiet
natural
lot
stone
act
build
middle
speed
count
cat
someone
sail
rolled
bear
wonder
smiled
angle
Words 681–700
fraction
Africa
killed
melody
bottom
trip
hole
poor
let’s
fight
surprise
French
died
beat
exactly
remain
dress
iron
couldn’t
fingers
USEFUL WORDS
99
Words 701–720
row
least
catch
climbed
wrote
shouted
continued
itself
else
plains
gas
England
burning
design
joined
foot
law
ears
grass
you’re
Words 721–740
grew
skin
valley
cents
key
president
brown
trouble
cool
cloud
lost
sent
symbols
wear
bad
save
experiment
engine
alone
drawing
Words 741–760
east
pay
single
touch
information
express
mouth
yard
equal
decimal
yourself
control
practice
report
straight
rise
statement
stick
party
seeds
Words 761–780
suppose
woman
coast
bank
period
wire
choose
clean
visit
bit
whose
received
garden
please
strange
caught
fell
team
God
captain
Words 781–800
direct
ring
serve
child
desert
increase
history
cost
maybe
business
separate
break
uncle
hunting
flow
lady
students
human
art
feeling
Words 801–820
supply
corner
electric
insects
crops
tone
hit
sand
doctor
provide
thus
won’t
cook
bones
tail
board
modern
compound
mine
wasn’t
Words 821–840
fit
addition
belong
safe
soldiers
guess
silent
trade
rather
compare
crowd
poem
enjoy
elements
indicate
except
expect
flat
seven
interesting
Words 841–860
sense
string
blow
famous
value
wings
movement
pole
exciting
branches
thick
blood
lie
spot
bell
fun
loud
consider
suggested
thin
Words 861–880
position
entered
fruit
tied
rich
dollars
send
sight
chief
Japanese
stream
planets
rhythm
eight
science
major
observe
tube
necessary
weight
Words 881–900
meat
lifted
process
army
hat
property
particular
swim
terms
current
park
sell
shoulder
industry
wash
block
spread
cattle
wife
sharp
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
100
Words 901–920
company
radio
we’ll
action
capital
factories
settled
yellow
isn’t
southern
truck
fair
printed
wouldn’t
ahead
chance
born
level
triangle
molecules
Words 921–940
France
repeated
column
western
church
sister
oxygen
plural
various
agreed
opposite
wrong
chart
prepared
pretty
solution
fresh
shop
suffix
especially
Words 941–960
shoes
actually
nose
afraid
dead
sugar
adjective
fig
office
huge
gun
similar
death
score
forward
stretched
experience
rose
allow
fear
USEFUL WORDS
101
Words 961–980
workers
Washington
Greek
women
bought
led
march
northern
create
British
difficult
match
win
doesn’t
steel
total
deal
determine
evening
nor
Words 981–1000
rope
cotton
apple
details
entire
corn
substances
smell
tools
conditions
cows
track
arrived
located
sir
seat
division
effect
underline
view
LIST 29. HOMOPHONES
Homophones are words that sound the same but have different meanings and usually different spellings. We
think this is one of the most complete lists of homophones available. Recognizing homophones is particularly important because computer spell-check programs do not recognize them as spelling errors. There are
many ways to teach homophones, including reading and spelling games, jokes and riddles, and workbook
exercises. See List 158, Games and Teaching Activities, for suggestions.
This list contains only homophones that have different spellings. If a pair has the same spelling (for
example, bat meaning a flying animal and bat meaning a club), they are included in the homograph list.
The term homonym can include both homophones (same sound) and homographs (same spelling).
Easy Homophones
add
ad
dear
deer
its
it’s
our
hour
air
heir
die
dye
led
lead
already
all ready
fair
fare
loan
lone
pair
pare
pear
ant
aunt
feet
feat
made
maid
ate
eight
find
fined
meet
meat
ball
bawl
flower
flour
might
mite
bare
bear
for
four
fore
missed
mist
be
bee
beat
beet
been
bin
great
grate
heard
herd
morn
mourn
need
knead
here
hear
new
knew
gnu
hi
high
night
knight
hole
whole
no
know
horse
hoarse
oh
owe
close
clothes
cloze
I
eye
aye
one
won
creek
creak
in
inn
blue
blew
brake
break
by
bye
buy
or
oar
ore
peace
piece
plane
plain
principal
principle
rain
reign
rein
read
reed
real
reel
red
read
right
write
road
rode
rowed
sale
sail
see
sea
seem
seam
sell
cell
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
102
sent
cent
scent
shoe
shoo
side
sighed
son
sun
to
two
too
steal
steel
their
there
they’re
some
sum
through
threw
week
weak
toe
tow
tail
tale
so
sew
sow
weather
whether
where
wear
ware
told
tolled
wood
would
way
weigh
your
you’re
we
wee
Homophone Master List
acts (deeds)
ax (tool)
ad (advertisement)
add (addition)
ads (advertisements)
adz (ax-like tool)
aid (assistance)
aide (a helper)
ail (be sick)
ale (beverage)
air (oxygen)
heir (successor)
aisle (path)
I’ll (I will)
isle (island)
all (everything)
awl (tool)
all together (in a group)
altogether (completely)
already (previous)
all ready (all are ready)
allowed (permitted)
aloud (audible)
altar (in a church)
alter (change)
ant (insect)
aunt (relative)
ball (round object)
bawl (cry)
ante (before)
anti (against)
arc (part of a circle)
ark (boat)
ascent (climb)
assent (agree)
assistance (help)
assistants (helpers)
ate (did eat)
eight (number)
attendance (presence)
attendants (escorts)
aural (by ear)
oral (by mouth)
away (gone)
aweigh (clear anchor)
awful (terrible)
offal (entrails)
aye (yes)
eye (organ of sight)
I (pronoun)
band (plays music)
banned (forbidden)
bard (poet)
barred (having bars)
bare (nude)
bear (animal)
bark (dog’s sound)
barque (ship)
baron (nobleman)
barren (no fruit)
base (lower part)
bass (deep tone)
based (at a base)
baste (cover with liquid)
bases (plural of base)
basis (foundation)
bask (warm feeling)
Basque (country)
bazaar (market)
bizarre (odd)
bail (throw water out)
bale (bundle)
be (exist)
bee (insect)
bait (lure)
bate (to decrease)
beach (shore)
beech (tree)
USEFUL WORDS
103
bearing (manner)
baring (uncovering)
boy (male child)
buoy (floating object)
cellar (basement)
seller (one who sells)
beat (whip)
beet (vegetable)
brake (stop)
break (smash)
censor (ban)
sensor (detection device)
beau (boyfriend)
bow (decorative knot)
bread (food)
bred (cultivated)
been (past participle of be)
bin (box)
brewed (steeped)
brood (flock)
cent (penny)
scent (odor)
sent (did send)
beer (drink)
bier (coffin)
bell (something you ring)
belle (pretty woman)
berry (fruit)
bury (put in ground)
berth (bunk)
birth (born)
better (more good)
bettor (one who bets)
bight (slack part of rope)
bite (chew)
byte (digital unit)
billed (did bill)
build (construct)
blew (did blow)
blue (color)
block (cube)
bloc (group)
boar (hog)
bore (drill; be tiresome)
boarder (one who boards)
border (boundary)
boll (cotton pod)
bowl (dish; game)
bolder (more bold)
boulder (big stone)
born (delivered at birth)
borne (carried)
borough (town)
burro (donkey)
burrow (dig)
bough (of a tree)
bow (of a ship)
bouillon (clear broth)
bullion (gold or silver mass)
cereal (relating to grain)
serial (of a series)
brews (steeps)
bruise (discoloration)
bridal (relating to bride)
bridle (headgear for horse)
Britain (country)
Briton (Englishman)
cession (yielding)
session (meeting)
chance (luck)
chants (songs)
chased (did chase)
chaste (modest)
broach (bring up)
brooch (pin)
cheap (inexpensive)
cheep (bird call)
but (except)
butt (end)
chews (bites)
choose (select)
buy (purchase)
by (near)
bye (farewell)
chic (style)
sheik (Arab chief)
cache (hiding place)
cash (money)
chilly (cold)
chili (hot pepper)
callous (unfeeling)
callus (hard tissue)
choral (music)
coral (reef)
cannon (big gun)
canon (law)
chorale (chorus)
corral (pen for livestock)
canvas (cloth)
canvass (survey)
capital (money; city)
Capitol (Congress building)
carat (jeweler’s weight)
caret (proofreader’s mark)
carrot (vegetable)
carol (song)
carrel (study space)
chord (musical notes)
cord (string)
chute (slide)
shoot (discharge gun)
cite (quote or summon)
sight (see)
site (location)
claws (nails on animal’s feet)
clause (part of a sentence)
cast (throw; actors)
caste (social class)
click (small sound)
clique (group of friends)
cause (origin)
caws (crow calls)
climb (go up)
clime (climate)
cede (grant)
seed (part of a plant)
ceiling (top of room)
sealing (closing)
close (shut)
clothes (clothing)
cloze (test)
cell (prison room)
sell (exchange for money)
coal (fuel)
cole (cabbage)
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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coarse (rough)
course (path; school subject)
do (musical note)
do (shall)
foreword (introduction)
forward (to front; onward)
colonel (military rank)
kernel (grain of corn)
dew (moisture)
due (owed)
forth (forward)
fourth (after third)
complement (complete)
compliment (praise)
done (finished)
dun (gray-brown color)
foul (bad)
fowl (bird)
coop (chicken pen)
coupe (car)
dual (two)
duel (combat between two)
franc (French money)
frank (honest)
core (center)
corps (group)
duct (tube)
ducked (did duck)
friar (religious brother)
fryer (frying chicken)
correspondence (letters)
correspondents (writers)
earn (work for)
urn (container)
gate (fence opening)
gait (foot movement)
council (legislative body)
counsel (advise)
ewe (female sheep)
yew (shrub)
you (personal pronoun)
gilt (golden)
guilt (opposite of innocence)
cousin (relative)
cozen (deceive)
creak (grating noise)
creek (stream)
crews (groups of workers)
cruise (sail)
cruse (small pot)
cruel (hurting)
crewel (stitching)
eyelet (small hole)
islet (small island)
fain (gladly)
feign (pretend)
faint (weak)
feint (pretend attack)
fair (honest; festival)
fare (cost of transportation)
cue (prompt)
queue (line up)
fawn (baby deer)
faun (mythical creature)
currant (small raisin)
current (now; energy flow)
faze (upset)
phase (stage)
curser (one who curses)
cursor (moving pointer)
feat (accomplishment)
feet (plural of foot)
cymbal (instrument)
symbol (sign)
find (discover)
fined (penalty of money)
deer (animal)
dear (greeting; loved one)
fir (tree)
fur (animal covering)
desert (abandon)
dessert (sweet at meal’s end)
flair (talent)
flare (flaming signal)
die (expire)
dye (color)
flea (insect)
flee (run away)
dine (eat)
dyne (unit of force)
flew (did fly)
flu (influenza)
flue (shaft)
disburse (pay out)
disperse (scatter)
discreet (unobtrusive)
discrete (noncontinuous)
doe (female deer)
dough (baking mixture)
gnu (antelope)
knew (did know)
new (opposite of old)
gorilla (animal)
guerrilla (irregular soldier)
grate (grind)
great (large)
groan (moan)
grown (cultivated)
guessed (surmised)
guest (company)
hail (ice pellets; salute)
hale (healthy)
hair (on head)
hare (rabbit)
hall (passage)
haul (carry)
handsome (attractive)
hansom (horse carriage)
hangar (storage building)
hanger (to hang things on)
halve (cut in half)
have (possess)
hart (deer)
heart (body organ)
flour (milled grain)
flower (bloom)
hay (dried grass)
hey (expression to get attention)
for (in favor of)
fore (front part)
four (number 4)
heal (make well)
heel (back of foot)
he’ll (he will)
USEFUL WORDS
105
hear (listen)
here (this place)
its (possessive pronoun)
it’s (it is)
made (manufactured)
maid (servant)
heard (listened)
herd (group of animals)
jam (fruit jelly)
jamb (side of an opening)
mail (send by post)
male (masculine)
heed (pay attention)
he’d (he would)
knit (weave with yarn)
nit (louse egg)
hertz (unit of frequency)
hurts (pain)
lam (escape)
lamb (baby sheep)
main (most important)
Maine (state)
mane (hair)
hew (carve)
hue (color)
lain (past participle of lie)
lane (narrow way)
hi (hello)
hie (hasten)
lay (recline)
lei (necklace of flowers)
high (opposite of low)
higher (above)
hire (employ)
lead (metal)
led (guided)
him (pronoun)
hymn (religious song)
hoarse (husky voice)
horse (animal)
hole (opening)
whole (complete)
holey (full of holes)
holy (sacred)
wholly (all)
horde (crowd)
hoard (hidden supply)
hostel (lodging for youth)
hostile (unfriendly)
hour (sixty minutes)
our (possessive pronoun)
hurdle (jump over)
hurtle (throw)
idle (lazy)
idol (god)
idyll (charming scene)
in (opposite of out)
inn (hotel)
insight (self-knowledge)
incite (cause)
instance (example)
instants (short time periods)
insure (protect against loss)
ensure (make sure)
intense (extreme)
intents (aims)
leak (crack; let out; disclose)
leek (vegetable)
maize (Indian corn)
maze (network of passages)
mall (courtyard)
maul (attack)
manner (style)
manor (estate)
mantel (over fireplace)
mantle (cloak)
lean (slender; incline)
lien (claim)
marry (join together)
merry (gay)
Mary (name)
leased (rented)
least (smallest)
marshal (escort)
martial (militant)
lessen (make less)
lesson (instruction)
massed (grouped)
mast (support)
levee (embankment)
levy (impose legally)
maybe (perhaps, adj.)
may be (is possible, v.)
liar (untruthful person)
lyre (musical instrument)
meat (food from mammals)
meet (greet)
mete (measure)
lichen (fungus)
liken (compare)
medal (award)
meddle (interfere)
lie (falsehood)
lye (alkaline solution)
might (may; strength)
mite (small insect)
lieu (instead of)
Lou (name)
lightening (become light)
lightning (electric spark in sky)
load (burden)
lode (vein of ore)
miner (coal digger)
minor (juvenile)
missed (failed to attain)
mist (fog)
moan (groan)
mown (cut down)
loan (something borrowed)
lone (single)
locks (plural of lock)
lox (smoked salmon)
mode (fashion)
mowed (cut down)
morn (early day)
mourn (grieve)
loot (steal)
lute (musical instrument)
low (not high; cattle sound)
lo (interjection)
muscle (flesh)
mussel (shellfish)
naval (nautical)
navel (belly button)
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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nay (no)
neigh (horse’s whinny)
need (require)
knead (mix with hands)
new (not old)
knew (recalled; understood)
gnu (animal)
peak (mountaintop)
peek (look)
pique (offense)
peal (ring)
peel (pare)
pearl (jewel)
purl (knitting stitch)
night (evening)
knight (feudal warrior)
pedal (ride a bike)
peddle (sell)
no (negative)
know (familiar with)
peer (equal)
pier (dock)
none (not any)
nun (religious sister)
per (for each)
purr (cat sound)
not (in no manner)
knot (tangle)
pi (Greek letter)
pie (kind of pastry)
read (get meaning from)
reed (plant)
read (got meaning from)
red (color)
real (genuine)
reel (spool)
reek (give off strong odor)
wreak (inflict)
rest (relax)
wrest (inflict)
review (look back)
revue (musical)
right (correct)
rite (ceremony)
write (inscribe)
oar (of a boat)
or (conjunction)
ore (mineral deposit)
plain (simple; flatland)
plane (flat surface; airplane)
ode (poem)
owed (did owe)
plait (braid)
plate (dish)
oh (exclamation)
owe (be indebted)
pleas (plural of plea)
please (to be agreeable)
road (street)
rode (transported)
rowed (used oars)
one (number)
won (triumphed)
plum (fruit)
plumb (lead weight)
roe (fish eggs)
row (line; use oars)
overdo (go to extremes)
overdue (past due)
pole (stick)
poll (vote)
role (character)
roll (turn over; bread)
overseas (abroad)
oversees (supervises)
pore (ponder; skin gland)
pour (flow freely)
root (part of a plant)
route (highway)
pail (bucket)
pale (lacking color)
pray (worship)
prey (victim)
rose (flower)
rows (lines)
pain (discomfort)
pane (window glass)
presents (gifts)
presence (appearance)
rote (by memory)
wrote (did write)
pair (two of a kind)
pare (peel)
pear (fruit)
principal (chief)
principle (rule)
rude (impolite)
rued (was sorry)
profit (benefit)
prophet (seer)
rumor (gossip)
roomer (renter)
rack (framework; torture)
wrack (ruin)
rung (ladder step; past of ring)
wrung (squeezed)
rain (precipitation)
reign (royal authority)
rein (harness)
rye (grain)
wry (twisted)
palate (roof of mouth)
palette (board for paint)
pallet (platform or bed)
passed (went by)
past (former)
patience (composure)
patients (sick persons)
pause (brief stop)
paws (feet of animals)
peace (tranquility)
piece (part)
rime (ice; rhyme)
rhyme (same end sound)
ring (circular band)
wring (squeeze)
raise (put up)
raze (tear down)
rays (of sun)
rap (hit; talk)
wrap (cover)
sail (travel by boat)
sale (bargain)
scene (setting)
seen (viewed)
scull (boat; row)
skull (head)
USEFUL WORDS
107
sea (ocean)
see (visualize)
step (walk)
steppe (Asian prairie)
toad (frog)
towed (pulled)
seam (joining mark)
seem (appear to be)
stile (gate)
style (fashion)
toe (digit on foot)
tow (pull)
sear (singe)
seer (prophet)
straight (not crooked)
strait (channel of water)
told (informed)
tolled (rang)
serf (feudal servant)
surf (waves)
suite (connected rooms)
sweet (sugary)
trussed (tied)
trust (confidence)
sew (mend)
so (in order that)
sow (plant)
surge (sudden increase)
serge (fabric)
vain (conceited)
vane (wind indicator)
vein (blood vessel)
shear (cut)
sheer (transparent)
tacks (plural of tack)
tax (assess; burden)
vale (valley)
veil (face cover)
tail (animal’s appendage)
tale (story)
vary (change)
very (absolutely)
shone (beamed)
shown (exhibited)
taught (did teach)
taut (tight)
vice (bad habit)
vise (clamp)
side (flank)
sighed (audible breath)
tea (drink)
tee (holder for golf ball)
vile (disgusting)
vial (small bottle)
sign (signal)
sine (trigonometric function)
teas (plural of tea)
tease (mock)
wade (walk in water)
weighed (measured heaviness)
slay (kill)
sleigh (sled)
team (crew)
teem (to pour rain)
wail (cry)
whale (sea mammal)
sleight (dexterity)
slight (slender)
tear (cry)
tier (level)
waist (middle)
waste (trash)
slew (killed)
slue (swamp)
tern (sea bird)
turn (rotate)
wait (linger)
weight (heaviness)
soar (fly)
sore (painful)
their (possessive pronoun)
there (at that place)
waive (forgive)
wave (swell)
sole (only)
soul (spirit)
they’re (they are)
theirs (possessive pronoun)
there’s (there is)
want (desire)
wont (custom)
shoe (foot covering)
shoo (drive away)
some (portion)
sum (total)
son (male offspring)
sun (star)
staid (proper)
stayed (remained)
stair (step)
stare (look intently)
stake (post)
steak (meat)
stationary (fixed)
stationery (paper)
steal (rob)
steel (metal)
threw (tossed)
through (finished)
ware (pottery)
wear (have on)
where (what place)
throne (king’s seat)
thrown (tossed)
way (road)
weigh (measure heaviness)
whey (watery part of milk)
thyme (herb)
time (duration)
ways (plural of way)
weighs (heaviness)
tic (twitch)
tick (insect; sound of clock)
we (pronoun)
wee (small)
tide (ebb and flow)
tied (bound)
weak (not strong)
week (seven days)
to (toward)
too (also)
two (number)
weal (prosperity)
we’ll (we will)
wheel (circular frame)
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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weather (interlace)
whether (if)
which (what one)
witch (sorceress)
worst (most bad)
wurst (sausage)
weave (interlace)
we’ve (we have)
while (during)
wile (trick)
we’d (we would)
weed (plant)
whine (complaining sound)
wine (drink)
yoke (harness)
yolk (egg center)
you (pronoun)
weir (dam)
we’re (we are)
who’s (who is)
whose (possessive of who)
wet (moist)
whet (sharpen)
wood (of a tree)
would (is willing to)
USEFUL WORDS
109
ewe (female sheep)
yew (evergreen tree)
you’ll (you will)
Yule (Christmas)
your (possessive pronoun)
you’re (you are)
LIST 30. HOMOGRAPHS AND HETERONYMS
Homographs are words that are spelled the same but have different origins as well as different meanings. Some homographs are also heteronyms. This means that although they are spelled the same, they
are pronounced differently. We can tell which pronunciation to use based on its context within the sentence. Example: Who will record (r -cord´) the minutes of the meeting? David will try to break his rowing
record (rek´-erd) today. Heteronyms are marked with an asterisk (*).
e
affect (influence)
affect (pretend)
batter (liquid baking mixture)
batter (baseball player)
alight (get down from)
alight (on fire)
bay (part of a sea)
bay (aromatic leaf used in cooking)
bay (reddish brown)
bay (alcove between columns)
bay (howl)
angle (space between connected lines)
angle (to fish with hook and line)
arch (curved structure)
arch (chief)
arms (body parts)
arms (weapons)
*august (majestic)
August (eighth month of the year)
bear (large animal)
bear (support; carry)
bill (statement of money owed)
bill (beak)
*axes (plural of ax)
axes (plural of axis)
bit (small piece)
bit (tool for drilling)
bit (did bite)
bail (money for release)
bail (handle of a pail)
bail (throw water out)
blaze (fire)
blaze (mark a trail or a tree)
blaze (make known)
ball (round object)
ball (formal dance)
blow (hard hit)
blow (send forth a stream of air)
band (group of musicians)
band (thin strip for binding)
bluff (steep bank or cliff)
bluff (fool or mislead)
bank (mound)
bank (place of financial business)
bank (row of things)
bank (land along a river)
bob (weight at the end of a line)
bob (move up and down)
Bob (nickname for Robert)
bark (tree covering)
bark (sound a dog makes)
bark (sailboard)
base (bottom)
base (morally low)
*bass (low male voice)
bass (kind of fish)
baste (pour liquid on while roasting)
baste (sew with long stitches)
bat (club)
bat (flying animal)
bat (wink)
batter (hit repeatedly)
boil (bubbling of hot liquid)
boil (red swelling on the skin)
boom (deep sound)
boom (long beam)
boom (sudden increase in size)
boon (benefit)
boon (merry)
bore (make a hole)
bore (make weary)
bore (did bear)
bound (limit)
bound (obliged)
bound (spring back)
bound (on the way)
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110
*bow (weapon for shooting arrows)
bow (forward part of a ship)
bow (bend in greeting or respect)
bowl (rounded dish)
bowl (play the game of bowling)
box (four-sided container)
box (kind of evergreen shrub)
box (strike with the hand)
clip (cut)
clip (fasten)
*close (shut)
close (near)
clove (fragrant spice)
clove (section of a bulb)
cobbler (one who mends shoes)
cobbler (fruit pie with one crust)
bridge (way over an obstacle)
bridge (card game)
cock (rooster)
cock (tilt upward)
brush (tool for sweeping)
brush (bushes)
colon (mark of punctuation)
colon (lower part of large intestine)
buck (male deer)
buck (slang for dollar)
*commune (talk intimately)
commune (group living together)
buffer (something that softens)
buffer (pad for polishing)
*compact (firmly packed together)
compact (agreement)
*buffet (cabinet for dishes or linens)
buffet (self-serve meal)
buffet (strike)
con (swindle)
con (against)
butt (thicker end of a tool)
butt (object of ridicule)
can (able to)
can (metal container)
capital (money)
capital (punishable by death)
carp (complain)
carp (kind of fish)
case (condition)
case (box or container)
*console (cabinet)
console (ease grief)
*content (all things inside)
content (satisfied)
*converse (talk)
converse (opposite)
corporal (of the body)
corporal (low-ranking officer)
count (name numbers in order)
count (nobleman)
chap (crack or become rough)
chap (boy or man)
counter (long table in store or restaurant)
counter (one who counts)
counter (opposite)
chop (cut with something sharp)
chop (jaw)
chop (irregular motion)
chop (cut of meat)
crow (loud cry of a rooster)
crow (large black bird)
Crow (tribe of Native Americans)
chord (two or more musical notes)
chord (together)
chord (an emotional response)
Chow (breed of dog)
chow (slang for food)
chuck (throw or toss)
chuck (cut of beef)
cleave (cut)
cleave (hold on to)
cue (signal)
cue (stick used in game of pool)
curry (rub and clean a horse)
curry (spicy seasoning)
date (day, month, and year)
date (sweet dark fruit)
defer (put off)
defer (yield to another)
demean (lower in dignity)
demean (humble oneself)
USEFUL WORDS
111
*desert (dry barren region)
desert (go away from)
desert (suitable reward or punishment)
fawn (young deer)
fawn (seek favor by slavish acts)
die (stop living)
die (tool)
fell (did fall)
fell (cut down a tree)
fell (deadly)
*do (act; perform)
do (first tone on musical scale)
felt (did feel)
felt (type of cloth)
dock (wharf)
dock (cut some off)
file (drawer; folder)
file (tool to smooth material)
file (material)
*does (plural of doe)
does (present tense of to do)
*dove (pigeon)
dove (did dive)
down (from higher to lower place)
down (soft feathers)
down (grassy land)
fine (high quality)
fine (money paid as punishment)
firm (solid; hard)
firm (business; company)
fit (suitable)
fit (sudden attack)
dredge (dig up)
dredge (sprinkle with flour or sugar)
flag (banner)
flag (get tired)
dresser (one who dresses)
dresser (bureau)
flat (smooth)
flat (apartment)
drove (did drive)
drove (flock; herd; crowd)
fleet (group of ships)
fleet (rapid)
dub (give a title)
dub (add voice or music)
flight (act of flying)
flight (act of fleeing)
duck (large wild bird)
duck (lower suddenly)
duck (type of cotton cloth)
flounder (struggle)
flounder (kind of fish)
ear (organ of hearing)
ear (part of certain plants)
egg (roundish body laid by a bird)
egg (encourage)
fluke (lucky stroke in games)
fluke (kind of fish)
fly (insect)
fly (move through the air)
elder (older)
elder (small tree)
foil (prevent carrying out plans)
foil (metal sheet)
foil (long narrow sword)
*entrance (going in)
entrance (delight; charm)
fold (bend over on itself)
fold (pen for sheep)
*excise (tax)
excise (remove)
forearm (part of the body)
forearm (prepare for trouble ahead)
fair (beautiful; lovely)
fair (just; honest)
fair (showing of farm goods)
fair (festival)
forge (blacksmith shop)
forge (move ahead)
fan (devise to stir up the air)
fan (admirer)
fast (speedy)
fast (go without food)
*forte (strong point)
forte (loud)
found (did find)
found (set up; establish)
founder (sink)
founder (one who establishes)
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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frank (hotdog)
frank (bold talk)
Frank (man’s name)
fray (become ragged)
fray (fight)
fresh (newly made, not stale)
fresh (impudent; bold)
fret (worry)
fret (ridges on a guitar)
fry (cook in shallow pan)
fry (young fish)
fuse (slow-burning wick)
fuse (melt together)
gall (bile)
gall (annoy)
game (pastime)
game (lame)
gauntlet (challenge)
gauntlet (protective glove)
gin (alcoholic beverage)
gin (machine to separate seeds from cotton)
gin (card came)
gore (blood)
gore (wound from a horn)
gore (three-sided insert of cloth)
grate (framework for logs in fireplace)
grate (have an annoying effect)
grave (place of burial)
grave (important; serious)
grave (carve)
graze (feed on grass)
graze (touch lightly in passing)
ground (soil)
ground (did grind)
grouse (game bird)
grouse (grumble; complain)
hail (pieces of ice that fall like rain)
hail (shouts of welcome)
hamper (hold back)
hamper (large container or bucket)
hatch (bring forth young from an egg)
hatch (opening in a ship’s deck)
hawk (bird of prey)
hawk (peddle goods)
haze (mist; smoke)
haze (bully)
heel (back of the foot)
heel (tip over to one side)
hide (conceal; keep out of sight)
hide (animal skin)
hinder (stop)
hinder (rear)
hold (grasp and keep)
hold (part of ship or place for cargo)
husky (big and strong)
husky (sled dog)
impress (have a strong effect on)
impress (take by force)
*incense (aromatic substance to burn)
incense (make very angry)
*intern (force to stay)
intern (person in training)
*intimate (very familiar)
intimate (suggest)
*invalid (disabled person)
invalid (not valid)
jam (fruit preserve)
jam (press or squeeze)
jerky (with sudden starts and stops)
jerky (strips of dried meat)
gull (water bird)
gull (cheat; deceive)
jet (stream of water, steam, or air)
jet (hard black soil)
jet (type of airplane)
gum (sticky substance from some trees)
gum (tissue around teeth)
jig (dance)
jig (fishing lure)
guy (rope; chain)
guy (fellow)
*job (work)
Job (Biblical man of patience)
hack (cut roughly)
hack (carrier or car for hire)
jumper (person or thing that jumps)
jumper (type of dress)
USEFUL WORDS
113
junk (trash)
junk (Chinese sailing ship)
lock (fasten door)
lock (curl of hair)
key (tool used to lock and unlock)
key (low island)
long (great measure)
long (wish for)
kind (friendly; helpful)
kind (same class)
loom (frame for weaving)
loom (threaten)
lap (body part formed when sitting)
lap (drink)
lap (one course traveled)
low (not high)
low (cattle sound)
lark (small songbird)
lark (good fun)
lash (cord part of a whip)
lash (tie or fasten)
lumber (timber)
lumber (move along heavily)
mace (club; weapon)
mace (spice)
last (at the end)
last (continue; endure)
mail (letters)
mail (flexible metal armor)
launch (start out)
launch (type of boat)
maroon (brownish red color)
maroon (leave helpless)
*lead (show the way)
lead (metallic element)
mat (woven floor covering)
mat (border for picture)
league (measure of distance)
league (group of persons or nations)
match (stick used to light fires)
match (equal)
lean (stand slanting)
lean (not fat)
meal (food served at a certain time)
meal (ground grain)
leave (go away)
leave (permission)
mean (signify; intend)
mean (unkind)
mean (average)
left (direction)
left (did leave)
lie (falsehood)
lie (place oneself flat; rest)
light (not heavy)
light (not dark)
light (land on)
like (similar to)
like (be pleased with)
lime (citrus fruit)
lime (chemical substance)
limp (lame walk)
limp (not stiff)
line (piece of cord)
line (place paper or fabric inside)
meter (unit of length)
meter (poetic rhythm)
meter (device that measures flow)
might (past of may)
might (power)
mine (belonging to me)
mine (hole in the earth to get ores)
*minute (sixty seconds)
minute (very small)
miss (fail to hit)
miss (unmarried woman or girl)
mold (form; shape)
mold (fungus)
list (series of words)
list (tilt to one side)
mole (brown spot on the skin)
mole (small underground animal)
*live (exist)
live (having life)
mortar (cement mixture)
mortar (short cannon)
loaf (be idle)
loaf (shaped as bread)
mount (high hill)
mount (go up)
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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mule (cross between donkey and horse)
mule (type of slipper)
pole (long piece of wood)
pole (either end of the earth’s axis)
mum (silent)
mum (chrysanthemum)
nag (scold)
nag (old horse)
policy (plan of action)
policy (written agreement)
nap (short sleep)
nap (rug fuzz)
net (open-weave fabric)
net (remaining after deductions)
nip (small drink)
nip (pinch)
*object (a thing)
object (to protest)
pad (cushion)
pad (walk softly)
page (one side of a sheet of paper)
page (youth who runs errands)
palm (inside of hand)
palm (kind of tree)
pool (tank with water)
pool (game using balls on a table)
pop (short, quick sound)
pop (dad)
pop (popular)
post (support)
post (job or position)
post (system for mail delivery)
pound (unit of weight)
pound (hit hard again and again)
pound (pen)
*present (not absent)
present (gift)
present (to introduce formally)
patent (right or privilege)
patent (type of leather)
press (squeeze)
press (force into service)
*primer (first book)
primer (something used to prepare)
patter (rapid taps)
patter (light, easy walk)
prune (fruit)
prune (cut; trim)
pawn (leave as security for loan)
pawn (chess piece)
pry (look with curiosity)
pry (lift with force)
*peaked (having a point)
peaked (looking ill)
pump (type of show)
pump (machine to force liquid out)
peck (dry measure)
peck (strike at)
punch (hit)
punch (beverage)
pen (instrument for writing)
pen (enclosed yard)
pupil (student)
pupil (part of the eye)
pile (heap or stack)
pile (nap on fabrics)
quack (sound of a duck)
quack (phony doctor)
pine (type of evergreen)
pine (yearn or long for)
racket (noise)
racket (paddle used in tennis)
pitch (throw)
pitch (tar)
rail (bar of wood or metal)
rail (complain bitterly)
pitcher (container for pouring liquid)
pitcher (baseball player)
rank (row or line)
rank (having a bad odor)
poach (trespass)
poach (cook an egg)
rare (unusual)
rare (not cooked much)
poker (card game)
poker (rod for stirring a fire)
rash (hasty)
rash (small red spots on the skin)
USEFUL WORDS
115
ream (five hundred sheets of paper)
ream (clean a hole)
seal (mark of ownership)
seal (sea mammal)
rear (the back part)
rear (bring up)
second (after the first)
second (one-sixtieth of a minute)
*record (music disk)
record (write down)
*sewer (one who sews)
sewer (underground pipe for wastes)
recount (count again)
recount (tell in detail)
shark (large meat-eating fish)
shark (dishonest person)
reel (spool for winding)
reel (sway under a blow)
reel (lively dance)
shed (small shelter)
shed (get rid of)
refrain (hold back)
refrain (part repeated)
*refuse (say no)
refuse (waste; trash)
rest (sleep)
rest (what is left)
rifle (gun with a long barrel)
rifle (ransack; search through)
ring (circle)
ring (bell sound)
root (part of plant below soil)
root (cheer for someone)
*row (line)
row (use oars to move a boat)
row (noisy fight)
sage (wise person)
sage (herb)
sap (liquid in a plant)
sap (weaken)
sash (cloth worn around the waist)
sash (frame of a window)
saw (did see)
saw (tool for cutting)
saw (wise saying)
scale (balance)
scale (outer layer of fish and snakes)
scale (series of steps)
shingles (roofing materials)
shingles (viral disease)
shock (sudden violent disturbance)
shock (thick bushy mass)
shore (land near water’s edge)
shore (support)
shot (fired a gun)
shot (worn out)
size (amount)
size (preparation of glue)
*slaver (dealer in slaves)
slaver (salivate)
sledge (heavy sled)
sledge (large hammer)
slip (go easily)
slip (small strip of paper)
slip (undergarment)
*slough (swamp)
slough (shed old skin)
slug (small, slow-moving animal)
slug (hit hard)
smack (slight taste)
smack (open lips quickly)
smack (small boat)
snare (trap)
snare (string on bottom of a drum)
snarl (growl)
snarl (tangle)
school (place for learning)
school (group of fish)
sock (covering for foot)
sock (hit hard)
scour (clean)
scour (move quickly over)
soil (ground; dirt)
soil (make dirty)
scrap (small bits)
scrap (quarrel)
sole (type of fish)
sole (only)
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
116
*sow (scatter seeds)
sow (female pig)
strand (leave helpless)
strand (thread or string)
spar (mast of a ship)
spar (argue)
spar (mineral)
strip (narrow piece of cloth)
strip (remove)
spell (say the letters of a word)
spell (magic influences)
spell (period of work)
spray (sprinkle liquid)
spray (branch of leaves and flowers)
stroke (hit)
stroke (pet, soothe)
stroke (an illness)
stunt (stop growth)
stunt (bold action)
spruce (type of evergreen)
spruce (neat or trim)
sty (pen for pigs)
sty (swelling on eyelid)
squash (press flat)
squash (vegetable)
swallow (take in)
swallow (small bird)
stable (building for horses)
stable (unchanging)
tap (strike lightly)
tap (faucet)
stake (stick or post)
stake (risk or prize)
*tarry (delay)
tarry (covered with tar)
stalk (main stem of a plant)
stalk (follow secretly)
tart (sour but agreeable)
tart (small, fruit-filled pie)
stall (place in stable for an animal)
stall (delay)
*tear (drop of liquid from the eye)
tear (pull apart)
staple (metal fastener for paper)
staple (principal element)
temple (building for worship)
temple (side of forehead)
stay (remain)
stay (support)
tend (incline to)
tend (take care of)
steep (having a sharp slope)
steep (soak)
tender (not tough)
tender (offer)
tender (one who cares for)
steer (guide)
steer (young male cattle)
stem (part of a plant)
stem (stop; dam up)
stern (rear part of a ship)
stern (harsh, strict)
stick (thin piece of wood)
stick (pierce)
tick (sound of a clock)
tick (small insect)
tick (pillow covering)
till (until)
till (plow the land)
till (drawer for money)
still (not moving)
still (apparatus for making alcohol)
tip (end point)
tip (slant)
tip (present of money for services)
stoop (bend down)
stoop (porch)
tire (become weary)
tire (rubber around a wheel)
story (account of a happening)
story (floor of a building)
toast (browned bread slices)
toast (wish for good luck)
strain (pull tight)
strain (group with inherited quality)
toll (sound of a bell)
toll (fee paid for a privilege)
USEFUL WORDS
117
top (highest point)
top (toy that spins)
whale (large sea mammal)
whale (whip)
troll (ugly dwarf)
troll (method of fishing)
will (directions to distribute property after death)
will (is going to)
will (deliberate intention or wish)
unaffected (not influenced)
unaffected (innocent)
vault (storehouse for valuables)
vault (jump over)
wake (stop sleeping)
wake (trail left behind a ship)
wax (substance made by trees)
wax (grow bigger)
well (satisfactory)
well (hole dug for water)
*wind (air in motion)
wind (turn)
*wound (hurt)
wound (wrapped around)
yak (long-haired ox)
yak (talk endlessly)
yard (enclosed space around a house)
yard (thirty-six inches)
yen (strong desire)
yen (unit of money in Japan)
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
118
LIST 31. EASILY CONFUSED WORDS
This list contains words that are often confused because of their similar spellings, pronunciations, or word
parts. As a result, they may slip into anyone’s writing, especially if the writer is in a hurry. Because they are
real words, they will not be picked out by a spell-check program. Morphology, the study of word parts and
how they combine to form meaningful words, is an effective strategy for differentiating the words. These
words also make tricky but useful spelling lesson targets.
accent (n.)—stress in speech or writing
ascent (n.)—act of going up
assent (v., n.)—consent
accept (v.)—to agree or take what is offered
except (prep.)—leaving out or excluding
access (n.)—admittance
excess (n., adj.)—surplus
adapt (v.)—to adjust
adept (adj.)—proficient
adopt (v.)—to take by choice
adverse (adj.)—opposing
averse (adj.)—disinclined
advice (n.)—suggestion
advise (v.)—to give advice
affect (v.)—to influence
affect (n.)—feeling
aid (v.)—to help or assist
aide (n.)—helper, assistant
alley (n.)—narrow street
ally (n.)—supporter
allusion (n.)—indirect reference
delusion (n.)—mistaken belief
illusion (n.)—mistaken vision
aloud (adv.)—out loud
allowed (adj.)—permitted
all ready (adj.)—completely ready
already (adv.)—even now or by this time
all together (pron., adj.)—all in one place
altogether (adv.)—entirely
anecdote (n.)—short amusing story
antidote (n.)—remedy for poison
angel (n.)—heavenly body
angle (n.)—space between connected lines
ante—prefix meaning before
anti—prefix meaning against
any way (adj., n.)—in whatever manner
anyway (adv.)—regardless
appraise (v.)—to set a value on
apprise (v.)—to inform
area (n.)—surface
aria (n.)—melody
bare (adj.)—without covering
bear (v.)—to withstand; to carry
beside (prep.)—next to
besides (adv.)—also; except
biannual (adj.)—occurring twice per year
biennial (adj.)—occurring every other year
bibliography (n.)—list of source materials
biography (n.)—history of a person’s life
bizarre (adj.)—odd
bazaar (n.)—market, fair
brake (n.)—slowing mechanism
break (v.)—separate into pieces; (n.) rest
breadth (n.)—width
breath (n.)—respiration
breathe (v.)—to inhale and exhale
can (v.)—be able to
may (v.)—might; have permission to
calendar (n.)—a chart of days and months
colander (n.)—a strainer
canvas (n.)—heavy cloth
canvass (v.)—to ask for opinions
cereal (n.)—edible grain
serial (adj.)—in a series
casual (adj.)—informal
causal (adj.)—relating to cause
catch (v.)—to grab
ketch (n.)—type of boat
cease (v.)—to stop
seize (v.)—to grasp
cite (v.)—to quote
site (n.)—location
sight (n.)—seeing; vision
click (n.)—short, sharp sound
clique (n.)—small exclusive subgroup
collision (n.)—a clashing
collusion (n.)—a scheme to cheat
command (n., v.)—an order; to order
commend (v.)—to praise; to entrust
complement (v.)—make complete
compliment (v.)—offer praise
USEFUL WORDS
119
comprehensible (adj.)—understandable
comprehensive (adj.)—extensive
confidant (n.)—friend or advisor
confident (adj.)—sure
conscience (n.)—sense of right and wrong
conscious (adj.)—aware
contagious (adj.)—spread by contact
contiguous (adj.)—touching or nearby
continual (adj.)—again and again
continuous (adj.)—without interruption
council (n.)—an official group
counsel (v.)—to give advice
counsel (n.)—advice
credible (adj.)—believable
creditable (adj.)—deserving praise
deceased (adj.)—dead
diseased (adj.)—ill
decent (adj.)—proper
descent (n.)—way down
dissent (n., v)—disagreement; to disagree
deference (n.)—respect
difference (n.)—dissimilarity
deposition (n.)—a sworn written statement
disposition (n.)—temperament
depraved (adj.)—morally corrupt
deprived (adj.)—taken away from
deprecate (v.)—to disapprove
depreciate (v.)—to lessen in value
desert (n.)—arid land
desert (v.)—to abandon
dessert (n.)—sweets at end of meal
desolate (adj.)—lonely; sad
dissolute (adj.)—loose in morals
detract (v.)—to take away from
distract (v.)—to divert attention away from
device (n.)—a contrivance
devise (v.)—to plan
disapprove (v.)—to withhold approval
disprove (v.)—to prove to be false
disassemble (v.)—to take something apart
dissemble (v.)—to disguise
disburse (v.)—to pay out
disperse (v.)—to scatter
discomfort (n.)—distress
discomfit (v.)—to frustrate or embarrass
disinterested (adj.)—impartial
uninterested (adj.)—not interested
effect (n.)—result of a cause
effect (v.)—to make happen
e.g. (Latin phrase)—exempli gratia, for example
i.e. (Latin phrase)—id est, that is; in other words
elapse (v.)—to pass
lapse (v.)—to become void
relapse (v.)—go back to previous condition
elicit (v.)—to draw out
illicit (adj.)—unlawful
eligible (adj.)—ready
illegible (adj.)—can’t be read
elusive (adj.)—hard to catch
illusive (adj.)—misleading
eminent (adj.)—well-known
imminent (adj.)—impending
emerge (v.)—rise out of
immerge (v.)—plunge into
emigrate (v.)—to leave a country
immigrate (v.)—to enter a country
envelop (v.)—to surround
envelope (n.)—a wrapper for a letter
erasable (adj.)—capable of being erased
irascible (adj.)—easily provoked to anger
expand (v.)—to increase in size
expend (v.)—to spend
expect (v.)—to suppose; to look forward
suspect (v.)—to mistrust
extant (adj.)—still existing
extent (n.)—amount
facility (n.)—ease
felicity (n.)—happiness
farther (adj.)—more distant (space)
further (adj.)—beyond (time, amount, degree)
fewer (adj.)—smaller in number
less (adj.)—smaller in amount
finale (n.)—the end
finally (adv.)—at the end
finely (adv.)—in a fine manner
fiscal (adj.)—relating to finance
physical (adj.)—relating to the body
formally (adv.)—with rigid ceremony
formerly (adv.)—previously
human (adj.)—relating to mankind
humane (adv.)—kind
hypercritical (adj.)—very critical
hypocritical (adj.)—pretending virtue
imitate (v.)—to mimic
intimate (v.)—to hint; familiar; close
incredible (adj.)—too hard to believe
incredulous (adj.)—unbelieving; skeptical
indigenous (adj.)—native
indigent (adj.)—needy
indignant (adj.)—angry
infer (v.)—to arrive at by reason
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imply (v.)—to suggest meaning indirectly
ingenious (adj.)—clever
ingenuous (adj.)—straightforward
later (adj.)—more late
latter (adj.)—second in a series of two
lay (v.)—to set down or place something
lie (v.)—to recline
least (adj.)—at the minimum
lest (conj.)—for fear that
lend (v.)—to give for a time
loan (n.)—received to use for a time
loose (adj.)—not tight
lose (v.)—not win; misplace
magnet (n.)—bar with power to attract iron
magnate (n.)—person prominent in industry
message (n.)—communication
massage (v.)—rub body
moral (n., adj.)—lesson; ethic
morale (n.)—mental condition
morality (n.)—virtue
mortality (n.)—being mortal; death rate
of (prep.)—having to do with
off (adv.)—not on
official (adj.)—authorized
officious (adj.)—offerings of unwanted help
oral (adj.)—verbal
aural (adj.)—by hearing
passed (v.)—past tense of pass
past (adj.)—beyond
pasture (n.)—grass field
pastor (n.)—minister
perfect (adj.)—without fault
prefect (n.)—an official
perpetrate (v.)—to be guilty of; to commit
perpetuate (v.)—to make perpetual
perquisite (n.)—a privilege or benefit
prerequisite (n.)—a prior requirement
persecute (v.)—to harass, annoy, or injure
prosecute (v.)—to seek enforcement of law
personal (adj.)—private
personnel (n.)—employees; group of people
peruse (v.)—to read
pursue (v.)—to follow in order to overtake
picture (n.)—drawing or photograph
pitcher (n.)—container; baseball player
pole (n.)—cylindrical piece of wood
poll (v.)—to take a vote
precede (v.)—to go before
proceed (v.)—to advance
prescribe (v.)—to order or authorize
proscribe (v.)—to forbid
preposition (n.)—a part of speech
proposition (n.)—a proposal or suggestion
pretend (v.)—to make believe
portend (v.)—to signal future event
quiet (adj.)—not noisy
quit (v.)—to stop
quite (adv.)—very
recent (adj.)—not long ago
resent (v.)—to feel indignant
respectably (adv.)—in a respectable manner
respectively (adv.)—in order indicated
respectfully (adv.)—in a respectful manner
restless (adj.)—constantly moving; uneasy
restive (adj.)—contrary; resisting control
suppose (v.)—assume or imagine
supposed (adj.)—expected
than (conj.)—used in comparison
then (adv.)—at that time; next in time
through (prep.)—by; from beginning to end
thorough (adj.)—complete
use (v.)—employ something
used (adj.)—secondhand
veracious (adj.)—truthful
voracious (adj.)—greedy
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LIST 32. COLLECTIVE NOUNS
The term that names groups or collections of people, animals, and things is called a collective noun. Some
collective nouns are very familiar (such as a deck of cards); others are much less so. These words are often
substituted for the person, animal, or object they name. For example: The Marines were on parade; the corps
marched with the drumbeat. Collective nouns treat the group as a unified concept. For grammar purposes,
collective nouns may be singular or plural. If the group is acting as a unit, treat it as singular noun; if the
members of the group are acting as individuals, treat it as a plural noun. For example: The herd grazes on
the open field (singular). The company changed into their costumes before rehearsal (plural).
academy of scholars
agenda of tasks
armada of ships
army of ants (caterpillars, frogs, soldiers)
array of numbers
association of professionals
assortment of items
audience of listeners
aurora of polar bears
bale of cotton (turtles)
band of gorillas (jays, musicians, robbers)
bank of monitors (circuits)
barren of mules
bask of crocodiles
batch of biscuits (cookies, bread)
battery of tests
bed of clams (flowers, oysters, vegetables)
belt of asteroids
bevy of ladies (quail, swans, beauties)
block of houses (stamps)
bouquet of flowers
brood of children (hens)
bundle of clothes (money, sticks)
caravan of camels
cast of actors
cavalcade of horsemen
chain of islands
chapter of a book (verse)
chest of drawers
chorus of singers
clan of hyenas (people)
class of students
cloud of gnats
club of members
clump of dirt (earth, grass)
cluster of diamonds (grapes, stars)
clutch of chicks
clutter of cats
collection of stamps (books, coins, art)
college of cardinals
colony of ants (artists, writers, bats, penguins,
lepers)
committee of people
company of firefighters (soldiers, actors, workers)
conglomeration of businesses
congregation of worshipers
congress of delegates
constellation of stars
convention of professionals
convocation of eagles
corps of marines (giraffes)
council of advisors (chiefs)
couple of people
coven of witches
covey of doves (partridges)
crew of sailors (workers)
crowd of people
culture of bacteria
deck of cards
den of snakes (thieves)
division of soldiers
draught of fish
drove of cattle
exultation of larks
faculty of teachers
family of colors (languages, people)
field of racehorses
fleet of ships (planes, cars)
flight of stairs (swallows)
flock of believers (birds, sheep, tourists)
flood of complaints (emotion, money)
flotilla of ships
flush of ducks
forest of trees
gaggle of geese
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galaxy of stars
gang of hoodlums
group of things
grove of trees
hand of bananas
head of lettuce (cabbage, garlic)
herd of buffalo (cows, reindeer, cattle, deer)
hill of beans
hive of bees
horde of enemies (gnats)
host of angels
huddle of lawyers
knot of toads
league of nations (teams)
library of books
line of people
litter of kittens (pigs, puppies)
lodge of beavers
mob of kangaroos (people, radicals)
mound of dirt (earth)
multitude of followers
murder of crows
nest of bowls (mice, snakes, spies, vipers)
network of computers
orchard of trees
pack of dogs (gum, hounds, lies, wolves)
panel of experts
parliament of owls
party of diners (fishermen)
patch of flowers
peep of chickens
people of a city (nation)
pile of things
plague of locusts
platoon of soldiers
pod of whales
portfolio of pictures (stocks, work)
posse of deputies
pride of lions (peacocks)
quiver of arrows
rag of colts
range of mountains
rookery of penguins
school of fish (porpoises)
set of dishes (teeth)
shelf of books
shock of hair (wheat)
slate of candidates
slew of homework
spread of cattle (food, horses)
squad of police (cheerleaders, soldiers, players)
stack of pancakes (paper)
staff of employees
stand of flamingoes (trees)
string of ponies
swarm of bees (termites, flies, reporters)
team of athletes (horses, oxen, players)
thicket of trees (bushes)
tribe of Indians (natives, peoples)
troop of kangaroos (scouts, apes, police, soldiers)
troupe of performers
union of workers
unit of soldiers
wad of bills (money)
wave of emotion (insects, water)
wealth of information
wing of aircraft
yoke of oxen
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LIST 33. MASS OR UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
Mass nouns, also called uncountable nouns, are not countable in the usual sense. That is, although we say one
book and two books, we do not say one furniture and two furnitures. Furniture is a mass noun. Many mass
nouns fall into the categories of liquids, solids, gases, abstractions, items with small parts, and collections.
The words in the following list are common mass nouns students will encounter frequently. Tips for using
mass nouns correctly are at the end of the list.
advice
aid
air
alcohol
aluminum
applause
art
assistance
athletics
bacon
baggage
ballet
barley
beauty
beef
beer
biology
blood
bread
butter
cake
carbon
cash
cheese
chess
chicken
childhood
cloth
clothing
cod
coffee
comprehension
confidence
corn
cotton
courage
cream
currency
damage
dancing
danger
deer
delight
dignity
dirt
dissent
dust
economics
education
electricity
employment
energy
enjoyment
entertainment
envy
equipment
experience
faith
fame
fiction
fish
flour
food
freedom
fruit
fuel
fun
furniture
garbage
garlic
gasoline
glass
gold
good
gossip
grammar
grass
grief
guilt
hair
happiness
hardware
harm
hatred
hay
health
heat
help
history
hockey
homework
honesty
honey
housework
humor
hydrogen
ice
ice cream
information
innocence
intelligence
jam
jelly
jewelry
joy
juice
knowledge
land
laughter
leather
leisure
literacy
litter
love
luck
luggage
machinery
magic
mail
mathematics
meat
metal
milk
momentum
money
moose
mud
music
news
nonsense
oil
oxygen
paper
pasta
patience
peace
peanut butter
perfume
permission
photography
plastic
poetry
pollen
pollution
power
pride
progress
psychology
publicity
quality
rain
rayon
reading
recreation
research
respect
rice
rye
sadness
salad
salmon
salt
sand
scenery
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shampoo
sheep
silk
silver
silverware
slang
sleep
smog
smoke
snow
soap
soccer
software
soil
soup
space
spaghetti
speed
steel
stuff
sugar
sunshine
syrup
tea
time
toast
toothpaste
traffic
travel
trust
underwear
violence
water
wealth
weather
wheat
wine
wood
wool
work
Tips for Using Mass Nouns
• A mass noun has only one form and is treated as a singular noun. Example: milk, luggage.
• Mass nouns do not take plural verb forms, even if they end in -s. Examples: Physics is an interesting
subject. The music was excellent.
• Mass nouns can stand alone without an article. Example: I’d like ice for my soda. Chess is challenging.
• Mass nouns can represent one or more item. Example: The furniture (the chair) was delivered on
Monday. The furniture (the dining table and six chairs) was delivered on Monday.
• The adjectives a little, a lot, some, any, and much are used with mass nouns. Examples: a little salt, a lot
of smoke, some jewelry, any information, and much research.
• The adjectives a, an, another, many, these, and numbers such as three, eleven, and twenty-five are not
used with mass nouns.
• A few mass nouns can also be countable nouns depending on their use or meaning. Example: Cake (the
category) is my favorite dessert. I bought two cakes (individual pastries) for the party.
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LIST 34. COMPOUND WORDS
Compound words are made by joining two or more words to make another word. The joined words may be
two nouns (watermelon, handcuff), two non-nouns (takeoff, checkup), or a noun and a non-noun (blackbird,
sunrise). When they form a compound word, the two words do not always keep the same meaning as they
had as separate words; for example: brainstorm, shoelace.
There are three types of compound words: closed compounds that have no spaces (into, backpack),
open compounds that have spaces between the paired words (tennis court, pinch hitter), and hyphenated
compounds (fifty-five, merry-go-round ).
Many compound words build on a common base word to form meaning families. For example, here
are some of the members of the “house” family: birdhouse, clubhouse, doghouse, farmhouse, firehouse, greenhouse, schoolhouse, and warehouse. Here are some members of the “some” family: somebody, someday,
somehow, someone, someplace, something, sometimes, somewhat, and somewhere.
Closed Compounds
afternoon
airborne
airline
airplane
airport
airtight
another
anybody
anyone
anyplace
anything
anytime
anyway
anywhere
applesauce
awestruck
backache
backboard
backbone
backbreaking
backfire
background
backlash
backpack
backup
backyard
ballpark
ballroom
barefoot
baseball
basketball
bathroom
bedrock
bedroom
bedspread
beforehand
benchmark
birdhouse
birthday
blackbird
blowup
blueprint
bookstore
boyfriend
brainstorm
breakdown
breakfast
breathtaking
broadcast
buildup
bulldog
burnout
campfire
cannot
caregiver
carpool
carryover
checkout
citywide
classmate
cleanup
clipboard
cockpit
colorblind
cookbook
cooperative
copyright
countryside
cowboy
crosswalk
cupcake
database
daydream
daylight
daytime
desktop
doorbell
doorknob
downpour
downstairs
drawbridge
driveway
drugstore
dugout
earring
earthquake
earthworm
easygoing
everybody
everyday
everyone
everything
everywhere
extracurricular
eyeball
eyebrow
eyelid
fingernail
fingerprint
firefighter
fireplace
fireproof
firewood
fireworks
flashback
flashlight
flowchart
flowerpot
folklore
football
forever
freelance
freshwater
frostbite
gentleman
gingerbread
girlfriend
goldfish
grandchildren
grandfather
grandmother
grandparent
grapefruit
grasshopper
gridlock
groundwater
haircut
hamburger
handcuff
handlebar
handshake
haystack
headache
headlight
headquarters
headset
heartwarming
herself
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highway
hilltop
himself
homemade
homeowner
homesick
homework
however
indoor
inside
into
itself
jellyfish
keyboard
kickoff
ladybug
landlord
leftover
lifeboat
lifeguard
lifestyle
lighthouse
lightweight
lipstick
loudspeaker
marketplace
maybe
meantime
meanwhile
moonlight
motorcycle
myself
nationwide
network
nevertheless
newscast
newspaper
nightgown
nobody
notebook
nowhere
oatmeal
ongoing
online
ourselves
outcome
outfield
outfit
outlaw
outline
outside
outsource
outstanding
overcoat
overexposure
overlook
overpass
pancake
paperback
paperwork
payoff
payroll
peanut
peppermint
percent
pinpoint
playground
playmate
ponytail
popcorn
postcard
pothole
printout
proofread
quarterback
quicksand
railroad
rainbow
raincoat
rattlesnake
rawhide
redhead
redwood
rollerblade
rollout
runway
sagebrush
sailboat
sandpaper
scarecrow
scatterbrain
screwdriver
seacoast
seafood
seagull
seaport
seashell
seaside
seaweed
seesaw
shipwreck
shoelace
shortstop
showdown
showroom
sidewalk
silverware
skateboard
skyscraper
snowball
snowfall
snowflake
snowman
snowplow
snowshoe
snowstorm
softball
somebody
someday
somehow
someone
someplace
something
sometimes
somewhat
somewhere
spacewalk
spotlight
spreadsheet
springtime
starfish
statewide
stepbrother
stepfather
stepmother
stepsister
storyteller
straightforward
strawberry
suitcase
sundown
sunflower
sunlight
sunrise
sunset
sunshine
sunstroke
suntan
sweatshirt
sweetheart
tablecloth
teammate
textbook
Thanksgiving
themselves
thunderstorm
timetable
tiptoe
today
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127
toenail
together
toothbrush
touchdown
trailblazer
tryout
tugboat
turnaround
turnpike
turtleneck
undercover
underdog
underground
understatement
undertake
uproot
upset
upstairs
uptown
videotape
vineyard
wastebasket
watercolor
waterfall
waterfront
watermelon
website
weekday
weekend
wheelchair
whenever
whirlpool
whiteboard
wholesale
windmill
windpipe
windshield
windsurfing
wingspan
wiretapping
without
woodland
woodpecker
workday
workforce
workload
workplace
workshop
workstation
wristwatch
wrongdoing
yourself
Open Compounds
bottled water
car pool
cash flow
catcher’s mitt
cell phone
child care
Christmas tree
civil rights
comic strip
common sense
course work
crossword puzzle
dirt bike
disc drive
Hyphenated
Compounds
able-bodied
A-frame
brother-in-law
by-product
check-in
clean-cut
close-up
co-op
editor-in-chief
empty-handed
father-in-law
follow-up
dump truck
energy bar
fact sheet
fine arts
French fry
health care
heart attack
help desk
high school
hockey puck
home page
hot dog
ice cream
life span
memory stick
New World
paper clip
photo ID
pinch hitter
post office
prime minister
real estate
remote control
rock band
role play
safety glasses
salad dressing
school day
school year
search engine
sleeping bag
sports drink
square root
tennis court
theme park
time line
tree house
vice president
voice mail
waiting room
walking stick
web page
word processing
word wall
work boots
for-profit
free-for-all
front-runner
fund-raiser
get-together
hanky-panky
high-tech
ho-hum
hush-hush
in-depth
in-law
know-how
know-it-all
life-size
light-headed
merry-go-round
mother-in-law
nitty-gritty
not-for-profit
off-site
one-sided
on-site
roly-poly
run-in
runner-up
self-concept
self-service
show-off
shrink-wrap
single-minded
strong-arm
thirty-nine
three-dimensional
time-saver
tip-off
toss-up
two-thirds
U-turn
warm-up
well-being
well-to-do
word-of-mouth
worn-out
X-ray
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LIST 35. NONREVERSIBLE WORD PAIRS
The following are examples of pairs of words that always appear in the same order. Native speakers of
English will probably use the correct order automatically; nonnative speakers, however, will need to learn
these through practice. These are also collocations (words commonly used together).
Adam and Eve
fun and games
pure and simple
back and forth
give and take
rain or shine
bacon and eggs
ham and eggs
read and write
bed and breakfast
hammer and nail
right and wrong
birds and bees
high and low
right or wrong
black and white
huffing and puffing
rise and fall
body and soul
husband and wife
salt and pepper
bread and butter
in and out
shirt and tie
bread and water
Jack and Jill
shoes and socks
bricks and mortar
knife and fork
signed and sealed
bride and groom
ladies and gentlemen
slip and slide
business or pleasure
law and order
soap and water
cause and effect
life or death
sooner or later
cloak and dagger
lock and key
stars and stripes
coat and tie
lost and found
suit and tie
coffee and doughnuts
man and wife
supply and demand
cream and sugar
name and address
sweet and sour
crime and punishment
nice and easy
thick and thin
cup and saucer
null and void
tossed and turned
dead or alive
peaches and cream
touch and go
down and out
pen and pencil
trial and error
first and last
pork and beans
up and down
fish and chips
pots and pans
up or down
flesh and blood
prim and proper
wait and see
forgive and forget
profit and loss
war and peace
front and center
pros and cons
wine and cheese
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LIST 36. SIMILES
A simile is a figure of speech that uses the word as or like in its construction. Similes are used like adjectives
or adverbs. They modify or describe a person, place, thing, or action with a sensory term or phrase so that
the reader can get an understanding of what it would look, feel, taste, smell, or sound like. Creative writers
and poets make good use of similes. This list will help students recognize similes in text and use them in
their own writing.
Similes Using As
as dry as a bone
as quick as a wink
as bright as the noonday sun
as fat as a pig
as quiet as a mouse
as blind as a bat
as flat as a pancake
as rough as sandpaper
as busy as a bee
as fresh as dew
as skinny as a rail
as certain as death and taxes
as green as grass
as slow as molasses in January
as clear as a bell
as happy as a lark
as sly as a fox
as clear as day
as hard as nails
as smart as a whip
as clear as the nose on your face
as hard as rock
as smooth as glass
as cold as ice
as hungry as a bear
as soft as old leather
as comfortable as an old shoe
as innocent as a newborn baby
as soft as silk
as cool as a cucumber
as light as a feather
as stiff as a board
as cuddly as a baby
as loud as thunder
as strong as an ox
as cute as a button
as lovely as a rose
as stubborn as a mule
as dark as night
as mad as a wet hen
as sweet as honey
as deaf as a doorpost
as meek as a lamb
as white as new fallen snow
as deep as the ocean
as old as the hills
Similes Using Like
feels like two cents
sits there like a bump on a log
acts like a bull in a china shop
fits like a glove
slept like a dog
chatters like a monkey
fight like cats and dogs
sparkled like diamonds
has cheeks like roses
laughs like a hyena
speaks like a politician
cries like a baby
moves like a snail
stands out like a sore thumb
drinks like a fish eat like a pig
runs around like a chicken with
waddles like a duck
eats like it’s going out of style
its head cut off
walks like an elephant
eats like a bird
runs like a deer
works like a dog
has eyes like stars
sings like a bird
works like a charm
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LIST 37. METAPHORS
Metaphors are figures of speech that compare two things but do not use the words like or as. These colorful
phrases are used like adverbs or adjectives to describe persons, places, things, or actions. Some metaphors
are used so often that they lose their appeal. Metaphors do not have literal meanings, so they are sometimes
difficult for English language learners (ELLs) to understand. This list will help you familiarize students with
how metaphors work and enable them to recognize them in print as well as write them on their own.
• He was at a crossroad and needed to decide his future.
• The small boat was a Ping-Pong ball bouncing around on the waves.
• Mom gave her a blank check on the guest list, so she invited every junior she knew.
• Viewed from the airplane, the rush-hour traffic was an army of ants working its way slowly toward
home.
• There was a tsunami of job offers after the story about his invention appeared on the Internet.
• There was no rush, so we sent the letter by snail mail.
• The blanket of snow gave the field a quiet, new appearance.
• Michael clammed up and refused to say anything.
• At a flick of a switch, the theater came alive with music.
• Joe honked the horn at the road hog ahead of us.
• The United States is a melting pot whose citizens have come from countries around the globe.
• The car slowed as it approached the hairpin turn.
• I work so hard during the day that I become a couch potato at night.
• Her eyes lit up when she saw that her friend was safe.
• Gerry said her boys were her sunshine.
• During rush hour, the expressway was really a parking lot.
• The branches of the tree were fingernails scratching my bedroom window.
• The students were so excited about the new project that they became a fountain of ideas.
• The growing boy’s stomach was a bottomless pit.
• The fog was a blanket covering the valley floor.
• The stars were diamonds sparkling in the sky.
• Her heart was overflowing with kindness.
• She was so shy that she kept her ideas bottled up inside her.
• Mr. Mather’s bark is worse than his bite.
• The air conditioning was turned up so high the room became an icebox.
• That car is a dinosaur. It’s time to get a new one.
• The toddler was a clinging vine on his mother.
• The children grew up near a lake and were fish in the water.
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LIST 38. COLLOCATIONS
Collocations are words that are frequently used together. For example, we say that we take a bath; we don’t
say that we do a bath. Native English speakers learn collocations along with learning to talk, but English
language learners (ELLs) often need explicit instruction to learn common collocations. Here are some
collocations related to the words break, catch, come, do, have, keep, make, save, and take.
Break
do justice
make a noise
break a habit
do a favor
make a call
break a promise
do nothing
make a promise
break a record
do research
make a suggestion
break someone’s heart
do your best
make an effort
break the ice
do homework
make money
break the law
break the news
break the rules
make progress
Have
make room
have a good time
make time for
have a headache
Catch
catch a ball
catch a bus
catch a cold
catch a thief
catch a train
catch fire
make trouble
have a party
have a problem
Save
have a relationship
save a life
have an operation
save energy
have dinner
save one’s strength
have fun
save someone a seat
have sympathy
save something to a disk
catch sight of
catch someone by surprise
Keep
save space
catch someone’s attention
keep a promise
save the date
keep a secret
save time
come close
keep an appointment
save yourself the trouble
come early
keep calm
Come
come into view
Take
keep in mind
take a bath
come on time
keep in touch
come prepared
keep quiet
come right back
keep someone’s place
come to a decision
keep the change
come to a total of
Make
take a seat
come to an agreement
make a comment
take a taxi
come to terms with
make a decision
take a test
come to the point
make a difference
take lessons
Do
make a discovery
take notes
do business
make a list
take someone’s place
do harm
make a mistake
take your time
take a break
take a chance
take a look
take a picture
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LIST 39. COMMON WORD IDIOMS
Idioms—expressions that have unique meanings and cannot be understood from the individual meanings
of their components—are challenging for all readers. They are particularly difficult for English language
learners. Many of these word idioms have multiple meanings, which only add to the confusion. Back up,
for example, may refer to a clogged drain, a traffic jam, moving in a backward direction, to give support
for someone, evidence, duplication of work, alternative plan, or a tense disposition. Use the following list
as a start for exploring idioms.
all
all along, all at once, all ears, all eyes, all hours, all in all, all out, all over, all set, all systems go,
all there, all thumbs, all wet
back
back down, back door, back out, back up, back and forth, back off, back street, backseat driver,
back to the wall, back to the salt mines,
blow
blow up, blow out, blow one’s lines, blow over, blow the whistle, blow the lid off
break
break down, break in, break a promise, break out, break the ice, break the news, break up,
break even, break ground, break one’s heart, break one’s neck, break through
bring
bring about, bring down the house, bring in, bring off, bring on, bring one to do something,
bring out, bring up
burn
burn one’s bridges, burn out, burn rubber, burn the candle at both ends, burn up, burn a hole
in one’s pocket, burn one’s fingers, burn the midnight oil
call
call attention to, call for, call in, call names, call on, call out, call up, call a strike, call it quits,
call it a day, call the shots, call to order
catch
catch cold, catch on, catch one’s breath, catch one’s eye, catch up, catch at, catch fire
check
check in, check out, check on, check over, check up, check with, check off
come
come about, come again, come alive, come a long way, come back, come by, come clean, come
across, come around, come down on, come into, come into your own, come off it, come out,
come up to, come upon, come-on, come over, come to, come through, come to think of it
cut
cut across, cut corners, cut in, cut out, cut someone out, cut out for, cut into, cut off,
eat
eat away, eat like a bird, eat like a horse, eat your heart out, eat your words, eat your hat, eat
out of your hand, eat it up
fall
fall down, fall flat, fall for, fall out, fall over each other, fall short, fall through, fall behind, fall
back on, fall over backwards, fall head over heels
get
get along, get away with, get back at, get even with, get into, get on someone’s nerves, get your
back up, get out of, get over, get the hang of, get up, get ahead, get around to, get lost, get off
the ground, get up and go
give
give away, give in, give of, give out, give up, give a hand, give oneself up, give a hard time to,
give-and-take, give or take, give rise to, give way
go
go all out, go by, go easy, go far, go for, go in for, go into, go off the deep end, go on, go out, go
over, go with, go without, go ahead, go back on a promise, go broke, go through, go together,
go to bat for
hang
hang around, hang back, hang on, hang out, hang up, hang in there, hang by a thread, hang
out one’s shingle, hang in the balance
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head
head of a company, head of lettuce, head of the line, head of a pimple, have a good head, air
head, head of a coin, head of a river, head of a nail, head to head, head lock, well head, head
between our legs, head food server, heads or tails
hit
hit the books, hit the roof, hit the headlines, hit the high points, hit the nail on the head, hit
bottom, hit and run, hit it off, hit the road, hit the jackpot, hit the spot, hit the bull’s eye
hold
hold a candle to, hold on, hold down, hold back, hold everything, hold your fire, hold out, hold
up, hold your own
keep
keep a straight face, keep on, keep your head above water, keep your word, keep the pot boiling,
keep up with, keep it down, keep one’s chin up, keep one’s nose clean, keep track, keep one’s
fingers crossed
look
look down on, look down your nose at, look for, look into, look out, look up, look up to
someone, look after, look back, look over
make
make a move, make a play for, make certain, make ends meet, make fun of, make good, makebelieve, make a point, make friends, make sense of, make it, make over, make sure, make the
grade, make up, make up for, make up your mind, make up with
pull
pull off, pull your weight, pull strings, pull through, pull together, pull up, pull the wool over
your eyes, pull rank, pull it together, pull the rug out from under
put
put away, put an end to, put in one’s place, put one’s foot down, put to bed, put to use, put
down, put off, put on, put out, put two and two together, put up, put up with
run
run into, run away, run down, run in, run out of, run over, run through, run the risk of, run
away with, run short, run wild
see
see about, see into, see through, see to, see daylight, see off, see red, see to it
set
set a table, set of dishes, all set, set out, set in, set upon, set a clock, set apart, set a trap, set a
time, set your mind to something, set a fast pace, set a gem
sit
sit on, sit out, sit pretty, sit tight, sit up, sit back, sit in
take
take aim, take after, take a bath (shower), take advantage of, take in, take by surprise, take
effect, take care, take it easy, take for granted, take in, take it from me, take it hard, take it out
on someone, take note of, take off, take on, take your time, take out, take over, take the cake,
take the trouble, take it upon yourself, take a breath, take a breather
throw
throw a curve, throw a party, throw in the sponge, throw off, throw one’s weight around, throw
out, throw up
turn
turn off, turn one’s stomach, turn the clock back, turn over a new leaf, turn down, turn in, turn
loose, turn on, turn your head, turn out, turn over, turn the tables on someone, turn to, turn up
under
under age, under arrest, under cover, under fire, under one’s belt, under one’s breath, under
one’s nose, under one’s own steam, under one’s thumb, under one’s wing, under the counter,
under the hammer, under the sun, under wraps
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LIST 40. IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS
Idiomatic expressions cannot be understood from the literal meanings of their words. Instead, these interesting phrases must be translated. Idiomatic expressions are part of our conversations and informal writing;
however, most are not appropriate for formal writing. Idiomatic expressions can vary across the regions
of the United States, which makes them even more of a challenge for English language learners. Teach the
following expressions as you would teach single vocabulary words in context.
• Hang on. I’m almost ready to leave.
• I wasn’t making much progress, so I needed to take my efforts up a notch.
• You can tell this is JP’s favorite book of poems; it has dog-eared pages.
• Marianne’s new car had all the bells and whistles.
• Chris had the procedure down to a science and made it look like a walk in the park.
• Tom said it was a piece of cake, but it was still light years ahead of the earlier design.
• No, I’m not ill; I’ve just got a frog in my throat.
• Gloria arrived on the dot for the noon meeting and got the ball rolling.
• The presentation was as interesting as watching paint dry.
• Jenn has the patience of Job when it comes to training puppies.
• If we want our team to win, we need to stick together.
• Jason never lets the good be the enemy of the best; he keeps his eyes on the prize.
• After the excitement of the party, Avery and Raven happily went to the land of Nod.
• I took the weekend off, but on Monday, it was back to the salt mines.
• Cynda doesn’t rest on her laurels; she’s always looking for the next big thing in her field.
• The contestant drew a blank on his first try at the puzzle.
• David cleared the decks before leaving on vacation.
• Before handing in an important assignment, go over it with a fine-toothed comb.
• Jennifer caught some Zs on her flight to California.
• Their nest egg was just about gone but Silvio got a good job in the nick of time.
• Chuck got the motor up and running and it purred like a kitten.
• Radio announcers always worry about having dead air.
• Jared had them rolling in the aisles with his stories.
• He always roots for the underdog, and sometimes they win.
• Mike lucked out and got tickets to the Super Bowl game.
• Off the top of my head, I’d say it weighed a ton.
• Please don’t monkey around with that because it’s fragile and may break.
• Michael had to be on the road early, so he called it a night before Camille returned.
• It took forever and a day to get to the front of the line.
• Jess and Darin grabbed a bite to eat before going to the game.
• Tell me what you know about him; I’m all ears.
• Jim said it wasn’t rocket science, but I still couldn’t make heads or tails of it.
• You can tell by her beautiful garden that Kathy has a green thumb.
• Don’t bother me; I need my beauty sleep.
• It’s been a long day, so I think I’ll hit the hay.
• Dave learned the ropes quickly; after a week he was sitting pretty in his new job.
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• I get cold feet when it comes time to make a speech.
• It sounded fishy to Phil, so he went to check it out.
• Kim was ready for some R and R after getting her two projects done.
• Fred crunched the numbers and said it was a good deal.
• Alicia changed her mind about the job and stayed in the city.
• By the time they got to the semi-finals their team of four was lean and mean.
• It’s supposed to be a surprise, so don’t let the cat out of the bag.
• I wonder where Nancy gets her get-up-and-go.
• You have to climb up the ladder to get a bird’s eye view of the yard.
• Clayton and Garret got their wires crossed and went to two different parks.
• It was raining cats and dogs when Kathryn arrived with Steve.
• Gabby can steal your heart with her smile. It lights up the room.
• Drop me a line when you get to San Francisco.
• Ryan had the inside track on the deal from the beginning so it went smooth as silk.
• Marie has a state-of-the-art camera; it’s tiny and takes great selfies, even underwater.
• Christopher kept an eye on Brayden as he explored the robot.
• Eve had her hands full getting everyone ready to leave on time.
• It can take a while before you get into your stride in a new undertaking.
• Grace had us in stitches when she told us about what happened.
• The general vowed to fight fire with fire after the last attack.
• Phil did a bang-up job when he built the cabinet.
• We looked forward to the ceremony for weeks, but it was over in a New York minute.
• Art and Debbie used a little elbow grease and got the antique chair in shipshape.
• Pat and Joe cut out early to meet their friends.
• You’re barking up the wrong tree; that isn’t what happened.
• Jamie had a lot to do, so Jessica gave her a hand.
• Things ran smoothly while Jim was head honcho in the department.
• After taking a long nap, I felt like a million dollars.
• Steven wanted this to be letter perfect, so it made sure to dot all the i’s and cross all the t’s.
• Adam drove a hard bargain and ended up with a good deal.
• Meg worked behind the scenes and carried off the event without a hitch.
• I heard a strange noise coming from the basement and went downstairs to check it out.
• Emily was on cloud nine when her project won the award.
• She felt like she was being treated like part of the furniture and now wanted some attention.
• Hanna gave me a ballpark figure for the amount of yarn I would need to make a scarf.
• Andrew and David were on the same wavelength and headed to the boathouse early.
• He lost his temper for no reason. He has to learn to stay calm.
• Jake wanted to sleep on it. Choosing which courses to take was a big decision.
• Nichole worked on her art day in and day out but didn’t tire of it. For her, it was a labor of love.
• Just to be sure everything would work well on Friday, they gave it a dry run on Wednesday.
• Lisa caught his eye the moment he walked into the restaurant.
• There’s only a slim chance of rain, according to Alex’s forecast.
• Nick cast a long shadow; the others found it hard to fill his shoes.
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• After losing twice, the young athlete thought about throwing in the towel.
• She was like a fish out of water in the city. It was so different from her farm.
• When Larry found out what I did, he gave me a piece of his mind.
• HaiYun was so grouchy, we knew she had gotten up on the wrong side of the bed.
• Carlos was so serious that I couldn’t get him to crack a smile no matter how hard I tried.
• Michael was looking for a pick-up game when he stopped by the gym.
• The solution to the problem finally dawned on Marco.
• Maggie surprised her grandmother with a baker’s dozen of cupcakes.
• They were down in the dumps after losing the game.
• Samantha didn’t want a garden variety dress, so she looked high and low for something special.
• She caught a bad cold, even though she took vitamins.
• Michele wanted to get the show on the road, so she opened the doors five minutes early.
• You have to take a politician’s words with a grain of salt.
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SECTION 4
Vocabulary Builders
List 41. The Twenty Most Common Prefixes
List 42. Prefixes of Number, Size, and Amount
List 43. More Prefixes
List 44. The Twenty Most Common Suffixes
List 45.
Inflectional Suffixes
List 46. More Suffixes
List 47. Greek and Latin Roots
List 48.
-Ology Word Family
List 49.
-Phobia and -Philia Word Families
List 50.
Synonyms
List 51.
Antonyms
List 52. Words with Multiple Meanings
List 53. Onomatopoeia
List 54. Portmanteau or Blended Words
List 55.
Clipped Words
List 56. Oxymorons
List 57. Sesquipedalian Superstars
List 58. Eponyms and Toponyms—Words Based on Names
List 59.
Neologisms or New Words
List 60. Words Borrowed from Other Languages
List 61.
French and Latin Phrases
List 62.
American and British English Words
List 63. Words and Phrases from Mythology
List 64. Shakespeare in Words and Phrases
T
he importance of word knowledge to understanding and reading comprehension has
been documented by research for more than seventy years. Recent studies provide helpful
information to teachers. For example, studies confirm teachers’ observations that the vocabulary
demands in content area texts are typically more challenging than what students experience in
narrative or literature texts. They also conclude direct vocabulary instruction affects students’
comprehension more than other factors.
Research on word study tells us that teaching how morphemes (word parts with meaning)
can be put together in different combinations is an effective strategy for increasing vocabulary.
Students who have greater understanding of morphology (the combining of roots and affixes) also
have larger vocabularies and higher levels of comprehension. Knowing the meaning of Greek and
Latin root words aids understanding of whole families of words. For example, the Latin root surg
or surr meaning to rise forms several words found in history: surge, insurgent, resurgent, resurrect,
insurrection, and resurrection.
There are other ways to gain word knowledge. Some English words owe their origins to
specific people and places, and new words are coined as culture, discovery, and technology
move forward. Two interesting sources of English words are the ancient myths and the works
of Shakespeare. For example, students may not realize words from mythology are all around
us. They are names for cities (Athens, Georgia), sports teams (Spartans), companies (Amazon),
and much more. And, Shakespeare’s contribution to our language heritage includes at least two
thousand words and phrases coined or popularized by him. His creative approach to language
led him to create verbs from nouns, join words or word parts in novel ways, and repurpose words.
Literary works from around the world include allusions to both Shakespeare and ancient myths
and are made more understandable through familiarity with their sources.
Word learning does not have to be humdrum and boring; playing with words and manipulating them intelligently can also be fun.
The lists in this section will help you meet Common Core reading and language standards
for using Greek and Latin affixes and roots as clues to word meaning and determining the
meaning of words and phrases that have their origins in or allude to mythology or the works
of Shakespeare. Last, but not least, there are lists to engage students and teachers in the
wonder of words: sesquipedalians, palindromes, neologisms, clipped words, oxymorons, and
onomatopoeia.
Blachowicz, C., Fisher, P., Ogle, D., & Watts-Taffe, S. (2013). Teaching academic vocabulary K–8: Effective practices
across the curriculum. New York: The Guilford Press.
Bromley, K. (2007). Nine things every teacher should know about words and vocabulary instruction. Journal of
Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 50(7), 528–537.
Carlisle, J. (1995). Morphological awareness and early reading achievement. In L. Feldman (Ed.), Morphological
aspects of language processing (pp. 189–209). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Carlisle, J. (2004). Morphological processes that influence learning to read. In C. A. Stone et al. (Eds.), Handbook of
language and literacy: Development and disorders. New York: The Guilford Press.
Macrone, M. (2000). Brush up your Shakespeare. New York: Harper Paperbacks.
Nagy, W., Berninger, V., & Abbott, R. (2006). Contributions of morphology beyond phonological to literacy
outcomes of upper elementary and middle-school students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 134–147.
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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Nagy, W. & Scott, J. (2000). Vocabulary processes. In M. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, P. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.),
Handbook of reading research (Vol. 3., pp. 269–284). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research
literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction (National Institute of Health Publication No.
00–4754). Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
Pearson, P. D., Hiebert, E., & Kamil, M. (2007). Vocabulary assessment: What we know and what we need to learn.
Reading Research Quarterly, 42(2), 282–296.
Pressley, M. (2002). Comprehension instruction: What makes sense now, what might make sense soon. Reading
Online, 5(2). Retrieved from www.readingonline.org/articles/art_index.asp?HREF=/articles/handbook/
pressley/index.htm
Vacca, R., Vacca, J., & Mraz, M. (2011). Content area reading (10th ed., p. 272). Boston: Pearson.
V O C A B U L A RY B U IL DE RS
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LIST 41. THE TWENTY MOST COMMON PREFIXES
Knowing the meaning of common prefixes helps readers figure out the meaning of new words they
encounter. This knowledge also helps develop their ability to express themselves by competently using
multisyllabic words. This list of prefixes is essential to all elementary grade students’ reading skills. According to research, these twenty morphemes (meaning units) account for 97 percent of prefix occurrences in
reading material.
Rank
Prefix
Meaning
Percent
Example
1
un-
not, opposite of
26
unhappy
2
re-
again, back
14
return
3
in-, im-, ir-, ill-
not, opposite of
11
indirect
4
dis-
not, opposite of
7
discover
5
en-, em-
cause to
4
enjoy
6
non-
not, opposite of
4
nonfiction
7
in-, im-
in or into
4
inside
8
over-
too much, above
3
overgrown
9
mis-
wrongly
3
mistake
10
sub-
under, lower
3
submarine
11
pre-
before
3
prepared
12
inter-
between, among
3
international
13
fore-
before
3
foresee
14
de-
opposite of, down
2
descent
15
trans-
across
2
transport
16
super-
above, beyond
1
supermarket
17
semi-
half
1
semicircle
18
anti-
against
1
antiwar
19
mid-
middle
1
midnight
20
under-
too little, below
1
underfed
Source: White, T. G., Sowell, V., & Yanagihara, A. (1999). Teaching elementary students to use word-part clues. The Reading Teacher, 42,
302–308.
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LIST 42. PREFIXES OF NUMBER, SIZE, AND AMOUNT
This list is especially useful in math and science instruction. Understanding the meaning behind these
prefixes helps students recall the meaning of many polysyllabic content vocabulary words.
Prefixes of Number
Prefix
Meaning
Examples
mono-, mon-
one
monorail, monocycle, monk, monarch, monocular, monogamy
uni-
one
unicorn, unicycle, uniform, unify, unite, universe, unique, unison
bi-, bin-
two
bicycle, bifocal, biannual, bimonthly, binocular,
di-, du-
two
digraph, dioxide, diphthong, dilemma, dichotomy
duo, duet, dual, duplex, duplicate
tri-
three
triangle, tricycle, trillion, triplet, tripartite, triumvirate
quadr-
four
quadrangle, quadrant, quadriplegic, quadruple
tetra-
four
tetrahedron, tetrameter
pent-
five
pentagon, pentathlon, pentameter, Pentecost
quint-
five
quintuplets, quintet, quintessential, quintuple, quintile
hex-
six
hexagon, hexameter, hexagram, hexadecimal
sex-
six
sextant, sextet, sextuple
hept-
seven
heptagon, heptameter, heptarchy
sept-
seven
September, septuagenarian, septet
oct-
eight
October, octagon, octane, octopus
ennea-
nine
enneagon, enneahedron, ennead
non-, nove-
nine
nonagenarian, November, novena
dec-, deca-,
ten
December, decade, decathlon, decameter, decennial
deci-
tenth
decimal, decimate, decibel, deciles, decimeter
cent-, centi-
hundred, hundredth
century, centigrade, centimeter, centennial
hect-, hecto-
hundred
hectogram, hectometer, hectare
kilo-
thousand
kilometer, kilogram, kilobyte, kilowatt, kiloliter
milli-
thousandth
millimeter, millipede, milligram, millennium
mega-
million
megacycle, megabyte, megawatt, megaton
micro-
millionth
Micrometer, micron
giga-
billion
gigabyte, gigameter, gigawatt, gigahertz
nano-
billionth
nanometer, nanosecond
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Prefixes of Size
Prefix
Meaning
Examples
micro-
small, short
microscope, microbe, microphone, microcosm, microorganism, microeconomics
mini-
small
miniature, minute, minimal, minimally
macro-
large, long
macron, macrobiotic, macrocosm, macroeconomics, macroscopic
mega-
large
megalith, megalomania, megaphone, megalith, megabuck
magni-
great, large
magnify, magnificent, magnitude, magnanimous
Prefixes of Amount or Extent
Prefix
Meaning
Examples
pan-
all
panacea, pandemonium, Pandora, panorama, pandemic
omni-
all
omnibus, omnificent, omnipotent, omnivorous, omniscient
equi-
equal
equal, equation, equator, equidistant, equinox, equilibrium
is-
equal
isometric, isomorphic, isosceles, isotope
demi-
half
demigod, demitasse
hemi-
half
hemisphere, hemicycle
semi-
half
semiannual, semicircle, semiconscious, semiautomatic
poly-
many
polysyllabic, polyglot, polyester, polyandry, polygamy
multi-
many, much
multicolored, multiply, multifarious,
extra-
beyond
extraordinary, extravagant, extrasensory, extraterrestrial
hyper-
excessive
hyperactive, hypersensitive, hyperbole, hypercritical
over-
too much
overactive, overworked, overdrive, overanxious, overblown
out-
surpassing
outbid, outclass, outdo, outlive
super-
more than
superfine, superhuman, supernatural
ultra-
beyond
ultraconservative, ultramodern, ultranationalist
pene-
almost
peninsula, penultimate
hypo-
under, too little
hypodermic, hypoactive, hypoglycemic, hypothesis, hypothermia
under-
less than
underage, underdone, under ripe, underrated
olig-
few
oligarchy, oligopoly
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LIST 43. MORE PREFIXES
Prefixes are small letter groups with meaning (morphemes) that are added in front of a base or root word
and contribute to the meaning of the word. Knowing the meaning of these prefixes—together with the
meaning of common base words and Greek and Latin roots—gives students the tools for unlocking the
meanings of many thousands of words. In addition to teaching these prefixes directly, it is a good idea to
help students discover their meanings when they encounter them in text.
Group I Prefixes
Prefix
Meaning
Examples
anti-
against
antiwar, antisocial, antislavery, antifreeze
dis-
not, opposite
disappear, disagree, disarm, dishonest, discontinue
ex-
former
ex-president, ex-student, ex-athlete, ex-teacher, ex-king
im-, in-
not
impossible, impassable, immobilize, immature, imbalance,
inaccurate, invisible, inactive, indecisive, independent
inter-
among, between
Internet, international, intermission, intervene, interrupt
intra-
within
intramural, intrastate, intravenous, intranet, intramuscular
micro-
small, short
microphone, microscope, microwave, microbe, microfilm
mis-
wrong, not
misbehave, misconduct, misfortune, mistake, miscount
multi-
many, much
multiply, multicolored, multimillionaire, multitude
non-
not
nonsense, nonfiction, nonresistant, nonstop, nonviolent
over-
too much
overdue, overdo, overpriced, overbearing, overactive
post-
after
postpone, postdate, postscript, postmeridian, postwar
pre-
before
prefix, precaution, preamble, prenatal, prelude
pro-
favor
pro-war, pro-American, pro-education, pro-trade, pro-union
pro-
forward
proceed, produce, progress, project, prognosis, prophet
re-
again
redo, rewrite, reappear, repaint, reheat, relive
re-
back
recall, recede, repay, reflect, retract, rebate
sub-
under, below
submarine, subzero, submerge, subordinate, subhuman
super-
above, beyond
superman, supernatural, superior, superpower, supervise
tele-
distant
telephone, telescope, television, telegram, telepathy
trans-
across
transport, transfer, translate, transatlantic, transcribe
un-
not
unhappy, unable, uncomfortable, uncertain, unbeaten
under-
below, less than
underpaid, undercover, underground, underneath, underage
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Group II Prefixes
Prefixes of Negation
Prefix
Meaning
Examples
aancounterdeforiliminirnenegnonun-
not
not
opposite
not, opposite
prohibit
not
not
not
not
not
not
not
not, opposite
apathy, atheist, atrophy, atypical, amoral
anemia, anarchy, anesthesia, anorexia
counteract, countermand, counterintuitive
dehumidify, defuse, deactivate, deform, degrade, deplete
forbid, forget, forgo, forsake, forswear
illegal, illegible, illogical, illegitimate, illiterate
imbalance, immaculate, immature
incomplete, inaccurate, inactive, inadvertent
irregular, irreconcilable, irrational, irrevocable, irresponsible
nefarious, never
negative, neglect, negotiate
nonchalant, nonconformist, nondescript
unable, undo, unbeaten, uncertain
Prefixes of Judgment
Prefix
Meaning
Examples
beneeudysmalmispseudoanticontracounterpro-
good
good
bad
bad
bad
false
against
against, opposite
against, opposite
for
benefit, benefactor, benediction, beneficial, benevolent
eulogy, euphoria, euphemism, Eucharist, euthanasia
dysfunction, dysfunctional, dysentery, dysphasia, dystrophy
maladjusted, malfunction, malice, malevolent, malaise
misanthrope, misbehave, miscarriage
pseudonym, pseudo-classical, pseudo-intellectual
antisocial, antislavery, antiterrorism, antinuclear
contrary, contradict, contrast, contraband, contraception
counteract, countermand, counterproposal, counteroffensive
pro-American, pro-education
Prefixes of Time
Prefix
Meaning
Examples
afterepipostantepreproprot-
after
after
after
before
before
before
first
afternoon, afterward, aftershock, afterthought, aftertaste
epilogue, epitaph, epidermis
postdate, postdoctoral, posterior, postpone, postscript
antebellum, antecedent, antedate, antediluvian
preamble, precaution, prefix, prejudice
prognosis, progeny, program, prologue
protagonist, protein, proton, prototype
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Prefixes of Place
Prefix
Meaning
Examples
aabacadafaganasbycircudedediaeexextraininterintromidoffparaperperiperiprosubsuperteletransunderwith-
on
from
to
to
to
to
to
to
near, side
around
down, away
from, down
through, across
out, away
out
outside
into
among, between
inside
middle
from
beside
through
around
all around
in front of
under
over
distant
across
below
back, away
aboard, afire, afoot, ashore, atop
abnormal, abdicate, abduct, absent, abhor, abolish, abstain
accent, accept, access, accident, acquire
adapt, add, addict, adhere, admit
affair, affect, affiliate, affirm, afflict
aggravate, aggrandize
annex, annihilate, annotate, announce
ascend, ascertain, aspect, aspire, assert
bypass, byplay, bystander, byway
circulate, circumference, circus, circumnavigate, circumstance
deduct, descend, decrease, degrade, depart
debate, decay, deceive, decide, deform
diameter, dialogue, diagonal, diagnose, dialect
evict, eject, erupt, emigrate, edict, emancipate, effect, effort
excel, exalt, exceed, exhaust, exit
extracurricular, extraordinary
incision, include, induce, inhale, infect
intercede, interpret, interrupt
introduce, introspect, introvert
midnight, midway, midsummer, midyear, midshipman
offset, offshoot, offshore, offspring
paradigm, paragraph, parallel, paraphrase
perennial, permeate, permit, pervade, percolate
perimeter, periscope, peripatetic, periphery, periodontist
perimeter, periscope, peripatetic
proclaim, profane, profess
subcontract, subject, submerge
superimpose, superscript, supersede
telegram, telekinesis, telephone
transatlantic, transcend, transcribe
undercover, underground, underneath
withdraw, withhold, within, without
Prefixes for Self and with Others
Prefix
Meaning
Examples
autoco-
self
together
colcom-, con-
with
with
selfsylsymsyn-
self
together
together
together
automobile, automatic, autograph, autobiography, autonomy
coauthor, cognate, cooperate, collaborate, coordinate,
coincide
collaborate, collateral, colleague, collect
combine, commune, combat, compare, command, combat,
concert, concur, connect, confer, concede, confident
selfish, self-denial, self-respect, self-taught
syllable, syllogism
symbiosis, symbol, symmetry, sympathy
synchronize, syndrome, synergy, synonym, synthesis
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Miscellaneous Prefixes
Prefix
Meaning
Examples
ambi-, amphi-
both
beemenenterepiheterohomoimmetamidneoonparaperretro-
make
in
in
among, between
upon
different
same
into
change
middle
new
on
almost
throughout
back
ambidextrous, ambiguous, ambivalent, ambience, amphibian,
amphitheater, amphora
befriend, bewitch, beguile, bejewel, becalm
embalm, embed, embezzle, embrace
enchant, enclose, encounter, encourage
enterprise, entertain
epicenter, epidemic, epidermis, epithet
heteronym, heterogeneous, heterosexual
homogeneous, homogenize, homosexual, homophone
immediate, immerse, immigrate, implant
metamorphosis, metaphor, metabolism, metastasis
midriff, midshipman, midsummer
neoclassical, neologism, neonatal, neophyte, neon
oncoming, ongoing, onrush, onshore
paramedic, paralegal, paraprofessional, parasail
perceive, percolate, perfect, perform
retroactive, retrogress, retro-rocket
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LIST 44. THE TWENTY MOST COMMON SUFFIXES
Knowing the meaning of common suffixes helps readers figure out the meaning of new words they
encounter. This knowledge also helps develop their ability to express themselves by competently using
multisyllabic words. This list of suffixes is essential to all elementary grade students’ reading skills. According to research, these twenty morphemes (meaning units) account for 93 percent of suffix occurrences in
reading material.
