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The Spirit of
Traditional
Chinese Aesthetics
Zhixiang Qi
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The Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
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Zhixiang Qi
The Spirit
of Traditional Chinese
Aesthetics
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Contents
1
2
Foreword: The Essence and Structure of Traditional
Chinese Aesthetics
The Forms of Traditional Chinese Aesthetic Spirit
The Sensual Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
The Graphemic Explanation of “Flavor/Wei”
as Synonymous with “Beauty/Mei”
The Development of the Theory of Wei Mei [Flavor
as Beauty]
Explaining the Theory of Wei Mei [Flavor as Beauty]
The Veneration of Wen in Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
The Grammatology of Wen
The Beauty of Diversified Forms
The Variation of Wen
The Reverence for Wen in the Chinese Aesthetic Tradition
The Subjective Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
“Mind” as Beauty
Material Beauty, Artistic Beauty, and Aesthetic Subjectivity
“Beauty Is of the Mind” and Its Cultural Foundation
The Moral Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
“Kindness Is the Essence of Beauty”
Mencius: “Moral Fulfillment Is Beauty Itself”
Xunzi: “What Ever Is Imperfect and Unrefined Does Not
Deserve the Name of ‘Beauty’”
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vi
CONTENTS
Laozi: “The Great Music has the Faintest Notes/The Great
Form Is Without Shape”
Zhuangzi: “The Perfect Enjoyment Is to Be Without
Enjoyment”
Guan Zhong: Nature’s Beauty Lies in Its Virtue
Han Fei Zi: “To Reside in the Essence Rather Than
on the Surface”
Mo Zi: Beauty Is “Impartial Caring” and “Benefiting
the People”
Buddhism: Beauty Lies in Nirvana
The Nature-Following Spirit in Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
The Aesthetic Object Must Suit Human Nature
An Object’s Natural State Creates Beauty
3
The Confucian Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
Confucians on the Spirit of “Virtue Comparison” in Natural
Beauty
Confucius on “Virtue Comparison”
Mencius on “Virtue Comparison”
Xunzi on “Virtue Comparison”
Dong Zhongshu [董仲舒] on “Virtue Comparison”
Liu Xiang [刘向] on “Virtue Comparison”
Xu Shen [许慎] on “Virtue Comparison”
Li E, Wang Tong, Bai Juyi on “Virtue Comparison”
Song Confucians on “Virtue Comparison”
Natural Beauty as the Embodiment of Morality
Confucians on the Spirit of “Moral Integrity” in Personality
Beauty
The Origin and Meaning of “Moral Integrity”
The Connotation of Fenggu as a Category of Confucian
Personal Character
The Relationship Between Fenggu as Artistic Beauty
and as Personality Beauty
Confucians on the Spirit of Zhonghe [Balanced Harmony]
in Social Beauty
The Most Valuable Function of Observing Ritual
Propriety Is to Achieve Harmony [礼之用, 和为贵]
The Realistic Manifestations of the Beauty of “Harmony”
Music and Poetry: The Propeller of Zhonghe Beauty
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CONTENTS
Confucians on the Spirit of “Regulation” [jiezhi]
in Emotional Beauty
On Music [Yue Lun 乐论] and The Book of Music: The
Source of Treating “Restraining Feelings” as Beauty
From the Han Dynasty to the Six Dynasties: From “No
Emotion” to “Unrestrained Emotion”
From the Tang and Song Dynasties to the Late Ming
and Early Qing Dynasties: From “Restraining Feelings”
to “Eliminating Emotions” to “Indulging in Emotions”
and to “Restraining Feelings”
The New Expression of Treating “Restraining Feelings”
as Beauty in the Late Qing Dynasty
Confucians on the Connotation of “Pensiveness
and Concerns” [沉郁 chenyu] in Artistic and Inner Beauty
The Origin and History of “Pensiveness and Concerns”
Three Connotations of “Pensiveness and Concerns”:
Loyalty and Honesty, Indignation, and Implicitness
Confucians on the Requirement of “Being Purposive”
[zhongdi 中的] in the Beauty of the Literary Form
