UNIT ONE
GENDER
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to unit 1. This is the first unit in the module on Gender and
Development Course. In this unit we explore the discourse of gender and
gender as a discourse. We shall also examine the various concepts and ideas
used in gender and also those that are related with gender and development.
This unit thus seeks to provide you with a critical presentation of the nature
of gender issues and how they are linked to development. You are therefore
encouraged to familiarize yourself with other works on gender and
development since what you are given in this unit is not a self contained kind
of information but an attempt in helping you to open up your mind on issues
to do with gender and development at various levels. You are also
encouraged to read other books and materials related to this unit from other
programmes so that you have a variety of thoughts and ideas on the same.
1.1
Aim
The aim of this unit is meant to improve and enhance students’
understanding on the discourse of gender and gender as a discourse from
different settings and not necessary from the point of view of Civic Education
1.2
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
a) Discuss the discourse of gender and gender as a discourse
b) Evaluate the meaning of gender
c) Examine the concepts and issues in gender
[1]
1.3 Equipment and Requisites
There are a number of books that you can consult from on
gender and development and you are encouraged to explore in
this area as often as possible. In recent time gender and
development studies have become matters of heated debates at
various levels. A number of works on the subject matter has
been done and is still being done. This will help you to read new
information in the subject area and this therefore means that the
area has vast materials which will be of help to you as you read
on this module.
1.4 Time Required
This unit might take you Two (2) days to walk through and
understand what is required of you to do. Roughly you will
need about Four (4) working hours of 2 hours each session
Before you proceed you can do the following exercise:
Activity 1: What would be your understanding of Gender and
Development?
Why do you think we have to talk about Gender and
Development in Civic Education?
1.5 GENDER AS A DISCOURSE
Gender as a concept is not a fixed identity that each individual possesses;
rather it is a social discourse that sets expectations for people’s lives, without
necessarily forming their identities or gaining their allegiance.
‘Discourse’ is a relatively contentious term. Nevertheless, for our purpose,
especially in this module the following definition should be sufficient: a
relatively organized set of propositions about a particular object that has
[2]
claims to represent the authoritative truth about that object. For example, the
discursive formation on men would trigger the following train of propositions
and assumptions: “men have penises, they don’t have breasts, they are sexmaniacs and interested in women of a particular type, they don’t quite have
the same connection with their children as mothers do, they like cars and
sports.” This discourse constructs identities and sets expectations for
behavior, while at the same time, coloring people’s analyses of a particular
person.
There are generally two types of discourses about gender: the discourse about
the content of gender and discourse about gender itself. The former refers to the
various non-physical attributes of men and women, and the list of acceptable
behaviors for each gender. This discourse is flexible, changeable, up-fordebate, and (re)constructed on a more-or-less daily basis. For instance, while
the social discourse on the content of gender emphasizes that men like sports
and fast cars, in recent years, normative masculinity has appropriated many
so-called ‘feminine’ practices as well, such as grooming, manicures,
pedicures, waxing, and applying skincare products. This is indicative of how
malleable the discourse on the content of gender is. It is very much up for
debate and flexible: the list of acceptable behaviors for men and women can
change often.
The discourse of gender itself, however, displays the opposite attributes. We
would characterize it (at least within the context certain culture) as hard,
inflexible, and exceptionally difficult to change. It so often goes unquestioned
that it has an existence independent of the mass of individuals that put it into
practice. What are the main postulates of this discourse about gender? There
are two and only two genders; Gender characteristics follow ‘naturally’ from
‘biological’ sex traits; there must at all times be a difference between the two
genders. So, just as we noted above that men could appropriate certain
‘feminine’ practices, we should also note that, in the process of that
[3]
appropriation, the difference between men and women has to be upheld.
There is never any question of men becoming women or being like women.
Rather, in appropriating ‘feminine’ beautification and grooming practices,
they have to be translated into a masculine context, renamed and
reinterpreted so as to fit the changed content of masculinity. Thus, manicures
become ‘hand-fixes’, skincare and grooming products begin to wear the label
‘For Men’, and a new masculine identity (metro sexuality) is created in order
to make sense of the changes. Despite the appropriation of ‘feminine’ beauty
practices, a difference between genders has been maintained: men are still
men and women are still women. Culture, gender flexibility seems to stop at
the point at which the two-gender model and the assumption of essential
difference
between
men
and
women
are
challenged.
Nevertheless, the inflexible and hard nature of this discourse does not mean
that it is not possible to change it. The very existence of people who do not
accept the two-gender system, whose gender characteristics follow different
paths than their ‘biology’ would normatively lead one to believe, and who are
not obsessed with always producing a difference between men and women, is
profoundly destabilizing. Simply confronting people with the fact that the
above assumptions do not apply for everybody, that there are people whose
experiences differ vastly from what the discourse of gender itself postulates,
should be enough to destabilize it.
1.6 DEFINING AND UNDERSTANDING GENDER
According to Oakley (1973), she introduced the term sex sociology to refer to
the biological division of male and female. She defined sex in the context of
gender as a parallel sense, socially unequal, division into femininity. The term
gender and sex therefore could be used interchangeably and can be used
almost simultaneously to make a clear distinction between them.