Rank
Suffix
Meaning
Percent
Example
1
-s, -es
plurals
31
boys
2
-ed
past-tense verbs
20
wanted
3
-ing
verb form; present participle
14
playing
4
-ly
characteristic of
7
friendly
5
-er, -or
person connected with
4
teacher
6
-ion, -tion, -ation, -ition
act, process
4
action
7
-ible, -able
can be done
2
likeable
8
-al, -ial
having characteristics of
1
final
9
-y
characterized by
1
funny
10
-ness
state of, condition of
1
happiness
11
-ity, -ty
state of
1
activity
12
-ment
action or process
1
enjoyment
13
-ic
having characteristics of
1
comic
14
-ous, -eous, -ious
possessing the qualities of
1
serious
15
-en
made of
1
enliven
16
-er
more
1
bigger
17
-ive, -ative, -itive
adjective form of a noun
1
attentive
18
-ful
full of
1
sorrowful
19
-less
without
1
hopeless
20
-est
most
1
biggest
Source: White, T. G., Sowell, V., & Yanagihara, A. (1999). Teaching elementary students to use word-part clues. The Reading Teacher, 42,
302–308.
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LIST 45. INFLECTIONAL SUFFIXES
An inflectional suffix is a letter or group of letters added to the end of a base or root word. It indicates the
word’s part of speech (grammatical form) but does not alter the meaning of the word or change its part
of speech. For example, the inflectional suffixes -s and -es are added to nouns to indicate whether they are
singular or plural as in tree + -s = trees or bush + -es = bushes but the resultant words, trees and bushes,
keep their original meaning and are both still nouns.
Specific inflectional suffixes are used with nouns, verbs, and adjectives. These suffixes are needed to
make sentences grammatical and are introduced early in literacy learning. Note: Because inflectional suffixes do not change the meaning of the root or base word the way derivational suffixes do, some authors
and publishers refer to them as inflectional endings.
Part of Speech
Inflectional Suffix
Grammatical Function
Examples
Noun
-s, -es
plural
The dogs ran to meet Gabriella.
Steve trimmed the bushes near the house.
Verb
Adjective
‘s
possessive
Kathryn’s phone rang during recess.
-s
third-person present tense
The big dog follows her everywhere.
-ed
past tense
Fred packed his suitcase last night.
-ing
present participle
Kim was cooking when I arrived.
-en
past participle
Marianne had not eaten dinner yet.
-er
comparative
Nicole is taller than Debbie.
-est
superlative
Artie, not Michael or Steve, is the tallest.
Some polysyllabic words are composed of a base or root word, a prefix, one or more derivational
suffixes, and an inflectional suffix. The inflectional suffix will always be at the end of the word and will
not modify the meaning of the composed word as each of the other affixes will. For example, consider the
sentence: The agency completed five resettlements a day after the flood. The word resettlements has these
components:
re-settle-ment
-s
derivational prefix meaning again
base word as verb
derivational suffix meaning act or process and changing settle from a verb to a noun
inflectional ending for plural.
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LIST 46. MORE SUFFIXES
A large number of suffixes—at least one thousand—belong to the category of derivational suffixes. A
derivational suffix is a letter or group of letters added to the end of a base or root word to alter its meaning
or change its part of speech. The newly formed word is derived from the base or root word. For example, the
addition of -less to hope creates hopeless, a word related to hope but different in meaning. Adding another
derivational suffix -ness creates hopelessness, a word still related to the base but now different in meaning
and in part of speech. Teach group I after teaching inflectional suffixes (see List 45, Inflectional Suffixes).
Group II includes suffixes that are somewhat less frequently occurring but still quite common. Group II is
appropriate for middle and high school students.
Group I Derivational Suffixes
Suffix
Meaning
Examples
-able, -ible
-ar, -er, -or
-en
-ess
-ette
-ful
-ish
-less
-like
-ly
-ment
-ness
-ship
-y
is, can be
one who
to make
one who (female)
small
full of
relating to
without
resembling
resembling
action or process
state or quality of
state or quality of
being or having
comfortable, drinkable, washable, durable, gullible, combustible
beggar, liar, teacher, painter, seller, shipper, doctor, actor, editor
strengthen, fasten, lengthen, frighten, weaken
princess, waitress, countess, hostess, actress
dinette, diskette, majorette, barrette
joyful, fearful, careful, thoughtful, cheerful
childish, fiftyish, bookish, selfish
thoughtless, tireless, joyless, ageless, careless
lifelike, homelike, childlike, computerlike
fatherly, scholarly, motherly, sisterly, brotherly
government, development, experiment
kindness, happiness, goodness, darkness, fullness
friendship, hardship, citizenship, internship
sunny, fruity, funny, rainy, gooey, chewy
Group II Derivational Suffixes
Noun Suffixes
Suffix
Meaning
Examples
-a, -ae
-ade
-ade
-ae
-age
-al
-ance
-ancy
-ant
-ard
-arian
-arium, -orium
-ary
-ation
-ation
plural
action or process
product or thing
plural (feminine)
action or process
action or process
state or quality of
state or quality of
one who
one who
one who
place for
place for
state or quality of
action or process
data, criteria, memoranda, alumnae, algae, formulae
blockade, barricade, escapade, parade, promenade
lemonade, glade, arcade, brigade, charade
alumnae, formulae, larvae, algae
marriage, voyage, pilgrimage, blockage, rummage
refusal, revival, rehearsal, chemical, cyclical
repentance, annoyance, resistance, elegance
buoyancy, truancy, vacancy, vagrancy
servant, immigrant, assistant, merchant, applicant
drunkard, steward, bard, coward, wizard
librarian, humanitarian, libertarian
aquarium, planetarium, solarium, auditorium
library, mortuary, sanctuary, infirmary
desperation, starvation, inspiration, fascination
emancipation, narration, computation
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Noun Suffixes (Continued)
Suffix
Meaning
Examples
-cle
-crat
-cy
-dom
-ectomy
-ee
-eer
-ence
-ency
-enne
-ent
-er
-ery, -ry
-ery
-ery, -ry
-ery, -ry
-ese
-et
-eur
-ful
-fy
-hood
-i
-ics
-ier, -yer
-ide
-ine
-ing
-ion
-ism
-ism
-ist
-ite
-ite
-itis
-ity
-ization
-kin
-let
-ling
-man
-ment
-ment
-mony
-ology
-or
-orium
-ory
small
person of
State, quality or process
state or quality of
surgical removal of
object of action
person
state or quality of
state or quality of
female
one who
action or process
trade or occupation
establishment
goods or products
state or quality of
person
small
state or quality of
full
cause to be
state or quality of
plural
scientific or social system
one who
chemical compound
chemical or substance
material
state or quality of
state or quality of
doctrine of
one who practices
mineral or rock
person
inflammation of
state or quality of
state or quality of
small
small
small
who works with
state or quality of
product or thing
product or thing
study or science of
state or quality of
place for
place for
corpuscle, particle, icicle, cubicle
power democrat, autocrat
accuracy, bankruptcy, conspiracy, truancy, piracy, diplomacy
freedom, boredom, martyrdom, wisdom
tonsillectomy, appendectomy, mastectomy
absentee, addressee, payee, lessee, employee
engineer, buccaneer, mountaineer, puppeteer, auctioneer
violence, absence, reticence, abstinence
frequency, clemency, expediency, consistency
comedienne, equestrienne, tragedienne
superintendent, resident, regent
murder, thunder, plunder, waiver
surgery, archery, sorcery, dentistry
bakery, grocery, fishery, nunnery
pottery, jewelry, cutlery
bravery, savagery, forgery, slavery
Japanese, Chinese, Portuguese, Siamese
midget, sonnet, bassinet, cygnet
hauteur, grandeur
cupful, spoonful
solidify, beautify
childhood, adulthood, falsehood, nationhood
alumni, foci
physics, economics, politics, statistics, demographics
cashier, financier, gondolier, lawyer
fluoride, bromide, peroxide
chlorine, caffeine, aquamarine, nicotine
bedding, roofing, frosting, stuffing
champion, companion, ambition, suspicion
baptism, heroism, racism, despotism
capitalism, socialism, communism, patriotism
biologist, capitalist, communist, pianist
granite, anthracite, bauxite
socialite, Luddite, Israelite, Muscovite
laryngitis, arthritis, bronchitis, appendicitis
necessity, felicity, civility, parity
civilization, standardization, organization
lambkin, napkin, manikin, Munchkin
owlet, rivulet, starlet, leaflet, islet
duckling, yearling, suckling, fledgling
cameraman, mailman, doorman
amusement, predicament, amazement
instrument, ornament, fragment
testimony, matrimony, ceremony, alimony
ecology, biology, psychology, geology, technology
error, stupor, candor, fervor, pallor
auditorium, emporium, sanatorium, crematorium
laboratory, conservatory, purgatory
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Noun Suffixes (Continued)
Suffix
Meaning
Examples
-ose
-phobia
-ship
-ship
-ster
-th
-tion, -sion, -cion
-tude
-ty
-ure
-wright
sugars
fear of
skill or art of
state or quality of
person
state or quality of
state or quality of
state or quality of
state or quality of
action or process
one who works with
glucose, sucrose, fructose, dextrose
claustrophobia, acrophobia, hymophobia, cynophobia
penmanship, showmanship, horsemanship
friendship, hardship, citizenship
youngster, gangster, gamester
strength, warmth, filth, depth, length
attention, caution, fascination, tension, suspicion
gratitude, fortitude, beatitude
loyalty, honesty, amnesty, unity
censure, failure, enclosure, exposure, secure
playwright, shipwright, wheelwright
These are used mostly to change nouns or verbs to adjectives.
Adjective Suffixes
Suffix
Meaning
Examples
-acious
-al
-an
-ant
-ary
-ate
-ative
-ble
-en
-ent
-ern
-ese
-esque
-etic
-ful
-ial
-ic
-ical
-ide
-ile
-ine
-ious
-ish
-ive
-less
-like
-ly
-ly
inclined to
relating to
relating to
inclined to
relating to
state or quality of
inclined to
inclined to
relating to
inclined to
direction
state or quality of
relating to
relating to
full of
relating to
relating to
relating to
state or quality of
state or quality of
relating to
state or quality of
relating to, nearly
inclined to
without
resembling
resembling
every
loquacious, mendacious, audacious, fallacious
natural, royal, maternal, suicidal
urban, American, Alaskan, veteran, suburban
vigilant, pleasant, defiant, buoyant, observant
honorary, military, literary, ordinary
fortunate, desperate, passionate
demonstrative, pejorative, talkative
gullible, perishable, voluble, durable
golden, ashen, wooden, earthen
competent, different, excellent
northern, southern, eastern, western, postern
Japanese, Portuguese, Chinese, Siamese
statuesque, picturesque, Romanesque
alphabetic, dietetic, frenetic, athletic, sympathetic
thoughtful, joyful, careful, fearful
filial, commercial, remedial
comic, historic, poetic, public
comical, rhetorical, economical
candid, sordid, lucid, splendid, rigid
virile, agile, volatile, docile, fragile
feminine, bovine, feline, marine
delicious, nutritious, gracious, ambitious, religious
childish, whitish, fiftyish, Scottish, pinkish
active, passive, negative, festive, positive, affirmative
thoughtless, tireless, ageless, careless
childlike, homelike, lifelike, boy-like
fatherly, motherly, scholarly
daily, weekly, monthly, yearly
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Adjective Suffixes (Continued)
Suffix
Meaning
Examples
-most
-oid
-ose
-ous
-some
-th, -eth
-ulent
-und
-uous
-ward
most
resembling
full of
full of
inclined to
numbers
full of
state or quality of
state or quality of
direction
utmost, foremost, westernmost, innermost
humanoid, asteroid, paranoid, planetoid
verbose, morose, bellicose, comatose
joyous, virtuous, nervous, wondrous
meddlesome, awesome, tiresome
fifth, twelfth, twentieth, fiftieth
turbulent, virulent, corpulent, fraudulent
rotund, fecund, moribund, jocund
contemptuous, tempestuous, sensuous
forward, backward, eastward, upward
Verb Suffixes
Suffix
Meaning
Examples
-ade
-age
-ate
-ble
-en
-er
-fy, -ify
-ise
-ish
-ize
-ure
action or process
action or process
to make
repeated action
to make
action or process
to make
to make
action or process
to make
action or process
blockade, promenade, parade
rampage, ravage, pillage
activate, fascinate, annihilate, liberate
stumble, squabble, mumble, tumble, fumble
strengthen, fasten, lengthen, frighten, weaken
discover, murder, conquer, deliver
satisfy, terrify, falsify, beautify
advertise, merchandise
finish, flourish, nourish, punish
standardize, capsize, colonize, polarize, popularize
censure, procure, endure, inure
These are used mostly to change nouns and adjectives to adverbs.
Adverb Suffixes
Suffix
Meaning
Examples
-ly, -ily
-ward(s)
-ways
-wise
manner
direction
manner
manner, direction
slowly, beautifully, happily, largely, hungrily, greedily
onwards, northward, eastward, westward
sideways, always, crossways
clockwise, lengthwise, counterclockwise
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LIST 47. GREEK AND LATIN ROOTS
Most modern English words originated in other languages. The study of word origins, or etymology, is
a fascinating subject. The Greek and Latin roots in the following lists can form the basis for a number
of vocabulary-building lessons. Roots are taught successfully in families such as microscope, telescope,
periscope, to illustrate that scope means “see.” In this list, Greek roots are indicated with G and Latin
roots with L. Roots have been divided into two groups: group I includes the more frequently occurring
and group II includes less frequently used roots. The roots are also called combining forms or morphemes
(meaning units).
Group I
Root
Meaning
Examples
act (L)
aero (G)
agr (L)
alter (L)
anim (L)
ann, enn (L)
aqua (L)
ast (G)
aud (L)
biblio (G)
bio (G)
card, cord (L)
chron (G)
claim, clam (L)
cogn (L)
corp (L)
cosm (G)
cred (L)
cycl (G)
dic (L)
doc (L)
don, donat (L)
duc (L)
fac, fic (L)
flect, flex (L)
form (L)
gen (G)
geo (G)
gram (G)
graph (G)
homo, hom (L)
inner (L)
inter (L)
intro (L)
junct (L)
jud, jur, jus (L)
lab (L)
do
air
field
other
life, spirit
year
water
star
hear
book
life
heart
time
shout
know
body
universe
believe
circle, ring
speak
teach
give
lead
make, do
bend
shape
birth, race
earth
letter, written
write
man
within
among, between
into, inward,
join
law
work
action, actor, react, transact, enact
aerobics, aerodynamics, aeronautics, aerate
agriculture, agrarian, agronomy, agribusiness
alter, alternate, alternative, altercation
animate, animosity, animal, inanimate
annual, anniversary, annuity, biennial, millennium
aquarium, aquatic, aqueous, aquamarine, aquifer
astronaut, astronomy, disaster, asterisk, asteroid
audience, auditorium, audible, audition, audiovisual
bibliography, Bible, bibliophile, bibliotherapy
biology, biography, biochemistry, biopsy, biosphere
cardiac, cardiology, cardiovascular, cordial, accord, discord
chronological, synchronize, chronicle, chronic
proclaim, exclaim, acclaim, clamor, exclamation
recognize, incognito, cognition, cognizant
corporation, corpse, corps, corpuscle, corpus
cosmonaut, cosmos, cosmopolitan, microcosm
credit, discredit, incredible, credential, credulous
bicycle, cyclone, cycle, encyclopedia, recycle
dictate, predict, contradict, verdict, diction
doctrine, document, doctor, indoctrinate, docile
donation, donor, pardon, donate
duct, conduct, educate, induct, aqueduct
factory, manufacture, facsimile, efficient, beneficial
reflect, deflect, reflection, inflection, reflex, flexible
form, uniform, transform, reform, formal
generation, generate, genocide, progeny, genealogy
geography, geometry, geology, geophysics
telegram, diagram, grammar, epigram, monogram
photograph, phonograph, autograph, biography, graphite
homicide, hombre, homage, Homo Sapiens
innermost, innerspring
interchange, intercom, interface, intermediate
introduce, introspection within
juncture, conjunction, adjunct, injunction
judge, judicial, jury, jurisdiction, justice, justify
labor, laboratory, collaborate, elaborate
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Group I (Continued)
Root
Meaning
Examples
liber (L)
loc (L)
man (L)
mar (L)
mater, matr (L)
meter (G)
migr (L)
miss, mit (L)
mob, mot, mov (L)
morph (G)
mort (L)
nat (L)
ordin, ord (L)
ortho (G)
pater, patr (L)
path (G)
ped (G)
ped (L)
phil (G)
phon (G)
photo (G)
pod (G)
poli (G)
port (L)
psych (G)
ques, quer, quis (L)
rad (L)
rect (L)
rupt (L)
san (L)
saur (G)
sci (G)
scop (G)
scribe, script (L)
sign (L)
spec (L)
struct (L)
tact (L)
terr (L)
therm (G)
tract (L)
trib (L)
urb (L)
vac (L)
var (L)
vid, vis (L)
voc (L)
void (L)
vol (L)
volv (L)
free
place
hand
sea
mother
measure
change, move
send
move
shape
death
born
row, rank
straight, right
father
disease, feeling
child
foot
love
sound
light
foot
city
carry
mind, soul
ask, seek
ray, spoke
straight
break
health
lizard
know
see
write
mark
see
build
touch
land
heat
pull, drag
give
city
empty
different
see
voice
empty
wish, will
turn
liberty, liberal, liberate, libertine
location, locate, dislocate, allocate, local
manual, manufacture, manuscript, manipulate
marine, submarine, mariner, maritime
maternal, maternity, matricide, matrimony, matron
thermometer, centimeter, diameter, barometer
migrate, immigrant, emigrate, migratory
missile, dismiss, mission, submit, remit, admit, transmit
mobile, mobilize, motion, promote, demote, remove
amorphous, metamorphoses, morphology, polymorphous
mortician, mortuary, mortal, immortal, mortify
natal, native, nation, nativity, innate
order, ordinary, ordinal, extraordinary, ordinance
orthodontist, orthodox, orthopedist, orthography
paternity, paternal, patricide, patriarch
pathology, sympathy, empathy, antipathy, pathos
pedagogy, pediatrician, encyclopedia
pedal, pedestrian, biped, pedestal
philosophy, philanthropist, philharmonic, Anglophile
phonograph, symphony, telephone, microphone, phonics
photograph, telephoto, photosynthesis, photogenic
podiatrist, podium, tripod
metropolis, cosmopolitan, police, political
portable, transport, import, export, porter
psychology, psyche, psychopath, psychiatrist
question, inquest, request, query, inquisitive
radius, radio, radiation, radium, radiator, radiology
erect, rectangle, rectify, direction, correct
rupture, erupt, interrupt, abrupt, bankrupt
sanitary, sanitation, sane, insanity, sanitarium
dinosaur, brontosaurus, stegosaurus
science, conscience, conscious, omniscient
microscope, telescope, periscope, stethoscope
inscribe, describe, prescribe, script, transcript, scripture
signal, signature, significant, insignia
inspect, suspect, respect, spectator, spectacle
structure, construct, instruct, destruction
tactile, intact, contact, tact
territory, terrain, terrestrial, terrace
thermometer, thermal, thermostat, Thermos
tractor, attract, subtract, traction, extract, contract
contribute, tribute, tributary, attribute
urban, suburb, urbane, suburban
vacant, vacation, vacuum, evacuate, vacate
vary, invariable, variant, variety, various
video, evidence, provide, providence, visible
vocal, advocate, evocation, convocation
void, devoid, avoid, voided, unavoidable
volition, volunteer, voluntary, benevolent
revolve, involve, evolve, revolver, revolution
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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Less Common Roots
Root
Meaning
Examples
aesthet, esthet (G)
alt (L)
ambul, amb (L)
amo, ami (L)
ang (L)
anthr (G)
arch (G)
archi, arch (G)
belli (L)
brev (L)
cad, cas (L)
cam (L)
cand (L)
cap (L)
cede, ceed, cess (L)
ceive, cept (L)
centr (L)
cert (L)
cide, cise (L)
clar (L)
cline (L)
clud (L)
commun (L)
cum (L)
cur (L)
cur (L)
dem (G)
dent (L)
div (L)
domin (L)
dox (G)
fer (L)
fid (L)
fig (L)
firm (L)
fract, frag (L)
frater (L)
fric (L)
funct (L)
gam (G)
gnos (G)
gon (G)
grad, gress (L)
grat (L)
greg (L)
gyn (G)
hab, hib (L)
hosp, host (L)
hydr (G)
iatr (G)
sense
high
walk, go
love
bend
man
ruler, leader
original
war
short
fall
field
shine, white
head
go, yield
take, receive
center
sure
cut, kill
clear
lean
shut
common
heap
care
run
people
tooth
divide
master
belief, praise
bear, carry
faith
form
fixed
break
brother
rub
perform
marriage
know
angle
step, go
pleasing
gather
woman
hold
guest
water
medical care
aesthetic, aesthete, anesthesia, anesthetist
altitude, altimeter, alto, altocumulus
circumambulate, somnambulate, amble, preamble
amiable, amorous, amateur, amity
angle, triangle, rectangle, angular, quadrangle
anthropology, philanthropist, misanthrope
monarch, archbishop, matriarch, oligarchy
archaeology, archaic, archetype, archive
bellicose, antebellum, belligerent, rebellion
abbreviation, brevity, breve
cadence, cadaver, decadence, cascade
camp, campus, encamp, campaign
candle, incandescent, candid, candidate
cap, captain, capital, decapitate, caput
concede, secede, proceed, exceed, process, concession
receive, reception, accept, conception, intercept
central, centrifugal, egocentric, eccentric, geocentric
certain, certify, ascertain, certificate
suicide, insecticide, genocide, scissors, incision
clarity, declare, clarify, declaration
incline, recline, decline, inclination
include, conclude, exclude, preclude, seclude
community, communicate, communism, communal
cumulative, accumulate, cumulus
cure, manicure, pedicure, curator, curette
current, occur, excursion, concur, recur
democracy, demography, endemic, epidemic
dentist, trident, dentifrice, indent, denture
divide, divorce, division, dividend, indivisible
dominate, predominate, dominion, A.D. (Anno Domini)
orthodox, heterodox, paradox, doxology
ferry, transfer, infer, refer, conifer
fidelity, confidence, infidel, bona fide
figure, figment, configuration, disfigure, effigy
firm, confirm, infirm, affirm, firmament
fracture, fraction, infraction, fragment, fragile, fragmentary
fraternal, fraternity, fratricide, fraternize
friction, dentifrice, fricative
function, malfunction, dysfunctional, perfunctory
polygamy, monogamy, bigamy, gamete, exogamy
diagnose, prognosis, agnostic
pentagon, diagonal, trigonometry, orthogonal
gradual, graduation, progress, egress, regress, aggression
gratitude, gratify, congratulate, ungrateful, ingrate
gregarious, congregation, segregation, aggregate
gynecologist, misogynist, monogyny, androgyny
habit, habitual, habitat, prohibit, inhibit, exhibit
host hospitality, hospital, hospice, hostess, host
hydroelectric, hydrogen, hydrant, dehydrate
psychiatry, podiatry, pediatrician, geriatrics
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Less Common Roots (Continued)
Root
Meaning
Examples
imag (L)
init (L)
integ (L)
ject (L)
kine, cine (G)
laps (L)
lith (L)
log (G)
luc, lum (L)
luna (L)
lust (L)
lys (G)
mand (L)
mania (G)
max (L)
mech (G)
mem, ment (L)
merge, mers (L)
mim (L)
min (L)
minist (L)
mon (L)
mut (L)
nav (L)
neg (L)
neo (L)
not (L)
noun, nun (L)
nov (L)
numer (L)
ocu (L)
onym (G)
opt (G)
opt (L)
orig (L)
pel (L)
pend (L)
phob (G)
plur (L)
pop (L)
pug (L)
reg (L)
rid (L)
scend (L)
sect (L)
sed (L)
sens, sent (L)
serv (L)
serv (L)
likeness
beginning
whole
throw
movement
slip
stone
word
light
moon
shine
break down
order
madness
greatest
machine
mind
dive
same
small, less
serve
advise
change
ship
no
new
mark
declare
new
number
eye
name
eye
best
beginning
drive
hang
fear
more
people
fight
rule, guide
laugh
climb
cut
settle
feel
watch over
slave
image, imagine, imaginative, imagery
initial, initiate, initiative
integrate, integral, integrity, integer
project, inject, reject, subject, eject, conjecture
kinetic, kinesiology, telekinesis, cinema, cinematic
elapse, collapse, relapse, prolapse
lithograph, monolith, Neolithic, Paleolithic, megalith
prologue, apology, dialogue, eulogy, monologue
lucid, elucidate, translucent, illuminate, luminous
lunar, lunatic, lunette
luster, illustrate, lackluster, illustrious
analysis, paralysis, electrolysis, catalyst
command, demand, mandate, remand
maniac, pyromania, kleptomania, megalomania
maximum, maxim, maximize
mechanic, mechanism, mechanize
memory, remember, memorial, commemorate, mental,
submerge, emerge, merge, merger, submerse, immerse
mimic, pantomime, mimeograph, mime
mini, minimum, minor, minus, minimize
minister, administer, administration
admonish, premonition, monitor, admonition
mutation, immutable, mutual, commute
navy, naval, navigate, circumnavigate
negation, abnegation, negative, renege
neophyte, neoclassical, neonatal, neologism
notation, notable, denote, notice, notify
announce, pronounce, denounce, enunciate
novel, novelty, novice, innovate, nova
numeral, enumerate, numerous, enumerable
oculist, binocular, monocular
synonym, antonym, pseudonym, anonymous
optician, optometrist, optic, optical
optimum, optimist, optimal, optimize
origin, original, originate, aborigine
propel, compel, expel, repel, repellant
pendulum, suspend, append, appendix
claustrophobia, xenophobia, acrophobia, cynophobia
plural, plurality, pluralism
population, popular, pop, populace
pugnacious, pugilist, repugnant, impugn
regal, regent, reign, regulate, regime
ridiculous, deride, derisive, ridicule
ascend, descend, transcend, descent
section, dissect, intersect, sect, bisect
sedative, sediment, sedentary, sedate
sensation, sensitive, sensible, sensory sentimental, dissent
conserve, preserve, reserve, reservoir
serve, servant, service, servile
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Less Common Roots (Continued)
Root
Meaning
Examples
sim (L)
sist (L)
sol (L)
solv (L)
son (L)
soph (G)
spir (L)
sta (L)
strict (L)
sum (L)
surg, surr (L)
tain, ten (L)
ten (L)
term (L)
tex (L)
tort (L)
trud, trus (L)
turb (L)
ven (L)
ver (L)
ver (L)
vict, vinc (L)
vor (L)
like
stand
alone
loosen
sound
wise
breathe
stand
draw tight
highest
rise
hold
stretch
end
weave
twist
push
confusion
come
truth
turn
conquer
eat
similar, simultaneous, simulate, simile
consist, resist, subsist, assist
solo, solitary, desolate, soliloquy
dissolve, solve, solvent, resolve
sonar, sonata, sonnet, unison, sonorous
philosopher, sophomore, sophisticated, sophist
respiration, inspire, spirit, perspire, conspire
station, status, stabile, stagnant, statue
strict, restrict, constrict, stricture
summit, summary, sum, summons
surge, insurgent, resurgent, resurrect, insurrection,
contain, detain, maintain, sustain, tenacious, tenure, tenable
tendon, tendency, tension, tent, tense
terminal, terminate, determine, exterminate
textile, texture, text, context
torture, contort, retort, tort, contortion
intrude, protrude, intruder, intrusive, obtrusive
disturb, turbulent, perturb, turbid
convene, convention, advent, invent, venue
verify, verity, verdict, aver, veracity
convert, reverse, versatile, introvert, convertible
victory, conviction, convince, invincible
voracious, carnivore, herbivore, omnivorous
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LIST 48. -OLOGY WORD FAMILY
Many subjects studied in schools and colleges have -ology in their names. The suffix -ology comes from
Greek and means “science of” or “the study of.” For example, because cardia means “heart,” cardiology
means “science of the heart.” Moreover, because the suffix -ist means “one who practices” (see List 46
More Suffixes), a cardiologist is “one who practices science of the heart.”
Word
Study of
Word
Study of
anthropology
people, culture
histology
living tissue
archaeology
antiquities
hydrology
water
astrology
influence of stars
ideology
doctrine of a group
audiology
hearing
immunology
immunity to disease
bacteriology
bacteria
meteorology
weather
biology
life
microbiology
microbes
biotechnology
use of living organisms
mineralogy
minerals
cardiology
heart
morphology
structures of life or words
chromatology
color
musicology
music
chronology
measuring time
mythology
myths
climatology
climate
neurology
nerves
cosmetology
cosmetics
oncology
tumors
cosmology
universe
ontology
nature of existence
criminology
crime
ornithology
birds
cryptology
codes and ciphers
ophthalmology
eyes
cytology
cells
osteology
bones
demonology
demons
paleontology
fossils
dermatology
skin
pathology
diseases
ecology
life and environments
pharmacology
drugs
embryology
embryo
phrenology
skull
entomology
insects
physiology
life processes
epidemiology
widespread disease
pomology
fruit
epistemology
knowledge
psychology
mind
ethnology
development of cultures
radiology
radiation
etymology
word origins
seismology
earthquakes
genealogy
ancestors
sociology
society
geology
earth
technology
applied science
gerontology
old age
theology
God
graphology
handwriting
toxicology
poisons
gynecology
women
typology
classification by type
hematology
blood
vulcanology
volcanoes
herpetology
reptiles
zoology
animals
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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LIST 49. -PHOBIA AND -PHILIA WORD FAMILIES
The Greek word phobos, meaning “fear,” is combined with a variety of roots to form an interesting group of
phobias. Some of these, such as claustrophobia (fear of closed spaces) or acrophobia (fear of high places),
are quite common; others may be new to you. Use the root words of List 47 Greek and Latin Roots to coin
a few of your own. How about “bibliophilia”? The root philia comes from Latin and means “love.” You
can take almost any -phobia (fear) word and change it to a -philia (love) word. For example: aerophobia
can become aerophilia.
Phobia
Word Meaning
Phobia
Word Meaning
acrophobia
aerophobia
agliophobia
agoraphobia
ailurophobia
amaxophia
androphobia
anthophobia
anthropophobia
arachnophobia
aquaphobia
arachibutyrophobia
gynophobia
hemophobia
herpetophobia
ideophobia
mikrophobia
murophobia
nebulaphobia
necrophobia
numerophobia
nyctophobia
ochlophobia
ophidiophobia
fear of women
fear of blood
fear of reptiles
fear of ideas
fear of germs
fear of mice
fear of clouds
fear of death
fear of numbers
fear of darkness
fear of crowds
fear of snakes
astraphobia
brontophobia
claustrophobia
chromophobia
cynophobia
dementophobia
gephyrophobia
gerontophobia
fear of heights (edges)
fear of flying
fear of pain
fear of open spaces
fear of cats
fear of vehicles, driving
fear of men
fear of flowers
fear of people
fear of spiders
fear of water
fear of peanut butter
sticking to the roof of
your mouth
fear of lightning
fear of thunder
fear of closed spaces
fear of color
fear of dogs
fear of insanity
fear of bridges
fear of old age
optophobia
ornithophobia
phonophobia
pyrophobia
thaasophobia
trichophobia
triskaidekaphobia
xenophobia
fear of opening your eyes
fear of birds
fear of speaking aloud
fear of fire
fear of being bored
fear of hair
fear of thirteen
fear of strangers
Philia
Word Meaning
Philia
Word Meaning
acustiophilia
aerophilia
aleurophilia
anthophilia
anthropophilia
astraphilia
astrophilia
bibliophilia
brontophilia
chionophilia
love of noise
love of air, flying
love of cats
love of plants, flowers
love of people
love of lightning, thunder
love of stars
love of books
love of thunderstorms
love of snow
chromophilia
cynophilia
dendrophilia
graphophilia
hippophilia
lacanophilia
meterophilia
metrophilia
ornithophilia
soleciphilia
love of colors
love of dogs
love of trees
love of writing
love of horses
love of vegetables
love of weather
love of poetry
love of birds
love of worms
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LIST 50. SYNONYMS
Synonyms are words that have similar meanings. Dictionaries often use synonyms in their definitions. There
are whole books of synonyms and special reference works, such as the thesaurus, which have clusters of
words or phrases, all with similar meanings. These are particularly useful in finding just the right word
when writing. Synonyms are often used as context clues in content textbooks and are also used in analogies.
Caution: A word may be a synonym for only one meaning of a word with several meanings; replacing a
word with a synonym without knowing its connotation can have comical or disastrous results.
able—capable—competent
abrupt—sudden—hasty
achieve—accomplish—attain
add—total—sum up
after—following—subsequent
aim—purpose—goal
all—every—entire
allow—permit—grant
anger—rage—fury
answer—response—reply
arrive—reach—get to
ask—question—interrogate
astonish—surprise—amaze
back—rear—behind
bear—endure—tolerate
before—prior to—in front of
begin—start—initiate
below—under—beneath
birth—origin—genesis
border—edge—margin
bother—annoy—pester
boy—lad—youth
brave—courageous—daring
bulge—swell—protrude
busy—occupied—engaged
call—shout—yell
calm—composed—serene
car—auto—vehicle
careful—cautious—prudent
carry—tote—lug
change—vary—alter
charm—fascinate—enchant
cheat—deceive—swindle
children—youngsters—tots
city—borough—town
close—shut—seal
consent—agree—acquiesce
continue—persevere—persist
country—nation—state
cure—heal—restore
danger—peril—hazard
decrease—lessen—diminish
defect—flaw—blemish
delay—postpone—procrastinate
different—varied—diverse
disaster—calamity—catastrophe
divide—separate—split
during—while—at the same time
dwell—live—reside
eat—consume—devour
effort—exertion—endeavor
end—finish—complete
energy—power—strength
enough—adequate—sufficient
error—mistake—fallacy
explain—expound—elucidate
faith—trust—reliance
fat—plump—stout
fetch—bring—retrieve
find—locate—discover
fix—repair—mend
flat—level—flush
food—nourishment—sustenance
form—shape—make up
fragile—delicate—breakable
freedom—independence—liberty
frequent—often—many times
gay—lively—vivacious
gift—present—donation
give—grant—hand over
glum—morose—sullen
go—leave—depart
grateful—appreciative—thankful
great—grand—large
grow—mature—develop
happy—glad—joyous
hard—difficult—troublesome
hate—detest—despise
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
162
have—own—possess
heal—mend—cure
help—aid—assist
hide—conceal—secrete
high—tall—lofty
hold—grasp—clutch
hurry—rush—accelerate
idea—thought—concept
ill—sick—indisposed
income—revenue—earnings
injure—wound—hurt
job—work—occupation
junk—rubbish—waste
just—fair—right
keep—hold—retain
key—answer—solution
kill—slaughter—murder
kind—considerate—helpful
large—big—enormous
last—endure—persist
late—tardy—delayed
learn—acquire—understand
leave—depart—go away
like—enjoy—be fond of
listen—hear—attend
little—small—petite
long—lengthy—drawn out
look—glance—see
mad—crazy—insane
make—build—construct
many—multitudinous—numerous
marvelous—wonderful—extraordinary
mean—stand for—denote
mend—repair—restore
method—way—manner
might—may—perhaps
mistake—error—blunder
move—transport—propel
name—title—designation
near—close by—in the vicinity
need—require—want
new—fresh—recent
noise—uproar—clamor
novice—beginner—learner
occur—happen—take place
often—frequently—repeatedly
old—aged—ancient
omit—delete—remove
one—single—unit
open—unlock—unseal
ornament—decoration—adornment
outlive—survive—outlast
page—sheet—leaf
pain—ache—hurt
pair—couple—duo
pardon—forgive—excuse
part—portion—piece
peak—summit—top
people—public—populace
play—frolic—romp
praise—acclaim—applaud
primary—chief—principal
prohibit—forbid—restrict
put—place—locate
raid—attack—invade
reckless—careless—rash
remote—distant—secluded
renew—restore—revive
respect—honor—revive
revise—alter—correct
right—correct—proper
say—state—remark
seem—appear—look
sell—vend—market
shame—humiliation—mortification
show—demonstrate—display
sorry—regretful—penitent
speed—haste—hurry
start—begin—commence
still—unmoving—silent
stop—halt—end
story—tale—account
strength—power—energy
supply—provide—furnish
surpass—exceed—outdo
take—grab—seize
tense—taut—rigid
terrify—frighten—alarm
thanks—gratitude—appreciation
thaw—melt—dissolve
thief—robber—crook
think—reflect—contemplate
thin—slender—slim
time—period—season
timid—fearful—cowardly
tiny—small—diminutive
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trial—test—experiment
true—faithful—loyal
try—attempt—endeavor
turn—revolve—pivot
ugly—homely—plain
understand—comprehend—discern
unify—consolidate—combine
uproar—tumult—pandemonium
urge—press—exhort
use—operate—employ
vacant—empty—unoccupied
value—worth—price
vast—huge—immense
verify—confirm—substantiate
victor—winner—champion
walk—stroll—saunter
want—desire—crave
waver—fluctuate—vacillate
weak—feeble—impotent
wealth—riches—fortune
word—term—expression
work—labor—toil
world—globe—earth
write—record—draft
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LIST 51. ANTONYMS
Antonyms are words that mean the opposite or nearly the opposite of each other. Both antonyms and
synonyms are often used in tests and language drills. Antonyms are also used in context clues in textbooks
and literature for contrast, as in the sentence: Instead of forbidding him to go, his father allowed him to travel
that night. Caution: A word may be an antonym for only one meaning of a word with several meanings;
using an antonym without considering its connotation can result in the miscommunication of an idea.
above—below
absent—present
accident—intent
accomplishment—failure
achieve—fail
add—subtract
adjacent—distant
admire—detest
admit—reject
adore—hate
advance—retreat
affirm—deny
afraid—confident
after—before
aid—hinder
alarm—comfort
alert—asleep
alive—dead
allow—forbid
alone—together
amateur—professional
amuse—bore
ancient—modern
annoy—soothe
answer—question
apparent—obscure
argue—agree
arrive—depart
arrogant—humble
ascend—descend
attack—defend
attract—repel
awake—asleep
awkward—graceful
back—front
bad—good
bare—covered
beautiful—ugly
before—after
bent—straight
better—worse
big—little
birth—death
bitter—sweet
black—white
blunt—sharp
body—soul
bold—timid
bottom—top
boy—girl
brave—cowardly
break—repair
brief—long
bright—dull
bring—remove
busy—idle
buy—sell
capture—release
cause—effect
cautious—careless
center—edge
change—remain
cheap—expensive
child—adult
chilly—warm
clean—dirty
close—open
cold—hot
command—obey
complex—simple
compliment—insult
constant—variable
continue—interrupt
cool—warm
copy—original
countrymen—foreigner
crazy—sane
crooked—straight
cruel—kind
cry—laugh
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curse—bless
damage—improve
dark—light
dawn—sunset
day—night
deep—shallow
destroy—create
difficult—easy
dim—bright
divide—unite
doubt—trust
drunk—sober
dull—sharp
dumb—smart
earth—sky
east—west
easy—hard
elementary—advanced
end—begin
evening—morning
even—odd
evil—good
exceptional—common
expand—shrink
fail—pass
failure—success
false—true
famous—unknown
fancy—plain
fast—slow
fat—thin
fiction—fact
find—lose
finish—start
firm—flabby
fix—break
follow—lead
forgive—blame
forward—backward
free—restricted
fresh—stale
friend—enemy
full—empty
funny—sad
gain—lose
generous—stingy
gentle—harsh
get—give
give—receive
glad—sad
gloomy—cheerful
glossy—dull
go—come
gorgeous—ugly
great—small
greed—generous
grief—joy
ground—sky
guard—attack
guess—know
handsome—ugly
happy—sad
hard—soft
hate—love
head—foot
heal—infect
healthy—sick
heaven—hell
heavy—light
height—depth
help—hinder
hero—coward
he—she
high—low
hill—valley
him—her
hire—fire
his—hers
horrible—pleasant
hot—cold
huge—tiny
hurry—slow
hurt—help
idle—active
individual—group
innocent—guilty
in—out
inside—outside
intelligent—stupid
jolly—serious
joy—sadness
keep—lose
kind—cruel
knowledge—ignorance
large—small
last—first
laugh—cry
leading—following
leave—arrive
left—right
less—more
let—prevent
level—uneven
lie—truth
life—death
like—dislike
likely—unlikely
liquid—solid
little—big
lively—inactive
lonely—crowded
long—short
loose—tight
lost—found
loud—soft
love—hate
maintain—discontinue
major—minor
make—destroy
male—female
man—woman
many—few
marvelous—terrible
mature—immature
melt—freeze
mess—tidiness
miscellaneous—specific
mistake—accuracy
mix—separate
moist—dry
more—less
most—least
mother—father
move—stay
naive—sophisticated
nasty—nice
near—far
never—always
new—old
nobody—everybody
noise—quiet
none—all
north—south
nothing—something
now—then
no—yes
obese—thin
obvious—hidden
odd—even
offend—please
offer—refuse
often—seldom
old—young
one—several
on—off
ordinary—uncommon
other—same
over—under
pacify—agitate
pain—pleasure
panic—calm
partial—complete
particular—general
part—whole
pass—fail
passive—active
peace—disturbance
perceive—ignore
permanent—unstable
permit—refuse
pessimistic—optimistic
physical—spiritual
place—misplace
plain—fancy
play—work
plentiful—sparse
plump—thin
polish—dull
polite—rude
pollute—purify
poor—rich
positive—negative
powerful—weak
praise—criticism
preceding—following
present—absent
pretty—ugly
prevent—encourage
pride—modesty
private—public
problem—solution
profit—loss
prohibit—allow
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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pupil—teacher
push—pull
quality—inferiority
quick—slow
quiet—noise
quit—start
raise—lower
random—specific
rapid—slow
rare—common
raw—cooked
ready—unprepared
rear—front
reduce—increase
regret—rejoice
relax—tighten
remember—forget
repair—destroy
retain—lose
revenge—forgiveness
ridiculous—sensible
right—wrong
rigid—flexible
rise—sink
rough—smooth
rude—polite
sad—happy
same—different
satisfy—displease
secluded—public
segregate—integrate
seldom—often
sell—buy
send—receive
sensational—dull
servant—master
shack—palace
shade—light
shame—honor
sharp—dull
she—he
short—long
show—hide
shy—trusting
sick—healthy
silence—sound
single—married
single—plural
sit—stand
slave—master
slender—fat
slow—fast
small—large
soak—dry
sober—drunk
some—none
something—nothing
sorrow—gladness
sour—sweet
speechless—talkative
spend—earn
stale—fresh
started—finished
start—stop
stay—leave
steal—provide
sterile—fertile
stiff—flexible
still—moving
stingy—generous
stop—go
stranger—friend
strength—weakness
student—teacher
sturdy—weak
sunrise—sunset
superb—inferior
supple—rigid
survive—die
suspect—trust
take—give
tall—short
tame—wild
teach—learn
temporary—permanent
thaw—freeze
there—here
thin—thick
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167
thorough—incomplete
thrifty—wasteful
tidy—messy
tie—loosen
timid—bold
to—from
together—apart
told—asked
top—bottom
toward—away
tragic—comic
transform—retain
transparent—opaque
triumph—defeat
true—false
truth—lie
ultimate—primary
union—separation
unique—common
up—down
upset—stabilize
urge—deter
vacant—full
vague—definite
vanish—appear
vast—limited
vertical—horizontal
villain—hero
visitor—host/hostess
waive—require
wake—sleep
wealth—poverty
weep—laugh
well—badly
wet—dry
white—black
wild—tame
win—lose
with—without
worship—detest
worth—uselessness
wreck—create
LIST 52. WORDS WITH MULTIPLE MEANINGS
Many words have several meanings. Multiple meaning words are not always difficult, but they can be
surprising. They are particularly troublesome for students who are learning English and have not had
experience hearing the words used in more than one context. As you encounter words that have multiple
meanings, be sure to point them out to students and ask what other ways they have heard the word used
and what it meant in that context.
Some standardized tests include multiple meaning words in their vocabulary knowledge sections.
Familiarity with the type of test items used can help students demonstrate what they know. For example,
one item format asks students to pick from three or four multiple meaning words the one that can be used
to complete two sentences, such as the following: A ____ is equal to thirty-six inches. The children played
in the _____. (a) park (b) yard (c) foot (d) room.
Multiple meaning words are also called polysemous words. Here are some common ones to share with
your students.
arms
ball
bank
bark
bat
bit
blow
bridge
case
compound
count
cue
date
fair
fan
He placed the child in her mother’s arms.
The rebels needed to buy arms to fight the war.
The ball rolled under the table.
The women wore their prettiest dresses to the ball.
You can cash your check at the bank.
We had a picnic on the bank of the river.
Did you hear the dog bark?
The bark on the old tree is dry and brittle.
A bat flew from the barn and frightened me.
The children played with the bat and ball.
Jenn checked the bit in the horse’s mouth.
I bit into the apple.
It will take just a bit longer.
The wind began to blow, and the leaves fell.
The blow to his head knocked the fighter out.
We crossed the bridge over the Raritan River.
Bridge is a card game for four people.
She put her eyeglasses in their case.
The lawyer won her first case.
The soldiers surrounded the enemy compound.
A compound sentence is made of two clauses.
The duke, count, and earl received awards.
The child is learning to count from one to ten.
The actor missed his cue and did not say his line.
He held the cue steady and aimed at the eight ball.
Luis asked Tatiana for a date.
Today’s date is March 28.
The weather was fair on the day of the race.
The judge’s decision was fair.
We went on the rides at the fair.
Ryan is a football fan; he never misses a game.
It’s very warm; please, turn on the fan.
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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file
firm
fold
game
hide
grave
hold
jam
kind
last
like
line
long
mean
mine
miss
net
pen
period
present
press
Put your papers in the file.
The children marched in a single file.
The prisoner used a file to cut the metal bar.
When he finished college, he joined a law firm.
Apples should be firm, not soft.
Fold your paper in half.
The girl took care of the sheep in the fold.
It sounded exciting, so I was game to try it.
Poker is his favorite card game.
The belts were made from the hide of a cow.
I usually hide the gifts for the children’s birthdays.
There was no laughter on the grave occasion.
The coffin was lowered into the grave.
The sailors put their supplies into the ship’s hold.
Hold the string or the balloon will drift away.
I tried to jam one more coat into the full closet.
We put strawberry jam on our toast.
We were stuck in a traffic jam for an hour.
What kind of ice cream do you like?
She was always kind and gentle
I hope this will last until Tuesday.
The last time I saw her she was very thin.
A briefcase is like a backpack for business people.
I like fudge cookies.
We stood in line to get tickets.
Write your name on the line.
I long to go to a quiet beach.
How long is the story?
What did you mean when you said that?
He was mean and unkind.
We calculated the mean score for the two teams.
The silver ore is brought out of the mine in carts.
Put you chair next to mine.
Miss Raven is wearing a pink sweater.
I will miss you when you move to the city.
The fish were caught in the net, not on hooks.
After I paid the taxes, my net pay was $300.
The pigs live in a pen.
Sign your name with this pen.
Remember to put a period after initials.
I was tired by the time we got to our fourth period class.
The Middle Ages is my favorite period of history.
John was absent on Friday, not present.
For her birthday, Michele received a present from Lisa.
The editor and other members of the press took notes.
Ask the tailor to press this skirt.
Press the button to start the machine.
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raise
rare
rest
seal
second
sole
spell
stable
stick
story
temple
tick
time
tire
vault
wake
well
will
yard
Mom got a pay raise so we celebrated.
Our family plans to volunteer to raise a guide dog.
Our scout troop wants to raise money for our camping trip.
I like my steak rare, not well done.
Only three people have ever owned this rare coin.
Anna will do the rest of the shopping.
After the long walk up the hill, I wanted to rest.
The seal on the bottle of vitamins was broken.
I watched the seal do tricks at the aquarium.
The award had a gold seal on it.
After I put my letter in, I will seal the envelope.
There are sixty seconds in a minute.
I was second today, but tomorrow I might be first.
I ordered the sole for lunch because I like fish.
He was the sole survivor of the crash.
There was a hole in the sole of his shoe.
The child learned to spell his name.
The witch put a magic spell on the tree.
Put the horses in the stable.
He may leave the hospital if his breathing is stable.
The glue was dried, and the stamp would not stick.
We collected sticks and leaves for the fire.
This is a five-story building.
Tell the children a bedtime story.
He took two aspirin for the pain in his temple.
The men walked to the temple to pray.
Ticks are insects that spread Lyme’s disease.
Can you hear the clock tick?
What time is it?
We had a difficult time getting all the balloons into the car.
I never tire of hearing my favorite music.
I had a flat tire on my new car.
The athlete vaulted the six-foot barrier with ease.
The actress put her diamond jewelry in the vault.
Be quiet or you will wake the baby.
The waves in the wake of the speedboat were very high.
I feel very well today.
The boy put the bucket into the well to get water.
The lawyer wrote a will for the old man before he died.
I will see the man tomorrow, not today.
A yard is equal to thirty-six inches.
We had a picnic in the yard.
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LIST 53. ONOMATOPOEIA
Onomatopoeic words resemble the sound to which they refer. For example, a cow moos. The word onomatopoeia comes from Greek and means “name making.” These words are favorites with poets and comicstrip writers because they help describe the sounds for the actions in the stories and poems. Entertainers
also love them, and children’s authors use them regularly. Your students will enjoy them and probably add
some to this list.
If your students have different language backgrounds, an interesting multicultural lesson is to compare
the sounds animals make in different languages. For example, dogs don’t say “bow wow” in all languages.
Instead they may say “gnaf gnaf” (French), “wang wang” (Chinese), or “wan wan” (Japanese).
aaaaah
ah choo
ah oo gah
ahem
arf arf
argh
aw
baa
ba-da-bam
ba-da-bing
bah
bam
bang
bang-bang
bark
bash
bawl
bay
beep
beep-beep
belch
bing
bing-bong
blab
blabber
blare
blast
blather
bleat
bleep
bling
blink
blop
blubber
blurt
boing
boink
bong
bonk
boo
boo-hoo
boom
boom-boom-bang
bow-wow
braap
bray
brrrrrh
brrrrring
bump
burble
burp
bur-ring
buzz
caw
cha ching
cheep
chirp
chirrup
chitter
chomp
choo choo
chortle
chug
chuga-chuga
clang
clank
clap
clash
clatter
click
clickety clack
clink
clip clop
clippity clop
clomp
cluck
clunk
cock a doodle doo
conk
coo
cough
crack
crackle
crackling
crash
creak
crinkle
croak
crunch
cuckoo
ding dong
ding-a-ling
ding-ding
drip
drone
drop
dum-dum-da-dum
eek
eeyore
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fizz
flap
flick
flip
flip-flop
flop
flump
flutter
giggle
glub-glub
glug
gong
goosh
grate
grind
groan
growl
grunt
guffaw
gurgle
gush
hack
haha
hahaha
harrumph
hee haw
hiccup
hiss
hohoho
ho-hum
honk
hoot
howl
huff
huff ‘n puff
huh
hum
hurrah
hush
jabber
jangle
jingle
ka-blam
ka-boom
ka-ching
ker-ching
kerchoo
kerplunk
klomp
knock
knock-knock
lisp
lub-dub
meow
mew
moan
moo
mumble
murmur
neigh
oink
oops
ooze
ouch
patter
peal
peep
phew
ping
pitter patter
plink
plink plonk
plop
pluck
plunk
pong
poof
pop
pow
puff
purr
puttputt
quack
rat-a-tat
rattle
ribbit
ring
ring-a-ling
rip
roar
rumble
rush
rustle
screech
shhhhh
shriek
shuffle
shush
sigh
sizzle
slap
slash
slither
slop
slurp
slush
smack
smash
snap
snarl
sniff
sniffle
snip
snore
snort
splash
splat
splatter
splish
splish-splash
sploosh
splosh
splutter
sputter
squawk
squeak
squeal
squelch
squish
stomp
swish
swoosh
thrum
thud
thump
thwack
ticktock
tinkle
tom tom
toot
trickle
twang
tweet
twitter
ugh
varoom
va-va-voom
vroom
waffle
wahoo
wail
whack
whallop
wham
whang
wheeze
whimper
whine
whip
whir
whirr
whish
whisper
whiz
whoo-hoo
whoop
whoopee
whoosh
woof
woof woof
woosh
wop
wow
wowee
yadda yadda
yahoo
yech
yelp
yikes
yip
yippity yap
yuck
yum
yum-yum
zap
zing
zip
zonk
zoom
zzzzzzzzzz
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LIST 54. PORTMANTEAU OR BLENDED WORDS
In Alice in Wonderland, Alice asks Humpty Dumpty what slithy (from the Jabberwocky) means. He tells her
that it means “lithe” and “slimy.” “You can see there are two meanings packed into one word.” Portmanteau
is French for suitcase. The words in the following list are called portmanteau words or blended words because
they fold or blend the meanings of two words into one, just as the two parts of a suitcase become one
piece of luggage. Some language experts estimate that about 5 percent of new words are blended words.
Your students will have fun with these, and understanding the derivations of the words will enhance their
comprehension.
alphabet
alphanumeric
animatronics
avionics
bash
bionic
bit
bleep
blimp B
blog
blotch
blurt
boost
brash
breathalyser
brunch
bumble
camcorder
caplet
carjacking
cellophane
chillaxing
chocoholic
chortle
chump
chunnel
cineplex
clash
clump
con man
contrail
cosmeceutical
daisy
dancercise
daycation
alpha + beta
alphabetic + numeric
animation + electronics
aviation + electronics
bang + smash
biology + electronic
binary + digit
blank out + beep
category + limp
web + log
blot + botch
blow + spurt
boom + hoist
bold + rash
breath + analyzer
breakfast + lunch
bungle + stumble
camera + recorder
capsule + tablet
car + hijacking
cellulose + diaphane
chilling + relaxing
chocolate + alcoholic
chuckle + snort
chunk + lump
channel + tunnel
cinema + complex
clap + crash
chunk + lump
confidence + man
condensation + trail
cosmetic + pharmaceutical
day’s + eye
dance + exercise
day + vacation
ditsy
docudrama
dramedy
droolworthy
dumbfound
econometric
edutainment
electrocute
emoticon
escalator
e-ticket
e-zine
fantabulous
flabbergast
flare
flaunt
flightmare
flog
flop
flounder
flunk
flurry
flush
fortnight
freeware
frenemy
galumph
gasohol
gerrymander
glamping
glimmer
glitterati
glitz
glob
glop
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173
dizzy + dotty
documentary + drama
drama + comedy
drool + worthy
dumb + confound
economy + metric
education + entertainment
electronic + execute
emotion + icon
escalade + elevator
electronic + ticket
electronic + magazine
fantastic + fabulous
flap + aghast
flame + glare
flout + vaunt
flight + nightmare
fake + blog
flap + drop
flounce + founder
flinch + funk
flutter + hurry
flash + gush
fourteen + nights
free + software
friend + enemy
gallop + triumph
gasoline + alcohol
Gerry + salamander
glamour + camping
gleam + shimmer
glitter + literati
glamour + ritz
globe + blob
goo + slop
goodbye
goon
greycation
guesstimate
hassle
hazmat
humongous
infomania
infomercial
infotainment
intercom
Internet
jamboree
jeggings
Medicare
meld
meme
mochaccino
moped
motel
motocross
motorcade
multiplex
Muppet
netiquette
netizen
outpatient
pang
paratroops
petrochemical
pixel
pluot
podcasting
prequel
prissy
pro-am
prod
pulsar
God + be (with) + ye
gorilla + baboon
grey + vacation
guess + estimate
haggle + tussle
hazardous + materials
huge + monstrous
information + mania
information + commercial
information + entertainment
internal + communication
international + network
jam + soiree
jeans + leggings
medicine + care
melt + weld
mimic + gene
mocha + capuccino
motor + pedal
motor + hotel
motor + cross country
motor + cavalcade
multiple + complex
marionette + puppet
Internet + etiquette
Internet + citizen
outside + patient
pain + sting
parachute + troops
petroleum + chemical
picture + element
plum + apricot
iPod + broadcasting
precede + sequel
prim + sissy
professional + amateur
poke + rod
pulsating + star
rubbage
satisfice
scrawl
scrunch
scuzzy
seascape
simulcast
sitcom
skort
skyjack
skylab
slang
slather
slosh
smash
smog
snazzy
soundscape
splatter
splurge
sportscast
squash
squawk
squiggle
swipe
tangelo
taxicab
telecommute
telegenic
telethon
televangelist
Tex-Mex
travelogue
twiddle
twinight
twirl
waddle
workaholic
rubbish + garbage
satisfy + suffice
scribble + sprawl
squeeze + crunch
scrummy + lousy
sea + landscape
simultaneous + broadcast
situation + comedy
skirt + short
sky+ hijack
sky + laboratory
slovenly + language
slap + lather
slop + slush
smack + mash
smoke + fog
snappy + jazzy
sound + landscape
splash + spatter
splash + surge
sports + broadcast
squeeze + crash
squall + squeak
squirm + wiggle
wipe + sweep
tangerine + pomelo
taximeter + cabriolet
telecommunication + commute
television + photogenic
telephone + marathon
television + evangelist
Texan + Mexican
travel + monologue
twist + fiddle
twilight + night
twist + whirl
wade + toddle
work + alcoholic
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LIST 55. CLIPPED WORDS
These are words that have been shortened or clipped by common use, as in sub for submarine. This shortening is called Zipf’s law and is well known in the study of languages.
ad
bike
burger
bus
bust
cab
canter
cent
champ
chemist
clerk
coed
con
copter
cuke
curio
deb
dorm
drape
E-piracy
E-reader
EV
E-waste
exam
fan
fax
Finlit
flu
frack
gab
gym
hack
iron
jet
lab
limo
lube
lunch
advertisement
bicycle
hamburger
omnibus
burst
cabriolet
Canterbury gallop
centum
champion
alchemist
cleric
coeducational student
convict
helicopter
cucumber
curiosity
debutante
dormitory
drapery
electronic piracy
electronic reader
electric vehicle
electronic waste
examination
fanatic
facsimile
financial literacy
influenza
fracture
gabble
gymnasium
hackney
flatiron
jet propulsion
laboratory
limousine
lubricate
luncheon
margarine
mart
math
memo
mend
miss
mod
movie
mum
noob
pants
pen
pep
perk
phone
photo
pike
plane
pop
prof
prom
ref
scram
specs
sport
stat
stereo
still
sub
taxi
teen
tie
trig
trump
tux
van
varsity
zoo
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175
oleomargarine
market
mathematics
memorandum
amend
mistress
modern
moving picture
chrysanthemum
newbie
pantaloons
penitentiary
pepper
percolate
telephone
photograph
turnpike
airplane
popular
professor
promenade
referee
scramble
spectacles
disport
statistics
stereophonic
distill
submarine
taxicab
teenager
necktie
trigonometry
triumph
tuxedo
caravan
university
zoological garden
LIST 56. OXYMORONS
An oxymoron is the use of words with contradictory or clashing ideas next to one another. Oxymorons are
fun to collect and appear frequently in newspapers and advertising. These are some favorites.
accidentally on purpose
accurate estimate
act naturally
adult child
advanced beginner
alone together
approximately equal
awfully good
bankrupt millionaire
bittersweet
black gold
classic novel
clearly confused
clearly misunderstood
clever fool
completely unfinished
constant change
constant variable
cool passion
crash landing
criminal justice
curved line
deafening silence
definite maybe
deliberate mistake
devout atheist
eloquent silence
even odds
exact estimate
expert amateur
first annual
found missing
free slave
freezer burn
fresh frozen
friendly takeover
genuine imitation
global village
good grief
graduate student
growing smaller
guest host
historical present
honest crook
hopelessly optimistic
humane slaughter
icy hot
idiot savant
ill health
increasing declines
inside out
instant classic
intense apathy
jumbo shrimp
larger half
lead balloon
liquid crystal
liquid gas
literal interpretation
little giant
live recording
living dead
living death
loose tights
loosely packed
loud whisper
love-hate relationship
loyal opposition
make haste slowly
militant pacifist
minor disaster
musical comedy
never again
new antiques
new routine
now then
old news
only choice
open secret
organized mess
original copy
paid volunteer
paper tablecloth
paper towel
passive aggressive
peace force
peace offensive
plastic glasses
plastic silverware
plastic straw
plastic wood
poor little rich girl
press release
pretty ugly
random order
real-life fairy tale
resident alien
rock opera
same difference
science fiction
serious fun
seriously funny
silent scream
sleepwalk
soft rock
steel wool
strangely familiar
student teacher
sun shade
sure bet
sweet sorrow
sweet tart
synthetic natural gas
terribly good
unbiased opinion
unconscious awareness
virtual reality
wholesome
wordless book
work party
working vacation
young old person
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LIST 57. SESQUIPEDALIAN SUPERSTARS
The word sesquipedalian literally means “a foot and a half.” Sesquipedalian words are—simply put—long.
Long words are not a modern invention. The word itself was coined in the 1600s referring to the lengthy
words used by some poets. Use the words in this list to practice unlocking meaning with knowledge of root
words and affixes. Students enjoy learning to use these words, so pick three to five a week for an interesting
word study program. The shortest word on the list has only twelve letters!
abovementioned—noted earlier in text
abracadabra—words used by magicians
absentminded—forgetful
acculturation—gaining the habits and ideas of a culture
acetaminophen—non-aspirin medicine used to reduce fevers and pain
acknowledgment—state of being recognized
aforementioned—noted earlier
aggrandizement—to make greater
alphanumeric—using numbers or letters
anagrammatically—related to changing the order of letters in one word to form another
analphabetic—not alphabetic order
anesthesiologist—a doctor who gives pain and sensation medication prior to treatment
anthropocentric—centering views on humans
anthropomorphism—attributing human characteristics to animals or objects
atherosclerosis—condition of having fatty deposits in one’s arteries
authoritarianism—governance with strict obedience
biodegradability—can be broken down naturally to return to elements
bougainvillea—a type of flowering vine
bureaucratization—to organize like a government with rules and procedures
characterization—a description of qualities or appearance
cinematography—shooting of a film
circumambulate—to walk around something
circumlocution—indirect or roundabout way of speaking
circumnavigate—to go around the earth
claustrophobia—fear of enclosed places
colloquialism—part of informal way of speaking
committeewoman—woman who is a member of a committee
compartmentalization—to put into separate sections
consequentially—as a result of
contemporaneous—two things happening at the same time
counterclockwise—going from right to left in a circular motion
counterproductive—outcomes that are opposite of what was intended
cruciverbalist—person who does crossword puzzles
crystallogenesis—production of crystals
dendrochronology—study of tree rings
dermatological—having to do with the skin
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disadvantageous—harmful
disappointment—not as expected
disciplinarian—one who insists on strict rules of behavior
discontinuation—not continuing
disenfranchisement—to take away rights or eligibility
disproportionate—not equal
eavesdropping—listening in secret
electrocardiogram—visual record of electrical activity in the heart
electroencephalogram—visual record of electrical activity in the brain
electromagnetically—caused by the use of an electromagnet
encyclopedia—book containing information on many topics
epidemiological—related to the study of the causes of diseases in populations
euphemistically—using mild or indirect language to refer to something harsh or sensitive
experimentation—to do something and note its outcome
extemporaneous—not rehearsed; without preparation
floccinaucinihilipilification—estimating something as useless
fossilization—process of turning into a fossil
gastroenterology—study of the stomach and intestines
geochronological—relating to the periods in the history of the world
heterogeneous—having different parts or elements
hippopotomonstrosesquipedaliophobia—fear of long words
honorificabilitudinitatibus—honorableness (used by Shakespeare in Love’s Labor’s Lost)
humanitarianism—concern for other people
hyperpolysyllabicsesquipedalianist—person who enjoys using really long words
hypersensitivity—overly sensitive
hyperventilation—rapid shallow breathing
hypochondriac—person who is preoccupied with health issues
iconographer—person who draws illustrations or symbols
idiosyncratic—behavior or characteristic related to an individual
immensurable—not able to be measured; a very large quantity
impenetrability—not able to be penetrated
incomprehensible—impossible to understand
incrimination—appear accused or guilty of a wrong
indistinguishable—impossible to tell apart
interconnectivity—a connection between two or more things
interdepartmental—between two or more departments
interdisciplinary—involving two or more subject areas or disciplines
interscholastic—between schools
kindergartner—child who is in kindergarten
lexicographer—person who writes or edits a dictionary
mathematician—person who works with mathematics
megalomaniacal—obsessed with actions or ideas on a grand scale
metamorphosis—the process of changing from one thing into another
meteorologist—person who studies the weather
microbiologist—person who studies the smallest organisms or living things
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mispronunciation—misarticulating or speaking a word incorrectly
monochromatically—seeming to be of one color
multidimensional—having more than one dimension
neurotransmitter—chemical substance that aids or hinders transmission of nerve impulses
nonconformance—not acting according to accepted practices or rules
nondiscriminatory—does not show difference in behavior toward something or someone
oceanographer—person who studies the oceans
octogenarian—person who is between eighty and eighty-nine years of age
omnivorousness—eating plant and animal foods
orthography—study of spelling
overemphasize—to make too much of
pachydermal—relating to elephants
paleoanthropology—study of early humans
pandemonium—chaos, noisy, and out of control
parallelogram—a closed figure with parallel sides
parenthetical—explanatory information contained within parentheses
peacekeeping—the preserving of peace through enforcement and supervision
perpendicular—at a right angle to
perspicacious—clear thinking and wise
phantasmagorical—dreamlike rapid images
pharmaceutical—relating to drugs or medicines prescribed to treat illness
philosophunculist—person who pretends to know more than he or she actually does
phosphorescence—giving off light after exposure to energy; glow in the dark
polyunsaturated—types of fat or oils such as corn oil and sunflower oil
pomegranate—a red-skinned fruit with many seeds and juicy pulp
prestidigitation—sleight-of-hand magic
primatologist—person who studies apes, monkeys, and other primates
prognosticator—person who makes predictions
pseudonymous—use of a false name, such as a pen name
pseudosophisticated—give the appearance of being worldly
psychodynamic—interaction of mental and emotional processes in behavior
psychosomatic—symptoms of illness caused by emotional or mental stress
pusillanimous—cowardly
pyrotechnist—person who sets off fireworks
quadricentennial—four hundredth anniversary
quasquicentennial—one hundred twenty-fifth anniversary
quinquennium—a five-year period
rambunctious—loud, unruly
reconceptualization—a rethinking of an idea
refurbishment—to restore or renew
reinforcement—to strengthen
reminiscence—a memory
replenishment—replacing or refilling
representative—person, thing, or idea that takes the place of others or serves as an example
responsibilities—duties or obligations
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revolutionary—bringing about a major change
septuagenarian—person who is between seventy and seventy-nine years of age
sesquicentennial—one hundred fiftieth anniversary
simplification—to make more simple or reduce the number of parts
somnambulist—person who walks in his or her sleep
sportsmanship—fair play
stomachache—pain in the abdomen
subterranean—underground
supercilious—prideful, haughty
superfluous—more than needed
syllabication—breaking words into pronounceable parts
tantalizingly—tempting but out of reach
thermokinematics—study of the motion of heat
thousandfold—a thousand times
tintinnabulation—bell ringing
transcontinental—crossing the continent
transcription—a written record of a speech or music
transportation—carrying goods or people from one place to another
trustworthiness—deserves to be trusted
underdevelopment—not as developed as expected
understatement—low key
unexceptionable—not exceptional
unidirectional—coming from one direction
uninformative—not providing information
unperturbed—not worried
vaccination—injection of a vaccine to prevent disease
ventriloquist—person who projects his or her voice to seem that it comes from a puppet or another
direction
verbalization—something spoken
verisimilitude—truth
vernacularism—pertaining to common language
vicissitudes—small annoyances
vinaigrette—a salad dressing using vinegar as a main ingredient
volunteerism—act of offering to do something
vulnerability—able to be hurt
warmhearted—kindly
weatherproof—treated so as to be unharmed by water
whatchamacallit—substitute name for almost anything
xerographic—relating to a photocopy
zenzizenzizenic—the eighth power of a number
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LIST 58. EPONYMS AND TOPONYMS —
WORDS BASED ON NAMES
Did you know that the popular cardigan sweater was named after the Earl of Cardigan? Or that the word
maverick came into use after Samuel Maverick, a Texan, refused to brand his cattle? Or that the word
bikini comes to us from the name of an island in the Pacific? These eponyms (words coined from names
of people—real or fictitious) and toponyms (words coined from place names) can be used to stimulate
students’ interest in word origins.
Eponyms
Adam’s apple
Adam, the first man, who tradition says ate the forbidden fruit, an apple, in the
Garden of Eden
Algorithm
Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, whose last name was
transliterated as Algoritmi, was a Persian (Iranian) mathematician (780–850
AD) who devised rules for calculating and also for using zero as a place holder.
Algebra
Hisab al-jabr w’al-muqabala, the first book on algebra, which was written by Abu
Abdallah Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, a Persian (Iranian)
mathematician (780–850 AD)
America
Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian merchant-explorer who came to the New World
shortly after Columbus
ampere
Andre Ampere, a French physicist
Apgar score
Virginia Apgar, an American anesthesiologist who developed this quick measure of
the health of newborn babies
baud
Jean Baudot, a French inventor who worked on telegraphic communications
Beaufort scale
Sir Francis Beaufort, an English naval officer, who developed a way to describe
wind speed
begonia
Michel Begon, French governor of Santo Domingo and a patron of science who
brought this flower to Europe
Bermuda
Juan de Bermúdez, a Spanish navigator, who discovered the island in 1505
bloomers
Amelia Bloomer, a pioneer feminist who made the undergarment popular
Boolean
George Boole, an English mathematician who set out rules for logic
bowie knife
James Bowie, an American frontiersman who made this type of knife famous
boycott
Charles Boycott, an English land agent in Ireland, who charged high rents. Others
refused to deal with him in any way as a protest against the high rents.
Braille
Louis Braille, a French teacher who invented an alphabet for the blind
Bunsen burner
Robert Bunsen, who in 1855 invented a gas burner as a heat source for his
laboratory experiments
camellia
George Kamel, a Jesuit missionary to the Far East
cardigan
Earl of Cardigan, a British officer whose soldiers wore the knitted sweaters during
the Crimean War
Cartesian
coordinates
René Descartes, a French mathematician and philosopher who invented this system
of locating a point in space
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Eponyms (Continued)
Celsius
Anders Celsius, a Swedish astronomer and inventor
chauvinist
Nicholas Chauvin, a soldier who worshipped France and Napoleon uncritically
Colt revolver
Samuel Colt, an American firearms maker in the 1800s who designed this
well-known handgun
Columbia
Christopher Columbus is honored with the name of the country as well as the US
District of Columbia, the seat of the federal government.
dahlia
Andreas Dahl, a Swedish botanist
decibel
Alexander Bell, a Scottish American inventor of the telephone
diesel
Rudolf Diesel, a German automotive engineer who invented this type of engine that
does not use spark plugs; the fuel they run on is also named after him
Draconian
Draco, the first legislator of ancient Athens who kept the peace with excessively
harsh laws
dunce
Johannes Duns Scotus, a theologian whose followers were called Dunsmen and
were harassed for following what some thought of as ridiculous theories
Epicurean
Epicurus, a Greek philosopher who was devoted to pleasure through food and drink
Fahrenheit
Gabriel Fahrenheit, a German physicist
Ferris wheel
G. M. Ferris, a engineer who invented the large wheeled amusement ride
Frisbee
William Frisbie, a pie company owner in Connecticut in 1871; Yale students played
catch with the pie tins
Fuchsia
Leonhard Fuchs, a German botanist
galvanize
Luigi Galvani, an Italian physicist who demonstrated electricity can be produced by
a chemical-metal reaction and who discovered the electrical basis of nerve
impulses
gardenia
Alexander Garden, a Scottish American botanist
gargantuan
Gargantua, a gigantic character in Rabelais’s novel The Life of Gargantua and of
Pantagruel
gerrymander
Elbridge Gerry, a Massachusetts governor in 1810 who redrew election districts to
favor his party
graham crackers
Sylvester Graham, an American reformer in dietetics and a vegetarian who
developed a healthy cracker
guillotine
Joseph Guillotin, a French physician who developed this efficient machine and
urged its use for humane beheadings
Jacuzzi
Candido Jacuzzi, the Italian American inventor of the whirlpool spa
Leninism
Nikolai Lenin, Russian communist revolutionary
leotard
Jules Leotard, a French acrobat who designed the close-fitting costume for his
trapeze act
loganberry
James H. Logan, a judge and a gardener who developed this hybrid berry, which is
similar to a raspberry
Luddite
Ned Ludd, an Englishman who led a group of people opposed to mechanization
Lutheran
Martin Luther, a German priest who started a break-away Christian religion in
protest to perceived errors in the Catholic church
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Eponyms (Continued)
macadam
John Loudon McAdam, a Scottish engineer who invented this road-building
material
mach number
Ernst Mach, an Austrian philosopher and physicist
Machiavellian
Niccolo Machiavelli, the sixteenth-century Italian historian and author of The
Prince, which placed maintaining political power over morality in government
mackintosh
Charles MacIntosh, inventor of rainproof material
magnolia
Pierre Magnol, a French botanist
malapropism
Mrs. Malaprop, a character in Sheridan’s The Rivals
martinet
Jean Martinet, a seventeenth-century French army drill master
Marxism
Karl Marx, a German Communist philosopher
masochistic
Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, an Austrian writer who described the pleasure he got
from his own pain and humiliation
maverick
Samuel Maverick, a Texan who didn’t brand his cattle
mesmerize
Frederich Mesmer, an Austrian physician who practiced hypnotism
Morse code
Samuel Morse, an American inventor and painter who developed a communication
system based on dots and dashes that could be used on a telegraph
nicotine
Jean Nicot, a French diplomat who introduced the tobacco plant to France about
1561
ohm
Georg Simon Ohm, a German physicist and an early researcher in the movement of
electric current
pasteurize
Louis Pasteur, a French bacteriologist who invented the process to remove harmful
bacteria from milk by heating it
platonic
Plato, the Greek philosopher
poinsettia
Joel Poinsettia, US ambassador to Mexico
praline
Marshal Duplessis-Praslin, whose cook invented this nut and sugar candy
Pullman
George M. Pullman, railroad designer
quixotic
Don Quixote, a character in a Miguel de Cervantes’s novel who is exceedingly
idealistic and impractical
Richter scale
Charles Richter, an American seismologist
ritzy
César Ritz, owner of famously stylish and expensive hotels
sadistic
Marquis de Sade, a French aristocrat who took pleasure in other’s pain
salmonella
Daniel Elmer Salmon, an American veterinary doctor who discovered that this
bacteria caused food poisoning
sandwich
John Montagu, fourth Earl of Sandwich, who invented it so he could gamble
without stopping for a regular meal
saxophone
Anton Sax, Belgian instrument maker who combined a clarinet’s reed with oboe
fingering
sequoia
Sequoia, the Cherokee Indian chief who invented an alphabet; the trees were named
for him by a Hungarian botanist
shrapnel
Henry Shrapnel, an English artillery officer who invented the exploding shell that
sent out metal fragments
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Eponyms (Continued)
sideburns
Ambrose Burnside, a Civil War general and governor of Rhode Island who had
thick side whiskers
silhouette
Etienne de Silhouette, a French finance minister of Louis XV whose fiscal policies
and amateurish portraits (by him) were regarded as inept
Spoonerism
William A. Spooner, an English clergyman, who frequently erred in speech by
transposing initial sounds in words, as in, Is the bean dizzy? (Is the dean busy?)
Stalinism
The political beliefs of Joseph Stalin, Russian political leader
Stetson
John Stetson, an American who owned a hat factory in Philadelphia that featured
western styles
tawdry
St. Audrey, queen of Northumbria; used to describe lace sold at her fair
teddy bear
Teddy Roosevelt, president of the United States, who spared the life of a bear cub
on a hunting trip in Mississippi
Tootsie Rolls
Clara “Tootsie” Hirshfield, the daughter of Leo Hirshfield, an American candy
maker
valentine
St. Valentine, a Christian martyr whose feast day is February 14—the same date,
according to Roman tradition, that birds pair off to nest
vandal
Vandals, the Germanic tribe that sacked Rome
volt
Alessandro Volta, an Italian physicist who invented the battery in the 1800s
watt
James Watt, a Scottish engineer and inventor whose steam engine contributed to the
Industrial Revolution
Winchester rifle
Oliver F. Winchester, American gun manufacturer
wisteria
Caspar Wistar, an American anatomist
zany
Zanni, a traditional clown character in the Italian Commedia dell’ arte, a
sixteenth-century form of improvisational theater
zeppelin
German Count von Zeppelin who developed the gas-filled, lighter-than-air ship
zinnia
Johann G. Zinn, a German botanist
Toponyms
academy
Academeia, a garden where Plato taught his students
Alberta clipper
Canadian province of Alberta
badminton
Badminton, in Gloucestershire, England
balkanization
The Balkans, a region in southeastern Europe
bedlam
St Mary of Bethlehem, the first hospital for the insane in London
bikini
Bikini Atoll (in Pacific Ocean)
bohemian
Bohemia, where it was thought that gypsies originated
Bronx cheer
The Bronx, a borough of New York City, where the rude mouth-made sound
originated
byzantine
Byzantium (now Istanbul, Turkey), the capital of the Byzantine Empire known
for the complexity of its laws
calico
Calicut, India
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Toponyms (Continued)
canary
Canary Islands, original home of the small yellow bird
cashmere
Kashmir, India
chihuahua
Chihuahua, Mexico, where the small dog breed goes back centuries
coach
Kocs, Hungary, where this type of carriage was first made
cologne
Cologne, Germany
damask
Damascus, Syria
denim
Nimes, France—serge de Nimes (fabric of Nimes)
duffel bag
Duffel, Belgium, where they were first made of a heavy wool material
fez
Fez, Morocco, a type of hat worn there
frankfurter
Frankfurt, Germany
gauze
Gaza, Palestine
geyser
Geysir, Iceland, home of a famous hot water spring
hamburger
Hamburg, Germany
jeans
Genoa, Italy
Labrador retriever
Labrador, Canada
laconic
Laconia (Sparta, Greece)
Leyden jar
Leyden, Holland
limousine
Limousin, an old French province
mackinaw
Mackinac City, Michigan
madras
Madras, India, a coastal city known for this lightweight cotton fabric
magenta
Magenta, Lombardy, refers to the deep reddish-purple color of the ground that
was blood-soaked during a battle in which more than seven thousand
soldiers were killed.
manila paper
Manila, the Philippines
marathon
Marathon, Greece
meander
Meander River, Turkey, a river that bends and twists
muslin
Mosul, Iraq, known for this lightweight fabric
Neanderthal
Neanderthal, Germany, where fossils of this early stage of man were found
Olympian
Mount Olympus, Greece
paisley
Paisley, Scotland, where the design was first used in shawls
panama hat
Panama, Central America
rhinestone
Rhine River, which flows in Switzerland, Germany, and the Netherlands
Roquefort cheese
Roquefort, a French town
Rubicon
Rubicon River in northern Italy crossed by Julius Caesar, which became a
turning point in world history
Tabasco sauce
Tabasco, Mexico
tangerine
Tangier, Morocco
Trojan horse
Troy, an ancient city in modern-day Turkey
turquoise
Turkey
tuxedo
Tuxedo Park, New York
worsted wool
Worsted, England
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LIST 59. NEOLOGISMS OR NEW WORDS
The English language is constantly changing. New words and phrases are coined, some existing words fade
away, and others take on new meanings. Most neologisms, or new words, aren’t truly new but are the result
of clipping (shortening words), blending (adding the meaning of two words), or building (using roots and
affixes) to form words that convey current ideas. The word neologism meaning “new word” was built using
the Greek prefix neo for new and the root logos for “speech” or “utterance.” This list shows some of the
recent additions to American English by way of politics, technology, popular culture, science, and other
expanding areas.
affluenza (n)
agritourism (n)
aha moment (n)
air quotes (n)
app (n)
applepick (v)
au pair (v)
automagically (adv)
baggravation (n)
bargainous (adj)
below the line (adv)
big data (n)
binge-watch (v)
bling (n)
boomerang child (n)
brain cramp (n)
breadcrumbs (n)
bromance (n)
bucket list (n)
busking (v)
buzz (n)
buzzkill (n)
buzzword (n)
captcha (n)
A blend of affluence and influenza; a social malady caused by excessive focus
on earning more and consuming more, which can lead to overwork, debt,
stress, and hyper consumerism
A blend of agriculture and tourism; a form of tourism in which vacationers
stay on farms or in agricultural villages and often participate in farm
activities
A moment of sudden insight, recognition, comprehension, or inspiration
A gesture made by raising and flexing the index and middle fingers of both
hands to call attention to a spoken word(s)
A clipped version of application; a software program that performs a specific
task
To steal someone’s smartphone, especially an Apple iPhone
To work as an au pair for a person or family, usually in another country so
as to learn its language and culture
To perform a task automatically as if by magic
Blend of the words bag and aggravation; a feeling of annoyance at the airport
when other passengers’ baggage has arrived but yours has not
Priced less than expected; relatively inexpensive
Referring to the space below an online article or blog where readers can post
comments
A large collection of digital information that can be analyzed to reveal trends
and insights
To watch several episodes of a particular television program in succession
Showy jewelry, clothing, or personal accessories, often expensive
A young adult who returns to live with his family after college or for
financial reasons
Temporary confusion resulting in an error or poor judgment
A tool for online navigation that lists page links showing where one has
visited on the website
A blend of brother and romance; a close nonsexual friendship between men
A list of things a person wants to do before dying
Performing in public places for donations; being a street performer
Interest or excitement around an event, product, or person
Someone or something that depresses a good mood or feeling
A word or expression that becomes fashionable or trendy, especially with a
certain age group or other demographic
An acronym for completely automated public Turing test to tell computers
and humans apart; a distorted graphic of letters and/or numbers that can
be read online by human but not by computers; used to ensure that a
response is not computer generated
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carbon footprint (n)
catastrophize (v)
citizen journalism (n)
click bait (n)
cloud computing (n)
clunker (n)
cool hunter (n)
cosmeceutical (n)
craft beer (n)
crowdfunding (n)
crowdsourcing (n)
cyberchondriac (n)
cyberspying (n)
cyberloafing (v)
cyberslacking (v)
dark energy (n)
decruitment (n)
deleverage (v)
drug driving (v)
dunlop effect (n)
dwarf planet (n)
earworm (n)
e-cruitment (n)
e-lancer (n)
energy drink (n)
e-piracy (n)
e-reader (n)
ev (n)
e-waste (n)
exit strategy (n)
fiscal cliff (n)
fist bump (n)
The amount of carbon compounds released into the atmosphere by the
activities of a person, company, country, or other entity
To perceive or present a situation as far worse than it really is
News, including video and text, collected and recorded by ordinary people,
often by those in the immediate vicinity of an event, and uploaded to one
or more websites
Something placed on a website that entices or encourages visitors to click on
the related link
An online service that allows users to share resources, such as applications
and storage space, and access these resources over the Internet
A failure or unsuccessful venture
A person tasked with observing and predicting new trends, especially in
fashion
A pharmaceutical product with cosmetic benefits
A specialty beer produced in small or limited quantities
A method of raising money for something by inviting a large number of
people to make small contributions through a website
A method of getting information from a large group of people (paid and/or
unpaid) who contribute online
A person who imagines she or he has an illness after reading about its
symptoms on the Internet.
The use of computer networks and electronic communication to illegally
access confidential government or corporate information
To spend time at work on the Internet doing personal things
Using Internet and electronic communication access at work for personal
purposes
A hypothetical form of energy that opposes gravity and is thought to be the
cause of the expansion of the universe
A euphemism for laying off staff or downsizing a company
To reduce the level of debt quickly by selling off assets
Driving a vehicle while under the influence of drugs
A fleshy roll protruding over the waistband of someone’s tight-fitting jeans
or pants (usually referring to a male; see muffin top)
A spherical mass orbiting the sun that is too small to have a gravitation effect
on other orbiting bodies
A melody or song that keeps repeating in one’s mind
Online recruitment of employees, including online submission of résumé and
cover letters
A professional person who works from home and provides services through
the Internet
A beverage that typically contains caffeine and other ingredients thought to
increase the drinker’s energy level
Electronic piracy; the illegal downloading of copyrighted material from the
Internet
A handheld electronic device designed to be used for reading electronic
versions of books and other digital material
A vehicle powered by electricity stored in rechargeable batteries
Electronic devices and related material that have been thrown away
A planned means of getting out of a specific situation or circumstance
A deadline date after which serious financial consequences would be in effect
A gesture between friends or acquaintances made by raising a fist and
tapping it to the other’s raised fist signifying greetings, goodbye,
agreement, or other positive sentiment
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flash mob (n)
flexitarian (n)
food coma (n)
frack (v)
frankenfood (n)
freemium (n)
frenemy (n)
game changer (n)
gassed (adj)
geek (n)
geocaching (n)
geodata (n)
gin up (v)
illiterati (n)
helicopter parent (n)
Henry (n)
hotspot (n)
ice number (n)
infinity pool (n)
infomania (n)
infotainment (n)
infosnacking (v)
jigsaw family (n)
jumbrella (n)
kiteboarding (n)
laymanize (v)
life coach (n)
live blog (n)
locavore (n)
mashup (n)
m-commerce (n)
mocktail (n)
A crowd, organized through social media, that gathers in a specified
location, performs an action, then leaves quickly
A vegetarian who sometimes eats meat or fish
A sleepy state brought on by the consumption of a large quantity of food
To inject a liquid at high pressure into rock to force open existing cracks with
the intention of extracting trapped oil or gas
A slang expression referring to genetically modified food
A business strategy whereby basic services are free but more advanced or a
wider range of services are fee based
A person with whom you are friendly who is also someone you dislike or
with whom you compete
An element introduced into an existing situation that alters that situation in
a significant way
A slang term meaning exhausted or drained of energy
A person obsessively concentrated on a particular interest, especially new
technological devices
An activity or game similar to road rally scavenger hunt in which teams are
given geographical coordinates for items on the hunt list and are found by
using a GPS device
Computerized geographical data
A slang term referring to increasing or intensifying a feeling or perception,
often by dubious means
Individuals who are not well informed about a specific topic
A parent who is overly involved or protective of a child; one who hovers over
a child
A demographic designation for high earner, not rich yet; Henrys have annual
incomes of between $100,000 and $250,000
A location where wireless Internet access is available
The phone number, stored on a contact list of a mobile phone, of the person
to be contacted in case of emergency
A swimming pool having an edge over which water flows into a trough and is
recirculated into the pool but seems to flow endlessly into the horizon
A constant desire to check and respond to e-mail, text messages, and news
via mobile phone or computer
A blend of information and entertainment
The practice of going online for brief periods throughout the day to skim
multiple information sites
A family that includes the children from each partner’s previous
relationship(s) as well as children they have together
A blend of jumbo and umbrella; a very large umbrella over outdoor tables
A sport in which a person rides across on a small surfboard while powered
by the wind against a large kite attached to the rider
To explain a technical point in terms an ordinary person would understand
An advisor who helps people make decisions, set personal goals, or deal with
problems
A blog providing commentary about an event in progress
A person who eats only food produced locally
Something created by combining parts from two or more sources
A business transaction using a mobile computing device (smartphone or
tablet)
Nonalcoholic drink that looks like a cocktail
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188
MOOC (n)
muffin top (n)
nanny (v)
nano break (n)
nomophobia (n)
notspot (n)
Noughties (n)
omnishambles (n)
optics (n)
overleveraged (adj)
overparenting (v)
oversharing (v)
password fatigue (n)
paywall (n)
photobomb (v)
purple state (n)
robocall (n)
sandwich generation (n)
shovel-ready (adj)
showrooming (n)
soft skills (n)
staycation (n)
street food (n)
subprime (n)
super pac (n)
superstorm (n)
systemic risk (n)
textonym (n)
textspeak (n)
textual harassment (n)
tipping point (n)
tombstoning (v)
toxic (adj)
tribal marketing (n)
underwater (adj)
An acronym for massive open online course, an online learning experience
most often offered by colleges and universities
A fleshy roll protruding over the waistband of someone’s tight-fitting jeans
or pants (usually referring to a female; see dunlop effect)
To provide childcare to someone else’s child or children
A one-night holiday or going away from home for one night
Fear of losing one’s mobile phone or of being outside signal range; from “no
more phone phobia”
An area where there is slow Internet access or no connection at all
The years between 2000 and 2009 which contain a nought (zero)
A situation characterized by multiple errors and mishaps
The way a situation appears to the general public or the impression it gives
The state of having taken on too much debt
Being excessively protective and controlling of one’s child
Providing too much information of a personal nature on the Internet or in
person
Being tired of having to remember a large number of passwords
A website feature that restricts access to some or all of the site’s content to
paying subscribers
To move into the background of a photo just before it is taken
A US state that has an equal number of voting Democrats and Republicans
An automated telemarketing call that plays a recorded message
Members of a demographic who care for their parents’ needs as well as for
their children’s
A construction project or site prepared and ready for the start of work
A consumer practice in which the buyer visits a store or stores to check a
product in person before purchasing it online for a lower price
A set of personal characteristics that enable one to interact effectively with
others
A vacation in which you stay at home and relax or visit places close to home
Food prepared and sold by vendors from a truck or cart in a public location
Something risky or less than optimal; usually referring to higher than regular
interest rates for mortgages to borrowers who have a poor credit history
A political action committee that can raise and spend unlimited amounts of
money for ads on behalf of political candidates with few restrictions
An unusually large and destructive storm resulting from the meeting of two
or more storm systems
The risk that the failure of one part of the system would cause other
interconnected parts to fail
A word predicted by software based on letters entered into a keypad
The language consisting of abbreviations, initializations, emoticons, and the
like used in text messaging with mobile phones
Insults or other negative messaging sent to one’s mobile phone
A critical point in a situation after which significant change or effects occur
Diving or jumping into water from a dangerously high place
Reference to an asset that has lost so much value it can no longer be sold on
the market
A marketing strategy focused on the behavior or beliefs of specific groups of
consumers
Relating to a mortgage loan for which more is owed than the property is
worth
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upcycle (v)
upskill (v)
ux (n)
vr (n)
viral marketing (n)
vuvuzela (n)
wardrobe malfunction (n)
webinar (n)
wing nut (n)
wordle (n)
zumba (n)
To repurpose or reuse something in a way that results in a thing of higher
quality or value than the original
To teach someone new or advanced skills
An abbreviation for user experience
An abbreviation for virtual reality
A marketing strategy that encourages people to spread an idea or
information to all their friends via social media so that the message
spreads like a virus
A long horn blown by fans at soccer games
An accidentally exposure of a private part of the body resulting from the
unexpected slipping or coming apart of a costume element
A presentation or seminar conducted over the Internet
A person whose ideas lie far to the right or left of their nominal group
A graphic representation of a set of words in which the frequency of each
word in the set determines its relative size in the graphic; also called
word cloud or text cloud
A fitness activity combining lively music with dance and exercises
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LIST 60. WORDS BORROWED FROM OTHER LANGUAGES
Words borrowed from other languages, also called loanwords by lexicographers, may enter a language when
people “borrow” a word for which there is no appropriate term in their own language or when people in
a location simply adopt a word from another language. American English includes words from more than
120 languages. Many are so common we forget where they came from. Words of Greek and Latin origin are
not included because many can be found in List 47, Greek and Latin Roots. Note the origins of our calendar
words at the end of the list. Introducing students to word origins helps them recognize the dynamic nature
of language and the connectedness of people around the globe.