The Proposal of “Zhong Di Wei Gong” 中的为工 and Its
Relationship with the Saying “Ci Da Er Yi” 辞达而已
Confucius on “Wording Is Beautiful When It Expresses
Meaning”
Han Yu on “There Is No Distinction Between Difficult
and Easy in Articles, but only the Right Expression”
Su Shi on “Choosing Forms According to the Objects”
Representation Forms of “Beauty in Fitting the Purpose”
4
The Taoist Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
Beauty in Nonexistence: Taoist Thought on the Ultimate
Beauty
Laozi: “Great Sound Is Imperceptible, and Great Image
Is Without Form”
Zhuangzi: “Great Beauty Is Speechless” and “Ultimate
Happiness Is Non-Happiness”
Master Lv’s Spring and Autumn Annals
Huainanzi: “Zero-Taste Is Tasteful Enough”
Metaphysics: To Tame Existence with Nonexistence,
and to Govern Many by Few
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viii
CONTENTS
Expressions of the Beauty of “Nonexistence”
The Limitation of Experiential Beauty
Beauty Lies in the Concept of Subtlety: Taoist Aesthetics
Through Interconnectedness
That Which Is Divine and Untraceable Is Called “Miao”
Exploring the Profoundness of Xuan [Mystery]
Exploring the Profoundness of Yuan [Distant]
The Profundity of the Footloose and the Ancient
Seeing Richness in “Blandness”: The Taoist Ideal of Beauty
Laozi and Zhuangzi on Blandness
Han Dynasty After the Early Period: The Loss of “Plain
Taste”
Neo-Daoism: Finding Beauty in Detachment
and Emotional Calmness
Tao Yuanming: Founding Father in the Poetics of Blandness
Tang Dynasty: Pastoral Poetry and Ink-wash Landscape
Painting
Song Dynasty: On the Beauty of Blandness and Detachment
Ming and Qing Dynasties: “Extreme Brilliance Returned
to Simplicity”
Overall Understanding of the Beauty of Blandness
Softness as Beauty: The Taoist Life Philosophy on Retreat
as Advance
The Beauty of “Softness,” “Weakness,” “Femininity,”
and “Smallness”
The Beauty of “Lower,” “Base,” and “Foolishness”
The Art of Retreat
Nature as Beauty: The Unconsciousness of Taoist Aesthetic
Laozi and Zhuangzi on the Beauty of Nature
Negation of Natural Beauty in the Han Dynasty
Transcending the Constraints of Social Norms
and Following the Natural Way
The Southern Dynasties: Natural Ingenuity Is Like Lotus
Emerging from Water
Tang and Song Dynasties: “Natural Beauty Supersedes
Elaborate Embellishment”
Ming and Qing Dynasties: “Beauty Lies in Human
Nature”
“Vitality” as Beauty: Taoism on the Beauty of Life
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CONTENTS
Laozi’s and Zhuangzi’s Views on “Health Preservation”
and “Nurturing Life”
The Book of Changes on Life
Neo-Daoism on Nurturing Life
Discussion on “Eternal Life” in Taoist Religion
The Fundamental Qi as the Original Force of All Things
Art Is Beautiful Because of the Vital Qi
5
The Buddhist Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
“Form Is Empty”: Buddhist Negation of Sensual Beauty
“Whatever Is Dependently Co-Arising, That Is Explained
as Emptiness”
“Beautiful Appearances and Lustful Sounds Are All
Sources of Suffering”
“Women’s Beauty Is Like a Bag Full of Filth, Causing
Only Suffering”
The Practice of the “Patikulamanasikaraya” That
Regards Beauty as Repulsive
“Nirvān.a and Pure Land”: Buddhist Affirmation
of Essential Beauty
The Beauty of “Nirvān.a” and the Beauty
of Buddha-Dharma
The First Aesthetic Symbolic of Nirvān.a: The Beauty
of Emptiness and Tranquility
The First Aesthetic Symbol of Nirvān.a: The Beauty of Death
The Beauty of the Subjective “Buddha-Nature”
and the Aesthetic Approach of Comprehending “Wondrous
Enlightenment”
The Incarnations of Enlightened “Nirvān.a”: The Beauty
of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, and Arhats
“Nirvān.a Is Called ‘Sweet Dew’”: Buddhist Assertion
of Gustatory Beauty
“The Taste of the Food in One’s Mouth Is Like Taking
Medicine in Sickness”
“Nirvān.a Is Called ‘Sweet Dew’”
“Attaining Great Nirvān.a from Prajnaparamita Is Like