[4]
Feminist look at sex as the biological, physical differences between men and
women; Gender therefore is a socially, culturally conditioned roles of men
and women, hence the assumptions about men and women in nature are
different. In most cases the inferior cases of women in many fields of work
and politics, there are assumed as gender differences.
The term gender has since become extended to refer, not only to individual
identity and personality but also symbolic and cultural level of ideals.
Because of these factors and/or other things developed like stereotypes.
Similarly, it is argued that women considerably bear a great burden in child
rearing and caring for older or infirm relative arises from socially conditions
expectations of gender roles rather than biological differences.
For many feminists, gender is the most fundamental social and political
division, more important than social class or ethnicity and therefore they are
always seeking for gender equality. And yet while most feminist deny that
there are any socially or politically significant differences between men and
women and that the two sexes are subsequently similar. Some feminist are
prepared to asset that women are different. These feminist argue those
women, maybe less aggressive, cooperative and more caring.
Feminist seek women’s liberation from the male domination or patriarchy.
Like other ideologies, feminism involves a critic, an ideal and a program.
When looking at the three aspects we can easily explain that; a critic contains
analysis of the discrimination and injustices suffered by women in existing
society. The ideal is just for women generally but not exclusive to mean full
equality between the sexes; while the practical program includes action to
secure for women political and legal rights and equality in the economic fame.
It also means the elimination of sexual discrimination in education and the
work place giving it more equitable division of child rearing duties and
projection against physical and sexual violence.
[5]
1.7 CONCEPTS AND ISSUES IN GENDER
(a) Changes in gender identity and gender relations
Gender roles and characteristics in almost all societies have undergone many
recent adjustments and changes in response to development, technological
change and globalisation, which have led to massive economic and social
changes in all parts of the world. Changes in gender roles and relations often
meet resistance, particularly in the form of tradition. Social and gender
analysis can demonstrate that change in certain aspects of social roles and
relations between women and men can improve the quality and conditions of
life for everyone.
(b) Social and gender analysis
Social and gender analysis attempts to understand the roles of different social
groups, (including women and men) in relation to what they do in a given
social setting and in relation to the resources they have. There is also a need to
understand gender relations: how women and men relate to one another and
who makes decisions over which resources.
Social and gender analysis identifies the roles, relations, responsibilities,
access to and control over resources, decision-making and power, as well as
the needs and potentials of different social groups of both women and men.
Social and gender analysis is not limited only to the social sectors, but can also
be used at all levels and areas of village development.
(c) Sex and gender
Sex refers to the biological differences between men and women, which are
universal and do not change. Gender refers to social attributes that are
learned when growing up as a member of a community. Because these
attributes are learned behaviours, they can and do change over time. In
[6]
addition, they vary between different cultures and ethnic groups. Gender
therefore refers to the socially given attributes, roles, activities, responsibilities
and needs connected to being men (masculine) and women (feminine) in a
given society at a given time. Women’s and men's gender identity determines
how they are perceived and how they are expected to think and act as men
and women. Gender is one of the variables (along with ethnicity, age and
class) used in the distribution of privilege, prestige, power and a range of
social and economic resources.
While carrying out social and gender analysis increases knowledge of social
and gender roles, inequalities and different impacts, this alone will not
automatically bring about change. The results of social and gender analysis
should be used to bring about necessary changes in relation to planning,
priorities, choice of methods, and division of labour and implementation of
activities.
(d) Sex Difference and Gender Difference
How do you know when to call something a sex difference rather than a
gender difference? Using the definitions given for sex (biological differences
between males and females) and gender (socially defined differences between
men and women), sex differences therefore refer only to those differences that
can be attributed solely to biological difference. Medical literature most
commonly addresses biological sex differences. Increasingly we find that
medical evidence is published with sex as a variable of analysis.
Gender differences delineate those differences that exist between men and
women. Gender differences by definition take into consideration the fact that
outside the test tube it is impossible to control for the interactions between
people and their environment. Outcomes data therefore demonstrate gender
difference because it is impossible to tell whether health outcomes are 100%
[7]
attributable to the biology of males and females or whether they are some
mixture of the interaction between biology and the environment within which
men and women experience them.
It is therefore more common to use gender differences as a blanket term for
sex and gender difference when speaking about people because you can’t
separate them from their environment. The generic rule of thumb must
therefore be: If you know that the difference is 100% biological it's a Sex
Difference, Everything else must be considered a Gender Difference.
1.8 Unit Summary
At this stage it is hoped that you have tried to come to terms with the issues
discussed under this unit and that you have come to understand the issues on
the discourse of gender and gender as a discourse and that you will now be
able to discuss freely matters of gender and development with others at an
informed level than before. In the next unit you will be looking at gender role
development which is build up topic to what you have been looking at in unit
1. But before you move to unit 2, can you do the following exercise as a way
of cementing your knowledge gained in this unit 1.
Activities
1. Critically examine the concept of gender?
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2. Explore the major differences between gender and sex?