African Words
apartheid
banana
banjo
cola
gnu
impala
jazz
jive
jumbo
marimba
mojo
mumbo jumbo
raffia
safari
samba
yam
zebra
zombie
Arabic Words
admiral
alchemy
alcohol
alcove
alfalfa
algebra
algorithm
apricot
artichoke
assassin
average
azure
bazaar
candy
carafe
caravan
check
cipher
coffee
cork
cotton
elixir
ghoul
harem
hummus
jar
kebab
lemon
magazine
mattress
monsoon
muslin
nadir
serendipity
sherbet
sola
syrup
tariff
zenith
zero
Australian Words
boomerang
dingo
kangaroo
koala
nugget
Chinese Words
china (porcelain)
chow
chow mein
gung ho
kowtow
mahjong
shantung
soy
tea
tofu
tong
typhoon
wok
yen
Czech Words
pistol
polka
robot
Dutch Words
boss
brandy
bush
coleslaw
cookie
deck
drill
elope
luck
maelstrom
pickle
roster
Santa Claus
scout
skate
sketch
skipper
sled
V O C A B U L A RY B U IL DE RS
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sleight
slim
sloop
splice
split
stoop
stove
wagon
yacht
Indian Words
avatar
bungalow
cashmere
catamaran
cheetah
cot
curry
dinghy
guru
juggernaut
jungle
karma
khaki
loot
pajamas
shampoo
shawl
teak
thug
veranda
French Words
ambiance
attorney
authority
bail
ballet
bizarre
blond
boulevard
bouquet
brochure
cadet
caprice
carousel
chagrin
charade
charity
chef
clergy
clientele
coroner
crime
debris
depot
detour
entourage
essay
expose
fiancé
fiancée
garage
gourmet
government
impromptu
judge
jury
justice
liberty
lingerie
malapropos
mayor
migraine
minister
morale
morgue
motif
naive
nee
noel
nocturne
nuance
pastor
penchant
pension
progress
protégé
public
raconteur
rebel
religion
résumé
sabotage
suede
suite
ticket
traitor
treasurer
troop
trophy
vague
verdict
viola
vis-à-vis
German Words
angst
aspirin
automat
delicatessen
diesel
ecology
Fahrenheit
flak
frankfurter
gestalt
gestapo
gesundheit
glitz
hamburger
kaput
kindergarten
liverwurst
loaf
paraffin
pumpernickel
sauerkraut
schema
spiel
strudel
torte
waltz
wanderlust
Hebrew Words
amen
bar mitzvah
cider
cinnamon
kosher
menorah
rabbi
shalom
shekel
Hungarian Words
coach
goulash
paprika
sabre
Irish Words
blarney
brat
whiskey
Italian Words
alfresco
attitude
balcony
ballot
bandit
banister
bankrupt
bologna
bravo
brigade
bronze
cannon
carnival
cartoon
casino
cavalry
cello
colonel
confetti
duel
fiasco
finale
ghetto
gondola
graffiti
incognito
infantry
influenza
jean
macaroni
malaria
mascara
mask
mosaic
pasta
pastel
piano
prima donna
propaganda
relief
risk
segue
sentinel
spaghetti
stiletto
stucco
torso
trio
virtuoso
vista
volcano
wig
Japanese Words
banzai
bonsai
futon
hibachi
honcho
judo
jujitsu
kamikaze
karaoke
karate
kimono
origami
sayonara
soy
sushi
tsunami
tycoon
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Native American
Words
chipmunk
pow wow
skunk
squash
kayak
moccasin
pecan
tobacco
totem
wigwam
(many place names,
such as Iowa and
Utah)
marmalade
pagoda
peon
samba
Russian Words
commissar
cosmonaut
czar
dacha
intelligentsia
Kremlin
mammoth
parka
politburo
sputnik
Polynesian Words
aloha
hula
taboo
Portuguese Words
albino
breeze
commando
fetish
Sanskrit Words
karma
mantra
nirvana
yoga
Spanish Words
adios
adobe
alfalfa
alligator
amigo
armada
avocado
bronco
burro
cafeteria
canoe
canyon
cargo
chocolate
corral
coyote
fiesta
flotilla
guitar
hurricane
junta
loco
mesa
Montana
mosquito
palomino
patio
pinto
plaza
poncho
potato
ranch
rodeo
rumba
sierra
silo
tobacco
tomato
tornado
tortilla
Turkish Words
kiosk
sherbet
shish kebab
yogurt
Yiddish Words
bagel
chutzpah
glitch
kibbutz
klutz
nosh
pastrami
schmaltz
schlep
Borrowed Calendar Words
Sunday
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
The sun’s day
The moon’s day
Tiw’s day; Tiw was the Teutonic god of war
Woden’s day; Woden was the Norse god of the hunt
Thor’s day; Thor was the Norse god of the sky
Fria’s day; Fria, the wife of Thor, was the Norse goddess of love and beauty
Saturn’s day; Saturn was the Roman god of agriculture
In honor of Janus, the Roman god with two faces, one looking forward and one
looking backward
In honor of februa, the Roman feast of purification
In honor of Mars, the Roman god of war
A reference to spring, aprilis, the Latin word for opening
In honor of Maia, a Roman goddess and mother of Mercury
In honor of Juno, the Roman goddess of marriage
In honor of the Roman general and statesman Julius Caesar
In honor of the Roman emperor Augustus Caesar
In reference to septem, the Latin word for seven; September was the seventh month of
the Roman calendar
In reference to octo, the Latin word for eight; October was the eighth Roman month
In reference to novem, the Latin word for nine; November was the ninth Roman month
In reference to decem, the Latin word for ten; December was the tenth Roman month
V O C A B U L A RY B U IL DE RS
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LIST 61. FRENCH AND LATIN PHRASES
French and Latin phrases are used in many novels, magazines, and newspapers; in academic and legal
writing; and sometimes even in speech. Your students might enjoy learning some of the more common
ones. They may well demonstrate a penchant for picking up foreign phrases tout de suite and using them to
impress their friends. N’est-ce pas?
French Phrases
à la carte—according to the menu, that is, ordering individual items off the menu asopposed to complete
dinners
à la mode—in fashion; frequently used to indicate desserts served with ice cream
à votre santé—to your health; a toast used in drinking
au contraire—on the contrary
au courant—well informed
au revoir—until we meet again
bon appétit—good appetite
bonjour—good day; hello
bon vivant—lover of good living
bon voyage—have a good trip
carte blanche—full discretionary authority
coup d’état—sudden overthrow of a government
cul de sac—dead end
de rigeur—required
double entendre—double meaning
en masse—in a large group
en route—on the way
esprit de corps—group spirit
fait accompli—a thing accomplished; done with
faux pas—mistake
hors d’oeuvre—appetizer
je ne sais quoi—I don’t know what
laissez-faire—noninterference
n’est-ce pas?—isn’t that so?
noblesse oblige—rank imposes obligations
nom de plume—pen name
objet d’art—article of artistic value
pardonnez moi—excuse me
pièce de résistance—irresistible item or event
raison d’etre—reason or justification for existence
savoir faire—social know-how
tout de suite—immediately
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vis-à-vis—in relation to
Latin Phrases
ad hoc—with respect to this
ad infinitum—to infinity
ad nauseam—to the point of disgust
bona fide—in good faith
caveat emptor—let the buyer beware
cogito ergo sum—I think, therefore I am
e pluribus unum—one from many
et cetera—and others
in memoriam—in memory of
in toto—totally
mea culpa—my fault
modus operandi—manner of working
non sequitur—it does not follow
nota bene—note well
persona non grata—person not accepted
pro forma—done as a matter of formality
pro rata—according to rate or proportion
quid pro quo—one thing for another
sine qua non—indispensable
status quo—the way things are
sub rosa—secret or confidential
tempus fugit—time flies
vice versa—conversely
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LIST 62. AMERICAN AND BRITISH ENGLISH WORDS
Although English in the United States and England is more alike than different, the following list gives
an idea of some of the idiosyncrasies of the two versions of the language. Use this list to highlight the
development of regionalism and dialects in language or just to have a jolly time with your students.
American English
British English
American English
British English
apartment building
baby carriage
balcony (theater)
bathing suit
bathrobe
billion (thousand million)
business suit
candy store
car fender
car hood
car trunk
checkers
city government
cookie
corn
county
cracker
cuffs (pants)
detour
diaper
do the dishes
dress
eggplant
elementary school
elevator
faculty
flashlight
French fries
garbage can
gasoline
grade in school
graduates
hardware store
highway, freeway
ice cream
janitor
block of flats
pram
gallery
bathing costume
dressing gown
billion (million million)
lounge suit
sweet shop
wind, mudguard
bonnet
boot
draughts
corporation
sweet biscuit
maize
shire
biscuit
turn-ups (trousers)
diversion
nappy
wash up
frock
aubergine
primary school
lift
academic staff
torch
chips
dustbin, bin
petrol
class, form in school
school leavers
ironmonger
motorway
ice
caretaker, porter
kerosene
lawyer, attorney
lease, rentals
leash
legal holiday
line up
liquor
living room
mail
mail box, mail drop
make a reservation
median strip, divider
mom
monkey wrench
nurse
one-way ticket
orchestra seats (theater)
parka, ski jacket
pass a vehicle
pay in installments
perfume
period (punctuation)
pharmacy, drugstore
pot holders
potato chips
principal
private school
public school
raincoat
realtor
roast of meat
round-trip ticket
run for public office
salesperson
Santa Claus
second floor
paraffin
solicitor
let, lettings
lead (dog)
bank holiday
queue
spirits
sitting room, lounge
post
pillar box
book (v.)
center reservation
mum
spanner
sister
single ticket
stalls
anorak
overtake
hire purchase
scent
full stop
chemist’s shop
oven cloth
crisps
headmaster, -mistress
public school
state school
mackintosh
estate agent
joint
return ticket
stand for public office
shop assistant
Father Christmas
first floor
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American English
British English
American English
British English
sedan
slingshot
sneakers
stove
subway
suspenders
sweater, pullover
take-out food
taxes
television, tv
saloon (car)
catapult
trainers
cooker
tube, underground
braces
jumper
take-away food
rates, ratings
telly
traffic circle
trailer
train car
truck
underclothing
undershirt
vacuum cleaner
wash cloth
zee (last letter)
zero
roundabout
caravan
carriage
lorry
smalls
vest
hoover (n.)
face flannel
zed
nought
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LIST 63. WORDS AND PHRASES FROM MYTHOLOGY
A myth is a fictional account handed down from generation to generation to explain the existence of natural
phenomenon, such as why there is night and day. Myths began in the oral tradition, and references to myths
have been found in artifacts as far back as 800 BC. Greek and Roman myths are best known, but most
cultures have myths. The following list demonstrates how myths and their characters continue to have a
presence in everyday language and understanding.
Adonis (n) A handsome young man. Greek myth: Aphrodite, the goddess of love, fell in love with Adonis,
a strikingly handsome young man.
Aegis (n) Protection; sponsorship; auspices. Greek myth: The aegis was the armored shield carried by
Zeus and Athena.
Amazon (n) A tall, powerful, aggressive woman; a great river in South America named for the warrior
women explorers encountered there. Greek myth: The Amazons were a race of female warriors living
near the Black Sea.
Ambrosia (n) An exceptionally delicious food; a dish made with fruit and cream that is often served as a
salad or dessert. Greek myth: Zeus’s slaves gathered and served ambrosia, the food of the gods.
Aphrodisiac (n) Something that arouses or causes feelings of desire; a love potion. Greek myth: Aphrodite,
the goddess of love, beauty, and eternal youth, was created out of sea foam.
Apollo (n) A particularly handsome young man; US space program. Greek myth: Apollo was the god of
sun and light and was believed to drive his sun chariot across the sky daily bringing light and order to
the world.
Arachnid (n) A member of the family of spiders, mites, ticks, tarantulas, and scorpions. Greek myth:
Arachne, a skilled weaver, challenged the goddess Athena to see who the better artisan was. Athena
became furious when she saw Arachne’s beautiful tapestry and tore it. She then took pity on her and
turned the threads of tapestry into a spider web and turned Arachne into a spider.
Argonauts (n) A band of men on a quest or adventure. Greek myth: Jason was heir to the throne at Iolcan
and was required to bring back the Golden Fleece, which was guarded by a dragon that never slept.
Jason set out on this quest aboard a ship called the Argo. The Argonauts were the ships’ sailors
selected by Jason because they were brave and heroic men.
Atlas (n) A collection of maps. Greek myth: Atlas was one of the first children of Earth. He fought against
Zeus, the ruler of the Olympian gods, and as a punishment was made to hold the sky on his shoulders
to keep it from falling to earth.
Auroral (adj) Like the dawn or colors of the sky at daybreak. Roman myth: Aurora, the goddess of the
dawn, rises each morning and flies across the sky to announce the coming of the sun.
Bacchanalian (adj) Wild carefree behavior because of drinking alcohol; intoxicated; Greek and Roman
myths: Bacchus (called Dionysius in the Greek myths) was the god of the grape harvest, wine, and
fertility.
Calliope (n) A steam-fueled keyboard musical instrument often associated with carousel rides and
circuses. Greek myth: Calliope, the daughter of Zeus and Mnemosyne, was one of the nine Muses and
was the patron of epic poetry. She inspired Homer to write the Iliad and the Odyssey.
Calypso (n) A folk musical style common in the Caribbean islands. Greek myth: Calypso, a beautiful sea
nymph, wanted the hero Odysseus to live as her husband forever. She cast a spell on him by singing
every day for seven years.
Cassandra (n) A pessimistic person, one who warns of things that might go wrong. Greek myth: Apollo
gave Cassandra the gift of seeing the future and, because she did not love him, he also gave her the
curse of not being believed.
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198
Cereal (n) A type of plant that produces an edible grain; a breakfast food made of grain such as oatmeal.
Roman myth: Ceres was the goddess of agriculture, fertility, and mother-child relationships.
Chaos (n) Confusion or disorder; a state of total disorganization. Greek myth: Before creation, there was
only darkness and silence. Chaos was the formless matter from which the Mother Earth (Gaea) and
Father Heaven (Uranus) were formed.
Chimera (n) An imagined monster or an absurd creation. Also Chimerical (adj) Unreal or impossible.
Greek myth: A fire-breathing monster with the head of lion, the body of a goat, and the tail of a
dragon.
Chronicle (n) A record of important events written in the order they occurred. Also Chronology (n) An
ordered history or narrative; Chronic (adj) Occurring over and over; habitual; across time;
Chronometer (n) Clock; an instrument that measures time; Anachronism (n) Something that is not in
its proper place in time; Crony (n) A friend over a long period of time. Greek myth: The god Chronos,
usually shown as an old man with a long beard, is the thought of as Father Time.
Cloth (n) A fabric or material made by weaving threads together. Also Clothes, Clothing (n) Things that
are worn by humans to cover and protect their bodies. Greek myth: The goddess Clotho was the
spinner of the thread of life. She decided when a person would be born and die.
Concord (n) An agreement between people or nations; harmony; capital of New Hampshire. Roman myth:
Concordia was the goddess of agreement in marriage and society. Her Greek name was Harmonia.
Discipline (n) Punishment; training to control behavior; an area of study. Roman myth: Disciplina, a
goddess worshiped by soldiers, stood for education, training, and an orderly way of life.
Echo (v) To repeat a sound by bouncing its sound waves off a surface. (n) A sound that is a repetition of
another or something that repeats. Also Echolalia (n) A mental health condition in which a person
automatically repeats what others say. Greek myth: Echo was a wood nymph who loved the sound of
her own voice. Hera became angry with Echo and took away her voice. From then on Echo could only
repeat what others said.
Elysian (adj) Delightful; heavenly. Greek myth: The Greeks believed that on death exceptional humans
lived in the Elysian Fields where there was only happiness.
Erotic (adj) Related to physical desire; sexual. Greek myth: Eros was the god of love and desire. In Roman
myth, he is called Cupid.
Europe (n) A continent in the eastern hemisphere bordered on the east by Asia and on the west by the
Atlantic Ocean. Greek myth: Europa was a beautiful woman whom Zeus loved. He disguised himself
as a bull and, after she sat on his back, he ran to the sea and swam to Crete with Europa where she
became the queen. Zeus made the constellation Taurus as a mark of love.
Fate (n) The unseen cause of things that happen; an inevitable outcome. Greek myth: The three Fates were
sisters who were responsible for the “thread of life.” Lachesis decides the length of the thread of life;
Clotho spins the thread into being; and Atropos cuts it off.
Fauna (n) Animal life of a specific region or time period. Roman myth: Faunus, the horned god of forest,
fields, flocks, and herds, was half-man and half-goat.
Flora (n) Plant life of a specific region or time period. Roman myth: Flora was the goddess of spring and
flowers. She was linked to fertility and to the renewal of the life cycle in spring.
Fortune (n) Wealth or riches; luck; Roman myth: Fortuna was the goddess of fortune and could bring
good luck or bad luck to anyone.
Fury (n) Intense anger; a wild and dangerous force; a spiteful woman. Also Furious (adj) Very angry;
raging. Roman myth: The Furies were daughters of Gaea, Mother Earth. They were avengers of crime
who punished criminals and set loose plagues.
Gorgon (n) A very ugly or frightening woman. Greek myth: The Gorgons were three sisters who had hair
made of poisonous snakes and faces that were extremely ugly. If you looked at one, you would turn to
stone. The most famous one was Medusa.
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Hades (n) Hell; a place of sweltering heat. Greek myth: The Greeks believed that on death most humans
descended into the underworld ruled by the god Hades who presided over the trials of the wicked and
determined their punishments.
Halcyon (adj) Calm and peaceful; a period of calm seas. Greek myth: Halcyon was a woman who was
turned into a seabird. She searched for a calm and tranquil place for her nest to float and allow her
eggs to hatch.
Harp (v) To bother or pester. Also Harpy (n) an unpleasant scolding woman. Greek myth: The Harpies
were winged creatures that were half-bird and half-woman. They were constantly bothering King
Phineus snatching away his food and drink and picking at him.
Hector (v) To bully, boss, or intimidate. Greek myth: Hector was a Trojan prince who killed thousands of
enemies in the Trojan War.
Herculean (adj) Strong and powerful; requiring great strength and courage. Greek myth: Heracles, the son
of Zeus, was the strongest of the Olympian gods. He was given twelve labors or tasks to perform to
regain his freedom, each of which required great strength and courage.
Hydra (n) A complex problem that seems to develop new obstacles as one part is resolved. (n) A type of
freshwater organism that usually lives attached to rocks or plants. Greek myth: An evil sea serpent
with nine heads. If one head is cut off, two new ones will grow in its place. Hercules killed it by
burning the necks after he cut off its heads to prevent new growth.
Hypnotic (adj) Leading one to fall asleep. Also Hypnosis (n) A sleeplike state of consciousness. Greek
myth: Hypnos was the god of sleep. He lived in a dark cave and did not see the light of the sun or
moon. His children were Morpheus, the god of dreams; Phobetor, the personification of nightmares;
and Phantasus, the creator of illusions and false dreams.
Iris (n) The colored part of the eye; a rainbow; a flowering plant with pointed leaves with blue or yellow
flowers. Also Iridescent (adj) showing many colors when viewed from different angles. Greek myth:
Iris, a goddess of the sky and sea, is the personification of the rainbow and the messenger of the gods.
She is seen after the rain returning water to the clouds.
Janitor (n) A doorkeeper; the person who takes care of the building and has the keys. Also January (n) The
first month of the calendar year. Also Janus-faced (adj) Two-faced, phony. Roman myth: Janus was
the god of beginnings and passages. He has two faces: one looking to the past, one to the future. Janus
oversees the beginning and ending of war and peace.
Jovial (adj) Jolly, cheery, merry. Also By Jove! A happy exclamation of surprise or agreement. Roman
myth: Jove (another name for Jupiter) was the king of the Roman gods and the god of thunder and
sky. He was the divine witness to oaths which were the foundation for justice and government. His
thunderbolt and eagle represented the army and the state. He is the Roman equal of Zeus.
Labyrinth (n) A mazelike passageway or paths; a complex procedure with many often confusing
components. Greek myth: When King Minos of Crete’s wife, Pasiphae, gave birth to a creature that
was half-man and half-bull it was called the Minotaur. King Minos directed a craftsman to devise a
way to keep the Minotaur from escaping. The result was a maze.
Laconic (adj) Using few words, brief, blunt. Greek myth: Zeus’s son Lacedaemon married Sparta and
named the area of Greece after his wife. Spartans focused on military training and discipline and were
known to speak only when necessary and to use few but concise words.
Lethargic (adj) Sleepy, slow-moving, drowsy; lacking energy or ambition. Also Lethargy (n) The state of
being without energy or interest in doing something. Greek myth: The river Lethe was a river in
Hades that flowed through the cave of Hypnos, the god of sleep. Its sound would lull people to sleep.
Mars (n) The fourth planet from the sun, known by its red color and small size. Also March (n) The third
month of the year; March (v) To move with a rhythmic pace; Roman myth: Mars, the god of war and
father of the Romans, used military power as a force for war and to ensure peace. His sons, Romulus
and Remus, left at the river Tiber by their mother, were raised by a wolf. When they grew up they
became leaders of many and established the city of Rome.
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Meander (v) To take a winding path or course. Greek myth: Meander was the patron god of the river
Meander in what is now known as Turkey and was known for its twisting and winding course.
Mentor (n) A trusted counselor who guides a youth or novice often by sharing what he or she has learned
from experience. Greek myth: When Odysseus left for the Trojan War he asked his friend and advisor
Mentor to educate his son Telemachus. Mentor used wise and practical measures to fulfill his
obligations to his friend.
Mercury (n) The planet closest to the sun. Also Mercury (n) A poisonous silvery metal that is a liquid at
room temperature and used in thermometers and other instruments. Also Mercurial (adj) Quickly
changing, unpredictable, lively. Roman myth: Mercury was the messenger god with wings on his
helmet and sandals for the speed with which he delivered his messages. Mercury was a god of science,
travelers, and athletes.
Mnemonic (adj) An aid to remembering something. Also Mneme (n) The recurring effect of past
experience on a person or race. Greek myth: Mnemosyne, the Titan goddess of memory, was the
mother of the nine Muses.
Morphine (n) A powerful opium-based drug that reduces pain and leads to a sleeplike state. Also
Morph (v) To change the form or character of. Greek myth: Morpheus, the god of dreams, was a
demon who could take on any human likeness and appear in dreams.
Muse (v) To think about or consider something deeply; (n) A person who is an inspiration for someone’s
art. Greek myth: The nine Muses were the daughters of Zeus, king of the gods, and Mnemosyne, the
Titan goddess of memory. Zeus fathered these goddesses so they could help the world forget past
sorrows and find knowledge, inspiration, and joy in the arts and sciences.
Museum (n) A building containing the objects of art, culture, history, and science. Greek myth: Home of
the nine Muses.
Music (n) An arrangement of sounds having rhythm, melody, and harmony. Greek myth: One of the arts
practiced by the Muses was metrical speech, called musike. At the time of the Muses, stories were
handed down through oral tradition; telling a story in metrical speech, for example an epic poem,
helped the storyteller recall it.
Narcissist (n) A person who is vain, self-absorbed, or in love with himself. Also Narcissus (n) A yellow
flower in the daffodil family. Greek myth: Narcissus, a very handsome young man, saw his reflection
in a pool of water and fell in love with it. He sat there staring until he died. A beautiful flower grew at
the place of his death.
Nectar (n) A sweet fruit juice or liquid found in plants. Greek myth: Zeus’s slaves gathered and served
nectar, the drink of the gods. Humans who drank nectar would become immortal like the gods.
Nemesis (n) An opponent or obstacle one cannot overcome; a punishment or retribution for wrongdoing;
revenge. Greek myth: Nemesis was the goddess who brought punishment to those who deserved it.
Nocturnal (adj) Relating to the night or nighttime; happening at night. Greek myth: Nyx, the daughter of
Chaos, is the goddess of night and darkness. As she drove her chariot across the sky, she was followed
by her long black veil and the stars. Her Roman name is Nox.
Nymph (n) A beautiful young woman. Greek myth: Nymphs are spirits who give life and care for things in
nature. There are several types of nymphs: water, plant, land, heavenly, and underworld nymphs. They
are said to be lively and sometimes mischievous.
Odyssey (n) a long trip or journey having unexpected adventures or detours. Greek myth: Odysseus (Latin
name Ulysses) was king of Ithaca and a hero of the War with Troy. He devised the Trojan horse
strategy. After the war, Odysseus began his two-week journey home but encountered challenges and
adventures that stretched it into a ten-year voyage.
Oedipus complex (n) A mental illness characterized by a son’s abnormal and intense attachment to his
mother and hatred for his father. Greek myth: Before Oedipus was born, his father, Laius, was warned
that his son would grow up and kill him. Laius abandoned the baby boy who then was found and
raised by a shepherd. As a young man he traveled to Thebes, met Laius, and killed him after an
argument. He became king of Thebes and married the widowed queen (who was his natural mother).
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Olympian (adj) lofty or majestic in manner. (n) One who participates in the Olympic games. Greek myth:
Mount Olympus was the home of the gods.
Oracle (n) A person who offers reveals the future. (n) A divine revelation. Greek myth: An oracle is the
place where humans went to seek information about the future from the gods. The oracle’s priests and
priestesses transmitted ambiguous messages from the gods to mortals.
Panic (n) A sudden feeling of intense fear that spreads among people. Also Pandemonium (n) A state of
lawless chaos and disorder; the capital of Hell. Also Panacea (n) A remedy that cures all illnesses.
Greek myth: A nymph ran away from the god Pan and turned into a reed. As the wind passed through
the reeds by the river, a beautiful sound was made. Not knowing which reed was the nymph, Pan cut
several and tied them together to make flute.
Phillipic (n) A tirade; a passionate, bitter speech denouncing someone. Greek myth: Demosthenes, an
Athenian, made a series of passionate speeches against Philip, the king of Macedon, urging the
Greeks to fight him.
Phoenix (n) The capital of the state of Arizona. (n) Something that is renewed or reborn after suffering
catastrophe. Greek myth: A beautiful bird that lives hundreds of years, burns on a funeral pyre, and
arises from the ashes reborn for a new cycle of life.
Plutocracy (n) A type of government in which power is held by those with the greatest wealth. Also
Plutocratic (adj) Having influence because of one’s wealth. Greek myth: Pluto, the god of the
underworld, was surrounded by minerals of great value deep inside the earth giving him great wealth.
Procrustean (adj) Cruel or inflexible efforts to force conformity. Greek myth: Procrustes was an iron smith
who invited travelers to spend the night with him and offered them his iron bed. He would cut the legs
of those too long for the bed or stretch those who were too short for it.
Protean (adj) Changeable, variable, versatile. Greek myth: Proteus was a son of Neptune the god of the sea
and was called the “old man of the sea.” He could hide or defend himself by changing himself into a
tree, a snake, or other form. This ability links him to “sea changes.”
Siren (n) An attractive and dangerous woman. Also Siren (n) A device for making loud warning sounds.
Greek myth: The Sirens were beautiful daughters of a river god whose voices lulled sailors into a
trance and caused them to wreck their ships.
Stygian (adj) Dark and gloomy. Greek myth: The Styx, the river of hate, was one of the five rivers of
Hades, the underworld. The others were the rivers of sorrow, lamentation, fire, and forgetfulness.
Tantalize (v) To tempt or tease. Greek myth: Tantanlus stole food from Zeus’s banquet and as an offering
he cut up his son, cooked him, and served him at the banquet. The gods were horrified and
condemned Tantalus to stand in a shallow pool beneath a fruit tree. Every time he reached for a piece
of fruit or tried to take a sip of water, they would recede just out of his reach.
Titan (n) Someone or something of great size or power. Also Titanic (adj) Enormous in size, strength, or
power. Greek myth: At the beginning of the world, Gaea (Mother Earth) and Uranus (Father Sky)
had a family of giants called the Titans.
Volcano (n) An opening in the earth’s crust through which lava, steam, and ash flow; a mountain formed
by the flow of lava. Roman myth: Vulcan, the Roman god of fire and metal smiths, found a small fire
on a beach and took it home in a clamshell. He used it to make silver, gold, and iron from rock. His
forge was in a mountain and when he worked the mountain top spewed smoke, melted metal, and bits
of stone.
Zeal (n) Strong interest or enthusiasm. Also Zealous (adj) Feeling or showing great interest or support for
a cause, idea, or person. Zealot (n) A person who holds extreme feelings for a cause. Greek myth:
Zelos was the spirit of enthusiasm and rivalry.
Zephyr (n) A gentle breeze; a breeze from the west. Greek myth: Zephyrus was the gentle god of the west
wind.
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LIST 64. SHAKESPEARE IN WORDS AND PHRASES
William Shakespeare (1564–1616) remains one of the world’s most popular and well-known writers. His
thirty-seven plays (comedic, historic, and tragic) and more than one hundred fifty sonnets have been
enjoyed by people worldwide for four hundred years. But did you know his clever and inventive use of
language has given us many words and phrases used every day? Although he may not have “invented”
all the words he is credited with, many of them made their first written appearance in his works. He
often borrowed words from other languages, combined words in new compounds, mixed word parts for
particular meanings, and morphed words from one part of speech to another. Here are fifty of the Bard of
Avon’s contribution to the English language.
A heart of gold (Henry V)—A kind and principled person
A laughing stock (The Merry Wives of Windsor)—A foolish person
All that glitters isn’t gold. (The Merchant of Venice)—Appearances can be misleading.
As dead as a doornail (Henry VI)—Lifeless
Bedazzled (The Taming of the Shrew)—To be impressed or affected by brilliance or charm; to be
spellbound or mesmerized
Brave new world (The Tempest)—A situation created by the development of something new; an unknown
future world
Break the ice (The Taming of the Shrew)—Initiate a conversation
Catch a cold (Cymbeline)—To fall ill
Clothes make the man. (Hamlet)—People’s clothing tells you something about them.
Coldhearted (Antony and Cleopatra)—Without kindness or sympathy
Dishearten (Henry V)—To dampen enthusiasm or spirits; to discourage hope
Eyesore (The Taming of the Shrew)—Something unpleasant to view
Fair play (The Tempest)—Follow the rules in sport or other competition; use no special advantage
Forever and a day (As You Like It)—A very long time
Green-eyed monster (Othello)—Jealousy, the green-eyed monster, can consume you.
Hint (Othello)—Clue or suggestion
In a pickle (The Tempest)—To be in a difficult or troublesome situation
In the twinkling of an eye (The Merchant of Venice)—In an instant
It was Greek to me. (Julius Caesar)—It’s beyond my comprehension.
Kill with kindness (The Taming of the Shrew)—To overdo acts of kindness
Laughing stock (The Merry Wives of Windsor)—A person who is ridiculed or made fun of
Love is blind. (The Merchant of Venice) People in love cannot see their lovers’ flaws; people in love may
make irrational choices.
Luggage (Henry IV)—Something lugged or carried with you
Method to his madness (Hamlet)—There’s a purpose behind one’s unusual behavior.
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Moonbeam (A Midsummer Night’s Dream)—A ray of moon light
Multitudinous (Macbeth)—A great number
Neither here nor there (Othello)—Not important or relevant
Out of the jaws of death (The Twelfth Night)—Out from great danger
Pomp and circumstance (Othello)—In the style of a lavish and formal ceremony
Portia (The Merchant of Venice)—A female lawyer
Pound of flesh (The Merchant of Venice)—Something due by law, but in paying, it causes great loss or
irreparable harm to the payer
Primrose path (Hamlet)—An easy and pleasant journey through a time or a life
Prospero (The Tempest)—One who influences others without their realizing it
Romeo (Romeo and Juliet)—A man who romantically pursues women
Salad days (Antony and Cleopatra)—The period of youth and inexperience
Sea change (The Tempest)—A remarkable change, usually for the better
Set one’s teeth on edge (Henry IV )—To annoy or make someone anxious
Something in the wind (The Comedy of Errors)—A secret plan or action
The game is afoot. (Henry IV )—The action has started.
The short and the long of it (The Merry Wives of Windsor)—The whole story
The world is my oyster. (The Merry Wives of Windsor)—Life has much to offer, if I make the effort.
There’s the rub. (Hamlet)—There’s the problem or issue that must be dealt with.
To thine own self be true. (Hamlet)—Stick to your principles.
To vanish into thin air (Othello)—To disappear without leaving a trace
Too much of a good thing (As You Like It)—Do not overdo: too much of a good thing can ultimately be
bad for you.
Tower of strength (Richard III )—A person who can be relied on for support during difficult periods
Truth will out. (The Merchant of Venice)—The truth will become known sometime.
Watchdog (The Tempest)—A person or group that monitors activities or watches others to discover illegal
or wrongful action
Wear my heart upon my sleeve (Othello)—Make no attempt to hide one’s true feelings
Wild goose chase (Romeo and Juliet)—A hopeless endeavor
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SECTION 5
Content Literacy
List 65. High-Utility Academic Words—Primary Grades 1 to 3
List 66. High-Utility Academic Words—Intermediate Grades 4 to 8
List 67. Math Vocabulary—Primary Grades 1 to 3
List 68. Math Vocabulary—Elementary Grades 4 to 5
List 69. Math Vocabulary—Intermediate Grades 6 to 8
List 70. US Customary Measurement System
List 71. Metric System of Measurement (SI)
List 72. Metric and Customary Equivalents and Conversion
List 73.
Roman Numerals
List 74. Reading Math Symbols
List 75. Social Studies Vocabulary—Primary Grades 1 to 3
List 76. Social Studies Vocabulary—Intermediate Grades 4 to 8
List 77. Social Studies Vocabulary—Secondary Grades 9 to 12
List 78. Geography Vocabulary—Primary Grades 1 to 3
List 79. Geography Vocabulary—Intermediate Grades 4 to 8
List 80.
Geography Fast Facts
List 81. US States and Their Capitals
List 82. States of Mexico and Their Capitals
List 83. Provinces of Canada and Their Capitals
List 84.
Science Vocabulary—Primary Grades 1 to 3
List 85. Science Vocabulary—Elementary Grades 4 to 6
C
ontent literacy means the ability to use the receptive and expressive language arts to think
and communicate in a specific content area or discipline. At the heart of content literacy is
knowledge and understanding of the words used in the subject to refer to its ideas, constructs, and
processes. In fact, students’ vocabulary knowledge strongly correlates with their reading comprehension and overall reading success (Lehr et al., 2006).
Research tells us that students acquire word knowledge both indirectly by encountering words
in text (Anderson & Nagy, 1992) and by direct instruction (NRP, 2000). Beck, McKeown, &
Kucan (2002) suggest vocabulary can be categorized in three tiers. Tier 1 vocabulary consists of
common words used in everyday communications (see List 28, High Frequency Instant Words).
Tier 3 vocabulary are words specific to a content area or discipline. The Common Core (NGA &
CCSSO, 2010) refers to these as domain-specific words. The middle level, Tier 2, refers to words
that, while not as often used in everyday conversation, are often used in school and on the job as
well as in books, journals, texts, and communications for mature language users. The Common
Core (NGA & CCSSO, 2010) refers to these as general academic vocabulary.
As research in reading developed, we came to understand that the traditional dichotomy of
learning to reading in the primary grades and reading to learn in fourth grade and beyond was
not an adequate description of literacy development. Chall’s description of the stages of reading
development (1983, 1996) told us the stages were not discrete and complete, but continuous and
overlapping and dependent on students acquiring a rich base of information and vocabulary.
Snow’s (2010) description of academic language highlights some important characteristics: it
is concise, avoids redundancy, has a high density of information-bearing words, and can compress
complex ideas into a few words.
Some lists of academic words have become popular, for example, Coxhead’s (2000) Academic
Word List (AWL) and Marzano & Simms’s (2013) Vocabulary for the Common Core (VCC). The
AWL is based on a corpus of words found in university textbooks in a range of subjects such as
education, criminal and commercial law, accounting, linguistics, industrial relations, and computer science. Marzano & Simms’ VCC is based on words from the CCSS, and two of Marzano’s
(2004, 2009) earlier books, with a focus on cognitive verbs.
Authors of textbooks and other informational media incorporate a variety of aids to assist
readers with words they expect will be new or challenging. Key content or other words necessary
for comprehending the material may be set in bold or italic fonts. The words may be introduced
in a sidebar or introductory material for familiarization prior to reading or a quick look to the
sidebar during reading, if needed. Authors also use a wide variety of context clues to define words
within the text, by direct definition, analogy, description, and others (See List 101 Context Clues
and Word Meaning.).
Most textbook series also include glossaries in each graded book. A glossary is a specialized
dictionary-like reference that gives an alphabetized list of the words identified by the authors as
conveying important content information or posing a challenge to readers because they are more
precise, nuanced, or less-familiar words. In other words, glossaries contain tier two and tier three
words selected by the authors. Glossaries, unlike dictionaries, generally provide only the meaning
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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of the words necessary for understanding them in the context in which they were used in the text,
not all of their possible meanings. Pronunciation helps are also included.
The lists in this section will help you develop that rich base of content vocabulary and knowledge and support students’ reading of on-grade informational texts.
The High Utility Academic Word lists are drawn from words included in the glossaries of
multiple popular content subject textbooks and selected based on their use across disciplines. The
High Utility Words are relevant to the learning objectives of the school curriculum and appropriate for the complexity of language used in actual on-grade texts for primary and intermediate
students. Similarly, the word lists for specific content subjects were drawn from the glossaries of
multiple popular textbook series in math, social studies, geography, and science.
Anderson, R.C., & Nagy, W. E. (1992). The vocabulary conundrum. American Educator: The Professional Journal of
the American Federation of Teachers, 16 (Win., 4) pp. 14–18.
Beck, I. L., McKeown, M., & Kucan, L. (2002). Choosing Words to Teach. In Bringing Words to Life: Robust
Vocabulary Instruction (15–30). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Coxhead, A. (2000) A New Academic Word List. TESOL Quarterly, 34(2): 213–238.
Lehr, F., Osborn, J., & Hiebert, E. H. (2004). A focus on vocabulary. Honolulu, HI: Pacific Resources for Education
and Learning. Retrieved December 4, 2014 from http://www.prel.org/products/re_/ES0419.htm
Marzano, R. J., & Simms, J. (2013). Vocabulary for the Common Core. Centennial, CO: Marzano Research
Laboratory.
Marzano, R. J. (2009). Designing and Teaching Learning Goals and Objectives. Centennial, CO: Marzano Research
Laboratory.
Marzano, R. J. (2004). Building Background Knowledge for Academic Achievement. Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers. (2010). Common
Core State Standards for English language arts and literacy in history/social studies, science, and technical
subjects. Washington, DC: Authors.
National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research
literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction (National Institute of Health Publication No.
00-4754). Washington DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
Pearson, P. D., Hiebert, E., & Kamil, M. (2007). Vocabulary assessment: What we know and what we need to learn.
Reading Research Quarterly, 42(2), 282–296.
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LIST 65. HIGH-UTILITY ACADEMIC
WORDS —PRIMARY GRADES 1 TO 3
Vocabulary development in the early grades lays the foundation for students’ success in school. While
students are reading grade-level informational texts, they will encounter a number of words that are highutility academic words. These words are not commonly used by young students outside of school, but
they are expected to recognize, understand, and use them when reading and writing across subjects and
contexts in school. Direct instruction in their multiple meanings and uses is important. For example, after
teaching about clouds as part of the water cycle, teach students about cloudy thinking, cloudy liquids, a cloudy
future, and having your head in the clouds. Use affixes to build word families, such as compete, competing,
competition, competitive, and competitor.
The high-utility academic words in the following list were drawn from textbooks in math, science, and
social studies for grades 1 to 3.
above
absorb
adapt
address
after
alike
amend
area
array
artifact
assemble
attract
attribute
average
axis
backbone
balance
barter
base
before
below
beside
between
bottom
broadcast
budget
calendar
camouflage
candidate
capacity
capital
cause
cell
charge
chart
chemical
circuit
citizen
civil
classify
climate
cloud
communicate
community
compare
compete
complete
compound
condense
conduct
consent
conserve
constellation
consume
continent
convert
core
council
count
count on
crossroads
crust
culture
current
custom
cycle
decade
demand
democracy
diagram
difference
different
direction
dissolve
distance
divide
document
double
earn
economy
ecosystem
edge
effect
electric
element
end point
endanger
energy
environment
equal
equivalent
erode
estimate
ethnic
evaporate
even
event
executive
expand
explore
expression
extinct
face
factor
fall
favorable
federal
flag
flood
flower
food chain
force
fraction
framework
free market
frequency
friction
fuel
function
globe
goods
graph
gravity
greater
greatest
grid
group
habitat
hatch
heavy
height
heredity
hibernate
human resource
immigrate
import
impossible
improbable
incline
income
independence
industries
inequality
inherit
insulate
interdependence
intermediate
international
Internet
invent
judicial
key
keyword
landmark
landslide
least
legal
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
208
legend
legislate
length
less
leverage
light
like
likely
line
liquid
locate
machine
magnet
major
mantle
map
market
mass
matter
mean
measure
median
metamorphosis
metric
migrate
mimic
mineral
mixture
mode
more
motion
multiply
natural
neighbor
net
odd
opaque
operation
opportunity
orbit
order
outcome
part
pattern
per
perimeter
period
phase
physical
pioneer
pitch
plain
pollute
population
position
possible
potential
predator
predict
pressure
prey
prime
prism
probability
produce
product
profits
property
ramp
range
record
recreation
recycle
reduce
reference
reflect
region
regroup
related
remainder
renew
repel
represent
reproduce
resource
respond
responsible
reuse
revolution
revolve
root
rotate
round
route
rural
same
savings
scale
scarcity
season
C O NT E NT L IT E RA C Y
209
seed
select
sequence
service
shadow
shelter
side
simplest
skeleton
slide
soil
solid
solution
sort
sound
space
specialize
speed
spend
sphere
spring
stack
standard
star
state
static
stem
structure
sum
supply
survey
switch
symbol
symmetry
system
table
tax
technology
thermal
trade
tradition
trait
translucent
transparent
transport
trunk
turn
unit
unlike
unlikely
urban
valley
value
variable
veto
vibrate
volume
voluntary
wane
waste
water
weather
wedge
weight
work
LIST 66. HIGH-UTILITY ACADEMIC
WORDS —INTERMEDIATE GRADES 4 TO 8
Students in grades 4 and above are expected to read independently and gain meaning from a broad range
of literary and informational texts. They are also expected to write using domain-specific and contextappropriate vocabulary. High-utility academic words are words that cut across many subjects and contexts
and, because they are less common in oral language, require direct instruction. As students encounter these
and similar words in their content subjects, reinforce and extend their word knowledge with word families,
including idioms that use the words. For example, after teaching that plants take up or absorb nutrients
from the soil in science, teach about being absorbed in a task, absorbent materials, absorbing the news, and
a small group being absorbed into a larger one.
The high-utility academic words in the following list were drawn from textbooks in math, science, and
social studies for grades 4 to 8.
absorb
accelerate
accommodate
accurate
acquire
additive
adjacent
aftershock
aggression
alliance
bias
bilateral
border
boundary
boycott
buoyant
capacity
carrier
cast
censor
compass
compatible
compensate
competition
complement
complex
composite
compound
compress
compromise
converse
convert
cooperate
coordinate
corporate
cost
cumulative
currency
current
customary
discharge
discrete
discriminate
dissent
distill
distribute
diverse
domain
domestic
dominate
ally
alternative
altitude
amplify
analyze
angle
annex
appease
approximate
area
census
ceremony
certain
chain reaction
charter
choose
chord
circle
circulation
classification
compute
concentrate
conclude
concurrent
conditional
conduct
congruent
conjecture
connect
conquer
data
debt
decide
deduce
define
degree
delegate
demand
democracy
dense
dominion
domino effect
draft
dynasty
echo
economy
efficient
effort
element
elevate
array
atmosphere
avalanche
average
axis
bacteria
balance
barometer
base
benchmark
classify
climate
clone
cluster
code
collective
combination
commerce
common
communal
consecutive
consensus
conserve
consist
constant
construct
contain
continuous
convene
convenience
dependent
depress
destiny
détente
dialect
dictate
diffuse
digest
dimension
direct
eliminate
empirical
endanger
enlighten
entrepreneur
environment
epidemic
equation
equivalent
era
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
210
erode
error
estate
ethnic
evaluate
exclude
expand
expect
experiment
explain
external
external
extinct
extraneous
extremes
fact
factor
fair
fault
federal
horizon
horizontal
hot spot
hybrid
hypothesis
icon
ideal
identical
identity
image
impeach
imprint
inaugurate
inclusive
inconsistent
independent
indicate
indirect
induce
indulge
inertia
infer
infinity
inflate
inherit
instinct
fertile
fertilize
filter
find
focus
fold
force
forecast
insulate
formula
interior
frame of reference internal
international
frequent
interpret
intersect
front
frontier
interstate
interval
function
fundamental
inverse
gap
isolate
generalize
generate
iteration
global
kingdom
gravitate
lateral
latitude
ground
league
harvest
learned
heritage
least
history
legislate
length
lens
likely
limit
linear
load
luster
magnetism
magnitude
malleable
mandate
manufacture
mapping
marathon
maximum
meander
mechanical
mediate
meditate
medium
mercenary
midpoint
military
millennium
minimum
mirror
missing
mission
mobilize
model
modernize
mold
momentum
monopoly
motor
multicultural
multiple
mutual
myth
national
navigate
negative
neutral
niche
C O NT E NT L IT E RA C Y
211
notation
observe
obtuse
occur
opinion
opposite
organic
organize
origin
outcome
outlier
overlap
parallel
patriot
pattern
pedigree
percent
percentile
period
permeate
permutation
persecute
phase
philosophy
pioneer
plane
plateau
plot
point of view
politics
pollute
population
porous
positive
power
power
precipitate
precise
predict
prejudice
pressure
price
primary
prime
principle
prism
privatize
process
product
proof
propaganda
property
proportion
proprietor
protect
quadrant
radiate
radical
random
range
rate
ratify
ratio
rational
ray
react
reason
rebel
reciprocal
reconstruct
reflect
reform
relation
relative
relief
renaissance
repeal
replacement
represent
represent
repress
reproduce
republic
reserve
reservoir
resource
respect
respond
revive
revolt
rift
rights
rise
root
rotation
run
runoff
sample
sanction
satellite
scale
scavenger
sector
segment
segregate
seismic
self-sufficient
sequence
series
set
sex
shield
show
significant
similar
simple
simplify
simulate
situation
skew
slant
slope
society
solidarity
solution
solve
solvent
source
spatial
specialize
specific
spectrum
sphere
sponge
stationary
statistic
stem
stimulus
stock
storm
strike
sublime
succession
sum
supplement
supply
surge
surplus
survey
symbol
symmetry
synthetic
system
tally
tarnish
tax
technology
temperate
terminate
terms
terrorism
theoretical
theory
threaten
tide
tissue
title
toxic
trade-off
traitor
transform
translation
transpire
trench
trial
tribe
tribute
tsunami
unify
union
universe
vacuum
value
variable
vary
velocity
vent
vertical
vibrate
visible
volume
watershed
wave
well
width
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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LIST 67. MATH VOCABULARY —PRIMARY
GRADES 1 TO 3
Beginning math is challenging for many students. Unlike vocabulary in other subjects in which students
learn print words that match familiar concepts, math vocabulary often refers to unfamiliar concepts or to
abstractions such as equal or to unrelated meanings to a familiar word such as expression. While students
are learning to read and write math words and symbols, they also need to develop procedural knowledge
for problem solving and the rules of computation. This is no small feat for students just learning basic
word recognition and comprehension skills! Games, songs, interactive videos, manipulatives, and books
about numbers have all been shown to support math learning in primary grades. Don’t forget word walls
for vocabulary recognition and procedural guidance.
Counting
zero
one
two
three
four
five
six
seven
eight
nine
ten
eleven
twelve
thirteen
fourteen
fifteen
sixteen
seventeen
eighteen
nineteen
twenty
twenty-one
thirty
forty
fifty
sixty
seventy
eighty
ninety
hundred
thousand
million
billion
count
count back
count backwards
count on
count up
counting numbers
even number
number line
odd number
skip counting
eleventh
twelfth
thirteenth
twentieth
twenty-first
thirtieth
thirty-second
fortieth
fiftieth
sixtieth
seventieth
eightieth
ninetieth
hundredth
hundred and first
hundred eleventh
half-past
hour (h.)
hour hand
minute (min.)
minute hand
month
morning
o’clock
p.m.
quarter past
quarter till
quarter-hour
time
week
year (yr.)
Ordinal Numbers
first
second
third
fourth
fifth
sixth
seventh
eighth
ninth
tenth
Time
afternoon
a.m.
analog clock
calendar
day
digital clock
evening
half-hour
C O NT E NT L IT E RA C Y
213
Money
cent(s) (¢)
dime(s)
dollar(s) ($)
nickel(s)
penny (-ies)
quarter(s)
line segment
obtuse angle
octagon
parallel lines
parallelogram
pentagon
perimeter
perpendicular lines
plane figure
polygon
prism
pyramid
quadrilateral
rectangle
rectangular prism
rhombus
right angle
right triangle
scalene triangle
side
solid figure
sphere
square
symmetry
three-dimensional figure
trapezoid
triangle
triangular prism
turn
two-dimensional figure
vertex
height
holds less
holds more
inch (in.)
kilogram (kg)
kilometer (km)
length
liter (l)
measure
meter (m)
metric system (SI)
mile (mi.)
milliliter (ml)
millimeter (mm)
ounce(s) (oz.)
pint (pt.)
pound (lb.)
quart (qt.)
side
temperature
volume
weight
wide
width
yard (yd.)
bigger
biggest
bottom
certain
compare
different
fewer
fewest
group
impossible
improbable
is equal to (=)
is greater than ( >)
is less than (<)
less
lighter
Geometry
acute angle
acute triangle
angle
circle
cone
congruent
corner
cube
cylinder
edge
end point
equilateral triangle
face
hexagon
isosceles triangle
line
Measurement
area
capacity
centimeter (cm)
cubic unit
cup (c.)
customary system
degrees Celsius (∘ C)
degrees Fahrenheit (∘ F)
foot (ft.)
gallon (gal.)
gram (gm)
half
heavy
Relationships
about
above
after
alike
before
below
beside
between
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
214
lightest
longer
longest
more
Operations and Other Math
Terms
add, adding, addition
addend
addition sentence
array
associative property of
addition
associative property of
multiplication
attribute
average
bar graph
base
benchmark
chart
circle graph
commutative property of
addition
commutative property of
multiplication
compatible numbers
convert
coordinate graph
coordinate grid
count back
count on
data
decimal number
decimal point
degree(s) (∘ )
denominator
difference
different
digit
distributive property of
multiplication
divide
dividend
division
division sentence
divisor
doubles
equal group
regroup
same
shorter
shortest
symmetrical
taller
tallest
equal parts
equally likely
equals (=)
equation
equivalent decimals
equivalent fractions
estimate
even number
event
expanded form
expression
fact family
factor
favorable outcomes
fraction
frequency
function
graph
hundreds
hundredth
identity property of addition
identity property of
multiplication
improper fraction
inequality
intersecting lines
inverse operation
key
least likely
less likely
like fractions
likely
line graph
line of symmetry
line plot
line symmetry
mass
mean
median
minuend
minus (−)
missing addend
mixed number
mode
more likely
multiple(s)
multiplication
multiplication sentence
multiply
multistep problem
negative number
net
number line
number sentence
numbers
numerator
odd number
ones
one-to-one correspondence
operation
order
ordered pair
ordinal number
outcome
part
pattern
period
pictograph
picture graph
place value
plus (+)
point
position
possible outcome
predict
probable
probability
product
quotient
range
C O NT E NT L IT E RA C Y
215
real graph
related facts(s)
remainder
roll
round
same
scale
skip counting
simplest form
slide
sort
square unit
stack
standard form
standard notation
standard units
subtract
subtraction
subtraction sentence
sum
survey
symbol
table
tally chart
tally mark(s)
tens
tenths
thousands
thousandth(s)
unit
unit price
unlikely
value
variable
weight
whole number
zero property of multiplication
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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LIST 68. MATH VOCABULARY —ELEMENTARY
GRADES 4 to 5
The concepts in this list build on those learned in the primary grades and reflect the curriculum taught and
tested in grades 4 and 5. Use the primary math vocabulary as a review, then highlight the terms as they
recur in the topics taught in current math classes. Many math vocabulary terms are, in fact, math-related
definitions for words already known by students such as map and roots. Review multiple meaning words
and provide explicit instruction about the new use in math for a familiar word.
Measurement
area
capacity
centimeter (cm)
circumference
cup (c.)
customary system
degree (∘ )
degrees Celsius (∘ C)
degrees Fahrenheit (∘ F)
diameter
fluid ounces
foot (ft.)
gallon (gal.)
gram (gm)
height
inch (in.)
kilogram (kg)
kiloliter (kL)
kilometer (km)
length
liter (L)
meter (m)
metric system (SI)
mile (mi.)
milligram (mg)
milliliter (mL)
millimeter (mm)
minute (min.)
ounce(s) (oz.)
perimeter
pint (pt.)
pound (lb.)
quart (qt.)
standard units
surface area
ton (t.)
volume
weight
width
yard (yd.)
intersecting lines
isosceles triangle
line
line of symmetry
line segment
line symmetry
obtuse angle
obtuse triangle
octagon
open figure
parallel lines
parallelogram
pentagon
perpendicular lines
plane figure
polygon
prism
protractor
pyramid
quadrilateral
radius
ray
rectangle
rectangular prism
regular polygon
rhombus
right angle
right triangle
rotational symmetry
scalene triangle
side
slide
solid figure
sphere
square
straight angle
symmetry
three-dimensional figure
Geometry
acute angle
acute triangle
angle
circle
closed figure
compass
complex figure
cone
congruent
congruent angles
congruent segments
cube
cylinder
diagonal
edge
end point
equilateral triangle
face
hexagon
C O NT E NT L IT E RA C Y
217
translation
trapezoid
triangle
triangular prism
triangular pyramid
turn
two-dimensional figure
vertex
vertical angles
function table
graph
grid
histogram
horizontal axis
interval
key
line graph
line plot
linear
nonlinear
ordered pair
outlier
pictograph
plot
point
quadrant
scale
scaling
survey
tally chart
tally mark(s)
vertical axis
x-axis
x-coordinate
y-axis
y-coordinate
mean
measures of central tendency
mode
outcome
population
possible outcome
prediction
probability
random
random sample
sample
sample space
simple event
theoretical probability
trial
unlikely
associative property of
multiplication
balance
base
base of a power
benchmark
bilateral symmetry
center
certain
clustering
coefficient
common denominator
common factor
common multiple
commutative property of
addition
commutative property of
multiplication
compatible numbers
complementary events
composite number
convert
counter example
counting principle
cross product
cubic unit
Graphs and Functions
axis
bar graph
biased sample
circle graph
coordinate
coordinate graph
coordinate grid
coordinate plane
double-bar graph
frequency
frequency table
function
function rule
Statistics and Probability
average
equally likely
event
favorable outcomes
impossible
improbable
least likely
less likely
likely
Numbers, Operations and
Other Terms
add, adding
addend
addition
addition property of equality
algebra
algebraic expression
approximately
arithmetic sequence
array
associative property of
addition
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
218
data
decimal number
decimal point
defining the variable
denominator
difference
digit
distributive property of
multiplication
divide, division
dividend
divisible
divisor
elapsed time
equals (=)
equation
equivalent decimals
equivalent forms of a number
equivalent fractions
equivalent ratios
evaluate
even number
expanded form
expanded notation
expected probability
experimental probability
exponent
expression
fact family
factor
formula
fraction
front-end estimation
greater than or equal to (≥)
greater than (>)
greatest common factor (GCF)
hundredth
identity property of addition
identity property of
multiplication
improper fraction
inequality
integer
inverse operation
least common denominator
(LCD)
least common multiplier
(LCM)
less than (<)
less than or equal to (≤)
like denominators
like fractions
mass
median
million
minuend
mixed number
multiple(s)
multiplication
multiply
multistep problem
negative number
net
number line
numerator
numerical expression
odd number
operation
opposite integers
order of operations
organized data
origin
pattern
percent
period
place value
positive number
power of 10
prime factor
prime factorization
prime number
product
proper fraction
property
proportion
proportional
C O NT E NT L IT E RA C Y
219
quotient
range
ratio
ratio table
rational number
reciprocal
remainder
repeating decimal
round
scientific notation
sequence
simplest form
skip count
solution
solve
square number
square unit
squared
standard form
standard notation
subtract
subtraction
subtraction property of equality
subtrahend
sum
symbolic expression
ten thousandth
tenth
terminating decimal
terms
thousand(s)
thousandth(s)
tree diagram
unit cost
unit price
unit rate
unlike fractions
value
variable
whole number
zero pair
zero property of multiplication
LIST 69. MATH VOCABULARY —
INTERMEDIATE GRADES 6 TO 8
Math vocabulary in the intermediate grades reflects the progress from foundational knowledge to deeper
exploration of mathematics. In this process, many new terms and concepts are introduced weekly. Keep in
mind that many math vocabulary terms are, in fact, math-related definitions for words already known by
students such as space or translation. Pointing this out and reviewing the multiple meanings of words can
reduce confusion when learning the new concepts.
Geometry
acute angle
acute triangle
adjacent angles
altitude
altitude of a triangle
angle
arc
bisect
bisector
center of a circle
chord
circle
circumference
compass
complementary angles
complements
cone
congruent
congruent figures
conjecture
construction
converse
collinear points
coplanar
corresponding angles
corresponding parts
cube (geometric figure)
cylinder
decagon
diameter
edge
equilateral triangle
fractal
half-plane
height of a parallelogram
height of a triangle
heptagon
hexagon
hypotenuse
if-then statement
image
interior angle
intersection
intersecting lines
isosceles triangle
lateral area
lateral face
legs of an isosceles triangle
line
line of reflection
line of symmetry
line segment
line symmetry
mapping
midpoint
n-gon
net
nonagon
non-collinear points
non-coplanar
obtuse angle
obtuse triangle
octagon
parallel lines
parallel planes
parallelogram
pentagon
perimeter
perpendicular lines
pi
plane
point
polygon
polyhedron
prism
proof
proportion
protractor
pyramid
Pythagorean theorem
Pythagorean triple
quadrilateral
radian
radical equation
radical expression
radical inequality
radical sign
radicand
radius (radii)
ratio
ray
rectangle
rectangular prism
reflection
regular polygon
regular prism
regular pyramid
rhombus
right angle
right triangle
roots
rotation
rotational symmetry
scale
scale drawing
scale factor
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
220
scale model
scalene triangle
segment
semicircle
sides of a polygon
sides of an angle
skew lines
similar figures
similar solids
slant height
solid
solve a triangle
space
sphere
square (geometric figure)
straight angle
straightedge
supplementary angles
symmetry
tessellation
theorem
transformation
three-dimensional figure
translation
trapezoid
triangle
vertex form
vertex of a prism
vertex of an angle
vertical angles
independent events
independent variable
interquartile range
lower quartile
mean
measure of variation
measures of central tendency
median
mode
mutually exclusive
outcome
outlier
percentile
population
probability
quartiles
random
random sample
range of a data set
sample
sample space
statistics
stratified random sample
success
survey
systematic random sample
theoretical probability
tree diagram
trialunbiased sample
upper quartile voluntary
response sample
weighted average
division property of equality
equation
equivalent equations
equivalent expressions
evaluate
exponent
expression
external
factor a polynomial
factors
factor tree
factored form
formula
identity
identity property
inequality
inverse
inverse operations
like terms
monomial
multistep equations
numerical expression
open sentence
order of operations
polynomial
polynomial equation
proportion
proportional
quadratic equation
quadratic formula
quadratic function
quadratic term
sequence
Statistics and Probability
arithmetic mean
average
biased sample
complementary events
compound event
convenience sample
data
dependent events
dependent variable
disjoint events
event
experimental probability
frequency
fundamental counting principle
histogram
inclusive events
Algebra
addition property of equality
additive identity
additive inverse
algebra
algebraic expression
associative property
binomial
commutative property
conjugate of a binomial
cross product
degree
degree of a monomial
degree of a polynomial
depressed polynomial
distributive property
C O NT E NT L IT E RA C Y
221
simplest form of an expression
simplify
solution of a system of
equations
solution set
solve an equation
solution
statement
square of a number
square root
standard form of a linear
equation
subtraction property of
equality
term in a sentence
term in an expression
trinomial
variable
zero product property
distance formula
double-bar graph
extraneous solutions
family of graphs
function
function notations
function rule
function table
graph
line graph
line of best fit
ordered pair
ordinate
origin
parabola
parent graph
piecewise function
point-slope form
quadrant
rise
run
sector
slope
slope formula
slope-intercept form
x-axis
x-coordinate
x-intercept
y-axis
y-coordinate
y-intercept
least common multiplier
(LCM)
like fractions
percent
percent of change
percent of decrease
percent of increase
percent proportion
product
reciprocal
repeating decimal
simplest form of a fraction
terminating decimals
unlike fractions
integers
irrational numbers
natural numbers
negative integer
negative number
opposites
overlap
positive integer
positive number
precision
prime number
property
rational inequality
rational numbers
real numbers
relation
replacement set
scientific notation
series
Graphs and Functions
abscissa
absolute value function
axis (axes)
best-fit line
Cartesian coordinate plane
circle graph
constant function
constant of variation
continuous function
coordinate
coordinate graph
coordinate grid
coordinate plane
coordinate system
cumulative frequency
Fractions and Decimals
common denominator
complex fraction
denominator
equivalent fractions
equivalent ratios
greatest common factor
(GCF)
least common denominator
(LCD)
Number and Number Theory
arithmetic sequence
compatible numbers
compensation
composite number
compute
consecutive integers
discrete
empty set
infinity
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
222
set
set-builder notation
significant digits
union
Venn diagram
whole number
zero pair
zeros
estimate
excluded values
exponential decay
exponential function
exponential growth
extremes
factorial
fair game
four-step problem-solving
plan
hypothesis
inconsistent system
identify
indirect measurement
inductive reasoning
inverse variation
label
leading coefficient
line plot
linear equation
linear function
maximum
minimum
multiple(s)
multiplicative identity
multiplicative inverse
multiplicative property of
equality
multiplicative property of zero
negative correlation
nth root
perfect square
permutation
positive correlation
power
power function
prime factorization
prime polynomial
principal square root
range of a relation
rate
rate of change
rational equation
rational expression
rational function
scatter plot
simulation
stem-and-leaf plot
synthetic division
system of equations
system of inequalities
unit rate
vertical line test
zero exponent
Other Math Terms
accuracy
boundary
box-and-whisker plot
cluster
coefficient
combination
common difference
completing the square
compound inequality
compound statement
conclusion
concurrent
conditional statement
consistent system
constant
cube of a number
deductive reasoning
difference of squares
dimensional analysis
direct variation
discriminant
divisible
division property for
inequalities
divisor
domain
elimination method
empirical study
error
C O NT E NT L IT E RA C Y
223
LIST 70. US CUSTOMARY MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
From before colonial times, people living in the New World used a system of measurement based on the
British imperial system. The British system itself was based on much earlier Roman and Anglo-Saxon
measures. Measurement in early times were approximations based on common things. For example, a foot
was equal, more or less, to the length of an actual man’s foot, and the distance from the tip of a man’s
thumb to the knuckle was considered an inch. Over the centuries, the measurements were standardized
based on set reference units for length, liquid or dry capacity, and weight. This current-day system is based
on US Customary Units and is monitored by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).
US Customary Units are used for measurement for most personal and commercial purposes. The first table
shows the units, their equivalent measures, and their abbreviations. The second table lists some of the early
values for customary measures. The third table provides values or equivalents for other units students may
encounter.
A newer metric system was introduced in the 1860s in Europe. Americans use it primarily in science,
engineering, medicine, government, and international trade. See List 71 Metric System of Measurement (SI)
and List 72 Metric and Customary Equivalents and Conversion for the metric system and for information
about converting from one system to the other.
Length
12 inches
3 feet
5,280 feet
220 yards
8 furlongs
12 in.
3 ft.
5,280 ft.
220 yds.
8 fur.
equal
equal
equal
equal
equal
1 foot
1 yard
1 mile
1 furlong
1 mile
1 ft.
1 yd.
1 mi.
1 fur.
1 mi.
8 fl. oz.
2 c.
16 fl. oz.
2 pt.
32 fl. oz.
4 qt.
128 fl. oz.
equal
equal
equal
equal
equal
equal
equal
1 cup
1 pint
1 pint
1 quart
1 quart
1 gallon
1 gallon
1 c.
1 pt.
1 pt.
1 qt.
1 qt.
1 gal.
1 gal.
16 oz.
2,000 lb.
equal
equal
1 pound
1 ton
1lb.
1 T.
144 sq. in.
9 sq. ft.
4,840 sq. yds.
equal
equal
equal
1 square foot
1 square yard
1 acre
1 sq. ft.
1 sq. yd.
1 A.
1,728 cu. in.
27 cu. ft.
equal
equal
1 cubic foot
1 cubic yard
1 cu. ft.
1 cu. yd.
Liquid Measure
8 fluid ounces
2 cups
16 fluid ounces
2 pints
32 fluid ounces
4 quarts
128 fluid ounces
Weight
16 ounces
2,000 pounds
Area
144 square inches
9 square feet
4,840 square yards
Volume
1,728 cubic inches
27 cubic feet
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
224
Old Values for Customary Measurement Terms
1 inch
1 hand
equals
equals
1 span
equals
1 foot
1 cubit
1 yard
equals
equals
equals
1 fathom
1 pace
1 rod
1 furlong
1 mile
1 league
1 peck
1 bushel
1 hogshead
equals
equals
equals
equals
equals
equals
equals
equals
equals
Other Measurement Terms
astronomical unit
baker’s dozen
board foot (bd. ft.)
bolt
British thermal unit (BTU)
carat (c)
chain (ch)
decibel (db)
gross (gr.)
hertz (hz.)
horsepower (hp.)
karat (k)
knot (kn.)
light-year (ly.)
mach
magnum
nautical mile (nm.)
pi (π)
pica (pc.)
ream (rm.)
roentgen (r)
score (sc.)
speed of sound
time
the distance from the tip of the thumb to the knuckle
the width of a closed hand (about 4 inches) used to measure the height
of a horse
the distance from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the little finger in
the outspread hand (about 9 inches)
the length of a man’s foot (about 12 inches)
the length of the forearm (between 17 and 21 inches)
the distance from the finger tip of the outstretched arm to the center of
the chest (about 36 inches or 3 feet)
the distance of two outstretched arms (about 6 feet or 2 yards)
the distance of two full steps (approximately 2 yards)
5 1∕2 yards or about 16 1∕2 feet
200 paces or 200 yards (about 1/8 of a mile or 40 rods)
1,000 paces or 1,760 yards or 5,380 feet or 8 furlongs
About 1 1∕2 of an old Roman mile or 3 modern US miles
8 quarts or 1∕4 of a bushel
32 quarts or 64 pints
63 gallons for wine or 64 gallons for beer
93,000,000 miles, the average distance of the earth from the sun
13 pieces
144 cubic inches (12 in. × 12 in. × 1 in.) used for lumber
40 yards; used for cloth
a measure of heat
200 milligrams; used to weigh precious stones
66 feet; used in surveying land
unit of sound intensity; 1 db. is the smallest amount of change the
human ear can detect
144 pieces or 12 dozen
unit of measurement for electromagnetic wave frequencies; equivalent
to cycles per second
the power needed to lift 33,000 pounds a distance of 1 foot in 1 minute,
or 550 pounds 1 foot in 1 second
the measure of the purity of gold; pure gold is 24 k
rate of speed of 1 nautical mile per hour
5,880,000,000 miles; the distance light travels in a vacuum in a year;
about 1,088 ft. per second; a ratio; object/speed of sound; used for
airplane speed
a two-quart bottle; used for wine or champagne
1.852 kilometers, 1,852 meters, or 1.1508 miles, or 6,076 feet
the ration of the circumference of a circle to its diameter; 3.14159265
… ; usually rounded off to 3.14
1/6 of an inch or 12 points; used in printing
500 sheets; used for paper
unit used to measure radiation produced by x-rays
20 units; 4 score and 7 years equals 87 years
1,088 feet per second
hour = 3,600 seconds; minute = 60 seconds (60 s)
C O NT E NT L IT E RA C Y
225
LIST 71. METRIC SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT (SI)
By the eighteenth century, a wide range of measuring systems based on different standards had evolved
across Europe. This caused problems for commerce as well as disputes between states and their taxpayers.
Scientists in France, England, and other countries recognized the need for a universal set of measurements
that were based on natural, unchangeable phenomenon instead of standards that could have a range of
values over time. During the late 1790s a system was developed based on the size of the earth, the weight
of water, and relationships among units based on a decimal scheme. Over time, the units have been refined
and standards kept safeguarded.
The modern system used worldwide is called the International System of Units (Le Système International d’Unités or SI). The United States is one of only a few countries that does not use the metric system
exclusively. In the United States, the Customary System is used for most personal and commercial purposes
and the metric system is used in science, medicine, engineering, law, international trade, and other fields.
The first table shows the values and equivalents of the system. The second table lists the prefixes for
very large and very small numbers.
Length
10 millimeters
10 centimeters
100 millimeters
10 decimeters
100 centimeters
1,000 meters
10 mm
10 cm
100 mm
10 dm
100 cm
1,000 m
equal
equal
equal
equal
equal
1 centimeter
1 decimeter
1 decimeter
1 meter
1 meter
1 kilometer
1 cm
1 dm
1 dm
1m
1m
1 km
10 ml
1,000 ml
equal
equal
1 centiliter
1 liter
1 cl
1L
10 mg
1,000 mg
1,000 g
1,000 kg
equal
equal
equal
equal
1 centigram
1 gram
1 kilogram
1 metric ton
1 cg
1 gm
1 kg
1t
100 mm2
10,000 cm2
10,000 m2
equal
equal
equal
1 square centimeter
1 square meter
1 hectare
1 cm2
1 m2
1 ha
1,000 mm3
1,000 cm3
1,000,000 cm3
equal
equal
equal
1 cubic centimeter
1 cubic decimeter
1 cubic meter
1 cm3
1 dm3
1 m3
Liquid Measure
10 milliliters
1,000 milliliters
Weight
10 milligrams
1,000 milligrams
1,000 grams
1,000 kilograms
Area
100 square millimeters
10,000 square centimeters
10,000 square meters
Volume
1,000 cubic millimeters
1,000 cubic centimeters
1,000,000 cubic centimeters
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
226
Metric System Prefixes for Large and Small Numbers
The basic unit in the metric system is a meter, which is one ten-millionth of the distance from the pole to
the equator. All units are based on the decimal system of numbers. Hence, a hectometer is 100 meters and
a centimeter is 0.01 meters.
Prefix
Symbol
Magnitude
Meaning (multiply by)
yottazettaexapetateragigamegakilohectodeka—
decicentimillimicronanopicofemtoattozeptoyocto-
Y
Z
E
P
T
G
M
k
h
da
—
d
c
m
u (mu)
n
p
f
A
Z
Y
1024
1021
1018
1015
1012
109
106
103
102
10
—
10–1
10–2
10–3
10–6
10–9
10–12
10–15
10–18
10–21
10–24
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000
1 000 000 000 000 000 000
1 000 000 000 000 000
1 000 000 000 000
1 000 000 000
1 000 000
1000
100
10
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.000 001
0.000 000 001
0.000 000 000 001
0.000 000 000 000 001
0.000 000 000 000 000 001
0.000 000 000 000 000 000 001
0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001
C O NT E NT L IT E RA C Y
227
LIST 72. METRIC AND CUSTOMARY
EQUIVALENTS AND CONVERSION
Occasionally, it is necessary to convert from US customary units of measurement to metric units or from
metric units to customary. The following lists will help you understand the relationships between the two
systems at the unit level and to convert measurements from one system to the other.
Customary to Metric Units∗
Customary
Metric
If you have
multiply by
to get
Length
1 inch
equals
25.4 millimeters
inches
25.4
millimeters
1 inch
equals
2.5 centimeters
inches
2.5
centimeters
1 inch
equals
0.025 meters
inches
0.025
meters
1 foot
equals
30 centimeters
feet
30
centimeters
1 foot
equals
0.3 meters
feet
0.3
meters
1 yard
equals
0.9 meters
yards
0.09
meters
1 mile
equals
1.6 kilometers
miles
1.6
kilometers
1 ounce
equals
28 grams
ounces
28
grams
1 pound
equals
454 grams
pounds
454
grams
1 pound
equals
0.45 kilograms
pounds
0.45
kilograms
1 ton
equals
0.91 metric tons
tons
0.91
metric tons
1 ounce
equals
29.6 milliliters
ounces
29.6
milliliters
1 cup
equals
236.6 milliliters
cups
236.6
milliliters
1 cup
equals
0.24 liters
cups
0.24
liters
Weight
Liquid
1 quart
equals
0.95 liters
quarts
0.95
liters
1 gallon
equals
3.8 liters
gallons
3.8
liters
1 sq. in.
equals
6.5 sq. cm (cm2 )
sq. in.
6.5
sq. cm (cm2 )
1 sq. ft.
equals
0.09 sq. meter (m2 )
sq. ft.
0.09
sq. m (m2 )
1 sq. yd.
equals
0.84 sq. meters (m2 )
sq. yd.
0.84
sq. m (m2 )
1 acre
equals
0.4 hectares
acres
0.4
hectares
equals
2.6 sq. kilometers (k2 )
sq. mi.
2.6
sq. k (k2 )
Area
1 sq. mi.
∗
Factors longer than three decimal places are rounded.
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
228
Metric to Customary Units∗
Metric
Customary
If you have
Multiply by to get
Length
1 millimeter
equals
0.04 inches
millimeters
0.04
inches
1 centimeter
equals
0.4 inches
centimeters
0.4
inches
1 meter
equals
3.3 feet
meters
3.3
feet
1 meter
equals
1.09 yards
meters
1.09
yards
1 kilometer
equals
0.62 miles
kilometers
0.62
miles
1 gram
equals
0.035 ounces
grams
0.035
ounces
1 kilogram
equals
2.2 pounds
kilograms
2.2
pounds
1 metric ton
equals
1.1 tons
metric tons
1.1
tons
1 milliliter
equals
0.034 fluid ounces
milliliters
0.034
fluid ounces
1 liter
equals
33.8 fluid ounces
liters
33.8
fluid ounces
1 liter
equals
4.2 cups
liters
4.2
cups
1 liter
equals
2.1 pints
liters
2.1
pints
1 liter
equals
1.1 quarts
liters
1.1
quarts
1 liter
equals
0.26 gallons
liters
0.26
gallons
1 sq. cm (cm2 )
equals
0.16 sq. in.
sq. cm (cm2)
0.16
sq. in.
1 sq. meter (m2 )
equals
10.8 sq. ft.
sq. meters (m2)
10.8
sq. feet
1 sq. meters (m2 )
equals
1.2 sq. yd.
sq. meters (m2)
1.2
sq. yd.
1 hectare
equals
2.5 acres
hectares
2.5
acres
1 sq. kilometer (k2 )
equals
0.39 sq. miles
Sq. kilometers
0.39
sq. mi.
Weight
Liquid
Area
∗
Factors longer than three decimal places are rounded.
C O NT E NT L IT E RA C Y
229
LIST 73. ROMAN NUMERALS
The origin of Roman numerals is the subject of an interesting debate. Some researchers believe Roman
numerals are an adaptation of an earlier Etruscan counting system that used marks on tally sticks similar
to modern day tallying (e.g., //// / for a count of 6). Instead of the Etruscan symbols, it is thought the
Romans substituted similar-looking letters from their alphabet. Other researchers think the numerals may
have begun as hand signals with the numbers 1 to 4 represented by the appropriate number of fingers, and
the 5 represented by the “v” formed between the fingers and thumb. In either case, the number system has
been used for more than two thousand years.
In modern times, Roman numerals are used primarily for formal or decorative purposes, such as on
clocks and for building cornerstones. For fun and practice, have students write their birthdates in Roman
numerals. Have them guess your birthdate in Roman numerals, too.
The Roman numeral system is easy to learn.
• Roman numerals are based on seven values that are represented by letters:
1
I
5
V
10
X
50
L
100
C
500
D
1000
M
• There is no symbol for zero (0).
• Numbers are read from left to right.
• The system uses additive and subtractive principles:
• If a smaller value is placed after a larger value, it is added to it:
VI = 6;
XI = 11;
LII = 52;
XXVIII = 28;
MC + 1100;
XXXIV = 34
• If a smaller value is placed before a larger value, it is subtracted from it (IV = 4):
IV = 4;
Roman Numeral
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
XVI
XVII
XVIII
XIX
XX
IX = 9;
XLII = 42;
Arabic Numeral
LXIV = 64;
Roman Numeral
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
XXI
XXIX
XXX
XL
XLVIII
XLIX
L
LX
XC
XCVIII
XCIX
C
CI
CC
D
DC
CM
M
MMXX
MMXL
MMXVI = 2016
Arabic Numeral
21
29
30
40
48
49
50
60
90
98
99
100
101
200
500
600
900
1000
2020
2040
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
230
LIST 74. READING MATH SYMBOLS
Students need help to become fluent readers of math’s symbolic language. While teaching the concepts
and written symbols, provide practice listening to and reading the math expressions. Without skill reading
math, students’ ability to restate, explain, question, formulate, and apply functions is limited. Being able
to talk math enables students to think math.
Primary
See
Say
See
Say
+
x
and or plus
times
−
÷
take away or minus
is divided by
=
<
is equal to or equals
is less than
≠
>
is not equal to
is more than or is greater than
¢
1∕2
cent or cents
one-half
$
1∕4
dollar or dollars
one-quarter
3∕4
three-quarters
percent
1∕3
#
one-third
number or pound
See
Say
See
Say
+
x
plus or positive
is multiplied by
−
÷
minus or negative
is divided by
=
<
*or ⋅
is equal to or equals
is less than
is multiplied by
≠
>
/
is not equal to
is greater than
is divided by
?
≅
a missing number
is approximately equal to
∠
⊥
angle
is perpendicular to
≤
(
is less than or equal to
open parenthesis
≥
)
is greater than or equal to
closed parenthesis
[
@
open bracket
at
]
∅
closed bracket
null set, empty set, or zero
:
∴
R
is to
therefore
the set of real numbers
::
≈
N
as
is approximately
the set of natural numbers
∪
⊂
in union with or union
contained in or is a subset of
∩
⊄
intersects or intersection
is not a subset of
∈
<=>
is an element of
is equivalent
∉
||
is not an element of
is parallel to
%
Intermediate
C O NT E NT L IT E RA C Y
231
Reading Equations
See
Say
a+b=c
a−b=c
−a−b=c
a − (b + c) = d
a − (b—c) = d
a x b (or) a * b (or) a ⋅ b (or) ab
ab + c
ab − c
a(b − c) = d
a + (bc)
(a + b) + (c + d)
c±2
4)12
√
9=3
√
16
a
c
ac
×
= bd
b
d
a plus b equals c
a minus b equals c
negative a minus b equals c
a minus the sum of b plus c is equal to d
a minus the quantity b minus c is equal to d
a times b (or) the product of a and b
ab plus c
ab minus c
a times the quantity b minus c equals d
a plus the quantity b times c
the quantity a plus b plus the quantity c plus d
c plus or minus two
twelve divided by four (or) four goes into twelve
the square root of nine equals three
the square root of sixteen
a over b times c over d equals ac over bd
10% of 100 = 10
1/10 x 100 = 10
ten percent of one hundred equals ten
One-tenth of a hundred equals ten
Reading Formulas
See
A = lw
P = 2l + 2w
P=a+b+c+d
A = bh
A = 1∕2 bh
D = 2r
C = πd
C = 2πr
A = πr2
V = lwh
A = 2lw + 2lh + 2wh
Say
The area of the rectangle equals the length times the width.
The perimeter of the rectangle is equal to two times the length
plus two times the width.
The perimeter of a quadrilateral is equal to the sum of the
lengths of the four sides.
The area of a parallelogram is equal to the product of the base
times the height.
The area of a triangle is equal to one-half the product of the
base times the height.
The diameter of a circle is equal to two times the radius.
The circumference of a circle is equal to pi times d.
The circumference of a circle is equal to 2 times pi times the
radius r.
The area of a circle is equal to pi times the radius r squared.
The volume of the rectangular prism equals the length times the
width times the height.
The surface area of a rectangular prism equals two times the
length times width, plus two times the length times height,
plus two times the width times the height.
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
232
LIST 75. SOCIAL STUDIES VOCABULARY —
PRIMARY GRADES 1 TO 3
Two central themes of early social studies education are the interdependence of people and the relationship
between people and their environment. Beginning with families and communities helps children recognize
and appreciate different roles in society. By learning about the discovery by the European explorers of
a “New World” inhabited by peoples previously unknown to them, students will build a foundation for
understanding the history and cultures of the Native Americans and early history of the thirteen colonies.
The following list includes key terms from social studies texts for grades 1 to 3.
adobe
Algonquin
amendment
American Revolution
ancestor
ancient times
artifact
assembly line
barter
Bill of Rights
budget
calendar
candidate
cause
Cherokee
Christopher Columbus
Civil Rights Movement
colonist
colony
Comanche
Congress
consent
Constitution
council
country
court
Declaration of Independence
Delaware
demand
democracy
effect
England
ethnic group
executive branch
explorer
factory
federal
flag
fleet
fortification
framework
freedom
George Washington
government
governor
great migration
history
Hopi
House of Representatives
immigrant
independence
industries
interdependence
intermediate directions
international trade
Internet search
invention
judicial branch
keyword search
law
leader
lean-to
legal
legislative branch
Magna Carta
Mayflower Compact
mayor
modern times
money
monument
Morse code
motto
C O NT E NT L IT E RA C Y
233
native Americans
pasteurization
pioneer
pledge
Pledge of Allegiance
Pony Express
president
reference books
representation government
republic
responsibility
revolution
rule
school
Seminole
Senate
sequence
service
shelter
Sioux
slavery
sphere
Star Spangled Banner
state
state capital
Statue of Liberty
suburb
symbol
Thanksgiving
tools
town
tradition
veto
volunteer
vote
Wampanoag
LIST 76. SOCIAL STUDIES VOCABULARY —
INTERMEDIATE GRADES 4 TO 8
Social studies instruction, in the intermediate grades 4 to 8, sets an ambitious agenda for teaching and
learning. According to the National Council for the Social Studies, the field broadly encompasses anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, history, law, philosophy, political science, psychology, religion,
and sociology. This far-reaching landscape requires students to recognize and be familiar enough with the
meanings of key terms so they can meet the literacy challenges of paraphrasing while maintaining accuracy, learning the meaning of words in their domain-specific contexts, understanding information about
the topics as conveyed in print and nonprint resources, and speak and write using precise terms to communicate accurately. The following list provides key words from social studies texts for grades 4 to 8. Be
sure to teach related words and spellings, such as ally, allies, allied, and alliance.
abolitionist
Battle of _____
circumnavigate
absolute power
aggression
Bill of Rights
Black Codes
city-state
civil disobedience
alliance
Allied Powers
blockade
civil service
Book of Documents (Confucius) Civil War
allies
ally
boomtown
border state
coalition government
Code of Hammurabi
American Revolution
Anaconda Plan
annex
Boston Massacre
Boston Tea Party
boycott
Code of Justinian
codex
Cold War
anti-federalists
apache
Bronze Age
bubonic plague
collective
collective farm
appeasement
Appian Way
Buffalo soldiers
Byzantine Empire
colonialism
Columbian Exchange
apprentice
aqueduct
Byzantine Orthodox Church
cabinet
Committees of Correspondence
communism
armada
armed neutrality
armistice
Caesar
caliph
casualty
compromise
compute
computer software
arms control
arms race
catacomb
cathedral
concentration camp
Confederacy
Articles of Confederation
assassination
cattle drive
censorship
conquer
conquest
assembly
atomic bomb
auction
Central Powers
charter
checks and balances
consensus
constitutional monarchy
consul
Axis Powers
backwoodsmen
chivalry
Choctaw
containment
Continental Army
barge
bastille
Cherokee
Christianity
convent
convention
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
234
convert
cooperation
entrepreneur
equal opportunity
history
hogan
corporation
counterreformation
coup d’état
Era of Good Feelings
estate
Estates-General
Holocaust
homestead
courage
covenant
ethnic cleansing
European Union
Crusades
Cuban missile crisis
evaluate
expedition
House of Burgesses
hub
human rights
cuneiform
daimyo
factory system
fairness
hunter-gatherer
icon
Daughters of Liberty
D-day
decolonization
Fascism
federal
federalist
ideals
immortal
delegate
democracy
The Federalist
feudalism
dependency
deposed
First Nations
forty-niner
depression
détente
developing nation
fossil fuel
Fourteen Points
free enterprise system
dictator
disciple
free state
free trade zone
discrimination
dissenter
Freedmen’s Bureau
French and Indian War
intolerable acts
iron curtain
Iroquois
dissident
Domesday Book
Fugitive Slave Law
fur trade
isolationism
jihad
domestic system
domesticate
dominion
Gettysburg Address
glasnost
gold rush
Jim Crow laws
jury
domino effect
draft
Golden Age
Great Awakening
dust bowl
dynasty
Great Compromise
Great Depression
El Camino Real
electoral college
guerrilla
guild
gusher
elevation
Emancipation Proclamation
emperor
impeachment
imperialism
inauguration
indentured servant
independent
Hellenistic age
hieroglyphics
enlightenment
hijack
Indian Removal Act
indulgence
Industrial Revolution
interstate highway system
kamikaze
Kansas-Nebraska Act
knight
Korean War
laissez-faire
latitude
league
Harlem renaissance
harvest
empire
encomienda
Homestead Act
honesty
League of Nations
lodge
longhouse
longitude
The Long Walk
Louisiana Purchase
C O NT E NT L IT E RA C Y
235
loyalists
magma
national anthem
national assembly
plunder
political cartoon
mandate
mandate of heaven
national identity
nationalism
political party
pollution
manifest destiny
manor system
nationalist party
navigation
powwow
preamble
marathon
Marshall Plan
navigator
Nazis
neutral
prehistory
prejudice
private property
New Deal
New Stone Age
process
product
mercenaries
mercenary
New Testament
news article
progressive
proletarian
mesa
Mexican War
nobility
nonviolence
propaganda
proprietor
Middle Ages
middle passage
military
Normans
North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO)
prospector
Protestantism
pueblo
militias
millennium
Northwest Passage
nuclear
pulp
puppet government
Minoan
minutemen
Olympic Games
one-party system
Puritans
pyramid
mission
missionary
Open Door Policy
opinion
Missouri Compromise
mobilization
modernization
oral tradition
papyrus
parliament
quarry
quipu
ratify
monarch
monarchy
passport
patrician
reform
reformation
monk
monopoly
patriotism
patriots
reformer
refugee
monotheism
Monroe Doctrine
mosque
Pax Romana
perestroika
persecution
Reign of Terror
reincarnation
renaissance
mountain men
muckraker
Persian Gulf wars
pharaoh
reparations
repeal
mummy
Muslim
philosopher
pictograph
represent
repressive
myth
Napoleonic Code
pilgrim
pillage
republic
reservation
martial law
Mayflower Compact
medieval
reason
reconstruction
National Aeronautics and Space plantation
Administration (NASA)
plebeian
respect
revival
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
236
revolution
rite of passage
sodbusters
trading post
solidarity
Trail of Tears
Rosetta stone
Rough Riders
Sons of Liberty
traitor
source
transcontinental railroad
Russian Revolution
sachem
Soviet
Treaty of Paris
space race
Treaty of Versailles
saga
samurai
specialize
trench warfare
Stamp Act
tribe
sanction
Sanskrit
savanna
states’ rights
tribune
steam engine
tribute
steamboat
Truman Doctrine
secede
secondary source
subarctic climate
Undergrown Railroad
sectionalism
segregate
suffrage
unemployment
Supreme Court
union
tallow
United Nations (UN)
tax
value
Tea Act
vandal
temperance
vaquero
temperature
Vedas
Ten Commandments
viceroy
tenement
Viet Cong
shaman
sharecropping
tepee
Vietnam War
terrorism
wagon train
Shay’s Rebellion
shogun
silk road
terrorist
wampum
Tet Offensive
war hawks
textiles
War of 1812
Sioux
slave
theory
Warsaw Pact
time line
Watergate scandal
slave codes
slave trade
title
website
totem pole
White House
socialism
society
Townshend Act
wigwam
trade-off
World War I
Socratic method
trading block
World War II
self-sufficient
senate
Seneca Falls Convention
separation of powers
separatists
serf
settlement house
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LIST 77. SOCIAL STUDIES VOCABULARY —
SECONDARY GRADES 9 TO 12
In addition to United States history, social studies in the secondary school often includes attention to world
history and cultures, religions, domestic and international political science, current events, and sociology.