Obtaining Ghee”
“The Dharmakaya Has No Mark”: Buddhist Idea
of the Beauty of Language
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x
CONTENTS
“The Practice of Mahayana Has No Words or Sign”
The Form of the “Incarnated Body” and the Beauty
of Teaching via Images
“Teaching via Words”: The Beauty of Bianwen
“Brightness Is the Most Respectable”: Buddhist Preference
for Brightness
The Ugliness of “Avijja”
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas’s “Wisdom Light” and “Body
Light”
“Buddha Lands” and “Complete Brightness”
The Forms of “External Brightness”: Sun, Moon, Lamps,
Gold, Mirror, and Pearls
“Round and Complete Perfection”: Buddhist Emphasis
on the Beauty of Roundness “ Form Is Round”
“Buddhist Truth Is Round”
“Wisdom Is Round”: “Round Awakening,” “Round
Understanding,” “Round Illumination,” “Round
Permeation”
“Dharma Is Round and Complete”
“Ten Is the Perfect Number”: Buddhist Devotion to Perfection
Du Shun: “Harmonization of Principles and Practices,”
“One” and “Many” Are Indivisible
Zhi Yan: “One in Ten, Ten in One”
Fa Zang: “Ten” as the “Compete Number” That “Displays
Boundless Meanings”
Cheng Guan: “To Create a Harmonious Display, One
Must Often Mention Ten”
“The Purity of Dharma Sounds”: Buddhist Likings
for Auditory Beauty
“Using Sound for Buddhist Practices,” “Bowing to Pure
Music”
“Buddhist Music Is Subtle and Delightful”
“Fragrant Incense Fills the Air”: Buddhist Fondness
for Olfactory Beauty
“Fragrance” Is a Worldly Pleasure and Desires for It
Should Be Eliminated
“Fragrance Serves the Buddha” and “Fragrant Smell
Permeates Everywhere”
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CONTENTS
“Lotus Is the Best”: Buddhist Acknowledgment of Secular
Beauty
“Only by Seeing the Pure Lotus Can One Know
the Untainted Mind”
“Innumerable Lotus Blossoms Surrounding the World”
“Entering the Lotus Womb and Experiencing All Joys”
“Seven Treasures Integrated”: Buddhist Thought
on Utilitarian Beauty
What Are the “Seven Treasures”?
Seven Treasures of the Buddha’s Land Are Magnificent
and Glorious
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The Expressive Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
The Spirit of Expression in the Process of Literary
and Artistic Creation
The Spirit of Expression in Literary and Artistic Works
The Spirit of Expression in Literary Appreciation
The Spirit of “Imagery Appreciation” in Traditional
Chinese Aesthetics
Historical Evolution of the Theory of “Imagery”
The Aesthetic Implications of the Category of “Poetic World”
Similarities and Differences Between “Aesthetic Realm,”
“Image,” and “Typicality”
On Aesthetic Characteristics of Traditional Chinese
Aesthetics
Pleasure of Aesthetic Feeling
Intuition of Aesthetic Feelings
Subjectivity of Aesthetic Feelings
Objectivity of Aesthetic Feelings
Authenticity of Aesthetic Feelings
Aesthetic Methodology of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
“Beauty-Tasting” Method of “Chewing Aftertaste”
The “Static Observation” Method of “Observing Things
with Objects”
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xii
CONTENTS
“Emotional View” Method of “Viewing Things from My
Perspective”
382
Bibliography
389
Index
407
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CHAPTER 1
Foreword: The Essence and Structure
of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
What is the spirit of traditional Chinese aesthetics (By “spirit” I mean the
typical quality of a concept)? To approach this question, I suggest that
the initial step is to examine traditional Chinese aesthetics from a macroscopic viewpoint. In order to discuss anything, we need to define what it
is and to proffer the general concept before discussing the minute details.
Here, I identify the conception of “beauty” as the crucial question. My
argument is that the heart of the classical Chinese aesthetic spirit is the
valuable sense of delight and its aesthetic objects.