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[8]
UNIT TWO (2)
GENDER-ROLE DEVELOPMENT
2.0 Introduction
Welcome to unit 2. This is the second unit in this module on Gender and
Development Course. The unit explores human development with regard to
gender. Specifically the unit discusses gender role development as one of the
most important aspects of human development. It also discusses factors on
human growth and how they affect the gender roles of people at different
levels of their human growth. Therefore the unit examines the various
concepts and ideas used in gender and also those that are related with gender
and development. Just like it was mentioned in unit 1, in this unit too you are
encouraged to familiarize yourself with other works on gender and
development since what you are given in this unit may not be able to address
all the issues under gender role development. You are also encouraged to
read other books and materials related to this unit from other programmes so
that you have a variety of thoughts and ideas on gender role development.
2.1
Aim
The aim of this unit is to improve and enhance students’ understanding on
gender role development.
2.2
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
d) Discuss gender role development
e) Describe different concepts and ideas on gender role development
f) Examine the development of sex and gender issues among people
[9]
2.3 Equipment and Requisites
There are a number of books that you can consult from on
gender role development and you are encouraged to explore in
this area as often as possible. A number of works on the subject
matter has been done and is still being done. This will help you
to read about new ideas in the subject area.
2.4 Time Required
This unit might take you Two (2) days to walk through and
understand what is required of you to do. Roughly you will
need about Four (4) working hours of 2 hours each session
Before you proceed you can as well do the following exercise:
a.
To what extent do you see gender related studies improving power
relations in our communities?
b. In the recent past we have seen an upswing in gender based violence
in the community. Do you think that gender as a subject is
contributing to this problem?
2.5 Gender Role Development
Gender-role development is one of the most important areas of human
development. In fact, the sex of a newborn sets the agenda for a whole array
of developmental experiences that will influence the person throughout his or
her life. This will be seen as you explore the subsequent sections of this unit.
2.6 The Development of Sex and Gender
The often controversial study of the development of gender is a topic that is
inherently interesting to parents, students, researchers, and scholars for
several reasons. First and foremost, you will learn that one's sex is one of the
[10]
most salient characteristics that are presented to other people. Secondly, one
is a male or a female becomes a significant part of one's overall identity; it is
one of the first descriptors people use about them. Labeling oneself as a "boy"
or "girl" can begin as early as eighteen months. Thirdly, gender is an
important mediator of human experiences and the way in which individuals
interact with each other and the physical environment. Individuals' choices of
friends, toys, classes taken in middle school, and vocation all are influenced
by sex. Finally, the study of sex, gender development, and sex differences
becomes the focal point of an age-old controversy that has influenced the field
of developmental psychology: the nature-nurture controversy.
The following questions become helpful in trying to under the gender role
development:
Are gender roles and sex differences biologically determined? What are the
effects of society and culture on gender and sex? How do biology (nature)
and environment (nurture) interact and mutually influence each other in
this significant dimension of human development?
When discussing gender-role development, the definitions of the terms "sex"
and "gender" need to be understood. Referring to the nature-nurture
controversy, scholars have found it important to distinguish those aspects of
males and females that can be attributed to biology and those that can be
attributed to social influences. The term "sex" denotes the actual physical
makeup of individuals that define them as male or female. Sex is determined
by genetic makeup, internal reproductive organs, the organization of the
brain (such as in the control of hormone production), and external genitalia.
By contrast, the behavior of individuals as males or females, the types of roles
they assume, and their personality characteristics, may be as much a function
of social expectations and interactions as their biological makeup. For
example, in American culture, females are expected to be nurturing, and
males aggressive. These behaviors and characteristics are dependent upon the
social context. In order to differentiate social roles and behaviors from
[11]
biological features, scholars refer to these as "gender" and "gender roles."
Obviously, sex and gender are intertwined. Social expectations usually are
enacted once body parts reveal the biological makeup of the individual.
Both sex and gender have a developmental story to tell that begins before
birth
(prenatal)
and
continues
throughout
the
lifespan.
Important
developmental changes occur from conception through the adolescence years,
and there are important theoretical perspectives and research studies that
have tried to shed light on these developmental accomplishments. The next
section focuses on these stages of gender-development.
a. Prenatal Development
Gender-role development begins at conception. If the fertilized cell has an XY
chromosomal pattern, the baby will become a genetic male; an XX
chromosomal pattern will lead to a genetic female. There cannot be a genetic
male without that Y chromosome. Sometimes there are aberrations to these
patterns, which can ultimately lead to a number of syndromes such as females
with only one X chromosome (Turner's syndrome) or males with two Xs and
one Y (Klinefelter's syndrome). Frequently these syndromes result in some
form of cognitive and physical impairment.
At around week six of gestation, the hormone testosterone will stimulate the
tissues into developing into the male internal organs; otherwise, the organs
will become part of the female reproductive system. Then, by around three or
four months, the external genitalia are formed. It is also during early prenatal
development that the brain, bathed by the male and female hormones, may
differentiate into a "female" or "male" brain (for example, female brains may
be more symmetrically organized), but most of this research is still
inconclusive.
[12]
Prenatal sex differentiation culminates at birth. When the proclamation of "It's
a boy!" or "It's a girl!" is made, the complex process of socialization begins. It
is important to recognize that the path of prenatal development may take
significant deviations. Aside from the chromosomal abnormalities already
mentioned, there are instances during prenatal development when females
are bathed by the male hormones (androgens) and situations where male
genital tissues are insensitive to the differentiating function of the male
hormones. Both situations can lead to a baby born with ambiguous genitalia.