This list of key domain-specific terms was drawn from texts prepared for students in grades 9 to 12. Be
sure to teach root words and their related words and spellings, such as auto: automatic, automatically,
automation, automaton, automaticity, autonomous, autonomy, automobile, and autopilot.
aborigine
absolute monarch
administration
advice and consent
affirmative action
alien
Allah
ambassador
amnesty
anarchy
Anasazi
Anglican
Animism
annex
annexation
annul
antebellum
antiballistic missile (ABM)
anti-Semitism
antitrust
arbitration
armistice
arsenal
assimilation
Atlantic Charter
autocracy
automation
baby boom
balance of power
balance of trade
balanced budget
Benin
Beringia
Berlin Conference
bipartisan
Black Power
blitzkrieg
Boxer Rebellion
Boyar
Brahma
bureaucracy
Bushido
caliph
Camp David Accords
Canon law
carpet baggers
caucus
census
clan
classical art
clemency
clergy
cloning
coalition
Cold War
collective bargaining
collective farming
common law
commune
Communism
Communist party
contraband
creationism
Crimean War
cultural diffusion
cultural revolution
cyberterrorism
czar
decade
de facto
default
deficit
Department of Homeland
Security
deregulation
desegregation
diaspora
dictatorship
diplomacy
disarmament
discrimination
divine right
e pluribus unum
ecology
emancipation
embargo
enlightened despot
entitlement
filibuster
foreclosure
GI Bill
GOP
gross national product (GNP)
hawks
ideology
impeach
Indo-Europeans
industrialization
inflation
initiative
Inquisition
interchangeable parts
International Space Station
Iron Curtain
Iroquois
Jewel in the Crown
kaiser
Kristallnacht
Ku Klux Klan
labor
lame duck
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
238
legalism
legitimacy
lineage
literacy test
lobby
Long March
Maghreb
maize
majority
Manifest Destiny
mass culture
master race
materialism
matriarchal
matrilineal
media
Mein Kampf
mercantilism
mercenaries
Mesoamerica
metropolitan
middle class
monopoly
monotheism
Monroe Doctrine
Mujahedeen
Napoleonic Code
naturalization
neoclassical
Neolithic Age
neutrality
New Deal
nirvana
nomad
Nonaggression Pact
nullification
Nuremberg Trials
oligarchy
Open Door Policy
Opium War
oracle bones
ordinance
Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries
(OPEC)
Oslo Peace Accords
ozone layer
Pacific Rim
Paleolithic Age
Palestine Liberation
Organization (PLO)
Panama Canal
pardon
partition
patriarchal
patrilineal
Patriot Act
patron
patronage
Peloponnesian War
penal colony
per capita
Persian Gulf Wars
petition
Phoenicians
Pilgrims
platform
Politburo
political action committee
(PAC)
polytheism
popular culture
pork barrel
precedent
predestination
Presbyterian
productivity
Prohibition
proletariat
proliferation
provisional government
push-pull factors
quarantine
Quetzalcoatl
Quipu
quota
racism
ration
Realpolitik
recall recession
referendum
Reign of Terror
reincarnation
religious toleration
salon
scientific method
C O NT E NT L IT E RA C Y
239
scorched earth policy
secular
secure
seniority
separate but equal
separation of powers
sharecroppers
Shari’a
Shi’a
shuttle diplomacy
sit-in
sit-down strike
social contract
Social Security
special interest groups
sphere of influence
standard of living
status quo
Strategic Arms Limitation
Treaty (SALT)
strike
subpoena
subsidize
Suez Canal
suffrage
Sunni
superpower
sustainable growth
Taliban
The Balkans
Theory of Evolution
Tiananmen Square
totalitarianism
treaty
triumvirate
Trojan War
tyrant
ultimatum
unconstitutional
utilitarianism
Utopia
vernacular
war criminal
westernization
yin and yang
Zapotek
LIST 78. GEOGRAPHY VOCABULARY —
PRIMARY GRADES 1 TO 3
Early positive experiences with geography can lead to a lifelong fascination with people, places, cultures,
and environments around the globe. In the early elementary grades, students learn about communities,
interdependence, and land and water forms. They also begin to develop research and map skills. This is a
list of key words found in geography units for grades 1 to 3.
adapt
address
broadcast
capital
capital resources
capitol
cardinal directions
century
chart
citizen
city
classify
climate
communicate
community
compass rose
conservation
conserve
consumer
continent
crop
crossroads
culture
custom
cut-away diagram
decade
diagram
directions
earn
economic choice
ecosystem
endangered
equator
forest
free market
fuel
geography
globe
goods
graph
grid
group
hemisphere
hill
holiday
human resource
import
income
interview
island
job
lake
landform
landmark
legend
livestock
location
locator map
logging
lumber
major
map
map key
map scale
market
migration
miner
mineral
mountain
museum
natural resource
needs
neighbor
neighborhood
nonrenewable resource
northern hemisphere
ocean
opportunity
opportunity cost
peninsula
periodical
physical environment
pie chart
plain
population
port
prime meridian
producer
product
profit
reaper
recreation
recycle
reduce
region
renewable resource
reuse
river
route
rural
savings
scarcity
season
southern hemisphere
specialize
spending
supply
table
tax
technology
timeline
trade
transcontinental railroad
transportation
urban
vaccine
valley
wants
weather
world
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LIST 79. GEOGRAPHY VOCABULARY —
INTERMEDIATE GRADES 4 TO 8
The world in which we live is a fascinating place. Information technology and changing political structures
have brought us into a global village. Growing cultural, economic, and political ties to countries around the
world increase the importance of students’ knowledge of world geography and cultures. This list includes
key vocabulary from world cultures and geography units and texts for intermediate grades 4 to 8. It builds
on concepts presented in the primary grade list.
aborigine
acid rain
advertisement
agriculture
almanac
Analects
anthropology
apartheid
apostle
archaeologist
archipelago
arid
aristocracy
aristocrat
artisan
atlas
backcountry
badlands
barrier island
basin and range
bay
bayou
biome
bog
boundary
Brahman
Buddha
Buddhism
burial mound
canal
canyon
capitalism
capitalist
caravan
carbon dating
carbon dioxide
caring
cartographer
cash crop
caste
cataract
causeway
census
ceremony
civilization
clan
class system
command economy
commerce
common market
competition
compound
concrete
Confucianism
conserve
cooperative
cotton gin
crop rotation
cultural region
currency
Daoism
dateline
debtor
deforestation
delta
demand
demographer
descendant
desert
dialect
dictionary
distribution
distribution map
diverse
diversify
double cropping
dowry
drought
C O NT E NT L IT E RA C Y
241
economic indicator
economy
Eightfold Path
encyclopedia
endangered species
Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA)
epidemic
erosion
etching
euro
excavation sites
external
extinct
fact
feature article
fertile
fiesta
fjord
fossil
Four Noble Truths
frigid
generalization
geothermal energy
geyser
ghost town
glacier
global warming
globalization
gorge
gospels
great wall
greenhouse
gross domestic product (GDP)
haciendas
hajj
headline
heritage
Hinduism
homogeneous
human genome project
human resources
humidity
hurricane
hydroelectricity
hydropower
Ice Age
ice shelf
information technology
inlet
internal combustion engine
irrigation
Islam
isthmus
Judaism
key
labor force
labor unions
lava
lighthouse
lock (canal)
malnutrition
manufacturing
meditation
mercantilism
meridian
messiah
middleman
monsoon season
mound
mountain
multiculturalism
nomad
North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA)
oasis
ombudsman
outback
overgrazing
paleontologist
Pan-American
pesticide
petro-chemical
pilgrimage
plateau
point of view
polar climate
political map
polytheism
pope
population density map
potlatch
prairie
precipitation
primary source
privatization
public transportation system
Quran
Ramadan
raw material
refinery
reforest
ring of fire
road map
Roman Catholic Church
satellite
scale
scribe
scrub land
sea level
search engine
sediment
silt
sod
standard time
stock
stock market
strike
subsistence farming
supply
surplus
synagogue
Taj Mahal
technology
telegraph
temperate climate
terrace
theocracy
time one
Torah
tourism
town common
tributary
tropical climate
tundra
typhoon
vegetation
vineyard
volcano
waterway
weather
wetland
zero population growth
Zionism
Zoroastrianism
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242
LIST 80. GEOGRAPHY FAST FACTS
The globalization of business, news, and even families means students need to know some basic facts about
the world we share. This list provides information about major land and water masses as well as population
estimates. Understanding the relative size of each continent helps provide perspective when thinking and
discussing world issues such as population growth, food supply, health, education, and economic needs.
Continents
Continent
Asia
Africa
Europe
North America
South America
Antarctica
Oceania∗∗
Square
Miles
Percentage of
Earth’s Land
Population
Estimate∗
Percentage of
Earth’s Population
11,980,000
11,508,000
8,813,000
8,260,000
6,800,000
5,400,000
3,254,000
21.4
20.6
15.7
14.8
12.1
9.7
5.8
4,350,937,593
1,136,446,104
740,680,870
561,448,176
410,056,027
0
38,614,796
60.11
15.70
10.23
7.76
5.76
0
0.53
∗ Adapted from Population Reference Bureau estimates for mid-2014 http://www.prb.org/DataFinder/Geography.aspx?loct=4
∗∗ Australia, New Zealand, and nearby islands
World Oceans
Ocean
Square Miles
Pacific Ocean
63,800,000
• South China Sea • Sea of Okhotsk • Bearing Sea
• Sea of Japan • East China Sea • Yellow Sea
Atlantic Ocean
31,800,000
• Caribbean Sea • Mediterranean Sea
• Norwegian Sea • Gulf of Mexico • Hudson Bay
• Greenland Sea • North Sea • Black Sea
• Baltic Sea • Arctic Ocean
Indian Ocean
28,300,000
• Arabian Sea • Bay of Bengal • Red Sea
Major World Rivers
Name
Nile
Amazon
Yangtze
Ob
Huang Ho
Yenisei
Parana
Irtish
Length (mi)
Continent
Name
4,180
3,900
3,600
3,460
2,900
2,800
2,800
2,760
Africa
So. America
Asia
Asia
Asia
Asia
So. America
Asia
Zaire
Amur
Lena
Mackenzie
Niger
Mekong
Mississippi
Missouri
C O NT E NT L IT E RA C Y
243
Length (mi)
Continent
2,700
2,800
2,650
2,600
2,600
2,500
2,350
2,300
Africa
Asia
Asia
No. America
Africa
Asia
No. America
No. America
World Population 7,238,183,566 as of mid-2014
Rank
City, Country
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Tokyo, Japan
Jakarta, Indonesia
Seoul, South Korea
Delhi, India
Shanghai, China
Manila, Philippines
Karachi, Pakistan
New York, USA
Sao Paulo, Brazil
Mexico City, Mexico
Population
in Millions
Rank
City, Country
Population
in Millions
37.1
26.0
22.5
22.2
20.8
20.7
20.7
20.4
20.2
19.5
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Cairo, Egypt
Beijing, China
Osaka, Japan
Mumbai, India
Guangzhou, China
Moscow, Russia
Los Angeles, USA
Calcutta, India
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Buenos Aires, Argentina
17.8
17.3
17.0
16.9
16.8
15.5
14.9
14.4
14.0
13.6
World Population Centers. (2012). http://www.worldatlas.com/citypops.htm
World Religions
Religion
Members
Percentage of Population
Christianity
Islam
Nonaffiliated or atheist
Hinduism
Buddhism
Regional and tribal
Other religions
Judaism
2.2 billion
1.6 billion
1.1 billion
1 billion
500 million
400 million
58 million
14 million
31.5
23.2
16.3
15.0
7.1
5.9
0.8
0.2
Pew Research Center Forum on Religion and Public Life. (December 2012).
http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/
US Population Centers
Rank
City, State
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
New York, NY
Los Angeles, CA
Chicago, IL
Houston, TX
Philadelphia, PA
Phoenix, AZ
San Antonio, TX
San Diego, CA
Dallas, TX
San Jose, CA
Austin, TX
Indianapolis, IN
Jacksonville, FL
San Francisco, CA
Columbus, OH
Population
in Thousands
Rank
City, State
8,406
3,884
2,719
2,196
1,553
1,513
1,409
1,356
1,258
999
885
843
843
837
823
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Charlotte, NC
Fort Worth, TX
Detroit, MI
El Paso, TX
Memphis, TN
Seattle, WA
Denver, CO
Washington, DC
Boston, MA
Nashville, TN
Baltimore, MD
Oklahoma City, OK
Louisville, KY
Portland, OR
Las Vegas, NV
Population
in Thousands
793
793
689
674
653
652
649
646
646
634
622
611
610
609
603
(2013 US Census estimate). http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?src=bkmk
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LIST 81. US STATES AND THEIR CAPITALS
Our fifty states have interesting names and origins. Use this list to make learning state capitals and postal
abbreviations informative and fun. Remember: postal abbreviations do not have periods at the end. Check
out www.50states.com for many resources and activities for teaching and learning.
State
Abbreviation
Capital
Meaning of State Name
Alabama
AL
Montgomery
Choctaw—“thicket-clearers”
Alaska
Arizona
AK
AZ
Juneau
Phoenix
Inuit—“great land”
Papago—“place of the small spring”
Arkansas
California
Colorado
AR
CA
CO
Little Rock
Sacramento
Denver
Quapaw—“south wind”
Spanish—“earthly paradise”
Spanish—“red” (color of the earth)
Connecticut
Delaware
CT
DE
Hartford
Dover
Florida
FL
Tallahassee
Mohican—“at the long tidal river”
Named for English governor Lord De La
Warr
Spanish—“feast of flowers”
Georgia
Hawaii
GA
HI
Atlanta
Honolulu
Named for George II of England
Hawaiian—“homeland”
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
ID
IL
IN
Boise
Springfield
Indianapolis
Shoshone—“light on the mountain”
Algonquin—“warriors” (French, illini)
English—“land of the Indians”
Iowa
Kansas
IA
KS
Des Moines
Topeka
Dakota—“the sleepy one”
Sioux—“land of the south wind people”
Kentucky
Louisiana
KY
LA
Frankfort
Baton Rouge
Iroquois—“meadow land”
Named for Louis XIV of France
Maine
Maryland
ME
MD
Augusta
Annapolis
Named after a French province
Named for wife of Charles I of England
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
MA
MI
MN
Boston
Lansing
St. Paul
Algonquin—“place of the big hill”
Chippewa—“big water”
Dakota Sioux—“sky-colored water”
Mississippi
Missouri
MS
MO
Jackson
Jefferson City
Chippewa—“big river”
Algonquin—“river of the big canoes”
Montana
Nebraska
MT
NE
Helena
Lincoln
Spanish—“mountains”
Omaha—“river in the flatness”
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
NV
NH
NJ
Carson City
Concord
Trenton
Spanish—“snowy”
Named after an English county
Named after Isle of Jersey in England
New Mexico
New York
NM
NY
Santa Fe
Albany
Named after Mexico (Aztec war god, Mextli)
Named for the Duke of York and Albany
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245
State
Abbreviation Capital
Meaning of State Name
North Carolina
NC
Raleigh
Named for Charles I and Charles II of
England
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
ND
OH
OK
Bismarck
Columbus
Oklahoma City
Sioux—“friend”
Iroquois—“fine or good river”
Choctaw—“red people”
Oregon
Pennsylvania
OR
PA
Salem
Harrisburg
Rhode Island
RI
Providence
Spanish—“land of wild sage”
Named for William Penn and Latin
“woodland”
Dutch—“red clay”
South Carolina
SC
Columbia
Named for Charles I and Charles II of
England
South Dakota
Tennessee
SD
TN
Pierre
Nashville
Sioux—“friend”
Cherokee settlement name, Tanasi
Texas
Utah
TX
UT
Austin
Salt Lake City
Spanish—“allies”
Ute—“people of the mountains”
Vermont
Virginia
VT
VA
Montpelier
Richmond
Washington
West Virginia
WA
WV
Olympia
Charleston
Wisconsin
Wyoming
WI
WY
Madison
Cheyenne
French—“green mountain”
Named for Elizabeth I, the Virgin Queen of
England
Named for George Washington
Named when Virginia’s western counties
refused to secede from the United States in
1863
Chippewa—“grassy place”
Algonquin—“place of the big flats”
District of Columbia
Puerto Rico
DC
PR
Washington
San Juan
Named for Christopher Columbus
Spanish—“rich port”
Virgin Islands
VI
St. Thomas
Biblical—the Virgin Mary
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LIST 82. STATES OF MEXICO
AND THEIR CAPITALS
The full name of our neighbor to the south is the United States of Mexico, or, given that its official language
is Spanish, Estados Unidos Mexicanos. Just as the United States of America is frequently shortened to the
United States, the United States of Mexico is shortened to Mexico. The country of Mexico has thirty-one
states and a federal district—Ciudad de México (Mexico City)—which is the capital of the country. Mexico
declared its independence from Spain on September 16, 1810, and celebrates September 16 as Independence
Day. It was not recognized by Spain as an independent country until September 27, 1821. Mexico’s federal
government has a constitution, its president has a cabinet, and its system of law has many similarities to
US constitutional law.
State
Capital
Postal Abbreviation
Aguascalientes
Baja California
Baja California Sur
Campeche
Chiapas
Chihuahua
Coahuila
Colima
Durango
Guanajuato
Guerrero
Hidalgo
Jalisco
Mexico
Michoacan
Morelos
Nayarit
Nuevo Leon
Oaxaca
Puebla
Queretaro
Quintana Roo
San Luis Potosi
Sinaloa
Sonora
Tabasco
Tamaulipas
Tlaxcala
Veracruz
Yucatan
Zacatecas
Aguascalientes
Mexicali
La Paz
Campeche
Tuxtla Gutierrez
Chihuahua
Saltillo
Colima
Victoria de Durango
Guanajuato
Chilpancingo
Pachuca de Soto
Guadalajara
Toluca de Lerdo
Morelia
Cuernavaca
Tepic
Monterrey
Oaxaca de Juarez
Puebla de Zaragoza
Queretaro
Chetumal
San Luis Potosf
Culiacan Rosales
Hermosillo
Villahermosa
Ciudad Victoria
Tlaxcala
Jalapa Enriquez
Merida
Zacatecas
AGS
BCN
BCS
CAM
CHIS
CHIH
COAH
COL
DGO
GTO
GRO
HGO
JAL
MEX
MICH
MOR
NAY
NL
OAX
PUE
QRO
QROO
SLP
SIN
SON
TAB
TAMPS
TLAX
VER
YUC
ZAC
Federal District
Distrito Federal
Mexico City
DFJ
C O NT E NT L IT E RA C Y
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LIST 83. PROVINCES OF CANADA
AND THEIR CAPITALS
Canada, our neighbor to the north, has an area of more than 3,855,000 square miles. Only Russia has a
larger area (6,602,000 square miles). Canada stretches from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and
from the northern border of the United States to the Arctic Ocean. Although large in area, as much as 90
percent of it is uninhabitable because of its numerous bodies of water and extreme wilderness and weather
conditions. Most of its 35,428,000 people live in or near cities in the more temperate farming and urban
areas close to the United States. Canada was once part of the United Kingdom and directly controlled by
Great Britain. It began its independence in 1867 as a union of British North American colonies and in
1931 was officially recognized as Canada by the United Kingdom. It celebrates Canada Day each July 1.
Canada’s capital city, Ottawa, is located in the Province of Ontario and has a population of about 900,000.
Canada’s ten provinces and three territories are in the following list.
Province
Capital
Postal Abbreviation
Alberta
British Columbia
Manitoba
New Brunswick
Newfoundland and Labrador
Nova Scotia
Ontario
Prince Edward Island
Quebec
Saskatchewan
Edmonton
Victoria
Winnipeg
Fredericton
St. John’s
Halifax
Toronto
Charlottetown
Quebec
Regina
AB
BC
MB
NB
NF
NS
ON
PE
QC or PQ
SK
Territory
Northwest Territories
Nunavut
Yukon Territory
Yellowknife
Iqaluit
Whitehorse
NT
NU
YT
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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LIST 84. SCIENCE VOCABULARY —PRIMARY
GRADES 1 TO 3
Children are naturally curious about life and the world they see, hear, touch, smell, and taste. Science
instruction in the primary grades introduces them to the life cycle, the earth, the solar system, simple
machines, weather, and natural systems. They learn science through their senses and by using observation,
measurement, classification, data collection, and hypothesis testing.
This vocabulary list is drawn from texts for grades 1 through 3. Keep in mind that some science words
may be beyond students’ instructional reading level and may pose pronunciation and spelling challenges.
Many science words are alternate meanings for common words such as crust or pole. Post key terms on a
science word wall, include them in language experience charts, and use pictures with labels to help students
master them.
Life Science
adapt
adaptation
amphibian
backbone
balance
bird
camouflage
carnivore
community
competition
consumer
decompose
decomposer
ecosystem
egg
embryo
endangered
environment
extinct
fish
flower
flowering plant
food chain
food web
fruit
fuel
gills
habitat
hatch
herbivore
heredity
hibernate
inherited trait
insect
invertebrate
larva
leaf (leaves)
life cycle
living thing
lung
mammal
migrate
mimicry
nocturnal
nonliving thing
nutrient
omnivore
organism
oxygen
photosynthesis
pitch
pollen
pollination
population
predator
prey
produce
C O NT E NT L IT E RA C Y
249
producer
pupa
reproduce
reptile
respond
root
seed
seedling
shelter
skeleton
stem
structure
system
tadpole
trait
trunk
vertebrate
Earth Science
air pressure
anemometer
arctic
astronaut
attract
axis
blizzard
cirrus
climate
cloud
condensation
temperature
tornado
condense
natural resource
cone
new moon
conserve
nonrenewable resource
constellation
ocean
continent
orbit
core
phase
crater
plain
crust
planet
cumulus
poles
deposition
pollute
desert
pollution
drought
pond
earth
precipitation
earthquake
rain forest
erosion
rain gauge
evaporate
recycle
evaporation
reduce
fall
renewable resource
first quarter
reuse
flood
revolve
fossil
river
forest
rock
freshwater
rotate
full moon
rotation
glacier
season
grassland
sediment
groundwater
sedimentary rock
humus
shadow
hurricane
soil
igneous rock
solar energy
lake
solar system
landform
space
landslide
space probe
lava
sphere
magma
spring
mantle
star
metamorphic rock
stratus
metamorphosis
summer
mineral
sun
friction
fulcrum
moon
telescope
gas
valley
volcano
waning moon
waste
water
water cycle
water vapor
weather
weathering
wetland
wind
wind vane
winter
woodland forest
Physical Science
absorb
boil
burn
cell
chemical
chemical change
circuit
compound
compound machine
conductor
current electricity
dissolve
distance
electric charge
electric current
electricity
element
energy
force
freeze
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
250
gravity
heat
inclined plane
insulator
kinetic energy
lever
light
liquid
machine
magnet
mass
matter
measure
melt
metric system
mixture
motion
opaque
physical
physical change
solution
position
potential energy
property
pull
pulley
push
ramp
reflect
state of matter
refract
repel
resource
screw
simple machine
solid
vibrate
C O NT E NT L IT E RA C Y
251
sound
speed
static electricity
switch
thermal energy
thermometer
translucent
transparent
volume
wedge
weight
wheel and axle
work
LIST 85. SCIENCE VOCABULARY —
ELEMENTARY GRADES 4 TO 6
Understanding ourselves and the world around us requires a solid foundation of basic concepts in science.
As the frontiers of science expand and affect our daily lives, every person will need to be familiar with
concepts in the life, earth, and physical sciences. The following list was drawn from vocabulary in science
texts grades 4 through 6 and builds on the list for the primary grades.
Direct instruction is helpful when students encounter words in science that are alternate or special
meanings for common words such as ground and carrier. Students need practice in order to recognize multiword science idioms such as chain reaction or circuit breaker and instruction on how to read multisyllabic
words and understand the meaning of science-related prefixes, suffixes, and root words. Teach the variant
forms when introducing new terms; for example, when teaching the concept of class, also teach classify and
classification.
Life Science
abiotic
accommodation
acquired
algae
angiosperm
Animalia
antibiotic
antibody
arthropod
asexual reproduction
bacteria
bilateral symmetry
biodegradable
biodiversity
biomass
biome
biotic factor
budding
carbon cycle
carrier
carrying capacity
cartilage
cell cycle
cell membrane
cell wall
cellular respiration
chlorophyll
chromosome
cilia
circulation
circulatory system
classification
climax community
clone
Cnidarian
cold-blooded
communalism
cytoplasm
digestion
digestive system
DNA
dominant trait
echinoderm
endangered species
endocrine system
endoskeleton
excretion
excretory system
exoskeleton
external fertilization
extinct species
fermentation
fertilization
fungus (fungi)
gene
gene splicing
genetic disorder
genetic engineering
geneticist
genetics
genotype
genus
germination
hybrid
imprint
infer
inherited behavior
instinct
internal fertilization
invertebrate
kingdom
learned behavior
life span
limiting factor
marsupial
meiosis
microbe
microorganism
mitosis
multicellular
muscular system
mutation
mutualism
natural selection
nervous system
neutron
niche
nitrogen cycle
nonvascular plant
organ
organ system
organic compound
osmosis
ovary
parasite
parasitism
pedigree
phenotypes
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
252
phylum
pioneer community
pioneer species
pistil
plankton
primary succession
protective coloration
recessive trait
reproduction
respiration
respiratory system
root hair
runner
scavenger
seed coat
sexual reproduction
skeletal system
species
sperm
sponge
spore
stamen
stigma
stomata
succession
symbiosis
tetrapod
threatened species
tissue
transpiration
tropism
unicellular
variation
vascular
vascular plant
warm-blooded
x chromosome
y chromosome
zygote
Earth Science
abyssal plain
acid rain
aftershock
air mass
amber
aquifer
area
asteroid
astronomical unit
astronomy
atmosphere
atoll
avalanche
axial tilt
balanced forces
barometer
big bang
black hole
caldera
cast
cinder-cone volcano
cold front
comet
complete metamorphosis
composite volcano
compost
conifer
conservation
continental drift
continental shelf
convection
convection cell
coral reef
crystal
cyclone
deciduous forest
Doppler
El Niño
elevation
ellipse
eons
epicenter
era
estuary
fault
fault-block mountain
floodplain
focus
fold
folded mountain
forecast
C O NT E NT L IT E RA C Y
253
fossil fuel
front
galaxy
geologist
geothermal energy
global wind
hardness
horizon
humidity
hydroelectricity
hydrosphere
incomplete metamorphosis
inner core
insolation
international dateline
intertidal zone
irrigation
island arc
island chain
isobar
land breeze
landfill
latitude
light-year
lithosphere
longitude
lunar eclipse
malleability
meander
meteor
meteorite
meteoroid
milky way
mold
mollusk
moraine
mountain
nebula
nova
occluded front
outer core
ozone
ozone layer
Pangaea
permeability
phase of the moon
plate tectonics
plateau
pore space
porous
quasar
rain shadow
relative age
relative humidity
relief map
reservoir
resource
revolution
Richter scale
rift
rock cycle
runoff
satellite
sea breeze
sea floor spreading
seismic wave
seismograph
shield volcano
smog
soil profile
soil water
solar cell
solar eclipse
stationary front
storm surge
subsoil
sunspot
supernova
taiga
tarnish
temperate rain forest
terminus
thunderstorm
tide
till
topographical map
topsoil
trench
tropical rain forest
tropical storm
troposphere
tsunami
tundra
universe
vent
warm front
water current
water table
watershed
weather map
weightlessness
well
white dwarf
wind vane
Physical Science
absorption
acceleration
acid
acidity
action force
alkalinity
alloy
alternating current
alternative energy source
amplitude
asymmetrical
atom
atomic number
base
binary fission
boiling point
buoyancy
calorie
chain reaction
change of state
chemical bond
chemical equation
chemical formula
chemical property
chemical symbol
colloid
compression
compressional weave
concave
conduction
conjugation
convex
Coriolis effect
corrosion
current
density
diffraction
diffusion
discharge
distillation
ductility
echo
echolocation
efficiency
effort arm
effort force
electrolyte
electromagnet
electromagnetic spectrum
electromagnetism
electron
element
emulsion
endothermic
energy pyramid
exothermic
experiment
filter
filtration
frame of reference
freezing point
frequency
generator
grounding
half-life
hot spot
hypothesis
image
indicator
induced charge
inertia
insulation
interpret
ion
law of conservation of energy
law of conservation of matter
law of reflection
law of universal gravitation
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
254
laws of motion
length
lens
levitation
load
luster
magnetic field
magnetism
magnitude
mechanical advantage
medium
melting point
metal
mirror
molecule
momentum
motor
neutralization
newton
nuclear fission
nuclear fusion
nucleus
observe
parallax
parallel circuit
period
periodic table
pH
photon
physical property
pigments
power
precipitate
predict
pressure
primary color
prism
product
protein
proton
radiant energy
radiation
radioactive
rarefaction
reactant
reaction force
reactivity
reflection
refraction
resistance arm
resistor
rust
salt
scientific method
scientific name
secondary color
C O NT E NT L IT E RA C Y
255
semiconductors
series circuit
solubility
solute
solvent
sound wave
specific heat
spectrum
stimulus
sublimation
synthetic
temperature
thermal conductivity
thermal contraction
thermal expansion
toxic waste
transverse wave
unbalanced forces
vacuum
vaporization
variable
velocity
vibration
visible light
wave
wavelength
SECTION 6
Books
List 86. Book Words
List 87. Genres and Text Types
List 88.
New and Old Favorite Books to Read Aloud
List 89. Award-Winning Children’s Books
List 90.
Books for Word Play
List 91.
Children’s All-Time Favorite Books
List 92.
Books for Reluctant Readers
List 93. Kids’ Magazines for Readers and Writers
List 94.
Booklist Collections
List 95.
Book Interest Arousers
List 96.
Fifty Postreading Response Ideas
List 97.
The Fry Readability Graph
List 98.
Readability Score Comparisons
List 99. Exemplar Texts for ELA and Subject Area Literacy
H
ow does a student become a successful reader? Conventional wisdom answers this question
quite simply: practice. Over the years hundreds of studies have supported this view including the one recently reported by the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). In
2013, NAEP revealed long-term trends found in reading assessment results spanning the period
from 1971 to 2012. NAEP found students who read for fun more frequently than their peers also
score higher on tests of reading proficiency. This was true for all three age levels tested—nine-,
thirteen-, and seventeen-year-olds. The amount of reading for fun was not excessive—just once
or twice a week was enough to be linked to the higher scores.
Although researchers cannot point to the higher scores and show reading for fun caused them,
we can look at other research to help unpack why the correlation exists. The National Reading
Panel (2000) determined vocabulary was key to comprehending text: readers cannot understand
text without knowing what the words mean. How do students learn the wide range of vocabulary
and background knowledge they need for comprehension? By reading.
Studies of vocabulary size have found children learn far more words than we can teach
them—as many as three to four thousand a year from kindergarten through twelfth grade
(D’Anna, Zechmeister, & Hall, 1991). Indirect word learning may happen anywhere there is
language. However, independent book reading is an excellent vehicle because books use more
advanced and less familiar vocabulary than everyday speech (Cunningham & Stanovich, 1998).
Books also present new concepts and vocabulary in context, a strategy strongly supported by
research (Blachowicz & Fisher, 2015). In fact, Blachowicz and Fisher’s (2015) review of best
practices in vocabulary instruction noted that not only does vocabulary learning occur normally
and incidentally through wide reading but also it develops a wide, flexible, and usable general
vocabulary. The National Reading Technical Assistance Center’s (2010) review of current
research also concluded reading volume is very important to long-term vocabulary development.
Allington and Gabriel’s (2012) work concludes that students read more, understand more,
and are more likely to continue reading when they self-select reading texts. Reading what they
choose also leads to talking about what they read, literary critique, and delving deeper into ideas
of interest (Miller, 2010).
And, don’t forget, listening to adults competently reading aloud, in addition to increasing
vocabulary, expands students’ background knowledge, sense of story, awareness of genre and
text structure, and comprehension (Wu & Samuels, 2004).
The lists in this section will help you help your students select and enjoy books for independent reading and read-alouds. Also included is information on readability levels and how to
determine them so you can build a class library or find the right books for every student on any
topic.
Allington, R., & Gabriel, R. (2012). Every child, every day. Educational Leadership, 69(6), 10–15.
Bal, P. M., & Veltkamp, M. (2013). How does fiction reading influence empathy? An experimental investigation on the
role of emotional transportation. PLoS ONE, 8(1), e55341. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0055341.
Berns, G. S., Blaine, K., Prietula, M. J., & Pye, B. E. (2013). Brain Connectivity, 3(6), 590–600.
doi:10.1089/brain.2013.0166.
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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Blachowicz, C., & Fisher, P. (2015). Best practices in vocabulary instruction. In L. Gambrell & and L. Morrow (Eds.),
Best practices in literacy instruction (5th ed.). New York: The Guildford Press.
Cunningham, A. E. (2005). Vocabulary growth through independent reading and reading aloud to children. In E. H.
Hiebert & M. L. Kamil (Eds.), Teaching and learning vocabulary: Bringing research to practice. Mahwah, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Cunningham, A. E., & Stanovich. K. E. (1998). What reading does for the mind. American Educator, Spring/Summer,
8–17.
D’Anna, C., Zechmeister, E., & Hall, J. (1991). Toward a meaningful definition of vocabulary size. Journal of Reading
Behavior, 23, 109–122.
Miller, D. (2010). Becoming a classroom of readers. Educational Leadership, 67(6), 30–35.
National Center for Education Statistics (2013). The Nation’s Report Card: Trends in Academic Progress 2012
(NCES 2013 456). Institute of Education Sciences, US Department of Education, Washington, D.C.
National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research
literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction (National Institute of Health Publication No.
00–4754). Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
National Reading Technical Assistance Center. (2010). A review of the current research on vocabulary instruction: A
research synthesis. Butler, S., Urrutia, K., Buenger, A., Gonzalez, N., Hunt, M., and Eisenhart, C. (Eds.)
Portsmouth, NH: RMC Research Corporation.
Whitehurst, G., Zevenberg, A., Crone, D., Schultz, M., Velting, O., and Fischel, J. et al. (1999). Outcomes of an
emergent literacy intervention from Head Start through second grade. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91,
261–272.
Wu, Y., & Samuels, S. J. (2004, May). How the amount of time spent on independent reading affects reading achievement.
Paper presented at the annual convention of the International Reading Association, Reno, Nevada.
BOOKS
259
LIST 86. BOOK WORDS
Good readers know how to talk about parts of a book. Here are some terms that can help you give a
guided tour of books to readers in your classroom. When teaching book words, be sure to have samples of
different types of books to point out the features of each type. For example, full-size dictionaries may have
thumb guides but student copies or paperback editions will not. Informational texts may have forewords,
acknowledgments, afterwords, glossaries, and indexes, and fiction may have none of these but will have a
dedication and an epigraph. Note: A few very simple book words are part of reading foundations (such as
book cover, title page, and the author’s and illustrator’s names).
Acknowledgment
A statement from the author to thank the people who helped with the book
Afterword
A note added at the end of the book; afterwords sometimes provide information
that was not available while the book was being written
Appendix
Additional information at the end of the book
Artwork
Artwork refers to all the drawings, illustrations, photographs, or other visuals that
support the text in a book
Author
The name of the person who wrote the book
Bibliography
A list of other resources to consult for additional information on the topic of the
book
Binding
The part of the book that holds the pages together; some books are glued, others
are sewn, and others have spiraled wire binding
Blurb
Comments made by reviewers or others that help influence someone to buy the
book
Bookplate
A label, often printed with a reader’s name, that is attached inside the book to
show who owns the book and often says From the Library of _____________ or
This Book Belongs to _____________
Copyright
The legal right to print, publish, film, or otherwise use created material or permit
others to do so; most works published after 1978 are covered by copyright for
seventy years after the author’s death
Cover
The outside of the book or magazine; covers may be stiff paper, coated cloth,
leather, or other durable material
Dedication
A statement from the author at the beginning of the book to give special
recognition to a person who means a lot to the author
Dewey number
A number assigned to a publication based on the Dewey Decimal Classification
System to facilitate identification and shelving and other library functions
Dust jacket
A paper cover that is folded over a hard cover book and protects it
Epigraph
A quotation, lines from a poem, or other borrowed text that prepares readers for
what they are about to read
Epilogue
A brief section at the end of the book that brings closure
Figure
A graphic or drawing that provides information
Font
A font is one of a family of typefaces or printing characters that describes the style
and size of the print, such as Bookman 10 point, Bookman 10 point italics,
Helvetica 12 point, Helvetica 12 point italics
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
260
Footer
Area at the bottom of the page within the margin where functional information
such as page numbers is printed
Foreword
An introduction to a book that is written by someone other than the author
Glossary
A special type of dictionary that gives a list, in alphabetical order, of special or
difficult words used in the book; generally provides only the meaning of the
words necessary for understanding them in the context in which they were used
in the text; pronunciation help is also included
Header
Area at the top of the page within the margin where functional information such
as chapter title or page numbers are printed
Illustrator
The name of the person who created the pictures for the book
Imprint
The name and address of the book publisher
Index
A list, in alphabetical order, of the topics of the book and their page numbers;
found at the end of a book
Introduction
A part at the beginning of a book that gives an overview
ISBN
The International Standard Book Number assigned by publishers to uniquely
identify each book published
LC number
A twelve-digit control number assigned by the Library of Congress to facilitate
identification and shelving and other library functions
Leading
Empty space between lines
Leaves
Another word for the pages of a book; the leaf on the left side is called the verso,
the leaf on the right side is called the recto
Plate
A full-page illustration for a book that may be printed separately and placed
within the book before it is bound
Preface
An introduction to a book that tells the author’s goals for writing the book and
gives an idea of the scope of the book
Prologue
An introductory part of the book that sets the stage for the main content
Publisher
The name of the company that printed the book
References
A list of the resources cited by the author in the book along with their
bibliographic information
Spine
The left edge of the book where the pages are attached
Table of contents
The list of parts or chapters of a book or magazine and the page numbers for
where they begin; also called contents
Text
The main part of the book that contains the story or information
Thumb index
In dictionaries and other alphabetized works, the letters of the alphabet
corresponding to initial letters of the words on the page or section are printed
on the outside edge of the page so you can fan the pages with your thumb and
locate the part of the book that you need
Title
The name of the book
Title page
The first page of a book, giving the names of the book, the author, the illustrator,
and the publisher
BOOKS
261
LIST 87. GENRES AND TEXT TYPES
There are many different kinds of writing to read. Genre (pronounced “zhan rah”) refers to a particular type
or category of written material. Related, but not the same, is the form of written material, which refers to
the structure of the text, not to its content. Here’s an example: writing about an actual historic event would
be in the genre of history; however, the writing could be in the form of a poem, editorial, diary, or textbook.
There are other ways to organize written material: prose and poetry (connected text in paragraphs and
lines of text with rhythm and rhyme) and fiction and nonfiction (imagined versus actual).
The following lists address three different information needs for teachers and students. The first list
provides the genres identified by the ELA Common Core State Standards for students in grades K–5 and
students in grades 6–12. The second list identifies genres used frequently in children’s reading materials.
The third list is a more comprehensive list of categories found in libraries, literature texts, and used by
booksellers.
I. Genres for the ELA Common Core State Standards (from a Broad Range of Cultures and Times)
Grades K–5 (Print and Digital)
Literature
Stories
Drama
Poetry
Informational Text
Literary nonfiction
History and social
studies
Science and
technical
Fables, folktales, myths, legends
Adventure stories, fantasy
Realistic fiction
Staged dialogue
Scenes from familiar stories
Nursery rhymes, limericks
Songs
Narrative poems
Free verse poems
Biographies, autobiographies, books about the arts
Historic events and figures in history
People and places
Science, mathematics, technical subjects
Directions and forms
Reference works
Information in graphs, charts, and maps
Grades 6–12 (Print and Digital)
Literature
Stories
Drama
Poetry
Informational Text
Literary nonfiction
Adventure stories, historical fiction, mysteries, myths, science fiction, realistic
fiction, allegories, parodies, satire, and graphic novels
One-act and multi-act plays (written form and on film)
Lyrical poems, sonnets, odes, ballads
Narrative poems, epics
Free verse poems
Exposition and argument
Essays, speeches, opinion pieces
Biographies, memoirs
Journalism
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History and social
studies
Science and
technical
Articles, accounts, and texts on historic, social studies, and economics topics
Articles and texts on science, mathematics, technical subjects
Research, directions, technical works for a broad audience, information in
graphs, charts, and maps
II. Genres in Children’s Literature (for Children from Birth to Twelve Years of Age)
Picture books
Alphabet and
counting books
Picture story books
Wordless books
Fairy tales
Folk tales
Fables
Legends
Myths
Tall tales
Modern fantasy
Historical fiction
Realistic fiction
Biography
Poetry
Drama
Informational
books
(nonfiction)
First books for very young children; often with a picture or two on a page with
a label; sometimes in small format to enable children to hold them; may be
printed on thick board or cloth; may have only pictures
Present a letter or number and an associated picture; similar types are available
for colors, animals, body parts
Tell simple stories that are accompanied by illustrations that support the text;
both the text and the illustrations contribute to understanding
Use illustrations to tell a complete story; although most are written for young
children, some are written for older students and even adults
An imaginary story about fairies, elves, and/or magical deeds
Stories passed from one generation to another through storytelling; include
fairy tales, myths, and legends
A short story, usually with animals as characters, that conveys a moral; the
animals can think and speak; the moral or message is at the end of the story
(e.g., The Tortoise and the Hare)
A type of folktale handed down from one generation to another; usually based
on fact, but over time the story changes, becoming less true but retaining its
meaning and symbolism to the culture
A fictional account handed down from generation to generation to explain the
existence of phenomenon, such as why there is night and day; Greek and
Roman myths are best known but most cultures have myths
A humorous fictional story based on a real person who accomplishes amazing
feats far beyond what is possible (e.g., Paul Bunyon and Johnny Appleseed)
Describes imaginative stories with impossible elements, such as superpowers,
witchcraft, and time travel, which are woven into the plot as though they are
real
An invented story that takes place in a real historical time and/or setting
For children refers to invented stories that deal with real-world issues
confronted by protagonists who are similar in age to the reader; often deal
with problems and challenges faced growing up and many enable children to
confront issues vicariously in the safety of their own lives; some offer a
window on lives in other cultures and circumstances different from their own
The story of a person’s life, most often from beginning to end; autobiographies
are biographies written by the persons themselves; a related form, the
memoir, is an autobiography in which the writers tell about a certain period
of time in their lives
Writing that uses carefully chosen words to create meaning and emotional
response through sound and rhythmic arrangement
Writing that tells a story through action and dialogue and is intended to be
performed before an audience
Written to explain things; fact-based, although they may choose facts and tones
that are in line with their personal viewpoints, for example, the story of the
westward expansion from the perspective of a US history professor versus
the perspective of a member of the Navajo people
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III. Genres in General
Note: These genres are used by libraries and booksellers.
action
adventure
animals
autobiography
biography
business
children’s books
comedy
coming of age
craft and hobbies
crime fiction
drama
economics
editorial
education
essay
fable
fairy tale
fantasy
fiction
film
fine arts
folk tale
food and drink
health
historical fiction
history
horror
house and garden
how-to
humor
information science
inspirational
letter
literary criticism
music
mystery
novel
novella
occult
philosophy
picture books
poetry
political satire
politics
psychology
realistic fiction
reference
religion
romance
science and nature
science fiction
self-improvement
short stories
society
song
speech
sport and leisure
suspense
technical
thrillers
tragedy
travel
true crime
TV and radio
visual arts
westerns
young adult books
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LIST 88. NEW AND OLD FAVORITE
BOOKS TO READ ALOUD
Reading aloud to children of all ages pays extraordinary, well-documented dividends. It instills a love
of books and reading, models fluent reading and inflection, aids understanding story patterns, develops
vocabulary, and is a very enjoyable experience. Children’s listening levels are higher than their independent
reading levels, particularly in the elementary grades. Books for reading aloud may be as much as three years
above students’ reading level and still be just right for comprehension and enjoyment. The following lists
include some recently published gems that are destined to become classics. Add them to your classroom
library collections.
Did you know that World Read Aloud Day is celebrated on the first Wednesday of March by book
lovers around the world? Why not join them this year?
Books for Reading Aloud to Students in Grades K-3
Aani and the Tree Huggers by Jeannine Atkins
Abuela by A. Dorros
The Adventures of Taxi Dog by Debra and Sal Barracca; Mark Buehner (illus.)
Allison’s Zinnia by Anita Lobel
Amazing Grace by Mary Hoffman
Amber Brown Is Not a Crayon by Paula Danziger
Animals Should Definitely Not Wear Clothing by Judi and Ron Barrett
Araminta’s Paint Box by Karen Ackerman
Borreguita and the Coyote by Vera Aardema
Bridget and the Gray Wolves by Pija Lindenbaum
Castle in the Attic by Elizabeth Winthrop
Chicken Sunday by Patricia Polacco
Dinorella: A Prehistoric Fairy Tale by Pamela Duncan Edwards
The Dinosaurs of Waterhouse Hawkins by Barbara Kerleyl; Brian Selznick (illus.)
Don’t Know Much about the Pioneers by Kenneth C. Davis; Renee Andriani (illus.)
The Dragons of Blueland by Ruth Stiles Gannett
Feathers for Lunch by Lois Ehlert
The Ghost Belonged to Me by Richard Peck
Goonie Bird Greene by Lois Lowry
The Great Frog Race and Other Poems by Kristine O’Connell George
The Grey Lady and the Strawberry Snatcher by Molly Bang
Growing Vegetable Soup by Lois Ehlert
The Gunniwolf by Wilhelmina Harper
Hachiko: The True Story of a Loyal Dog by Pamela Turner
I Invited a Dragon to Dinner & Other Poems to Make You Laugh Out Loud by Chris L. Demarest
I’ve Lost My Hippopotamus by Jack Prelutsky
In a Cabin in a Wood by Darcy McNally
Juan Bobo: Four Folktales from Puerto Rico by Carmen Bernier-Grand
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Knights of the Kitchen Table by Jon Scieszka
Lily’s Purple Plastic Purse by Kevin Henkes
Little Red Riding Hood: A Newfangled Prairie Tale by Lisa C. Ernst
Malcom at Midnight by W. H. Beck
Maniac Magee by Jerry Spinelli
Marvin Redpost: Kidnapped at Birth? by Louis Sachar
Max Malone Makes a Million by Charlotte Herman
Mockingbird by Kathryn Erskine
Mostly Monte, Johanna Hurwitz
My Great-Aunt Arizona by Gloria Houston
Passage to Freedom: The Sugihara Story by Ken Mochizuki
Poems I Wrote When No One Was Looking by Alan Katz
The Polar Express by Chris Van Allsburg
Rebel by Allan Baillie
Sami and the Time of the Troubles by Florence Parry Heide
Seedfolks by Paul Fleischman
Shoeless Joe & Black Betsy by Phil Bildner; C. F. Payne (illus.)
The Sky Is Falling by Betty Miles
Song and Dance Man by Karen Ackerman; Stephen Gammell (illus.)
The SOS File by Betsy Byars, Betsy Duffey, and Laurie Myers
The Star of Kazan by Eva Ibbotson
The Stray by Dick King-Smith
Summer of the Monkeys by Wilson Rawls
The Sword and the Stone by Grace Maccarone
The Table Where Rich People Sit by Byrd Baylor
The Three Little Javelinas by Susan Lowell
Wan Hu Is in the Stars by Jennifer Armstrong
Where the Red Fern Grows by Wilson Rawls
Why Mosquitoes Buzz in People’s Ears by Verna Aardema
The Widow’s Broom by Chris Van Allsburg
Witch Week by Dianna Wynne Jones
The Wolf Who Cried Boy by Rob Hartman; Tim Raglin (illus.)
Books for Reading Aloud to Students in Grades 4–6
Adam Canfield of the Slash by Michael Winerip
America’s Great Disasters by Martin W. Sandler
Be a Perfect Person in Just Three Days! by Stephen Manes
The Bones in the Cliff by James Stevenson
The Boy Who Saved Baseball by John Ritter
Chasing Vermeer by Blue Balliett
Cool Melons: Turn to Frogs! The Life and Poems of Issa by Matthew Gollub
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Cousins in the Attic by Gary Paulsen
A Crack in the Clouds and Other Poems by Constance Levy
Dealing with Dragons by Patricia Wrede
Dream of Night by Heather Henson
Dugout Rivals by Fred Bowen
The First Two Lives of Lukas-Kasha by Lloyd Alexander
The Girl with the Silver Eyes by Willo Davis Roberts
Granny Torrelli Makes Soup by Sharon Creech
Guys Read: Thriller by John Scieszka (ed.)
Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone (series) by J. K. Rowling
The Hatmaker’s Sign: A Story by Benjamin Franklin retold by Candace Fleming
Holes by Louis Sachar
I Know What You Did Last Summer by Lois Duncan
The Indian in the Cupboard by Lynn Reid Banks
Inventing Elliot by Graham Gardner
Kaspar the Titanic Cat by Michael Morpurgo
Keeper of the Doves by Betsy Byars
Kindred Souls by Patricia Maclachlin
Letters from Rifka by Karen Hesse
Listening for Lions by Gloria Whelan
Missy Violet and Me by Barbara Hathaway
Moaning Bones: African American Ghost Stories retold by Jim Haskins
My Brother Martin: A Sister Remembers Growing Up with the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. by Christine
King Farris
No Mirrors in My Nana’s House by Ysaye M. Barnwell
Once Upon a Dark November by Carol Beach York
Pearl Verses the World by Sally Murphy
Poems Have Roots by Lilian Moore
Redwall by Brian Jacques
Remember the Bridge by Carole Boston Weatherford
The Robber Baby: Stories from the Greek Myths by Anne Rockwell
The Secret of Platform 13 by Eva Ibbotson
The Shakespeare Stealer by Gary Blackwood
Shiloh by Phyllis R. Naylor
Sideways Stories from Wayside School by Louis Sachar
The Slave Dancer by Paula Fox
The Spell of the Sorcerer’s Skull by John Bellairs
A Taste of Salt by Frances Temple
The Teacher’s Funeral by Richard Peck
Theodore Boone: Kid Lawyer by John Grisham
Treasures in the Dust by Tracey Porter
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Tuck Everlasting by Natalie Babbitt
The Upstairs Room by Johanna Reiss
The Westing Game by Ellen Raskin
White Wash by Ntozake Shange
The Widow’s Broom by Chris Van Allsburg
Who Was Steve Jobs? by Pam Pollack and Meg Belvisio
The Wreckers by Iain Lawrence
Wringer by Jerry Spinelli
A Wrinkle in Time by Madeleine L’Engle
Books for Reading Aloud to Older Students
13 Little Blue Envelopes by Maureen Johnson
The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian by Sherman Alexie
An Abundance of Katherines by John Green
Asylum by Madeleine Roux
Before I Fall by Lauren Oliver
The Blue Sword by Robin McKinley
The Book Thief by Markus Zusak
The Chocolate War by Robert Cormier
The City of Ember by Jeanne DuPrau
City of Orphans by Avi
Claudette Colvin: Twice Toward Justice by Phillip Hoose
The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time by Mark Haddon
The Dark is Rising (series) by Susan Cooper
Daughter of Smoke & Bone by Laini Taylor
Divergent (series) by Veronica Roth
Dune by Frank Herbert
Earthsea (series) by Ursula K. Le Guin
Eleanor and Park by Rainbow Rowell
Fallen (series) by Lauren Kate
The Fault in Our Stars by John Green
Freak the Mighty by Rodman Philbrick
The Gemma Doyle Trilogy (series) by Libba Bray
Girl Online by Zoe Sugg
The Giver (series) by Lois Lowry
The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy (series) by Douglas Adams
The Hobbit by J. R. R. Tolkien
The Hunger Games (series) by Suzanne Collins
I Am the Messenger by Markus Zusak
If I Stay by Gayle Forman
The Immortals (series) by Tamora Pierce
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Inheritance Cycle (series) by Christopher Paolini
It’s Kind of a Funny Story by Ned Vizzini
Looking for Alaska by John Green
The Lord of the Rings (series) by J. R. R. Tolkien
The Maze Runner Trilogy (series) by James Dashner
The Mighty Miss Malone by Christopher Paul Curtis
Mimi by John Newman
Miss Peregrine’s Home for Peculiar Children by Ransom Riggs
Moon over High Street by Natalie Babitt
The Mortal Instruments (series) by Cassandra Clare
My Sister’s Keeper by Jodi Picoult
Nick & Norah’s Infinite Playlist by Rachel Cohn and David Levithan
The Outsiders by S. E. Hinton
Panic by Lauren Oliver
Paper Towns by John Green
The Perks of Being a Wallflower by Stephen Chbosky
The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants (series) by Anne Brashares
These Broken Stars by Amie Kaufman and Meagan Spooner
Thirteen Reasons Why by Jay Asher
Unbroken by Laura Hillenbrand
Vampire Academy (series) by Richelle Mead
We Were Liars by E. Lockhart
Where She Went by Gayle Forman
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LIST 89. AWARD-WINNING CHILDREN’S BOOKS
Each year distinguished panels recognize the best new books for children. Four of these prestigious
awards highlight outstanding works in narrative, illustration, cultural resonance, and timeless values.
The Randolph Caldecott Medal (www.ala.org/awardsgrants/randolph-caldecott-medal-1), named for
Randolph Caldecott, an English illustrator of children’s books, has been awarded since 1938 to the
artist of the most distinguished American picture book published in the preceding year. The John
Newbery Medal (www.ala.org/awardsgrants/john-newbery-medal-2), in honor of John Newbery, an
eighteenth-century publisher of children’s books, has been awarded since 1922 to the author of the
most distinguished contribution to American children’s literature. The Coretta Scott King Award
(www.ala.org/awardsgrants/coretta-scott-king-book-awards) recognizes African American authors and
illustrators for outstanding contributions to children’s and young adult literature that promote multicultural understanding and appreciation. It has been awarded since 1969. The Pura Belpré Award
(www.ala.org/awardsgrants/pura-belpr%C3%A9-award) recognizes Latina and Latino writers and illustrators for work that portrays and affirms Latino culture. It was established in 1996 in honor of Pura
Belpré, a Latina writer, librarian, folktale collector, and puppeteer. For complete lists of winners visit their
respective websites.
Randolph Caldecott Medal Winners
2014
Locomotive illustrated and written by Brian Floca
2013
This Is Not My Hat illustrated and written by Jon Klassen
2012
A Ball for Daisy illustrated and written by Chris Raschka
2011
A Sick Day for Amos McGee illustrated by Philip C. Stead, written by Erin E. Stead
2010
The Lion & the Mouse illustrated and written by Jerry Pinkney
2009
The House in the Night illustrated by Beth Krommes, written by Susan Marie Swanson
2008
The Invention of Hugo Cabret illustrated and written by Brian Selznick
2007
Flotsam illustrated and written David Wiesner
2006
The Hello, Goodbye Window illustrated by Chris Raschka, written by Norton Juster
2005
Kitten’s First Full Moon illustrated and written by Kevin Henkes
2004
The Man Who Walked Between the Towers illustrated and written by Mordicai Gerstein
2003
My Friend Rabbit illustrated and written by Eric Rohmann
2002
The Three Pigs illustrated and written by David Wiesner
2001
So You Want to Be President? illustrated by David Small, written by Judith St. George
2000
Joseph Had a Little Overcoat illustrated and written by Simms Taback
1999
Snowflake Bentley illustrated by Mary Azarian, written by Jacqueline B. Martin
1998
Rapunzel illustrated and written by Paul O. Zelinsky
1997
Golem illustrated and written by David Wisneiwski
1996
Officer Buckle and Gloria illustrated and written by Peggy Rathmann
1995
Smoky Night illustrated by David Diaz, written by Eve Bunting
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John Newbery Medal Winners
2014
Flora & Ulysses: The Illuminated Adventures by Kate DiCamillo
2013
The One and Only Ivan by Katherine Applegate and Patricia Castelao
2012
Dead End in Norvelt by Jack Gantos (also won the Scott O’Dell Award for Historical Fiction)
2011
Moon over Manifest by Clare Vanderpool
2010
When You Reach Me by Rebecca Stead
2009
The Graveyard Book by Neil Gaiman and Dave McKean
2008
Good Masters! Sweet Ladies!: Voices from a Medieval Village by Laura Amy Schlitz and
Robert Byrd
2007
The Higher Power of Lucky by Susan Patron and Matt Phelan
2006
Criss Cross by Lynne Rae Perkins
2005
Kira-Kira by Cynthia Kadohata.
2004
The Tale of Despereaux: Being the Story of a Mouse, a Princess, Some Soup, and a Spool of
Thread by Kate DiCamillo and Timothy Basil Ering
2003
Crispin: The Cross of Lead by Avi
2002
A Single Shard by Linda Sue Park
2001
A Year Down Yonder by Richard Peck
2000
Bud, Not Buddy by Christopher Paul Curtis
1999
Holes by Louis Sachar
1998
Out of the Dust by Karen Hesse
1997
The View from Saturday by E. L. Koningsburg
1996
The Midwife’s Apprentice by Karen Cushman
1995
Walk Two Moons by Sharon Creech
Coretta Scott King Awards
2014
P.S. Be Eleven written by Rita Williams-Garcia (author)
2014
Knock Knock: My Dad’s Dream for Me illustrated by Bryan Collier; written by Daniel Beaty
(illustrator)
2013
Hand in Hand: Ten Black Men Who Changed America written by Andrea Davis Pinkney;
illustrated by Brian Pinkney (author)
2013
I, Too, Am America illustrated by Bryan Collier; written by Langston Hughes (illustrator)
2012
Heart and Soul: The Story of America and African Americans written and illustrated by Kadir
Nelson (author)
2012
Underground: Finding the Light to Freedom written and illustrated by Shane W. Evans
(illustrator)
2011
Dave the Potter: Artist, Poet, Slave illustrated by Bryan Collier; written by Laban Carrick Hill
(illustrator)
2011
One Crazy Summer by Rita Williams-Garcia (author)
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Coretta Scott King Awards (Continued)
2010
Bad News for Outlaws: The Remarkable Life of Bass Reeves, Deputy U.S. Marshall by Vaunda
Micheaux Nelson; illustrated by R. Gregory Christie (author)
2010
My People illustrated by Charles R. Smith Jr.; written by Langston Hughes (illustrator)
2009
The Blacker the Berry illustrated by Floyd Cooper; written by Joyce Carol Thomas (illustrator)
2009
We Are the Ship: The Story of Negro League Baseball written and illustrated by Kadir Nelson
(author)
2008
Elijah of Buxton written by Christopher Paul Curtis (author)
2008
Let it Shine written and illustrated by Ashley Bryan (illustrator)
2007
Copper Sun by Sharon Draper (author)
2007
Moses: When Harriet Tubman Led Her People to Freedom illustrated by Kadir Nelson;
written by Carole Boston Weatherford (illustrator)
2006
Day of Tears: A Novel in Dialogue written by Julius Lester (author)
2006
Rosa written by Nikki Giovanni; illustrated by Bryan Collier (illustrator)
2005
Remember the Journey to School Integration by Toni Morrison (author)
2005
Ellington Was Not a Street by Ntozake Shange; illustrated by Kadir A. Nelson (illustrator)
2004
The First Part Last by Angela Johnson (author)
2004
Beautiful Blackbird by Ashley Bryan (illustrator)
2003
Bronx Masquerade by Nikki Grimes (author)
2003
Talkin’ about Bessie: The Story of Aviator Elizabeth Coleman by Nikki Grimes; illustrated by
E. B. Lewis (illustrator)
2002
The Land by Mildred Taylor author)
2002
Goin’ Someplace Special by Patricia McKissack; illustrated by Jerry Pinkney (illustrator)
2001
Miracle’s Boys by Jacqueline Woodson (author)
2001
Uptown by Bryan Collier (illustrator)
2000
Bud, Not Buddy by Christopher Paul Curtis (author)
2000
In the Time of the Drums by Kim Siegelson; illustrated by Brian Pinkney (illustrator)
1999
Heaven by Angela Johnson (author)
1999
I See the Rhythm by Toyomi Igus; illustrated by Michelle Wood (illustrator)
1998
Forged by Fire by Sharon M. Draper (author)
1998
In Daddy’s Arms I Am Tall illustrated by Javaka Steptoe (illustrator)
1997
Slam! by Walter Dean Myers (author)
1997
Minty: A Story of Young Harriet Tubman written by Alan Schroeder; illustrated by Jerry
Pinkney (illustrator)
1996
Her Stories: African American Folktales, Fairy Tales and True Tales written by Virginia
Hamilton; illustrated by Leo Dillon and Diane Dillon (author)
1996
The Middle Passage: White Ships/Black Cargo illustrated by Tom Feelings (illustrator)
1995
Christmas in the Big House, Christmas in the Quarters by written by Patricia C. McKissack
and Frederick McKissack; illustrated by John Thompson (author)
1995
The Creation written by James Weldon Johnson; illustrated by James Ransome (illustrator)
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The Pura Belpré Award Winners
2014
Niño Wrestles the World illustrated and written by Yuyi Morales (illustrator)
2014
Yaqui Delgado Wants to Kick Your Ass written by Meg Medina (author)
2013
Martín de Porres: The Rose in the Desert illustrated by David Diaz; written by Gary D.
Schmidt (illustrator)
2013
Aristotle and Dante Discover the Secrets of the Universe written by Benjamin Alire Sáenz
(author)
2012
Diego Rivera: His World and Ours illustrated and written by Duncan Tonatiuh (illustrator)
2012
Under the Mesquite written by Guadalupe Garcia McCall (author)
2011
Grandma’s Gift illustrated and written by Eric Velasquez (illustrator)
2011
The Dreamer written by Pam Muñoz Ryan; illustrated by Peter Sís (author)
2010
Book Fiesta!: Celebrate Children’s Day/Book Day; Celebremos El día de los niños/El día de los
libros illustrated by Rafael López; written by Pat Mora (illustrator)
2010
Return to Sender written by Julia Alvarez (author)
2009
Just in Case illustrated and written by Yuyi Morales (illustrator)
2009
The Surrender Tree: Poems of Cuba’s Struggle for Freedom written by Margarita Engle
(author)
2008
Los Gatos Black on Halloween illustrated by Yuyi Morales; written by Marisa Montes
(illustrator)
2008
The Poet Slave of Cuba: A Biography of Juan Francisco Manzano written by Margarita Engle;
illustrated by Sean Qualls (narrative)
2006
Doña Flor: A Tall Tale About a Giant Woman with a Great Big Heart illustrated by Raul
Colón; written by Pat Mora (illustrator)
2006
The Tequila Worm written by Viola Canales (narrative)
2004
Just a Minute: A Trickster Tale and Counting Book written and illustrated by Yuyi Morales
(illustration)
2004
Before We Were Free written by Julia Alvarez (narrative)
2002
Chato and the Party Animals illustrated by Susan Guevara; written by Gary Soto (illustrator)
2002
Esperanza Rising written by Pam Munoz Ryan (narrative)
2000
Magic Windows/Ventanas magicas written and illustrated by Carmen Lomas Garza
(illustrator)
2000
Under the Royal Palms: A Childhood in Cuba written by Alma Flor Ada (narrative)
1998
Snapshots from the Wedding illustrated by Stephanie Garcia; written by Gary Soto (illustrator)
1998
Parrot in the Oven: Mi Vida written by Victor Martinez; illustrated by Steve Scott (narrative)
1996
Chato’s Kitchen illustrated by Susan Guevara; written by Gary Soto (illustrator)
1996
An Island Like You: Stories of the Barrio written by Judith Ortiz Cofer (narrative)
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LIST 90. BOOKS FOR WORD PLAY
Puns, riddles, wackywordies, jokes, and palindromes are more than just sidesplitting fun. Word play is
an excellent way for children of all ages to learn about language and pick up new words, add nuance to
understanding, and get hooked on a rewarding pastime. Did you know the word pun is likely a clipped
version of the Italian word for word play, puntiglio? Or that paronomasia is the literary term for pun? This
list will help you instill a little epeolatry (word homage) in any class.
14,000 Quips & Quotes for Writers & Speakers (1990) by E. C. McKenzie
Anguished English: An Anthology of Accidental Assaults upon Our Language (1987) by Richard Lederer
Ann and Nan Are Anagrams: A Mixed-Up Word Dilemma (2013) by Mark Shulman
The Best Book of Puns (1998) by Art Moger
BOOST Word Play: Write Your Own Crazy Comics #1 (2013) by Chuck Whelon
Bug Off! A Swarm of Insect Words (1998) by Cathie Hepworth
C D C? (1984) by William Steig
Cat Says Meow: And Other Animalopoeia (2014) by Michael Arndt
Cat Tale (2012) by Michael Hall
A Chocolate Moose for Dinner (1976) by Fred Gwynne
Colossal Book of Wordplay (2010) by Martin Gardner and Ken Jennings
Concise Pun-ing Dictionary for English Speakers (2014) by Pablo Dominguez
Dear Deer: A Book of Homophones (2007) by Gene Barretta
Dearly, Nearly, Insincerely: What Is an Adverb? (2003) by Brian P. Cleary
Dog’s ABC: A Silly Story About The Alphabet (2002) by Emma Dodd
The Dove Drove: Funny Homograph Riddles (1988) by Marvin Terban
Ella Minnow Pea (2001) by Mark Dunn
Fooling Ewe (2013) by Mike Demers
Froodle (2014) by Antoinette Portis
Gagged and Bound: A Book of Puns, Oneliners and Dad Jokes (2014) by Nick Jones and Ben Corrigan
Get Thee to a Punnery: An Anthology of Intentional Assaults upon the English Language (1988) by Richard
Lederer
Go Hang a Salami! I’m a Lasagna Hog! And Other Palindromes (1991) by Jon Agee
Guppies in Tuxedos: Funny Eponyms (1988) by Marvin Terban
Homespun Humor: Original Puns, Word Plays & Quips: A Compendium of Guffaws, Giggles and Mirth
(2013) by David R. Yale
I Scream! Ice Cream! A book of Wordles (2012) by Amy Krouse Rosenthal; illustrated by Serge Bloch
Inversions (1989) by Scott Kim
It’s a Punderful Life (2014) by Gemma Correll
Lemonade: And Other Poems Squeezed from a Single Word (2011) by Bob Raczka
Like Likes Like (1999) by Chris Raschka
The Little Book of Giant Puns: Bring Big Laughs Everywhere (2014) by Benjamin Branfman
Maestro Stu Saves the Zoo (2012) by Nelson Brennan; illustrated by Tim Bowers
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A Mink, a Link, a Skating Rink: What Is a Noun? (2000) by Brian P. Cleary
My Dog Is as Smelly as Dirty Socks: And Other Funny Family Portraits (2007) by Hanoch Piven
Once upon an Alphabet: Short Stories for All the Letters (2014) by Oliver Jeffers
Otter Nonsense (1994) by Norton Juster
Palindromes and Anagrams (1973) by Howard Bererson
Poetry Book: EINSTEIN’S CAT: Short, Cheeky and Cerebral, Illustrated Great Poems for Brainy Students,
Teens and … (2013) by Tom Skinner
Poetry Comics: An Animated Anthology (2002) by Dave Morice
The Pun Also Rises: How the Humble Pun Revolutionized Language, Changed History, and Made Wordplay
More Than Some Antics (2012) by John Pollack
Pun and Games: Jokes, Riddles, Daffynitions, Tairy Fales, Rhymes, and More Word Play for Kids (1996) by
Richard Lederer and Dave Morice
Pun Enchanted Evenings: A Treasury of Wit, Wisdoms, Chuckles and Belly Laughs for Language
Lovers—746 Original … (2010) by David Yale
Punching the Clock: Funny Action Idioms (1990) by Marvin Terban
PUNishment (2014) by Bayan Parrenas
Puns, Puzzles, and Wordplay: Fun and Games for Language Lovers (2014) by Jim Bernhard
The Right Word: Roget and His Thesaurus (2014) by Jennifer Fisher Bryant
Runny Babbit: A Billy Sook (2005) by Shel Silverstein
She Sells Seashells and Other Tricky Tongue Twisters (2011) by Nancy Loewen; illustrated by Donald Wu
Sheep in a Shop (1991) by Nancy E. Shaw
Some Smug Slug (1996) by Pamela Duncan Edwards
Spooner or Later (1993) by Paul Jennings
Stubborn as a Mule and Other Silly Similes (2011) by Nancy Loewen; illustrated by Adam Watkins
Superdupers! Really Funny Real Words (1989) by Marvin Terban
Take Away the A (2014) by Michael Escoffier
Talking Turkey and Other Clichés We Say (2011) by Nancy Loewen; illustrated by Adam Watkins
There’s a Frog in My Throat! 440 Animal Sayings a Little Bird Told Me (2003) by Loreen Leedy
To Root, to Toot, to Parachute: What Is a Verb? (2000) by Brian P. Cleary
The War between the Vowels and the Consonants (1996) by Priscilla Turner
Why the Banana Split (1998) by Rick Walton
Word Court: Wherein Verbal Virtue Is Rewarded, Crimes against the Language Are Punished, and Poetic
Justice Is Done (2000) by Barbara Wallraff
Wordbirds: An Irreverent Lexicon for the 21st Century (2013) by Liesl Schillinger
Wordpay: The Philosophy, Art, and Science of Ambigrams (2005) by John Langdon
Wumbers (2012) by Amy Krouse Rosenthal
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LIST 91. CHILDREN’S ALL-TIME FAVORITE BOOKS
What does it take to be an all-time favorite book? A great story. Fascinating characters. Superb writing.
The following selections have all three characteristics and have been enjoyed by millions of readers since
they were first published. Some have been favorites of our parents, grandparents, and even our greatgrandparents. Read these and see which ones will be on your list of all-time favorites.
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer by Mark Twain
Aesop’s Fables
Album of Horses by Marguerite Henry
Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day by Judith Viorst
Alice in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass by Lewis Carroll
Amelia Bedelia by Peggy Parish
Are You There, God? It’s Me, Margaret by Judy Blume
Because of Winn-Dixie by Kate DiCamillo
The Black Stallion by Walter Farley
The Blue Fairy Book by Andrew Lang (Ed.)
The Borrowers by Mary Norton
The Cat in the Hat by Dr. Seuss
Chanticleer and the Fox by Geoffrey Chaucer
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory by Roald Dahl
Charlotte’s Web by E. B. White
Chato’s Kitchen by Gary Soto
A Child’s Garden of Verses by Robert Louis Stevenson
A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens
Cinderella
The Complete Fairy Tales and Stories by Hans Christian Andersen
The Complete Fairy Tales by Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm
Corduroy by Don Freeman
Curious George by H.A. Rey
Diary of a Wimpy Kid by Jeff Kinney
Diary of a Young Girl by Anne Frank
ET the Extra-Terrestrial by William Kotzwinkle
Frog and Toad Are Friends by Arnold Lobel
From the Mixed-up Files of Mrs. Basil E. Frankweiler by E. L. Konigsburg
The Girl Who Loved Wild Horses by Paul Goble
The Giver by Lois Lowry
Goodnight Moon by Margaret Wise Brown
Gulliver’s Travels by Jonathan Swift
Harold and the Purple Crayon by Crockett Johnson
Harriet the Spy by Louise Fitzhugh
Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone by J. K. Rowling
The Hobbit by J. R. R. Tolkien
Holes by Louis Sachar
Island of the Blue Dolphins by Scott O’Dell
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James and the Giant Peach by Roald Dahl
A Light in the Attic by Shel Silverstein
The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe by C. S. Lewis
Little House in the Big Woods by Laura Ingalls Wilder
Little House on the Prairie by Laura Ingalls Wilder
The Little Prince by Antoine de Saint-Exupery
Little Women by Louisa May Alcott
Lon Po Po: A Red Riding Hood Story from China by Ed Young
Madeline by Ludwig Bemelmans
Make Way for Ducklings by Robert McCloskey
Mary Poppins by P. L. Travers
Matilda by Roald Dahl
Millions of Cats by Wanda Gag
Mrs. Frisby and the Rats of NIMH by Robert C. O’Brien
The Night before Christmas by Clement Moore
Olivia by Ian Falconer
Pat the Bunny by Pat Hutchins
People Could Fly: American Black Folktales by Virginia Hamilton
Peter Pan by Sir James Barrie
The Phantom Tollbooth by Norton Juster
Ramona the Pest by Beverly Cleary
The Real Mother Goose by Blanche F. Wright (illus.)
Red Riding Hood
Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry by Mildred D. Taylor
The Secret Garden by Frances Hodgson Burnett
Shiloh by Phyllis Reynolds Naylor
The Snowy Day by Ezra Jack Keats
Sounder by William Armstrong
Stellaluna by Janell Cannon
The Story of Babar by Jean de Brunhoff
The Story of Ferdinand by Munro Leaf
Strega Nona by Tomie DePaola
The Tale of Peter Rabbit by Beatrix Potter
Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing by Judy Blume
The Three Bears
Treasure Island by Robert Louis Stevenson
The Trumpet of the Swan by E. B. White
The Velveteen Rabbit by Margery Williams
The Very Hungry Caterpillar by Eric Carle
Where the Red Fern Grows by Wilson Rawls
Where the Sidewalk Ends by Shel Silverstein
Where the Wild Things Are by Maurice Sendak
The Wind in the Willows by Kenneth Grahame
Winnie-the-Pooh by A.A. Milne
The Wizard of Oz by L. Frank Baum
A Wrinkle in Time by Madeleine L’Engle
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LIST 92. BOOKS FOR RELUCTANT READERS
The best motivation for reading is a great book. The books on these lists were selected to appeal to even
the most reluctant readers. The books on the elementary level (for ages eight to eleven) are high-interest
“easy” readers. Many have a great deal of illustrations and strong story lines that help struggling readers.
The books on the intermediate and older reader lists will hold the attention of students in the middle grades
and above but are written to be less challenging for the developmental or remedial reader ages twelve to
sixteen. The lists contain a wide range of poetry, sports, mysteries, biography, historical fiction, adventure,
and nonfiction.
Elementary Level
Amelia’s Itchy-Twitchy Lovey-Dovey Summer at Camp Mosquito by Marissa Moss
Awake and Dreaming by Kit Peason
Baseball’s Best: Five True Stories by Andrew Gutelle
Basketball Bats by Betty Hicks
Beowulf: A Hero’s Tale retold by James Rumford
Chess Rumble by Greg Neri
Crash by Jerry Spinelli
The Curse of the Bologna Sandwich: Melvin Beederman Superhero by Greg Trine
December by Eve Bunting
Driver’s Ed by Caroline B. Cooney
Forever Amber Brown by Paula Danziger
Fourth-Grade Celebrity by Patricia Reilly Giff
Ghosthunters and the Incredibly Revolting Ghost! by Cornelia Funke
Ghosts in Fourth Grade by Constance Hiser
The Good, the Bad, and the Goofy by Jon Scieszka
Hatchet by Gary Paulsen
The Hideout by Eve Bunting
How to Train Your Dragon by Cressida Cowell
I Left My Sneakers in Dimension X by Bruce Coville
Invention of Hugo Cabret by Brian Selznick
The Invisible Rules of the Zoe Lama by Tish Cohen
Julian Rodriguez by Alexander Stadler
Knucklehead: Tall Tales & Mostly True Stories about Growing Up Scieszka by Jon Scieszka.
Lost and Found by Andrew Clements
Mailing May by Michael O. Tunnel
Maniac Magee by Jerry Spinelli
Maxx Comedy: The Funniest Kid in America by Gordon Kormon.
The Maze of Bones by Rick Riordan
Middle School Is Worse Than Meatloaf: A Year Told through Stuff by Jennifer L. Holm
Mistakes That Worked by Charlotte Jones
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My Life in Dog Years by Gary Paulsen
Nic Bishop’s Spiders by Nic Bishop
Oggie Cooder by Sarah Weeks
The Pinballs by Betsy Byars
A Pizza the Size of the Sun: Poems by Jack Prelutsky by Jack Prelutsky
Rapunzel: A Happenin’ Rap by David Vozar
Rumble Fish by S. E. Hinton
Satchel Paige: Striking Out Jim Crow by James Sturm
Secrets of the Shopping Mall by Richard Peck
The Sixth-Grade Mutants Meet the Slime by Laura E. Williams
Skeleton Man by Joseph Bruchac
Skylark by Patricia MacLachlan
Something Upstairs by Avi
A Swiftly Tilting Planet by Madeleine L’Engle
Tales from the Brothers Grimm and the Sisters Weird by Vivian Vande Velde
To Dance: A Ballerina’s Graphic Novel by Siena Cherson Siegel
True Lies: 18 Tales for You to Judge by George Shannon
Wayside School Gets a Little Stranger by Louis Sachar
Yours till Banana Splits by Joanna Cole and Stephanie Calmeson
Intermediate and Older Levels
The A List by Zoey Dean
Acceleration by Graham McNamee
Adam Zigzag by Barbara Barrie
America by E. R. Frank
The Au Pairs by Melissa DeLaCruz
Bar Code Tattoo by Suzanne Weyn
Bronx Masquerade by Nikki Grimes
The Buckle by Don Sawyer
Chat Room by Kristin Butcher
Cheat by Kristin Butcher
Chicken Soup for the Teenage Soul by Jack Canfield
Confessions of a Backup Dancer by Tucker Shaw
Dawn Patrol by Jeff Ross
Drama by Raina Telgemeier
Draw Your Own Manga: All the Basics by Haruno Nagatomo
Gingerbread by Rachel Cohn
Guitar Girl by Sara Manning
Hagurosan by Darren Shan
Half-Moon Investigations by Eoin Colfer
Hey Idiot! Chronicles of Human Stupidity by Leland Gregory
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Home Invasion by Monique Polak
Honeycomb by Patricia McCowan
Hoop Dreams by Lorna Schultz Nicholson
The Hulk: The Incredible Guide by Tom DeFalco
Hurricane Katrina 2005 by Lauren Tarshis
I Am Not Esther by Fleur Beale
Iggie’s House by Judy Blume
Inside Out & Back Again by Thanhha Lai
Jason and Kyra by Dana Davidson
Journals: Kurt Cobain by Kurt Cobain
Jump Ball: A Basketball Season in Poems by Mel Glenn
Last Chance Texaco by Brent Hartinger
The Last Shot: City Streets, Basketball Dreams by Darcy Frey
Liar, Liar: The Theory, Practice and Destructive Properties of Deception by Gary Paulsen
Little Brother of War by Gary Robinson
The Middle Passage: White Ships/Black Cargo by Tom Feelings
The Music of Dolphins by Karen Hesse
Off Pointe by Leanne Lieberman
The Official Movie Plot Generator: 27,000 Hilarious Movie Plot Combinations by Jason Heimberg and
Justin Heimberg
Oh My Goddess! Wrong Number by Kosuke Fujishima
Pain & Wastings by Carrie Mac
Planet Hunters: The Search for Other Worlds by Dennis Fradin
Power Hitter by M. G. Higgins
Really Useful: Origins of Everyday Things by Joel Levy
Red Scarf Girl: A Memoir of the Cultural Revolution by Ji-li Jiang
The Samurai’s Tale by Erik Haugaard
Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark by Alvin Schwartz
Search and Rescue by Gail Anderson-Dargatz
The Secret Hour by Scott Westerfeld
The Sleeper by Steve Brezenoff
Son of the Mob by Gordon Korman
Stupid Crook Book by Leland Gregory
Summer Boys by Hailey Abbott
Technically, It’s Not My Fault: Concrete Poems by John Grandits
Ten Days in the Dirt: Spectacle of Off-Road Motorcycling by Russ Rohrer
They Broke the Law; You Be the Judge: True Cases of Teen Crime by Thomas Jacobs
Trapped by Michael Northrop
Voices from the Streets: Young Former Gang Members Tell Their Stories by Beth S. Atkin
Wearing of This Garment Does Not Enable You to Fly: 101 Real Dumb Warning Labels by Jeff Koon and
Andy Powell
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LIST 93. KIDS’ MAGAZINES FOR READERS AND WRITERS
Children’s magazines are important for helping students establish lifelong reading habits. Few can ignore
the pull of the new weekly or monthly edition of a favorite source of up-to-date information on a hobby,
sport, or other interest, including cooking! Magazines are also great sources of high-interest material for
students who find books unappealing.
Some kids’ magazines are not only written for young people, but by them. These publications are
the primary market for students’ original writing and artwork. Contact them for guidelines for submitting stories, poems, and art. Young writers whose work is accepted generally receive copies of the volume,
not monetary rewards. The review and notification time for submissions may take many months, but if
published, the wait is well worth it to budding young authors.
American Girl (general interest content for girls; ages 8–12)
http://store.americangirl.com/subscribe_ecomm.html
AppleSeeds (social studies topics; ages 8–12) www.cobblestonepub.com/pages/appmain.htm
Ask: Arts and Sciences for Kids (artists, scientists, thinkers; ages 6–9)
www.cobblestonepub.com/pages/askmain.html
[Ask is also available in Spanish.]
Blaze (for kids who love horses; ages 8–14)
www.blazekids.com
Boys’ Life (general interest content for boys; ages 8–13)
www.boyslife.org/lo/index.html
Calliope World History for Young People (world history themes; ages 9–15)
www.cobblestonepub.com/pages/callmain.htm
Chickadee (general interest, activities; ages 5–9)
www.owlkids.com/chickadee/
ChopChop (food, cooking, healthy eating, kid-friendly recipes; ages 5–12)
www.chopchopmag.org
[ChopChop is also available in Spanish.]
Cicada (children’s literature and activities, authors, poets, artists profiled; ages 14–17)
www.cicadamag.com
Click (science and exploration; ages 3–7)
www.clickmag.com
Cobblestone American History for Kids (American history topics; ages 8–14)
www.cobblestonepub.com/pages/cobbmain.htm
Cricket (children’s literature; ages 8–12)
www.cricketmag.com/
Dig (earth science and archaeology; ages 9–14)
www.digonsite.com/
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Faces: Peoples, Places and Cultures (cultures, geography, and news; ages 9–14)
www.cobblestonepub.com/pages/facemain.htm
Girls’ Life (general interest content for girls; ages 10–13)
www.girlslife.com
Highlights for Children (general interest content and activities; ages 4–12)
www.highlights.com/
Ingredient (cooking with a flair, history of foods, recipes, cooking tips; ages 6–12)
www.ingredientmag.com
Kids Discover (nature, science, geography; ages 6–12)
www.kidsdiscover.com/
Muse (nature, music, science, literature; ages 9–14)
www.cricketmag.com/
National Geographic Kids (wildlife, adventure, geography, science; ages 8–14)
www.nationalgeographic.com/ngkids/
Odyssey (science themes; ages 10–16)
www.odysseymagazine.com
Plays (drama activities and plays for elementary through high school; ages 8–16)
www.playsmagazine.com/
Ranger Rick (nature, environment, outdoors; ages 7–10)
www.nwf.org/gowild/
Skipping Stones (international, multicultural themes; ages 8–16)
www.skippingstones.org
Spider (children’s literature and activities; ages 6–9)
www.spidermagkids.com
Sports Illustrated for Kids (sports and athletes; ages 8–16)
www.SIkids.com
Time for Kids (weekly news magazine; different versions for grades K–1, 2, 3–4, 5–6)
www.timeforkids.com
Young Rider (horse care and equestrian tips for riders; ages 8–16)
www.youngrider.com
Zoobooks (up-close encounters with large and small zoo residents; ages 6–12)
www.zoobooks.com
Magazines That Publish Young Writers
Creative Kids (fiction, poetry, puzzles, humor, artwork; ages 8–14)
www.prufrock.com/client/client_pages/prufrock_jm_createkids.cfm
Prufrock Press, PO Box 8813, Waco, TX 76714-8813
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Discovery Girls (hot topics for girls; ages 8–12)
www.discoverygirls.com/
PO Box 110760, Campbell, CA 95011
Highlights for Children (stories, poetry, art, humor; ages 4–12)
www.highlights.com/
803 Church Street, Honesdale, PA 18431
Launch Pad (fiction, nonfiction, poetry, book reviews, and art by kids; ages 6–12)
www.launchpadmag.com
New Moon (international general content for girls; ages 8–14)
www.newmoon.com
PO Box 3620, Duluth, MN 55803–3620
Skipping Stones (fiction, poetry, plays, humor; ages 8–16)
www.skippingstones.org
PO Box 3939, Eugene, OR 97403
Stone Soup (fiction, poetry, plays, artwork; ages 8–16) www.stonesoup.com/main2/printmagazines.html
Submissions Dept., PO Box 83, Santa Cruz, CA 95063
The Concord Review (quarterly; exemplary high school history research papers; ages 14–18)
www.trc.or/trc/current.htm
Young Voices (fiction, poetry, plays, artwork; ages 13–18)
www.torontopubliclibrary.typepad.com/teens/young-voice-mazaine.html
Toronto Public Library, 789 Yonge Street, Toronto, ON, M4W 2G8, Canada
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LIST 94. BOOKLIST COLLECTIONS
Many excellent sources provide lists that help identify and locate books on special subjects or grade levels,
new and notable books, classic books, and reference books. Public libraries have anthologies, collections,
and series on many topics. Some sponsoring organizations publish lists annually; others develop lists as
special curriculum or research projects. Use the following list to help you select books for your classroom
and school libraries.
American Library Association
www.ala.org/booklist
Editors’ Choice
American Library Association–Association of Library Services for Children
www.ala.org/ala/librariesandyou/recomreading/recomreading.htm
Notable Children’s Books; Harry-a-Like Books; Batchelder Awards; Theodor Seuss Geisel Award;
Andrew Carnegie Medal; Laura Ingalls Wilder Award; Coretta Scott King Awards; Belpré
Awards; Diversity: Great Middle School Reads, Growing Up Latino, Books to Grow On,
American Experience, Bilingual Books, Sharing Cultures—Asian American Children’s Authors;
Books for Boys and Girls Clubs; Reading Is Fundamental
American Library Association—Young Adult Library Services Association
www.ala.org/yalsa/
Best Books for Young Adults; Quick Picks for the Reluctant Young Reader; Popular Paperbacks for
Young Adults
Caldecott Medal and Honor Books
www.ala.org/alsc/caldpast.html
Caldecott Award winners
Center for Children’s Books
http://edfu.lis.uicu.edu/puboff/bccb/
Blue Ribbon Book Lists
Children’s Books Guide
www.childrensbooksguide.com
Recommended books by grade and type
Children’s Literature Web Guide
www.a.c.s.ucalgary.ca/∼dkbrown/index.html
Lists according to themes, grade levels, and more
Fairrosa Cyber Library of Children’s Books
www.fairrosa.info/lists
Thematic lists and links to other lists
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Gander Academy
www.cdli.ca/CITE/langbr.htm
Book lists on many topics with links to other lists
GoodReads
www.goodreads.com
Lists according to grade, genre, themes
International Literacy Association & Children’s Book Council
www.reading.org/
Children’s Choices; Teachers’ Choices; Young Adult Choices
Jim Trelease on Reading
www.trelease-on-reading.com/video_biblio.html
Books to read aloud
Kids Reads
www.kidsreads.com
Book lists by age from 1–12
Monroe County (Indiana) Public Library
www.monroe.lib.in.us/childrens/booklists/children_booklists.html
Specialized book lists on fifty topics from adventure to time travel
National Child Care Center
www.nccic.org/poptopics/booklist.pdf
Book lists for emergent reading, bilingual education, creativity
National Council for the Social Studies & Children’s Book Council
www.ncss.org/home.html
Notable Trade Books in the Field of Social Studies
National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped
www.loc.gov/nls/
Books and other materials in Braille
National Science Teachers Association & Children’s Book Council
www.nsta.org/
Outstanding Science Trade Books for Children
Newbery Medal and Honor Books
www.ala.org/alsc/newbpast.html
Newbery Award winners (see List 65, Award-Winning Children’s Books.)
New York Public Library
http://kids.nypl.org/
100 Picture Books Everyone Should Know; 100 Favorite Children’s Books
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Online Computer Library Center
www.oclc.org
One thousand books most widely available in libraries
Publisher’s Weekly
www.bookwire.com/pw/
Best Children’s Books
Read Aloud America, Inc.
www.readaloudamerica.org
Annual grade-by-grade recommendations for books that are good to read aloud
School Library Journal
www.slj.com/
Best Books of the Year
Smithsonian Magazine
http://smithsonianmag.com/
Notable Books for Children
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LIST 95. BOOK INTEREST AROUSERS
Creating a language- and text-rich classroom is essential to nurturing young bibliophiles. Look around
the room. Does it look like a place inhabited by language lovers? Do you celebrate the birthdays of your
students’ favorite authors? Has your class written to an author to thank her or him for a fabulous book?
Research tells us children who grow up in environments with adult readers and many books become readers
themselves. Modeling good reading habits in school is important. Classrooms with lots of interesting books
and scheduled time for free reading lay the foundation for life-long reading-for-pleasure habits. There are
many things you can do to nudge your students to pick up a book and read. Here are some tried and
true ways.
Book stations in your classroom. Instead of having your class library neatly shelved in the back of the room,
set up a few book stations with paperbacks arranged in baskets for an inviting and accessible change.
Reading billboard. Dedicate a bulletin board to books and advertise authors, series, and so forth on a
billboard. Change frequently. Some themes that are always popular include horses, sports, magic,
weird science, favorite authors, mysteries, and so forth.
New book sales pitch. Give a book talk or have a student do one on new additions to the class library. Or
have students preview the book and present it like a movie critic does on TV.
Advertising competition. Have students choose the best book they read this month and mount ad
campaigns for the book, including thirty-second radio ads, posters, and so on. Compete for a prize or
points.
Book fair. Exchange an exhibit of books with another class. Show off award winners. Specialize in some
types of new books, old books, picture books, Native American books, joke books, novels, and so
forth.
Read-alouds. Even older students enjoy sitting back and listening to a great story being read. Check out
List 88, New and Old Favorites to Read Aloud, for ideas. Read a whole book, read interesting parts,
read just the first chapter, or read about a specific character.
A poem a day. There are so many wonderful poems! One a day will not exhaust all the timely, funny,
thought-provoking, encouraging, beautiful, and powerful poems. Encourage students to write poetry;
teach them lots of forms: diamonte, haiku, couplets, limericks … poetry does not have to be serious.
Book conferences. Schedule individual conferences regularly with every student and discuss the books
being read. Suggest similar books. Suggest other types of books.
Take field trips to the school and local libraries. Learn about special collections and archives as well as
traveling collections from state libraries. Make sure every student has a library card.
Chart book reading. Keep a visual record of books read, either individually or for the class. Encourage
progress and sometimes competition.
Engage in book-related activities. In art, design new book jackets or illustrations of book scenes. In drama,
act out parts of a book. Discuss different endings.
Read the book and see the movie. How do they compare? What are the strengths of each medium? Take a
poll: how many enjoyed the book more?
Integrate books in content subjects. Read biographies of scientists, historical fiction about the time you are
studying in history, poetry from another culture you are learning about in geography.
Tell a friend. Encourage students to share thoughts about books; word-of-mouth is a great motivator.
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LIST 96. FIFTY POSTREADING RESPONSE IDEAS
Engaging students in postreading activities gives them opportunities to delve deeper into the characters
and actions of the story, connecting them to personal experiences and ideas. Many different experiences,
individually or with others, enable students to develop a range of skills as well as outlets for their emotional
and intellectual responses to text. This list gives you fifty options to try with your students.
1. Rework an exciting chapter of the book for Readers’ Theater—or see if you can find it already
scripted online. Have students highlight their speaking parts, practice reading them with expression,
and then bring students together in a circle for a reading. A student director may be used to
encourage expression, timing, and so on.
2. Have a talk show with one to four hosts. The hosts interview the main characters in the audience.
Everyone should dress for their character parts.
3. Using a graphics or drawing program, create a new book jacket, complete with related illustrations
and blurbs from classmates.
4. Using the table function in your word processor, prepare a chart-type graphic organizer showing the
characters, their relationships, and a few biographical facts about each.
5. Using a variety of art media, design poster-sized ads for the book.
6. Have a news program with a panel of reporters giving their reports on various aspects of the story.
7. Dramatize an incident or an important character through a student-written soliloquy.
8. Digitally record students doing radio announcements to publicize the book. Keep this in an audio file
on a computer near the class library so others can listen to the ads and use them to help choose a
book to read.
9. Meet individually with students for a book conference to delve into their comprehension of the book
and to find out their personal reactions.
10. Illustrate the story, take digital pictures, coordinate music and narration, and assemble it in a
multimedia presentation.
11. Write a play based on the continuation of the story or a new adventure for the characters.
12. Use an online application to make a crossword puzzle containing at least thirty words from the story.
13. Demonstrate what was learned from a how-to book.
14. Write a text message about the book, limited to twenty words. Use txt spk.
15. Read aloud to the class a section of the book to get them hooked on the story.
16. Keep diaries for the characters in the story, using the first person. Write about the events from the
characters’ perspectives. Encourage expression of personality traits exhibited in the book.
17. Write a letter to the author telling why you like the book, your favorite parts, what would have done
with the plot, or ideas for a sequel. Mail it to the author in care of the book publisher.