First, in Chinese, beauty (美 měi, lit: n. delicious, beautiful, good,
ideal, pleased; v. praise, beautify) is both a pleasant emotion and the
aesthetic objects that arouse that emotion. In the ancient Chinese dictionary Shuowen Jiezi [Explaining Graphs and Analyzing Characters ], Xu
Shen (c. 58–148) wrote, “Beauty means delicious.”1 To him, beauty
promotes delightful, happy feelings. Wang Bi (226–249), a renowned
philosopher of Metaphysical School [Xuan Xue or: Mystic Learning2 ],
added: “Beauty enacts appreciation, just as viciousness [恶 è] triggers
loathing [恶 wù].” “Beautiful things delight people; and ugly things
1 Xu Shen. Shuowen Jiezi [Explaining Graphs and Analyzing Characters 说文解字],
Yuelu Academy Press, 2006.
2 Translator’s Note: Xuanxue is a metaphysical post-classical Chinese the philosophical
school that combines Taoist and Confucian teachings to interpret earliest texts such as I
Ching. Xuanxue was popular during the Six Dynasty (222–589). (The notes that follow
in the book, excluding the sources of citation, are all translators’ notes.)
1
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2
Z. QI
disgust people.”3 Defined from the psychological responses to a subject,
“beauty” is a happy feeling people pursue, and 恶 [è/wù] refers to abominable, detestable, and irritated feelings. Thus, happy feelings are aesthetic
feelings. As Xu Shen also put: “Plump [大, lit: big] sheep [羊] are considered as beautiful [美].”4 Wang Chong (25–100 CE), a philosopher who
authored Lunheng, or Balanced Discourses , adds: “Delicacy [美味 meiwei,
lit: delicious taste] is…. what a gourmet would like to relish.” “Beautiful visions [美色 meise, lit: beautiful visions] are different from each
other, yet they are all agreeable to the eyes.”5 Ge Hong (283–342 CE)
says, “Pentatonic scales vary, yet the music pleases the ears.”6 Here the
“delicacy” [美味 meiwei], “Beautiful visions” [美色 meise], and beautiful music [美声 meisheng] all are objective substances that excite happy
feelings.
As I claim that “beauty” refers to both the valuable sense of delight
and the aesthetic objects, I would like to add that here the “value” comes
from the utilitarian function of aesthetic objects to the subject’s existence.
Although humans prefer enjoyment and avoid suffering, their pursuit
of such can go against their spiritual values if they indulge in excessive
sensual pleasure, thus turning beauty into spitefulness. To ancient Chinese
philosophers, it is the spiritual and ethical pleasure beyond sensual or
material enjoyment that defines the ultimate happiness of true beauty,
as in the Taoist philosopher Chuang Tzu (c. 369–286 BCE)’s words:
“Perfect happiness is derived from the absence of excessive enjoyment.”7
Beauty is determined by the feelings of a subject. Considered from the
material perspective, all these sensual beauties, such as stimulating tastes,
colorful images, and vivacious music, are beautiful only when they satisfy
the natural needs of a subjective being; once they become excessive and
overwhelming, they lose their beauty and become detrimental to life.
Chuang Tzu further adds: “There are five cases in which the inborn
3 Wang Bi. Annotations on Tao Te Ching [Laozi Daodejing zhu], edited by Lou Yulie,
The Annotations by Wang Bi Explained, vol. 1, Zhonghua Book Company, 1980, p. 6.
4 In Chinese writing, the character 美 (beauty; beautiful things) consists of two radicals:
when the character 羊 (lit: sheep) is added by 大 (lit: big), it makes the character 美.
5 Wang Chong. Lunheng [Balanced Discourses].
6 Ge Hong. “Boyu” [Extensive Analogies], from the Outer Chapters in Baopuzi [Book
of the Master Who Embraces Simplicity].
7 Zhuangzi. Library of Chinese Classics Chinese-English Edition 2 Volumes, English and
Mandarin Chinese Edition by Zhuangzi, Chuang-Tzu, p. 287.