In such situations, parents face agonizing decisions: whether to surgically
"correct" the condition and whether to raise the baby as a female or as a male.
b. Infancy
Overall, the sex differences between boys and girls in the first year of life are
minimal. Boys may be a bit more active or fussier and girls more physically
mature and less prone to physical problems, but that may be the extent of the
significant differences. Yet, baby boys are bounced and roughhoused,
whereas girls are talked to more. Mothers tend to ignore the emotional
expressions of their infant sons, while fathers spend more time with their
boys than with their girls. Even during infancy, their names, their clothing,
the "sugar and spice" messages in baby congratulation cards, and their room
furnishings shape girls and boys. According to Marilyn Stern and Katherine
H. Karraker, adults will characterize the same baby as strong and hardy if
they think it is a male, and delicate and soft if they think it is a female. In
these and other ways, gender-role socialization has already begun in earnest.
c. Early Childhood
The years from about age two to age six are crucial years in the development
of gender roles. During these years, children become aware of their gender,
where play styles and behaviors begin to crystallize around that core identity
[13]
of "I am a girl" or "I am a boy." (Reflection Photo library/Corbis) their gender,
where play styles and behaviors begin to crystallize around that core identity
of "I am a girl" or "I am a boy," and that the social context of family, school,
the peer group, and the media exert potent messages in stereotyped ways.
Because of the centrality of gender-role development during these years, most
theories of social and personality development highlight the early childhood
years.
We know, for example, in the psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, as we
see later, in his third stage of psychosexual development; a male child
encounters the Oedipal Crisis, a time when the only way in which he can cope
with his desire for his mother and fear of his father is to completely identify
and incorporate his father's characteristics within himself. Freud posited a
similar process for girls' desires for their fathers (the Electra complex).
Although many contemporary psychologists do not agree with this theory in
general, Freud is credited with highlighting the development of gender and
gender-role behaviors very early in childhood and their link to identification
with parents.
Social learning theory, developed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the
importance of children's imitation of the behavior of others (models). The
theory posits that boys learn how to behave as boys from observing and
imitating masculine behaviors, especially from their fathers, and girls learn
from imitating females, especially their mothers. When children imitate samesex behaviors, they are rewarded, but imitating the other sex may carry the
threat of punishment. Although the research indicates that most parents value
the same behaviors for their sons and daughters, some rewards or
punishments are given on the basis of gender typing, particularly during
play. This is even truer for boys than for girls, with fathers being the most
punitive if, for example, they observe their sons playing with Barbie dolls or
sporting red fingernail polish.
[14]
Finally, cognitive developmental theory underscores the importance of
understanding what it means to be a boy or girl in the development of gender
roles. In 1966 Lawrence Kohlberg conceived of gender development as a
three-stage process in which children first learn their identity ("I am a boy"),
then gender stability ("I will always be a boy and grow up to be a man"), and
finally gender constancy ("Even if I wore a dress, I would still be a boy"), all
by about six years of age. A newer version of this approach, formulated by
Carol Martin and Charles Halverson in 1981, emphasized the development of
gender schemas— children's ideas of gender that help them categorize
experiences as relevant to one sex or the other.
Regardless of which theoretical explanation of gender roles is used, the early
acquisitions of such ideas and behaviors make for very stereotyped
youngsters. Because young children see the world in black- and-white terms,
they may go as far as to insist that only men could be physicians, even when
their own pediatrician is a woman!
d. Middle Childhood
Whereas parents play a significant role in gender socialization when their
children are very young, when most Western boys and girls enter school they
separate into gender-segregated groups that seem to operate by their own set
of peer-driven rules. Gender segregation is such a widespread phenomenon
that boys and girls seem to work and play together only when there is a
coercive adult present. During unstructured free time, the lapse into the "two
cultures of childhood" (Maccoby 1998, p. 32) is quite obvious—the other sex
becomes "toxic." A typical boys' group is large, competitive, hierarchical, with
one or two boys at the top of the pecking order, and organized around large
group outdoor activities such as sports. Rough-and-tumble play and displays
of strength and toughness frequently occur. In contrast, girls' groups tend to
[15]
be smaller and dependent on intense, intimate conversations where the
emphasis is upon maintaining group cohesion. Girls try very hard to be "nice"
to one another, even as they attempt to covertly promote their own agenda. In
her 1998 book The Two Sexes, Eleanor Maccoby stated her belief that this
segregation, hints of which may be seen as early as age four or five, begins
when girls shy away from their exuberant, active male playmates, who do not
rely as much upon language for persuasion and influence. The boys' groups
ultimately evolve into a strict order that avoids anything perceived as
feminine. Girls have much greater latitude in American society to cross that
sacred border. Maccoby contended that these interaction styles, to some
extent, continue throughout adolescence and adulthood.
e. Adolescence
Erik H. Erikson believed that adolescence represented a crucial turning point
in the development of a sense of identity. All of the physical, social, and
cognitive changes of these years lead to frequent soul-searching about "Who
am I?" Such uncertainty and insecurity also can further promote conformity
into one's gender role, or "gender intensification." During early adolescence,
boys may emulate "macho" role models and be quite homophobic; girls may
adhere to strict dress codes (e.g., that which is "in") and play down their
intellectual talents and abilities. The timing of puberty may also have
significant implications for adolescent gender development. Girls are more
likely to encounter social difficulties when they mature early, but for boys the
opposite is true.