18. Be a newspaper columnist; write a review for the book section.
19. Spin the wheel of fortune! Create a wheel with ten events or character-related details. Spin the wheel
to pick the element, then write an explanation of how the story might have ended if the new element
had been part of it.
20. Write a letter to the main character to tell him or her how to solve the problem or what you would
have done in his or her place.
21. Write a news article based on an incident in the book.
22. Write a biography of the leading character, using information from the book.
23. Write an obituary about a key character, giving an account of what he or she was best known for.
24. Give a testimonial speech citing the character for special distinctions noted in the book.
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25. Watch the movie version of the book and compare and contrast two versions. What are the strengths
of the different media? Take a poll in the class to see which version is preferred.
26. Design and illustrate a time line to depict the events in the story.
27. Have a panel discussion of the book if several students have read it. Prepare open-ended questions to
engage the panelists.
28. Construct a story map to show the plot and setting.
29. Make a three-dimensional model of the story setting.
30. Have a character day. Students dress up as their favorite character in the story and relive some of the
story. Adopt language patterns and mannerisms, if appropriate.
31. Journal about your feelings at the end of each chapter and explore why you had that particular
reaction.
32. Rewrite the story as a TV movie, including staging directions.
33. Write a glossary of difficult or interesting words from the story. To give them context, include the
sentences from the book in which they were encountered.
34. Examine the story for the authors’ craft and try to write a story of your own, imitating the use of
tone, setting, style, and so on.
35. Select memorable lines that you may want to quote someday and write them in your reading journal.
36. Make sketches of some of the action sequences. Bind them as a book of illustrations.
37. Make your own audiobook. Read the story and digitally record it so that others may listen to it.
38. Do research on the period of history in which the story is set. Gather and share the information about
key elements of life at the time.
39. Make a word wall list of similes, metaphors, or succinct descriptions used in the book.
40. Make puppets and present a show based on the book.
41. Build a clay or papier-mâché bust of a key character.
42. Paint a mural that shows the key incidents in the story.
43. Imagine a magazine cover story on the book you’ve just read. What are several scenes you think
ought to be photographed? Describe the photographs and write captions for them.
44. Journal about any new, interesting, or challenging insights or ideas you gained through reading the
book.
45. Letter the title of the book vertically, then write a brief phrase applicable to the book for each letter.
Or describe the main characters using words that start with the letter in their names.
46. Explain why you think this book will or will not be read a hundred years from now. Support your
viewpoint by making specific references to plot, setting, character, and author’s style.
47. Make a list of five to ten significant questions about this book that you think anyone else who reads it
should be able to answer.
48. Write a résumé for one of the characters in the book based on information in the book.
49. Create travel brochures or posters advertising the location in the book. Use your imagination to fill in
details from the past or future.
50. Create a four- or six-panel comic strip that shows what happens in the book.
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LIST 97. THE FRY READABILITY GRAPH
Many books for children have reading levels or readability scores indicated on their covers. We use this
information to match texts to students’ reading levels and thereby ensure appropriate ease for independent
or recreational reading and appropriate challenge for instructional materials. For books without publisherindicated reading levels, you can use the Fry Readability Graph to determine the approximate level of
difficulty quickly and easily. The Fry Readability score is an estimate of the grade level of reading achievement needed to read the text.
Directions for using the Fry Readability Graph
1. Randomly select three sample passages and count out exactly one hundred words beginning with the
beginning of a sentence. Count proper nouns, initializations, and numerals.
2. Count the number of sentences in the hundred words, estimating length of the fraction of the last
sentence to the nearest tenth.
3. Count the total number of syllables in the one-hundred-word passage. If you don’t have a hand
counter available, an easy way is to put a mark above every syllable over one in each word, and then
when you get to the end of the passage, count the number of marks and add 100. Small calculators also
can be used as counters by pushing numeral “1,” then push the “+” sign for each word or syllable when
counting.
4. On the graph locate the point where the average sentence length and average number of syllables
intersect; place a dot there. The areas where a dot is plotted will give you the approximate grade level.
5. If a great deal of variability is found in syllable count or sentence count, putting more samples into the
average is desirable.
6. A word is defined as a group of symbols with a space on either side; thus, “Joe,” “IRA,” “1945,” and
“&” are each one word.
7. A syllable is defined as a phonetic syllable. Generally, there are as many syllables as vowel sounds. For
example, stopped is one syllable and wanted is two syllables. When counting syllables for numerals and
initializations, count one syllable for each symbol. For example, 1945 is four syllables, and IRA is three
syllables, and & is one syllable.
Example
First hundred words
Second hundred words
Third hundred words
Average
Readability Level
Syllables
Sentences
124
141
158
141
6.6
5.5
6.8
6.3
7th grade (see dot plotted on graph)
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See List 98, Readability Score Comparisons.
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LIST 98. READABILITY SCORE COMPARISONS
Educators, policy makers, researchers, and publishers use readability formulas and leveling protocols to
grade books by difficulty level. The formulas rely on quantifiable features of text such as the number of
syllables per one hundred words, the number of sentences per one hundred words, or the percentage of
words from the text that are on a list of the most frequently occurring words. Leveling protocols may
consider factors such as the number of concepts included, sentence structure, or the level of novelty (unfamiliarity) of the content. All readability methods are designed to result in an estimate of the difficulty of
reading material to aid in selecting suitable texts for students. There are many factors related to readers
and text that will affect an individual’s ease in reading and understanding a particular text.
Although you might regularly consider materials designated for your class’s grade level, you should
also consider materials on the same topic at different readability levels to ensure children at all reading
achievement levels have the opportunity to learn grade-level content (topics) with instructional-level texts.
The following table shows approximate equivalents across well-known readability and leveling scores
to help you match texts to children, no matter which method was used to evaluate the materials. Note that
reading materials recommended for each grade level by the Common Core State Standards have higher
Lexile scores than the typical reader scores for each grade. Both scales are included.
Grade
Basal
Reader
Level
Fountas &
Pinnel
Levels
Scholastic
Guided
Reading
Levels
Kindergarten
Grade 2
Readiness
PrePrimer 1
PrePrimer 2
PrePrimer 3
Primer
Grade 1
Grade 2
A–D
190L–530L
420L–650L
A
B–C
C–D
E
F–G
H–I
I–M
Up to 300L
140L–500L
Grade 3
Grade 3
330Lv700L
520L–820L
Grade 4
Grade 4
445L–810L
Grade 5
Grade 5
Grade 6
Grade 1
Lexile
Levels
(Readers)
CCSS
Lexile
(Text)
Fry
Readability
Estimate
A–I
Grade 1
E–N
Grade 2
M–P
J–Q
Grade 3
740L940L
P–S
M–T
Grade 4
565L–910L
830L–1010L
S–V
Q–W
Grade 5
Grade 6
665L–1000L
925L–1070L
V–Y
T–Z
Grade 6
Grade 7
Grade 7
735L–1065L
970L–1120L
Y–Z
Grade 7
Grade 8
Grade 9
Grade 8
805L–1100L
855L–1165L
1010L–1185L
1050L–1260L
Y–Z
Z+
Grade 8
Grade 9
Grade 10
905L–1195L
1080L–1335L
Z+
Grade 10
Grades 11–12
940L–1210L
1185–1385L
Z+
Grades 11–12
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LIST 99. EXEMPLAR TEXTS FOR ELA AND
SUBJECT AREA LITERACY
The Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts and Literacy in History/Social Studies,
Science, and Technical Subjects include exemplars of literary (stories, drama, and poems) and informational texts (in English, social studies, history, math, science, and technical subjects) to guide teachers’
selection of texts. Those listed in the following were determined to have appropriate complexity, quality,
and range for students to develop and demonstrate the knowledge and skills identified in the standards. For
additional exemplars and information on selecting texts for your students, visit www.corestandards.org/.
Literary Texts
Informational Texts
Grades K to 1
• April Rain Song by Langston
Hughes
• Earthworms by Claire Llewellyn
• Are You My Mother? by P. D.
Eastman
• Fire! Fire! by Gail Gibbons
• Celebration by Alonzo Lopez
• Follow the Water from Brook to Ocean by Arthur
Dorros
• Covers by Nikki Giovanni
• From Seed to Pumpkin by Wendy Pfeffer
• Family Pictures by Carmen Lomas
Garza
• How People Learned to Fly by Fran Hodgkins and
True Kelley
• Frog and Toad Together by Arnold
Lobel
• I Read Signs by Tana Hoban
• Hi! Fly Guy by Tedd Arnold
• Let’s Find Out about Ice Cream by Mary E. Reid
• Laughing Boy by Richard Wright
• My Five Senses by Aliki
• Lon Po Po: A Red-Riding Hood
Story from China by Ed Young
• Starfish by Edith Thacher Hurd
• Pancakes for Breakfast by Tomie
DePaola
• A Tree Is a Plant by Clyde Robert Bulla
• The Paper Crane by Molly Bang
• Truck by Donald Crews
• Tomás and the Library Lady by Pat
Mora
• Water, Water Everywhere by Mark Rauzon and
Cynthia Overbeck Bix
• Two Tree Toads by Jon Agee
• Wouldn’t You? by John Ciardi
• A Weed is a Flower: The Life of George Washington
Carver by Aliki
• Zin! Zin! Zin! a Violin by Lloyd Moss
• Wind Power by National Geographic Young Explorers
• The Year at Maple Hill Farm by Alice and Martin
Provensen
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Literary Texts
Informational Texts
Grades 2 to 3
• Autumn by Emily Dickinson (1896)
• 14 Cows for America by Carmen Agra Deedy
• Cowgirl Kate and Cocoa by Erica
Silverman
• Art around the World by Heather Leonard
• Eating While Reading by Gary Soto
• Bat Loves the Night by Nicola Davies
• The Fire Cat by Ester Averill
• Bats: Creatures of the Night by Joyce Milton
• Fireflies by Paul Fleischman
• Boy, Were We Wrong about Dinosaurs by Kathleen V.
Kudlinski
• Grandpa’s Stories by Langston
Hughes
• Crittercam by Andrew Einspruch
• My Father’s Dragon by Ruth Stiles
Gannett
• A Drop of Water: A Book of Science and Wonder by
Walter Wick
• The One-Eyed Giant by Mary Pope
Osborne
• From Seed to Plant by Gail Gibbons
• Poppleton in Winter by Cynthia
Rylant
• Lincoln: A Photobiography by Russell Freedman
• The Raft by Jim LaMarche
• Martin Luther King and the March on Washington by
Frances E. Ruffin
• The Search for Delicious by Natalie
Babbitt
• A Medieval Feast by Aliki
• The Sign Painter by Allen Say
• Moonshot: The Flight of Apollo 11 by Brian Floca
• The Stories Julian Tells by Ann
Cameron
• The Story of Ruby Bridges by Robert Coles
• The Treasure by Uri Shulevitz
• Throw Your Tooth on the Roof: Tooth Traditions
around the World by Selby Beeler
• Weather by Eve Merriam
• Where Do Polar Bears Live? by Sarah L. Thomson
Grades 4 to 5
• Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland by
Lewis Carroll
• About Time: A First Look at Time and Clocks by
Bruce Koscielniak
• The Birchbark House by Louise
Erdrich
• England the Land by Erinn Banting
• The Black Stallion by Walter Farley
• Good Pet, Bad Pet by Elizabeth Schleichert
• Casey at the Bat by Ernest Lawrence
Thayer
• A History of US by Joy Hakim
• Dust of Snow by Robert Frost
• Hurricanes: Earth’s Mightiest Storms by Patricia
Lauber
• The Echoing Green by William Blake
• Kenya’s Long Dry Season by Nellie Gonzalez Cutler
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Literary Texts
Informational Texts
• The Little Prince by Antoine de
Saint- Exupéry
• The Kid’s Guide to Money: Earning It, Saving It,
Spending It, Growing It, Sharing It by Steve Otfinoski
• Little Red Riding Hood and the Wolf
by Roald Dahl
• Let’s Investigate Marvelously Meaningful Maps by
Madelyn Wood Carlisle
• M. C. Higgins, the Great by Virginia
Hamilton
• My Librarian Is a Camel: How Books Are Brought to
Children around the World by Margriet Ruurs
• The New Colossus by Emma Lazarus
• Seeing Eye to Eye by Leslie Hall
• They Were My People by Grace
Nichols
• Telescopes by Colin A. Ronan
• Tuck Everlasting by Natalie Babbitt
• Toys! Amazing Stories behind Some Great Inventions
by Don Wulffson
• Where the Mountain Meets the Moon
by Grace Lin
• Underground Railroad by Henrietta Buckmaster
• Words Free as Confetti by Pat Mora
• Volcanoes by Seymour Simon
• Zlateh the Goat by Isaac Bashevis
Singer
• We Are the Ship: The Story of Negro League Baseball
by Kadir Nelson
Grades 6 to 8
• Captain! My Captain! by Walt
Whitman
• Astronomy & Space: From the Big Bang to the Big
Crunch by Phyllis Englebert
• The Dark Is Rising by Susan Cooper
• Blood, Toil, Tears and Sweat: Address to Parliament on
May 13th, 1940 by Winston Churchill
• Dragonwings by Laurence Yep
• Cathedral: The Story of Its Construction by David
Macaulay
• Eleven by Sandra Cisneros
• The Evolution of the Grocery Bag by Henry Petroski
• Jabberwocky by Lewis Carroll
• Freedom Walkers: The Story of the Montgomery Bus
Boycott by Russell Freedman
• Oranges by Gary Soto
• Geeks: How Two Lost Boys Rode the Internet out of
Idaho by John Katz
• Paul Revere’s Ride by Henry
Wadsworth Longfellow
• Geology by U*X*L Encyclopedia of Science
• The People Could Fly by Virginia
Hamilton
• The Great Fire by Jim Murphy
• A Poem for My Librarian, Mrs. Long
by Nikki Giovanni
• Letter on Thomas Jefferson by John Adams
• The Road Not Taken by Robert Frost
• Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass an
American Slave, Written by Himself by Frederick
Douglass
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Literary Texts
Informational Texts
• Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry by
Mildred D. Taylor
• The Number Devil: A Mathematical Adventure by
Hans Magnus Enzenberger
• Sorry, Wrong Number by Louise
Fletcher
• Preamble and Amendment I US Constitution
• The Tale of the Mandarin Ducks by
Katherine Paterson
• A Short Walk through the Pyramids and through the
World of Art by Phillip Isaacson
• Twelfth Song of Thunder Navajo
tradition
• This Land Was Made for You and Me: The Life and
Songs of Woody Guthrie by Elizabeth Partridge
• A Wrinkle in Time by Madeleine
L’Engle
• Words We Live By: Your Annotated Guide to the
Constitution by Linda R. Monk
Grades 9 to 10
• The Book Thief by Marcus Zusak
• Address to Students at Moscow State University by
Ronald Reagan
• A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen
• Amusement Park Physics by Jearl Walker
• Fathers and Sons by Ivan Turgenev
• Before Columbus: The Americas of 1491 by Charles
C. Mann
• The Gift of the Magi by O. Henry
• Cod: A Biography of the Fish That Changed the World
by Mark Kurlansky
• I Am Offering This Poem to You by
Jimmy Santiago Baca
• Elements by Euclid
• In the Time of the Butterflies by Julia
Álvarez
• Farewell Address by George Washington
• The Joy Luck Club by Amy Tan
• Gettysburg Address by Abraham Lincoln
• Metamorphoses by Ovid
• I Have a Dream: Address Delivered at the March on
Washington, DC by Martin Luther King Jr.
• The Nose by Nikolai Gogol
• The Illustrated Book of Great Composers by Wendy
Thompson
• Oedipus Rex by Sophocles
• Life by the Numbers by Keith Devlin
• Ozymandias by Percy Bysshe Shelley
• The Longitude Prize by Joan Dash
• The Raven by Edgar Allan Poe
• Remarks to the Senate in Support of a Declaration of
Conscience by Margaret Chase Smith
• Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe
• Speech to the Second Virginia Convention by Patrick
Henry
• The Tragedy of Macbeth by William
Shakespeare
• The Story of Art, 16th ed. by E.H. Gombrich
• Women by Alice Walker
• The Story of Science: Newton at the Center by Joy
Hakim
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Literary Texts
Informational Texts
Grade 11 to CCR
• As I Lay Dying by William Faulkner
• 1776 by David McCullough
• The Cask of Amontillado by Edgar
Allan Poe
• The American Reader: Words That Moved a Nation,
2nd ed. edited by Diane Ravitch
• Crime and Punishment by Fyodor
Dostoevsky
• Black Boy by Richard Wright
• Death and the King’s Horseman: A
Play by Wole Soyinka
• The Coming Merger of Mind and Machine by Ray
Kurzweil
• Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes
• Common Sense by Thomas Paine
• The Garden of Forking Paths by Jorge
Luis Borges
• The Declaration of Independence by Thomas Jefferson
• Man Listening to Disc by Billy
Collins
• The Fallacy of Success by G. K. Chesterton
• The Namesake by Jhumpa Lahiri
• Google Hacks: Tips & Tools for Smarter Searching,
2nd ed. by Tara Calishain and Rael Dornfest
• Ode to My Suit by Pablo Neruda
• Innumeracy: Mathematical Illiteracy and Its
Consequences by John Allen Paulos
• Our Town: A Play in Three Acts by
Thornton Wilder
• Mother Tongue by Amy Tan
• A Poem of Changgan by Li Po
• Politics and the English Language by George Orwell
• Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen
• Society and Solitude Ralph Waldo Emerson
• Song VII by Rabindranath Tagore
• The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big
Difference by Malcolm Gladwell
• Their Eyes Were Watching God by
Zora Neale Hurston
• Untangling the Roots of Cancer by W. Wayt Gibbs
• The Tragedy of Hamlet by William
Shakespeare
• Walden by Henry David Thoreau
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SECTION 7
Comprehension
List 100. BDA Comprehension Strategies
List 101. Context Clues and Word Meaning
List 102. Syntax and Comprehension
List 103. Comprehension Questions
List 104. Question Starters for Discussions
List 105. Proverbs
List 106. Graphic Organizers
List 107. Problem-Solving Guide
List 108. Paragraph and Text Organization
List 109. Character Traits
List 110. Tone and Mood Words
List 111. Point of View
List 112. Language Registers
List 113. Persuasive Techniques
List 114. Literary Terms
C
onstructing meaning from print is a common definition of reading. A number of factors contribute to the process of comprehending or constructing meaning from text. Although word
recognition and vocabulary knowledge are essential, research shows it is not sufficient (Almasi &
Hart, 2005). Many students with adequate skill in these areas still have difficulty comprehending
what they read. Duke and Martin’s (2015, p. 253) review of research found ten processes contribute to comprehension: setting purposes, connecting prior knowledge, predicting, inferring,
interpreting graphics and text features, evaluating content, monitoring comprehension, questioning, and summarizing. The National Reading Panel (2000) found strong scientific evidence to
support these comprehension strategies: monitoring, cooperative learning, graphic organizers,
text structure, question answering and question generating, and using multiple strategies flexibly.
Related to these strategies is the expectation that students develop skill recognizing and appreciating how a range of author’s craft support or frame a reader’s experience of a narrative text.
Common Core State Standards (NGA & CCSSO, 2010) expect students to use point of view, language registers, tone and mood, characterization, and other elements to gain a deep and nuanced
comprehension of a narrative text.
Knowing about these and other comprehension-related strategies is not enough. Students
need to become strategic in their use; that is, they need to have these strategies in their repertoire
of skills and have opportunities to select and apply them as needed to the texts and tasks they use
for learning. In other words, students must become savvy and strategic readers. Laverick’s (2002)
idea of BDA strategies, or strategies that can be used before, during, and after reading to support
comprehension, offers a useful plan.
Reading informational texts well requires some additional skills not generally used in narrative reading, including recognizing how authors use different types of paragraph or chapter
organization depending on the content and determining the meaning of new vocabulary from
the context clues provided by the author. Knowledge of persuasive techniques used also helps
students recognize and evaluate argumentative and persuasive writing often encountered in informational texts.
The lists in this section address these instructional issues and support comprehension of narrative and informational texts. List 100, BDA Comprehension Strategies, for example, provides
a walk-through of reader-selected strategies in service to comprehension in a framework that
gives them both structure and flexibility. Other lists address questions and questioning, graphic
organizers, author craft, paragraph organizations, and context clues. Still others address characterization, tone and mood, point of view, registers, and literary terms.
Almasi, J., & Hart, S. (2015). Best practices in narrative text comprehension instruction. In L. B. Gambrell, &
L. M. Morrow (Eds.), Best practices in literacy instruction (5th ed., pp. 223–248). New York: The Guilford Press.
Dexter, D. D., & Hughes, C. A. (2011). Graphic organizers and students with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis.
Learning Disability Quarterly, 34(1), 51–72. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/889930469?
accountid=27354
Duke, N., & Martin, N. (2015). Best practices in informational text comprehension instruction. In L. B. Gambrell &
L. M. Morrow (Eds.), Best practices in literacy instruction (5th ed.). New York: The Guilford Press.
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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Laverick, C. (2002). B-D-A strategy: Reinventing the wheel can be a good thing. Journal of Adolescent & Adult
Literacy, 46(2), 144–147. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/40015436
Moss, B., & Loh, V. S. (2010). 35 strategies for guiding readers through informational texts. New York: The Guilford
Press. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/815957966?accountid=27354
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers (NGA &
CCSSO). (2010). Common Core State Standards for English language arts and literacy in history/social studies,
science, and technical subjects. Washington, DC: Authors.
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching
children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications
for reading instruction (NIH Publication No. 00–4769. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research
literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction (National Institute of Health Publication No.
00–4754). Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
Williams, J. (2005). Instruction in reading comprehension for primary grade students: A focus on text structure. The
Journal of Special Education 39(1), 6–18. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ693938.pdf
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LIST 100. BDA COMPREHENSION
STRATEGIES
Students’ success in understanding what they read depends on many factors, including the active reading
and learning strategies they use before, during, and after (BDA) reading. These strategies scaffold student
skills in predicting, questioning, monitoring, clarifying, associating, reacting, and responding while reading. During guided reading lessons, introduce and have students practice these strategies until they build
competency and can independently apply them to new texts. Help students recognize which strategies work
best with narratives or informational texts.
Not all strategies work equally well for all texts or for all students. It is important, however, that each
student develops a repertoire of strategies to use before, during, and after reading to support their comprehension and learning. Before strategies will focus on preparation for reading, during strategies focus on
keeping track of the content and dealing with new information, and after strategies tie it all together and
enable the reader to respond to the story or information read.
Before-Reading Strategies
1. Organize
• Gather everything you need: text, paper, highlighter, pen, sticky notes, dictionary, and assignment
pad.
• Set aside enough time to complete the assignment or a particular part of the assignment.
• Set the purpose for reading: check your assignment. Most reading assignments have two parts: read
and remember the main idea and details for discussion; read and remember content for a quiz; read
and use the information; read and take notes; read and write a reaction; or read and answer
questions. Your speed and style of reading will depend on your purpose.
2. Tune in to the task
• Look at the title and headings: in a story they engage your interest; in a textbook they give the main
idea or category of information of the section.
• Think about what you already know about the subject or the story.
• Think about the special directions you were given about the assignment.
• Think about what you will need to notice or remember in order to do the postreading assignment
(details, main ideas, story line, character traits, point of view, setting, comparison to another story,
figurative language, procedure, new terms, etc.).
• Check to see how the author organized her or his writing (chapters? headings? dialogue? numbered
steps? vocabulary in bold, italics, or sidebar? texts + drawings or pictures?).
• Think about what you expect to find out by reading and why.
3. Set up for success
• Make a KWL chart and fill in the columns for K and W.
• List group label: write all the words and concepts you know that are related to the topic; add the
words from one or two peers and then sort them into groups; label the groups of words and review
and discuss words in each labeled group as a foundation for new knowledge.
• Complete the anticipation guide provided by the author or teacher.
• Read the questions at the end so you’ll recognize the answers when you get to them.
• Create your own questions based on the topic and headings.
• Pick a graphic organizer template that matches your task and set it up for the assignment.
• Set up your notebook Cornell notes style.
• Review the new vocabulary words and their definitions before reading.
• Start a word web or new word list for the reading.
• Compare your KWL or questions with a partner’s.
• Plan a jigsaw with a partner: divide the questions or topics you will be responsible for.
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During-Reading Strategies
4. Find and mark
• Use a sticky note to mark the paragraph in which you found an answer to one of your questions or
to your part of a jigsaw.
• Add important words to your word web.
• Write out the sentence in which a new word was found.
• Write down the page number where you found important information (e.g., p.372).
If the book is yours:
• Highlight an answer or important information when you see it.
• Put a check mark in the margin next to important information.
• Underline key new words.
• Highlight the key ideas needed for your part of a jigsaw.
5. Keep track of progress
• “Talk” to the author. (Imagine saying “OK, I got that, I like this part, I wouldn’t do it that way,” or
whatever else you might say if the author were there with you as you read.)
• When you notice that you’re telling the author that it doesn’t make sense, go back to a part that did
and reread. You may have missed an important clue. Then reread the part that didn’t make sense.
Follow the reading guide from the teacher as you read.
• Fill in a story map, a problem solution, or other graphic organizer as you read.
• Add a sticky note where you really liked what you read.
• Add a sticky note where the reading was difficult for you.
After-Reading Strategies
6. Review the reading
• Check back on all marked sections.
• Add to your word web.
• Retell a short version of the story or text in your own words.
• Reread any parts that you marked because they were difficult.
• Think about your feelings for the story or text. (Was it interesting? Did you like it? Was it easy to
follow? Did it help you learn?)
7. Use what you’ve read
• Use the marked pages or sections to answer questions.
• Answer questions citing sections of the text where you learned the answers.
• Fill in the KWL chart.
• Write your reaction to the story or text.
• Create an outline or notes from the important information and key words.
• Complete your new vocabulary or spelling list.
• Write follow-up questions to research later on the same topic.
• Think about how this story or information is like what you have read before.
• Teach part of what you learned to a classmate.
• Finish the jigsaw with your partner(s).
• Summarize or write a précis of the reading.
• Complete a semantic feature analysis for the terms in the selection.
• Create mnemonics for key ideas that you want to recall.
• Rate the reading material’s difficulty: too easy, just right, or too difficult.
• Rate the reading material’s interest: very interesting, OK, or not very interesting.
• Rate the amount you learned: learned a lot, learned some, or learned very little.
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LIST 101. CONTEXT CLUES
AND WORD MEANING
Authors of both narrative and expository text provide information to their readers about the meaning of
words that are important to understanding. In informational text, authors intentionally introduce new
vocabulary through context clues to help readers understand the new concept in relation to what is already
known. Authors may use several of these techniques in a unit to introduce and reinforce target words in
print and online media. These techniques for building information on students’ prior knowledge base are
also effective in oral presentations. The Common Core State Standards expect students beginning in grade
2 to be able to determine the meaning of words and phrases in informational text.
To help your students acquire this skill, preview a text your students will read and note the types of
context clues used by the author. Then, teach your students about those specific types of context clues and
have them locate examples in their text. With partners, have students use the context clues to determine
the meaning of the new words. Use these techniques in your presentations, worksheets, and other instructional materials. Having students write context clue sentences for new vocabulary words is also an effective
strategy. The student-developed clue sentence can be included in their word logs and provide a reminder
of meaning for target words.
The following examples demonstrate ten techniques for providing context clues to word meanings for
a hypothetical text on minerals. A list of sentences for practice follows the examples.
Direct statement/definition. Quartz is a mineral.
Classifications. Quartz, a mineral, is composed of one part silicon and two parts oxygen.
Examples. Minerals such as diamonds and sapphires are rare and expensive.
Appositive. Minerals are inorganic, nonliving substances found in the earth.
Synonym. A mineral’s luster or shininess helps identify it.
Function indicator. The geologist used micrometer calipers to measure the length and width of the tiny
mineral crystals.
Compare and contrast. Coal, unlike minerals, is an organic substance formed from decayed animal and
plant life.
Analogy. Quartz is to inorganic as coal is to ___________; quartz:inorganic:: coal:__________.
Experience. The sheet of mica was almost transparent enough to see through completely.
Morphology. Quartz is an igneous rock. The word igneous has the same base as the word ignite. They both
come from the Latin word ignis, meaning fire. The silica and oxygen that make up quartz are found in
middle layers of earth where it is so hot they are in a melted state. When some of it gets closer to the
surface and cools, crystals of quartz are formed.
Use this list for student practice determining the meaning of the italicized words from context clues.
Ferns, flowerless plants, come in many varieties.
A centimeter is a small unit of measurement about one-half of an inch in length.
Chlorophyll, a green substance in plants, enables them to turn light from the sun into energy.
Maps use a key, or legend, to explain the meaning of each of the symbols used in the map.
The astronomer, a scientist that observes the sky, was using his telescope to look at the stars.
Thunder, unlike lightning, cannot be seen.
Arctic is to cold as tropical is to ___.
The texture of the animal’s fur was so soft it felt like velvet.
Powhatan is to chief as Obama is to president.
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An atlas, a book of maps, can be useful when driving.
The prime meridian divides the earth into the eastern and western hemispheres.
A rectangle, a closed shape, has four sides.
As we got closer to the lake, we began to step on squishy land called a marsh.
The scientist uses a microscope to look at the tiny cells of a plant.
A curve, an open figure, reminds me of rainbows.
An iceberg is a large mass of ice that came apart from a glacier and floated out to sea.
Lines of longitude, not latitude, run from north to south but measure east and west.
Oral history, not textbooks, enables you to hear people talking about past events they experienced.
Consumers, people who buy goods and services, purchase them for their own or their family’s use.
Emma wanted a bike she saw at a yard sale, but she had no money! She bartered with the owners and
walked their dog every day for a week in exchange for the bike.
The postal service collects and delivers mail all across the country.
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LIST 102. SYNTAX AND COMPREHENSION
Knowledge of syntax and the workings of our language is a powerful comprehension tool. But not all
students recognize just how useful this is in a learning situation. Use this story and list of questions
to demonstrate the impact on comprehension of word order in sentences; noun, adjective, and adverb
markers; verb forms; plural spellings; and punctuation. These syntactical features of language help us see
connections and make associations even when we have limited knowledge of a new subject. It is important
also for students to recognize the need to ask for help if they encounter passages in texts that seem to have
many unfamiliar words.
For a long time, Haro, the nimp fizbin, was the only fizbin in the zot. Every midsee, he would
cond and ren, cond and ren, cond and ren. Then one midsee, Haro was zommed! There, in the
middle of the parmon, was the nimpest fizbin and she was conding and renning just like Haro.
Haro was so arky! He dagged up to the nimpest fizbin and chared. Soon Haro and the nimpest
fizbin, Bindy, were ponted. Then every midsee, they conded and renned abatly in the parmon
of the zot.
1. Who was Haro?
2. What did he do every midsee?
3. How do you think Haro felt in the beginning of the story? Why?
4. What words helped show his feelings?
5. Where was Bindy when Haro first saw her?
6. What was she doing?
7. How did Haro act when he saw her?
8. How do you think Haro felt at the end of the story? What changed his feelings?
9. How are Haro and Bindy the same?
10. How are they different?
11. List four things that a fizbin can do.
12. Which is larger, the zoyt or the parmon?
13. Add a new sentence to tell what happened later.
14. Rewrite the story, and substitute real words for these:
fizbin
zommed
midsee
arky
cond
abatly
ren
zot
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LIST 103. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
Questions help focus student thinking and enable teachers to assess whether students are moving toward
success in a particular learning goal or reading standard. For a long time, teachers asked questions dealing
with mostly lower-order thinking skills—those that required students to simply recall facts and details.
Teachers now focus on higher-order thinking (also referred to as HOTS) in nearly all lessons, including
instruction in subjects other than language arts.
This list provides examples of question types that address key cognitive skills required by the Common
Core and other rigorous language art standards. They are based on the story of Cinderella but can be
adapted for any text.
Vocabulary
Question to help students understand the precise meaning of a particular word. For example: What does
the word jealous mean? What did the stepsisters do that showed they were jealous?
Question to help students understand multiple meanings of words. For example: What does ball mean in
this story? It says: “At last the day came and the sisters, dressed in their finery, went to court.” What does
court mean in this story?
Question to help students understand figurative language. For example: What does it mean when it says:
Soon after she married Cinderella’s father, the step-mother showed her true colors?
Question to help students understand technical language. For example: What part of a house is the garret?
Question to help students understand words used in the text in terms of their own lives. For example: Have
you ever known someone who was jealous? Have you ever been jealous? Why?
Determining central theme
Question to help students focus on main idea or theme: For example: What is the story of Cinderella
mainly about? What other title(s) could be used for this story?
Point of view
Question to help students recognize point of view. For example: Who is telling the story, a narrator or one
of the characters? How can you tell?
Citing evidence
Question to help students draw on evidence to support their conclusions. For example: What evidence did
you find in the story that Cinderella was treated badly by her stepmother and stepsisters?
Word choice
Question to help students see how words contribute to meaning or tone. For example: What are some of
the words and phrases the author uses to create the feeling that the prince was falling in love with
Cinderella at the ball?
Pronoun referents
Question to help students understand what or who some pronouns refer to and how to figure them out.
For example: In the second sentence of the third paragraph, who does she refer to? How do you know?
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Use of illustration
Question how the illustrations help the reader understand new words in a story. For example: In the story
it says the fairy godmother changed six mice into the finest horses and six lizards into the finest footmen.
Can you use the illustration to figure out what a footman is? What is it?
Causal relations: direct and inferred
Question to help students recognize causal relations stated directly in the text. For example: Why were
Cinderella’s stepsisters jealous of Cinderella?
Question to help students infer causal relations not directly stated in the text. For example: Why did the
stepmother give Cinderella extra work to do on the day of the ball?
Sequence
Question to help students understand that the sequence of some things is unchangeable. For example:
What steps did the Fairy Godmother follow in order to make a coach for Cinderella? Could the order of
these steps be changed? Why or why not?
Question to help students understand that the sequence of some things is changeable. For example: What
chores did Cinderella do on the day of the ball? Could she have done some of them in a different order?
Why or why not?
Comparison
Question to encourage students to compare things within the text. For example: How did the behavior of
the stepsisters differ from the behavior of Cinderella?
Question to encourage students to compare elements of the story with elements of other stories. For
example: In what ways are the stories of Cinderella and Snow White similar? In what ways are they
different?
Question to encourage students to compare elements of the story with their own experiences. For example:
If you were in Cinderella’s place, how would you have acted toward your stepsisters? Is this similar or
different from the way Cinderella acted?
Inference
Question to help students use their prior knowledge and schemata to make inferences. For example: What
were Cinderella’s feelings when the clock struck twelve and she had to leave the ball?
Generalizing
Question to encourage students to generalize from one story to another. For example: Are most heroines of
fairy tales as kind as Cinderella? Give some examples to support your answer.
Question to encourage students to generalize from what they read to their own experiences. For example:
Can we say that most stepmothers are mean to their stepchildren? Why or why not?
Predicting outcomes
Question to encourage students to think ahead to what may happen in the future and make a prediction.
For example: After Cinderella’s beautiful dress changes back to rags, what do you think happens?
Summarizing
Question to help students summarize or restate the important points in their own words. For example:
Retell a short version of the story with just the most important parts.
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LIST 104. QUESTION STARTERS
FOR DISCUSSIONS
Discussion has been found to be one of the most effective techniques for improving comprehension.
Discussion questions help students focus attention on key information in the text, see connections, listen
to others’ interpretations of text, and put fleeting thoughts into words. Discussion also is an opportunity
for students to get feedback from the teacher and from peers. Many teachers try to frame questions in
a way to ensure they lead to higher-order thinking. One way to do this is to use verbs associated with
Bloom’s revised taxonomy.
Teachers find it very helpful to prepare questions for discussion in advance. Here are some question
starters that will guide your high-order thinking questions.
Remember
Use at least three adjectives to describe ______.
What happened after ____.
Describe the setting of the story _____.
Understand
What is the main idea of the story?
What is the moral of the story?
How would you read the parts of the story where the stepsisters are talking? Why?
Apply
If this story took place in 2020, what would be different?
What other outcomes to the story can you think of ?
If you could interview the main character, what questions would you ask?
Analyze
Rank these characters on the spectrum from good to evil.
What factors lead to this outcome?
Why did the process fail?
Evaluate
What are the pros and cons of the proposed policy for the employees and for the owner of the company?
How would you determine which was a better choice?
What data would you need to make an informed decision about this?
Create
Imagine a ____ of the future. What new features would it have and why?
What new uses can you think of for _______?
Propose a law that addresses the problem we are discussing.
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LIST 105. PROVERBS
Proverbs are common, wise, or thoughtful sayings that are short and often applicable to different situations.
What we think of as American proverbs are really an amalgam of sayings brought from every corner of
the world and handed down in families and neighborhoods, from the ancient Chinese A picture is worth a
thousand words to the colonial American A stitch in time saves nine. Speakers of other languages often report
a version of a proverb in their home languages. (See List 184, Dichos—Spanish Proverbs, for proverbs that
have their roots in Spanish.) You’ll find some proverbs seem to contradict others, as in Haste makes waste
and He who hesitates is lost. One or the other is surely good advice, depending on the circumstance!
Proverbs make excellent prompts for writing assignments or to launch a good discussion about a moral
or perspective. Proverbs can also spur some creative writing, but don’t be surprised if the result is humorous.
For example, one teacher gave the first part of a proverb and asked students to tell the ending. The teacher
reported that her first grader completed A penny saved is … with not much! You and your students might
enjoy adding to this collection.
Relationships
A false friend and a shadow stay only while the sun shines.
A false friend is worse than an open enemy.
A friend in need is a friend indeed.
Absence makes the heart grow fonder.
All’s fair in love and war.
A friend who shares is a friend who cares.
A good neighbor, a found treasure!
A man is judged by the company he keeps.
A merry companion is music on a journey.
Better to have loved and lost than never to have loved at all.
Blood is thicker than water.
Familiarity breeds contempt.
Good fences make good neighbors.
If you can’t beat them, join them.
Like father, like son.
Love will find a way.
Marry in haste, repent at leisure.
Misery loves company.
Short visits make long friends.
Action and determination
A faint heart never won a fair lady.
A good deed is never wasted.
A little too late is much too late.
A quitter never wins and a winner never quits.
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A rolling stone gathers no moss.
A stitch in time saves nine.
Actions speak louder than words.
All things come to those who wait.
Don’t put off for tomorrow what you can do today.
He or she who hesitates is lost.
He or she who sits on the fence is easily blown off.
If you can’t stand the heat, get out of the kitchen.
If you want something done, ask a busy person.
Leave no stone unturned.
Lost time is never found.
Make hay while the sun shines.
Never put off ‘til tomorrow what you can do today.
No pain, no gain.
Nothing ventured, nothing gained.
Of all the sad words of tongue or pen, the saddest ones, “It might have been.”
Sometimes you have to run just to stay in place.
Strike while the iron is hot.
When the going gets tough, the tough get going.
Where there’s a will, there’s a way.
Caution
Better safe than sorry.
Don’t cross the bridge until you come to it.
Forewarned is forearmed.
Haste makes waste.
Learn to walk before you run.
Look before you leap.
Waste not, want not.
Encouragement
Every cloud has a silver lining.
Every path has a puddle.
Every slip is not a fall.
He who rides slowly gets just as far, only it takes longer.
If at first you don’t succeed, try, try again.
If you come to the end of your rope—tie a knot in it and hang on.
The darkest hour is just before the dawn.
The first step is always the hardest.
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Appearances
Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.
Beauty is only skin deep.
Clothes do not make the man.
Every mother’s child is handsome.
Love is blind.
The beard does not make the philosopher.
The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence.
You can’t tell a book by its cover.
Good deeds
Charity begins at home.
Civility costs nothing.
Do right and fear no one.
Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.
Give credit where credit is due.
Great oaks from little acorns grow.
One good turn deserves another.
To err is human; to forgive, divine.
Two wrongs don’t make a right.
Words
A picture is worth a thousand words.
A soft answer turneth away wrath.
A tongue is worth little without a brain.
A word of praise is equal to ointment on a sore.
A word spoken is not an action done.
Ask a silly question and you get a silly answer.
Ask no question and hear no lies.
Bad news travels fast.
Brevity is the soul of wit.
Sticks and stones may break my bones but names can never hurt me.
Still waters run deep.
The pen is mightier than the sword.
The squeaky wheel gets the grease.
There’s many a slip between cup and lip.
Animals
A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
A leopard cannot change its spots.
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Birds of a feather flock together.
Curiosity killed the cat.
Don’t change horses in midstream.
Don’t count your chickens before they’re hatched.
It is better to have a hen tomorrow than an egg today.
Let sleeping dogs lie.
One camel doesn’t make fun of another camel’s hump.
The early bird catches the worm.
When the cat’s away, the mice will play.
You can lead a horse to water but you can’t make it drink.
You can’t teach an old dog new tricks.
Money and wealth
A fool and his money are soon parted.
A penny saved is a penny earned.
All that glitters is not gold.
Better a dollar earned than ten inherited.
Better to heaven in rags than to hell in embroidery.
Don’t put all your eggs in one basket.
Early to bed, early to rise makes a man or woman healthy, wealthy, and wise.
Fortune and misfortune are next-door neighbors.
He or she who pays the piper calls the tune.
It takes pennies to make dollars.
Lend your money and lose your friend.
Money burns a hole in your pocket.
The second million is always easier than the first.
They who dance must pay the fiddler.
Time is money.
You reap what you sow.
Food
A tree is known by its fruit, not by its leaves.
An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
Don’t cry over spilt milk.
Don’t bite the hand that feeds you.
Don’t count your chickens before they’re hatched.
Every pea helps to fill the pod.
God gives food but does not cook it.
Half a loaf is better than none.
He or she who would eat the fruit must climb the tree.
Honey catches more flies than vinegar.
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The apple never falls far from the tree.
The proof of the pudding is in the eating.
There’s no such thing as a free lunch.
Too many cooks spoil the broth.
Too many square meals make too many round people.
You can’t have your cake and eat it too.
Miscellaneous
A bad broom leaves a dirty room.
A chain is as strong as its weakest link.
A clean conscience makes a soft pillow.
A good beginning makes a good ending.
A house divided cannot stand.
A hovel on the rock is better than a palace on the sand.
A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.
A man is not better than his conversation.
A person who gets all wrapped up in himself makes a mighty small package.
A rising tide lifts all boats.
A watched pot never boils.
Adversity makes strange bedfellows.
All good things come to an end.
An idle brain is the devil’s workshop.
Beggars can’t be choosers.
Better late than never.
Better safe than sorry.
Charity begins at home.
Confession is good for the soul.
Different strokes for different folks.
Do as I say, not as I do.
Don’t judge a man until you’ve walked in his boots.
Don’t put the cart before the horse.
Everybody’s business is nobody’s business.
Fact is stranger than fiction.
Fool me once, shame on you. Fool me twice, shame on me.
Good things come in small packages.
He who holds the ladder is as bad as the thief.
He or she gives twice who gives quickly.
He or she who lives by the sword, dies by the sword.
Hindsight is better than foresight.
If you’re not part of the solution, you’re part of the problem.
In unity there is strength.
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It is better to bend than break.
It is nice to be important, but it is more important to be nice.
It never rains but it pours.
Living in worry invites death in a hurry.
Make the house clean enough to be healthy and dirty enough to be happy.
Necessity is the mother of invention.
No news is good news.
Obstinacy is the strength of the weak.
Old habits die hard.
One can learn even from an enemy.
One good turn deserves another.
People who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones.
Pleasant hours fly fast.
The best things in life are free.
The road to hell is paved with good intentions.
The stable wears out a horse more than a road.
Variety is the spice of life.
You’re never too old to learn.
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LIST 106. GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS
The term graphic organizer refers to a visual display that organizes and shows the relationships among
facts, concepts, ideas, or other types of information. Graphic organizers (GOs) have been used for a long
time to support student learning. One of the most common, the Venn diagram, has been in use since 1881.
The following lists outline the benefits of using graphic organizers, enumerate attributes of effective graphic
organizers, and provide some tips for using graphic organizers. These lists are followed by an exemplar list
of commonly used graphic organizers.
Graphic organizers can help your students by doing the following:
• Organizing complex information in simple arrays
• Showing relationships or associations among entities
• Showing characteristics or attributes for more than one thing
• Focusing attention on key elements in text
• Guiding thinking as the organizer is completed
• Enabling students to see ideas and relationships while thinking
• Involving more than one modality in the process of learning and understanding
• Painting a big picture of the problem or field
• Clarifying information by considering relationships (Main idea–detail, order, sequence, part-whole,
associated attributes, etc.)
• Communicating complex information or processes simply
• Highlighting types of data that are missing or incomplete
• Supporting students as they work through complex processes (experiments, story grammars,
developing arguments, problem solving, decision making, comparing and contrasting multiple
concepts, evaluating outcomes, etc.)
• Organizing information for presentation orally or in written form
Effective Graphic Organizers
• Use simple and uncluttered design
• Are chosen specifically for the type of information and relationships
• Portray information clearly and unambiguously
• Use visual features (color, fonts, scale, etc.) to support organization and information
• Reflect the level of sophistication of students and topics
Tips for Teaching with GOs
• Identify types for specific purposes (comparison, traits, sequence, story, grammar) and use consistently.
• Model how to use each type of GO as you introduce it.
• Assign pairs or small groups to work on a GO together.
• Integrate into teaching—select and use specific types before, during, and after reading.
• Use consistent and grade-appropriate labels for parts.
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Types of Graphic Organizers
Spider Map
Spider Map
Spider maps are often used to show key ideas and details.
For example, it could be used to describe a place (geographic
region), a process (meiosis), a concept (altruism), or a proposition (children should be vaccinated).
Some questions to use:
Detail
What is the main idea, concept, or theme?
Topic
What are its important attributes or arguments?
Concept
Theme
What are its important functions?
Flow Chart or Chain of Events
Flow charts or chain of events are used to describe
and show the stages of something (the life cycle of
a butterfly), the steps in a procedure (how a bill
becomes a law), a sequence of events (how the invention of the movable type printing press led to the
Renaissance), or the chronology of major events in
in the life of a person, institution, or political entity.
Key questions to use:
Initiating Event
Event 1
Bomb exploded
Event 2
What was the initiating or first event?
What steps, stages, or events followed?
Final Outcome
How did earlier steps, stages, or events lead to later
ones?
Event 3
Many saved
What was the final outcome?
1950
1960
1970
1980
Born
Moved to N.Y.
Low
Mild
1
2
3
4
5
1990
Wrote book
High
6
7
8
9
Time Line or Continuum
A time line is used to show chronological or time
order. It uses a variety of time scales from nanoseconds to millennia or even light years. Its related continuum graph shows amounts, degrees, or ratings (few
to many, least to most, 1 to 5, preschool to college,
etc.).
Units or scales are important for conveying information accurately.
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Types of Graphic Organizers (Continued)
Spider Map
Compare-and-Contrast Matrix
Attribute 1
Friendliness
Attribute 2
Dependability
Attribute 3
Initiative
Maria
Liked
everybody
Always on
time
Self-starter
Sally
Liked
few people
Frequently
late
Waits to be
told
A compare-and-contrast matrix uses a table to array
the attributes of two or more things. Typically the
attributes are listed down the first column and the
items being compared are listed in the first row.
Question to use:
What are the important attributes of interest?
Semantic Feature Analysis Matrix
A semantic feature analysis matrix is used to show
the presence or absence of a list of traits or attributes
for a number of samples. In the example at left, the
first column shows different samples of pets, and the
potential features for pets are arrayed across the top
of the grid. These matrices are often used in science
and social studies content.
A plus sign (+) indicates that the sample has the
attribute or feature and a minus sign (-) indicates the
sample does not have the feature or attribute.
Structured Overview
A structured overview organizes information about
components of a larger unit. For example, many
social studies texts use a structured overview to
show the powers of the three branches of the US
federal government.
When provided to students before a reading assignment, structured overviews guide students’ attention and note taking and make it easy to keep
information linked to the appropriate component.
Scaffold students by filling in the main category and
subcategories.
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Types of Graphic Organizers (Continued)
Spider Map
Venn Diagram
Venn diagrams are used to compare and contrast two
or more things by showing the traits they have in common and the traits they have uniquely.
Venn diagrams are used frequently in math, set theory,
logic, social sciences, science, and philosophy.
Fishbone or Cause-and-Effect Diagram
Fishbone diagrams are used to show actions or circumstances that contribute to a result. Once major
causes are listed, each can be explored more deeply
so a greater understanding can be achieved.
To use a fishbone diagram in planning, begin with
the end result and then work back through the
major steps and the details of those steps.
Cycle
Cycle Diagram
Cycle diagrams are used to depict a repetitive set of
steps in which the last step leads again to the first step
in an unending sequence.
1
4
2
3
Many concepts in the natural sciences can be represented using cycle diagrams including the water cycle
and life cycle.
It is customary to represent the major stages of a cycle
in a clockwise sequence.
Semantic Map
A semantic map is often used to help students
learn and remember the meaning of key vocabulary
words. The target word is placed in the center of the
map and groups of related words and phrases are
connected to it. For example, if the target word is in
the center, a list of synonyms is placed in the upper
right corner, a list of antonyms is placed in the upper
left corner, the dictionary definition is placed in the
lower left corner, and a sentence using the target
word is placed in the lower right corner.
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Semantic Map
Word
Types of Graphic Organizers (Continued)
Spider Map
Network Diagram
Network diagrams help visualize how different
parts of a system are related to one another and how
information or effect is passed up, down, or even
across elements in the system. They also help solve
problems by locating where on a path a link is missing or aligned incorrectly.
A related graphic organizer is the tree diagram,
which is used to show family relationships and
other hierarchical situations. Tree diagrams, usually
arrayed horizontally, are also used to show all possible outcomes of experiments in probability.
Problem-Solution Diagram
The problem-solution diagram is used to identify
the problem or conflict in a story, list the possible
or attempted solutions and their outcomes, and discuss the final results or resolution to the problem.
It is also used to track the outcomes of various
experimental efforts to solve a problem.
Problem
Solutions
1
Outcomes
1
2
2
3
3
Results
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LIST 107. PROBLEM-SOLVING GUIDE
John Dewey said, A problem well put is half-solved. Indeed, stating the problem in your own words is one
of the most often suggested first steps. Using combinations from this three-step guide will help students
solve most problems. Remember, if you immediately know the answer to a question, it wasn’t a problem.
Problems require creativity and perseverance.
1. Understand the problem.
• State the problem in your own words.
• Visualize the problem.
• Act out the problem.
• Draw a diagram, flowchart, or picture of the problem.
• Make a table, Venn diagram, or graph of the problem.
• Look for patterns in the problem.
• Compare it with another problem you have solved.
• List everything you know about it.
• Think about its parts, one at a time.
2. Propose and try solutions.
• Use logical reasoning.
• Brainstorm alternatives.
• Write an equation.
• Choose an operation and work it through.
• Estimate and check the results.
• Work backward from the product or result.
• Link a solution to each part of the problem.
• Solve problems within the problem.
• Evaluate and sort the information you have.
• Organize the information in a grid or matrix.
• Eliminate solutions that don’t work.
• Solve a simpler version of the problem first.
3. Check the results.
• Fill in an information matrix.
• Redo the computation with a calculator.
• Create a flowchart or visual of the answer.
• Dramatize the result.
• Compare the results with the estimates made earlier.
• Use the results on a trial basis.
• Monitor the effects of the results over time.
• Check the answer with a reference source.
• Have another team or the teacher critique the result.
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LIST 108. PARAGRAPH AND TEXT ORGANIZATION
Fiction has a simple literary structure. A story has characters, a setting, and a plot or sequence of events
in which a problem is solved. Stories have a beginning where all the parts are introduced, a middle where
tension builds, and an ending during which the problems are resolved. Children listening to stories read
aloud are able to pick out these elements with just a little help.
Text organization or structure in nonfiction is more complex. Text organization refers to the way information is arranged and depends on the type of information the author is presenting. As students read
informational texts they need to know and be able to recognize the common patterns authors use to organize and present ideas. And, as students write they need to understand which organizational patterns will
best support their communication goals. These expectations are included in the Common Core State Standards for both reading and writing beginning in grade 4. In primary grades, students focus on more visual
organizational helpers, such as headings, sidebars, and illustrations.
Knowing how information is organized enables the reader to keep track of ideas, see relationships
among them, anticipate what will come next, and make sense of the ideas as they are read. In other words,
understanding text structure helps students construct meaning from print.
An author may use more than one text structure in a chapter, depending on what the material is
about. For example, a chapter in a history text may begin with a description, then a chronology of the
development of the location, and end with a comparison of this location with another. Authors use signal
words to help readers recognize the organization and direct their attention appropriately. (See List 144,
Signal and Transition Words.) This list includes the most frequently used organizational structures students
will encounter.
1. Description. Some nonfiction text are written to describe something or someone. In a descriptive
structure, the author provides the focal point—the person, event, idea, or thing of interest—and lists
its characteristics and features using sensory details to paint a picture in the mind of the reader. The
author includes facts that tell what it is, what it does, what it looks like. Many authors include a
definition, synonyms and antonyms, and examples including those framed as similes, metaphors, or
analogies to help the reader understand.
Some signals for description include for example, such as, characteristics, features, is described as,
like, similar to, for instance, to illustrate, and sense words.
2. Chronological order. The word chronological means “time order” and information presented in
chronological order is organized by when things happened. The when may be expressed as years,
dates, days of the week, or even hours. The important aspect is that the order matches the order in
which the events occurred. Occasionally, an author will present things in reverse chronological order,
for example, starting with this year and moving back in time. Topics in history or in the development
of something over time are usually presented in chronological order.
Some signals for chronological order include years, dates, days of the week, historic periods, and
words such as first, second, then, next, before, finally, after, during, and until.
3. Sequential order. Sequential order is similar to, but not the same as, chronological order. The
important difference is that sequential order shows the order of steps to a process but does not tie
them to a specific time or date. For example, directions for making muffins are in sequential order and
it doesn’t matter whether you bake them on Thursday, in February, or in 2019. The sequence is the
important thing. In addition being used for directions, sequential order can be used for most
processes, including how caterpillars become butterflies, bills become law, or teams qualify for
playoffs.
Some signals for sequential order include first, next, before, last, and then.
4. Compare and contrast. When the author wants to explore the ways two or more things are the same
and different, the compare-and-contrast structure is used. This is a useful pattern if the reader knows
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about one thing and is learning about the other. Using compare and contrast in a sense would be like
using synonyms and antonyms or analogies like this one. It is important for students to learn that
difference does not imply that one thing is better than another. A blue pen is not better or worse than
a green one.
Usually an author will tell the ways two things are the same and then tell how they differ. If only
similarities are discussed, it is called a comparison; if only differences are discussed it is called a
contrast. Authors may also use a table with the features of the two things being compared side-by-side
or a Venn diagram as a text support for comparisons and contrasts.
Some signals for compare and contrast include like, such as, unlike, both, also, neither, different,
similarly, and on the other hand.
5. Cause and effect. Authors of informational texts often describe events (effects) and tell why (causes)
they happened. The cause-effect relationship can be tricky for students because of its inherent
chronological aspect: causes occur before their effects but not everything that happens before
contributes to the outcome, results, or effect. Another aspect of cause and effect that can be
problematic is that there is not always a one-to-one correspondence. Things happen as a result of
multiple contributing factors. Cause-and-effect text can be written describing the cause first and then
the effect or describing an event and then telling how it came to be. The cause-and-effect organization
is often found in history, economics, and science texts.
Some signals for cause and effect include cause, effect, reason, outcome, result, happened,
contributing factor, factors, explained by, lead to, because, since, affected, and due to.
6. Problem and solution. When authors use the problem-and-solution structure they introduce and
describe a problem or negative situation and then present one or more solutions that the author
argues can, should, or may be used to address the problem. In describing the problem, facts and
unmet needs are often included. These form criteria for judging the merit of the solution or solutions
posed. The problem and solution structure is often found in texts about social studies, politics,
science, and engineering topics.
Some signals for the problem-and-solution structure include situation, problem, issue, solution,
remedy, idea, proposal, resolution, cost, benefits, one thought, and result.
7. Order of importance. Some topics are best discussed according to the order of importance or
hierarchy to which they belong. A hierarchy, such as a government or company, is a system or
arrangement of levels with one level being above or superior to another and other levels being below
or inferior. In a company, for example, the president or owner is at the top level, with managers on the
level below, followed by workers on the next level down. When using this structure, the author may
begin at the bottom level of the organization and work up or begin at the top and work down. An
organization chart or tree diagram is often used to support this type of text. Order of importance
structures are often used in business, civics, economics, and natural sciences.
Some signals of an order of importance structure are hierarchy, organization, level, category,
subcategory, class, ranking, command, executive, managerial, branch, families, and species.
8. Advantage and disadvantage. An author will use the advantage-disadvantage structure to evaluate one
thing against a set of criteria. The author generally begins with a description of a need including
attributes or criteria desired to fill the need. Then the author introduces a proposed answer or
solution to the need and considers it relative to the criteria with the matches counted as advantages
and the nonmatches counted as disadvantages. This differs from problem solution in that
advantage-disadvantage usually has a neutral perspective whereas a problem solution is more
argumentative or persuasive in its presentation.
Some signals of advantage-disadvantage include advantage, disadvantage, plus, negative, and on
the other hand.
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9. Spatial organization. Authors use spatial organization when the location of one element in relation
to another element is important. Spatial organization is often used to orient a visitor to a space, to
describe natural phenomena where they are found, or to give detailed descriptions. For example, text
describing the geology of the earth will often use spatial organization and begin the description with
the earth’s outermost crust, then proceed inward to the mantle, then outer core, and finally the
inner core.
Some signals of spatial organization include above, below, on top, at the bottom, to the north,
beneath, next to, across from, behind, and near.
10. List. A simple and often used text structure is the list. Authors use the list to organize numerous items
in a category to make the information more accessible. Lists are often alphabetized or numbered
to speed location of a particular item on the list or lists may group items into categories and
subcategories. Directories, menus, Q&A, FAQs, fact sheets, and dashboards are some common
examples of the list organization.
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LIST 109. CHARACTER TRAITS
Even before students learn to read independently, we talk with them about the characters they meet in a
wide range of stories. We probe why a character acted in a certain way. We ask students to predict behavior
based on what they know about a character. These forward inferences may combine text-based or readerbased knowledge. We also ask students to use evidence from a character’s actions in the story to describe
the character’s personality traits. These discussions begin early. By grade 3, students are expected to identify
and describe a character’s actions, thoughts, and motivations.
To support this goal, direct instruction on character traits is necessary. Begin with the definition: Character traits are the patterns of behavior and attitudes that make up someone’s personality. They stay with the
person and influence what they do, say, and think. Provide examples of traits and ask students what a person
with x trait is likely to do in a specific circumstance. Next, brainstorm words that describe different traits
or personalities. An effective Q&A strategy for young students is to ask questions such as, Would a messy
person have a very neat closet? Would a greedy person offer to share his or her games? Would you expect a
punctual or tardy student to be late?
Provide students with a graphic organizer to note the page number and specific words in a story that
describe the character or show actions that suggest the character’s traits. Older students can read on their
own and keep a log of the evidence. Brainstormed lists of traits make excellent word walls that can also
support character development in writing. Here is a list of character traits, personality traits, and behavior
characteristics to get you started.
Primary
absent-minded
adventurous
affectionate
afraid
alert
amusing
angry
annoyed
anxious
attentive
babyish
bad
bashful
bored
boyish
brainy
brave
bright
brilliant
busy
calm
capable
careful
caring
childish
clever
clumsy
competitive
confused
considerate
cooperative
courageous
crafty
cross
cruel
curious
cute
dainty
dependable
dishonest
disobedient
disrespectful
disruptive
dreamy
eager
excited
expert
fair
fearful
fearless
finicky
flexible
forgetful
friendly
frightened
funny
fussy
liar
loud
lovable
lucky
generous
gentle
good
grateful
greedy
grouchy
grumpy
guilty
naughty
neat
nice
noisy
happy
healthy
helpful
honest
hopeful
jealous
jolly
messy
obedient
organized
picky
playful
pleasant
polite
popular
predictable
punctual
kind
quick
quiet
quirky
lazy
leader
reasonable
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sad
satisfied
scholarly
selfish
serious
sharing
shy
silly
sloppy
sly
smart
sneaky
spoiled
stern
strict
strong
sweet
talented
thoughtful
thoughtless
tidy
trustworthy
truthful
understanding
unfriendly
unhappy
unkind
unpredictable
unreliable
unselfish
wicked
wise
wishful
worried
Elementary
able
abrupt
active
adaptable
admirable
aggressive
agreeable
airy
ambitious
appreciative
bizarre
blue
boastful
bold
businesslike
carefree
careless
cautious
challenging
charming
cheerful
cold
colorful
competent
complex
conceited
concerned
confident
confidential
courteous
cowardly
crazy
creative
criminal
crisp
critical
dangerous
daring
dark
delicate
demanding
destructive
difficult
dignified
diligent
disagreeable
discouraged
distractible
dull
educated
efficient
embarrassed
energetic
evil
excitable
exciting
experimental
extraordinary
extreme
faithful
false
fighter
firm
focused
foolish
forgiving
fresh
genuine
giving
gloomy
glum
graceful
grand
heroic
high-spirited
humorous
hurried
imaginative
immaculate
immature
impatient
impolite
inconsiderate
independent
industrious
informed
innovative
inventive
jovial
kindly
knowledgeable
light
lively
lonely
loving
loyal
mature
mischievous
moody
mysterious
perfectionist
persistent
persuasive
pleasing
positive
practical
private
proud
relaxed
responsible
ridiculous
romantic
rough
rowdy
rude
self-confident
simple
sincere
skillful
smooth
soft
spunky
stiff
stingy
strange
studious
stupid
thankful
thorough
troublesome
trusting
ungrateful
unhurried
unpatriotic
useful
warm
weak
wild
nagging
nervous
youthful
observant
odd
orderly
ordinary
Intermediate and
Advanced
patient
peaceful
abrasive
accessible
affable
affected
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agonizing
aimless
aloof
amiable
amoral
animated
anticipative
apathetic
apologetic
arbitrary
argumentative
arrogant
artful
articulate
artificial
ascetic
asocial
aspiring
assertive
astigmatic
austere
authoritarian
awkward
balanced
barbaric
benevolent
bewildered
bland
blasé
blunt
boisterous
boorish
bossy
breezy
brittle
brutal
brutish
calculating
callous
candid
cantankerous
captivating
casual
caustic
cerebral
changeable
charismatic
charmless
chummy
circumspect
civilized
clear-headed
coarse
cold-hearted
colorless
committed
communicative
compassionate
complacent
compulsive
conciliatory
condemnatory
conformist
conscientious
conservative
consistent
constant
contemplative
contented
contradictory
conventional
crass
crude
cultured
cunning
cynical
dauntless
debonair
decadent
deceitful
decent
deceptive
decisive
dedicated
deep
deferential
dependent
depressed
desiccated
desperate
despondent
determined
devious
devoted
directed
disaffected
discerning
disciplined
disconcerting
discontented
discouraging
discourteous
discreet
disillusioned
disloyal
dismayed
disorderly
disorganized
disparaging
disputatious
dissatisfied
dissolute
dissonant
distressed
disturbing
dogmatic
dominating
domineering
doubtful
dramatic
driving
droll
dry
dutiful
dynamic
earnest
earthy
easygoing
ebullient
effervescent
egocentric
elegant
eloquent
emotional
empathetic
encouraging
enervated
enigmatic
enthusiastic
envious
equable
erratic
escapist
esthetic
ethical
exacting
excessive
expedient
extravagant
exuberant
facetious
faithless
familial
fanatical
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fanciful
farsighted
fatalistic
fawning
feisty
ferocious
fickle
fierce
fiery
fixed
flamboyant
folksy
forceful
formal
forthright
fortunate
frank
fraudulent
freethinking
freewheeling
frightening
frivolous
frugal
frustrated
fun-loving
furious
gallant
garrulous
giddy
glamorous
good-natured
graceless
gracious
gregarious
grim
guileless
gullible
hardworking
hardy
harried
harsh
hateful
haughty
hearty
hedonistic
hesitant
hidebound
high-handed
high-minded
homebody
honorable
hopeless
hospitable
hostile
hot-tempered
humble
hypnotic
invulnerable
irascible
irrational
irreligious
irresponsible
irreverent
irritable
iconoclastic
idealistic
idiosyncratic
ignorant
imitative
immobile
impartial
impassive
impersonal
impractical
impressionable
impressive
imprudent
impudent
impulsive
inactive
incisive
inconsistent
incorruptible
incurious
indecisive
indiscriminate
individualistic
indolent
indulgent
inefficient
inert
inhibited
inimitable
innocent
inoffensive
insecure
insensitive
insightful
insincere
insipid
insistent
insolent
insouciant
intelligent
intense
intolerant
intrepid
intuitive
invisible
joyful
keen
lackadaisical
languid
left-brained
leisurely
liberal
libidinous
licentious
light-hearted
limited
logical
loquacious
lyrical
magnanimous
malicious
manly
mannered
mannerly
many-sided
masculine
maternal
mawkish
mealy-mouthed
mean
mechanical
meddlesome
meek
melancholic
mellow
merciful
meretricious
methodical
meticulous
miserable
miserly
misguided
moderate
modern
modest
money-minded
monstrous
moralistic
morbid
muddle-headed
multi-leveled
murderous
mystical
naive
narcissistic
narrow
narrow-minded
negativistic
neglectful
negligent
neurotic
neutral
nihilistic
noncommittal
noncompetitive
objective
obliging
obnoxious
obsessive
obvious
offhand
old-fashioned
one-dimensional
one-sided
open
opinionated
opportunistic
oppressed
optimistic
original
outrageous
outspoken
painstaking
paranoid
passionate
passive
paternalistic
patriotic
pedantic
perceptive
perseverant
personable
perverse
pessimistic
petty
phlegmatic
physical
pitiful
placid
planful
plodding
polished
political
pompous
possessive
power-hungry
precise
predatory
prejudiced
preoccupied
presumptuous
pretentious
prim
primitive
principled
procrastinating
profligate
profound
progressive
proper
protean
protective
providential
provocative
prudent
psychotic
pugnacious
puritanical
purposeful
quarrelsome
questioning
quick-tempered
rational
rawboned
reactionary
reactive
realistic
reckless
reflective
regimental
regretful
reliable
religious
repentant
repressed
repugnant
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repulsive
resentful
reserved
resourceful
respectful
responsive
restless
restrained
retiring
reverential
rigid
risk-taking
ritualistic
ruined
rustic
ruthless
sadistic
sage
sanctimonious
sarcastic
scared
scheming
scornful
scrupulous
secretive
secure
sedentary
self-centered
self-conscious
self-critical
self-denying
self-indulgent
selfless
self-reliant
self-sufficient
sensitive
sensual
sentimental
seraphic
sexy
shallow
sharp
sharp-witted
shiftless
shortsighted
shrewd
simple-minded
single-minded
skeptical
sober
sociable
softheaded
soft-hearted
solid
solitary
sophisticated
sordid
spendthrift
spontaneous
sporting
stable
steadfast
steady
steely
sterile
stoic
strong-willed
stubborn
stylish
suave
subjective
submissive
subtle
superficial
superstitious
supportive
surprising
suspicious
sympathetic
systematic
tactful
tactless
talkative
tasteful
tasteless
temperate
tense
thievish
thrifty
thrilled
timid
tireless
tolerant
touchy
tough
tractable
transparent
treacherous
trendy
unaggressive
unambitious
unappreciative
uncaring
unceremonious
unchanging
uncharitable
uncomplaining
unconcerned
unconvincing
uncooperative
uncoordinated
uncreative
uncritical
unctuous
undemanding
undependable
undisciplined
undogmatic
unfathomable
unforgiving
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unimaginative
unimpressive
uninhibited
unlovable
unmerciful
unpolished
unprincipled
unrealistic
unreflective
unreligious
unrestrained
unsentimental
unstable
unsuitable
upright
urbane
vacuous
vague
venal
venomous
venturesome
vindictive
violent
virtuous
vivacious
vulnerable
weak-willed
well-bred
well-meaning
well-read
well-rounded
whimsical
willful
winning
wishy-washy
withdrawn
witty
zany
LIST 110. TONE AND MOOD WORDS
Writers use tone and mood to connect their listening and reading audiences to the story, poem, play, or
other work. These two elements of writer’s craft are related but are not the same. Both use word choice to
create their desired effects. Tone is the author’s attitude about the subject, the characters, or the audience.
Is the author excited? Indifferent? Annoyed? Tone can be positive, neutral, or negative. In addition to
vocabulary, the setting, dialogue style, and other details can also convey tone. Mood is the overall emotion
or feeling created in the audience by the author. The author uses descriptive words, setting, and images to
create a mood. Does the writing make you happy? Sad? Hopeful? Edgy?
Recognizing tone and mood can aid the discovery of themes in literature. We appreciate writers’ talent
by the way they create tone and mood and change the mood with plot twists or character behavior. The
following lists show words that describe tone and mood. Look for these words and other context clues
as evidence of the author’s tone and the mood of the writing in stories, poems, plays, speeches, films, and
songs. Some words appear on both lists because they can convey an author’s attitude as well as create that
feeling in the audience.
Positive Tone
Words
admiring
adoring
affectionate
amused
appreciative
approving
awed
bemused
benevolent
celebratory
cheerful
comforting
comic
compassionate
complimentary
conciliatory
concurrence
confident
content
delighted
dreamy
ebullient
ecstatic
effusive
elated
empathetic
encouraging
enthusiastic
euphoric
excited
exhilarated
expectant
fervent
festive
friendly
funny
gleeful
gushy
happy
hilarious
hopeful
humorous
imploring
innocent
inspired
interested
jovial
joyful
laudatory
light
lively
lyrical
mirthful
motivated
mysterious
nostalgic
optimistic
passionate
playful
poignant
proud
reassuring
relieved
respectful
reverent
romantic
sanguine
satisfied
self-assured
sentimental
silly
sprightly
suspenseful
sympathetic
tasteful
tender
tranquil
whimsical
wistful
witty
worshipful
zealous
Neutral Tone
Words
aloof
ambiguous
ambivalent
appraisal
blunt
bookish
calm
casual
clear
contemplative
deliberate
detached
detailed
didactic
direct
distant
earnest
educational
equivocal
formal
forthright
impartial
indifferent
indirect
informal
instructive
introspective
ironic
journalistic
learned
matter-of-fact
meditative
moderate
modest
multifaceted
neutral
nonchalant
objective
pedagogical
pensive
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placid
profound
prosaic
passionate
questioning
relaxed
reflective
resigned
scholarly
serious
speculative
straightforward
tempered
unambiguous
uncertain
somber
unconcerned
understated
Negative Tone
Words
accusatory
acerbic
admonition
angry
annoyed
antagonistic
antiquated
anxious
apathetic
apprehensive
arbitrary
arrogant
belligerent
bewildered
biased
biting
bitter
bittersweet
bleak
bossy
callous
caustic
choleric
conceited
concession
condescending
confrontational
confused
conjecture
contemptuous
conventional
convoluted
critical
curt
cynical
defiant
depressed
derisive
derogatory
desolate
despairing
desperate
diabolic
disappointed
disdainful
disliking
disrespectful
distasteful
doubtful
eccentric
eclectic
eerie
embarrassed
enraged
evasive
facetious
fatalistic
fearful
flippant
foggy
foreboding
frantic
frightened
frivolous
frustrated
furious
glib
gloomy
gory
greedy
grim
harsh
haughty
haunting
heretical
holier-than-thou
hopeless
horror
hostile
idiosyncratic
impatient
impetuous
impulsive
incredulous
indignant
inflammatory
insecure
insensitive
insolent
irate
irreverent
judgmental
lethargic
malicious
melancholy
mischievous
miserable
misgiving
mocking
morose
mournful
nervous
obsequious
ominous
outraged
paranoid
pathetic
patronizing
perplexing
pessimistic
petulant
polished
pompous
preachy
pretentious
psychotic
quizzical
resilient
reticent
reverent
ribald
ridiculing
sad
sarcastic
satirical
scornful
sinister
skeptical
slick
sly
stern
stinging
stolid
stressful
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strident
sullen
superficial
surly
suspicious
tense
tentative
threatening
timid
tongue-in-cheek
tragic
trepidation
underhanded
uneasy
unfriendly
uninvolved
unsubstantiated
unsure
unsympathetic
upset
vindictive
violent
warning
wicked
Positive Mood
Words
amused
awed
calm
cheerful
confident
contemplative
content
determined
dignified
dreamy
ecstatic
empowered
energetic
enlightened
enthralled
excited
exhilarated
fanciful
flirty
giddy
grateful
happy
harmonious
hopeful
idyllic
joyful
jubilant
liberating
light-hearted
loving
mellow
mysterious
nostalgic
optimistic
passionate
peaceful
playful
pleased
refreshed
rejuvenated
relaxed
relieved
romantic
satiated
satisfied
sentimental
surprised
suspenseful
sympathetic
thankful
thoughtful
touched
trustful
vivacious
warm
welcoming
Negative Mood
Words
aggravated
angry
annoyed
anxious
apathetic
apprehensive
bored
brooding
confined
confused
cranky
crushed
cynical
depressed
desolate
disappointed
distressed
drained
dreary
enraged
envious
excited
exhausted
fatalistic
foreboding
frightening
frustrated
futile
gloomy
grumpy
guilty
haunting
heartbroken
hopeless
hostile
infuriated
insidious
intimidated
irate
irritated
jealous
lethargic
lonely
melancholic
moody
morose
mournful
mysterious
nauseated
nervous
nightmarish
numb
offended
optimistic
overwhelmed
pained
passionate
pensive
pessimistic
predatory
rejected
restless
sad
scared
sick
skeptical
sorrowful
stressed
surprised
suspenseful
tense
terrifying
threatened
uncertain
uncomfortable
unhappy
vengeful
violent
vulnerable
worried
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LIST 111. POINT OF VIEW
Point of view in literature is part of writer’s craft. It affects the unfolding of a story and the way characters
and events are described. It does this through the narrator’s perspective. Beginning in grade 1, we draw
students’ attention to who is telling the story and ask whether one of the characters is narrating the story or
whether the narrator is someone outside the story. This is the fundamental issue in point of view because it
controls what the narrator knows and sees and, therefore, what the narrator can tell the reader or listener.
Later, as students learn to analyze text and appreciate writer’s craft, we expect them to identify how an
author develops point of view, contrasts the perspectives of the different characters, and uses point of view
to create effects such as suspense or humor. In the elementary grades discussions of point of view are usually
limited to first- and third-person because they are the most often used.
When teaching students how to use point of view in their writing, these points are key:
1. Determining which point of view to use will control what your character(s) are able to know in the
story.
2. Once you’ve adopted a point of view, be consistent. It is jarring when characters know something that
it is impossible for them to know.
3. Use description of characters’ facial expressions, body language, actions, clothing, and speech to let
the readers know things about them.
4. Stay in character. Everything the narrator says should reflect the personality, age, culture, and
background you establish.
5. Different points of view create feelings of distance or intimacy. Which is appropriate to your story?
6. Practice changing a story from first to third or third to first helps students experience the difference
point of view makes.
Use this information on the three points of view to introduce or review how to identify the point of
view and how each shape the development of the story and the reader’s experience of it.
Terms to Know
Narrator—Who is telling the story?
Characters—Who is in the story?
Narrator’s position—Is the narrator inside the story, as one of the characters, or outside and just watching
as the story happens?
Narrator’s perspective—What can the narrator know, see, and tell about based on his or her position?
First-Person Point of View
• Narrator inside the story
• One of the characters
• Can speak only of what is experienced through the narrator’s five senses
• Uses the words I, we, my, mine, our, me, us
• Vivid, intimate, reader friendly; reader feels like a BFF of character
• Can create a character with attitude, one who sees things through a particular filter or personality trait
• Gives the readers a deep look at the inner feelings of one character as events unfold
• Creates a vicarious experience for reader
• Gives the writer the opportunity to live through something as another person
• Provides a personal narrative
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• Presents a subjective or personal perspective, not a neutral one
• Makes the reader feel personally involved, as though present in the story
• Used most often in short stories, young adult fiction, adventure, romance
Example: I didn’t know what to do. We had to leave before we were discovered. I picked up my hat and
the rest of our gear and said, “Follow me!”
Third-Person Point of View
• Narrator outside the story
• Storyteller or narrator observing what is happening in the story
• Seems as though the narrator is following one of the characters and therefore sees and knows more
from one character’s experiences than the others
• Can speak of only what is visible through actions or the words of the characters
• Uses the words he, she, it, his, him, her, they, them
• Refers to characters by name
• Uses dialogue and description to express the thoughts and feelings of the characters
• Presents an objective perspective, not an emotional one
• Most common point of view used
Example: Gloria waited until Jim was seated at the table before she gave him the present.
Smiling broadly, she passed the small box to him saying, “I’ve been waiting for this for a long time.” The
others already knew what was in the box. They had helped pick it out.
Second-Person Point of View
• Tells the story as though it was about the reader
• Uses the words you, your, yours
• Can grab the reader’s attention immediately
• Is used for limited purposes, such as directions, travel or advertising descriptions, self-help, video games
Examples: You peek at the alarm clock and pop open your eyes—you can’t believe it’s 10 o’clock! Heart
pounding, you launch yourself from the bed and heading to the door, you realize it’s Saturday!
Opening the balcony doors, you step out onto a tiled floor. There, from your tenth floor terrace, you
see the wonders of Paris spread out before you.
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LIST 112. LANGUAGE REGISTERS
From an early age children observe and imitate patterns of speech they hear at home, at school, and at
the playground. The use of different levels of formality and vocabulary in specific settings is one of those
patterns. Children can easily pick from a list of possibilities in which they might hear someone say, “Please,
stop talking,” or “Shut up, will ya?” In the same way that students understand that synonyms may have
the same literal meaning but are used in different circumstances, they learn that there are different ways to
say or write something and the choice depends on the situation. Language teachers and experts generally
use the terms introduced more than fifty years ago by Martin Joos to describe the five recognized levels or
styles called registers.
Language arts standards in many states expect students in grade 2 to notice differences between formal
and informal language. In grade 4, they are expected to differentiate between contexts that call for formal
English and those where informal language is acceptable. By grade 5, students consider the variety of forms
of English including dialects, regional expressions, and registers through their exploration of literature
as well as their instruction in writing and language. Rigorous standards for students’ use of academic
vocabulary and development of strong oral and written communication skills make instruction in language
registers an important part of the language arts curriculum. The following lists will help.
Definition of Language Register
A language register is the style or level of a language used in accord with or depending on the audience,
topic, and purpose of the communication.
The Five Registers
Languages have five registers and customs or conventions for using each. Some languages, such as Spanish,
also have different word forms for more formal or familiar communications.
Frozen
Frozen language is set and unchanging over time. It is often memorized and recited
with a specific rhythm and tone quality. For example, when groups of people recite
the Pledge of Allegiance, not only do they use the exact same words but also they
use the same patterns of phrasing and pauses.
Other examples of frozen language: poems, prayers, lyrics to songs, the Gettysburg
Address, laws, historic speeches, oaths of office, oath in court to tell the truth, and
marriage ceremonies
Formal
Carefully prepared statements. Formal communication is one-way from the speaker to
the audience without interruptions, comments, or questions. The speaker or writer
uses impersonal, precise, carefully chosen words and may use technical terms.
Formal language often uses a set format called a template or boilerplate.
Examples of formal language: speeches, sermons, formal invitations, announcements,
legal notices and contracts, some presentations, and policy statements
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Consultative
Consultative language is used in business and professional communication and
between individuals when they are not on the same social or professional level, as in
the conversation between lawyers and clients or teachers and students. In the
consultative register, the speaker does not assume that the audience has all the prior
knowledge or vocabulary knowledge needed for understanding and will explain key
terms as he or she speaks. Consultative language is two way. The speaker monitors
the expressions and body language of the audience and adjusts the content to
facilitate understanding. The audience may use verbal and visual cues such as
“uh-huh” and nodding to indicate that the message is being received. Audience
members may politely interrupt by raising their hands or otherwise signaling that
they have a question or comment.
Other examples of consultative language: conversation between doctor and patient,
counselor and client, boss and worker, expert and beginner, interviewer and interviewee,
mentor and mentee, senior colleague and junior colleague, and many presentations
Casual
The casual register of language is used for conversation among equals and with friends
and peers. It is informal, and slang, jargon, and colloquialisms are common. Casual
language is sometimes called group language because it uses shared knowledge and
insider terms and references. Explanatory information is rarely needed or given
because of the group’s common social context. Speakers may break off what they
are saying with a phrase such as, “Well, you know what I mean … ” or use a hand or
facial gesture to convey the idea of and so on. Interruptions are common and are
often viewed as complementary rather than disruptive. It is also used for first drafts
that are intended to capture one’s thoughts and not meant to be shared with others.
Other examples: online chats, IMs, e-mail, blog posts, and notes to friends
Intimate
The intimate language register is used only between close family members, siblings,
parents and children, husbands and wives, best friends, and romantic partners.
Intimate language is private. It uses facial expression, body language and intonation
to convey thoughts and often includes or uses words, real or created, to send
messages with meaning only recognized by the sender and receiver.
Other examples: secrets, codes, twin language, and double entendres
Using language registers
• Speaking or writing in the wrong register for the situation is not a good idea. It suggests the speaker or
writer is uninformed or uneducated. The upper two levels are clearly public voices; the lowest two levels
are private voices. If you are not sure which to use, consultative or formal is best. If you use a level
above what is called for, you may be thought of as stuffy, aloof, or stiff. If you use a level that is below
what is called for, you may be thought of as disrespectful, rude, or mocking.
• Students’ writing tends to reflect the casual register they use to speak to friends and family. Instruction
on registers can move their academic writing and presentations to the more appropriate consultative
level.
• Textbooks and standardized exams are written in consultative and formal registers. Both require
Standard American English competence. It is important for students to not only recognize these
language styles but also be able to fluently communicate in them.
• Older students, thinking about employment opportunities, need to consider that the language on the
job will require them to communicate in registers that may not be part of their language habits.
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Preparing for this change also means preparing to answer questions in an interview and preparing a
résumé or responding to a job interview.
• Students learning English may have developed most of their vocabulary in conversation in social
settings with peers or family members. They may not be aware of the differences among words with
similar denotations but very different connotations. When working with vocabulary development with
ELLs include explanations of the context in which words are used, especially if there are hidden or
culturally sensitive implications.
• Using different registers not only changes the tone and vocabulary used but also often changes what is
included in the communication. Exercises in which students work out how a similar or related
discussion would unfold with different audiences. For example, students can role-play these three
contexts: (1) Dave asks Samantha to go with him to meet a rock star at the airport; (2) Dave asks
Samantha’s parents if she could go with him to meet the rock star at the airport; (3) Dave asks the
police officer if he can enter the airport terminal with Samantha to meet the rock star. Hint: In addition
to tone, each scenario will require emphasis on different facts.
• The register is often determined by the content and purpose of the communication, then by the
location and audience. For example, a proposal of marriage would be between two very close and
romantically involved people, but a formal tone is called for, not an informal, casual, or intimate one.
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LIST 113. PERSUASIVE TECHNIQUES
Learning about writer’s craft, we also learn that writers can be crafty! The techniques described in the
following list are often used in advertising and political campaigning to create a desired impression or to
move the audience to action. Teach your students to be critical readers and listeners by being alert to these
attempts to mold their choices and viewpoints. Viewed negatively, they are used for propaganda; viewed
positively they are persuasive devices.
Bandwagon. Using the argument that because everyone is doing it, you should, too. Last year thirty million
winners switched to AIR-POPS athletic shoes. Isn’t it time you did, too?
Card stacking. Telling only one side of the story as though there is no opposing view. This tape is especially
designed to give the best audio playback money can buy. (No mention is made that the tape wears out
very quickly and is expensive.)
Exigency. Creating the impression that your action is required immediately or your opportunity will be
lost forever. Saturday and Sunday only! It’s your last chance to get a really great deal on Camp jeans.
Flag waving. Connecting the person, product, or cause with patriotism. Drink foreign beer? Never! I drink
Bot Beer—American all the way.
Glittering generality. Using positive or idealistic words based on a detail or minor attribute to create an
association in the reader’s mind between the person or object and something that is good, valued, and
desired. Ron’s been on the varsity team for all four years—you couldn’t find a better team player or a
more sportsmanlike young man.
Innuendo. Causing the audience to become wary or suspicious of the product, person, or cause by hinting
that negative information may be kept secret. Other products claim they can handle the big, grimy,
once-a-year cleaning jobs like a garage floor. Think what they will do to the no-wax finish on your kitchen
floor where your baby plays.
Name calling. Using negative or derogatory words to create an association in the reader’s mind between
the person or object and something that is bad, feared, or distasteful. Do you really want a mob-linked
mayor?
Overpowering. Saying something LOUD or repeatedly, over and over, and over, and over again. Using
large or BOLD TYPE.
Plain folks. Using a person who represents the typical target of the ad to communicate to the audience
that because we are alike and I would use, buy, believe this, you should, too. If you’re a sinus sufferer
like I am, take extra-strength Azap. It helps me. It’ll help you, too.
Pleasant images. Showing a smiling pretty girl, beautiful landscape, or a cute puppy and talking about or
showing the product to associate a sense of peace, calm, and innocence with the product.
Prestige identification. Showing a well-known person with the object, person, or cause being advertised to
create the impression of importance or prestige of the object, person, or cause. The celebrity does not
have to say anything to endorse the product; just being pictured together creates the association. We
treat our hotel guests like stars (the ad shows a celebrity walking into the hotel).
Red herring. Highlighting a minor detail as a way to draw attention away from more important details or
issues. The XT399—the only sports car available in 32 “eye-catching” colors.
Snob appeal. Associating the product, person, or cause with successful, wealthy, admired people to give
the audience the idea that if they buy or support the same things, they will also be one of the in-crowd.
There really isn’t a better racket (man in tennis clothes holding a racket in front of a very elegant
country club building).
Testimonial. Using the testimony or statement of someone to persuade you to think or act as he or she
does. I’m a doctor, and this is what I take when I have a headache.
Transfer. Linking a known personal goal or ideal with a product or cause in order to transfer the
audience’s positive feelings to the product or cause. Buy Pino in the biodegradable box and help end
water pollution.
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LIST 114. LITERARY TERMS
Every area of knowledge, literature included, has its own specialized vocabulary. Knowing the following
terms and their meanings will help students recognize the use of these elements in literature. These terms
are basic to discussions about an author’s craft or skilled use of language and about the works of literature.
Many refer to techniques or devices students need to practice to improve and add interest to their writing.
Accented. A part of a word, phrase, or sentence spoken with greater force or a stronger tone
Act. Part or section of a play, similar to a book chapter; acts are usually made up of groups of scenes
Allegory. Links the objects, characters, and events of a story with meanings beyond the literal meaning of
the story
Alliteration. Occurs when two or more words have the same beginning sound. Example: Mike mixed some
malt in his milk.
Allusion. A reference to something well known outside the literary work. Example: A catch-22 is a circular
outcome in which the first thing causes the second, which causes the first. It refers to a Joseph Heller
novel of the same name in which the protagonist pretends to be crazy to avoid a dangerous mission
but only a sane man would try to avoid the dangerous mission.
Anachronism. Something or someone that is not in its correct place in time, especially something that
belongs to an earlier era
Anadiplosis. The use of the ending word of a phrase or clause as the beginning or base word for the next
one. Example: Pleasure might cause her to read, reading might cause her to know, knowledge might win
piety, and piety might grace obtain.
Analysis. Occurs when we look at and try to understand the parts of something so that we can better
understand the whole thing
Antagonist. Character in a story who is the source of the conflict
Antithesis. Contrasting words or ideas by asserting something and then denying by parallel or balanced
phrases. Example: This soup should be eaten cold, not hot.
Apophasis. A positive statement made by a negation. Example: I will not bring up my opponent’s ignorance
of the fact that …
Aside. A short speech or explanation directed at the audience during a play as though the actors on the
stage weren’t aware or couldn’t hear what was being said
Assonance. Occurs when an internal vowel sound is repeated in two or more words. Example: He feeds the
deer.
Author’s purpose. Authors write for four main purposes: to entertain, inform, express opinions, and
persuade.
Ballad. A long poem that tells a story; ballads usually have strong rhythm and rhyme
Biography. Gives a factual account of someone’s life. If the writer tells of his or her own life, it is called an
autobiography. If the writer tells of only a specific period in his life it is called a memoir.
Cast of characters. List of names of all the characters in a play
Cause and effect. Sometimes an event or circumstance makes another event or circumstance happen. The
first one is called the cause or reason for the second one. The second one is called the effect or result.
Characterization. The way the author develops the personalities of the characters
Characters. People or animals in a story or other writing
Chiasmus. Change of word order to get the reader’s attention and to highlight something. Example: Down
he fell.
Chronological order. The telling of a group of events in the time order in which they happened
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Cliché. An overused phrase. Examples: busy as a bee, gala occasion
Climax. The turning point in the story
Comparison. Points out the ways in which two or more things are alike or similar
Conclusions. A decision made after considering several pieces of information; the information may include
facts from the reading and ideas that the reader already had
Conflict. The problem the characters face in the plot; the conflict can be a problem between two characters
or between a character and something in nature or society; sometimes the conflict makes a character
choose between two important ideas
Connotative. A secondary, more nuanced, or more emotional meaning for a word. For example: a weed is
an undesirable plant.
Contrast. Points out the ways in which two or more things are different
Denotative. A factual, primary, or less emotional description or word. For example: a plant is a denotative
name for a weed. Botanists classify plants, gardeners pull out weeds.
Denouement. Synonym for resolution; the end of the story in which questions are answered and loose ends
are tied up
Description. A group of details the writer gives that helps the reader imagine a person, place, object, or
event; the details help create a picture in the reader’s mind
Dialogue. A conversation between characters in a story or play
Diction. The choice of words to create an effect
Drama. A story written to be acted out in front of an audience; another word for drama is play
Epic. A long, narrative poem about the deeds of a hero
Exposition. The essential background information provided by the author at the beginning of a work
Fact. A statement that can be proven
Fairy tale. An imaginary story about fairies, elves, magical deeds, giants, and so on
Falling action. The results or effects of the climax as it leads to the end of the story
Fantasy. A story that has imagined characters, settings, or other elements that could never really exist
Fiction. A form of literature that tells stories about characters, settings, and events that the writer invents;
may be based on some real places, people, or events, but it is not a true, factual story about them
Figurative language. Language that cannot be understood literally; similes, metaphors, hyperbole,
symbolism, and personification are all types of figurative language
Figure of speech. Words or phrases that have meaning different from the literal meaning, such as idioms,
metaphors, and similes. Example: It’s raining cats and dogs.
Flashback. The brief moving of the story back to an earlier event and time to provide clarity to the event
taking place now
Folk tale. A story about people or animals that has been handed down from one generation to the next;
often explains something that exists in nature or tells about a hero
Foreshadowing. A hint provided by the writer of something that will happen in the future
Form. The structure or arrangement of elements in literature. Example: The form of traditional poetry is
lines of poetry in groups called stanzas.
Generalization. A statement about a whole group that is made based on information about part of the
group
Genre. A category or type of writing, such as fiction and nonfiction, biography, adventure, and science
fiction
Historical fiction. Uses details about real places, events, and times from history as the setting for an
imagined story
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Hyperbole. An exaggeration. Example: He must have been nine feet tall.
Idiom. An expression that cannot be understood from the literal meaning of its words. Example: Tom is
barking up the wrong tree.
Imagery. The author’s use of description and words to create vivid pictures or images in the reader’s mind.
Example: A blanket of soft snow covered the sleeping tractors.
Inference. A guess or conclusion based on known facts and hints or evidence; sometimes readers use
information from experience to help make inferences about what they are reading
Irony. The use of tone, exaggeration, or understatement to suggest the opposite of the literal meaning of
the words used. Example: I didn’t mind waiting two hours; it was restful.
Kenning. A short metaphor for a thing that is not actually named. Example: Sky candle is a kenning for the
word sun.
Litote. An understatement or assertion made by denying or negating its opposite. Example: He wasn’t
unhappy about winning the bet.
Main idea. The one idea that all the sentences in a paragraph tell about; sometimes the main idea is stated
in a topic sentence; sometimes it is not stated but is implied
Metaphor. The comparison of two things without using the words “like” or “as.” Example: Habits are first
cobwebs, then cables.