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1
FOREWORD: THE ESSENCE AND STRUCTURE …
3
nature is lost. First, the five colors confuse the eyes and make them less
keen. Second, the five musical sounds confuse the ears and make them
less sharp. Third, the five smells fill the nose and make it blocked. Fourth,
the five flavors spoil the mouth and make it less sensitive. Fifth, likes and
dislikes disturb the mind and disturb inborn nature. These five cases are all
instances in which inborn nature is harmed.”8 As Zuo Qiuming (c. 556–
452 BCE), a renowned historian contemporary to Confucius, insists that
aesthetic objects have to nourish life: “When music gets strident, or visual
beauty blinding, their beauty is lost.”9 Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn
Annals also cautions people: “Although our ears thirst for sounds, eyes
colors, noses scents, tongues tastes, we still have to stop when it turns out
to be unethical for our lives.” “Therefore, the saints only choose to enjoy
sensual pleasure that are good for nature, and refrain from things which
are bad for nature, and this is the way to protect our inborn nature.”10
While emphasizing that the objects of sensual pleasure must be
wholesome for human inborn nature, traditional Chinese aesthetics also
underscore the moral implication in the objects of sensual pleasure. Only
when the objects of sensual pleasure are at the same time objects of
spiritual enjoyment can they become ultimate, real beauty. According
to the neo-Confucian philosopher Zhu Xi (1130–1200), Confucius’s
understanding of beauty is that kindness is “the essence of beauty.”11
Meanwhile, Confucius’ direct successor, Mencius (372–298 BCE), said:
“Moral fulfillment is beauty itself.”12 Xun Zi (c. 310–235 BCE, alt. c.
314–217 BCE), the third-generation Confucian philosopher, added that
a Confucian gentleman’s morality may be called beautiful if it is flawed
or impure.13 Shangshu [Classic of History], one of the earliest Confucian six classics,14 repudiated indulgence in pleasure and abandonment
of aspiration; meanwhile, it encouraged people to “constantly improve
8 Zhuangzi. Library of Chinese Classics Chinese-English Edition 2 Volumes, English and
Mandarin Chinese Edition by Zhuangzi, Chuang-Tzu, p. 197.
9 Zuo Qiuming. Guoyu [Discourses of the States].
10 Guisheng, Bensheng.
11 Zhu Xi. Sishu Zhangju Jizhu [The Collected Annotations to the Confucian “Four
Books”].
12 Meng Zi. Mencius.
13 Xun Zi. “Quanxue” [Persuasions of Learning], Xunzi.
14 The six Confucian classics include The Book of Rites, I Ching (or: The Book of
Changes), The Book of History, The Book of Songs, The Book of Music, and The Spring
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4
Z. QI
your morality so as to rest well.” According to I Ching , “beauty is a
matter of the mind.”15 These teachings were carried on by scholars of
later generations, such as the Taoist scholar Wang Chong (27–97) who
wrote: “kindness and beauty are pleasant.”16
As for what we can learn from ancient Chinese teachings about the
concept of “beauty,” my assumption is that beauty is the valuable sense
of delight and its aesthetic objects. In aesthetic practice, we usually call
the valuable sense of delight a “sense of beauty [美感 měigǎn],” and its
objects as “beauty [美 měi].” In other words, beauty is something that
brings us pleasant feelings. The objects that elicit pleasant sensual feelings
are of formal beauty, and those that take cognitive processing to generate
happy feelings constitute inner beauty. To conclude, beauty includes all
valuable objects that inspire “delights in the eyes and the mind.”
Once we understand the implication of “beauty [美 měi]” in traditional
Chinese aesthetics, we may apply its rules to contemporary aesthetic practices. What are the rules of beauty? To answer this question, the rules of
beauty are the ways through which people feel beauty with unconscious
value judgment. When humans seek self-improvement by following the
rules of beauty, they seek to make others happy through their actions or
works; meanwhile, they also want to make sure that their pleasant experience does not harm the aesthetic objects. According to these precepts,
objects of entertainment are not really about beauty, and indulgence in
sensual satisfaction and entertainment to excess can turn out as ugliness. We may pursue formal beauty if compatible with intrinsic human
nature, yet we are encouraged to pursue sublime inner beauty that highlight genuineness and kindness. Nowadays, our commercialized society
has seen a tendency to muddle beauty with ugliness, so it is beneficial
that we should rethink the social environment by inquiring into the value
of beauty’s delight.