For
many
adolescents,
the
uncertainties,
conflicting
demands,
and
withdrawal of adult and community support are predictors of significant
problems. Much has been written about how difficult the adolescent years are
for girls, as they are more likely than boys to experience depression, eating
disorders, and low self-esteem. This may vary, however, according to the
[16]
ethnicity of the girl. In his 1998 book Real Boys, William Pollack emphasized
the realization that gender-role socialization makes life hard for boys. Because
Western culture provides boys little opportunity for self-expression and close
emotional relationships, the suicide rate and rate of violence in teenage boys
is far greater than for girls.
By the end of adolescence, both sexes usually become more tolerant of
themselves and others in terms of their consideration of gender-related
behaviors. Individuals' evolution as men and women continues throughout
the lifespan, however, as each person encounters major life transitions such as
marriage, parenthood, middle age, and old age. It is important to recognize
that although humans emphasize the differential paths of boys and girls in
the development of gender roles, the fundamental dimensions of humanity—
male and female—are more similar than different.
2.7 Unit Summary
This unit has shown various stages that gender role development goes
through or passes. The acquisition of gender roles from pre-natal to
adolescence; have clearly been explained in this unit leading to an
establishment of how these stages effect gender- role development.
Activities
1. Explain with clear examples on gender role -development?
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2. Explain the stages of gender role development and the implication to
the well being of males and females in the community.
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[18]
UNIT THREE (3)
SOCIETY AND GENDER ROLES
3.0 Introduction
Welcome to unit 3. This is the third unit in this module on Gender and
Development Course. The unit explores society and gender roles at different
levels socialisation. Specifically the unit discusses the processes of
categorising others as individuals through socialisation. It also discusses
agents of socialisation on human growth and how they affect the gender roles
of people at different levels of their human growth.
3.1 Aim
The aim of this unit is to improve and enhance students’ understanding on
society and gender roles at different levels.
3.2
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
a. Discuss relationship between society and gender roles
b. Describe the process of socialisation in the society and its implication to
development
c. Examine the agents of socialisation and stereotypes in the society.
3.3 Equipment and Requisites
There are a number of books that you can consult from on
society and gender roles especially the works of Anthony
Giddens. You are further encouraged to explore this area as
often as possible. A number of works on the subject matter have
[19]
been done and is still being done. This will help you to read
about new ideas in the subject area.
3.4 Time Required
This unit might take you Two (2) days to walk through and
understand what is required of you to do. Roughly you will
need about Four (4) working hours of 2 hours each session
Before you proceed you can as well do the following exercise:
What is your comment on Sex roles and gender roles? Do you see
them to be the same or there is a difference?
Are gender roles worth considering in the society? Discuss
3.5 Society and Gender Roles
According to psychologists such as Sandra Bem, one cognitive process that
seems nearly inevitable in humans is to divide people into groups. We can
partition these groups on the basis of race, age, religion, and so forth.
However, what is critical each time such a division is done is the issue of
gender and you will also realise that each time you are meeting someone
what will come to your mind or that person’s mind is the issue of gender.
Why do you think it is always like this or that? Well you will be to see and
discuss as you walk through this unit which is on society and gender roles.
This process of categorizing others in terms of gender is both habitual and
automatic. It is nearly impossible to suppress the tendency to split the world
in half, using gender as the great divider. When we divide the world into two
groups, males and females, we tend to consider all males similar, all females
similar, and the two categories of “males” and “females” very different from
each other. In real life, you will appreciate that these characteristics of women
and men tend to overlap and unfortunately, however, gender polarization
often creates an artificial gap between women and men and gender roles that
[20]
are very difficult to change in time. This kind of situation is thus discussed in
the next section on gender stereotypes.
3.6 GENDER STEREOTYPES FOR MALES AND FEMALES
Stereotypes are representative of a society’s collective knowledge of customs,
myths, ideas, religions, and sciences. It is within this knowledge that an
individual develops a stereotype or a belief about a certain group. Social
psychologists feel that the stereotype is one part of an individual’s social
knowledge. As a result of their knowledge, or lack of knowledge, the
stereotype has an effect on their social behaviour.
Stereotypic behaviour can be linked to the way that the stereotype is learned,
transmitted, and changed and this is part of the socialization process as well.
The culture of individuals influence stereotypes through information that is
received from indirect sources such as parents, peers, teachers, political,
religious leaders and mass media.
In order to understand stereotyping, an individual must first be made
knowledgeable about the definition of a stereotype. Stereotyping is how we
perceive each other, especially individuals outside our group. What we
believe to be “normal” is associated with who we are hanging out with of
which in most cases are usually our friends and social networks.
Gender stereotypes are related to cognitive processes because we have
different expectations for female and male behaviour and the traditional
gender roles help to sustain gender stereotypes, such as for example males are
supposed to be adventurous, assertive, aggressive, independent and taskoriented, whereas females are seen as more sensitive, gentle, dependent,
emotional and people-oriented. Here we will deal with the opposite male
dominance and feeling superior to women. Of course, not all men have power
and arrogantly dominate over women. Indeed, according to Miller, many
[21]
men are dominated by “the system” and considered disposable. Also, women
are given certain advantages and “protected” in many ways that men do not
enjoy. Clearly, each sex has and utilizes power in certain ways and we are
getting more equal, but, clearly, the sexes aren't equal yet. The most recent
suggestion to solve this problem is to completely disassociate gender from all
personality traits.