Abstract metaphor. Links an abstract concept with an object. Example: Death is the pits.
Animal metaphor. Associates the characteristics of an animal with human beings, animate or
inanimate objects, or abstractions. Example: What a teddy bear he is!
Animistic metaphor. Attributes life to inanimate objects. Example: The broom was a dancing machine.
Frozen metaphor. So frequently used that it has become an idiom or an expression with understood
but not literal meaning. Example: head of the class
Humanistic metaphor. Gives an inanimate object human qualities or humans inanimate qualities.
Example: a user-friendly computer, her porcelain skin
Inanimate metaphor. Pairs the quality of an inanimate object with another inanimate object. Example:
The walls were paper.
Incarnation metaphor. Links the attributes of a deceased person to another person or entity. Example:
He is a modern George Washington.
Sense metaphor. Relates one of the five senses to an object or situation. Example: a cool reception
Metonymy. The use of a related word in place of what is really being talked about. Example: pen instead of
writing
Mood. The sense or feeling created in the audience by the author’s use of word choice and setting
Moral. The lesson that a story or fable teaches; sometimes the moral of a fable is stated at the end of the
story
Motif. A recurring element contributing to the theme of a literary work
Motive. A reason a character does something
Narrative poetry. Poetry that tells a story
Narrator. The teller of a story
Nonfiction. Writing that tells about real people, places, and events
Novel. A long work of fiction
Ode. A poem written in praise of someone or something
Onomatopoeia. Words in which the sounds suggest the meaning of the words. Example: ouch
Opinion. A statement of someone’s idea or feelings; cannot be proven; can be based on facts
Oxymoron. The use of words with contradictory or clashing ideas next to one another. Example: free
slaves
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Personification. The linking of a human quality or ability to an animal, object, or idea. Example: The wind
whispered through the night.
Plot. Synonym for story line; the sequence of events that happen in order to solve the problem or conflict
in the story
Poetry. An expression of ideas or feeling in words; usually has form, rhythm, and rhyme
Point of view. Refers to how a story is narrated. If a story is narrated from the first-person point of view,
the narrator is a character in the story and uses the first-person pronouns I, me, mine, we, and our. A
story narrated from the second-person point of view will use the pronoun you. If the story is narrated
from the third-person point of view, the narrator is not part of the story and uses the third-person
pronouns he, him, she, her, and them. Examples: First: “I wonder if we should leave,” I said. Second:
You can hope for the best, but prepare for the worst. Third: He looked at them and smiled.
Predictions. The use of facts in the story and other information you know about the world to guess what
will happen
Resolution. Synonym for denouement; the end of the story in which questions are answered and loose ends
are tied up
Rhyme scheme. The pattern of rhyme of lines of poetry; usually designated by letters as in ABAB
Rhyme. Two or more words that have the same ending sound
Rhythm. A pattern of accented and unaccented syllables
Rising action. The development of the conflict and complications that build in the story
Science fiction. A type of story that is based on science-related ideas; some of the scientific “facts” and
developments in science fiction are not real and may never be possible
Sequence. The order in which events occur or ideas are presented
Setting. The time and place in which the story happens
Simile. A comparison of two things using the words like or as. Example: She felt as limp as a rag doll.
Soliloquy. A speech given by a character in a play when alone on stage that reveals the character’s thoughts
Solution. The turning point in a story line or plot; the part in which a decision or important discovery is
made or an important event happens that will solve the story’s problem or end the conflict; also called
the resolution or the climax of the plot
Speaker. In a poem, the person or thing who is speaking
Stage directions. What tells actors how to perform their parts of a play; describe movements, tone, prop
use, lighting, and other details
Stanza. A group of related lines in a poem that form a unit
Suspense. The state of curiosity and uncertainty in a work that creates tension, excitement, and
anticipation
Symbolism. The use of an object to represent something entirely different that is also much deeper and
more significant. Example: a dove is a symbol of peace
Theme. The underlying message about life or nature that the author wants the reader to get from the story,
play, or poem
Tone. The author’s attitude toward the subject of the work conveyed mainly through word choice and
setting
Topic sentence. A sentence, often at the beginning of a paragraph, that presents the main idea, theme,
mood, or summary
Tragedy. A poem, play, or other writing dealing with a serious theme in which a character is destined to
fail because of a flaw of character
Understatement. The opposite of exaggeration; presenting something as less than it really is
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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SECTION 8
Fluency
List 115. Fluency Elements
List 116. Sentence Tunes
List 117. Fluency and Punctuation
List 118. Fluency Teaching Methods
List 119. Oral Reading Activities
List 120. Optimal Oral Reading Rates
List 121. Oral Reading Fluency Rubric
F
or several decades the term reading fluency referenced readers’ ability to effortlessly or
automatically recognize words as they read and, thereby, free their minds to attend to
meaning. The term now includes considerations of prosody, or expression, as well as the speed
and accuracy of automaticity.
The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) conducted two studies of fourth
graders’ oral reading (1995, 2002). The rubric NAEP used for judging fluency focused on phrasing
or word grouping, preserving author’s syntax, and expressive interpretation. Speed and accuracy
were also assessed. Students whose fluency, speed, and accuracy were tested were also part of the
regular NAEP reading assessment. The findings from both studies, though not directly comparable, linked accuracy, speed, and fluency to one another and concluded that all three components
of oral reading were positively associated with comprehension. Students with higher ratings of
fluency had higher average reading proficiency; students with low ratings of fluency had lower
average reading proficiency.
The National Reading Panel’s Report (2000) helped shape the current understanding of fluency. It put emphasis on the meaning of automaticity as referring to the ability, after much
training, to process complex information with little effort. The panel’s review of related research
found many studies in which time spent reading correlated positively with reading outcomes. But
causation remains unclear. Did students become better readers because they read more or did
good readers read more because it was more pleasurable for them than for poor readers who
struggled?
The panel’s report did find support for direct fluency instruction that involved modeling,
choral reading, rereading, feedback, paired or partner reading, and performance reading. Instruction that included these features were found to help improve children’s reading through the elementary grades, with struggling students benefitting even beyond that level. More recent reviews
of research on fluency and reading have had similar findings.
Programs that encourage students to read, such as Sustained Silent Reading (SSR) or Drop
Everything and Read (DEAR), have broad support and are credited with improving students’
attitudes toward reading but not necessarily improving skills. Recent research suggests greater
gains in reading achievement from pairing more challenging reading material with direct instruction as previously outlined than on-their-own reading of texts below students’ instructional level.
Improving reading fluency continues to be a subject of interest and concern. Language arts
standards adopted by many states (Common Core State Standards) include it as a foundational
skill for grades K to 5. Under the heading fluency, the standards state the expectation that children
will orally read grade-level texts “with accuracy, appropriate rate, and expression on successive
readings” (NGO & CCSSO, 2010).
The section that follows includes lists that will help your students develop on-grade fluency.
The lists address the elements of fluency, the role of punctuation in fluent reading, examples of
the effect of prosody on meaning, and lists of oral reading activities and fluency instructional
methods.
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Chard, D., Vaughn, S., & Tyler, B. J. (2002). A synthesis of research on effective interventions for building reading
fluency with elementary students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36, 386–406.
Daane, M. C., Campbell, J. R., Grigg, W. S., Goodman, M. J., & Oranje, A. (2005). Fourth-grade students reading
aloud: NAEP 2002 special study of oral reading (NCES 2006–469). US Department of Education. Institute of
Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
International Reading Association and the National Council of Teachers of English. (1996). Standards for the English
language arts. Newark, DE: International Reading Association and National Council of Teachers of English.
Kuhn, M., & Rasinski, T. (2015). Best practices in fluency instruction. In L. B. Gambrell & L. M. Morrow (Eds.), Best
practices in literacy instruction (5th ed.). New York: The Guilford Press.
Miller, J., & Schwanenflugel, P. J. (2008). A longitudinal study of the development of reading prosody as a dimension
of oral reading fluency in early elementary school children. Reading Research Quarterly, 43, 336–354.
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers (NGA &
CCSSO). (2010). Common Core State Standards for English language arts and literacy in history/social studies,
science, and technical subjects. Washington, DC: Authors.
National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research
literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction (National Institute of Health Publication No.
00–4754). Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
Pikulski, J. J., & Chard, D. J. (2005). Fluency: Bridge between decoding and reading comprehension. The Reading
Teacher, 58, 510–519.
Rasinski, T. V. (2010). The fluent reader: Oral and silent reading strategies for building word recognition, fluency, and
comprehension (2nd ed.). New York: Scholastic.
White, S. (1995, August). Listening to children read aloud. (NCES 95-762) NAEPFacts, 1(1). US Department of
Education. Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC:
Government Printing Office.
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LIST 115. FLUENCY ELEMENTS
Fluency in reading usually refers to three qualities of oral reading: accuracy, rate, and prosody or expression. The three elements interact and complement one another. A serious deficiency in any one will have a
negative impact on the presence and effectiveness of the others. If reading is not accurate, the reader will
not be able to use appropriate expression. If the reader’s rate is too slow, the rhythm of sentence structure
will be missing. If the reading has no expression, the words will seem no different than a list of separate
ideas. This list helps to understand the characteristics of the elements that contribute to fluent oral reading.
Elements of Oral Reading Fluency
Accuracy
Accuracy in oral reading is expressed as the percentage of words in a text read
correctly. To calculate accuracy, count the number of errors made by the reader
while reading a sample of unfamiliar grade-level text. Subtract the number of
errors from the total number of words read (TWR) to get the number of correct
words read (CWR). Then, divide the CWR by the TWR and express the result as a
percentage.
Example
Todd reads a text passage of 200 words. He makes 22 errors. His CWR is calculated
as 200 – 22 = 178. The TWR is 200. Todd’s accuracy rate for this passage is
178/200 or .89 or 89%.
If a reader misreads a word and then immediately self-corrects, the word is not
counted as an error, but the self-correction is noted. Self-corrections show the
reader is paying attention to the meaning of the text and understood it well
enough to fix the error. If a reader has many errors and many self-corrections, it
may be that she or he is reading too fast.
Rate
The reader’s oral reading rate is expressed as the number of correct words read per
minute during oral reading. To calculate the oral reading rate, provide an
unfamiliar grade-level text and time the reader for three minutes. During the
reading, monitor the number of errors made. At the end of three minutes, have the
student stop. Then count the number of words read and the number of errors
made during the three minutes. Subtract the number of errors made from the total
words read to get the number of correct words read (CWR). Divide the CWR by 3
to get the reading rate as the number of correct words per minute (CWPM).
Example
Ellen, a second-grade student, is timed while reading an unfamiliar fable. After three
minutes she is told to stop. A count of the words read totals 351. She made 9
errors. The number of words read correctly was 342. Her oral reading rate is 342/3
or 114 (correct words per minute—CWPM).
As with accuracy, self-corrections are noted but not counted as errors.
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Elements of Oral Reading Fluency (Continued)
Prosody
Prosody refers to a number of linguistic features that help listeners interpret what they
are hearing. Even babies recognize difference in tones and react to soft low tones
differently than to loud high-pitched tones. Prosodic features express meaning,
attitude, and emotion beyond what is conveyed literally by the words used.
The main features of prosody are pitch (high or low), loudness (soft or loud voice),
rate (fast or slow), pause duration (short or long), and rhythm (patterns of stressed
and unstressed words). Together these features create the melody of language.
Speakers adjust their tone, rhythm, speed, pauses, and other linguistic features for
different purposes.
Some communication researchers think nonvocal features such as facial expressions
and gestures should be included when we think of prosody.
Examples of the Use of Prosodic Features of Oral Language
Breathiness
“I’m really sorry.” (emotional)
Clipped
Elongated
“I said, no. Now don’t bother me again.” (angry, impatient)
“No, I don’t think so; but, I could change my mind.” (hesitant, unsure)
Even pitch
High pitch
Huskiness
“Please say ‘yes’ or ‘no.’” (neutral, informative)
“Really? We’re going? I don’t know what to say.” (delight, excitement)
“He thinks he’s the only one who knows the answer.” (disparaging, mocking)
Lip rounding
Loud
“Good girl. Give that to mommy.” (talk to a baby or pet)
“No, I will not!” (definite, defiant)
Low pitch
Nasality
“No, not in this class.” (authoritative)
“No, that’s not my backpack.” (childish, anxious, with sarcasm)
Over articulation
Pause
“It cost four thousand dollars.” (exaggeration)
“No … why not?” (questioning)
Soft
Whisper
“I’m sorry. I didn’t know that.” (apologetic)
“Meet me by the oak tree.” (secretive)
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LIST 116. SENTENCE TUNES
Changing the way you say something really can change the meaning! Your students will enjoy playing
with this sentence and should be able to create their own multi-tuned sentences. The changes in meaning are because of shifts in inflection and stress. Besides being interesting, this example demonstrates the
importance of prosody to comprehension of reading. Although most discussions of prosody deal with oral
reading, its effect on silent reading should also be mentioned. If the reader is following the text, checking emphasis against context will be automatic. When a sentence is suddenly jarring, the cause could be
misplaced emphasis.
Directions: Read the following sentences, emphasizing or stressing the bold word to change the meaning of the sentence.
How It Is Said
What It Means
I did not say you stole my red hat.
Someone else said it.
I did not say you stole my red hat.
I did not say you stole my red hat.
Strong indignant denial of saying it
Strong denial of saying it
I did not say you stole my red hat.
I did not say you stole my red hat.
I implied it, but I didn’t say it.
I wasn’t talking about you.
I did not say you stole my red hat.
I did not say you stole my red hat.
I did not say you stole my red hat.
You did something else with it.
You stole someone else’s.
You stole one of another color.
I did not say you stole my red hat.
You stole something else that was red.
Try the same shifting of emphasis (words or phrases) with these sentences and discuss the results.
• Where were you?
• Tom didn’t push George first.
• What in the world are you doing?
• I didn’t tell Mom you spent the dollar.
• Ana didn’t lose the book.
• You weren’t asked to go to the store.
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LIST 117. FLUENCY AND PUNCTUATION
Many students think of punctuation only when they are writing. As readers, they may ignore the marks
and focus their attention solely on the words. As part of fluency development, students must learn that
punctuation shows, among other things, where a complete thought ends and where a list has been included.
When reading aloud, punctuation also helps communicate this information to the audience.
Punctuation is placed by the author to tell readers when to stop, pause, and show emotions. Consider, for example, your automatic response to the commas before and after the phrase for example in this
sentence. Did you notice your momentary pause as you got ready for the example? That is just one way
within-sentence punctuation guides understanding. Now, consider the difference end punctuation makes
here: I’m sorry you’re right versus I’m sorry. You’re right.
When planning for the school year, remember that September 24 is National Punctuation Day.
Help for Reading Punctuation Marks for Beginning Readers Grade K–3
.
The period is usually the first punctuation mark learned. It tells the reader and the audience that
the sentence and the thought are complete. We stop at the end of each sentence before we
begin a new thought.
?
The question mark shows that the sentence is complete and it is asking a question. When we ask
a question we make our voices go up at the end of the sentence, and we stop before we begin a
new thought.
!
An exclamation point shows we are excited about our thought. An exclamation mark tells us to
make our voices a bit louder to show the excitement. It also tells us to stop to show our
thought is complete.
“”
Quotation marks show the words that are said by characters in the text. When two people are
talking to one another, we can change our voice to show which one is speaking each sentence.
We can also change our voice to sound like the character. In the Red Riding Hood story, how
would the wolf sound? How would Grandmother sound?
,
The comma is an important inside punctuation mark. It lets the reader know there are things
that go together, such as word groups, lists, and your city and state. A comma shows were to
take a short pause.
Help for Reading Punctuation Marks for Readers Grade 4–8
“”
In addition to indicating dialogue, quotation marks are also call attention to a word, title, or
phrase. When we want to call attention to something we usually add more emphasis or
increase loudness. If the quotation marks are pointing to a title, we also stop at the end of the
title before beginning a new thought.
;
A semicolon is not used nearly as often as a comma or a period. It shows that the first part of the
sentence is closely connected to the next part. It tells the reader to pause before going on.
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Help for Reading Punctuation Marks for Readers Grade 4–8 (Continued)
()
Parentheses are stronger than commas, but like commas they are used to separate extra,
explanatory material from the rest of the sentence. Many writers use parentheses to include
the definition of a word, just in case the reader needs it.
When reading parentheses, pause as for a comma before and after the word or phrase inside
them. The words within the parentheses may also be read with a different tone than the rest of
the sentence to let the reader know it was extra information.
-
The hyphen between two words joins the words, making them a compound word. This
sometimes changes the meaning. Note the difference between “a man eating lobster” and “a
man-eating lobster.” The hyphen can decrease any pause of juncture between words.
—
An em-dash symbol is longer than a hyphen. It is sometimes used like parentheses to interrupt a
sentence with extra material.
Practice
Teachers and students enjoy the effects of manipulating punctuation for sentences like these:
• Please daddy
• Let’s eat grandpa
• Slow men at work
• Most of the time travelers worry about their luggage
• Other than that one thought he was not there
• Anne Boleyn kept her head up defiantly an hour after she was executed
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LIST 118. FLUENCY TEACHING METHODS
Fluent reading does not often develop on its own, although past professional belief suggested it evolved
simply from more reading. Recent reviews of research on ways to improve readers’ fluency say much about
the characteristics of best practice. The best methods of improving readers’ oral reading fluency involve
these practices:
1. Direct instruction. Indirect activities such as increased time reading is not enough.
2. Modeling fluent reading. Students need to understand what fluent reading is and how it sounds so they
can imitate fluent reading.
3. Working with challenging texts. Material that is easy to read may help students break habits of slow
reading, but text that is below instructional level does not move students’ reading skills forward.
4. Scaffolded learning. Students learn best when they are supported in their early attempts at new skills
and less supported as they demonstrate higher levels of performance of the target skill.
5. Repeated readings. Developing a new skill takes focused practice.
6. Authentic reading activities. Although work on subskills can draw attention to specific features of
fluency, they should be taught in relation to authentic texts that are meant to be read aloud. For
example, changes in voice appropriate to different characters in a play sets an excellent context for
introducing and practicing prosodic features before reading and rehearsing a play.
Here are some holistic and skill-specific teaching procedures that combine best practices:
Guided Oral Reading.
Day 1. Select instructional level or challenging but interesting text. Introduce new vocabulary in a
word study. Provide background and review relevant prior knowledge. Give students copies of the
text. Read aloud to students and have them follow along in their copies.
Day 2. Review vocabulary. Reread passages from the text and have students echo read imitating
phrasing and other prosodic features.
Day 3. Do a choral reading of text by teacher and students together. Discussion should focus on
comprehension.
Day 4. Partners should read alternating with a classmate and providing feedback followed by an
extension activity, such as journal entry, drawing, word web, or graphic organizer.
Day 5. Perform a round robin-choral reading in which a student is the lead for one paragraph of the
choral reading, followed by the next student, and so on until the text has been read completely.
Follow up with a general discussion of the content of the text and the meaning of the new
vocabulary.
Read-alouds. Model reading of on-grade or challenging texts that have dialogue, suspense, or other
content requiring prosodic reading. Discuss how changes in voice helped understanding and
engagement.
Repeated readings of short passages. Students choose from among on-grade short selections to improve
rate, accuracy, and prosody. Record first attempts and after three to five readings.
Readers’ theater. Provide scripts for students of familiar stories and have them rehearse for several days.
Give a presentation to another class at the end of the week or audio record the production and post
on the class web page.
Audiobooks. Allow students to listen to an audiobook on an informational topic.
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Sight word practice. Set up a small-group practice recognizing common words using prepared slide
presentation in word study center. (See List 28, High-Frequency Instant Words.)
Rapid reading. Provide worksheets of twenty to fifty words (grade dependent) from word families based on
phonics elements studied (primary grades) or root words (intermediate grades). Have students time
one another and track the number of words read correctly in one minute. (See List 24, Phonograms;
List 47, Greek and Latin Roots.)
Sentence tunes. Using List 116, Sentence Tunes, have students practice varying stress on each word to
change the meaning of the sentence.
Poetry slam. Have students select a poem to rehearse. Provide an audio recording of the poem being read
fluently and have students practice their reading during center time. At the end of a week or two,
schedule a poetry slam—modeled after an open mike event. Encourage enthusiastic applause for each
performance.
Punctuation. Direct teach use of punctuation as oral reading guidelines. Remove punctuation from short
easy-reading passages and have students re-punctuate the passage. Provide punctuation bank
(number of periods, question marks, exclamation marks, and commas that were removed). Have
students read their punctuated versions to one another and give feedback. For younger students,
begin by reading the passage aloud as it was originally punctuated.
At-home reading. After students have practiced reading a particular text at least three times in school,
assign rereading it at home to a sibling, parent, or other person. Some students might even read it over
the phone or video chat it to a parent who is away. The purpose is to practice the reading in a setting
that encourages self-confidence.
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LIST 119. ORAL READING ACTIVITIES
Every opportunity to read aloud is an opportunity to develop students’ reading fluency. Although direct
instruction focuses attention on new ideas and strategies related to fluency, knowing about it is not enough.
Readers must practice to develop strong fluency skills. Here are a several popular activities that you can
work into your reading curriculum.
Seasonal chorale. Select a group of poems and songs around a season, holiday, or remembrance well in
advance of the event and work with the class to prepare the works for presentation. The material
should be suitable for several formats of choral reading: call and response, stanza and refrain, girls’
voices only, boys’ voices only, choral reading by five to eight students, and choral reading by the entire
group. Pair the oral work with opportunities for the students to create art works as props or
backdrops for the presentation. Perform for another class. Videotape and post to class web page for
parents and others to view.
News announcer. Appoint a news announcer for the day or week who is charged with reading school
announcements, reminders, homework assignments, birthdays of the week, and other daily news. For
younger students, include the news announcer as part of the morning routine; for older students, use it
as a wrap-up of the day. Encourage students to add a bit of trivia, a joke, or a brainteaser to the
announcements to keep them lively.
Storytelling. Have students select a picture book, short story, or graphic novel and read it two or more
times to be sure they understand and can recall the main points and sequence. Next, have the students
outline the story on cue cards to support their recall. Students then practice telling their stories as a
storyteller would. Encourage older students to include sound effects, background music, different
stage voices, or other storytelling effects. Fables, myths, and short science fiction work well for this
engaging activity.
Radio program. A small group takes parts and reads a play or radio script into a tape recorder for class or
parent presentation.
Word wizards. Assign each student a new and interesting word and have him or her become a wizard for
the word. Wizards use online and print reference materials to learn their word’s pronunciation,
meaning, and use it in a sentence and teach their words to the class as part of whole-class language
arts instruction each day. Props such as a pointed wizard hat and wand are enjoyed by young children.
Tour guide. A different student is assigned as tour guide for each textbook used in the class. At the
beginning of the day’s section, the tour guide points out the section’s title, subheadings, key words,
side bars, illustrations, and so on. Tour guides need ample preparation time for it to become
meaningful to them and to their peers. This is a useful activity in social studies or science.
Sing a song. Provide written lyrics before beginning to sing and do multiple choral readings of the lyrics
before listening to the melody. Have students read the lyrics silently to the lyrics first, then begin
working with the lyrics and melody together. This works well for ELLs.
Dramatic reading. Select an interesting piece of literature with lots of dialogue and have students take
different parts in a dramatic rendition. The role of narrator can be divided into several parts to
include more students in the event.
Composition sharing. Choose a few students each week to read their edited writing aloud to the class. For
older students the reading might include a brief Q&A or comment period.
Transcript reading. Transcripts from many television and radio shows are archived and may be requested
or downloaded. To find a suitable transcript for your class, search a seasonal theme or current topic
through one of your library research databases such as LexisNexis, ProQuest, EBSCO, Gale, Factiva,
NewsBank, and Thompson Reuters or the television or radio station website, for example,
www.npr.org. Transcripts can be used for practicing fluent oral reading. Download the audio version
of the broadcast for students to listen to a professional rendition before practicing their own.
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Games. Many board games such as Trivial Pursuit require players to read a word, set of directions, or
questions aloud. Fast and accurate reading by players helps keep an exciting pace for all.
Stump speech. When studying persuasion and argument or as part of a social studies class, have students
write a speech in support or against an issue relevant to them as students or young persons. Listen to
recordings of politicians’ and others’ speeches and discuss prosodic features that stir up emotions,
suggest urgency, and so on. Rehearse with a peer-coach and give the speeches in class.
It’s always a funny day. Read aloud a joke or short humorous selection daily after lunch. Have students
practice delivering jokes and discuss the role of expression and timing in good joke telling.
Progress tracking. Evaluate reading rate and reading accuracy in September and help students set up their
own progress graphs for the school year. Retest speed and accuracy monthly and have the students
chart their progress.
Stage directions. Show students pages from the script of a play and discuss the role of a direction and stage
directions. Give groups of three to five students scripts from picture books and have them annotate
with stage directions. When done, have the groups trade scripts and act out the stories using the
directions. Special attention is given to the directions for delivery of the lines.
Rapid word wall. To increase the speed of sight reading key vocabulary, do a two- to three-minute speed
drill of words on the word wall. Begin by pointing to words left to right in a slow and steady rhythm
and incrementally speed up. Start at a different position each day. This is a good warm-up at the start
of the reading block.
Evidence rules. As part of all Q&A about text students read, have students read the part that tells a
particular fact; citing evidence for answers helps students practice oral reading with every content
subject, establishes evidence-based perspectives, and aids comprehension.
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LIST 120. OPTIMAL ORAL READING RATES
Accuracy and speed are two factors contributing to oral reading fluency and are considered together as
the number of words read correctly per minute (CWPM). If reading is fast and inaccurate, the purpose
of reading—gaining meaning from print—is thwarted. If reading is slow because of decoding or word
meaning issues, success is also blocked. Evaluating students’ oral reading rate to see if it is in the optimal
Goldilocks zone—not too fast and not too slow—is easily accomplished.
To determine a student’s oral reading rate, provide an unfamiliar grade-level text and time the student
reading aloud for three minutes. During the reading, monitor the number of errors made. At the end of
three minutes, have the student stop. Then count the number of words read and the number of errors made.
Subtract the number of errors made from the total words read to get the number of correct words read
(CWR). Divide the CWR by 3 to get the reading rate as the number of correct words per minute (CWPM).
If a student misreads a word and then immediately self-corrects, the word is not counted as an error.
Self-corrections show the reader is paying attention to the meaning of the text and understood it well
enough to fix the error. Too many errors and self-corrections may signal reading that is too fast.
EXAMPLE
John, a sixth-grade student, is timed while reading an unfamiliar article about life during colonial
times. After three minutes he is told to stop. A count of the words read totals 470. He made 12
errors. The number of words read correctly was 458. His oral reading rate is 458/3 or 153 CWPM
(correct words per minute). His oral reading rate is on target for his grade.
The following table lists the range of optimal oral reading rates for students in grades 1
through 8. By spring in the school year, most students should achieve a score in their grade
range. Students who score at or below the low end of the range may benefit from additional
evaluation to identify potential reasons.
Grade
Optimal Oral Reading
Rate(CWPM)
Grade
Optimal Oral Reading
Rate (CWPM)
1
43–111
5
129–194
2
3
79–142
97–162
6
7
140–200
140–200
4
113–180
8
141–200
Studies of adult language show that a range of 150 to 160 words per minute is a comfortable
listening and speaking rate and is used for setting the pace for audiobooks. In contrast, slide
presentations to audiences for instructional purposes tend to be closer to 100 to 125 words per
minute.
For additional information check these resources:
Hasbrouck, J., & Tindal, G. (2006). Oral reading fluency norms: A valuable assessment tool for reading
teachers. The Reading Teacher, 59(7), 636–644.
Williams, J. R. (1998). Guidelines for the use of multimedia in instruction. Proceedings of the Human Factors
and Ergonomics Society 42nd Annual Meeting, pp. 1447–1451.
Wong, L. (2014). Essential study skills. Boston: Cengage Learning.
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LIST 121. ORAL READING FLUENCY RUBRIC
Oral reading fluency is characterized by word accuracy, reasonable speed, expression appropriate to the
meaning of the text, phrasing that supports meaning, and punctuation heeded to preserve syntax. These
features can be applied to readers at all grades, recognizing that they are interpreted in the context of
the reader and text. Evaluation of fluency is often done in early fall and late spring of the school year.
A full-sized version of this form can be downloaded free of charge from the book’s website.
Name _________________________________________ Grade __________ Date _______________
Title of text ______________________________________________ Level of text _______________
Number of words read in passage __________ Percentage of words read accurately _____________
Number of words read per minute ________ Words correctly read per minute (CWPM)__________
1
2
3
4
Accuracy
≤80% words
accurate
81% to 90%
words
accurate
91% to 95%
words
accurate
96% to 100%
words
accurate
Reading Rate∗ Gr. 2
Speed Gr. 3
CWPM … Gr. 4
Gr. 5
Gr. 6
≤89
≤104
≤124
≤139
≤149
90–114
105–134
125–149
140–151
150–174
115–130
135–150
150–165
152–182
175–188
131–140+
151–160+
166–180+
183–195+
189–200+
Expression
(prosodic/voice)
Monotone;
no
expression
Attempts
expression
in places
Expressive/
prosodic in
most
places;
voice
supports
meaning
Expressive/
prosodic
throughout; voice
supports
meaning
Phrasing
Word by
word; no
phrasing
Mostly word
by word; a
few
phrases
Phrasing
supports
meaning;
choppy in
places
Phrasing
supports
meaning;
smooth;
conversational
Punctuation
Ignores punctuation
Responds to
some end
punctuation
Responds to
end and
some
withinsentence
punctuation
Responds to
all punctuation
consistently
Rating
∗ If reader is in grade 6 or higher, use reading rate for grade 6. Oral reading rate does not change significantly beyond grade 6.
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SECTION 9
Language
List 122. Common Features of Language
List 123. Parts of Speech
List 124. Key Verb Concepts
List 125. Common Verb Tenses
List 126. Irregular Verb Patterns
List 127. Basic Sentence Patterns
List 128. Capitalization Guidelines
List 129. Contractions
List 130. Punctuation Guidelines
R
esearch articles on the best practices for teaching language frequently begin by pointing
to dated studies that showed traditional grammar instruction was ineffective. The evidence
was convincing: language elements taught in isolation did not contribute to the broader goal of
improving students’ ability to communicate clearly and effectively in speech and writing. Consequently, many schools deemphasized language in their curricula and focused on increasing
opportunities for students to write across content areas.
The ability to communicate clearly, concisely, and effectively with multiple audiences and in
multiple formats requires student knowledge of the conventions of language, including grammar.
The imperative to address this is clearly stipulated in the Common Core State Standards for
language as well as for writing.
If traditional ways of teaching grammar and other aspects of language were not effective,
which methods are effective? Current research suggests some promising practices.
Saddler’s (2013) review highlights the strategy of sentence combining as a way for students
to engage in the mindful practice of manipulation of words, phrases, and clauses to form more
coherent and mature writing. Several other studies found sentence combining to be useful in
developing grammar and structure knowledge.
Researchers are looking for methods of teaching language skills that result in the application of language conventions in writing. Promising practices teach language elements as part
of focused mini-lessons, during revising and editing, in writing workshops, and simultaneously
with other authentic writing experiences. Chin (2000, p. 1) calls the use of student writing as the
springboard for teaching grammar “the most beneficial way” of helping students improve their
command of grammar.
The lists in this section provide resources for just-in-time skill building or review of key language elements. See lists in the spelling and writing sections for additional resources for teaching
English language conventions.
Bromley, K. (2015). Best practices in teaching writing. In L. B. Gambrell & L. M. Morrow (Eds.), Best practices in
literacy instruction (5th ed.). New York: The Guilford Press.
Chin, B. (2000). The role of grammar in improving student writing. Sadlier-Oxford 6–12, William H. Sadlier. Retrieved
from: www.sadlier-oxford.com/prof_development/paper_chin.cfm
Dunn, P., & Lindblom, K. (2003). Why revitalize grammar? English Journal, 92(3), 43–50. Retrieved from ERIC
EJ660679
Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in middle and high
schools; A report to Carnegie Corporation. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.
Hudson, R. (2001). Grammar teaching and writing skills: The research evidence. Syntax in the Schools, 17, 1–6.
Retrieved from www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/dick/writing.htm
Larsen-Freeman, D. (1997). Grammar and its teaching: Challenging the myths. Retrieved from
www.cal.org/content/search?SearchText=Larsen-Freemanteaching+grammar&SearchButton=Search&
SubTreeArray%5B%5D=63
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching
children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications
for reading instruction (NIH Publication No. 00–4769). Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
Saddler, B. (2013). Best practices in sentence construction skills. In S. Graham, C. MacArthur, & J. Fitzgerald (Eds.),
Best practices in writing instruction (2nd ed., pp. 238–256). New York: The Guilford Press.
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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LIST 122. COMMON FEATURES OF LANGUAGE
The word language refers to a complex and distinctly human phenomenon. Language is the system of words
we use to express thoughts and communicate with others. The word language also means the particular set
of sounds, words, and rules used by a specific community or group, for example, the English language, the
Polish language, the Italian language. Although we often refer to language as thoughts expressed in the form
of spoken or written words, a language can also express thoughts by signs and gestures, as in the American
Sign Language.
Linguists, those who study language, estimate there are more than 6,500 in the world today. However, more than 98 percent of the world’s population speak one of only 1,330 languages. The following list
describes ten features all spoken languages have in common.
Common Features of Language
• Separable. The individual sound units (phonemes) used in a language are different enough from one
another that they can be separated. That means the users of a language can tell one sound or phoneme
from another and can produce each separate sound.
• Arbitrary. There is no necessary, natural, or logical connection between the sound symbol (word) and
its meaning. Consider the word dog. There is nothing about the sound of the word that has any relation
to the animal itself. This is clear when we consider the canine animal English speakers call dog is called
le chien by speakers of French, Hund by speakers of German, kutya by speakers of Hungarian, and
perro by speakers of Spanish.
• Symbolic. Languages use one thing to represent another. The object or concept and the word used to
name it are separate. The word-symbol represents the reality, but it is not the reality itself.
• Semantic. A language links particular words (symbols) to particular meanings (concepts or objects).
These word-meaning links are shared by the speakers of the language; for example, the word beet refers
to the same root vegetable no matter who uses the word.
• Systematic. Languages build in a hierarchy from a single speech sound (phoneme) to sound with
meaning (morpheme), to words, to phrases, to sentences, and so on. There are rules that enable people
to put the pieces together in meaningful ways.
• Patterned. Users of a languages do not put its elements together randomly. Each language has
organized patterns or rules for combining its elements. For example, the sounds for the letters a, n, p,
and s can be used to form pans, naps, span, and anps (not an English word yet, but it could be).
However, the same letters cannot be combined as psna, nspa, or spna to form a pronounceable English
word. Similarly, different types of words can be arranged in some sequences but not others. For
example, we can say I am wearing slippers or Am I wearing slippers? but not Slippers am wearing I. The
rules for combining words into meaningful sentences are called a language’s syntax or grammar.
• Creative. A person can use the elements of a language (its sounds, meaningful word parts, and rules) to
create never-before-used sentences that another speaker of the language can understand. For example,
She found the soft, fat, blue plaid cat on the floor in the closet in Sally’s sister’s bedroom is a sentence
that likely has never been written or spoken before but can be understood by English speakers. This
creativity feature means we can produce limitless new words, phrases, and sentences and arrange them
to meet our communication needs.
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• Learned. A person needs to be exposed to a language in order to acquire and use it. A dog that does
not hear another dog bark will still bark. No exposure or learning is needed. By contrast, humans
are born with the physical and cognitive capabilities for learning any of the world’s spoken languages
but acquire their first language only in a sociocultural setting through interaction with experienced
users—members of their family.
• Unbound. Users of a language are not bound to time, place, reason, or reality. We can talk about events
in the present, the past, or the future. We can talk about things that are real or imagined, possible or
impossible, true or untrue, and in this or a distant place.
• Controlled. Users of a language control what they say. They can think about the words before they say
them. They can monitor what they are saying and alter the way they are saying it. A speaker can stop
speaking, even mid-word.
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LIST 123. PARTS OF SPEECH
Humans have been using spoken and written words for more than forty thousand years. As our ancestors’
language grew, patterns of word use evolved. Over time, language became more complex and the patterns
of use adjusted to aid the communication of more complex ideas. These patterns, called the grammar or
syntax of a language, guide the way different types of words can be arranged meaningfully.
English has eight different types of words that are called the parts of speech. This list describes each
part of speech and its use.
Noun
Examples
Proper noun
Examples
Common noun
Examples
Pronoun
Examples
Adjective
Examples
Article
Examples
Verb
Examples
Adverb
Examples
Conjunction
Examples
Preposition
Examples
Interjection
Examples
A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea. It can act or be acted on.
Marianne, bowlers, cousins, neighborhood, Baltimore, attic, Asia, Liberty International
Airport, Golden Gate Bridge, glove, class, triangle, goodness, strength, joy, perfection
A proper noun names a specific person, place, or thing. Proper nouns are capitalized
and usually do not have plural forms.
Gabriella, Toms River, Kleenex
A common noun is a nonspecific person, place, or thing. Unless it is at the beginning of
a sentence, a common noun is not capitalized.
teacher, girls, pets, book, movie, city, detergent
A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun.
he, you, they, them, it, her, our, your, its, their, anybody, both, nobody, someone, several,
himself, ourselves, themselves, yourself, itself, who, whom, which, what, whose
An adjective is a word that is used to describe or qualify a noun or pronoun. Adjectives
tell what kind, how many, or which one.
green, enormous, slinky, original, Italian, some, few, eleven, all, none, that, this, these,
those, third
An article is a special type of adjective that signals whether you are talking about a
specific or definite noun or making a general statement about a nonspecific noun.
The definite article the is used for specific nouns. The indefinite article an is used for
nonspecific nouns that begin with a vowel sound. The indefinite article a is used for
nonspecific nouns that begin with a consonant sound.
I want the red apple. I want an apple. I want a red apple.
A verb word that shows physical or mental action, being, or state of being. A verb tells
what the noun or pronoun is or is doing.
swayed, cowered, dance, study, hold, think, imagine, love, approve, considered, am, is,
was, were, has been, seems, appears, looks, feels, remains
An adverb is a word that is used to describe a verb. An adverb tells where, how, or
when. Adverbs can qualify any part of speech except a noun or pronoun. Adverbs
frequently end in -ly.
quietly, lovingly, skillfully, slyly, honestly, very, quite, extremely, too, moderately,
seldom, never, often, periodically, forever
A conjunction is a word that is used to join words or groups of words.
and, or, either, neither, but, because, while, however, since, for, yet, still
A preposition is a word that is used to show the relationship of a noun or pronoun to
another word.
across, below, in, toward, within, over, above, on, under, until, of, beyond, from, during,
after, at, against
An interjection is a word or phrase that is used to express emotion. Interjections often
show surprise, anger, fear, or joy. They are frequently uttered suddenly in response to
news or an event.
Thank goodness! Finally! Cheers! Oh! Aha! Darn! Eek! Yuck!
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LIST 124. KEY VERB CONCEPTS
Verbs are powerful words in language. You cannot have a complete sentence without one. Yet, a sentence
can be complete with just one word, as long as it is a verb: Run! Stop! Go! Many verb-use patterns are
learned naturally as individuals mimic the language patterns they hear. Some are less common and require
direct instruction.
To help students make effective use of verbs, be sure they are familiar with the key verb concepts in the
following list. Keep in mind students learning Standard American English may not yet have had sufficient
experience hearing correct usage and, consequently, may need more practice recognizing and applying
standard forms.
Verb. A verb is the part of speech that tells an action or a state of being. For example, in Brayden smiles,
smiles is an action verb. It tells what Brayden does. In Brayden was happy, was is a state of being verb.
It tells Brayden’s state or condition.
Principle parts. The six main forms of a verb are called its principle parts. They are used for different tenses
and purposes. The principle parts of most verbs are created by changing the base or simple form.
Some verbs have irregularly formed principal parts that have to be learned. Here are the principle
parts of the verb paint:
infinitive
-s form, third person, singular
present participle
to paint
paints
painting
simple form
simple past
past participle
paint
painted
painted
Tense. The word tense comes from the Latin word tempus meaning time. Verb tenses are the different
forms of a verb that show an action or state in the present, past, or future.
Person and number. The person of a verb tells about the subject of the verb. The number tells whether the
subject is singular (one) or plural (more than one).
First person is the person speaking or writing.
Second person is the one spoken to.
Third person is the one or those spoken about.
Singular
Plural
I play.
You play.
He plays. She plays. It plays.
We play.
You play.
They play.
Third person –s. When using the third person singular, -s or -es is added to the verb form. For example:
She sings. He goes. It stings.
Verb-noun agreement. The form of the verb must be in agreement with (or appropriate for) the person and
number of the subject. For example, in Darin works hard, the subject is singular and in the third
person; therefore, the third-person singular form of the verb—works—is used. In Darin and Jess work
hard, the subject is plural and in the third person; therefore, the third-person plural form of the
verb—work—is used. When the number and person of the verb matches the number and person of
the subject we have verb-noun agreement.
Mood. The mood of a verb tells about the intention of the speaker or writer. There are three moods:
indicative, imperative, and subjunctive (infrequently used).
The indicative mood is used to make statements or ask questions.
Marie is playing the piano. Is Marie playing the piano?
The imperative mood is used for commands, requests, and directions.
Play a holiday song. Please play one more. Open to page 33.
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The subjunctive mood is used to express a wish or something contrary to fact. In the subjunctive mood
the helping verb were is used for all persons and numbers.
I wish I were taller. If you were taller, you could reach to top shelf.
Voice. The voice of the verb shows whether the subject is the doer of the action (active voice) or whether
the action is done to the subject (passive voice)
Active. Chuck saw him.
Passive. Chuck was seen by him.
Auxiliary verbs. Auxiliary verbs are also called helping verbs because they are used with another verb in a
verb phrase that conveys ideas of time, judgment, possibility, or other meaning.
am
is
are
was
were
being
been
do
does
did
has
have
had
having
can
may
might
must
will
shall
could
should
would
ought to
Conjugate a verb. To conjugate a verb means to set out all of its forms according to tense, voice, mood,
number, and person. List 125, Common Verb Tenses, shows the conjugation of the verbs paint and
blame.
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LIST 125. COMMON VERB TENSES
Actions that we speak of or write about can be happening now, sometime in the past, or in the future. The
action can be completed or it can be continuing. Sometimes, we speak about one action that occurred in
relation to another action that was also occurring in the past. Each of these situations can be communicated
clearly using one of the verb tenses.
When we conjugate a verb we show the forms it uses to show tense, voice, person, number, and mood.
Use the conjugations and examples in the following list to see how to form and use the most common verb
tenses.
Active Voice, Indicative Mood
Present
Singular
Plural
Past
Singular
Plural
Future
Singular
Plural
Present tense is used to make a general statement or when talking or writing about
something that usually happens. Example: I always paint on Fridays.
I paint.
You paint.
He (she or it) paints.
We paint.
You paint.
They paint.
Past tense is used to tell about something that happened and is over. Example: I painted
last Friday.
I painted.
You painted.
He (she or it) painted.
We painted.
You painted.
They painted.
Future tense is used to tell about something expected to happen in the future. Example:
I will paint this coming Friday.
I will paint.
You will paint.
He (she or it) will paint.
We will paint.
You will paint.
They will paint.
Present progressive Present progressive tense is used to tell about an action that is ongoing. Example: I am
painting a table today.
Singular
I am painting.
You are painting.
He (she or it) is painting.
Plural
We are painting.
You are painting.
They are painting.
Past progressive
Singular
Plural
Past progressive tense is used to tell about something that was ongoing for a period in
the past. Example: I was painting the table when she called.
I was painting.
You were painting.
He (she or it) was
painting.
We were painting.
You were painting.
They were painting.
Future progressive Future progressive tense is used to tell about something that will be ongoing at some
time in the future. Example: I will be painting the table all day Friday.
Singular
I will be painting.
You will be painting.
He (she or it) will be
painting.
Plural
We will be painting.
You will be painting.
They will be painting.
Present perfect
Singular
Plural
Present perfect tense is used to tell about something that happened in the past and was
completed before the present time. Example: I have painted before now.
I have painted.
You have painted.
He (she or it) has
painted.
We have painted.
You have painted.
They have painted.
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Past perfect
Singular
Plural
Future perfect
Singular
Plural
Present perfect
progressive
Singular
Plural
Past perfect
progressive
Singular
Plural
Future perfect
progressive
Singular
Plural
Past perfect tense is used to tell about something that happened in the past prior to
another event or time. Example: I had painted toys before I painted furniture.
I had painted.
You had painted.
He (she or it) had
painted.
We had painted.
You had painted.
They had painted.
Future perfect tense is used to tell about something that will happen in the future before
another specified event or time. Example: Next week, I will have painted four hundred
tables.
I will have painted.
You will have painted. He (she or it) will have
painted.
We will have painted.
You will have painted. They will have painted.
Present perfect tense is used to tell about something that began in the past and is continuing in the present. Example: I have been painting on Fridays for many years.
I have been painting.
You have been painting. He (she or it) has been
painting.
We have been painting. You have been painting. They have been painting.
Past perfect progressive tense is used to tell about something that began in the past
and continued for a period before another event or time happened. Example: I had
been painting chairs when I began painting tables.
I had been painting.
You had been painting. He (she or it) had been
painting.
We had been painting. You had been painting. They had been painting.
Future perfect progressive tense is used to tell about something that will have been
ongoing for a period in the past and is continuing. Example: In June, I will have been
painting for ten years.
I will have been painting. You will have been
He (she or it) will have
painting.
been painting.
We will have been
You will have been
They will have been
painting.
painting.
painting.
Active Voice, Imperative Mood
Singular
Paint
Plural
Paint
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Passive Voice, Indicative Mood
Present
Singular
Plural
Past
Singular
Plural
Future
Singular
Plural
Present tense is used to make a general statement or when talking or writing about
something that usually happens. Example: Usually, I am blamed.
I am blamed.
You are blamed.
He (she or it) is blamed.
We are blamed.
You are blamed.
They are blamed.
Past tense is used to tell about something that happen and is over. Example: I was
blamed last week.
I was blamed.
You were blamed.
He (she or it) was
blamed.
We were blamed.
You were blamed.
They were blamed.
Future tense is used to tell about something expected to happen in the future. Example:
I will be blamed next week.
I will be blamed.
You will be blamed.
He (she or it) will be
blamed.
We will be blamed.
You will be blamed.
They will be blamed.
Present progressive Present progressive tense is use to tell about an action that is ongoing. Example: I am
being blamed all the time.
Singular
I am being blamed.
You are being blamed. He is being blamed.
Plural
We are being blamed.
You are being blamed. They are being blamed.
Past progressive
Singular
Plural
Present perfect
Singular
Plural
Past perfect
Singular
Plural
Future perfect
Singular
Plural
Past progressive tense is used to tell about something that was ongoing for a period in
the past. Example: I was being blamed throughout last season.
I was being blamed.
You were being blamed. He was being blamed.
We were being blamed. You were being blamed. They were being blamed.
Present perfect tense is used to tell about something that happened in the past and was
completed before the present time. Example: I have been blamed before now.
I have been blamed.
You have been blamed. He (she or it) has been
blamed.
We have been blamed. You have been blamed. They have been blamed.
Past perfect tense is used to tell about something that happened in the past prior to
another event or time. Example: I had been blamed before I was questioned.
I had been blamed.
You had been blamed. He had been blamed.
We had been blamed.
You had been blamed. They had been blamed.
Future perfect tense is used to tell about something that will happen in the future before
another specified event or time. Example: By the end of the day, I will have been blamed
again.
I will have been blamed. You will have been
He (she or it) will have
blamed.
been blamed.
We will have been
You will have been
They will have been
blamed.
blamed.
blamed.
Passive Voice, Imperative Mood
Singular
Plural
Be blamed
Be blamed
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LIST 126. IRREGULAR VERB PATTERNS
Most rules have exceptions, and exceptions can cause problems. Here is an extensive list of verbs and their
principal parts that do not follow the regular pattern. (Regular verbs form the past or past participle by
simply adding -d or -ed. For example: call, called, has called.)
Present Tense
am
are (pl.)
beat
become
begin
bend
bet
bite
bleed
blow
break
bring
build
burst
cast
catch
choose
come
cost
creep
cut
dig
dive
do
draw
dream
drink
drive
eat
fall
feed
feel
fight
fly
forbid
forget
forgive
Past Tense
was
were
beat
became
began
bent or bended
bet
bit
bled
blew
broke
brought
built
burst
cast
caught
chose
came
cost
crept
cut
dug
dived or dove
did
drew
dreamed or dreamt
drank
drove
ate
fell
fed
felt
fought
flew
forbade
forgot
forgave
∗ Note: The past participle also needs one of the following verbs: was, has, had, or is.
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Past Participle∗
been
been
beaten
become
begun
bent or bended
bet
bitten
bled
blown
broken
brought
built
burst
cast
caught
chosen
come
cost
crept
cut
dug
dived
done
drawn
dreamed or dreamt
drunk
driven
eaten
fallen
fed
felt
fought
flown
forbidden
forgotten
forgiven
Present Tense
freeze
get
give
go
grow
grind
hang
has
hear
hide
hit
hold
hurt
is
keep
kneel
know
lay
leap
leave
lie
light
lose
make
mean
mow
put
quit
read
ride
ring
rise
run
saw
say
see
sell
set
shake
shine
show
shrink
shut
sing
sink
sit
sleep
Past Tense
froze
got
gave
went
grew
ground
hung or hanged
had
heard
hid
hit
held
hurt
was
kept
kneeled or knelt
knew
laid
leaped or leapt
left
lay
lit
lost
made
meant
mowed
put
quit
read
rode
rang
rose
ran
sawed
said
saw
sold
set
shook
shined or shone
showed
shrank or shrunk
shut
sang
sank
sat
slept
Past Participle∗
frozen
gave
given
gone
grown
ground
hung
had
heard
hidden
hit
held
hurt
been
kept
kneeled or knelt
known
laid
leaped or leapt
left
lain
lit
lost
made
meant
mowed or mown
put
quit
read
ridden
rung
risen
run
sawed or sawn
said
seen
sold
set
shaken
shined or shone
shown or showed
shrunk
shut
sung
sunk
sat
slept
∗ Note: The past participle also needs one of the following verbs: was, has, had, or is.
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Present Tense
slide
slit
sow
speak
spend
spin
spit
split
spread
spring
stand
steal
stick
sting
string
swear
sweat
sweep
swim
swing
take
teach
tear
tell
think
throw
thrust
understand
wake
wear
weave
weep
wet
win
wind
write
Past Tense
slid
slit
sowed
spoke
spent
spun
spit
split
spread
sprang or sprung
stood
stole
stuck
stung
strung
swore
sweat or sweated
swept
swam or swum
swung
took
taught
tore
told
thought
threw
thrust
understood
woke or waked
wore
wove
wept
wet
won
wound
wrote
∗ Note: The past participle also needs one of the following verbs: was, has, had, or is.
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Past Participle∗
slid
slit
sowed or sown
spoken
spent
spun
spit
split
spread
sprung
stood
stolen
stuck
stung
strung
sworn
sweat or sweated
swept
swum
swung
taken
taught
torn
told
thought
thrown
trust
understood
woken or waked
worn
woven
wept
wet
won
wound
written
LIST 127. BASIC SENTENCE PATTERNS
Parts of speech are put together to form sentences according the established patterns or syntax of a language. Not all languages follow the same patterns for constructing meaningful sentences. For example, in
English, an adjective generally precedes the word it describes as in red box. In Spanish, the order is reversed
as in caja roja. For speakers of languages other than English, our sentences may seem to be in an unnatural
order until they have had sufficient time to adapt to hearing and reading them in our conventional order.
The list of basic sentence patterns and variations shows the most common arrangements of words that
form sentences. Remember: every sentence must have at minimum a noun (or pronoun) and a verb. These
are called the subject and predicate of the sentence. Imperative sentences may use only the verb (predicate),
with the subject—you—unstated but understood, as in Run.
n/v
n/v/n
n/v/adv
n/lv/n
n/lv/adj
n/v/n/n
noun/verb
noun/verb/noun
noun/verb/adverb
noun/linking verb/noun
noun/linking verb/adjective
noun/verb/noun/noun
Children sang.
Jenn trained the puppy.
Chris stirred briskly.
Tom is chairman.
Brayden looks sleepy.
Jason gave Cynda flowers.
Variations of Basic Sentence Patterns
Affirmative to Negative
It is raining. / It is not raining.
Affirmative to Question
The bottle is empty. / Is the bottle empty?
Use of “There”
A man is at the door. / There is a man at the door.
Request or Command
You mow the grass. / Mow the grass.
Active to Passive
The dog chased the fox. / The fox was chased by the dog.
Possessive
Gian owns this car. / This is Gian’s car.
Prepositional Phrase Added
This is Gian’s car in the garage.
Adverbial Phrase Added
Birds fly swiftly together.
Present to Past
I live in New York. / I lived in New York.
Simple Past to Progressive Past
I live in New York. / I was living in New York.
Past to Future
I lived in New York. / I will live in New York.
Certain to Uncertain
I will do it. / I might do it.
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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LIST 128. CAPITALIZATION GUIDELINES
Review these guidelines with your students and provide practice exercises for problem areas. Give proofreading assignments to help students become sensitive to the proper use of uppercase letters. Writing letters
to favorite authors, illustrators, or others provides a fun and authentic writing experience as well as the
opportunity to apply many of these guidelines.
• Capitalize the pronoun I.
I often sleep late on weekends.
• Capitalize the first word of any sentence.
Kittens are playful.
• Capitalize the first word and all important words in titles of books, magazines, newspapers, stories, and
so on.
The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe
• Capitalize names of specific people, events, dates, and documents.
Eunice Smith, Toronto, Fourth of July, Thanksgiving, September, the Constitution
• Capitalize the names of organizations and trade names.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Kleenex
• Capitalize titles of respect.
Mr. Limoncelli, Ms. Polk, Sister Valerie
• Capitalize names of races, languages, religions, and deity.
Caucasian, Spanish, Catholic, the Almighty, Jehovah
• Capitalize the first word in a direct quotation.
Ann inquired, “Where is the suntan lotion?”
• Capitalize abbreviations and acronyms, all or part.
US, UNESCO, CA, St., PhD
Optional Capitalization
• All letters in a title or sign
BOOK OF LISTS; THE SOUP SHACK
• Special emphasis
She yelled, “STOP. SEND HELP IMMEDIATELY.”
• Subheads and outline words
LANGUAGE
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LIST 129. CONTRACTIONS
Contractions are single or combined words that are shortened by substituting an apostrophe for a letter
or letters. Some contractions represent more than one combination. For example, what’s stands for what
is and what has as in What’s his name? What’s happened? Use this list to review how to form and use
contractions.
be
would, had
have, has
will, shall
not
I’m
I’d
I’ve
I’ll
can’t
he’s
he’d
he’s
he’ll
don’t
she’s
she’d
she’s
she’ll
isn’t
it’s
it’d
it’s
it’ll
won’t
we’re
we’d
we’ve
we’ll
shouldn’t
you’re
you’d
you’ve
you’ll
couldn’t
they’re
they’d
they’ve
they’ll
wouldn’t
that’s
that’d
that’s
that’ll
aren’t
who’s
who’d
who’ve
who’ll
doesn’t
what’s
what’d
what’ve
what’ll
wasn’t
where’s
where’d
where’ve
where’ll
weren’t
when’s
how’d
how’ve
how’ll
hasn’t
why’s
why’d
why’s
why’ll
haven’t
that’s
there’d
there’ve
these’ll
hadn’t
there’s
could’ve
those’ll
mustn’t
here’s
would’ve
there’ll
didn’t
one’s
should’ve
this’ll
mightn’t
who’re
might’ve
needn’t
why’re
how’re
what’re
Apostrophes are also used in some slang, dialect, and old-fashioned words.
Ma’am (madam)
ain’t (am not)
d’you (do you)
shan’t (shall not)
Y’all (you all)
bro’ (brother)
let’s (let us)
’twas (it was)
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
372
LIST 130. PUNCTUATION GUIDELINES
Punctuation is important. It signals to the reader that we are making a statement or asking a question. It
tells when to stop and when to pause. Without punctuation, we would have trouble understanding what
the writer meant.
Here’s an example of a sentence without punctuation: Ted said Todd is very tall. Now, here are the same
words punctuated two different ways.
1. “Ted,” said Todd, “is very tall.”
2. Ted said, “Todd is very tall.”
Punctuation helps readers avoid confusion.
This list will help students review the use of punctuation marks. Refer to it as part of your proofreading and editing practice. Post an enlarged copy on the wall where students can see it during their writing
activities.
Name
Symbol
Period
.
When used
1. At the end of a statement or declarative sentence. Birds fly.
2. At the end of a command or imperative sentence. Go home.
3. After most abbreviations. Mr. Co. Ave.
4. To show money and decimal numbers. $1.99 and 3.1416
Question mark
Exclamation
point
Quotation
marks
?
!
1. At the end of a question or interrogatory sentence. Who is he?
2. To express doubt. He ate 14 doughnuts?
1. To show strong emotion with a word. Great!
2. To show strong emotion with a sentence. You’re the best!
“”
1. To show a direct quote. She said, “May I help you?”
2. To set off a title of a short poem. He read “A Visit from Saint
Nicholas.”
3. To imply sarcasm or someone else’s use of a term.
The “hero” was not at home.
Single quotation
marks
Apostrophe
‘
’
1. To show a quote within a quote. She said, “You call him a ‘friend’ of
yours.”
1. To form the possessive. Bill’s bike
2. In contractions, to show missing letters. Isn’t
3. To form the plurals of symbols. Two A’s
LANGUAGE
373
Name
Symbol
Comma
,
When used
1. To separate items in a series. one, two, three
2. To separate things in a list. bread, milk, cheese
3. To separate parts of a date. February 22, 2025
4. After the greeting in a friendly letter. Dear Gerry,
5. After the closing in a letter. Sincerely,
6. To separate the city and state in an address.
New York, NY
7. To separate a name and a degree title.
Elena Jag, MD
8. Between inverted names. Smith, Joe
9. In written dialogue between the quotation and the rest of the
sentence. She said, “Stop it.” “OK,” he replied.
10. Between more than one adjective or adverb. The big, bad wolf.
11. To set off a descriptive or parenthetical word or phrase.
Tina, the announcer, read her lines.
12. Between a dependent and independent clause.
After the game, we went home.
13. To separate independent clauses. I like him, and he likes me.
14. To set off incidental words. I saw it, too. Naturally, I went along. Oh, I
didn’t see you.
Parentheses
()
Colon
:
1. To show supplementary material. The map (see below) is new.
2. To set off information more strongly than with commas. Joe (the first
actor) was ready.
3. In numbering or lettering a series. Choices: (a) a game or (b) a song;
two steps: (1) Open the door. (2) Step in.
1. To introduce a series. He has three things: a pen, a book, and a
backpack.
2. To show a subtitle. The Book: How to Read It
3. To separate clauses. The rule is this: keep it simple.
4. After a business letter greeting. Dear Ms. Turner:
5. To separate hours and minutes or to show ratio. 10:15 A.M.
3:1 ratio
Semicolon
;
Hyphen
-
1. To separate sentence parts more strongly than a comma.
November was cold; January was freezing.
2. To separate sentence parts that contain commas. He was tired;
therefore, he took a nap.
1. To join parts of compound words. mother-in-law
2. To join parts of a compound adjective. brick-faced house
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
374
Name
Symbol
En dash
–
Em dash
—
Ellipsis
…
Bullet
•
When used
To show period of time or space between destinations.
2015–2025 San Francisco–Elizabeth
To show the insertion of descriptive information.
Carla—the tallest student—held the flag.
1. To show that words have been left out. The boy … was not home … so
his mom answered the phone.
2. To show a pause for suspense or to heighten mood. The announcer
called out, “The winner is … Chris.”
1. To show the items in a list.
Things to do on Saturday:
• Go swimming.
• Visit Kathy.
• Clean my room.
Slash, virgule,
stroke,
diagonal
/
1. To show lines of poetry. Twinkle, twinkle, little star/how I wonder …
2. To set off numbers or symbols. /a/ first point, /b/ second point
3. To indicate phonemes. /b/ is the first phoneme in “boy”
4. To show common fractions. 3/4
LANGUAGE
375
S E C T I O N 10
Spelling
List 131. Spelling Demons—Elementary
List 132. Spelling Demons—Intermediate
List 133. Spelling Demons—National Spelling Bee
List 134. Spelling Rules for Adding Suffixes
List 135. Plurals
List 136. Spelling and Pronunciation
List 137. Common Abbreviations
T
he subject of spelling in Standard American English, or orthography as linguists call it,
is often the focus of humor (See List 212) and frustration. Some languages have strongly
phonemic orthographies. This means there is a close relationship between the sounds of the language and the letters used to represent the sounds. Italian is often used as the exemplar for this
near one-to-one correspondence. By contrast, the spelling system of American English is much
more etymologically based; that is, spelling patterns in English reflect the evolution of our words
from their birth in one language and era through their evolution and movement to others, and
finally to their arrival in English.
Consequently, although we use only twenty-six alphabet letters, we combine them to produce
nearly fifty different speech sounds and we represent those sounds using more than one hundred
spelling patterns. Here are two examples to consider: (1) the letter y in these words: yoyo, my,
merry, and symphony; and (2) the digraph ch in the words: chair, choir, parachute, and choral.
Expectations for accurate spelling are clearly delineated in the Common Core State Standards
beginning in early elementary grades. They also expect students to recognize and use known
spelling patterns to help them spell new words and to have mastered the spelling of words that
have irregular spellings.
Research on the best practices for spelling highlights the need to integrate spelling and writing
into phonics and decoding instruction in the primary grades. Many recent studies of writing recommend spelling be treated and taught as part of a writing curriculum and not as a stand-alone
subject. Cunningham (2015) points out, however, that conventional spelling requires students to
use both sound-spelling patterns and visual checking. Her review of research (2015, p. 291) also
concluded that good writing depends on the automatic use of spelling skills. Work on developing students’ high-utility and domain-specific academic vocabulary also suggests teaching sight
recognition and spelling of words related to new vocabulary as the terms are introduced. This
enlarged view of target vocabulary enables students to confidently and competently use the concept in many forms.
The lists in this section provide resources for just-in-time skill building or review of spellingrelated issues in combining word parts, abbreviations, making plural forms, and recognizing and
correcting frequently misspelled words. See the lists in the Phonics, Useful Words, and Content
Words sections for additional resources for teaching spelling.
Beck, I. L., McKeown, M., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York: The
Guilford Press.
Bromley, K. (2015). Best practices in teaching writing. In L. B. Gambrell & L. M. Morrow (Eds.), Best practices in
literacy instruction (5th ed.). New York: The Guilford Press.
Cunningham, P. (2015). Best practices in teaching phonological awareness and phonics. In L. B. Gambrell & L. M.
Morrow (Eds.), Best practices in literacy instruction (5th ed.). New York: The Guilford Press.
Marzano, R. J., & Simms, J. (2013). Vocabulary for the Common Core. Centennial, CO: Marzano Research
Laboratory.
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers (NGA &
CCSSO). (2010). Common Core State Standards for English language arts and literacy in history/social studies,
science, and technical subjects. Washington, DC: Authors.
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
378
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching
children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications
for reading instruction (NIH Publication No. 00–4769). Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research
literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction (National Institute of Health Publication No.
00–4754). Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
Upward, C., & Pulcini, V. (1996). Italian spelling and how it treats English loanwords. Journal of the Simplified
Spelling Society, 20(1), 19–23.
S PE L L ING
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LIST 131. SPELLING DEMONS —
ELEMENTARY
Those who study children’s spelling errors and writing difficulties have repeatedly found that a relatively
small number of words make up a large percentage of all spelling errors. Many commonly misspelled words
are presented in this spelling demons list. Words from other lists in this book, such as high-frequency
instant words, homophones, homonyms, and content words, are also good targets for spelling practice and
classroom spelling bees.
about
address
advise
again
all right
along
already
although
always
among
April
arithmetic
aunt
awhile
balloon
because
been
before
birthday
blue
bought
built
busy
buy
children
chocolate
choose
Christmas
close
color
come
coming
cough
could
couldn’t
country
cousin
cupboard
dairy
dear
decorate
didn’t
doctor
does
early
easy
enough
every
everybody
favorite
February
fierce
first
football
forty
fourth
Friday
friend
fuel
getting
goes
grade
guard
guess
half
Halloween
handkerchief
haven’t
having
hear
heard
height
hello
here
hospital
hour
house
instead
knew
know
laid
latter
laugh
lessons
letter
little
loose
loving
making
many
maybe
minute
morning
mother
name
neither
nice
none
o’clock
off
often
once
outside
party
peace
people
piece
played
plays
please
poison
practice
pretty
principal
quarter
quit
quite
raise
read
ready
receive
received
remember
right
rough
route
said
Santa Claus
Saturday
says
school
schoolhouse
secretary
several
shoes
since
skiing
skis
some
something
sometime
soon
store
straight
studying
sugar
summer
Sunday
suppose
sure
surely
surprise
surrounded
swimming
teacher
tear
terrible
Thanksgiving
their
there
they
though
thought
through
tired
together
tomorrow
tonight
too
toys
train
traveling
trouble
truly
Tuesday
two
until
used
vacation
very
wear
weather
weigh
were
we’re
when
where
which
white
whole
women
would
write
writing
wrote
you
your
you’re
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
380
LIST 132. SPELLING DEMONS —
INTERMEDIATE
Before working with this list, it is a good idea to stage a spelling bee using the words from List 131, Spelling
Demon—Elementary, to be sure your students know how to spell them. This list for intermediate grade
students (grades 4 through 8) includes words research has shown to be tricky for most writers. It’s important
for students to be able to spell them and rely on a spell-check program. In addition to this general list, select
key words from each subject studied and include them in your weekly spelling activities.
absence
absolutely
acceptable
accidentally
accommodate
accompany
accurate
accustom
ache
achieve
acknowledgment
acquaintance
acquire
across
actually
adolescent
advantageous
advertisement
advice
against
agreeable
aisle
almost
amateur
ambition
amusing
analyze
ancient
announces
annually
answer
answered
anticipated
anxious
apology
apparent
appearance
appreciate
approach
approximately
arctic
argue
arguing
argument
around
arrangement
assistance
athlete
attempt
attendance
author
awful
awkward
banquet
bargain
beautiful
beginning
belief
believable
believe
beneficial
benefited
bicycle
biggest
boundary
breathe
brilliant
Britain
bulletin
bureau
buried
bury
business
cafeteria
calendar
captain
career
carrying
category
ceiling
celebrate
cemetery
certainly
character
chief
cite
college
comfortable
commitment
committed
committee
comparative
complete
concede
conceive
condemn
conquer
conscience
conscientious
conscious
consider
continually
control
controversial
controversy
council
courageous
courteous
criticism
criticize
crowd
dangerous
debt
deceive
decided
decision
defense
definite
definitely
definition
democracy
dependent
descend
S PE L L ING
381
describe
description
desert
despair
develop
difference
different
dilemma
diligence
dining
disagreeable
disappear
disappoint
disastrous
discipline
discover
discussion
disease
dissatisfied
divided
doubt
dropped
drowned
effect
eighth
eleventh
eligible
embarrass
emigrate
endeavor
environment
equipment
equipped
especially
eventually
evidently
exaggerate
exceed
excellent
except
excitement
exercise
exhausted
exhibit
exhilarate
existence
expense
experience
explanation
extraordinary
extremely
familiar
fascinate
fascinating
finally
flies
foreign
foreign
formerly
fortunately
forward
friend
gaiety
gauge
generally
genuine
government
grammar
grateful
grieve
guarantee
guessed
guidance
guilty
handkerchief
happened
having
heroes
hesitate
hindrance
honorable
hoping
humorous
hurrying
hypocrite
ignorant
imaginary
immediately
importance
impossible
incredible
independence
independent
individual
innocent
intelligence
interest
interesting
interrupt
irrelevant
its
jealousy
judgment
knife
knowledge
laboratory
league
led
leisure
library
license
lieutenant
lightning
likely
listener
literature
lose
losing
luxury
magnificent
maintenance
maneuver
marriage
mathematics
meant
medicine
mere
million
miniature
miscellaneous
mischief
mischievous
misspell
moral
muscle
mysterious
naturally
necessary
niece
nonsense
noticeable
numerous
obedience
occasion
occasionally
occur
occurred
occurrence
omitted
opinion
opportunity
ordinary
paid
parallel
paralyzed
particular
pastime
performance
permanent
permitted
personal
personnel
persuade
physical
picnicking
planned
pleasant
pledge
politician
portrayed
possess
practical
precede
prefer
preferred
prejudice
preparation
prescription
prestige
prevalent
principle
privilege
probably
procedure
profession
professor
prominent
pursue
quantity
realize
receipt
recognize
recommend
referred
referring
renowned
repetition
representative
responsibility
responsible
restaurant
rhythm
running
sacrifice
safety
salary
sandwich
satellite
satisfactory
saucer
scene
schedule
scheme
science
seize
sense
sensible
separate
sergeant
serious
sheriff
shining
shriek
siege
similar
sincerely
soldier
sophomore
source
special
stationary
stopped
strength
stubborn
substantial
subtle
succeed
success
sufficient
suggestion
supersede
susceptible
system
technique
temperature
therefore
thief
thorough
tired
toward
tragedy
transferred
tremendous
tries
twelfth
unnecessary
unusual
using
usually
vacant
vacuum
valuable
vegetable
vengeance
victim
villain
visible
waive
Wednesday
weird
whose
woman
wrench
written
yacht
yield
Here are some real challengers:
Antidisestablishmentarianism: state support of the church
Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious: Mary Poppins says it means “good.”
Pheumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis: lung disease caused by inhaling silica dust
Floccinaucinhilipilification: action of estimating as worthless
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382
LIST 133. SPELLING DEMONS —
NATIONAL SPELLING BEE
Every May, the E. W. Scripps Company sponsors the National Spelling Bee in Washington, DC. It is the
longest-running educational competition in the United States. Originally started in 1925 by the LouisvilleCourier Journal in Kentucky to garner interest in a dull subject, the competition has grown from a local
event to a national one with more than 250 finalists. Local competitions are sponsored by newspapers from
all over the nation. Finalists are typically eighth graders, thirteen or fourteen years old, although finalists
include students as young as eight years old. Finalists have recently included about an equal number of
boys and girls.
The Scripps National Spelling Bee website (www.spellingbee.com) provides information on eligibility
and enrollment, ideas for teachers, and an informative piece, How to Study for a Spelling Bee. The
site also has links to a word club and, most important, to the Merriam-Webster’s website, Spell It!
(www.myspellit.com) that is the core study site and resource for the spelling bee. At Spell it! you will
find word lists for grades 1 through 8 that include words from fourteen different languages and sources
of origin. Each word in the list is linked to its Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary entry with an audio
component for hearing the correct pronunciation of the word as well as viewing its definition. This feature
is an excellent vocabulary builder on its own!
Here is a sampling of the most recent study words for the National Spelling Bee.
alcohol
boutique
fuselage
maladroit
quiver
alligator
bowery
gorgeous
metaphor
renegade
ambivalent
caucus
gradient
mosque
saffron
amnesia
cilantro
harpoon
ninja
souvenir
angst
contiguous
hyphen
nirvana
succotash
artichoke
croquet
iguana
parapet
synergy
autopsy
elixir
impasse
perfidy
tithe
bayou
entourage
impetuous
pistachio
troika
behoove
finesse
isinglass
poltergeist
tsunami
blithe
flamboyant
kitsch
pyre
xylophone
boudoir
furlough
kudzu
quisling
zinnia
Here are words that determined the champions since 2000.
2000—demarche
2005—appoggiatura
2010—stromuhr
2001—succedaneum
2006—Ursprache
2011—cymotrichous
2002—prospicience
2007—serrefine
2012—guetapens
2003—pococurante
2008—guerdon
2013—knaidel
2004—autochthonous
2009—Laodicean
2014—stichomythia∗
2014—feuilleton∗
∗ The 2014 competition ended in a tie; thus, there were two final words.
S PE L L ING
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LIST 134. SPELLING RULES
FOR ADDING SUFFIXES
Knowing the rules for adding suffixes is important because of the frequency that this occurs. In addition to
making spelling more consistent, the rules help make the transition of sounds within the word smoother.
Focus on one rule or spelling pattern at a time and provide lots of words for analysis and practice.
1. The suffix does not change, but the root word or stem may change. (-ing: make-making)
2. In most cases, to add a suffix to change the verb tense, compare adjectives, change an adjective to an
adverb, or to make a noun plural, just add the suffix.
talk + s = talks
cheer + s + cheers
tall + er = taller
talk + ing + talking
cheer + ful = cheerful
tall + est + tallest
talk + ed = talked
cheer + y = cheery
pave + ment = pavement
3. If the word ends with a consonant and the suffix begins with a consonant, just add the suffix.
cup + ful = cupful
sad + ly = sadly
child + hood = childhood
4. If a one syllable word ends in a single consonant and the suffix begins with a vowel, double the
consonant, then add the suffix (cvc + c + v suffix). Rule does not apply if final consonant is x or w.
skip + p +er = skipper
fox + y = foxy
hot + t + est = hottest
coax + ed + coaxed
skip + p + ing = skipping
stow + ed + stowed
5. If a word ends in two consonants, do not double the final one before adding the suffix (cvcc + suffix).
hard + er = harder
bend + able = bendable
end + less = endless
6. If a word has a double vowel and ends in a consonant, do not double the consonant before adding the
suffix (vvc + suffix).
neat+ ly = neatly
rain + fall = rainfall
soil + ed = soiled
7. If a word ends in -c, add a k before a suffix beginning with an e, i, or y.
mimic—mimicker
panic—panicky
panic—panicky
8. If a word is accented on its last syllable and ends with a single consonant, double the consonant
before adding the suffix.
begin + n + ing = beginning
Commit + t + ment = commitment
propel + l + er + propeller
9. If a word ends in silent -e, drop the final -e before adding a suffix that begins with a vowel, but do not
drop the -e before adding a suffix that begins with a consonant.
rose—rosy
safe—safely
dine—dining
care—careful
name—named
tire—tireless
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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10. If a word ends in vowel -e, keep the final -e and add the suffix.
see—seeing
glee—gleeful
hoe—hoeing
11. If a word ends in consonant + -y, change the y to i, then add the suffix. If a word ends in a vowel + y,
keep the y and add the suffix. Also, keep the y if the suffix is -ing.
marry + ed = married
joy + ful = joyful
happy + ness = happiness
play + mate = playmate
lonely + ness = loneliness
say + ing = saying
12. If a word ends in -le and the suffix is -ly, drop the final -le before adding the suffix.
able + ly = ably
sensible + ly = sensibly
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385
terrible + ly = terribly
LIST 135. PLURALS
Young children begin recognizing plurals in their listening and speaking environment long before they
have formal instruction in reading and writing. Research has found that an effective strategy for teaching
grammar or spelling rules is to use the “teachable moment,” when an example presents itself in text or
speech. However, direct instruction and practice are needed for students to recognize when to apply the
rules and to become fluent in their use. Repeated use is the best practice for learning irregularly spelled
plurals.
Rules for Forming Plurals
1. The plural form of most nouns is made by adding -s to the end of a word.
chair—chairs
president—presidents
face—faces
floor—floors
desk—desks
drill—drills
2. If a word ends in -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, or -z, the plural is formed by adding -es.
boss—bosses
bench—benches
waltz—waltzes
dish—dishes
fox—foxes
gas—gases
3. If a word ends in a y preceded by a consonant, the plural is formed by changing the -y to -i and
adding -es.
city—cities
variety—varieties
family—families
country—countries
candy—candies
cherry—cherries
4. If the word ends in a y preceded by a vowel, the plural is formed by adding -s.
valley—valleys
key—keys
journey—journeys
turkey—turkeys
play—plays
boy—boys
5. The plurals of most nouns ending with -f or -fe are formed by adding -s.
gulf—gulfs
chief—chiefs
carafe—carafes
belief—beliefs
roof—roofs
giraffe—giraffes
6. Some words that end in -f or -fe are formed by changing the -f to -v and adding -es.
knife—knives
thief—thieves
half—halves
wife—wives
life—lives
self—selves
leaf—leaves
loaf—loaves
calf—calves
elf—elves
wolf—wolves
dwarf—dwarves
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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7. If the word ends in an o preceded by a consonant, form the plural by adding -es.
hero—heroes
tomato—tomatoes
zero—zeroes
potato—potatoes
echo—echoes
cargo—cargoes
8. If the word ends in an o preceded by a vowel, form the plural by adding -s.
video—videos
studio—studios
ratio—ratios
radio—radios
patio—patios
rodeo—rodeos
9. To form the plural of a compound word, make the base noun plural.
brother-in-law—brothers-in-law
passerby—passersby
wastebasket—wastebaskets
runner-up—runners-up
attorney general—attorneys general
snowstorm—snowstorms
10. Some words have irregular plural forms.
child—children
louse—lice
basis—bases
index—indices
oasis—oases
foot—feet
radius—radii
brother—brethren
goose—geese
medium—media
focus—foci
datum—data
ox—oxen
man—men
crisis—crises
axis—axes
die—dice
mouse—mice
tooth—teeth
woman—women
stimulus—stimuli
criterion—criteria
parenthesis—parentheses
curriculum—curricula
11. Some words are used for both singular and plural meanings.
cod
Swiss
wheat
rye
dozen
hay
deer
moose
British
series
fish
species
trout
bass
barley
aircraft
gross
dirt
sheep
corps
mackerel
traffic
salmon
music
12. Some nouns look singular but are always plural.
police
people
vermin
folk
livestock
cattle
13. Mass nouns (See List 33, Mass Nouns) are not countable and do not have a plural form.
air
sand
soap
water
See also List 27, Syllabication Rules; List 134, Spelling Rules for Adding Suffixes.
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LIST 136. SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION
The spelling systems for most languages are based on the alphabetic principle, meaning that speech sounds
are represented by a specific letter or letter group. Italian and Spanish follow this principle so well that
the spellings of words are excellent clues to their pronunciations, and the sounds of the words are excellent
clues to their spelling. English, unfortunately, has a far less predictable relationship between sounds and
spellings. As a result, spelling can be a challenge to students. This list gives a dozen tips to help students
make the most of letter-sound correspondences in English and become their own spell-checkers.
1. Pronounce the target word naturally, then pronounce it slowly, syllable-by-syllable to hear all of its
parts.
2. In syllable-by-syllable pronunciation, stress each part equally. This eliminates the schwa sound and
makes it easier to determine the vowel spelling for the syllable. Example: dol-lar; spon-sor; ben-ef-it;
cab-in-et.
3. Don’t add syllables that aren’t there, for example, athlete (not athelete); laundry (not laundery).
4. Don’t skip syllables that are there, for example, chocolate (not choclate); probably (not probly).
5. Don’t skip letter sounds that are there, for example, arctic (not artic); government (not goverment).
6. Don’t reverse letters, for example, perform (not preform); tragedy (not tradegy).
7. Remember to pronounce the ending of each syllable of the target word clearly.
8. Watch out for confusing words that have similar but not identical sounds, for example,
celery—salary; finally—finely.
9. Exaggerate tricky syllables for students, for example, Wednesday might be pronounced Wed-nes-day.
10. Review the stable sound-spelling combinations:
a. Consonants sounds represented consistently by a single letter—b, d, g, h, l, m, n, p, qu, r, t, v, z
b. Short vowels—cvc pattern
c. /j/ at the beginning of a word is j; /j/ at the end of a word is usually spelled -dge
d. /k/ at the end of a word is usually spelled -ck
11. Post a sound-spelling chart showing the various spellings of each sound in frequency order.
12. Remind students to look at the word after they have written it; visual memory is a great help to good
spelling.
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LIST 137. COMMON ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviations are so widely used that it is important to know the meaning of the most common ones. An
abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase. (Other shortened forms are acronyms and initializations. See List 156, Acronyms and Initializations.) Some abbreviations differ by upper- and lowercase (e.g.,
rev. = revision / Rev. = the Reverend). Some are followed by a period, others are not (Tues. and ft. / cm
and mph). Abbreviations are pronounced the same as the long word for which it stands (lb. is pronounced
pound). Abbreviations stand for both singular and plural forms and do not add the suffix -s. Ms or Ms.
is not an abbreviation for miss; it is a title used to denote a female without reference to her married or
unmarried state. Abbreviations for terms in the metric system of measurement do not use periods.
Calendar and Time
Sun.
Mon.
Tues.
Wed.
Thur.
Fri.
Sat.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
Jun.
Jul.
Aug.
Sept.
Sunday
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
A.M.
P.M.
A.D.
B.C.
B.C.E.
C.E.
s., sec.
min.
hr.
wk.
mo.
yr.
cent.
October
November
December
ante meridiem (before noon)
post meridiem (after noon)
Anno Domini (year of our Lord)
Before Christ
Before Common Era
Common Era
second(s)
minute(s)
hour(s)
week(s)
month(s)
year(s)
century (-ies)
Mts.
N
NE
NW
Pkwy.
Pl.
Pt.
Rd.
S
SE
Sq.
St.
Sta.
Ste.
SW
Ter.
Tpk.
W
Mountains
North, Northern
Northeast
Northwest
Parkway
Place
Point
Road
South, Southern
Southeast
Square
Street
Station
Suite
Southwest
Terrace
Turnpike
West, Western
Address/Location
Alt.
Apt.
Ave.
Bldg.
Blvd.
Co.
Ct.
Ctr.
Dist.
Dr.
E
Ft.
Fwy.
Hwy.
Lat.
Lk.
Ln.
Long.
Mt.
Altitude
Apartment
Avenue
Building
Boulevard
County
Court
Center
District
Drive
East, Eastern
Fort
Freeway
Highway
Latitude
Lake
Lane
Longitude
Mount, Mountain
S PE L L ING
389
Measurements
in.
′
ft.
′′
yd.
mi.
t.
tsp.
T.
tbsp.
pt.
qt.
gal.
fl. oz.
oz.
lb.
doz.
sq.
∘
cu.
cc
mm
cm
m
inch(es)
inch (es)
foot, feet
foot, feet
yard
mile
teaspoon
teaspoon
tablespoon
tablespoon
pint
quart
gallon
fluid ounce
ounce
pound
dozen
square
degree
cubic
cubic centimeter
millimeter
centimeter
meter
km
mg
g
kg
MT
ml
ns
l
kl
B
KB
MB
GB
W
kW
kWh
mph
rpm
T.
vol.
wt.
max.
min.
kilometer
milligram
gram
kilogram
metric ton
milliliter
nanosecond
liter
kiloliter
byte
kilobyte
megabyte
gigabyte
watt
kilowatt
kilowatt-hour
miles per hour
revolutions per minute
ton
volume(s)
weight
maximum
minimum
Admiral (Naval)
Captain
Captain (Naval)
Colonel
Commander
Commander (Naval)
Doctor
Ensign (Naval)
Esquire
General
governor
Her (His) Royal Highness
the Honorable
Junior
LCDR
Lt.
Mr.
Mrs.
Msgr.
Pres.
Prof.
Rev.
Sgt.
Sr.
Sr.
St.
Supt.
Lieutenant Commander (Naval)
Lieutenant
Mister (always abbreviated)
Mistress (always abbreviated)
Monsignor
President
Professor
the Reverend
Sergeant
Senior
Sister
Saint
Superintendent
Bachelor of Arts
Master of Arts
Bachelor of Arts
Bachelor of Science
Doctor of Divinity
Doctor of Dental Surgery
Ed.D.
M.A.
M.D.
Ph.D.
Psy.D.
R.N.
Doctor of Education
Master of Arts
Doctor of Medicine
Doctor of Philosophy
Doctor of Psychology
Registered Nurse
Titles/Ranks
ADM
Capt.
CAPT
Col.
Comdr.
CRD
Dr.
ENS
Esq.
Gen.
Gov.
H.R.H.
Hon.
Jr.
Degrees
A.B.
A.M.
B.A.
B.S.
D.D
D.D.S.
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390
Parts of Speech
adj.
adv.
art.
conj.
interj.
adjective
adverb
article
conjunction
interjection
n.
pn.
prep.
v.
noun
pronoun
preposition
verb
ex.
ext.
F
fem.
fig.
fl. oz.
FM
freq.
govt.
grad.
hosp.
ht.
i.e.
ibid.
id.
illus.
inc.
incl.
inst.
intro.
jour.
K
Lb.
lib.
Ltd.
mag.
masc.
math.
mdse.
med.
mgr.
misc.
mus.
N
neg.
neut.
no.
Op.
opp.
p.
pd.
pkg.
example
extension
Fahrenheit
feminine
figure
fluid ounce(s)
frequency modulation
frequency
government
graduated, graduated at
hospital
height
id est, that is
ibidem, in the same place
Idem, the same
illustration, illustrated by
incorporated
including
institute, institution
introduction
journal
Kelvin
libra (ae)
Library
Limited
magazine
masculine
mathematics
merchandise
medium
manager
miscellaneous
museum
Newton(s)
negative
neuter
number
Opus, work
opposite
page
paid
package(s)
Other Abbreviations
abbr.
Acad.
acct.
ad lib
AM
amt.
anon.
ans.
arith.
Assn.
assoc.
asst.
at. no.
at.wt.
atty.
b.
b.p.
bib.
biog.
BTU
C
c.
cal
cap.
cert.
chap.
Chas.
Co.
conj.
Corp.
ctr.
d.
dept.
diam.
div.
e.g.
ea.
ed.
elec.
est.
et al.
etc.
abbreviation(s), abbreviated
academy
account
ad libitum, improvise
amplitude modulation
amount
anonymous
answer
arithmetic
Association
associate
assistant
atomic number
atomic weight
attorney
born, born in
boiling point
bibliography
biography
British thermal unit(s)
Celsius, Centigrade
circa (about)
calorie(s)
capital
certificate
chapter
Charles
company
conjunction
corporation
center
died, died in
department
diameter
division
exempli gratia (for example)
each
edition, editor(s), edited
electric
established; estimated
et alia (and others)
et cetera (and others)
S PE L L ING
391
pl.
pop.
pp.
prin.
pseud.
pub.
recd.
ref.
rev.
RR
sci.
plural
population
pages
principal
pseudonym
published; publisher
received
referee; reference
revised
railroad
science
ser.
sing.
subj.
tel.
uninc.
univ.
vet
vocab.
vs.
w.
Wm.
series
singular
subject
telephone
unincorporated
university
veterinarian, veteran
vocabulary
versus, against
watt(s)
William
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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S E C T I O N 11
Writing
List 138. Narrative and Informational Text
List 139. Story Starters
List 140. Prompts for Expository Writing
List 141. Descriptive Words
List 142. Color Words
List 143. Sense Words for Descriptive Writing
List 144. Signal and Transition Words
List 145. He Said/She Said
List 146. Checklist for Narrative Writing—Primary
List 147. Checklist for Opinion Writing—Primary
List 148. Checklist for Informative or Explanatory
Writing—Primary
List 149. Checklist for Narrative Writing—Elementary
List 150. Checklist for Opinion/Argument Writing—
Elementary
List 151. Checklist for Informative or Explanatory
Writing—Elementary
List 152. Teacher’s Corrective Feedback Code
List 153. Proofreading Marks
List 154. Hyphenation Rules for Writing
List 155. Nonbiased Language Guidelines
List 156. Acronyms and Initializations
T
he writing expectations for today’s K–12 students are broad and exacting. They are expected
to write routinely for a range of purposes and audiences. They are expected to write informative and explanatory texts, argumentative and persuasive texts, as well as narrative and poetic
texts. Their writing is expected to be clear, coherent, and well-structured and reflect language
conventions, effective techniques, and valid reasoning (NGA & CCSSO, 2010).
Unfortunately, research shows a large portion of high school seniors leave school without
reaching these goals. Recent national data (NCES, 2012) show only 27 percent of twelfth-grade
students who are heading for college or the workforce are rated proficient or advanced in their
writing achievement. Another 21 percent have such poor writing skills that they are rated as below
basic. Ratings of eighth grader writing skills are similar.
The shared expectations and disappointing achievement levels have spurred a new curricular
emphasis on writing and writing instruction. Bromley’s (2015) review of best practices in writing
instruction points out a number of factors contributing to success in the complex process of writing: grammar, punctuation, spelling, vocabulary, word choice, organization, engagement, supportive environment, purpose, audience, and intentionality. Studies support several well-known
strategies for developing students’ writing skills while dealing with such a long list of interwoven
factors. Writing workshop–type sessions (Calkins, 1994) that provide peer-to-peer sharing and
conferencing, reading aloud of finished work, and targeted mini-lessons based on observed needs
(student errors or weaknesses) have been effective.
Coauthoring and other forms of collaboration may also be catalysts for learning according
to Bromley (2015). The Internet and computer tools are helping create an environment that motivates students to write and to write more. The report on writing in the twenty-first century from
NCTE (Yancey, 2009) suggests the online environment enables students to not only fill a need
for sharing and dialogue but also opens up ways for them to participate in the larger world of
self-sponsored writing.
Other practices that have support in research include the use of graphic organizers for
planning (Capretz, Ricker, & Sasak, 2003), self-assessment to encourage improvement (Bromley,
2015), rubrics for providing feedback to young writers (Andrade, Du, & Wang, 2008), and
the RAFT process, which give students practice writing a variety of text types for a variety of
audiences (Fisher & Frey, 2006).
The lists in this section provide rubrics and checklists for self-assessment and feedback as
well as other helpful resources for writing instruction. See lists in the Language, Spelling, and
Teaching Ideas sections for additional resources for teaching spelling.
Andrade, H. L., Du, Y., & Wang, X. (2008). Putting rubrics to the test: The effect of a model, criteria generation, and
rubric-referenced self-assessment on elementary school students’ writing. Educational Measurement: Issues and
Practice, 27(2), 3–13.
Bromley, K. (2015). Best practices in teaching writing. In L. B. Gambrell & L. M. Morrow (Eds.), Best practices in
literacy instruction (5th ed.). New York: The Guilford Press.
Calkins, L. (1994). The art of teaching writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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Capretz, K., Ricker, B., & Sasak, A. (2003). Improving organizational skills through the use of graphic organizers
(ERIC Document ED473056). Chicago: MA Research Project, Saint Xavier University and Skylight
Professional Development.
Chin, B. (2000). The role of grammar in improving student writing. Sadlier-Oxford 6–12, William H. Sadlier. Retrieved
from: www.sadlier-oxford.com/prof_development/paper_chin.cfm
Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2006). Writing ideas that work. Language and Literacy Spectrum, 16(33). Retrieved from
http://nysreading.org/system/files/ContentFiles/LSVol16.pdf#page=35
Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in middle and high
schools; A report to Carnegie Corporation. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2012). The nation’s report card: Writing 2011 (NCES 2012–470).
Washington, DC: Institute of Education Sciences, US Department of Education.
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers (NGA &
CCSSO). (2010). Common Core State Standards for English language arts and literacy in history/social studies,
science, and technical subjects. Washington, DC: Authors.
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching
children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications
for reading instruction (NIH Publication No. 00–4769). Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
Saddler, B. (20013). Best practices in sentence construction skills. In S. Graham, C. MacArthur, & J. Fitzgerald
(Eds.), Best practices in writing instruction (2nd ed., pp. 238–256). New York: The Guilford Press.
Yancey, K. (2009). Writing in the 21st century. A report from the National Council of Teachers of English. Urbana, IL:
The National Council of Teachers of English. Retrieved from www.ncte.org/library/NCTEFiles/Press/Yancey_
final.pdf
WRIT ING
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LIST 138. NARRATIVE AND INFORMATIONAL TEXT
For decades children’s prereading and early reading experiences involved experiences with narrative stories,
nearly all of which were fiction. These experiences helped students develop frameworks for dealing with
the structure of stories. Most students, by the time they are learning to read independently, will recognize the familiar Once upon a time—as the beginning of a fairy tale. This knowledge helps them anticipate
how the story will unfold. In recent years, the education community has recognized the value of introducing children to nonfiction informational texts in the early grades and gradually increasing focus on
informational texts through the grades. This change is expected to help students recognize the structures
of informational texts and develop personal frameworks for reading and learning from them.