Under the precondition that beauty is the valuable object of pleasant
feelings, traditional Chinese aesthetics expound five basic aesthetic forms
that are complementary to each other.
and Autumn Annals. Among them, The Book of Music has been lost, and I Ching is
considered as a common source for both Confucianism and Taoism.
15 Quoted from I Ching.
16 Wang Chong. Lunheng [Balanced Discourses].
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1
FOREWORD: THE ESSENCE AND STRUCTURE …
5
The first aesthetic form concerns “flavor” [味 wèi]. “Flavor” refers to
tastes which give comfort to people. The appreciation of flavor is the basis
of Chinese aesthetic tradition that values pleasure instead of asceticism.
The second aesthetic form concerns “wen” [文 wén, patterns, rituals,
writing, literature, culture, civilization]. Wen refers to forms of good
writing or spoken literature. “Writing must be rhetorically elegant, and
speech must be skillfully eloquent.”17 Traditional Chinese aesthetics
values culture and literary ingenuity as a way of delight.
The third aesthetic form is “heart” [心 xı̄n]. “Heart” refers to the
mind’s world. Traditional Chinese aesthetics take the material objects that
represent inner beauty as beautiful, hence: beauty of the jade comes from
five virtues, the exquisiteness of flowers comes from its spirit18 , “beauty
is not beauty in itself, it is only revealed by the mind.”19 “Heart” reveals
the subjective spirit of traditional Chinese aesthetics, its ideal beauty, and
value judgment.
The fourth aesthetic form is “Dao” [道 Dào, way, road, path]. Dao
is both the subject’s ethical belief and its objectification, or: the Way
of Heaven and heavenly principles. Dao embodies the ethical spirit of
traditional Chinese aesthetics, which also speaks about ideal beauty.
The fifth aesthetic form is “following nature” [适性 shixing ]. Only
as the aesthetic object and the subject correspond to each other may it
become the valuable object of pleasure, be it formal, spiritual, or moral
beauty. On the one hand, the material substance must be wholesome to
the subject’s biological nature; on the other hand, the subject should
also follow the endowed nature of the materials. Only when things and
humans correspond to each other may there be unity between Heaven
and humanity [天人合一 tianren heyi], and this mutually beneficial beauty
embodies the cultural spirit of traditional Chinese aesthetics.
The beauty of taste, of culture, of mind, ethics, and of “suitable to
nature” comprise the mainstream traditional aesthetic spirit of China,
but each has different characteristics in the three schools of thoughts:
Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist
aesthetics share fundamental rules but take diverse aesthetic forms.
17 Wang Chong. Chapter 30 “Ziji [the Story of My Life],” in Lunheng [Balanced
Discourses].
18 Shao Yong. Songs of the Appreciation of Flowers [邵雍《善赏花吟》
].
19 Liu Zongyuan. Journal on a Thatched Pavilion in Matui Mountain [柳宗元《马退山
茅亭记》
].
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6
Z. QI
Specifically, Confucian aesthetic appreciation of nature follows the principle of “virtue comparison” [比德 Bı̌dé, to liken certain characteristics
of natural existence to human virtues]; and its appreciation of human
character emphasizes their fenggu [风骨 moral integrity]. Confucianism
sees “balanced harmony” [中和zhōnghé] as the ideal state of mind.
Neither stifling nor indulgent in sensibility, Confucianism recommends
“restraining feelings” [节情 jiéqíng]: In appraising artistic works, Confucianism values works that are “chenyu” [沉郁 pensive and concerning] in
considering social problems, and it holds that artistic skills should serve
to drive home the ideas the authors aim to express.
In contrast, Taoist ontology advocates “non-existence” [无 wú] as
beauty; for Taoism, beauty comes from the mutual transformation
between void and concreteness. Taoist aesthetics appreciate subtleness and
simplicity, “naturalness” and the aimlessness of beauty. Taoism holds that
beauty should be autonomous, carefree, and “following nature” [适性
shixing]. It considers that life-giving is the ultimate kindness [生生为仁
shengsheng wei ren] and prefers the quality of liveliness: Taoism praises
the quality of “softness” [柔 róu, gentleness] as an admirable attitude to
life.