Within the two career families of today, the women-are-inferior attitude is
muted and concealed, but the archaic sex role expectations are still subtly
there. The old rules still serve to “put down women and keep them in their
place.” By nature, men and women have some biological differences, but it is
life experience that reinforces or contradicts those differences. The truth lies in
differential socialization, which claims that males and females are taught
different appropriate behaviours for their gender.
3.7 GENDER SOCIALISATION
Socialisation is the process, through which the child becomes an individual
respecting his or her environment laws, norms and customs. Gender
socialisation is a more focused form of socialisation, it is how children of
different sexes are socialised into their gender roles and taught what it means
to be male or female.
Gender socialisation begins the moment we are born, from the simple
question “is it a boy or a girl?.” We learn our gender roles by agencies of
socialisation, which are the “teachers” of society. The main agencies in society
of gender socialisation as we will discuss each of these in details are the
family, peer groups, schools and the media. In respect with gender
socialisation, each of the agencies could reinforce the gender stereotypes.
[22]
Gender differences result from the socialization process, especially during our
childhood and adolescence. The classical example of gender socialisation is
the experiment done with babies that were introduced as males to half of the
study subjects and as females to the other half. The results are interesting and
quite disturbing at the same time. The participants behave differently
according to the sex they had been told. These findings show that other
people contribute a lot to how we see ourselves only on the basis of gender.
As we will see in the subsequent section on agents of socialisation, the family
is the primary agent of this process through gendered relationships which
have influence on the process. Thus, it is said before that parents are the
primary influence on gender role development in the early years of one’s life.
With regard to gender difference, the family in fact, unlike other groups, is
characterized by a specific way of living and constructing gender differences
through a process that is surely biological, but also relational and social. The
family is “the social and symbolic place in which difference, in particular
sexual difference, is believed to be fundamental and at the same time
constructed “. In particular, in the family the gender characterization reflects
the individualities of the parents. The family is therefore a “gender relation”.
In the family, the relation with the father and the mother assumes therefore
one fundamental importance in the definition of the gender belonging,
because it is the first experience of relation with males and females. Gender
identities and the expectations towards male and female roles are socialized
within the parents-children relationship; such expectations are today various
and new compared with the past.
The models from which fathers and mothers take inspiration need to be
verified because “the crisis of the paternal authority has given more space to
the father in shaping the educational relation with the child. They think that
the important thing is to converse and to build convincing representations of
the world“. The gender socialization inside the family relations evidences
[23]
therefore also the temporal dimension of the transmission of styles and
expectations between parents and children. The parents’ generation, in
comparison with the child’s can highlight marked differences too. Parents
today probably have different expectations from those their parents had, and
their children have even more different expectations. We must go deeper into
the matter on how transmission of gender differences happens today and how
the gender belonging is constructed. If such differences seem to diminish on
the one side, on the other instead they move on different areas in comparison
with the past. Between children in fact the sexual difference produces various
models of belongings and continuity, and they are today completely different
from those of the previous generation.
In the past, families had different educational demands for their sons and
daughters after puberty; they then tended to differentiate them in the sense to
promote the autonomy of the males and the dependency of the females. It
was implicit that the boy should realize himself, even if against family ties,
while the girl had, in some ways, to accept and to conserve them. This
difference has always favoured the fact that young women lived their desire
of autonomy with a sense of guilt and of independency with intolerance.
A child’s parents are the first socialization agents he or she will come into
contact with. Parents teach stereotypes through different ways and behaviour:
“the way they dress their children, they way they decorate their children's
rooms, the toys they give their children to play with, their own attitudes and
behaviour”. The starting point in the sociology of gender is the idea that
behavioural and experimental differences between women and men are
culturally constructed, and not biologically determined.
Sociologists have made use of a distinction between sex and gender coined in
the 1960’s by American psychoanalyst Robert Stoller. Stoller suggested that
the anatomical features which are associated with men and women might be
labelled ‘sex’ while the behaviour or the cultural practices of men and women
[24]
should be referred to as ‘gender’. In other words sex is a biological
characteristic, while gender is culturally constructed. Following this
argument, Stoller (1960) stated that there was no correlation between sex and
gender. It did not always follow, for example that a boy must behave in a
masculine way or a girl in a feminine way. Therefore, it is reasonable to
suggest that women took the bulk of domestic responsibilities in any given
household because that was seen as culturally appropriate feminine
behaviour and not because they were biologically inclined to do so.
Gender socialization begins as soon as one is born. Gender learning by infants
is almost unconscious. Before children can accurately label themselves as
either a boy or a girl, they receive a range of pre-verbal cues. For example,
male and female adults usually handle infants differently. The cosmetics
women use contains scents different from those the baby might learn to
associate with males. Differences in dress, hair styles, and voices and so on
provide visual cues for the infant in the learning process.
By the age of two, children have a partial understanding of sex differences.
They know whether they are a boy or a girl, and they can categorize others
accurately. At about 5 or 6 years, the child knows that a person’s gender does
not change, and that sex differences between girls and boys are anatomically
based. The toys, pictures books and television programmes with which young
children come into contact all tend to emphasize differences between male
and female attributes.