This list will aid discussion about the characteristics of narrative and informational texts.
Narrative Texts
Informational Texts
• Often based on common life events
• Often about unknown topics
• Familiarity makes prediction easier.
• New information makes prediction more difficult.
• Familiarity makes inferences easier.
• New information makes inferences more difficult.
• Key vocabulary words are often known.
• Key vocabulary words are often new.
• Often uses simple, high-frequency words
• Often uses multisyllabic low-frequency words.
• Concrete tangible concepts
• Abstract concepts
• Simple concepts
• Complex concepts
• People-oriented ideas
• Thing- or subject-oriented ideas
• Dialogue makes text less concept dense.
• Factual text is more concept dense.
• Stories can have personal meaning.
• Explanations have impersonal meaning.
• Narrative may provide insight for life or
interest.
• Informational text may or may not provide insight
for life or interest.
• Familiar narrative themes
• Few content themes
• Cause and effect may be easier to infer.
• Cause and effect may be unknown or unknowable.
• Purpose is to entertain.
• Purpose is to inform, explain, argue, persuade.
• Chronological order generally used.
• Various orders of presentation are used.
• Narratives have the same elements and
structure: characterization, setting, point
of view, plot, and resolution.
• Text may be structured in several ways: description,
chronological order, sequential order,
compare-contrast, cause-effect, problem-solution,
order of importance.
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LIST 139. STORY STARTERS
Writer’s block happens to even the best writers. Use these story starters to ignite students’ imaginations and
get them writing. You can also use these for group writing projects. Post a story starter on the computer
at the writing station. During the course of the week encourage each student to read the story and add
another sentence or two. At the end of the week, read the unfinished story aloud and give copies to each
student who then writes a suitable ending. Put finished versions in a binder for students to enjoy.
Remind students to consult these lists for ideas for adding vivid details and creating an appropriate
mood: List 143, Sense Words for Descriptive Writing; List 142, Color Words; List 141, Descriptive Words;
List 109, Character Traits; List 145, He Said/She Said; List 110 Tone and Mood Words.
1. Chris bent down just enough to see whether the liquid came up to the mark on the measuring glass.
Nope. She needed to pour just a bit more to make it perfect. Measuring your ingredients is important.
She learned that last year in Potions 101. Tom had put just a pinch too much of toads’ tails in his
kettle and “poof.” The green smoke rose so quickly they had all breathed in it. It wasn’t much fun
hopping from place to place. Luckily that problem lasted only a day. But, if she were to mix in too
much oil of . . .
2. Mom told me to look left and look right before I crossed the street. But she never told me to look up!
I was about half-way across when BOOM! It fell from the sky and landed right in front of me. Well,
finders, keepers . . .
3. Andrew and David were excited as they boarded the plane to California for the rowing event. The
upcoming races could be their last for the season unless, of course, both of their teams won. Then it
would be on to . . .
4. Grandpa’s attic is full of old clothes and other stuff from long ago. My sisters and I like to go up there
and make-believe we are . . .
5. Just as she settled into her favorite chair to read her book, Jessica’s cell phone rang. “Who would be
calling this late at night?”
6. It was just after noon when Avery hungrily opened his Superman lunch box. He couldn’t have been
more surprised. Right next to the apple he found . . .
7. If you think about it, every season has its good points and its bad points. For me, the best thing about
winter is . . .
8. The ball crashed through the window. “Oh, no,” Ethan said aloud. “Who’s in trouble now?”
9. The first one had been perfect. Then the second one, well, near perfect. Could I get three in a row and
win? I held my breath and tried not to think of the crowd.
10. The perfectly formed footprint was the biggest one Alex had ever seen out on the trail. What had
long, thin toes like that? He bent down to look at it closer. He as studying the footprint when he heard
the sound and turned to look behind him.
11. “This will show them,” Emily thought, as she hammered the last nail into place.
12. My brother Philip is fussy. He doesn’t like many foods. So we experimented in the kitchen. That’s how
we discovered the prize-winning recipe for chocolate-covered . . .
13. The directions on the package said to pour the powder into a large bowl and then briskly stir in a cup
of water. As I stirred the mix, a sweet-smelling smoke came up out of the bowl and swirled over my
head. I looked up. Through the haze I saw two bright eyes. “That’s quite enough, now. And, thank
you for the water. I was very thirsty.”
14. Tiptoeing in the dark, Raven stepped around the desk. She pushed Professor Dracket’s chair against
the wall so she could open the center drawer. Freeing Brayden may turn out easier than she thought it
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would be. After class, she had seen Dracket drop the key in the drawer. All she had to do now was
take the key, sneak into the lab, and open the cube.
15. Taking his cloak from the peg on the wall, Steven looked around the room one last time. “I will miss
this place,” he said to himself. As he left the Hall of Years he heard a faint reply: “We’ll miss you,
too.” Without looking back, Steven stepped across the threshold and into the mist. He knew his first
challenge was to cross the Smoking River. As he started walking toward its shore he had an idea . . .
16. Jenn brought the mail into the kitchen and sat down at the table. “Lots of junk mail,” she thought,
as she sorted through the stack throwing most of the envelopes in the trash. Then, she saw it. The
trademark gold envelope. She was picked for the new “Incredible Journeys” show! Where would they
send her? She held her breath as she opened it. Of all the places in the world, she was going to . . .
17. For a long time, I thought every day was pretty much the same as the next. I got up, went to school,
came home, had supper, did homework, watched TV, and went to bed. Then I did it again. That all
changed the day I discovered . . .
18. “Wait right there—don’t move! I’m coming to get you! I’m coming!” the voice called urgently.
Surprised, Gabriella looked down the tree and saw . . .
19. Tomorrow is my Great-Granny’s birthday. I’m so excited. She’s going to be 100! I love to visit and
listen to her stories about when she was my age. Would you believe she didn’t have . . .
20. Saturday was a very rainy day. The sky was a funny gray, almost white. The rain was coming down
hard and straight. “Well, it might not be a good day for a bike ride,” thought Jared, “but it was a
perfect day for Jacob and me to . . .”
21. The directions on the box said, “Washes off with warm water.” Jaime had been trying to wash it off
for an hour. But it was still there. How could she explain why her face was . . .
22. Hanna checked the instruments. Everything was ready. In just a few minutes they would leave the
shelter of the space station and venture forth on Terra 34. What would they find?
23. Dad’s company gave him a promotion. It’s a good thing, I guess. It means they think he is doing a
great job. The problem is, we have to move again. This time in March. Right in the middle of the
season. I wish I didn’t have to go because . . .
24. The absent-minded old man left the car door open and his keys inside while he carried his groceries
into the house. “Perfect,” murmured the thief as he climbed in. He turned the key and the engine
sprang to life. He had just put the car in reverse and was closing the door when the old man came
from the house. “Maggie! Maggie!” he cried. “Who’s Maggie?” the car thief wondered. Just as he had
that thought . . .
25. The winds were strong. So strong that you had to hold onto your hat with both hands. I felt silly
walking down the street like that. Arms up. Elbows out. Leaves and old newspapers blew passed me.
All of a sudden, I felt a claw circle my waist and yank me off the ground and into the air. I screamed
as I looked over my shoulder and saw the huge . . .
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LIST 140. PROMPTS FOR EXPOSITORY WRITING
Writing to inform, argue a point, or persuade an audience is a valued skill in all fields and, not surprisingly,
a focus of standards and assessments aimed at increasing student achievement in writing. Beyond meeting external expectations, experience and skill in expository writing helps students reinforce their content
learning, provides them opportunities to process knowledge in their own words, and develops their ability
to think and communicate clearly.
The typically used five-step writing process comprises these steps:
1. Prewriting. In this first step writers prepare to write by brainstorming ideas, gathering information,
and deciding on an approach or structure for the piece.
2. Drafting. Writers make a first draft of their text by fitting the information they gathered into their
outlines according to the purpose they have for the text.
3. Revising. In this step writers review the content and add or delete information, clarify points, and
consider whether the style and content is working.
4. Editing. In editing their texts, writers proofread and correct errors in grammar, spelling, and
punctuation. They check word choice to ensure that intended tone and point of view are maintained
and that the words used are appropriate for their audiences.
5. Publishing. In the last step, publishing, writers make a final copy, add titles and cover pages, and share
the finished product with others.
The following prompts will get your class writing from September to June. Create others from your
content area lessons or other shared experiences in your classroom. Most of the topical prompts can be
rewritten for lower elementary grades. They can also be used for group writing, debates, panel discussions,
and oral presentations.
1. Emily Post is famous for her books on manners and suggestions for how people of all ages should
behave at meals and in other social situations. Write a list of good manners (at least seven) that you
believe everyone in your class should follow. Put the most important one first and include an
explanation of why each recommendation should be adopted.
2. Playgrounds, beaches, and parks are taken care of by our government. They are paid for with money
from taxes. Does your city or town have enough green spaces for its citizens’ health and recreation
needs? Write a letter to the mayor telling what you think.
3. Pablo Picasso is a world famous painter. He was born in 1881 and started the art style called cubism.
It uses strong lines and vivid colors. Talent for art and music must be developed. Do you think art and
music lessons should be part of every school day? Write an essay explaining why or why not.
4. Giving gifts is part of many holiday traditions. Interview three people, including one adult, and ask
them for advice about how to pick out a gift for someone. Use their suggestions to write a tips for
buying gifts article for the school newspaper.
5. Each fall, thousands of people go to New York City to run in the marathon. Many train for years and
run in local races as practice. Use the Internet to find advice for young people who want to begin to
run as an exercise or sport. Write an article about how to get started. You may include a weeklong
schedule, tips for safety, and recommendations for where to run in your city or town.
6. Some people have unusual pets. Pick an unusual animal you would like to have as a pet. Find out
about it and write a paper explaining how to care for it. Include a description of the pet, its size when
it is an adult, the kind of habitat it needs, its food, and any other information you or a friend would
need to know before you purchased one.
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7. On Election Day, adults elect others to serve in important government positions. Through this
process citizens pick the people who will make laws, administer them, and decide whether the laws
have been followed or broken. This is what makes a democracy. Unfortunately, some people don’t
bother to vote. Write a letter to an adult and urge him or her to vote in the next election. Use a chart
to show the pros and cons of voting.
8. Everyone knows that smoking is bad for your health. It can cause serious medical problems such as
cancer. Write a letter to someone you know and ask him or her to pick a “Break the Habit” date to
stop smoking. Include reasons why it is important for this particular person and you. Go online and
find suggestions to help him or her quit and include them in your writing.
9. James Naismith was a physical education teacher. In 1891, he invented a game that could be played
indoors during the cold and snowy months. He nailed peach baskets to the gym walls and had his
students toss soccer balls into them. To make it more fun, he divided the class into teams and
assigned points for each basket they made. Now, more than one hundred years later, basketball is a
major sport played in schools and by professional teams worldwide. Does being on a sports team help
students? Write an essay to persuade others that your view, either pro or con, is correct.
10. More than a hundred years ago, Alfred Nobel invented dynamite. It was used in mining and for
leveling the ground for roads and railways. Later it was used in wars. Nobel was troubled that what he
invented for good purposes also resulted in the death of many people. Think of another invention that
has been used both to help and to hurt people. List the ways it helps and hurts. Then answer the
question: Is this a good invention? Write your answer to persuade others of your view.
11. Many things we do every day seem simple but they have many steps. To train your robot you will need
to write a program that gives directions for each step in order. Write directions for making toast,
putting on a sweater, or tying your sneakers for your robot. Include a list of things that are needed in
advance and a numbered set of steps that tells what to do. Add drawings or diagrams to help the
robot understand by matching an action to a picture. You may use a digital camera to show materials
used and/or steps in the process.
12. Teams from more than seventy-five countries participate in the Winter Olympics. There are events in
seven sports: biathlon, bobsled, curling, ice hockey, luge, skating, and skiing. Use an almanac or the
website www.olympic.org. to find the gold medal winners of the last winter games. Make a table
showing the five countries that won the most gold medals and which sport they were in. Think about
your data. Write a brief summary of the results highlighting the characteristics of countries that lead
in winter sports.
13. The first smartphone, an IBM Simon, went on sale in 1992 for $899; few people could afford it. The
Simon weighed in at just over one pound and offered many computer features such as calendar, note
taking, contact lists, games, and more. Smartphones are now owned by more than two-thirds of US
consumers, and the number of smartphone owners in the world will surpass 2 billion in 2016. How
has smartphone use changed a teenager’s way of life? Write an essay entitled, “The Impact of
Smartphones on the Lives of US Teens.” Research data for your paper using online sources and
include a bulleted or numbered list in your essay.
14. At the end of 2004, an earthquake in the Indian Ocean caused a giant tsunami that wiped out villages
and killed many people. What are tsunamis and earthquakes and how are they related? Use three or
more sources of information and write an informative paper explaining what you learned. Add
diagrams or other graphics to show the movement of the earthquake and the tsunami.
15. On class trips, you travel and learn. In 2000, a US and Russian team moved into the International
Space Station miles above the earth. They proved that people could live in space safely. Imagine you
are a travel agent for educational trips. Write an advertising brochure for a class trip to the
International Space Station. Include a description of what students might see and learn about.
16. The motto of the Boy Scouts of America is, “Be Prepared.” What should you do to prepare for a
weather-related emergency such as a blizzard, hurricane, flood, dust storm, or tornado? Find out and
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make a flyer that explains where to go, what to do, what supplies you should have at home, and so on
to be prepared.
17. Thomas Edison invented more than one thousand things, including electric lights, the phonograph,
moving pictures, and telephone transmitters. Work with two classmates to pick ten of the most useful
inventions. Find out who invented each of them and when. Next, add your information to the other
teams and construct a time line showing the dates, inventions, and inventors picked for the whole
class. Collaborate on a group report of meaningful inventions and their creators.
18. We often use directions to travel to new places. Sometimes we give directions to help others. Write the
directions for traveling from your home. Include direction words (north, south, east, west, left, right,
and straight ahead). Include street names and a description of key buildings or other markers that will
help travelers know they are on the right street. Draw and illustrate a map to graphically represent
your directions.
19. If at first you don’t succeed, try, try, again. Trying again, keeping at it until you are successful, is called
perseverance. Work with a classmate to make a list of five important things students in your grade
need to work at to be successful. Tell why it is important to succeed with these things. Suggest ways to
keep from giving up. Make a poster to share this information.
20. Most of the energy we have is produced by using fuels such as coal and gas. These fuels are being used
up. Scientists are working to find new fuels that won’t run out. Conservation helps us use less fuel.
Visit www.earthday.net or other websites to find out about conserving energy and creating new energy
sources. Write a paper that summarizes what you learn about renewable and nonrenewable
energy sources.
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LIST 141. DESCRIPTIVE WORDS
What do telling tales and writing poetry or reports have in common? They depend on descriptive words to
create vivid and accurate images in the reader’s mind. A good stock of descriptive words will bolster the
quality of your students’ writing. Use these lists to nudge reluctant writers into developing characters and
settings or to help students retire overused words.
Time
after
afternoon
afterwards
ancient
annual
anytime
bedtime
before
beforehand
belated
bicentennial
biennial
brief
brisk
centuries
century
continual
crawling
dawn
daybreak
Quantity
abundant
ample
army of
assortment
astronomical
baker’s dozen
bale
barrel
batch
billions
bit
boatload
bolt
boundless
daylight
daytime
decade
delayed
dusk
early
eon
epoch
era
evening
everyday
fast
flash
fortnight
future
galactic year
high noon
hour
intermittent
jiffy
late
lengthy
long
microsecond
midafternoon
midmorning
midnight
millennium
millisecond
minute
modern
moment
momentarily
moments
month
morning
nanosecond
night
nighttime
noon
noonday
now
old
old-fashioned
on time
outdated
overtime
past
periodic
premature
present
punctual
quick
rapid
scheduled
season
seasonal
semester
short
slowly
someday
sometime
soon
speedy
sporadic
sunrise
sunset
swift
synchronized
tardy
tempo
then
time
today
tomorrow
tonight
twilight
week
whirlwind
year
yearly
years
yesterday
yesteryear
young
buckets
bulk
bunches
bundles
bushel
bytes
cart-loads
centimeter
chock-full
clusters
collection
colossal
copious
crowds
dash of
dearth
deluge
dozens
drop
droves
epic
expansive
extensive
flock
gaggle
gazillions
heaping
heaps
infinite
lavish
limitless
loads
masses
meager
millions
mountains
multiplicity
multitude
numerous
oodles
overabundance
paucity
pinch
plentiful
plenty
pound
profusion
scads
scant
scarcity
sheaf
skimpy
smidgen
sparse
sufficient
throng
umpteen
unlimited
wealth of
weighty
zillions
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Ability—
Manner—
Condition
able
absentminded
adequate
adventurous
agile
agreeable
alert
alive
ambitious
angelic
artificial
artistic
assured
attentive
authoritative
awesome
bold
brainy
brave
busy
Love—
Affection—
Concern
admired
adorable
affectionate
agreeable
altruistic
amiable
benevolent
benign
brotherly
caring
charitable
cantankerous
careful
cautious
churlish
clever
clumsy
competent
conceited
concerned
confident
courageous
cowardly
crabby
crass
curious
cynical
dainty
daring
decisive
determined
diligent
discreet
disruptive
durable
dynamic
eager
easy
effective
energetic
firm
forceful
gallant
gentle
hardy
healthy
hearty
heavy
heroic
important
influential
innocent
inquisitive
inspiring
intelligent
intense
jerky
lethargic
levelheaded
light
lively
loose
lucky
manly
meddlesome
mercurial
methodical
meticulous
mighty
modern
naughty
open
outstanding
persnickety
petulant
plucky
powerful
proficient
punctual
real
relaxed
rich
robust
sassy
sedate
sharp
shy
skillful
smooth
somber
spirited
stable
steady
stern
stouthearted
strong
super
sure
tactful
tame
tough
unbalanced
unreliable
victorious
zealous
comfortable
congenial
conscientious
considerate
cooperative
cordial
courteous
dedicated
devoted
empathetic
fair
faithful
fervent
forgiving
generous
genuine
giving
good
helpful
honest
honorable
hospitable
humane
interested
just
kind
kindly
lovable
loving
maternal
mellow
mild
moral
neighborly
nice
obliging
open
optimistic
patient
peaceful
pleasant
reasonable
receptive
reliable
respectful
sensitive
sweet
sympathetic
tender
thoughtful
tolerant
trustworthy
truthful
understanding
warm
worthy
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Anger—
Hostility
aggravated
aggressive
agitated
angry
annoyed
arrogant
attacked
belligerent
betrayed
biting
Depression—
Sadness
abandoned
alien
alienated
alone
awful
battered
blamed
burned
cheapened
criticized
crushed
crushed
debased
defeated
defensive
degraded
blunt
bullying
callous
combative
contrary
cool
cranky
creepy
cross
cruel
defiant
disagreeable
enraged
envious
evil
fierce
furious
hard
harsh
hateful
hostile
impatient
inconsiderate
insensitive
intolerant
irritated
mad
mean
mischievous
nasty
obnoxious
obstinate
outraged
perturbed
repulsive
resentful
rough
rude
savage
severe
spiteful
tense
terse
vicious
vindictive
violent
wicked
wrathful
dejected
demolished
depressed
desolate
despairing
despised
despondent
destroyed
discarded
discouraged
dismal
doubted
downcast
downhearted
downtrodden
dreadful
empty
estranged
excluded
forlorn
forsaken
gloomy
glum
grief
grieving
grim
hated
homeless
hopeless
horrible
humiliated
hurt
ignored
insulted
jilted
kaput
loathed
lonely
lonesome
lousy
low
miserable
mishandled
mistreated
moody
mournful
neglected
obsolete
ostracized
overlooked
pathetic
pitiful
rebuked
regretful
rejected
reprimanded
rotten
ruined
rundown
sad
sad sack
scornful
sore
stranded
sullen
tearful
terrible
tired
unhappy
unloved
whipped
worthless
wrecked
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Fear—
Anxiety—
Distress
afraid
afflicted
agitated
alarmed
anguished
anxious
apprehensive
awkward
baffled
bashful
bewildered
clumsy
confused
constrained
controlled
Inability—
Inadequacy
anemic
ashamed
broken
catatonic
cowardly
crippled
defeated
Joy—Elation
amused
blissful
brilliant
calm
cheerful
comical
contented
delighted
ecstatic
elated
dangerous
deserted
desperate
disgusted
disliked
displeased
dissatisfied
distrustful
disturbed
doubtful
dreading
embarrassed
fearful
foolish
frantic
frightened
futile
grief
helpless
hesitant
hindered
horrified
hysterical
impaired
impatient
imprisoned
insecure
intimidated
jealous
jittery
jumpy
lost
nauseated
nervous
offended
on edge
oppressed
overwhelmed
pained
panicky
perplexed
puzzled
rejected
restless
ridiculous
scared
serious
shaky
shamed
shy
sickened
silly
skeptical
speechless
strained
strained
suspicious
swamped
tense
terrified
timid
tormented
touchy
troubled
uncomfortable
uneasy
ungainly
unlucky
unpopular
unsatisfied
unsure
upset
weary
worrying
wounded
defective
deficient
demoralized
disabled
exhausted
exposed
fragile
frail
harmless
helpless
impotent
inadequate
incapable
incompetent
ineffective
inept
inferior
insecure
meek
mummified
naughty
peevish
powerless
puny
shaken
shaky
shivering
sickly
small
trivial
unable
uncertain
undecided
unfit
unimportant
unqualified
unsound
useless
vulnerable
weak
elevated
enchanted
enthusiastic
exalted
excellent
excited
exuberant
fantastic
fit
funny
gay
glad
glorious
good
grand
gratified
great
happy
hilarious
humorous
inspired
jocular
jolly
jovial
joyful
joyous
jubilant
magnificent
majestic
marvelous
overjoyed
pleasant
pleased
proud
relieved
satisfied
smiling
splendid
superb
terrific
thrilled
tremendous
triumphant
vivacious
witty
wonderful
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LIST 142. COLOR WORDS
This list will bring a little color to your students’ descriptive and creative writing. Many students have
enjoyed hours with a box of sixty-four or more crayons and can easily identify the colors by name. However,
while writing, students often need a little nudge to substitute a shade or hue for one of the primary colors.
Red
Orange
burgundy
cardinal
carmine
cerise
cherry
coral
crimson
flame
hot pink
pink
puce
raspberry
rose
ruby
rust
salmon
scarlet
strawberry
thistle
tomato
vermillion
apricot
bronze
carrot
copper
melon
ochre
peach
persimmon
pumpkin
tangerine
topaz
Yellow
butter
buttercup
canary
citron
gold
goldenrod
lemon
mustard
saffron
straw
Purple
amethyst
eggplant
fuchsia
lavender
lilac
magenta
maroon
mauve
mulberry
orchid
pansy
plum
violet
wine
wisteria
Green
celadon
celery
chartreuse
emerald
forest
grass
hunter
jade
jungle green
Kelly green
khaki
lime
mint
olive
pine
sage
sea green
shamrock
spring green
viridian
Blue
aqua
aquamarine
azure
baby blue
blueberry
cerulean
cobalt
denim
indigo
midnight
navy
peacock
periwinkle
robin’s egg
royal
sapphire
sky
steel blue
teal
turquoise
ultramarine
jet
licorice
onyx
pitch
sable
Gray
Brown
amber
auburn
beige
buff
burnt umber
chestnut
chocolate
cinnamon
coffee
desert sand
dirt
fawn
hazel
mahogany
russet
sepia
sienna
tan
terracotta
umber
Black
ebony
ink
charcoal
dove
pewter
platinum
silver
slate
steel
taupe
White
almond
bone
cream
ecru
eggshell
ghost
ivory
linen
milky
oyster
pearl
snowy
vanilla
wheat
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LIST 143. SENSE WORDS FOR DESCRIPTIVE WRITING
Sense words are important tools in descriptive writing. With sense words, we describe a person, place,
thing, or idea with words that paint a picture in the reader’s mind. The details of that picture are formed
with words that connect with all of our senses. The following lists provide young writers a broad range of
sensory words.
Sight—
Appearance
adorable
alert
ashen
attractive
beautiful
billowing
blazing
blinding
blonde
bloody
blushing
bright
brilliant
broad
chubby
clean
clear
cloudy
colorful
contoured
crinkled
crooked
crowded
crystalline
curved
cute
dark
dazzling
deep
delicate
dim
distinct
dull
elegant
fancy
filmy
filthy
flamboyant
flat
flickering
fluffy
fluorescent
foamy
foggy
fuzzy
glamorous
glassy
gleaming
glinting
glistening
glittery
glowing
gorgeous
graceful
grotesque
hazy
high
hollow
homely
lanky
light
lithe
lopsided
low
luminous
metallic
misty
motionless
muddy
murky
nappy
narrow
obtuse
opaque
overcast
pale
pallid
pockmarked
poised
puckered
quaint
radiant
rippling
rocky
rotund
round
ruddy
shadowy
shady
shallow
sheer
shimmery
shiny
skinny
smoggy
somber
sooty
sparkling
spotless
square
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steep
stormy
straight
strange
transparent
twinkling
ugly
unsightly
unusual
weird
wide
wispy
wiry
wizened
wrinkled
Sight—Size
ample
average
behemoth
big
bulky
colossal
diminutive
dwarfed
elephantine
elfin
enormous
extra-large
family-sized
full-sized
gargantuan
giant
gigantic
great
huge
hulking
humongous
immense
jumbo
king-sized
long
mammoth
massive
microscopic
middle-sized
miniature
minute
monumental
obese
outsized
oversized
petite
portly
prodigious
puny
queen-sized
short
small
stupendous
super-sized
tiny
towering
tremendous
vast
voluminous
wee
Sound
bang
bark
bawl
bedlam
blare
blast
blatant
bleat
bluster
boom
booming
brawl
bray
bump
burping
buzz
cackling
chattering
chime
chirp
clamor
clap
clash
clatter
clicking
clink
cooing
crackle
crash
crunching
crying
deafening
discord
dripping
earsplitting
explode
faint
gagging
gasp
giggle
grate
groan
growl
gurgle
harmony
harsh
high-pitched
hiss
hoarse
hubbub
hum
hush
hushed
husky
inaudible
jangle
jingling
laughing
loud
melodic
melody
moan
mumbling
murmur
musical
mute
mutter
noise
noisy
pandemonium
patter
peep
piercing
plotting
purring
quiet
racket
rage
rapping
raspy
rattling
raucous
resonance
resonant
ringing
riot
ripping
roar
rowdy
rumble
rush
rustle
scratching
scream
screaming
screech
screech
shatter
shout
shrill
sigh
silent
slam
smash
snap
snarl
snoring
snort
speechless
splash
squawk
squeak
squeal
stamp
still
stomp
stuttering
swish
tapping
tearing
thud
thud
thump
thunder
thunderous
ticking
tinkle
tumult
twitter
voiceless
wail
wheezing
whine
whining
whir
whisper
whispered
whistle
yell
yowl
zing
Touch
abrasive
boiling
breezy
bristly
bulky
bumpy
burning
chilly
clammy
coarse
cold
cool
cottony
creepy
crisp
cuddly
curly
damp
dirty
downy
drenched
dry
dull
dusty
elastic
feathery
filthy
flaky
flat
fleshy
fluffy
fluttering
fragile
freezing
frosty
furry
fuzzy
gooey
greasy
gritty
grubby
hairy
hard
hot
humid
icy
leathery
limp
loose
lukewarm
matted
melted
moist
mushy
numb
oily
plastic
pocked
prickly
pulpy
rainy
rough
rubbery
sandpapery
sandy
satiny
scalding
scorching
scratchy
shaggy
sharp
silky
slick
slimy
slippery
slushy
smooth
soft
solid
spongy
steamy
sticky
stinging
stony
stretchy
tender
tepid
thick
thin
tight
tough
uneven
velvety
vibrating
warm
waxen
waxy
wet
wooden
wooly
yielding
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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Smell—Taste
acidic
acrid
alkaline
antiseptic
aromatic
balmy
bitter
bittersweet
bland
briny
burnt
buttery
choking
clean
cold
crisp
crusty
damp
dank
delicious
doughy
earthy
fishy
floury
flowery
fragrant
fresh
fruity
gamey
garlicky
gingery
heady
hearty
hot
juicy
lemony
medicinal
mellow
mildewed
minty
moist
moldy
musky
musty
nutty
oily
overripe
peppery
perfumed
pickled
piney
WRIT ING
409
pungent
putrid
rancid
rank
raw
reeking
rich
ripe
rotten
rubbery
salty
savory
scented
sharp
sickly
smoky
sour
spicy
spoiled
stagnant
stale
stench
sticky
strong
stuffy
sugary
sweaty
sweet
tangy
tart
tasteless
tasty
tempting
unripe
vinegary
LIST 144. SIGNAL AND TRANSITION WORDS
Good writing is structured, cohesive, and flows from the opening line to the last word. Writers use a wide
variety of signal and transition words at key points to guide the reader by linking ideas, showing order or
temporal sequence, pointing out relationships, and announcing what’s coming.
The importance of signal words to cohesive narratives, arguments, and other writing is evident in
their prominence in current writing standards. For example, the Common Core State Standards (NGO &
CCSSO, 2010) expect students as early as first grade to write narratives recounting two or more events
and “use temporal words to signal event order and to provide some sense of closure.” In second grade,
students are expected to use linking words like because and also to connect reasons to their opinions as
well as using temporal signals for sequencing. As students develop, the expectation of familiarity with
more sophisticated signal words and phrases also rises.
Signal and transition words are also key guideposts for reading comprehension. Familiarity with them
supports on-grade reading comprehension, particularly with informational texts. As with most literacy
skills, direct instruction is recommended as well as providing practice using signal and transition words in
both reading and writing.
The first list identifies signal words expected to be known and used in grades 1 to 3. The other lists
expand on this foundation and include words and phrases encountered in literature and informational
texts.
Foundation Level—Grades 1 to 3
and
at first
third
finally
after
because
but not
for example
also
in the beginning
next
today
at __ o’clock
so
therefore
like
too
at the end
then
tomorrow
last
so that
outside
different from
another
first
during
yesterday
since
one reason
near
soon
again
second
while
before
but
inside
an important reason
until
Signal and Transition Words—Grades 4 to 12
Continuation signals—Pay attention: There are more ideas to come
a final reason
and
as well as
first of all
identically
lastly
next
secondly
additionally
and finally
besides
first, second, and
so on
in addition
like
not only
similarly
again
another
correspondingly
for one thing
along with
as
coupled with
further
also
as well
equally important
furthermore
in light of
likewise
not to mention
too
incidentally
more
one reason
what’s more
last of all
moreover
other
with
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
410
Signal and Transition Words—Grades 4 to 12 (Continued)
Time signals—When is it happening?
__ o’clock
after that
as soon as
at the same time
by now
eventually
hereafter
in the meantime
later on
not long after
once
prior to
simultaneously
soon after
till
when
about
afterward
at
at this moment
concurrently
finally
heretofore
in the past
little-by-little
not long ago
once upon a time
recently
since __
subsequently
today
whenever
after
already
at last
at this time
currently
following that
immediately
in turn
meanwhile
now
preceding
right after
so far
the following __
tomorrow
while
after a long time
always
at length
before
during
following this
in retrospect
lately
never
of late
presently
right away
sometimes
thereafter
until
without delay
after a while
and then
at present
before long
earlier
henceforth
in the future
later
next __
on time
previously
shortly after that
soon
this time
until now
yesterday
Sequence signals—There is an order to these ideas.
A, B, C., and so
on
next
last
prior to
at this point
at the onset
last of all
lastly
from this point
first, second, etc.
in the first place
then
before
after
finally
subsequently
previously
to begin with
so far
last but not least
the following __
into (into July)
first of all
and then
initially
it all started with
starting with
in turn
on the heels of
later
followed by
thereafter
at first
later on
the next stage
in this order
no sooner than
earlier
after that
soon after
in the beginning
at the end
at last
respectively
immediately
following
adjacent
away from
between
far
in the distance
near
on
outside
throughout
wherever
against
behind
beyond
here
inside
nearby
on the side of
over
to the left
within
Spatial signals—These tell the location or where it is happening.
about
along
below
by
in
into
neighboring on
on top of
right
toward
above
alongside
beneath
close to
in back of
left
next to
onto
south
under
across
around
beside
east
in front of
middle
north
opposite to
there
upon
WRIT ING
411
Signal and Transition Words—Grades 4 to 12 (Continued)
Comparison signals—We will now show how idea A and idea B are alike.
alike
as do
by the same
token
equal
in the same
manner
likewise
same
along the same
lines
as well as
comparable
also
and
as
best
comparatively
both
compared to
by and large
either
equivalent
in the same way
even
is analogous to
identical
just as
in similar fashion
like
much as
similar to
much like
similarly
or
synonymous with
resembling
too
Contrast signals—We will now show how idea A and idea B are different.
a clear difference
a variation of
but
despite the fact
even though
instead
on the contrary
runs counter to
unlike
a countering
argument
although
by contrast
differ
however
instead of
on the other
hand
stands out
when compared
to
a dissident voice
an opposing
view
competing views
difference
in contrast
less than
opposite
the antithesis of
whereas
a striking
distance apart
as opposed to
a strong distinction
balanced against
contrary to
different from
in opposition to
more than
otherwise
conversely
distinct from
in spite of
nevertheless
rather
the reverse of
while
though
yet
Illustration signals—Here’s an example of what we’re talking about.
a case in point
as follows
for one thing
in the following
manner
like
specifically
to clarify
to illuminate
an analogy
chiefly
in another case
in the same way
as
much like
such as
to demonstrate
to illustrate
another way
consider
in one example
in this case
as an example
for example
in other words
including
as an illustration
for instance
in particular
just as
namely
suppose that
to enumerate
to put it another
way
notably
take the case of
to exemplify
to put it
differently
similar to
that is
to explain
to show
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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Signal and Transition Words—Grades 4 to 12 (Continued)
Emphasis signals—Pay attention: This is important.
a central issue
a primary
concern
critical issues
furthermore
it all boils down
to
more than
anything else
of course
on the positive
side
significantly
the basic
concept
the main value
to repeat
a distinctive
quality
a significant
factor
decidedly
a key feature
important to
note
it should be
noted
moreover
of great concern
pay particular
attention to
specifically
the chief reason
the most
substantial
issue
truly
a vital force
definitely
a major
development
above all
a major event
another key point
important to
realize
let me stress
equally
important
in fact
especially
in particular
markedly
more important
most noteworthy
most of all
obviously
of major concern
point often
overlooked
surely
the crux of the
matter
the principal
item
on the bright side
primarily
on the negative side
remember that
surprisingly
the key factor
that is to say
the main reason
to be sure
to emphasize
undoubtedly
without a doubt
without question
despite
in spite of
otherwise
different from
instead of
rather
while
yet
Change of direction signals—Watch out: We’re making a turn.
although
even though
nevertheless
but
however
on the contrary
still
the opposite
conversely
in contrast
on the other
hand
though
Cause, result, or consequence signals—This is why it happened.
accordingly
because of this
consequently
for this reason
impact of
on account of
should that
occur
the end result
an effect of
brought about
due to
from
in order that
outcome of
since
as a consequence
by reason of
following that
hence
in that case
owing to
so
as a result
caused
for
if
it follows that
product of
so that
because
caused by
for this purpose
if . . . then
of
resulting from
that
the outcome
then
thereafter
therefore
whether
thus
while
the ramifications
of
to this end
without
unless
yet
until
however
nevertheless
there are
exceptions
however much
of course
to be sure
Concession signals—I know what the other side is saying.
admittedly
I concede that
that is true, but
even though
may have a point
some truth to it
granted
naturally
still
WRIT ING
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Signal and Transition Words—Grades 4 to 12 (Continued)
Summary signals—Here’s the short version.
as has been
noted
in short
as I have said
as I have shown
by and large
in brief
in sum
in summary
on the whole
overall
thus
so
to recapitulate
summing up
to sum up
it all boils down
to
then
to summarize
therefore
Conclusion signals—This ends the discussion and may have special importance.
a final thought
brings us to the
end
hence
nevertheless
accordingly
close by saying
all in all
consequently
as a result
finally
at last
from this we see
in closing
on the whole
in conclusion
so
last of all
therefore
thus
to conclude
to finish up
in short
the upshot of this
is
to wrap up
except
might
seems
was reported
hinted at
nearly
should
was suggested
Fuzzy signals—I’m not positive about this, so don’t count on it.
alleged
if
probably
some
almost
looks like
purported
sort of
could
maybe
reputed
was extrapolated
Nonword emphasis signals—Look at this.
Exclamation point (!)
Underlined text
Italicized text
bold printed text
subheadings, such as Summary
indenting a paragraph
graphic illustrations
numbered or lettered points (1), (2), (a), (b)
bulleted points (•, ◾, , ✓)
very short sentences: Stop war. Now!
“quotations marks”
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
414
LIST 145. HE SAID/SHE SAID
Dialogue can bring a story to life or it can put the reader to sleep. Here are lively alternatives to ho-hum
“he said/she said” exchanges. Use these vocal verbs in place of “said” or use the vocal adverbs to describe
just how “he said/she said.” Working with dialogue is a simple but very effective way to improve your
storytelling.
Vocal Verbs
acknowledged
added
admitted
advised
affirmed
agonized
agreed
alleged
alluded
announced
answered
apologized
appealed
argued
articulated
asked
asserted
assured
avowed
babbled
bargained
barked
bawled
began
begged
bellowed
beseeched
blubbered
blurted
blustered
boasted
boomed
bossed
bragged
cajoled
called
cautioned
cautioned
challenged
chanted
chattered
chided
claimed
comforted
commanded
commented
complained
conceded
concluded
concurred
confessed
confided
confirmed
consented
consoled
contended
continued
corrected
countered
cried
cried out
criticized
croaked
crooned
crowed
cursed
debated
decided
declared
decreed
demanded
denied
dictated
digressed
directed
disclosed
divulged
drawled
droned
echoed
elaborated
emitted
empathized
emphasized
enjoined
entreated
enunciated
equivocated
exaggerated
exclaimed
exhorted
explained
exploded
extolled
faltered
foretold
fretted
fumed
gasped
giggled
grated
grieved
groaned
growled
grumbled
grunted
guessed
guffawed
gurgled
gushed
hinted
hissed
hooted
howled
implied
implored
inquired
insisted
instructed
interjected
interrogated
interrupted
intoned
jabbered
jeered
WRIT ING
415
jested
joked
kibitzed
lamented
laughed
lectured
lied
maintained
marveled
mentioned
miffed
moaned
mourned
mumbled
murmured
muttered
nagged
noted
objected
observed
offered
ordered
panted
pattered
peeped
petitioned
pleaded
pointed out
pondered
postulated
prayed
preached
predicted
proceeded
proclaimed
professed
promised
proposed
protested
purred
quaked
queried
questioned
quipped
quivered
quoted
raged
railed
ranted
raved
recalled
recited
recommended
reiterated
rejoiced
related
remarked
remembered
reminded
repeated
replied
reported
reprimanded
requested
responded
retorted
revealed
roared
sang out
scoffed
scolded
screamed
screeched
seethed
shouted
shrieked
shuddered
sighed
snapped
snarled
sneered
snickered
sniveled
snorted
sobbed
solicited
speculated
sputtered
squawked
squeaked
squealed
stammered
stated
stipulated
stressed
struggled
stuttered
suggested
surmised
swore
sympathized
tattled
taunted
teased
testified
theorized
threatened
thundered
told
trembled
urged
uttered
ventured
voiced
volunteered
vouched
vowed
waffled
wailed
warned
wept
whimpered
whined
whispered
wondered
yelled
yelped
yowled
zinged
Vocal Adverbs
confidently
cordially
courageously
cowardly
coyly
curiously
cynically
daringly
decisively
defensively
defiantly
discreetly
dramatically
eagerly
easily
eerily
energetically
fiendishly
firmly
flatly
forcefully
formally
gaily
gallantly
gently
genuinely
gleefully
gloomily
happily
harshly
heartily
heavily
heroically
hysterically
importantly
innocently
inquisitively
inspiringly
intelligently
intensely
jealously
joyfully
joyously
lethargically
lightly
loudly
lovingly
meanly
meekly
mildly
mysteriously
naughtily
nervously
offensively
off-handedly
openly
optimistically
pensively
petulantly
powerfully
proudly
punctually
questioningly
quickly
quizzically
rapidly
robustly
sadly
sarcastically
sassily
selfishly
sensitively
serenely
seriously
sharply
sheepishly
shyly
sleepily
smoothly
softly
somberly
sternly
stoically
stubbornly
sullenly
tactfully
tamely
tauntingly
teasingly
tenderly
thankfully
thoughtfully
unexpectedly
unhappily
victoriously
wisely
absentmindedly
adamantly
admiringly
adoringly
agreeably
ambitiously
angelically
angrily
anxiously
arrogantly
assuredly
authoritatively
bashfully
boldly
bravely
brazenly
casually
cautiously
charitably
cheerfully
churlishly
clearly
cleverly
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
416
LIST 146. CHECKLIST FOR NARRATIVE WRITING —PRIMARY
Students improve their writing if they regularly evaluate it using specific guidelines. This checklist is aligned
with writing and language standards for second grade. It is designed for self-assessment by students. It will
remind them of elements that contribute to good writing. Use it as a formative assessment tool. See List 196
for the companion summative writing rubric. A full-sized version of this list is available for free download
from the book’s website.
Name ______________________________________
Date ________________
1 Told about more than one part of an event
or
Told about things that happened in time order
2 Used information I remember from my life or from reading
3 Told about actions, things, ideas, and feelings
4 Used descriptive adjectives and adverbs
5 Picked words (adjectives, adverbs, and verbs) to say exactly what I
meant
6 Used signal words to tell the order of things that happened
7 Gave a wrap-up or closing to the story
8 Stayed on topic; all sentences are about this topic
9 Used sentences of different types and lengths
10 Followed the rules for capital letters
11 Followed the rules for punctuation (., ? ! ‘)
12 Followed spelling rules and used the word wall or dictionary to
help spell correctly
13 Followed rules for plurals; for present, past, and future tenses; and
for pronouns
14 Asked ___________ to read it and make suggestions to make it
better
15 Made changes to first draft to make the writing and story better
16 Used digital tools (camera, computer, clip art, Internet, etc.)
WRIT ING
417
LIST 147. CHECKLIST FOR OPINION
WRITING —PRIMARY
Students improve their writing if they regularly evaluate it using specific guidelines. This checklist is aligned
with writing and language standards for second grade. It is designed for self-assessment by students. It will
remind them of elements that contribute to good writing. Use it as a formative assessment tool. See List 197
for the companion summative writing rubric. A full-size version of this list is available for free download
from the book’s website.
Name ______________________________________
Date ________________
1 Introduced topic or book that is the focus of my report
2 Stated my opinion about the topic or book
3 Gave good reasons for my opinion
4 Used linking words (because, also, and) to connect reasons to
opinion
5 Used descriptive adjectives and adverbs
6 Picked words (adjectives, adverbs, and verbs) to say exactly what I
meant
7 Used information remembered and from research
8 Made a closing statement or section
9 Stayed on topic; all sentences are about this topic
10 Used sentences of different types and lengths
11 Followed the rules for capital letters
12 Followed the rules for punctuation (., ? ! ‘)
13 Followed spelling rules and used the word wall or dictionary to
help spell correctly
14 Followed rules for plurals; for present, past, and future tenses; and
for pronouns
15 Worked with partners to collect information and to revise and edit
our reports
16 Made changes to first draft to make the writing and report better
17 Used digital tools (camera, computer, clip art, Internet, etc.)
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
418
LIST 148. CHECKLIST FOR INFORMATIVE OR
EXPLANATORY WRITING —PRIMARY
Students improve their writing if they regularly evaluate it using specific guidelines. This checklist is aligned
with writing and language standards for second grade. It is designed for self-assessment by students. It will
remind them of elements that contribute to good writing. Use it as a formative assessment tool. See List 198
for the companion summative writing rubric. A full-sized version of this list is available for free download
from the book’s website.
Name ______________________________________
Date ________________
1 Introduced topic that is focus of my report
2 Made two or more points about the topic
3 Used facts and definitions to tell about topic
4 Used linking words (because, also, and) to connect facts to topic
5 Used descriptive adjectives and adverbs
Picked words (adjectives, adverbs, and verbs) to say exactly what I
meant
6 Used information remembered and from research
7 Made a closing statement or section
8 Stayed on topic; all sentences are about this topic
9 Used sentences of different types and lengths
10 Followed the rules for capital letters
11 Followed the rules for punctuation (., ? ! ‘)
12 Followed spelling rules and used the word wall or dictionary to
help spell correctly
13 Followed rules for plurals; for present, past, and future tenses; and
for pronouns
14 Worked with partners to collect information and to revise and edit
our reports
15 Made changes to first draft to make the writing and report better.
16 Used digital tools (camera, computer, clip art, Internet, etc.)
WRIT ING
419
LIST 149. CHECKLIST FOR NARRATIVE WRITING —ELEMENTARY
Students improve their writing if they regularly evaluate it using specific guidelines. This checklist is aligned
with writing and language standards for fifth grade. It is meant to be used by students for self-assessment.
It reminds them of the elements that contribute to good writing. Use it as a formative assessment tool. See
List 199 for the companion summative writing rubric. A full-sized version of this list is available for free
download from the book’s website.
Name _____________________________________________________
Date ________________
Established situation and introduced narrator and characters
Organized an event sequence that unfolds naturally
Used dialogue, description, and pacing to develop story or to show characters’
responses to situations
Used variety of transitional words, phrases, and clauses to manage the sequence
Used concrete words and phrases and sensory details to convey events precisely
Provided a conclusion that follows from the sequence of events
Produced clear and coherent writing appropriate to task, purpose, and audience
Developed and strengthened writing by planning, revising, editing, or trying new
approach
Used technology, including the Internet, to interact and collaborate and to produce
and publish writing
Demonstrated keyboarding skills sufficient to type two pages in one sitting
Used several sources to build knowledge of aspects of the topic
Recalled information from experience and gathered relevant information from print
and digital sources
Summarized or paraphrased information in notes and finished work
Provided list of sources
Drew evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection,
and research using grade-appropriate reading skills
Wrote over extended or short time frames depending on tasks, purposes, and
audiences
Demonstrated command of Standard English grammar
Used appropriate verb tenses, including perfect tense, to convey times, sequences,
states, and conditions and did not make inappropriate shifts in verb tense
Demonstrated command of Standard English conventions for capitalization,
punctuation, and spelling
Used underlining, quotation marks, or italics to indicate title of works
Used a variety of sentence types for meaning, reader and listener interest, and style
Used frequently confused or multiple-meaning words correctly
Recognized elements of different registers, dialects, and varieties of English
Consulted reference materials, print and digital, as needed
Demonstrated understanding of figurative language, word relationships, and nuance
Used grade-appropriate academic and domain-specific vocabulary, including signal
words, accurately
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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LIST 150. CHECKLIST FOR
OPINION/ARGUMENT WRITING —
ELEMENTARY
Students improve their writing if they regularly evaluate it using specific guidelines. This checklist is aligned
with writing and language standards for fifth grade. It is meant to be used by students for self-assessment.
It reminds them of the elements that contribute to good writing. Use it as a formative assessment tool. See
List 200 for the companion summative writing rubric. A full-sized version of this list is available for free
download from the book’s website.
Name _____________________________________________________
Date ________________
Introduced a topic or text clearly
Stated an opinion
Created a logically organized grouping of ideas to support purpose
Provided logically ordered reasons supported by facts and details
Connected opinion and reasons using linking words, phrases, and clauses
(consequently, specifically)
Provided a concluding statement or section that follows from reasoned opinion
Produced clear and coherent writing appropriate to task, purpose, and audience
Developed and strengthened writing by planning, revising, editing, or trying new
approach
Used technology, including Internet, to interact and collaborate and to produce and
publish writing
Demonstrated keyboarding skills sufficient to type two pages in one sitting
Used several sources to build knowledge of aspects of the topic
Recalled information from experience and gathered relevant information from print
and digital sources
Summarized or paraphrased information in notes and finished work
Provided list of sources
Drew evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection,
and research using grade-appropriate reading skills
Wrote over extended or short time frames depending on tasks, purposes, and
audiences
Demonstrated command of Standard English grammar
Used appropriate verb tenses, including perfect tense, to convey times, sequences,
states, and conditions and did not make inappropriate shifts in verb tense
Demonstrated command of Standard English conventions for capitalization,
punctuation, and spelling
Used underlining, quotation marks, or italics to indicate title of works
Used a variety of sentence types for meaning, reader and listener interest, and style
Used frequently confused or multiple meaning words correctly
Recognized elements of different registers, dialects, and varieties of English
Consulted reference materials, print and digital, as needed
Demonstrated understanding of figurative language, word relationships, and nuance
Used grade-appropriate academic and domain-specific vocabulary, including signal
words, accurately
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LIST 151. CHECKLIST FOR INFORMATIVE OR
EXPLANATORY WRITING —ELEMENTARY
Students improve their writing if they regularly evaluate it using specific guidelines. This checklist is aligned
with writing and language standards for fifth grade. It is meant to be used by students for self-assessment.
It reminds them of the elements that contribute to good writing. Use it as a formative assessment tool. See
List 201 for the companion summative writing rubric. A full-sized version of this list is available for free
download from the book’s website.
Name _____________________________________________________
Date ________________
Introduced topic clearly and provided a general observation and focus
Grouped related information logically and developed topic with facts, definitions,
concrete details, quotations, or other information and examples
Included formatting, illustrations, and multimedia useful to comprehension
Connected ideas using linking words, phrases, and clauses in contrast (especially)
Used precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to inform or explain
Provided a concluding statement or section related to the information presented
Produced clear and coherent writing appropriate to task, purpose, and audience
Developed and strengthened writing by planning, revising, editing, or trying a new
approach
Used technology, including Internet, to interact and collaborate and to produce and
publish writing
Demonstrated keyboarding skills sufficient to type two pages in one sitting
Used several sources to build knowledge of aspects of the topic
Recalled information from experience and gathered relevant information from print
and digital sources
Summarized or paraphrased information in notes and finished work
Provided list of sources
Drew evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection,
and research using grade-appropriate reading skills
Wrote over extended or short time frames depending on tasks, purposes, and
audiences
Demonstrated command of Standard English grammar
Used appropriate verb tenses, including perfect tense, to convey times, sequences,
states, and conditions and did not make inappropriate shifts in verb tense
Demonstrated command of Standard English conventions for capitalization,
punctuation, and spelling
Used underlining, quotation marks, or italics to indicate title of works
Used a variety of sentence types for meaning, reader and listener interest, and style
Used frequently confused or multiple meaning words correctly
Recognized elements of different registers, dialects, and varieties of English
Consulted reference materials, print and digital, as needed
Demonstrated understanding of figurative language, word relationships, and nuance
Used grade-appropriate academic and domain-specific vocabulary, including signal
words, accurately
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
422
LIST 152. TEACHER’S CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK CODE
Giving timely and consistent feedback to developing writers is an important component of teaching writing. Use this coded list of comments for frequently occurring rough spots and augment them with targeted
comments. Provide feedback on areas of strength for each student as well.
ab
abbreviation problem
pass
misuse of passive voice
agr
agreement problem
pr ref
pronoun reference problem
amb
ambiguous
pun
punctuation needed or missing
awk
awkward expression or construction
reas
reasoning needs improvement
cap
capitalize
rep
unnecessary repetition
case
error in case
ro
run-on
cp
comma problem
shift
faulty tense shift
cs
comma splice
sp
incorrect spelling
d
inappropriate diction or register
thesis
improve the thesis statement
det
details are needed
trans
improve the transition
dm
dangling modifier
tx
topic sentence needed (or improved)
dn
double negative
u
usage problem
frag
fragment
uw
unclear wording
ital
italics or underline
v
variety needed
lc
use lower case
vag
vague
mm
misplaced modifier
ve
verb error
num
numbers problem
vt
verb tense problem
^
insert
w
wordy
¶
new paragraph needed
wc
better word choice needed
||
faulty parallelism
wm
word missing
,
insert comma
ww
wrong word
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LIST 153. PROOFREADING MARKS
Helping students develop essays, short stories, term papers, or other writing goes more smoothly when you
use proofreading symbols. Introduce these early in the school year and use them throughout. The time and
space saved may be devoted to comments on content and encouragement.
Notation in Margin
How Indicated in Copy
Explanation
true. The best rule to follow
new paragraph
living room
close up
Mary hada
insert space
Mary had a lamb little.
change order (transpose)
Sp
There were 5 children.
spell out
Cap
mary had a little lamb.
capitalize
Lc
Mary had a little Lamb.
use lowercase
The correct proceedure
take out (delete)
Stet
Mary had a .little
. . . . lamb.
keep as it was (restore)
Little
Mary had a lamb.
insert word(s) in margin
Birds fly
Next the main
insert a period
insert a comma
BF
Mary had a little lamb.
use boldface type
Ital.
Mary had a little lamb.
use italics
u.s.
Mary had a little lamb.
underline (underscore)
#
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LIST 154. HYPHENATION RULES FOR WRITING
Novice readers divide words into syllables to help them pronounce unfamiliar words or understand their
meanings by examining their component parts. Writers use a slightly different set of syllabication (word
segmentation) rules to decide where to divide and hyphenate a word that does not completely fit at the end
of a line of text. These rules are morphemic, that is, they focus on preserving the meaning of the words that
are divided. Word processing programs are quite good at recommending where to place the hyphen and
separate word parts; however, young writers need to understand the basic conventions of hyphenating at
the end of a line for times when they are not using word processing.
End-of-Line Hyphenation Rules
1
Do not divide words that have five or fewer letters.
2
Divide a word only between syllables; use a hyphen (-) at the end of the line to show the break.
3
Divide a compound word between its two component words.
4
Divide a word between two consonants, unless they form a digraph (th, ch, sh, ph, gh, ng, qu) or
blend. Examples: flash-ing not flas-hing; cast-ing not cas-ting.
5
Divide a word after a prefix.
6
Divide a word before a suffix.
a. If a consonant was doubled before adding the suffix -ing, divide between the doubled consonants;
otherwise, divide before -ing (sit-ting, fall-ing, play-ing).
b. If the suffix is -ly, -tion, -sion, or -ture, divide before the suffix. These suffixes usually form their
own syllables.
7
Do not divide a word in a way that leaves fewer than three letters at the end of the line or begins a line
with fewer than three letters.
8
When in doubt, consult a dictionary for the preferred syllable division.
See List 27, Syllabication Rules for Readers.
WRIT ING
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LIST 155. NONBIASED LANGUAGE GUIDELINES
“Sticks and stones can break my bones, but words can never hurt me.” Remember this childhood refrain?
We knew, even at the age of five or six, that it wasn’t true: name calling and taunts hurt. Now we know
that even subtle, unintended biased or discriminatory words hurt students’ self-esteem and achievement
levels as well as their relationships with others. The following guidelines address typical discriminatory or
biased language problems encountered in school. They follow a “person first, difference second” principle.
Make a conscious effort to avoid unnecessary emphasis on race, ethnicity, age, gender, disability, or other
“differences.” Use and teach inclusive, positive language in your classes.
Gender
Avoid the generic use of he, his, man, and so on. Instead, use a gender-neutral word, an inclusive group
word, an accepted term used for both women and men, or inclusive plural forms.
Instead of
Use
actor, actress
alumnus/a, alumni/ae
anchorman
benefactor, benefactress
businessman, businessmen, salesman,
saleslady, salesgirl
chairman
cameraman
cleaning lady, maid
clergyman, clergymen
congressman, congressmen
early man
fireman, policeman, mailman
forefathers
foreman
founding fathers
freshman, freshmen
housewife
man, mankind
man-made
manpower
mothering
Mrs. John Powers
patron, patroness
statesman
stewardess, steward
waiter(s), waitress(es)
weatherman
workman, workmen
actor
alum(s), graduate(s)
anchor, news anchor
benefactor
business owner, manager, salesperson, sales associate, sales
representative
chairperson, chair
photographer
housekeeper, house cleaner, cleaning person
priest(s), rabbi(s), pastor(s), the clergy, members of the clergy
member(s) of Congress, representative(s), senator(s)
early humans, early societies
firefighter, police officer, letter carrier, postal worker
ancestors
supervisor
founders, pioneers, settlers, colonists
first-year student(s)
homemaker
human beings, humanity, humankind, people
machine-made, manufactured, synthetic
personnel, workers, staff, employees
parenting, nurturing
Ms. Naomi Powers
patron
diplomat, politician, government official
flight attendant
server, wait staff
meteorologist, weather reporter
worker(s)
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
426
Dear Sir:
A senator appoints his own staff
The student will choose his topic.
Man’s discovery of . . .
Each hiker should bring his own gear.
The nurse will give her patient . . .
The male nurse said . . .
The woman dentist said . . .
The chairman said . . .
Dear Editor (or Service Manager, Warranty Manager,
Colleague, Members of the Committee, etc.), To Whom It
May Concern:
Senators appoint their own staff
Students will choose their topics.
Scientists’ discovery of . . .
Hikers should bring their own gear.
Nurses will give their patients . . .
The nurse said . . .
The dentist said . . .
The chairperson (moderator, facilitator, leader) said . . .
Racial and Ethnic Slang
Racial and ethnic slang and derogatory terms for racial and ethnic backgrounds should never be used. Use
countries of origin, tribe, or a preferred term. Avoid unnecessary emphasis on race or ethnicity. Respect
for others is the key.
Instead of
Use
Afro-American
Oriental, Asiatic
Black, African American
Asian, Pacific Islander, Chinese American, Japanese American, Korean
American, and so on
Native Americans, Navajo, Sioux, Lenni Lenape, and so on
Inuit
Native peoples, aborigines
Hispanics, Latinos, Latino/Latina, Cuban, Cuban American,
Columbian, Columbian American, Mexican, Mexican American,
and so on
The teacher . . .
The salesperson . . .
The doctor . . .
Indians
Eskimos
Natives
Hispanics
The black teacher . . .
The Asian salesperson . . .
The Indian doctor . . .
Age and Disability
Avoid terms that suggest one might be too young or too old. Choose words that focus on people first,
their disabilities or conditions second. Choose words that are specific rather than generalizations. Avoid
emotional or euphemistic words.
Instead of
Use
boy, girl, child
adolescent or young man, young woman (for individuals in high
school)
woman/women, man/men (for persons eighteen or older)
older adults, older people, people over _____
the elderly, the aged, old people,
senior citizens, geriatrics
the disabled, the handicapped
people with disabilities, people with mobility (visual, auditory,
speech, etc.) impairments
WRIT ING
427
the wheelchair-bound student
the deaf child, deaf children
the blind child, blind children
the deaf, the blind
the AIDS victim, the AIDS
sufferer
contracted AIDS
retarded children, mentally
impaired children, mentally
handicapped children
brain-damaged children
slow learners
autistic child
mentally or emotionally disabled
crazy, psychotic, neurotic
long-time drug user, known drug
abuser
the special student
the mother who is a cancer victim
the student who uses a wheelchair
the child with hearing loss, the child with a hearing impairment,
children who are deaf
the child with vision loss, the child with a visual impairment,
children who are blind
people who are deaf, people who are blind
the person living with HIV
the person living with AIDS
became infected with HIV
children with developmental disabilities (includes autism
spectrum disorders, epilepsy, muscular dystrophy, cerebral
palsy, Down syndrome, sensory disorders, and congenital
disabilities)
children who have had a brain injury
children with learning disabilities, children with ADD, children
with AD/HD, children with intellectual disabilities (or other
specific disability or condition)
child with an autism spectrum disorder
person with a personality disorder, person with an emotional
disability, person with a cognitive disability
person with a psychiatric disability, person with a mental health
disorder
person with a history of substance abuse
student with disabilities
the mother who has cancer
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428
LIST 156. ACRONYMS AND INITIALIZATIONS
Everyone knows about SUVs, but what about EVs? Acronyms and initializations are used frequently in
media and everyday communication. They are “shortcuts” that refer to single or multiword names and
phrases. Both initializations and acronyms are formed from the first letters of the words they represent,
but they are not the same. An initialization is pronounced using the letters that form it (e.g., UN) whereas
an acronym is pronounced as a word (e.g., AIDS). Acronyms and initializations are so widespread that
entire dictionaries are now devoted to them. This list includes commonly used acronyms and initializations.
Acronyms are noted by (acr) following the definition.
ACA
ACT
ADA
ADD
AIDS
AKA
ASAP
ATM
AWOL
BCE
BLT
BYOD
CC
CDC
CE
CEO
CFO
CGI
CIA
CIO
COD
CPA
CPI
CPR
DA
DAR
DINK
DIY
DJ
DOA
DVD
EDP
EEO
EKG
ELL
ERA
E-Rate
ESL
Affordable Care Act
American College Testing
Americans with Disabilities Act
Attention Deficit Disorder
Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome (acr)
Also known as
As soon as possible (acr)
Automated Teller Machine
Absent without Leave (acr)
Before the Common Era
Bacon, Lettuce and Tomato
Bring your own device
Carbon Copy
Center for Disease Control
Common Era
Chief Executive Officer
Chief Financial Officer
Computer Generated Images
Central Intelligence Agency
Chief Information Officer
Cash/Collect on Delivery
Certified Public Accountant
Consumer Price Index
Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation
District Attorney
Daughters of the American
Revolution
Dual income, no kids (acr)
Do it yourself
Disk jockey
Dead on arrival
Digital video disk
Electronic data processing
Equal Educational Opportunity
Electrocardiogram
English Language Learner
Equal Rights Amendment
Education rate
English as a Second Language
ETA
EU
EV
FAFSA
FDIC
FedEx
FERPA
FHA
FTE
FTP
FYI
GAAP
GAO
GED
GIGO
GMT
GNP
GOP
GPA
HIPAA
HIV
HMO
HQ
HTML
IDK
IM
IOU
IQ
IRS
ISP
ITV
KISS
LAN
LASER
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429
Estimated time of arrival
European Union
Electric Vehicle
Free application for federal student
aid
Federal Deposit Insurance
Corporation
Federal Express (acr)
Family Education Rights and
Privacy Act (acr)
Federal Housing Administration
Fulltime equivalent
File Transfer Protocol
For your information
Generally Accepted Accounting
Principles
Government Accounting Office
General Education Development
Garbage in, garbage out (acr)
Greenwich Mean Time
Gross National Product
Grand Old Party (Republican)
Grade point average
Health Insurance Portability and
Accountability Act
Human immunodeficiency virus
Health Maintenance Organization
Headquarters
Hypertext Markup Language
I don’t know
Instant messaging
I owe you
Intelligence quotient
Internal Revenue Service
Internet Service Provider
Interactive Television
Keep it simple, stupid. (acr)
Local Area Network
Light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation (acr)
LIFO
LOL
LYL
MIA
MMB
MO
MRI
MVP
MYOB
NA
NAACP
NAEP
NASA
NATO
NCLB
NIMBY
OAS
OMB
OPEC
PC
PDF
PDQ
PIN
POV
POW
PS
RADAR
RAM
RIF
RIP
ROM
Last in, first out (acr)
Laughing out loud
Love you lots
Missing in action
Monday morning blues
Modus operandi way of doing
things
Magnetic resonance imaging
Most valuable player
Mind your own business
Not applicable/not available
National Association for the
Advancement of Colored
People
National Assessment of
Educational Progress
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (acr)
North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (acr)
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
Not in my backyard (acr)
Organization of American States
Office of Management and
Budget
Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries (acr)
Politically correct; personal
computer
Portable document file
Pretty darn quick
Personal identification number
(acr)
Point of view
Prisoner of war
Postscript, public school
Radio detecting and range (acr)
Random access memory (acr)
Reduction in force
Rest in peace
Read-only memory
RSVP
RV
SASE
SAT
SCUBA
SEATO
SEC
SNAFU
SONAR
SOS
SRO
SSA
STD
SUV
SWAK
SWAT
TBA
TDD
TEFLON
TGIF
TLC
TNT
UFO
UN
UNICEF
UPS
URL
USA
USPS
VIP
VoIP
WAN
WHO
ZIP
Répondez s’il vous plait
Recreational vehicle
Self-addressed stamped envelope
Scholastic Aptitude Test
Self-contained underwater breathing
apparatus (acr)
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
(acr)
Securities and Exchange
Commission
Situation normal; all fouled up (acr)
Sound navigation ranging (acr)
Save our ship
Standing room only; single room
occupancy
Social Security Administration
Sexually transmitted disease
Sport utility vehicle
Sealed with a kiss
Special weapons action team (acr)
To be announced/arranged
Telecommunications device for the
deaf
Tetrafloroethylene resin (acr)
Thank Goodness/God it’s Friday
Tender loving care
Trinitrotoluene
Unidentified flying object
United Nations
United Nations International
Children’s Emergency Fund (acr)
United Parcel Service
Uniform (or Universal) Resource
Locator
United State of America; US Army
United States Postal Service
Very important person
Voice over Internet Protocol
Wide Area Network
World Health Organization
Zone Improvement Plan (acr)
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
430
S E C T I O N 12
Teaching Ideas
List 157. Tips for Reading Teachers
List 158. Games and Teaching Activities
List 159. Language Development through Drama
List 160. Word Wall Lists
List 161. Student/Group Project Planner
List 162. Working in Teams
List 163. Teamwork Rules
List 164. Teaching with Magazines and Newspapers
List 165. Sample Reading Block Schedule
List 166. Activities for Tutors and Volunteers
List 167. One Hundred Ways to Praise
List 168. Activities for Multiple Intelligences
List 169. Multiple Intelligences Questionnaire—Elementary
List 170. Multiple Intelligences Questionnaire—Middle and High
School
List 171. Report Card Helpers—Euphemisms
List 172. Reading Organizations and Journals
List 173. Publishers of Reading Materials and Tests
List 174. Education Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Initializations
I
n recent years, a lot of attention has focused on standards, assessment, accountability, and
specific gaps in student literacy achievement. Much less attention has been given to sharing
information about what works in reading education and education in general. There are a number
of instructional practices that teachers rely on in their day-to-day planning.
Cooperative learning, in pairs or teams, has been shown to encourage positive interdependence realizing the conceptual model of learning as a social construct. The ability to work as part
of a team is also cited as one of the basic twenty-first-century skills. Assigning and rotating leadership roles in teams also helps develop skills that are important for college and careers, including
planning, time and talent management, and interpersonal skills.
Motivation-enhancing activities are also recognized as important to learning achievement.
Motivation not only increases engagement with content but also has been shown to augment students’ feelings of self-esteem. Games that are enjoyable as well as practice providers are always
welcome in classrooms. Recognizing student efforts and incremental achievement is also important to keeping students motivated.
Motivation and engagement are also enhanced when teachers incorporate opportunities
to tap into students’ multiple intelligences. A teaching plan that includes some choices for
demonstrating learning or options for investigating topics also differentiates in ways that respect
students’ strengths and support standards-based learning goals.
The lists in this section provide a broad range of learning activities, tips, and ideas to help you
use other lists throughout the book. Ways to work with volunteers and connect with professional
organizations and other teaching support are central to your professional success.
Christenson, A., Reschly, A., & Wylie, C. (Eds.). (2012). Handbook of research on student engagement. New York:
Springer.
Cunningham, P., & Allington R. (1999). Classrooms that work: They can all read and write (2nd ed.). New York:
Longwood.
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers (NGA &
CCSSO). (2010). Common Core State Standards for English language arts and literacy in history/social studies,
science, and technical subjects. Washington, DC: Authors.
Slavin, R. (2010). Cooperative learning. In V. Aukrust (Ed.), Learning and cognition (pp. 160–166). New York:
Elsevier. Retrieved from www.ipb.ac.rw/books/1410448737.pdf#page=173
Putman, M., & Walker, C. (2010). Motivating children to read and write: Using informal learning environments as
contexts for literacy instruction. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 24(2). DOI: 10.1080/025685
41003635243.
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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LIST 157. TIPS FOR READING TEACHERS
Teachers get some of the best advice from other teachers. When asked what advice they would share with
other reading teachers, experienced reading and language arts teachers offered these tips:
• Teach and use reading strategies in all subjects; make vocabulary instruction, comprehension, and
writing part of science, math, social studies, and any other subject you teach.
• Teach a variety of strategies for word recognition, comprehension, fluency, and so on.
• Provide plenty of opportunities for reading to support fluency and automaticity.
• Use both formal and informal assessment and diagnosis techniques.
• Provide great narrative and informational reading materials and lots of variety.
• Teach phonics and decoding, especially to beginners.
• Develop vocabulary, both general and in subject areas.
• Emphasize comprehension.
• Pay attention to individual differences; don’t let anyone fall behind.
• Theory is important: know about schema, goal setting, emergent literacy, text structure, motivation,
and success.
• Ask a student to read a passage and retell it—a simple, yet effective reading assessment.
• Preview new vocabulary before students read the passage; discuss the words and related words. Have
students keep a log of new words and their meanings.
• Work on fluency. Use echo reading, choral reading, and rereading to develop speed, accuracy, and
prosody.
• Match students’ reading material to their instructional reading level. Vygotsky calls it the zone of
proximal development. It’s not too easy, not too hard, but just right for teaching and learning. If a
student averages more than one error every ten to fifteen words when reading aloud, the material is too
difficult. Replace it with one on the same topic but at a more reasonable readability level.
• Encourage and reward independent reading. Musicians, sports teams, artists, and readers all need
practice to improve their skills. Don’t fret about a steady reading diet of fantasy or sci-fi; fret if students
aren’t reading.
• Have students write every day. Reading and writing are related. Improving one improves the other.
Include at least some writing every day and sustained writing at least twice a month.
• Don’t ignore spelling errors. Spelling improves word knowledge and recognition helps reading. Target
high-frequency words, subject vocabulary, and words students misspelled in assignments.
• Keep interest high. Nothing works better than interest and motivation. Have fun in reading class with
jokes, humorous writing, and word play of all sorts. Learn students’ interests and help them find books
they’ll love to read.
T E A C HING IDE A S
433
LIST 158. GAMES AND TEACHING ACTIVITIES
Learning to do things well requires practice. The games and activities in the following list will provide
opportunities for students to practice with new words and skills while engaging in a broad array of games
and gamelike activities. Integrate motivating activities in your daily plans. Several of the activities listed are
great for learning centers and small groups.
Pairs. A card game for two to five players. Five cards are dealt to each player
and the remainder of the deck is placed in the center of the table. The object of
the game is to get as many pairs as possible. There are only two cards alike in each
deck. To play, the player to the right of the dealer may ask any other player if he or
she has a specific card, for example, “Do you have and?” The player asking must
hold the mate in his or her hand. The player who is asked must give up the card
if he or she holds it. If the first player does not get the card asked for, he or she
draws one card from the pile. Then the next player has a turn at asking for a card.
If a player can’t read his or her own card, the player may show the card and ask
any other player how to read it.
If the player succeeds in getting the card asked for, either from another player or from the pile, he or
she gets another turn. As soon as the player gets a pair he or she puts the pair face down in front of him
or her. The player with the most pairs at the end of the game wins. Note: A deck of fifty cards (twenty-five
pairs) is good for two to five players. This game works well with twenty-five high-frequency instant words,
content words, or other vocabulary list.
Bingo. Played like regular Bingo except that the players’ boards have twenty-four words in place of
numbers. Use tokens for markers. Make a deck of at least thirty words and randomly write them on the
players’ boards. Be sure no two boards are exactly alike. For beginning readers, the caller may show the
selected word when it is called to help students recognize it. Bingo is reached when a student fills in a row,
column, or diagonal.
the
of
it
with
at
a
can
on
are
this
is
will
Free
to
and
your
that
we
as
but
be
in
not
for
have
Use words in a sentence. Either orally or written. Award points for the longest, funniest, saddest, or
most believable sentence. All sentences must be grammatically correct.
Spelling. Select list words or words from the week’s lessons for an oldfashioned spelling bee. Many of the word lists in this book make excellent spelling
bee lists, including the challenge words from the National Spelling Bee.
Word search puzzle. Use an online puzzle maker to make word search puzzles
for vocabulary from the week’s reading or content subject work.
For young students or students with specific reading disabilities, do not write
them backwards. Search words can be spelled out vertically, horizontally, or diagonally. Students search for the list of words and circle them when found.
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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Word searches help students remember how to spell their vocabulary words.
To make a word search more challenging, allow words to overlap or don’t provide
a list of the words.
Matching. Make worksheets with two columns
of words or word parts. Students draw a line from an
item in column A to the item in column B that matches
(prefix and root, word and meaning, two synonyms, etc.).
Matching also can be done by matching two halves of a
card that has been cut to form puzzle pieces.
Flash cards. Write the target words on one side of each
card. Show the cards to the student one at a time for the
student to read instantly. This can be done one-on-one, as
a small-group activity, or with the whole class. Flash cards
also can be used in sentence building, finding synonyms
and antonyms, and the concentration game.
Board games. Use a blank board game from a teacher
supply store or trace a path on poster board. Mark off oneinch spaces. Write a word in each space. Students advance
from the start by tossing dice until one reaches the finish line.
To move ahead, students must correctly read or define the
word in the square.
Category contests. Students, individually or as teams,
try to get more words in a category than the other team
or player. For example, the teacher starts the contest by
announcing the category: proper nouns. Students write as
many proper nouns as they can in the allotted time. Teams
score two points for each win. The team that reaches twenty
points is the champion.
TV game show. Make your own TV game show based
on “Jeopardy,” “Wheel of Fortune,” or “Family Feud.” Use
spinners, egg timers, recorded music, and other props. This
game works well for middle school unit reviews.
T E A C HING IDE A S
435
Concentration. To play you need a deck containing two cards
each for six to ten words (total of twelve to twenty cards). Words
are written on one side only. Shuffle the cards, then deal them all
out face down. Player 1 turns over two cards; if they match, the
player puts the pair in his or her win pile and goes again. If they
don’t match, they are turned faced down again and player 2 has a
turn. The game continues until all cards have been matched and
picked up. The winner is the player with the most cards. Alternate
forms match words with pictures or words with definitions.
Word wheels. Word wheels, or their sliding strip
cousins, make an excellent practice task for young children learning to make word families with phonograms.
To make a word wheel, attach a smaller inner circle
to a larger outer circle with a paper fastener. Write the
phonogram and initial consonants on the wheels so that
when they are turned, new words are formed.
Kids’ book of lists. Being able to group things by common features is an important cognitive skill. Give students
practice by making their own personalized book of lists
or a class book of lists. A book of lists can be an excellent
review project for a theme unit, including all types of facts,
Q&A, key people, and so on. They are also great projects
for writing resources. Here are some categories to use:
• Salty foods, TV shows about families, things kids do better than adults, healthy snacks, things to take
to summer camp, uses for a rubber band, things to do after school, best games to play
• Settings for a story, scary words, types of buildings, ways people are related, interesting names for
characters, things that can go wrong, surprises that are not good, surprises that are wonderful
Charting progress. For many students, charting their
own progress is an important motivator and a way of
taking responsibility for their learning. There are many
things that students can chart, from their height, to sports
stats, to grades, and many more. Some progress charts are
important to keep in students’ portfolios to share with
parents; others may be kept privately by students.
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Association cards. Association cards generally have a
vocabulary word on one side and an associated word on the
reverse of the card. The student first studies both sides of a
set of cards; then the student goes through a stack of cards
reading the words and attempting to recall the association,
for example, the definition. If correct, he or she puts the
card into the know pile; if incorrect or the student can’t
remember, the card is studied and put into the don’t-know
pile. Next, the don’t-know pile is shuffled and gone through
again, once more placing cards into know and don’t-know
piles. This process continues until all cards are in the
know pile.
Students need to refresh their memories by reviewing
the set a few days and then a few weeks later. Students should
not attempt to learn (associate) too many new terms at one
time or learning will become taxing as well as boring. By
adding new cards to the set of known cards, the percentage
correct will be high and motivating.
Association pairs. Older students may prefer using
a table of terms and associations instead of cards. The
technique is similar. Make a table with two columns. Size
the columns so that when the right side is folded toward the
left, the writing in the left column is covered. Then write the
key word in the column on the left and the association in
the column on the right. To study, begin by having the page
unfolded and memorize the associations. To test recall, fold
the right edge toward the left column so that only the key
words are showing. Look at the key word on the left and
try to recall the association. Flip up the paper to reveal and
check your answer.
Graphic organizers. Use graphic organizers frequently
with students and provide blank templates for students to
use on their own. Introduce each type for an appropriate
learning objective, for example, a comparison-contrast chart
when students need to compare and contrast.
T E A C HING IDE A S
437
Association Cards
One Sided
Front
Back
myth
coop
coupe
Definition
convivial
sociable or
friendly
Second Language
friend
amigo
Root or Affix
poly
mny, ex.
polygon
Synonym or Antonym
convey
transfer
OH
ohio
LIST 159. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT THROUGH DRAMA
Many children love acting. With these activities they can have some fun and learn new words at the same
time. These words will help children express themselves in writing and speech as well as understand them
when they appear in text. This is a particularly good language option for a bad weather day. It gives students
the opportunity for brain-friendly movement and fun.
In one place—make your body do the following:
wiggle
bend
collapse
bounce
expand
rise
hang
totter
twist
shake
bob
contract
lurch
slouch
squirm
turn
rock
spin
curl
lean
droop
stretch
flop
sway
whirl
uncurl
sag
sink
From place to place—make your body do the following:
creep
roll
tramp
strut
limp
march
plod
skip
gallop
hustle
stroll
stagger
scurry
amble
crawl
leap
stride
saunter
hobble
trudge
slink
run
hop
prance
meander
scramble
stalk
dodge
shuffle
tap
slip
slide
drag
stumble
scuff
trample
mince
sneer
wink
chew
grimace
pout
gape
stare
squint
leer
grin
glare
blink
stroke
scratch
snatch
slap
pint
whisk
poke
squeeze
pluck
pat
tap
rub
Make your legs and feet do the following:
kick
stamp
tip-toe
Make your face do the following:
frown
smile
yawn
wince
Make your hands do the following:
clench
grasp
wring
beckon
pinch
clasp
grab
slap
knead
pick
poke
rub
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Make your arms and hands do the following:
pound
beat
chop
lift
dig
whip
strike
reach
push
stir
throw
grope
grind
wave
pull
weave
fling
punch
cut
slice
thrust
clutch
catch
flail
groaning
howling
sobbing
mumbling
whimpering
tittering
hiccupping
sputtering
hooting
humming
clanging
ticking
moaning
roaring
gasping
chuckling
wailing
sniffing
wheezing
hissing
creaking
croaking
honking
squeaking
fear
frustration
boredom
jealousy
shame
horror
reluctance
doubt
resignation
sorrow
contentment
wonder
envy
repentance
disgust
delight
compassion
gratitude
playing
celebrating
worrying
harvesting
fighting
scrubbing
studying
destroying
thinking
caterpillar
apple tree
baby
bee
bird
gorilla
mosquito
duck
statue of liberty
Dramatize or act out the following:
yawning
grunting
bellowing
shrieking
rustling
sneezing
panting
murmuring
cackling
braying
lowing
popping
sighing
growling
screeching
whining
snoring
snickering
coughing
muttering
trilling
whispering
neighing
clicking
Act out or dramatize the following:
pain
loneliness
discontentment
generosity
resentment
hate
surprise
anticipation
greed
rage
satisfaction
anxiety
reverence
pride
love
contempt
impatience
happiness
Act out or dramatize the following:
worshiping
planting
building
Act like the following:
cat
dog
kangaroo
T E A C HING IDE A S
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LIST 160. WORD WALL LISTS
Word walls—lists of target words organized and displayed in the classroom—have become a mainstay
teaching and learning tool. They have an integral role in models for teaching reading and writing. They
are also indispensable aids in vocabulary building in content areas from kindergarten through high school.
Word walls foster independence. Word walls are similar to word banks and word journals.
Word walls are used more frequently by students if they have had some role in selecting words or other
useful information for them. Be sure to create new word walls when new units or topics are started and
current words are known by students. Choral reading of a vocabulary word wall is an excellent fluency
and sight word warm-up for the beginning of a whole-class reading lesson. In the early grades, encourage
students to make and refer to a personal copy of the word wall so they can use it at home and to keep a
record of the numbers and types of words they have learned.
Word walls support learning through the following:
1. Showing the alphabetic principle
2. Providing exemplars for phonic elements
3. Providing visual scaffolding for new words
4. Supporting students’ independent writing efforts
5. Adding visual memory elements to word study and recall
6. Enabling analogy strategies for word recognition
7. Involving students in selecting words for study
8. Recording progress in word mastery through the year
There are three essentially different purposes of word walls: reading and writing instruction, building
content vocabulary, and providing structure and process reminders. They should be displayed separately
and their purposes explained so students know where to look for the help they need.
To Construct a Word Wall
• For primary-grade reading and writing. Post the letters of the alphabet on a large wall. Write the words
with a bold black marker and cut them out to highlight their unique visual outline. Back the words with
colored paper to make them easier to view and distinguish. Post the words under the alphabet letter
they begin with.
• For other word walls. Post the words alphabetically under a key word or use an alternate appropriate
organizational scheme. For example, in math you might use size order or the order of operations.
Word Wall for Reading and Writing—Primary
For a reading and writing word wall for primary grades, display high-frequency words, word families as
they are learned, words from language experience charts, and words that are not phonically regular. Also
include high-utility words from your basal reading selections, content subject books, and words that students misspelled in their weekly writing.
In kindergarten or first grade, teachers often begin with the names of the students in the class. They use
these familiar words to begin sound-letter associations. Then they add five or more words each week that
are the focus of their direct teaching of decoding and spelling skills. Daily work with the new and existing
words builds automaticity and fluency in reading, independence in writing, and strategies for applying
phonics knowledge to new words. The following list is a typical word wall for primary-grade reading and
writing.
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A
after
again
am
and
answer
are
down
duck
hot
how
E
I
each
every
I
F
B
bag
Bob
but
father
find
first
four
from
G
give
go
H
D
did
different
door
had
has
have
him
R
V
more
most
mother
must
rain
rug
very
S
W
said
Sam
say
seed
sent
sock
want
was
we
were
who
will
wing
with
word
J
N
Jack
jump
new
number
K
O
L
of
old
one
out
C
came
care
come
country
M
light
like
line
listen
little
live
look
low
P
page
pail
part
people
picture
T
the
there
they
this
time
turn
two
Y
year
you
U
Z
up
zoo
Word Families
-ake: cake, bake, lake, make, take
-am: ham, jam, ram Sam, yam
-at: bat, cat, fat, rat, sat
-ed: bed, Ted, red, fed, led
-ick: sick, pick, lick, quick, stick
-ay: day, play, pay, say, jay
-ell: bell, fell, sell, tell, yell
-ill: hill, Bill, will, fill, spill
-in: pin, tin, win, chin, skin
-ip: dip, ship, tip, skip, trip
-ing: sing, ring, king, wing, thing
-op: hop, pop, stop, flop, mop
-ot: pot, hot, spot, not, got
-unk: bunk, trunk, skunk, sunk, junk
Word Walls for Content Vocabulary—Elementary
Word walls for content vocabulary reinforce key words in themed units and help students enrich their
schema for the topic. Words are taken from prior knowledge, brainstorming, and introductory activities,
such as viewing a video or listening to a story, or they are introduced during a lesson. Drawings or digital
photos may be used along with the word to provide additional visual cues, especially in the early grades.
Repeated work with the words during content area lessons, in supplemental independent reading materials,
and in daily or weekly expository writing builds students’ reading and writing vocabulary as well as their
conceptual knowledge.
Content vocabulary word walls are often set up on bulletin boards or three-panel display boards at
learning centers around the room. Add words from any math, science, social studies, health, music, career,
technology, art, or other content subject studied or encountered. Remember to start with the subject, then
together with students, select the key words for your word wall. The following examples will get you started.
T E A C HING IDE A S
441
Mathematics
• Counting numbers. zero, one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen,
fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, nineteen, twenty, twenty-one, thirty, forty, fifty, sixty,
seventy, ninety, hundred, thousand, million, billion
• Ordinal numbers. first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, twentieth,
twenty-first, thirtieth, fortieth, fiftieth, sixtieth, hundredth, hundred and first
• Measurement. ruler, yardstick, meterstick, unit, inch, inches, foot, feet, yard, mile, millimeter,
centimeter, meter, kilometer, cup, pint, quart, gallon, milliliter, liter
• Time. clock, second, minute, hour, wristwatch, o’clock, Roman numerals, half hour, day, week, month,
year, decade, century, sunrise, morning, noon, midday, afternoon, dusk, sunset, evening, season,
summer, fall, autumn, winter, spring, anniversary
• Geometry. shape, circle, square, rectangle, triangle, pentagon, hexagon, octagon, cone, cylinder, sphere,
length, width, height, intersect, line, side, vertical, horizontal, figure
• Operations. + add, addition, total,− subtract, subtraction, difference, X or * or • multiply,
multiplication, times, -;- or / divide, division, group, regroup, increase, decrease, more, fewer, = equals,
> greater than, < less than, ones place, tens place, estimate, solve
Science
• Weather. temperature, thermometer, degree, Fahrenheit, Celsius, cloud, rain, snow, hail, ice, wind,
storm, hurricane, overcast, humidity, frozen, desert, arid, tropics, barometer, wind sock, weather vane,
tsunami, earthquake, tornado, blizzard, frost, dew, thunder, winter, summer, autumn, fall, spring,
smog, fog
• Space. sun, moon, star, planet, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto,
solar system, Milky Way, space, orbit, astronaut, atmosphere, revolve, constellation, space station,
NASA, galaxy, light-years, gravity, weightless, eclipse, meteor
• Life. biology, cell, cycle, food chain, endangered, decompose, biologist, adaptation, amoeba,
amphibian, ancestor, backbone, bacteria, balance, breathe, carnivore, herbivore, chlorophyll,
community, ecosystem, digestion, dinosaur, extinct, fish, flower, food web, fossil, gills, habitat, heredity,
hibernate, human, inherited trait, leaf, life cycle, living, mammal, marine life, nonliving, omnivore,
paleontologist, predator, producer, pollen, pollute, parasite, reptile, recycle, root, seed, seedling, shelter,
skeleton, skin, taste, tissue, trunk
• Physics. absorb, electric, electron, current, circuit, heat, air current, atom, battery, conductor, energy,
filament, light, heat, temperature, force, friction, fulcrum, gravity, inclined plane, lens, lever, load,
machine, magnet, magnetic field, magnetism, mass, matter, measure, melting point, motion, Newton,
optical, opaque, pendulum, periodic, physical change, pitch, ramp, refraction, reflection, prism, power,
position, rotate, screw, simple machine, solid, surface, transparent, vibrate, vibration, volume, wave,
wedge, weight, wheel and axle, work
• Earth science. amber, arctic, climate, conifer, continent, core, crater, crust, desert, earth, earthquake,
flood, flow, fertile, equator, erosion, forest, glacier, grassland, groundwater, hemisphere, horizon,
iceberg, igneous rock, landform, mantle, map, metamorphic rock, mineral, mountain, natural resource,
North Pole, northern, ocean, oil, plain, pond, rain forest, range, reservoir, ridge, river, rocks, rotate,
scale, sediment, sedimentary rock, soil, South Pole, southern, stream, surface, terrarium, tundra, valley,
volcano, weathering, woodland forest
Art
• Color. color, hue, shade, dark, light, tint, cool, warm, primary, secondary, red, blue, yellow, orange,
green, violet, white, black, palette, color wheel, pigment
• Media. paint, crayon, pen, pastels, chalk, watercolor, acrylic, pencil, charcoal, clay, stone, metal, media,
medium
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• Product. portrait, landscape, still life, graphic, print, silkscreen, illustration, collage, assemblage, digital
image, ceramics, pottery
• Element. style, technique, space, depth, shallowness, scale, perspective, composition, contrast,
background, foreground, balance, shape, line, texture, rough, smooth, slick, sandy, grainy, harmony,
movement, pattern, contrast
• Method. draw, sketch, paint, outline, sculpt, carve, model, construct, print, photograph, illustrate,
design
Word Walls for Structure and Process—Elementary
Structure and process reminders help students become independent, active learners. Structure word walls
help students self-check for things such as word usage, spelling, capitalization, and punctuation and include
lists such as irregularly spelled words, compound words, rules for plurals, suffixes and prefixes and meanings, root words and meanings, and descriptive words. Process word walls are reminders of steps that need
to be completed and include lists such as steps for decoding a word, solving a problem, writing a letter, and
reading a textbook chapter. Here are some examples of word walls commonly used in elementary grades.
They can be revised for younger and older students.
Structure
Irregularly Spelled Words
again
although
answer
become
brought
color
do
does
feather
give
island
learn
listen
live
most
move
of
off
said
sign
See also List 25, Phonically Irregular Words.
Irregular Plurals
child—children
man—men
tooth—teeth
goose—geese
person—people
ox—oxen
foot—feet
woman—women
deer—deer
mouse—mice
See also List 135, Plurals.
Plurals
1. Add -s to the end of the word: car—cars
2. Add -es if the word ends in -s, -sh, -ch, -x, or -z: fox—foxes
3. Change -y to i and add -es: city—cities
4. Add -s if the word ends in a vowel and y: key—keys
5. Change the f to v and add -es: leaf—leaves
6. Add -es to words that end with a consonant followed by o: hero—heroes
See also List 135, Plurals.
T E A C HING IDE A S
443
two
was
were
women
work
Overused Words
Pick overused words from student writing; then brainstorm replacement words such as those in the
next list.
Happy
beautiful
tall
see
get
interesting
make
fat
said
give
bad
big
nice
fast
go
kind
small
old
think
saw
like
mean
part
funny
want
naughty
immense
charming
swift
advance
variety
miniature
aged
ponder
spied
enjoy
intend
segment
comical
crave
See also List 145, He Said/She Said.
Editor’s Choice
delighted
gorgeous
statuesque
examine
obtain
fascinating
construct
plump
exclaimed
bestow
Process
Steps to Decode a Word
1. What is the beginning sound?
2. What is the ending sound?
3. Sound it out.
4. Look for parts you know.
5. What fits in the sentence?
6. Look for picture clues.
7. Check the word wall.
8. Is it like a word you know?
9. Ask a buddy.
Steps to Think and Learn Like a Scientist
1. Pick your subject.
2. Observe and record.
3. Read about it.
4. Form a question.
5. Predict what will happen.
6. Plan an experiment to find out.
7. Do the experiment.
8. Record the results in an organized way.
9. Discuss what you found out.
10. Compare the results to your prediction.
11. Form a new question.
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Steps to Read to Learn
1. Look at the pictures.
2. Read the title, headings.
3. Look at key words in bold or italics.
4. Think about what you know.
5. Do a KWL chart (know, want to learn, learned) or write some questions.
6. Read to find out.
7. Look for main ideas and supporting facts.
8. Notice signal words for lists, comparisons, sequence.
9. Look for cause and effect and problems and solutions.
10. Think about how the author organized the information.
11. Highlight or underline important words or ideas.
12. Put notes in the margin.
13. Review what you have learned. Complete the KWL.
14. Write the answers to your questions.
15. Talk about what you learned.
Steps to Solve a Word Problem
1. Read the problem to find out what it is about.
2. Draw a picture or diagram of the problem.
3. Find the question in the problem. What do you need to find out?
4. Make a list of facts you have.
5. Cross out facts that are not related to the problem.
6. Make a table.
7. Find a pattern.
8. Write a number sentence or equation.
9. Estimate your answer.
10. Solve the number sentence.
11. Check your answer to be sure it is possible.
12. Work backwards.
13. Use logical reasoning.
Parts of a Letter
• Date
• Return address
• Inside address
• Greeting
• Message
• Closing
• Signature
T E A C HING IDE A S
445
LIST 161. STUDENT/GROUP PROJECT PLANNER
The time management expert Alan Lakein told us, “Planning is bringing the future into the present so that
you can do something about it now.” This list helps individual students or groups plan their projects and
consider options at the beginning. Having a good idea of the product enables students to work backwards
from the desired outcome. Knowing what enables you to figure out how. Grant Wiggins and Jay McTigue
call this “backwards design.” Full-sized versions of these lists are available for free download from the
book’s website.