In comparison, Buddhist ontological beauty can be epitomized by
the idea of “nirvana, the ultimate happiness” [涅槃极乐 niepan jile]. Its
attitude towards reality is negative affirmation: on the one hand, “the
material form [rūpa] is no different from the void of shapeless emptiness [śūnyatā],”20 on the other hand, “all visible things are also different
from emptiness.”21 For beauty of taste, Buddhism favors amrita [甘露
ganlu, lit: sweet drink, metaphor for the ontology of nirvana] and ghee
[醍醐 tihu, the finest clarified butter, the last of the five flavors, and
the symbol of the supreme wisdom]; for visual aesthetics, Buddhism
specifies lotus, round shapes, the number ten, brightness, and teachings by image [相教 xiangjiao] as the symbols of beauty. For sound,
Buddhism proffers dharma [法音 fayin]; for smell, incense; and for material objects, Saptaratna [七宝 qibao, the seven precious mundane treasures
20 From The Heart Sūtra [Xı̄n Jı̄ng 心经]. https://pages.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/chin/
chtxts/ShinJing.html. Accessed 28 Feb 2022.
21 This quote comes from Zhi Dun [314–336 CE], a renowned Buddhist monk and
philosopher lived in Eastern Jin Dynasty. Quoted in A New Account of the Tales of the
World [Shishuo Xinyu].
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1
FOREWORD: THE ESSENCE AND STRUCTURE …
7
that Buddhist teachings employ to help people imagine the Buddhist
paradise22 ] as different aesthetic forms.
But Chinese aesthetic spirit is much more than that outlined above:
In traditional Chinese literature and art, representation and narratives are
vehicles rather than ends, whose real aim is to express through images
[假象见意 jiaxiang jianyi], to persuade through evidence [即事明理 jishi
mingli], to reveal and to recover one’s true nature of the heart [明心见
性 mingxin jianxing], and to convey morals in literature [文以载道 wenyi
zaidao]. Traditional Chinese aesthetics value human subjectivity, which is
conveyed in traditional Chinese art and literary theories: For art creation,
it considers that writing is engendered from feelings [因情生文 yinqing
shengwen] and writing is to express feelings [为情造文 weiqing zaowen];
literature must be directed by ideas of the subject [文以意为主 wen yi yi
weizhu] and calligraphy and painting are about picturing the heart [书
画为心画 shuhua wei xinhua]. For art criticism, it allows the readers to
approach the authors’ intention through the readers’ subjective mind [以
意逆志 yiyi nizhi], and to trace the authors’ pathos through their works
[披文入情 piwen ruqing]. In this way, traditional Chinese artistic spirit
highlights the sublimity of subjective inwardness.
Traditional Chinese artistic spirit is also revealed in its veneration of
images [尚象 shangxiang]. According to the ancient Chinese political
traditions of edification through poetry in a reserved and broad-minded
manner [温柔敦厚 wenrou dunhou] and persuasion through figures of
speech [主文谲谏 zhuwen yuejian], good literary and artistic expression should be subtle and vivid with imagery [意象 yixiang]. Images are
the fundamental thing that touches, moves, and delights people, and its
ideal form is aesthetic scene [意境 Yijing]. Both yixiang [images] and
yijing [aesthetic scene] are the epitomes of Chinese aesthetic thought
that venerates images.
Traditional Chinese aesthetic spirit also includes the rudimentary configuration of aesthetic activities. Traditional Chinese aesthetics
describe aesthetic feelings as pleasurable, intuitive, subjective, and
authentic. With respect to the methods of aesthetic appreciation, if we
regard, for example, “flavor” [wei] as an aesthetic mode, traditional
Chinese aesthetics encourages rumination to “savor” [体味 tiwei]. As
22 The Saptaratna differs from scripts to scripts, in Lotus Sūtra, the seven treasures are
gold, silver, lapis lazuli, seashell, agate, pearl, and carnelian. https://www.wisdomlib.org/
definition/saptaratna.
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8
Z. QI
for the “heart” as an aesthetic mode, it recommends people to approach
objects through one’s subjective feelings [以我观物 yiwo guanwu]: with
Dao as an aesthetic mode, it provides contemplation to observe issues in
the objective ways [以物观物 yiwu guanwu]. All these provide different
approaches to aesthetic experiences.
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