3.8 AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
Many socialization agents are important forces in the shaping of gender
identities. Therefore they contribute significantly to reproducing stereotypical
gender roles as will be seen in the following discussions on the agents of
socialisation.
[25]
a. Family
Families may reproduce gender roles by assigning different household chores
along traditional lines: Girls baby sit, cook, wash dishes while boys take
garbage out and do yard work. The divisions of household chores between
parents also send a powerful message to children about domestic work roles.
Studies indicate that women do the majority of domestic labour, thereby
defining it as women’s responsibility. Even when women work full time
outside the home, they still perform most of the household chores, a situation
some observers have referred to as the second shift. Such role models teach
children that the appropriate behaviour for women includes cooking,
cleaning and caring for children regardless of the time spent working outside
the home. Similarly, they imply that a man’s appropriate role is that of paid
worker who is not expected to assume household or child care
responsibilities.
Toys, games and recreation activities
Toys and games are important means of informal learning and may indicate
‘appropriate’ and ‘inappropriate’ gender roles. An analysis of toys carried out
in the United States showed that ‘masculine’ toys were found to be more
varied, complex, and active and encouraged spatial, mathematical and
scientific skills whereas feminine toys were simpler and focused on passive
and solitary activity.
b. Schools
Schools also reinforce gendered social roles, for example, researchers have
documented the differential treatment given to boys and girls in the
classroom that reinforces a sense of inferiority and lack of initiative among
female students. Boys are far more likely than girls to be given specific
information that guides improvement of their performance. Boys also receive
greater encouragement to reach for higher standards for themselves. Teacher
[26]
expectations of pupils’ performance and abilities can operate as a selffulfilling prophecy within the classroom. Some teachers take boys to be more
logical and quicker at grasping concepts than girls.
Teacher-pupil interaction in some studies shows that teachers spend more
time talking to boys than to girls. Consequently, boys receive more assistance
from teachers than girls. Sometimes teachers tend to know more personal
detail about the boys they teach than the girls.
Children’s self esteem is not only shaped by the quantity of teacher attention
they get but also by the quality of that attention. Rewards and punishments
meted out within the classroom differ for boys and girls. Boys are regarded as
aggressive and unruly but essentially intelligent and are given more attention
in the form of rewards and punishment. Girls are more often rewarded for
conforming behaviour and are encouraged to be compliant but not
autonomous. Girls are also more likely to be reprimanded for intellectual
inadequacy. The effects of biased classroom interaction are that girls
experience status given to them within the intimate classroom daily. Girls are
often encouraged to enter nurturing or helping professions such as teaching
(especially at elementary levels), nursing, social work and clerical work. On
the other hand, boys are encouraged to take science and technological fields.
They are pushed towards more autonomous. Girls are also more likely to be
reprimanded for intellectual inadequacy.
It can be concluded that this does not constitute the kind of climate in which
confidence and a sense of personal worth is inspired for girls.
Teachers as models
Teachers’ attitudes determine development and provide important role
models for children. Educators around the world are concerned about the
under-representation of women in positions of leadership in the education
system and the identification of male and female teachers with specific age
groups of pupils or with specific subject areas. Most school teachers
[27]
worldwide are female, with the greatest concentration of women in primary
school teaching. In contrast, women are under-represented in headships and
other positions of leadership. This reinforces the perception that women teach
while men control. Global patterns also indicate that women teachers tend to
be under-represented in certain subject areas such as mathematics and science
and concentrated in stereotyped women’s fields such as home economics,
language and other liberal arts.
Texts books used in schools explicitly and implicitly reinforce gender roles
through their content and their form, for example text books are often
dominated by the works of men. Men are portrayed as intelligent, powerful
and adventurous while the women are portrayed as weak, meek and
submissive.
c.
Media
The media also contributes to stereotypes of gender roles. In some media,
men are depicted as aggressive and dominating actors and women as docile
and submissive objects. Television and films tend to offer very limited roles
for women, and those they do often perpetuate female stereotypes and
caricatures. Research shows that children as young as toddlers imitate
behaviours they see on television and that this copying intensifies through
adolescence. Therefore, media images of gender can be powerful socialisers.
However, the situation appears to be changing now as children’s shows are
beginning to show case strong, intelligent female characters.
d. Language and gender socialization
Language use plays an important role in gender socialization. For example,
the use of the generic pronoun “he” and the term “man” to refer any member
of the human species invokes an image of a male, thereby excluding women
from individuals’ consciousness as important members of humanity. Such
terms as firemen instead of fire fighter; man power as opposed to human
[28]
resource or labour power; chairman as opposed to chairperson also
underscores the power of language to devalue women and elevate men as the
important members of society. Some newspapers have resisted eliminating
sexist language in their reporting. Only recently have some reporters agreed
to use Ms instead of Miss or Mrs to describe women in articles. Formal titles
like Miss or Mrs clearly identify women by their relationships to men. The
term Ms like the term Mr makes marital status irrelevant and focuses
reporting on women in their own right.
3.9
A
RELATIONAL
APPROACH
TO
GENDER
ROLES
AND
SOCIALIZATION
Society expects different attitudes and behaviors from boys and girls. Gender
socialization is the tendency for boys and girls to be socialized differently.