Name(s) _________________________________________________ Today’s date _____________
Project topic _______________________________________________ Due date ______________
What I/we want to learn ____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Related ideas and key words for searching _____________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Information Sources (✓ Best Ones for This Project)
◽ Almanac
◽ Art
◽ audio recording
◽ Blogs
◽ books—biography
◽ books—historical fiction
◽ books—history
◽ dictionary
◽ dictionary—specialized
◽ e-mail an expert
◽ encyclopedia
◽ experiment
◽ government report
◽ government website
◽ interviews
◽ magazines
◽ maps or atlas
◽ microscopic slides
◽ museum exhibits
◽ music
◽ newspapers
◽ online video
◽ organizations
◽ photographs
◽ posters
◽ questionnaire
◽ quotations
◽ reports
◽ speeches
◽ thesaurus
◽ video disks (DVD)
◽ webcams
◽ websites
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446
Ways to Organize Information (✓ Best Ones for This Project)
Text
Graphics
◽ advantage or disadvantage
◽ cause and effect
◽ chronological (time) order
◽ comparison
◽ comparison or contrast
◽ criteria met or not met
◽ description or fact sheet
◽ list or Q&A
◽ main idea or details
◽ order of importance
◽ problem and solution
◽ sequential steps order
◽ spatial organization
◽ cause-and-effect diagram (fishbone)
◽ collage—mixed media
◽ flowchart
◽ flyer or factsheet
◽ graphs
◽ model
◽ photos or drawings
◽ story map
◽ tables
◽ time line
◽ tree diagram
◽ word cloud
◽ word web
Project Presentation will include ✓ best ones for this project
◽ comic book or graphic novel
◽ demonstration
◽ diorama
◽ exhibit of artifacts
◽ library display
◽ model
◽ multimedia presentation
◽ music and/or dance
◽ panel discussion
◽ photo sequence
◽ photo collage
◽ picture essay
◽ play or puppet show
◽ poetry
◽ poster
◽ press release
◽ reenactment
◽ slide presentation
◽ speech
◽ travel brochure
◽ video presentation
◽ wall display (bulletin board)
◽ web page
◽ wiki
Project Schedule and Checklist
I/We have
Due Date
✓ Done
Planned the project
_________
◽
Discussed the project with my teacher and we agree
_________
◽
Located the information and materials I/we need
_________
◽
Reviewed the information, and I/we have selected the best sources
_________
◽
Enough information to complete the project as planned
_________
◽
Read and organized the information in notes and other ways as planned
_________
◽
Made a first draft of the report
_________
◽
Made a first draft of the graphics or other presentation materials
_________
◽
Revised and edited the first draft
_________
◽
Completed all the parts of the project
_________
◽
Proofread all the written materials
_________
◽
Practiced the presentation
_________
◽
T E A C HING IDE A S
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LIST 162. WORKING IN TEAMS
Collaborative learning projects vary considerably in scope and duration. Consequently, teachers will form
learning teams of different sizes and structures to fit the projects and time frames. Some teachers assign
students to a team and allow them to determine the roles each takes; other teachers assign individuals
to specific roles within teams. It is important, over time, to give all students experience in leadership and
nonleadership roles. It will help them develop their talents and ability to interact positively in different
contexts.
The following list describes a variety of roles and types of responsibilities often used in collaborative
learning teams for panel discussions as well as projects. It will help you select the roles and responsibilities
for team members for each planned learning project. Members of small teams will often have more than
one role. See List 163, Teamwork Rules, for general principles of effective collaboration.
Manager
• Describes the task or problem to the team, including what product or result is required
• Explains the criteria that will be used to judge whether the team is successful
• Assigns tasks and sets deadlines
• Keeps track of the team’s progress toward the goal and gives updates to teacher
• Monitors the team’s work to be sure it stays on target
• Reviews draft and final against criteria for completeness
Organizer
• Schedules meetings if they are not during class
• Gets materials the group will need
• Returns materials after use
• Organizes and heads clean-up
• Arranges for computer lab time, audio and video equipment, poster supplies, and so on
Researcher
• Checks facts, computations, and other information
• Locates library, Internet, and other reference materials
• Skims background materials and makes brief summary presentations to the team
• Keeps log of sources and bibliographic information
• Checks draft and final report for accuracy of facts and citations
Member
• Suggests ideas in brainstorming and problem solving
• Shares knowledge and skills related to the task
• Contributes information or other component as assigned
• Provides feedback to makes the project the best it can be
Charter or Presenter
• Creates flowcharts, diagrams, time lines, and other visual presentations of the problem and the solution
• Prepares video and/or audiotape of presentation, if used
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• Asks for feedback so that the project and visual presentation accurately reflects team’s work
• Presents final product or part of product
Scribe
• Records brainstormed ideas or discussion
• Asks for clarification and feedback to check that the written statements match the team members’ ideas
• Records steps in the team’s process or activities
• Records the team’s discoveries and answers
• Distributes copies of records and notes to all team members
• Drafts the report of the team’s work and distributes it for feedback
Facilitator
• Prepares questions for discussion that draw out background, issues, options, pros and cons
• Poses questions to team and/or team members to get discussion going
• Asks follow-up questions or moves on to new questions to move the discussion forward
• Redirects team when they get off topic
• Calls on members to ensure everyone has opportunity to speak
Timekeeper
• Manages time for each step in the project
• Reminds members of deadlines and time remaining
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LIST 163. TEAMWORK RULES
Teamwork means working together to achieve a shared goal. Similar to a puzzle, every member contributes
pieces to make the whole. Without each member’s contribution, the project cannot be completed. The
quality of the project also depends on members’ individual work. Before beginning a collaborative project,
review the rules in the following list. By agreeing to follow them, your team takes an important first step
toward an excellent project outcome.
• Respect all teammates.
• Disagree without being disagreeable.
• Take turns speaking; don’t interrupt.
• Speak loudly enough to be heard by your group, but not by other teams.
• Be on time and prepared for meetings.
• Share ideas; if you find or know something that will help a teammate, pass it on.
• Offer to share your special skills, for example, artistic talent or Internet search skills.
• Critique ideas, not people.
• Maintain a positive attitude.
• Stay on task and help others do so.
• Collaborate, cooperate, and compromise
• Ask for help if you are stuck or forgot something.
• Don’t decide by voting; together figure out the right answer.
• Strive to do your best and support your team’s best efforts.
• Do a fair share of the work.
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LIST 164. TEACHING WITH MAGAZINES
AND NEWSPAPERS
Magazines and newspapers—whether delivered to homes or bought one issue at a time—are excellent
early reading resources. With newspaper daily circulation at over 31 million and more than twenty-five
magazines with subscriptions over a million, most students will have access to magazines and newspapers
in their homes. Use them as resources for in-class practice or student-parent activities to reinforce early
literacy skills. The following list will get you started.
• Circle words that begin with the target letter.
• Make an alphabet book—cut out pictures for words that begin with each letter of the alphabet.
• Find words and pictures that belong to a category: food, home, people, community helpers, fun, sports,
animals, work, clothing, buildings.
• Compare prices of food or other current sale items.
• Find people from different countries; post the pictures on a world map and connect the photos by
colored yarn to the countries.
• Find pictures (comics, ads, or news) that show a feeling (happy, sad, frightened, proud, etc.).
• Find pictures (comics, ads, or news) that show a concept (sharing, learning, teamwork, etc.).
• Find words that have a target ending (-ed, -ing, -ly, -tion, -ment, -ish).
• Find money words and symbols.
• Find long words for the class to divide into syllables.
• Make a pictograph with all the faces in today’s newspaper. Which group had more: male or female?
young or old?
• Add pictures and headline words to word walls on nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions.
• Read a suitable comic strip together; cover the dialogue, duplicate, and have students create new
dialogue for the pictures.
• Glue suitable comic strips to card stock, cut into frames, and have students put in proper order.
• Read a comic strip together. Discuss sequence and what changes in language and in the pictures.
• For a month, track the temperature on a graph.
• For a month, track the number of sunny, cloudy, foggy, snowy, rainy days in a table or in a graph.
• For a five-game period, track the number of runs made by the class’s favorite baseball teams; add them,
compare, make tables, make pictographs, and make scatter graphs. Do the same with other teams as the
seasons change.
• Using a grocery ad, list all the items that cost less than $2.00 or less than $.1.00.
• Discuss movie ads—what they portray, what appeals and doesn’t, adult or kids’ movies, topics, genre
(animation, mystery, adventure, thriller, war, etc.).
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LIST 165. SAMPLE READING BLOCK
SCHEDULE
The following schedule shows how instruction in reading and language arts can be arranged in a ninetyminute block. The schedule incorporates whole-class instruction using a comprehensive core reading program (CCRP), time for strategic development of skills for small groups of students (groups 1, 2, and 3) using
a supplemental program (SP), and shorter intensive sessions for individual or pairs of students (intensive
A or B) in the lowest achievement group. Time is also allocated for scheduling individual conferences, running records, or other assessments on a rolling basis. This weekly schedule overviews the learning goals
and instructional materials used.
Week of _____________________
Monday
8:30–9:00
9:00–10:00
9:00–9:20
9:20–9:40
9:40–10:00
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
11:30–12:15
11:30–11:45
11:45–12:00
12:00–12:15
Intensive A
Individual
Assessment
Tuesday
Wednesday
Whole Class—CCRP
Group Work—SP
Group 2
Group 3
Group 3
Group 1
Group 1
Group 2
Thursday
Friday
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Group 2
Group 3
Group 1
Intensive Individual Instruction and Assessment
Intensive B
Individual
Intensive B
Assessment
Intensive A
Assessment
Individual
Assessment
Individual
Assessment
Individual
Intensive A
Learning Goals
Instructional Materials
Whole Class
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Intensive A
Intensive B
Individual Conferences
Individual Assessments
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LIST 166. ACTIVITIES FOR TUTORS AND VOLUNTEERS
Students often benefit from working individually with a competent reader, either another classmate, an
older student, a volunteer, or a tutor. These individuals can have marked positive effects on children’s
reading, even though they may have no training in literacy, per se. Three significant factors in their success
are a positive attitude toward reading, a genuine interest in helping a child, and easy-to-follow directions.
The following list identifies a number of ways that tutors and volunteers can support student reading and
literacy development.
Read aloud
Students of all ages, even teens, enjoy listening to stories. Practice before the session so you model good
reading; be sure to read with feeling and interest.
• After reading the story or part of story, ask the student to retell it in his or her own words.
• Try echo reading. You read a sentence first, then the student reads the sentence as you did.
• Sit side by side and point to the words as you read, encourage the student to read along with you, either
aloud or silently.
• Take turns reading by each reading every other sentence, paragraph, or page.
• Engage the student in a discussion of the story, its setting, characters, similarity to other stories, or
similarity to real-life situations.
• Discuss words you find interesting and ask the student about words he or she finds interesting. Explain
the meaning of words that are unfamiliar to the student—encourage the student to use the context to
figure out what the word might be.
Read silently
Many struggling students give up before they begin. Bring a book or magazine for your own reading and
model interest and pleasure in reading.
• Ask the student to read his or her text as assigned by the teacher and say you are available to help with
any unfamiliar words or ideas. Read while the student is reading.
• Ask the student to retell you what he or she just read. Ask questions to show your interest. Offer to tell
about what you just read, as well, and encourage the student to ask you questions.
• Engage in discussion about what the student read. Don’t dwell on simple facts but ask questions about
the author’s purpose, what impression the author wanted to make, the author’s choice of words.
Work on words
Recognizing and knowing the vocabulary used in a text is a major contributor to fluent reading and comprehension success.
• Discuss key words before beginning either oral or silent reading activities.
• Use a learner’s dictionary to help students determine the meanings of unfamiliar words. Learner’s
dictionaries have student-friendly definitions and show a word correctly used in a sentence.
• Provide a word search or crossword puzzle to start the session.
• Create cloze activities for new vocabulary words. This type of fill-in-the-blank exercise with a word
bank of vocabulary words as answers helps the student pair words with their meanings.
• Discuss categories of new words: palindromes, collective nouns, onomatopoeia, clipped words,
portmanteaux words, neologisms, toponyms, and others. Interest in words help students learn words
indirectly.
T E A C HING IDE A S
453
Encourage the student
Everybody needs encouragement. Beginning or struggling readers need a lot.
• Find out what the student is interested in and help find a variety of different kinds of reading materials
related to those interests: short stories, jokes, comics, poems, factual stories from newspapers, or
websites.
• Success on a learning task is motivating; break down lessons into bite-sized tasks that the student can
do with guidance. With practice, gradually lessen support until the student can do it independently.
• Plan more than one activity for a session. When possible, give the student a choice of activities or which
activity to do first. Having a say in instruction is motivating.
• Show you notice even small improvements by praising specific things the student has improved.
• Give praise readily, not just at the end of the session. Praise a correct reading, a good retelling, a good
question, remembering to bring the text, being on time, and so on.
• Keep and share progress over time. Audio recordings, writing samples, spelling lists, and so on provide
excellent proof to the student that working together pays off.
• Reread or redo some texts or activities from previous sessions to build confidence.
• Help select a humorous book at the student’s independent level for reading at home.
• Use websites on favorite topics as reading texts or to prompt writing activities.
• Vary the ways you praise; use List 167, One Hundred Ways to Praise, in this book for ideas.
• Establish a set schedule for working with the student and don’t cancel or be late. Trust builds
relationships and relationships build trust.
• Don’t get discouraged because the learning process takes time. Be patient.
• Plan every session; don’t wing it. Unprepared teachers signal their lack of caring.
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LIST 167. ONE HUNDRED WAYS TO PRAISE
All people need to be recognized for their efforts and accomplishments. Praise builds confidence, motivates,
confirms, shows respect, acknowledges, rewards, and sets standards for accomplishment. Use words of
praise often—even for small successes; it will encourage greater ones. Be careful, however, to match your
words to the situation. Be genuine about what was praiseworthy and about how well it was done.
Awesome!
I like your style.
A new personal best!
You’ve made my day.
FanTAStic!
Pulitzer Prize–winner in training.
You’re on the right track now.
GR 8!
Great style!
Be sure to share this—it’s great!
You showed you’re a leader on this!
Very creative.
This is very well organized.
Your work has such personality.
This is quite an accomplishment.
Very interesting.
Very convincing!
That’s very perceptive.
I like the way you’ve tackled this.
I like the way you’re working.
Good use of details.
Hurray!
Way 2 go!
Good thinking.
You’ve really mastered this.
This is a moving scene.
That’s coming along nicely.
A+ work.
Excellent beginning!
Your remark shows a lot of sensitivity.
You’ve shown a lot of patience with this.
That’s an interesting way of looking at it.
This is really nice.
A well-developed theme!
You’ve really been paying attention.
You are really in touch with the feeling here.
⋆ quality!
Keep up the good work.
Now you’ve figured it out.
It looks like you’ve put a lot of work into this.
That’s clever.
Clear, concise, and complete!
You’ve put in a full day today.
You’re on the ball today.
You’re right on target.
This is something special.
This is prize-winning work.
That’s the right answer.
You’re a Rising Star!
Exactly right.
Thank you!
I like your choice of words.
Bravo!
I can tell you were very careful with this.
Wow!
You made me smile.
T E A C HING IDE A S
455
1 derful!
This kind of work pleases me very much.
You’re a great team member.
Congratulations! You got _____ correct today.
You’re quite an expert.
Terrific!
Very informative.
Your parents will be proud of your work.
You really caught on!
That’s an interesting point of view.
You’re right on the mark.
You’ve got it now.
Good reasoning.
You make it look so easy.
I can tell you really understand this.
This shows you’ve been thinking.
You made an important point here.
You’re becoming an expert at this.
Dynamite!
Beautiful.
Outstanding!
I’m very proud of your work today.
This is a winner!
Excellent work.
Super!
Very good. Why don’t you show the class?
Great going!
The results are worth all your hard work.
Where have you been hiding all this talent?
You’ve come a long way with this one.
I knew you could do it!
Marvelous.
What neat work!
Very fine work.
You really outdid yourself today.
I like the way you’ve handled this.
That’s a good point.
This looks like it’s going to be a great report.
That’s a very good observation.
That’s quite an improvement.
That’s certainly one way of looking at it.
What an imagination!
Superior work.
Phenomenal!
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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LIST 168. ACTIVITIES FOR MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
Howard Gardner increased our understanding of the nature of intelligence by arguing that it is not simply a matter of how smart someone is but more a matter of how he or she is smart. Teachers have long
respected individual differences in learning and expression and have worked to provide a range of instructional activities that enable students to learn and demonstrate their understanding in a variety of ways. This
list provides examples of activities linked to each of Gardner’s eight kinds of intelligence. Plan to engage
students in activities from three or more categories during instruction. Offer students choices of types of
products for demonstrating their learning.
Verbal/Linguistic (probably the most common teaching and learning strategies; focuses on ability to
read, write, and understand through the use of words)
Dictated stories
Journals and logs
Outlines
Sequenced directions
Written summaries or précis writing
Oral reports
Written reports
Essays and reaction papers
Debates
Panel discussions
Daily oral news reports
Word-a-day, pun-a-day
Poetry
Dramatic reading
Readers’ theater
Acrostic poems
Visual/Spatial (ability to think and understand through pictures, diagrams, and the arrangements of
objects within a picture, diagram, map, etc.)
Find pictures to represent ideas
Draw pictures to illustrate concept or things
Design a logo or icon
Color, underline, highlight to emphasize
Build a model
Construct a mobile showing interrelations
Sequence pictures to illustrate change
Design ideographs to tell a story
Follow pictograms to construct an object
Make a photo collage on a topic
Make a video to tell a story or report
Select format, type, materials for purpose
Body/Kinesthetic (ability to use the body for expression, for skilled action, for accomplishing tasks, for
creating)
Act out or dramatize an event
Show a process through dance (e.g., growth)
Use papier-mâché, other media to express
Choreograph movement to problem solve
Grow and observe plant development
Create a tableau to show outcome
Play Simon Says
Perform precision drill routines
Cooking experiences
Dissection
Science experiments
Math manipulatives
Show through pantomime
Use facial expressions to show emotional states
T E A C HING IDE A S
457
Interpersonal (ability to get along with others and work together for common purposes)
Buddy learning
Peer tutoring
Reciprocal learning
Team research projects
Peer editing
Interviewing
Simulations and role-play
Games for two or more
Team competitions
Class clubs
Logical/Mathematical (ability to use logic and mathematical processes to represent and manipulate
ideas)
Categorize information
Look for anomalies, missing pieces
Compare and contrast
Develop flow charts, organization charts
Create equations or rules for process and concept
Use formulas to compute answers
Interpret data to support arguments
Distinguish facts from opinions
Use analogies, metaphors to explain
Use math processes to problem solve
Extrapolate trends from historic data
Search for cause-and-effect relationships
Musical (ability to recognize and respond to rhythm, rhyme, tone, and other musical elements; to
compose, perform, respond to musical compositions)
Listen to and appreciate rap, chants
Arrange a choral reading in parts
Represent feelings with music
Respond to moods created by instruments
Create lyrics to tell a story and express an idea
Relate musical style to social or historical idea
Select music for multimedia presentation
Sing alone or in groups
Perform a set musical composition
Perform an improvised musical composition
Use rhythmic poetry to review event
Investigate musical traditions of other places
Intrapersonal (ability to know the self, to be aware of own thoughts, motivations, goals, principles,
strengths, and weaknesses)
Make and follow a plan
Prepare for a long-term goal
Diaries, journals, logs
Estimate time and effort for personal activity
Take responsibility for own actions
Be aware of own thinking during learning
Reflect on and appreciate self-growth
Evaluate own work and effort accurately
Track own progress in learning
Articulate of reasons for choosing hero
Create family tree and history
Link career options to personal qualities
Develop school and personal growth portfolio
Make scrapbook of photos and memorabilia
Environmental (ability to recognize, differentiate, appreciate objects and events in the natural world;
attention to and appreciation of environment, including its natural systems)
Care for a pet
Keep an ant farm
Collect and classify leaves
Photograph or video one location in four seasons
Experiment with simple machines
Learn about and join a recycling project
Observe and track weather for patterns
Keep a log of nature’s impact on daily life
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
458
I like to listen to music.
I like to read every day.
I like to make new friends.
I like to think about myself
growing up.
I enjoy listening to stories or
to someone telling about
something interesting.
I like to run, jump, ride a
bike, or climb.
I like learning about
numbers, counting,
measuring, and patterns.
I like dogs, cats, and other
animals.
I like to draw, color, and
paint.
I notice numbers, shapes, and
patterns in many places.
I like to help other people.
I enjoy singing and know
many songs.
I enjoy putting puzzles
together and doing mazes.
I like to keep a learning logs
or a journal.
I like to learn new words.
I like spending time outdoors
and seeing all the things in
nature.
T E A C HING IDE A S
459
Nature Smart
Me Smart
People Smart
Body Smart
Music Smart
Picture Smart
Math Smart
Word Smart
Read the sentence and put a
score in the gray box.
Put 3 if the sentence
describes you most days.
Put 2 if the sentence
describes you some days.
Put 1 if the sentence
describes you only a
few days.
Score
LIST 169. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
QUESTIONNAIRE —ELEMENTARY
Nature Smart
Me Smart
People Smart
Body Smart
Music Smart
Picture Smart
Math Smart
Word Smart
Score
Read the sentence and put a
score in the gray box.
Put 3 if the sentence
describes you most days.
Put 2 if the sentence
describes you some days.
Put 1 if the sentence
describes you only a
few days.
I like to play catch and other
games with a ball.
I sometimes pick a book
because of its pictures and
illustrations.
I like gymnastics, dancing, or
sports.
I like to play and work with
others.
I like doing on math
problems and finding
answers.
I know I do some things very
well and I know some
things I am trying to do
better.
I am learning to play an
instrument or I want to
learn to play one soon.
I enjoy taking care of my pet
or helping others take
care of their pets.
Tally Row
Teacher: Copy the scores to the bold boxes on each line. Tally each column and put the totals in the
tally row. Tallied scores show relative strengths for each intelligence type. A full-sized version of this list is
available for free download from the book’s website.
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
460
I enjoy singing, playing,
listening to many types of
music, although I have my
favorites.
I enjoy reading for pleasure
every day or as often as I can.
I make friends easily and
maintain friendships over
many years.
I set goals for myself and work
toward them over time.
I enjoy writing. People say I
have a gift for it.
I am athletic and enjoy a variety
of sports.
Math and science have always
been favorite subjects of
mine.
I am a year-round outdoors
sort of person.
I am good at drawing and I
draw or doodle almost every
day.
I like to organize, arrange, or
categorize things.
People look to me for advice
and help as well as for
company.
I often hear music in my head
while I am walking, studying
or doing something else.
T E A C HING IDE A S
461
Naturalistic
Intrapersonal
Interpersonal
Body/Kinetic
Music/Rhythm
Visual/Spatial
Logical/Math
Verb/Linguist
Read the sentence and put a
score in the gray box.
Put 3 if the sentence describes
you most of the time.
Put 2 if the sentence describes
you occasionally.
Put 1 if the sentence describes
you rarely.
Score
LIST 170. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
QUESTIONNAIRE —MIDDLE AND HIGH
SCHOOL
Naturalistic
Intrapersonal
Interpersonal
Body/Kinetic
Music/Rhythm
Visual/Spatial
Logical/Math
Verb/Linguist
Score
Read the sentence and put a
score in the gray box.
Put 3 if the sentence describes
you most of the time.
Put 2 if the sentence describes
you occasionally.
Put 1 if the sentence describes
you rarely.
I can easily picture something in my head if I close
my eyes and think of it.
I take responsibility for my
actions.
I have a large vocabulary and
enjoy learning new words.
I am concerned about recycling,
global warming, extreme
weather, and sustainability.
I can usually learn new moves
for sports or dance with just
a little practice.
I like the differences in color,
texture, and shape in things
around me.
I prefer doing an activity rather
than watching someone else
doing it.
I prefer working in a group
rather than working alone.
I can assemble just about
anything by following the
directions.
I recognize my strengths and
areas where I could do better.
I started to play an instrument
when I was young and still
play and practice often.
I enjoy spending time with pets
and other animals.
Tally Row
Copy the scores to the bold boxes on each line. Tally each column and put the totals in the tally row.
Tallied scores show relative strengths for each intelligence type. A full-sized version of this list is available
for free download from the book’s website.
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
462
LIST 171. REPORT CARD HELPERS —EUPHEMISMS
Every communication has a context—the who, what, and why we are communicating. There are rules,
mostly unwritten but still important, for the level of formality expected. In evaluative and reporting situations, such as writing comments on report cards or preparing notes for a teacher-parent conference,
a formal style is required and slang and overly blunt language is out of place. (See List 112, Language
Registers, for a more information.) A euphemism is a polite and less aggressive word or phrase used to
communicate something that might be harsh, embarrassing, or unpleasant. This list gives some ideas for
communicating about sensitive topics without giving offence.
Blunt Truth
Euphemism
Lies
Shows difficulty distinguishing between imaginary and factual material
Fights
Resorts to physical means of winning his or her point or attracting attention
Has body odor
Needs guidance in development of good habits of hygiene
Cheats
Needs help in learning to adhere to rules and standards of fair play
Steals
Needs help learning to respect the property rights of others
Is a smart aleck
Needs guidance in learning to express ideas respectfully
Is a klutz
Has difficulty with motor control and coordination
Needs nagging
Accomplishes tasks when interest is constantly prodded
Has unusual hair style
Unconventional hairstyle draws negative attention
Is lazy
Requires ongoing supervision to work well
Is rude
Lacks a respectful attitude toward others
Is selfish
Needs help in learning to share with others
Is a loudmouth
Needs to develop quieter habits of communication
Eats like a pig
Needs to improve table manners
Bullies others
Has potential for leadership but needs to use it constructively
Acts like a baby
Shows lack of maturity in relationships with others
Hangs onto others
Appears to feel secure only in group situations; needs to develop sense of
identity and independence
Turns others off
Needs help in developing meaningful peer relationships
Is often late
Needs help in developing habits of responsibility and punctuality
Wastes time
Needs to improve time management skills
Always playing
Needs to develop a greater interest in academic subjects
A snail is faster
Has difficulty completing tasks in allotted time
Is a spin doctor
Selectively responds to questions to avoid negative consequences
Reads comics in class
Is an avid recreational reader
T E A C HING IDE A S
463
LIST 172. READING ORGANIZATIONS AND JOURNALS
Reading and literacy education is dynamic, and there is always something new to learn or share with reading
colleagues. Keep abreast of research, trends, best practices, and promising innovations by being an active
member of one or more professional associations in reading and by reading journals and publications in the
field. The organizations have local and regional affiliates and sponsor national conferences. Their websites
have current information, links to reading sites, and much more. Many of the journals are available through
membership in the associations listed as well as through your library.
International Literacy Association (ILA)
(Formerly International Reading Association, IRA)
www.reading.org/
Annual meeting, early July
Literacy Research Association (LRA)
(Formerly National Reading Conference NRC)
www.literacyresearchassociation.org
Annual meeting, early December
College Reading and Learning Association (CRLA)
www.crla.net/
Annual meeting, late October
National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE)
www.ncte.org/
Annual meeting, mid-November
American Educational Research Association (AERA)
www.aera.net
Annual meeting, April
American Library Association
www.ala.org
Annual meeting, June
National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)
www.naeyc.org
Annual meeting, November
Association for Childhood Education International (ACEI)
www.acei.org
Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement (CIERA)
www.ciera.org
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ERIC—Institute of Education Sciences (IES)
http://eric.ed.gov
What Works Clearinghouse of the Institute of Education Sciences (IES)
http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/default.aspx
National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition (NCELA)
www.cal.org/what-we-do/projects/ncela
Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages International (TESOL)
www.tesol.org
Annual meeting, March
The Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition (CARLA)
www.carla.umn.edu
National Association for Bilingual Education (NABE)
www.nabe.org
Annual meeting, March
US Department of Education Regional Educational Laboratories (RELs)
The ten RELs can be reached through this central website:
http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs/
Council for Exceptional Children (CEC)
www.cec.sped.org
Annual meeting, April
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD)
www.ascd.org
Annual meeting, March
Literacy Information and Communication System (LINCS)
http://lincs.ed.gov/
National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP)
www.nationsreportcard.gov
National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES)
http://nces.ed.gov/
Journals
American Educational Research Journal (AERA)
Bilingual Research Journal (NABE)
Early Childhood Research Quarterly (NAEYC)
T E A C HING IDE A S
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Educational Researcher (AERA)
English Education (CEE/NCTE)
English Journal (NCTE)
Exceptional Children (CEC)
Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literary (ILA)
Journal of College Research & Learning (CRLA)
Journal of Curriculum and Supervision (ASCD)
Journal of Literacy Research (LRA)
Journal of Research in Childhood Education (ACEI)
Language Arts (NCTE)
Language Learning
NABE Journal of Research and Practice (NABE)
The Reading News (CRA)
Reading Research Quarterly (ILA)
The Reading Teacher (ILA)
Reading Today (online, ILA)
Research in the Teaching of English (NCTE)
Teaching Exceptional Children (CEC)
Teaching Young Children (NAEYC)
TESOL Journal (TESOL)
TESOL Quarterly (TESOL)
Voice from the Middle (NCTE)
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LIST 173. PUBLISHERS OF READING
MATERIALS AND TESTS
This list includes the names of major publishers of texts, tests, and supplementary reading materials for
K–12 reading and literacy instruction. Many publishers offer white papers, best practice teaching tips,
blogs by authors and teachers, lesson plans, and other helpful information.
American Guidance Service Publishing
Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development
Books on Tape, Inc.
Creative Teaching Press
Curriculum Associates, Inc.
Educators Publishing Service
Follett
Glencoe/McGraw-Hill
Guilford Press
Harcourt School Publishers
Heinemann Publishers
Highlights for Children
Holt, Rinehart and Winston
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
Jamestown Education
John Wiley and Sons
Jossey-Bass, A Wiley Imprint
Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company
Macmillan/McGraw-Hill
National Geographic School Publishing
National Science Teachers Association Press
Open Court Reading
Pearson Assessment
Pearson Education
Pearson Learning
Pearson Prentice Hall
Pearson Scott Foresman
Penguin Group USA
Reading Recovery Council of North America
Riverside Publishing
Saddleback Educational Publisher
Scholastic Inc.
SRA Reading Laboratory
SRA/McGraw-Hill
Stenhouse Publishers
Teacher Created Materials
Teacher Created Resources
The Critical Thinking Company
William H. Sadlier, Inc.
Wilson Language Training Corp.
Zaner-Bloser Educational Publishers
T E A C HING IDE A S
467
www.agsnet.com/
www.ascd.org/
www.booksontape.com/
www.creativeteaching.com/
www.curriculumassociates.com/
www.eps.schoolspecialty.com/
www.follett.com
www.glencoe.com/
www.guilford.com/
www.harcourtschool.com/
www.heinemann.com/
www.highlights.com/
www.go.hrw.com/
www.hmhco.com/
www.glencoe.com/
www.wiley.com/
www.josseybass.com/
www.kendallhunt.com/
www.mheonline.com/
www.ngsp.com/
www.nsta.org/publications/press
www.opencourtreading.com
www.pearsonassessments.com/
www.pearsoneducation.com/
www.pearsonlearning.com/
www.k12pearson.com
www.k12pearson.com/
www.us.penguingroup.com/
www.readingrecovery.org/
www.riversidepublishing.com/
www.sdback.com
www.scholastic.com/
www.srareadinglabs.com
www.mheonline.com/
www.stenhouse.com
www.teachercreatedmaterials.com/
www.teachercreated.com/
www.criticalthinking.com
www.sadlier.com
www.wilsonlanguage.com
www.zaner-bloser.com/
LIST 174. EDUCATION ABBREVIATIONS,
ACRONYMS, AND INITIALIZATIONS
The field of education has its own “alphabet soup.” Sometimes it can be a challenge to remember precisely
what each abbreviation, acronym, or initialization means. Here are some widely used ones that you may
find useful.
AASA
AD/HD
ADA
ADD
AFT
AMAOs
AP
APA
APR
AR
ASBO
ASCD
ASVAB
AUP
AYP
CCSS
CEC
CEEB
CIP Codes
CPIs
CRT
CSA
CSL
CST
DARE
DFY
ECERS-R
EDGAR
ELL
E-rate
ERIC
ESEA
ESL
ESY
ETS
FAFSA
FERPA
FTE
GED
HQT
IASA
IDEA
IEHP
IEP
IHP
IQ
American Association of School Administrators
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Americans with Disabilities Act
Attention Deficit Disorder
American Federation of Teachers
Annual Measurable Achievement Objectives
Advanced Placement
Alternate Proficiency Assessment
Annual Performance Report
Alternate Route
Association of School Business Officials (International)
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development
Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery
Acceptable Use Policy
Adequate Yearly Progress
Common Core State Standards
Council for Exceptional Children
College Entrance Exam Board
Classification of Instructional Programs
Cumulative Progress Indicators
Criterion-Referenced Tests
Chief School Administrator
Community Service Learning
Child Study Team
Drug Abuse Resistance Education
Drug-Free Youth
Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale-Revised
Education Department General Administrative Regulations
English Language Learner
Education Rate
Educational Resources Information Center
Elementary and Secondary Education Act
English as a Second Language
Extended School Year
Educational Testing Service
Free Application for Federal Student Aid
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act
Fulltime Equivalent
General Educational Development Test
Highly Qualified Teacher
Improving America’s Schools Act
Individuals with Disabilities Act
Individualized Emergency Healthcare Plan
Individualized Education Plan
Individualized Healthcare Plan
Intelligence Quotient
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IRA
LAL
LEA
LEP
LRE
NAEA
NAEP
NAESP
NAEYC
NAFME
NASDTEC
NASN
NASSP
NBPTS
NCATE
NCEA
NCES
NCLB
NCSS
NCTE
NCTM
NEA
NRT
NSF
NSTA
PAEMST
PARCC
PBP
PDS
PDS
POV
PTA
PTC
PTO
RTI
SAT
SBR
SBR
SDE
SEA
SEL
SES
SIOP
SLE
SST
TD
TEAC
TIMMS
TPI
TS
TTT
International Reading Association
Language Arts Literacy
Local Education Agency
Limited English Proficient
Least Restrictive Environment
National Art Education Association
National Assessment of Educational Progress
National Association of Elementary School Principals
National Association for the Education of Young Children
National Association for Music Education
National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification
National Association of School Nurses
National Association of Secondary School Principals
National Board for Professional Teaching Standards
National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education
National Catholic Educational Association
National Center for Education Statistics
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
National Council for the Social Studies
National Council of Teachers of English
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
National Education Association
Norm Referenced Test
National Science Foundation
National Science Teachers Association
Presidential Award for Excellence in Math and Science Teaching
Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers
Proficiency-Based Promotion
Persistently Dangerous School
Professional Development School
Point of View
Parent-Teacher Association
Parent Teacher Council
Parent Teacher Organization
Response to Intervention
Scholastic Aptitude Test
Scientifically-based Research
Standards-based Reform
State Department of Education
State Education Agency
Social Emotional Learning
Supplemental Educational Services
Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol
Structured Learning Experience
Student Support Team
Talent Development
Teacher Education Accreditation Council
Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
Transitional Program of Instruction (ESL)
Tiered Services
Troops to Teachers
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S E C T I O N 13
English Language
Learners
List 175. Teaching Tips for ELLs’ Success
List 176. Realia and Manipulatives
List 177. Class and School Vocabulary for ELLs
List 178. Students’ Language Background
List 179. English Sounds Not Used in Other Languages
List 180. Problem English Sounds for ELLs
List 181. Spanish Alphabet and Phonics
List 182. Useful Spanish Words and Phrases for Teachers
List 183. Three Hundred Most Frequently Used Spanish
Words
List 184. Dichos—Spanish Proverbs
T
he demographic changes across the United States are having significant impact on the languages of children in our public schools. Although, a recent Census Bureau report (Ryan,
2013) notes that English is spoken well by most people in the United States, including those who
also speak another language at home, the Digest of Education Statistics (2013) reports that 9.1
percent of all schoolchildren, close to 5 million, are participating in programs for English language learners. A National Education Association policy brief (2008) expects, based on current
trends, that within a decade nearly 25 percent of public school children will be English language
learners (ELLs).
These data, however, are insufficient for educational planning. Some states, such as California, have very large populations of English language learners (23.2 percent); others, such as West
Virginia, very few (0.7 percent). Additionally, although Spanish is the most-often non-English
language spoken, more than three hundred languages are spoken, including in some states large
numbers of speakers of Native American languages.
Dominguez and Gutierrez (2015) make the point that English language learners are too often
“characterized in ways that do not capture their language backgrounds and are often taught as
if they were a homogenous population” (p. 128). They call for better ways to differentiate among
English learners’ language and literacy needs.
Many English language learners, however, are not part of specialized programs but are
mainstreamed with native English speakers with a range of language skills. It is important that
classroom teachers keep in mind that lacking skill in English does not make English learners
remedial. They need strong language support systems while they are simultaneously learning
English and acquiring content knowledge.
One area of specific need is vocabulary development. Dominguez and Gutierrez (2015) argue
it is a crucial factor in English learners’ academic success because deficiencies in vocabulary limits
“higher-level thinking and subsequent academic success and progress” (p. 139). Another perspective, and an important one, is the need for teachers to be open and supportive of children’s cultural
heritage while helping them gain fluency in English (Irvine & Armento, 2001). Students who feel
welcome and accepted in the social context of the classroom are more likely to do well in all areas
of their education.
The lists in this section are resources for the teacher who provides reading instruction and
focuses on ways to integrate support for English learners in the classroom in terms of language
differences and offers additional resources for working with students whose first language is
Spanish.
Cooper, A. (2012). 10 tips for teaching English-language learners. Edutopia: What Works in Education. Retrieved from
www.edutopia.org/blog/teaching-english-language-learners-ayanna-cooper
Dominguez, M., & Gutierrez, K. (2015). Best practices for teaching dual language learners: Design principles for
leveraging everyday literacies. In L. B. Gambrell & L. M. Morrow (Eds.), Best practices in literacy instruction
(5th ed., pp. 127–148). New York: The Guilford Press.
Irvine, J., & Armento, B. (2001). Culturally responsive teaching: Lesson planning for elementary and middle grades.
New York: McGraw Hill.
Kress, J. (2008). The ESL/ELL teacher’s book of lists. San Francisco: John Wiley and Sons.
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
472
National Center for Educational Statistics. (2013). Digest of Education Statistics Table 204.20 Number and
percentage of public school students participating in programs for English language learners, by state. Retrieved
from http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d13/tables/dt13_204.20.asp
National Council of Teachers of English. (2008) English language learners: A policy research brief . Urbana, IL:
Author. Retrieved from www.ncte.org/library/NCTEFiles/Resources/PolicyResearch/ELLResearchBrief.pdf
National Education Association (NEA). (2008). English language learners face unique challenges: Policy brief.
Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from www.nea.org/assets/docs/HE/ELL_Policy_Brief_Fall_08_
%282%29.pdf
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers (NGA &
CCSSO). (2010). Common Core State Standards for English language arts and literacy in history/social studies,
science, and technical subjects. Washington, DC: Authors.
Office of English Language Acquisition (2015). Fast Facts: Languages Spoken by English Learners (ELs).
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
Ryan, Camille. (2013). Language use in the United States: 2011. American Community Survey Report ACS-22.
Washington, DC: US Census Bureau.
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LIST 175. TEACHING TIPS
FOR ELLS’ SUCCESS
Research has shown that English language learners (ELLs) do best in classrooms where teachers value
them as individuals, include them as learners, and respect their home cultures. For example, using referents
from multiple cultures in discussions, literature, word problems, and projects help ELLs feel included and
expands the cultural knowledge of others in the class. In literacy instruction, include stories, fables, folktales, and legends from many cultures, especially those represented in your class, to help students recognize
universal themes and commonalities among peoples as well as to celebrate unique contributions. The following tips are based on the research and literature in second language acquisition and culturally relevant
teaching.
1. Welcome students every day with a smile, a greeting, and their given names.
2. Learn to say their names correctly; if not sure, ask the student to say it slowly because you want to
learn to say it the correct way. Write it out phonetically if needed.
3. Indicate their home countries on a map in the classroom.
4. Speak clearly, slowly, and use short simple sentences.
5. Face students when speaking to them; communicate with facial expressions and gestures.
6. Watch students’ body language and facial expressions for signs of comprehension.
7. Pause between sentences to give students processing time.
8. Praise students’ efforts and successes appropriately; use List 167, One Hundred Ways to Praise.
9. Use the same language for repeated tasks and routines.
10. Demonstrate or pantomime response to directions until all understand and can perform.
11. Introduce yes-no active response cards immediately to enable active participation; frame questions
for yes-no responses.
12. Use choral response and whole-group active response cards to limit individual student’s anxiety.
13. Use realia, labels, and pictures to name objects and show actions.
14. Establish routines for attendance, calendar review, assignments, homework review, and so on.
15. Mark the holidays of the range of cultures represented in the class on a calendar (have students
identify which ones to include).
16. Read to students daily using high-interest, controlled vocabulary materials with lots of pictures.
17. Present information in more than one modality: words and graphics plus spoken language.
18. Provide computer-aided practice for individual students to give opportunities for self-paced work,
including self-selected topics.
19. Construct word walls to prompt students’ memories and help them to be independent.
20. Provide bilingual dictionaries at appropriate grade levels and encourage students to use them.
21. Plan nonverbal ways for students to show they understood stories, directions, and so on, for example,
selecting appropriate pictures or drawing diagrams.
22. Write page numbers and other information on the board after giving directions to “turn to page . . .”
or “underline the answer . . .”
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23. Post homework assignments in the same place every day.
24. Establish assessment systems that enable students to record and monitor their own progress in at least
one or two areas.
25. Have students keep word books and journals and add to them frequently.
26. Post a world map (or regional map as needed) and have students help identify their countries of
origin.
27. Provide opportunities for students to share cultural and linguistic information, for example, labeling
a family tree with family relationships in English and their first language, each language’s greeting, or
words for excellence, student, learning, and so on.
28. Plan music and art exhibits to showcase cultures represented in the class.
29. Remember students know much more than they can say—don’t water down content; do simplify the
language.
30. Gather content reading materials on several grade levels.
31. Use cognates to help connect new learning with prior knowledge.
32. Establish class rules with brief commands and gestures: Sit. No talking. Show me the answer. Go to
page __.
33. Post the names of students in a group and point to the group list and names when calling students to
a learning station or table.
34. Start portfolios of student work at the beginning of the term and add to it as they progress
throughout the year.
35. Allow students to use informal language in speaking and in preparing first drafts of written material.
This enables them to use the type of language best known, so answering or participating is more
likely. Revision and editing of written material gives them time to consider vocabulary, spelling, tense,
and other elements of good academic language use.
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LIST 176. REALIA AND MANIPULATIVES
Realia—objects used to illustrate and teach vocabulary—commonplace in ELL classrooms, may be new
to your literacy or general studies classroom. Similar to hand gestures, facial expressions, and body languages, realia help bridge communication gaps between speakers and learners of a language. Realia provide
multisensory experiences that form a natural context for learning. In addition, they often express a facet
of American life and thereby facilitate students’ cultural experience.
Manipulatives—objects that can be manipulated or changed during problem solving—have long been
used in mathematics, and they add active learning to any classroom.
action figures
bingo tokens
blocks
brochures from states, cities
buttons
catalogs
checks
clocks (digital and analog)
clothing
costumes
counting rods
coupons
dental floss, tooth brush, toothpaste
digital clip art
digitized audio files of sounds, conversations
doll house with furniture
empty food packages
fruit
games
globe
greeting cards for many occasions
holiday decorations and figures
jars and containers
keys
leaf collection
magazines of all types
maps
measuring cups
measuring spoons
menus
miniature houses
miniature tools
movie or concert tickets
musical instruments (toy)
newspaper want ads
phone books
plastic flowers
plastic fruit
play jewelry
play money
postcard collection
puppets
receipts
recipes and cook books
rock collection
rulers
seeds, flower pot, watering can
shell collection
shoe collection
small dolls with clothes
small flags from around the world
supermarket circulars
top or other spinning toy
touch panel (with different textures)
toy animals plastic or stuffed
toy boats, planes, trains
toy cars, trucks, SUVs, motorcycles
toy dish set
toy doctor’s kit
toy musical instruments
toy phones
toy pots
train and bus schedules
travel and tourism brochures
vegetables (plastic)
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LIST 177. CLASS AND SCHOOL
VOCABULARY FOR ELLs
One way to help newcomers become comfortable in their new surroundings is to help them learn the names
of things they say, see, and do in school. Labels on objects and a word wall about “our classroom” or “our
school” are useful aids to mastering this important category of vocabulary. Using the same idioms and
vocabulary in daily routines will also make learning them easier.
Assignment Directions
Ask your neighbor.
Check your work.
Choose the correct answer.
Choose the best answer.
Clear your desks.
Circle.
Cross out.
Draw a line.
Fill in the answer.
Fill in the blank.
Fill in the bubble.
Finger-width margin
For homework
Get into your group.
Hand in your ___.
Log on and open ___.
Next one
No talking, please.
Pass out the ___.
Print your name.
Point to ___.
Put an x on the ___.
Put the date on your paper.
Quiet, please.
Raise your hand.
Read the next paragraph.
Read the next one.
Read the next page.
Read the next example.
Select the correct answer.
Sign in.
Show me the ___.
Skip one.
Take turns.
Turn off your cell phone.
Turn off your mobile phone.
Write your name on your paper.
Work with a partner.
Your assignment for tomorrow
Your assignment for our next class
General Class and School Words
absent
achievement test
administration
advanced placement
advisor
aide
assembly
assignment
attendance
auditorium
backpack
ballpoint
bathroom
bell
blackboard
book
book store
boys’ room
bus pass
cafeteria
campus
chapter
class discussion
classroom
club
coach
co-ed
combination lock
committee
computer lab
crayons
dance
data projector
dean
desk
desktop
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detention
dictionary
dismissal
education
ELL
English language learner
enroll
ESL program
exam
examples
exercises
exit
extracurricular activity
faculty
fail
file
finals
fire drill
flunk
game
girls’ room
grades
graduate
graduation
group
guidance counselor
guidance office
gym
gymnasium
half-day
hallway
hall pass
headphone
headset
highlighter
holiday
homeroom
homework
honor roll
honors class
instructor
janitor
lab
laboratory
language lab
language proficiency test
laptop
lavatory
learn
learning group
lecture
librarian
library
locker
locker room
loose leaf paper
lunch
lunch box
map
marker
marking period
media center
midterms
note
notebook
nurse
nurse’s office
online
open house
orientation
pad
parent conference
party
pass
PC
pen
pencil
pencil sharpener
period
permission slip
photocopy
placement test
playground
portfolio
present
principal
probation
professor
prom
PTA
pupil
quiz
reading group
recess
remedial
report card
resource room
ruler
safety glasses
section
schedule
school
school bus
school secretary
scores
seat
security guard
snow day
software
stage
state tests
student
study hall
superintendent
tardy
teach
teacher
teachers’ lounge
teachers’ room
team
term
test
textbook
theater
truant
tutor
unit
vacation
vice principal
warning notice
whiteboard
workbook
Calculus
Chemistry
Civics
Composition
Computer Science
Cooperative Education
Dance
Data Processing
Drama
Driver’s Education
Earth Science
English
ESL—English as a Second
Language
European History
Foreign Language
Forensic Science
French
General Math
Geography
Course Titles
African American Studies
Algebra
American Government
Art
Basic Math
Bilingual
Biology
Bookkeeping
Business English
Business Math
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
478
Geometry
German
Gym
Health
History
Home Economics
Industrial Education
Italian
Latin
Literature
Mathematics
Music
Philosophy
Phys. Ed.
Physical Education
Physical Science
Physics
Precalculus
Psychology
Science
Shop
Social Studies
Sociology
Spanish
Spelling
Steno
Technical Education
Technology
Trigonometry
Typing
US History
Vocational Education
World History
World Languages
to daydream
to demonstrate
to dictate
to discuss
to do an assignment
to do an example
to do homework
to do math
to do research
to draw a blank
to drop out of school
to erase the board
to fill in the blanks
to get credit for
to get partial credit
to get through a course
to go off campus
to goof off
to hand out
to have one’s nose in a book
to hit the books
to know one’s ABCs
to learn
to learn by heart
to lecture
to line up
to listen carefully
to make the grade
to meet the requirements
to memorize
to pass
to pass the papers out
to pass with flying colors
to pay attention
to play a recording
to play hooky
to print
to put one’s thinking cap on
to read
to read out loud
to read through
to read to oneself
to report to the office
to salute the flag
to sharpen a pencil
to sign
to sign in
to sign up
to skim the chapter
to study
to take ____ (a course)
to take a course
to take a test
to take an exam
to take attendance
to take notes
to take the roll
to talk about
to type
to work one’s way through college
to write
to write a paper
to write on the board
Common School Idioms
as easy as ABC
back to basics
bookworm
cap and gown
handouts
higher education
honor roll
in pen
in pencil
in single file
in your locker
in your backpack
Ivy League
on campus
on the board
school of thought
show of hands
show-and-tell
teacher’s pet
the three Rs
to be absent
to be present
to be tardy
to brainstorm
to call the roll
to collect homework
to collect the papers
to copy
to cover a lot of ground
to crack a book
to cram
to cut class
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LIST 178. STUDENTS’ LANGUAGE BACKGROUND
According to the Census Bureau’s report on language use in the United States (Ryan, 2013), for 21 percent
of the US population over the age of five—some 60.6 million people—English is not the language they
speak at home. This may seem surprising because 35.2 million of these individuals (58.2 percent) not only
speak their native language but also speak English very well. Children in many of these households develop
competence in both languages as they grow up.
State education departments annually report data on the languages ELLs speak as their native language (L1). In recent years, 325 different home languages were reported, although nine languages account
for most ELLs’ backgrounds. The National Clearinghouse for English Acquisition reports that for fortyfour states and the District of Columbia, Spanish is the most-spoken home language for more than 80
percent of ELLs. By contrast, in another eleven states, Spanish speakers account for less than half of the
ELLs. The second table shows the top nine languages spoken by ELLs.
Languages Spoken at Home
Number of Speakers
over Age Five
Language
Number of Speakers
over Age Five
Spanish or Spanish Creole
35,600,000
Russian
900,000
Chinese
2,900,000
Other Asian languages
900,000
Tagalog
1,600,000
African languages
900,000
Vietnamese
1,400,000
Other Indic languages
800,000
French
1,300,000
French Creole
800,000
German
1,100,000
Italian
700,000
Korean
1,100,000
Portuguese
700,000
Arabic
1,000,000
Language
Based on data from: Ryan, Camille. (2013) Language use in the United States: 2011. American Community Survey Report ACS-22.
Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau.
Most Frequently Reported Home Languages Spoken by English Learners
1. Spanish
6. Haitian
2. Chinese
7. Tagalog
3. Vietnamese
8. Somali
4. Arabic
9. Navajo
5. Hmong
10. Russian
Based on data from: Office of English Language Acquisition (2015). Fast Facts: Languages Spoken by English Learners (ELs). Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Education.
For additional information, visit the US Census Bureau website at www.census.gov/ or the National
Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition website at www2.ED.gov/about/offices/oela/index.html
or www.ncela.us.
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
480
LIST 179. ENGLISH SOUNDS NOT USED
IN OTHER LANGUAGES
The number of distinct speech sounds (phonemes) varies across languages. Hawaiian has very few at thirteen and !Xóõ, an indigenous language in Africa, is known to have more than 140. English has about
forty-five, depending on the dialect, and this number is greater than the average for modern spoken languages. Some sounds used in English are not used in other languages. For example, /th/, the voiced th as in
the word these, is one of the most common English sounds, but it does not occur in most other languages.
This makes pronouncing the, the most common English word, a challenge for many ELLs.
Children are physically capable of learning any of the phonemes. However, from birth they sort out and
recognize those that are part of the language or languages they hear. As a result, students whose primary
language is not English may have difficulty recognizing or hearing the unfamiliar English sounds and,
therefore, will have difficulty pronouncing words that use them.
To master the pronunciation of sounds not in their native languages, students need to practice recognizing the sounds, then producing them. Practice with minimal pairs—words that differ by one sound—to
isolate the sound of interest. For example: pit/bit or pit/spit.
Language
English Sounds Not Used in the Language
Spanish
/dg/
/j/
/sh/
/th/
/z/
Chinese
/b/
/ch/
/d /
/dg/
/g/
/zh/
/th/
/th/
/v/
/z/
French
/ch/
/ē/
/j/
/ng/
Hindi-Urdu
/th/
/th/
/zh/
/sh/
/ā/
Greek
/aw/
Italian
/sh/
/oo/
/th/
/th/
/v/
/w/
/dg/
/r/
/ar/
/or/
/aw/
e
/ /
/ō/
/ē/
/i/
/oo/
/ /
/a/
/ar/
/dg/
/h/
/i/
/ng/
/th/
/th/
/ /
/dg/
/f/
/i/
/th/
/th/
/oo/
/v/
/ /
/r/
/l/
e
e
Japanese
/ō/
e
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LIST 180. PROBLEM ENGLISH SOUNDS FOR ELLs
ELLs frequently have difficulty pronouncing sounds that are not in their native language or that are used in
different patterns from what they have previously heard and used. It is important to distinguish between a
student who has difficulty pronouncing words correctly but understands their meaning when heard or read
from a student who does not. For example, a Spanish-speaking student may be able to select the correct
word—cap or cab—to match to a picture of a taxi but may not have learned to distinctly pronounce /p/
and /b/. It will help to practice sound discrimination with minimal pairs, then practice pronouncing words
with the target sounds first in initial, then final, and then medial positions.
Language
Problem English Sounds
Spanish
/b/
/d/
/dg/
/h/
/j/
/m/
/n/
/ng/
/oo/
/p/
/r/
/sh/
/t/
/th/
/u/
/v/
/w/
/z/
s-clusters
/b/
/ch/
/d/
/dg/
/f/
/g/
/j/
/l/
/m/
/n/
/r/
/ō/
/sh/
/zh/
/th/
/th/
/v/
/z/
l-clusters
r-clusters
/ā/
/ch/
/ē/
/h/
/j/
/ng/
/oy/
/zh/
/th/
/th/
/s/
/ /
/a/
/ar/
/dg/
/h/
/i/
/ng/
/th/
/th/
/v/
/ /
e
l-clusters
End-clusters
/ā/
/a/
/d/
/ē/
/e/
/f/
/n/
/ng/
/zh/
/sh/
/t/
/th/
/th/
/v/
/w/
/r/
/dg/
/f/
/h/
/i/
/l/
/th/
/th/
/oo/
/r/
/sh/
/zh/
/v/
/w/
/ /
l-clusters
r-clusters
/b/
/l/
/ō/
/ow/
/p/
/r/
/sh/
/t/
/th/
l-clusters
r-clusters
Italian
Hindi-Urdu
Japanese
Korean
/r/
/r/
e
French
e
Chinese
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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LIST 181. SPANISH ALPHABET AND PHONICS
The Spanish language has a highly phonemic orthography. This means, unlike in English, nearly all
sounds in Spanish are represented consistently by a single unique spelling. The close relationship between
phonemes and graphemes (sound-to-spelling patterns) has two significant benefits: the pronunciation of
words can be reliably predicted from their spelling and the spelling of words can be reliably predicted from
their sounds. Teachers of Spanish-speaking students who are learning English can use their understanding
of the Spanish phonics system to support students’ literacy development in both languages.
Since 1995, the Spanish alphabet has included twenty-seven letters: all the letters of the English alphabet and the additional letter ñ. (Prior to 1995, the alphabet counted compound letters [ll, rr, ch] as separate
letters. Not all Spanish-speaking regions have adopted the revised alphabet. In phonics instruction, ch may
still be used as a letter for easy association with its sound.)
As in English, phonics instruction for Spanish should be systematic, following a logical progression
from simple to complex elements. Generally, Spanish phonics begins with vowels and simple consonants to
form open syllables, then progresses to closed syllables, blends, and diphthongs. Instruction should provide
many opportunities for students to segment words into syllables, substitute syllables, combine syllables, and
explore word patterns.
Phonics skill is not sufficient to develop reading proficiency. Gaining meaning from print also requires
an understanding of language, a broad vocabulary, a range of thinking skills, and a strong conceptual
foundation.
Spanish Alphabet
Letter Symbol
a
b
d
ch
d
e
f
g
h
Letter Name
Letter Symbol
ah
beh
seh
cheh
deh
eh
effeh
heh
ah-cheh
i
j
k
l
m
n
ñ
o
p
Letter Name
ee
hota
kah
eleh
emeh
eneh
enyeh
oh
peh
Letter Symbol
Letter Name
q
r
s
t
u
v
w
x
y
z
koo
ereh
eseh
teh
oo
veh
doble veh
ekees
ee gregah
zetah
Vowels
Spanish Spelling
Similar to English
Sounds Like—Examples
a
e
Broad a /ä/
Long a /ā/
Short e /ĕ/
i
o
u
Long e /ē/
Long o /ō/
Long double o /ōō/
y
Long e /ē/
Like ä in English far, father (casa, mano)
When stressed, like a in English pay (dedo, cerca)
When unstressed, has a shorter sound like in English bet,
net (estado, decider)
Like i in English machine or ee in feet (fin, sali)
Like ō in English obey (mona, poner)
Like u in English rule or oo in boot (atún, luna); silent in
gue and gui (guerra, guisado); if it carries a dieresis (ü),
it is pronounced (see Diphthongs) (bilingüe,
bilingüismo); silent in que and qui (querer, quinto)
When used as a vowel, sounds like the Spanish i (y, rey)
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Consonants
Spanish Spelling
Similar to English
Sounds Like—Examples
b
/b/
b
/v/
c
/k/
c
/s/ or /th/
c
/ks/
ch
d
/ch/
/d/
f
g
/f/
/g/
g
h
j
k
l
ll
/h/
silent
/h/
/k/
/l/
/y/
m
n
ñ
p
q(u)
/m/
/n/
/ny/
/p/
/k/
r
/rr/
r
/r/
rr
s
t
v
/rr/
/s/
/t/
/v/
x
/ks/
y
/y/
z
/s/
Generally, like the English b in boar, bring, obsolete when it is at
the beginning of a word or preceded by m (baile, bomba)
Between two vowels and when followed by l or r has a softer
sound, almost like the English v but formed by pressing both
lips together (acaba, haber, cable)
Before a, o, u, or a consonant sounds like the English c in coal
(casa, saco, cuba, acto)
Before e or i, pronounced like the English s in six in American
Spanish and like the English th in thin in Castillian Spanish
(cerdo, cine)
If a word contains two c’s, the first pronounced like c in coal, and
the second like s or th accordingly (acción)
Like ch in English cheese or such (chato, mucho)
Generally like d in English dog or th in English this (dedo, digo);
when ending a syllable, pronounced like the English th (usted,
libertad)
Like f in English fine, life (final)
Before a, o, and u, the groups ue and ui or a consonant, sounds
like g in English gain (gato, gorra, aguja, guerra, guitar, digno)
Before e or i, like a strongly aspirated English h (general, region)
Always silent (hoyo, historia)
Like h in English hat (joven, reja)
Like c in English coal (kilo); found only in words of foreign origin
Like l in English lion (libro, limite); same as English
In some parts of Spain and Spanish America, like the English y in
yet; generally in Castillian Spanish like the lli in English million
(castillo, silla); like /ly/
Like m in English map (moneda, tomo)
Like n in English nine (nuevo, canto, determinación)
Like ni in English onion or ny in English canyon (cañon, pañon)
Like p in English parent (pipa, pollo)
Like c in English coal, only used in the combinations que and qui
in which the u is silent (queso, aqui)
At the beginning of a word and when preceded by l, n, or s; is
strongly trilled (roca, alrota, Enrique, desrabar)
In all other positions, pronounced with a single tap of the tongue
(era, padre)
Strongly trilled (carro, arriba)
Like s in English so (cosa, das)
Like t in English tip but generally softer (toma, carta)
Like v in English mauve, but in many parts of /b/ Spain and the
Americas, like the Spanish b (variar, mover)
Before a consonant, it is sometimes pronounced like s in English
so (excepción, extension /h/); in the word México, and in other
place names of that country, pronounced like Spanish j
When used as a consonant between vowels or at the beginning of
a word, like the y in English yet (yate, yeso, hoyo)
Like s in English (zapato, cazo, azul)
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Diphthongs
Spanish Spelling
Similar to English
Sounds Like—Examples
ai, ay
au
ei, ey
eu
Long i /ı̄ /
Diphthong ou /ou/
Long a /ā/
Long a +long double oo
/ā/ + /ōō/
Diphthong oi /oi/
Blend y + är
/y/ + /är/
Blend w + är
/w/+ /ä/
Consonant y /y/
Blend w + ā /w/+/ā/_
Blend ē + ō / /ē/ +/ō/
Like ı̄ in English light (caign, hay)
Like ou in English sound (cauto, paular)
Like ey in English they or ā in ale (reina, ley)
Like the ā in English pay combined with the sound
/ōō/ of ew in English knew (deuda, feudal)
Like oy in English toy (oiga, soy)
Like ya in English yard (rabia, raya)
oi, oy
ia, ya
ua
ie, ye
ue
io, yo
uo
iu, yu
ui
Like wa in English wand (cuatro, cual)
Blend w + long o /w/+/ō/
Blend y + long o /y/+/ō/
Diphthong Long oo +
long e /ōō/ + /ē/
Like ye in English yet (bien, yeso)
Like wa in English wake (buena, fue, bilingüe)
Like yo in English yoke, without the following w in
sound (región, yodo)
Like uo in English quote (cuota, oblicuo)
Like yu in English Yule (cuidad, triunfo, yunta)
Like wee in English week (ruido, bilingüismo); long /e−
Triphthongs
Spanish Spelling
Similar to English
Sounds Like—Examples
iai
/y/+ /ı̄/+/ē/
iei
uai, uay
/y/+/ā/+/ē/
/w/+ /ı̄/ + /ē/
uei, uey
/w/+/ā/+/ē/
Like ya in English yard combined with the ı̄ in fight, and a
quick ē at the end (estudiáis)
Like the English word yea with a quick ē at the end (estudiés)
Like wi in English wide with a quick ē at the end (averguáis,
guay)
Like wei in English weigh with a quick ē at the end
(amortigüéis, buey)
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LIST 182. USEFUL SPANISH WORDS
AND PHRASES FOR TEACHERS
This list of three hundred words and phrases is a great resource for teachers. It includes common classroom nouns, verbs, and phrases as well as some basic conversational idioms. While ELLs are learning to
communicate in English, these may help bridge the communication gap.
after (position)—tras de
again—de nuevo, de vuelta, otra vez
a little more—y pico
all together—en conjunto, en junto
aloud—en vox alta, voz alta
ask a question—hacer una pregunta (preguntas)
at home—en casa
at last—a la poste, al fin, al fin y al cabo, por fin, pro ultimo
at the least—al menos, a lo menos, como minimo
at once—ahora mismo, al instante, al punto, de pronto
at the end—al fin
at the very latest—a más tardar
backward(s)—al revés, hacia atrás
bad habits—malas tretas
bathroom—el baño
before—antes de que
begin—echarse a, ponerse a, romper a
be in a hurry—estar (or andar) de prisa, tener prisa
be in trouble—estar en un aprieto
be lucky—tener suerte, tocarle a uno la suerte
be mistaken—estar en un error
beneath—debajo de
be necessary—ser fuerza
be one’s turn—tocarle a uno, tocarle a uno la suerte
be on vacation—estar de vacaciones
be pleased with—quedar contento con
be right—andar bien; tener razón
beside a—lado de, tras de
be sleepy—tener sueño
be successful—salir bien, tener éxito
be thirsty—tener sed
between—por entre
be wrong—estar en un error, no tener razón
blackboard—la pizarra
book—el libro
bookcase—el estante
by foot—a pie
by hand—a mano
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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by heart—de memoria
by itself—de por si
by oneself—por si solo, por su mano
by twos—de dos en dos
call the roll—pasar lista
carry away—cargar con
chair—la silla
chalk—la tiza
classmate—compañero (de clase)
classroom—sala de clase
desk—el escritorio
do . . . again—hacer . . . de nuevo, volver a . . .
do over—hacer de nuevo, hacer otra vez, volver a hacer
each one—cada cual, cada uno
each time—a cada rato, cada vez
either—el uno o el otro, uno u otro
everybody—todo el mundo
every day—todos los dias
everyone—todo hombre
everywhere—a todas partes, en todas partes, por todas partes, por todos lados
fail—dejar de, salir mal, venirse abajo
finally—al cabo, en fin, pro fin, por última vez, por último
first of all—ante todo
for sure—de seguro
for the last time—por última vez
get going—poner en marcha
get ready to leave—hacer las maletas
get up—ponerse de pie, ponerse en pie
give a report on—dar cuenta de
given name—nombre de bautismo, nombre de pila
give to—dar a
go on vacation—ir de vacaciones
half done—a medio hacer
halfway (to a place)—a medio camino
have a birthday—cumplir años
have a good day—que lo pase bien
have a good time—pasar un buen rato
help—dar la mano
help yourself—sirvase usted
hurry—darse prisa
ill behaved—mal mandado, muy mandado
in a moment—en un improviso
incomplete—a medio hacer
indoors—bajo techo, en casa
in front of—al frente de, delante de, frente a
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in the evening—en la noche, por la noche
in the same way—del mismo modo
in turn—en rueda
in writing—por escrito
it is all right—está bien
it is better . . .—más vale . . .
it is forbidden—se prohibe
it is time for—es (la) hora de
it is time to go—es (la) hora de partir
it’s not important—no tiene importancia
it’s time to . . .—ya es hora de . . .
it’s too late now—ya es tarde
just right—al centavo, al pelo
keep silent—guardar silencio
last month—el mes pasado
last week—la semana pasada
last year—el año pasado
late—a fines de
learn by heart—aprendier de memoria
lend—dar prestado
lesson—la lección
less than—menos de, menos que
little by little—poco a poco
little more—y pico
long time—largos años
look—pues, mire
lots of—a mar de
lunch—el almuerzo
majority of the people—el comun de las gentes
make a deal—hacer un trato
make a mistake—no dar pie con bola
make an appointment—dar una cita
make a poor showing—hacer mal papel
make fun of—burlarse de, hacer cuco a, hacer burla de
make good—tener buen éxito
make no difference—dar lo mismo, no erle ni venirle a uno
make trouble—dar guerra
make up—inventar, imaginar
many years—largos años
mature—hecho y derecho
maybe—a lo mejor, tal vez
more than—más de, más que
most of—la mayoria de, la mayor parte de
move over—hacerse a un lado
naturally—claro que si
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
488
nearly—por poco
neatly dressed—bien arreglado(a)
never mind—no importa!, no se ocupe!
next to—al lado de, junto a
no . . . (smoking, eating, etc.)—se prohibe (fumar, comer, etc.)
nobody else—ningún otro
no comment—sin comentarios
nonsense—de dónde!, salida de pie de banco
nothing at all—nada en absoluto
not much—poca cosa
not to open one’s mouth—no despegar los labios
not to say a word—perder cuidado
not to worry—perder cuidado
not yet—aún no, todavia no
occasionally—de cuando en cuando, de vez en cuando
of course—claro que si, cómo no?, desde luego, por supuesto, seguro que si, ya se ve
often—a menudo
okay (to approve)—dar el visto bueno
on an average—pro término medio
once again—una que otra vez
once in a while—de uno en uno, uno a la vez
one way—de un solo sentido
one week from today—de hoy en ocho dias
on foot—a pie
only—nada más, no más que
only yesterday—ayer mismo
on the following day—al dia siguiente, al otro dia
on the inside—por dentro
on the other side of—al otro lado de
on the outside—por fuera
on time—a buena hora, a tiempo
on top of—por encima de
opposed to—en contra de
ordinary—de ordinario
others—los (las) demás
over and over again—repetidas veces, una y otra vez
overnight—de la noche a la mañana
over there—por ahi, por allá
pack—hacer las maletas
paper—el papel
partly—en parte
pay attention (to)—dar atención, fijarse en, hacer caso (a or de), prestar atención
pen (ballpoint)—el bolígrafo
pencil—el lópiz
perhaps—a lo mejor, tal vez
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plain—a secas
play fair—jugar limpio
proud de—copete
publicly—a las claras
pull—tirar de
put in writing—hacer por escrito
question—poner den duda
quickly—al trote, de prisa, de un salto, en un salto
rapidly—a escape
rather late—algo tarde
reflect on (think about)—parar mientes en
remember (or recollect)—hacer memoria
repeat mechanically—repetir de carretilla
right away—en el acto
right here—aqui mismo
right now—ahora mismo, en seguida, más ahorita
rise—pomerse en pie
same as (the)—el (or lo) mismo que, igual que
save time—ganar tiempo
say to oneself—decir para si
school—la escuela
scissors—las tijeras
seldom—por rareza, rara vez, raras veces
several times—varias veces
shake hands (with)—dar la mano, darse la mano, estrechar la mano (a)
sharp (on time)—en punto
shortly—en breve
show off—darse farol, hacer teatro
similar—algo por el estilo, parecido a
simply—a secas
slowly—a la larga
somebody else—algún otro
sometimes—algunas veces, de cuando en cuando
somewhere—en alguna parte
so much the better—tanto mejor
so much the worse—tanto peor
so-so—asi asi, tal cual
speak loudly—hablar alto, hablar en voz alta
stand still—estarse parado
stop talking—dejar de hablar
stop the excuses—dejarse de rodeos
study hard—quemarse las pestañas (or las cejas)
table—la mesa
take (something)—quedarse con (una cosa)
take a walk—pasear a pie
T HE RE A DING T E A C HE R’S B O O K O F L IS T S
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take care—tener cuidado (con)
take care of—preocuparse de
take it easy—tomarlo con calma
take place—tener lugar
take seriously—tomar a pecho(s)
take time off—tomar tiempo libre
talk too much—hablar por los codos
teacher—el maestro (male), la maestra (female)
team—el equipo
tease—tomarle el pelo
there’s no hurry—no hay prisa
the same as—asi como, el (or lo) mismo que
they say—se dice
think (be of the opinion)—tener para si
think about—pensar en
this way—por acá, por aqui
this will do—asi está bien
thoroughly—por completo
thousand thanks—mil gracias
together—a la vez
tomorrow afternoon—mañana por la tarde
tomorrow morning—mañana por la mañana
tomorrow night—mañana por la noche
tonight—a la noche, por la noche
too bad—que lástima!
to oneself—consigo mismo
towards the end of (a period of time)—a fines de
truly or truthfully—a la verdad, de veras, de verdad, en verdad
trust—confiar en
try to (attempt)—tratar de, ver de, ver que
turn around—dar(se) la vuelta
turn the page—darle vuelta a la hoja
two by two—de dos en dos
two weeks from today—de hoy en quince dias
under—debajo de
understand that . . .—tener entendido que . . .
unequaled—sin igual
unfortunately—por desgracia
unless—a menos que, a no ser que, como no
unneccessary—de sobra
until—hasta que
unusual—fuera de lo corriente
upon—encima de
up to now—hasta aqui, hasta ahi, hasta la fecha
usual—de ordinario
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various times—repetidas veces
very close—a quema ropa, a quemarropa
very much—con (or en or por) extremo, de lo lindo
very often—con mucha frecuencia, muy a menudo
very soon—poco rato, ya mero
wait in line—hacer cola
walk—ir a pie
watch out (for)—tener cuidado (con)
water—agua
week before last—la semana antepasada
weekday(s)—dia(s) de semana, dia de trabajo, di hábil
weekend—el fin de semana
Well done!—Asi se hace!
What a pleasure!—Qué gusto!
What does it mean?—Qué quiere decir? qué significa?
What happened?—Qué pasó?
What is the date?—A cuánto(s) estamos?
What’s new?—Qué hay de nuevo?
What’s the difference?—Qué más da!
What time is it?—Qué hora es? qué horas son?
whenever—cuando quiera, siempre que, todas las veces (que)
while—en tanto que
whisper—hablar en secreto
whispering—en voz baja
win—salir ganando
with—junto con
within a week—dentro de una semana
without—sin que
with your permission—con permiso
wonderfully well—a las mil maravillas
work hard—dar bateria, sudar la gota gorda
work well—andar bien
worse than—peor que
years ago—hace años
yes, of course—ya lo creo
yesterday afternoon—ayer por la tarde
you’re welcome—de nada, no hay de que
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LIST 183. THREE HUNDRED MOST
FREQUENTLY USED SPANISH WORDS
Language researchers have found that as much as 85 percent of speech is composed of only one thousand
words and that as few as 250 form an essential core of a language. This list is based on a 20 million-word
study of spoken and written (fiction and nonfiction) Spanish by Mark Davies and published in A Frequency
Dictionary of Spanish (Routeledge, 2006). It provides the most basic elements of Spanish that enable a
speaker or writer to form sentences and communicate. Note the similarities with English in List 28, HighFrequency Instant Words.
1. el, la—the
2. de—of, from
3. que—that, which
4. y—and
5. a—to, at
6. en—in, on
7. un art a, an
8. ser—to be (norm)
9. se pron [“reflexive” marker] self
10. no—no
11. haber—to have (+Ved)
12. por—by, for, through
13. con—with
14. su—his/her/their/your (-fam)
15. para—for, to, in order to
16. como—like, as
17. estar—to be (location, change from norm)
18. tener—to have
19. le pron [third person] (indir obj)
20. lo art the (+ n)
21. lo pron [third person] (dir obj-m)
22. todo—all, every
23. pero—but, yet, except
24. más—more
25. hacer—to do, make
26. o—or
27. poder—to be able to; can
28. decir—to tell, say
29. este—this (m) [esta (f)]
30. ir—to go
31. otro—other, another
32. ese—that (m) [esa (f)]
33. la pron [third person] (dir obj-f)
34. si—if, whether
35. me pron me (obj)
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
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ya—already, still
ver—to see
porque—because
dar—to give
cuando—when
él pron he, [ellos] them (m)
muy—very, really
sin—without
vez (f) time (specific occurrence)
mucho—much, many, a lot (adv)
saber—to know (a fact), find out
qué pron what?, which?, how (+ adj)!
sobre—on top of, over, about
mi—my
alguno—some, someone (pron)
mismo—same
yo pron I (subj)
también—also
hasta—until, up to, even (adv)
año (m) year
dos—two
querer—to want, love
entre—between, among
así—like that
primero—first
desde—from, since
grande—large, great, big
eso—that (n)
ni—not even, neither, nor
nos—us (obj)
llegar—to arrive
pasar—to pass, spend (time)
tiempo (m) time (general), weather
ella—she, [ellas] them (f)
sí—yes
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
115.
día (m) day
uno—one
bien—well
poco—little, few, a little bit (adv)
deber—should, ought to; to owe
entonces—so, then
poner—to put (on), get (+adj)
cosa (f) thing
tanto—so much, so many
hombre (m) man, mankind, husband
parecer—to seem, look like
nuestro—our
tan—such, as, too, so
donde—where
ahora—now
parte (f) part, portion
después—after
vida (f) life
quedar—to remain, stay
siempre—always, forever
creer—to believe, think
hablar—to speak, talk
llevar—to take, carry
dejar—to let, leave
nada—nothing, (not) at all
cada—each, every
seguir—to follow, keep on
menos—less, fewer
nuevo—new
encontrar—to find
algo—something, somewhat
sólo—only, just
pues—then, well then
llamar—to call, name
venir—to come
pensar—to think
aquel—that (over there)
momento (m) moment, time
sino—but, except, rather
esto—this (n)
salir—to leave, go out
volver—to return, to V again
forma (f) form, shape, way
antes—before
bueno—good
116. casa (f) house
117. aunque—although, even though
118. mundo (m) world
119. tres—three
120. tal—such (a)
121. mejor—best, better (adv)
122. tomar—to take, drink
123. cierto—certain, sure, true
124. conocer—to know (someone or place)
125. hacia—toward, towards
126. cómo—how?
127. mujer (f) woman, wife
128. vivir—to live
129. aquí—here
130. caso (m) case, occasion
131. sentir—to feel, regret
132. luego—later, afterwards
133. país (m) country
134. tratar—to try, treat, deal with
135. lugar (m) place, position
136. te—you (obj/+fam)
137. persona (f) person
138. mayor—larger, older, main
139. último—last, final
140. propio—own, proper, typical
141. quien—who, whom
142. mirar—to look, watch
143. hora (f) hour, time (specific)
144. ninguno—no, none, nobody (pron)
145. trabajo (m) work, job, effort
146. casi—almost, nearly
147. punto (m) point, dot, period
148. durante—during, for (time)
149. cualquier—any, anyone (pron)
150. mano (f) hand
151. nunca—never, ever
152. manera (f) way, manner
153. cual—which, who, whom
154. mientras—while, whereas, as long as
155. contar—to tell, count
156. fin (m) end
157. tipo (m) type, kind
158. gente (f) people
159. además—also, as well, besides
160. solo—lonely, alone
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161. empezar—to begin, start
162. ejemplo (m) example
163. esperar—to wait, hope (for), expect
164. hoy—today, nowadays
165. lado (m) side
166. hijo (m) son, [pl] children
167. allí—there, o—er there
168. éste—this one (m), [ésta (f)]
169. problema (m) problem
170. cuenta (f) bill, account
171. medio (m) means, middle; pormedio: through
172. contra—against, opposite
173. buscar—to look for
174. dentro—inside
175. largo—long
176. palabra (f) word
177. existir—to exist
178. niño (m) child, little boy
179. entrar—to enter
180. embargo (m) sin embargo: nevertheless
181. único—only, unique, sole
182. padre (m) father
183. trabajar—to work
184. pequeño—little, small, young
185. alto—tall, high
186. cambio (m) change
187. escribir—to write
188. cuatro—four
189. ahí—there
190. perder—to lose, miss
191. nosotros—we (subj)
192. historia (f) history, story
193. idea (f) idea
194. agua (f) (el) water
195. producir—to produce, cause
196. noche (f) night, evening
197. ciudad (f) city
198. modo (m) way, manner
199. nombre (m) name, noun
200. ocurrir—to happen, occur
201. familia (f) family
202. realidad (f) reality, actuality
203. entender—to understand
204. pedir—to ask for, request
205. recibir—to receive
206. obra (f) work, book, deed
207. importante—important
208. medio—half, middle
209. verdad (f) truth
210. mes (m) month
211. todavía—still, yet
212. razón (f) reason; tener razón: to be right
213. cuanto—en cuanto a: in terms of, regarding
214. bajo—under, underneath
215. recordar—to remember, remind
216. grupo (m) group
217. mil—thousand
218. humano—human
219. terminar—to finish, end
220. permitir—to allow, permit
221. aparecer—to appear
222. conseguir—to get, acquire, obtain
223. comenzar—to begin, start
224. varios—several, various
225. posible—possible
226. servir—to serve
227. general—general
228. sacar—to take out
229. necesitar—to need
230. relación (f) relationship, relation
231. cinco—five
232. cuerpo (m) body
233. nadie—nobody, anybody
234. mantener—to keep, maintain
235. hecho (m) fact, happening
236. ante—before, in the presence of
237. principio (m) beginning, principle
238. resultar—to result, turn out
239. igual—equal, same (as)
240. señor (m) sir, Mr., lord
241. pueblo (m) people, village
242. tarde (f) afternoon, evening
243. segundo—second
244. leer—to read
245. caer—to fall
246. cambiar—to change
247. ojo (m) eye
248. calle (f) street
249. presentar—to introduce, present
250. blanco—white
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251.
252.
253.
254.
255.
256.
257.
258.
259.
260.
261.
262.
263.
264.
265.
266.
267.
268.
269.
270.
271.
272.
273.
274.
275.
crear—to create
abrir—to open
libro (m) book
distinto—distinct, different
fuerza (f) strength, force, power
luz (f) light
según—according to
santo (m) saint (m)
claro—clear
frente (m)f al frente: facing; frente a: across
from
considerar—to consider
amigo (m) friend
oír—to hear
cuyo—whose
sentido (m) sense, feeling
acabar—acabar de V: to have just Ved; finish
paso (m) step, pace
situación (f) situation
usted—you (subj/-fam)
bastante—rather, fairly, quite a bit (adv)
convertir—to convert, change, become
gracia (f) (pl) thank you; grace, favor
siglo (m) century, age
dios (m) god, divinity
malo—bad
276. tierra (f) earth, land, ground
277. papel (m) paper, role, part
278. madre (f) mother
279. tampoco—neither, nor, either
280. social—social
281. viejo—old, aged
282. aún—still, yet
283. tema (m) theme, subject, topic
284. político—political
285. español—Spanish
286. ganar—to win, earn
287. formar—to form
288. clase (f) kind, class, order
289. traer—to bring, carry
290. partir—to divide, leave; a partir de: starting
291. dinero (m) money
292. quién—who?, whom?
293. morir—to die
294. incluso—including, even (adv)
295. campo (m) field, country
296. aceptar—to accept
297. quizás—perhaps, maybe
298. cabeza (f) head (part of body)
299. realizar—to fulfill, carry out
300. ciento – hundred
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LIST 184. DICHOS —SPANISH PROVERBS
Proverbs of all languages express a broad range of cultural ideas and wisdom. Most are not meant to be
taken literally. Proverbs often have distinctive rhythms or rhymes that make them easy to remember. The
following dichos include some that are very similar to American English proverbs and some that are unique
to the Spanish language. Use them as part of your class discussion of how proverbs convey wisdom and
culture.
Dichos
Meaning
Más vale tarde que nunca.
Better late than never.
Quien mucho duerme, poco aprende.
If you sleep much, you learn little.
No nació quien erró
No one born has not erred.
Los pájaros de la misma pluma vuelan juntos.
Birds of the same feather fly together.
En boca cerrada, no entran moscas.
With a closed mouth, no flies will enter.
Cuanto mas estudio, tanto más sabe.
The more you study, the more you know.
Del dicho al hecho, hay mucho trecho.
Between the word and the deed, there is a great gulf.
Donde hay gana, hay maña.
Where there’s desire, there’s ability.
El mal escribano le echa la culpa al la pluma.
The poor writer blames the pen.
El que mucho habla, mucho yerra.
He who speaks much, errs much.
La palabra es plata, el silencio oro.
The word is silver, silence gold.
Por el árbol se conocce el fruto.
By the tree, the fruit is known.
Querer es poder.
To want to is to be able to.
Mejor solo que mal acompañado.
Better alone than in poor company.
Los genios pensamos iqual.
Great minds think alike.
Excusa no pedida, la culpa manifiesta.
He who excuses himself, accuses himself.
Quien quiera saber, que compre un viejo.
If you seek wisdom, ask an old man.
Amigo y vino, el mas antiguo.
Friends and wine improve with age.
La risa es el major remedio.
Laughter is the best medicine.
Quien compra ha de tener cien ojos; a quien
vende le basta uno solo.
The buyer needs a hundred eyes; the seller
only one.
Ha ropa tendida.
Walls have ears.
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S E C T I O N 14
Assessment
List 185. Assessment Methods
List 186. Assessment Terms
List 187. Normal Distribution
List 188. Study Skills Checklist
List 189. Memory and Recall Techniques
List 190. Test-taking Strategies
List 191. Test Words
List 192. Interest Inventory—Primary
List 193. Interest Inventory—Elementary/Intermediate
List 194. Cloze Procedure Variations
List 195. Analogies
List 196. Rubrics for Narrative Writing—Primary
List 197. Rubrics for Opinion Writing—Primary
List 198. Rubrics for Informative or Explanatory Writing—Primary
List 199. Rubrics for Narrative Writing—Elementary
List 200. Rubrics for Opinion/Argument Writing—Elementary
List 201. Rubrics for Informative or Explanatory Writing—Elementary
I
n today’s education environment, assessment is controversial and critical. State and federal
focus has resulted in media profiling assessment as a high-stakes accountability tool. This
has shifted a measure of attention from assessment’s crucial role in education as a process for
gathering information to make instructional decisions.
Research on best practices in reading instruction (Afflerbach, Cho, Crassas, & Kim, 2015)
recommend classroom teachers maintain their emphasis on assessments that provide information
about students’ reading processes, including the skills and strategies they use to decode words,
determine vocabulary meaning, read fluently, and comprehend. Assessments that focus on these
things provide the necessary information for grouping students according to learning need, tracking progress in the achievement of important knowledge and skills, and monitoring readiness to
move to the next level.
Performance assessment of reading skills and strategies shows how well students can apply
what they learn from reading. Brookhart and Nitko (2015) recommend context-dependent assessments (CDAs), which provide a set of resources (texts, information in table or graphic format,
recordings, and so on) that are used to answer a set of test questions. CDAs have several advantages: (1) they provide tasks relatively close to real-world contexts, (2) they level the playing field
by providing the same context to all students, and (3) the introductory material lessens the burden
of remembering facts and other things that are nonessential to assessing reading processes but
essential for responding.
The use of rubrics for assessment is supported by research and has the potential to promote
learning and to improve instruction (Jonsson & Svingby, 2007) because they make explicit the
expectations for learning and the criteria on which learning will be evaluated and because they
facilitate feedback and students’ self-assessment.
In addition to traditional emphasis on decoding and vocabulary knowledge, the Common
Core State Standards highlight expectations for students, beginning in elementary school, to
read from multiple texts and integrate knowledge from multiple sources in their discussions of
literature, author craft, and research topics. In addition to providing evidence that students are
meeting these standards, Wolfe and Goldman (2005) note that integrating in an essay what is
learned from reading multiple texts is a way of assessing higher-order thinking skills in a task
that reflects expectations for reading and writing in college and careers.
The reading landscape has changed significantly since the advent of the Internet and has led
to the need to investigate how well students are developing search skills, judging the relevance
and credibility of online sources, negotiating hypertext, and dealing with multimedia sources of
information (Cho, 2013). In addition to tracking students’ acquisition of process skills, Afflerbach, Cho, Crassas, and Kim (2015) suggest teachers not overlook the impact of motivation,
self-efficacy, and engagement on reading achievement and that we should ensure that our assessment informs about these powerful factors. Interest inventories and other survey instruments are
effective means to do this (Gambrell, Palmer, Codling, & Mazzoni, 1996).
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The lists in this section provide resources for understanding and planning assessments including information to help develop students’ study and test-taking skills. A number of assessments
are included in other sections of this book; see the contents.
Afflerbach, P., Cho, B., Crassas, M., & Kim, J. (2015). Best practices in reading assessment. In L. B. Gambrell & L. M.
Morrow (Eds.), Best practices in literacy instruction (5th ed., pp. 315–339). New York: The Guilford Press.
Brookhart, S., & Nitko, A. (2015). Educational assessment of students (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Cho, B. Y. (2013). Adolescents’ constructively responsive reading strategy use in a critical Internet reading task.
Reading Research Quarterly, 48(4), 329–332.
Clay, M. (2013). An Observation Survey of Early Literacy Achievement, 3rd. ed. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Gambrell, L., Palmer, B., Codling, R., & Mazzoni, S. (1996). Assessing motivation to read. The Reading Teacher, 49,
518–533.
Jonsson, A., & Svingby, G. (2007). The use of scoring rubrics: Reliability, validity, and educational consequences.
Educational Research Review, 2, 130–144. DOI:10.1016/j.edurev.2007.05.002.
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers (NGA &
CCSSO). (2010). Common Core State Standards for English language arts and literacy in history/social studies,
science, and technical subjects. Washington, DC: Authors.
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching
children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications
for reading instruction (NIH Publication No. 00–4769). Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
Wolfe, M., & Goldman, S. (2005). Relations between adolescents’ text processing and reasoning. Cognition and
Instruction, 23, 467–502.
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LIST 185. ASSESSMENT METHODS
Classroom-based assessments provide the information teachers need to make decisions. Effective assessment strategies are critical to effective and efficient teaching cycles. That is, good assessments help teachers
decide what to teach and to whom, plan instruction that meets individual student’s needs, instruct students
in flexible groupings, and evaluate progress toward learning goals.
Much of the assessment done by teachers is formative and informal and involves ongoing observation
or monitoring of learning through homework assignments and in-class practice exercises. Other assessments, such as running records, are more diagnostic in nature and are used to identify skill strengths and
weakness. All can contribute to reflective practice in which teachers record and consider what worked and
what needed modifications to work to support student learning and growth. The following list highlights
some assessment methods that are recognized as effective.
• Running records. Based on the work of early literacy expert Marie Clay, running records use students’
individual oral reading of a selection of text and their retelling of the material to assess word
recognition, metacognitive awareness, fluency, and comprehension. As the student reads the selection
aloud, the teacher systematically records accuracy, self-corrections, errors, and reading rate. An
analysis of errors (omissions, insertions, substitutions, and repetition) reveals student strategies and
skill needs. Fluency traits (rate, accuracy, and prosody) are also noted. The student’s retelling after
reading provides information about comprehension.
• Retellings. After reading a narrative or informational passage, ask the student to retell the material as
though telling it to someone who has not heard it before. Let the student know in advance that she or
he will be asked to do this. Use neutral prompts such as “Tell me more” to elicit as much as possible.
The evaluation of a retelling has three parts: (1) accuracy—look for a restatement of main ideas, each
with some supporting detail; an organization that follows the text (chronology, comparison, etc.); and
the inclusion of all major characters or topics; (2) language used—look for sentence structure, time
and sequence signals, and correct use of vocabulary from text (e.g., does not substitute a more common
word like man if the text used astronaut); (3) student response—look for indications the student
recognizes the purpose and of the material, makes links to prior knowledge, and evaluates the material.
• Rubrics. Rubrics are organized guidelines that show the attributes, characteristics, and components
that are required for different levels of performance. They describe performance or evidence for each
quality level by specifying what the product or performance has, what it looks like, and what
differentiates it from the other quality levels. Rubrics generally have narrative and numeric indicators.
Using rubrics in assessment focuses teaching on the components and attributes you plan to assess,
keeps evaluation focused, guides students’ work efforts, and gives feedback to students on factors that
contributed to their scores.
• Dictations. Dictations are simple and useful ways to evaluate student knowledge of sound-symbol
correspondences. They are also useful for assessing knowledge of the conventions of contractions,
abbreviations, and capitalization as well as the spelling of irregularly spelled words. Dictation also
provides practice writing key content area terms in meaningful sentences. To do a dictation, read the
sentence through once, then again by phrases. Students listen to the first reading and then begin to write
each phrase as it is reread. At early stages, dictations may be scored on the basis of correct sound-letter
correspondences, not accurate spelling, for example, counting sed as correct for said, and mil for mill.
By second grade, conventional spelling should be stressed. Use the Common Core State Standards for
English Language Arts or other standards to guide your evaluation of dictations for your grade.
• Reading logs. Have students keep a log of all their independent reading at school and at home. The log
should reflect works completed and works in progress and include title, author, pages read, and reader
reactions (to content, task, difficulty, genre, etc.). Discuss the logs during teacher-student conference
time and point to progress students are making as independent readers. Encourage students to use their
reflections to recognize their reading preferences and strengths. Reading logs may be placed in student
portfolios as evidence of growth in reading skills and engagement in reading for enjoyment and
personal goals.
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• Checklists. Checklists are effective ways to evaluate whether a work sample meets acceptable criteria.
To create one, list the elements, characteristics, or attributes expected for the assignment or task. For
younger students, use
to show whether the element was acceptable, missing, or not acceptable.
For older students, a simple ✓ may be used. A score system can also be used with checklists in which
each item is worth x points and a range of points is established for grades. Checklists are excellent tools
for self-evaluation and can be used in conjunction with rubrics. Students can complete a checklist to be
sure they have addressed each element of an assignment, and the teacher can use a complementary
rubric to evaluate the quality of the work.
• Portfolios. Portfolios are systematic collections of student work over time. These collections are
artifacts of student growth and development. Students who develop a sense of ownership for their
portfolios can see their own progress and recognize areas where more effort is needed. A best work
portfolio is a collection of students’ best work in each area and shows mastery of the learning objectives.
A growth portfolio shows progress across a range of skills and includes first drafts and final versions,
pre- and posttests, beginning-of-year and end-of-year writing samples, and so on. Artifacts that are
often in portfolios include interest inventories; reading logs; audio recordings of student oral reading
from September, December, and June; journal responses to readings; written retellings; concept maps;
time lines or sequence charts; charts of speed and fluency test results; checklists for unit learning
objectives; running records; original writing (stories, poems, letters); and student reflection on portfolio
components.
• Fluency lists. One component of fluency is students’ ability to immediately recognize and read words
without using phonics or other word-analysis techniques. Choral reading practice of lists of high-utility
academic vo