Boys are raised to conform to the male gender role, and girls are raised to
conform to the female gender or role.
The process by which the individual learns and accepts roles is called
socialization as earlier explained. It works by encouraging wanted and
discouraging, sometimes even forbidding, unwanted behaviour. These
sanctions by agencies of socialization such as the family, schools, and the
media make it clear to the child what the behavioural norms it ought to follow
are. The child follows the examples of its parents, siblings and teachers.
Mostly, accepted behaviour is not produced by outright coercion. The
individual does have some choice as to if or to what extent he or she
conforms. Also, typical encouragements of gender role behaviour are no
longer as powerful as they used to be a century ago. Statements like "boys
don't play with dolls" could typically be questioned by a "why not?" young
women would say "I don't want to become like my mother." Still, once the
person has accepted a set of behavioural norms these are very important to
[29]
the individual. Sanctions to unwanted behaviour and role conflict can become
stressful. Thus, gender roles are quite powerful.
The most important aspect of the sociological reflection is the ability to use the
concepts elaborated in the theoretical debate at an empirical level, realizing “a
hermeneutic” connection between the interpretative framework and social
life. Gender socialization can be read like a “relational process”.
It is unavoidable that in the transformation a simplification is put into effect, a
reduction of the complexity of the terms in game, because you need to lead
back to the factors that explain a social phenomenon to one more rigid pattern
of reality: in order not to fall into the trap of the merely casual interpretation it
is necessary to always place, to the centre of attention, the relation between
different factors that concur to see the phenomena from more points of view,
in a multidimensional perspective .
The relational model is assumed like the point of observation to verify the
hypotheses in order to characterize those that are the gender socializing
outcomes in the contemporary society.
Within a risky society the relational model considers every phenomenon as
the outcome of a process in which the challenges and the resources are put
implicitly or explicitly in comparison. The risk therefore is given from the
relation of adequacy/inadequacy between challenges and resources.
That appears clear if it is believed that every choice is linked to
multidimensional situations, which are relational contexts, in which the
phenomena are networks of phenomena and every mode represents interlaces
of challenges, ties and resources.
Speaking about challenges and resources in gender socialization simplifies
reality and circumscribes a point of view from which to observe a
[30]
phenomenon, but it always takes into account that is a relational
phenomenon, in which more dimensions are intersected. Consequently the
gender socialization process is divided into two orders of factors, one leads
the challenges and the other the resources, in the hypothesis that behind
every phenomenon there are however the intentions of the actors who
arrange in a more or less balanced way, with reference to the context of
options that delimits the action, objects to reach and strategies of participation
SOCIO-CULTURAL
ATTRIBUTES
Status mother/father age
(parents and youth)
Gender attitude youth
(Sons and daughters)
Gender attitude
parents
Figure 1
An Analytical framework of the relationships among the socio-demographic
attributes gender attitude of parents and gender attitudes of the youths.
3.1.0 Unit Summary
The preceding unit has tabulated the link between society and gender roles;
from the family to the wider agents of socialisation in society, it has also
illustrated how the family plays a significant role in the children in terms of
socialisation and the influence it has on other forms of socialisation.
[31]
Activities
1. Apart from what is discussed in this unit, mention other forms of
socialisation and their implications to society?
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
2. Describe the relational approach to gender socialisation and explain its
relevance to gender roles in the society
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
3. Discuss some of the gender stereotypes among men and women in
society? Do you agree with some of them or you have different views?
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
[32]
UNIT FOUR
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON SOCIALIZATION
4.0 Introduction
Welcome to unit 4. This is the fourth unit in this module on Gender and
Development Course. The unit explores the theoretical perspectives on
socialisation at different levels. Specifically the unit discusses the processes of
socialisation from the point of view of the three people in the name of George
H Mead, Sigmund Freud and Nancy Chodorow. It also discusses the
implication of these theories to the wider society.
4.1 Aim
The aim of this unit is to improve and enhance students’ understanding on
socialisation at different levels.
4.2
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
a. Discuss the three perspectives on gender socialisation
b. Critique the three theoretical perspectives on socialisation in the
society and its implication to development
c. Show the connection of the theories of socialisation in the society.
4.3 Equipment and Requisites
There are a number of books that you can consult from on different theories
about socialisation. You can still check from the works of Anthony Giddens.
You are further encouraged to explore this area as often as possible. A
number of works on the subject matter have been done and is still being done.
This will help you to read about new ideas in the subject area.
[33]
4.4 Time Required
This unit might take you Two (2) days to walk through and
understand what is required of you to do. Roughly you will
need about Four (4) working hours of 2 hours each session
Before you proceed you can as well do the following exercise:
a. What is your comment on gender socialisation and how do you
relate it to issues of development in the community?
b. Is development a relational issue? Discuss
4.5 Theories on Gender Socialisation
A number of theories exist to show how human beings are socialized and
develop a sense of self and how the gender identity emerges. The self is
conscious awareness possessing a distinct identity that separates one from
other members of the society. In the following sections you will be shown
how these theories impact on gender at different levels in the community.
a.
George H. Mead: Role Taking
The process of gender identity development begins very early in childhood.
The members of the child’s primary group, i.e parents and siblings play an
important role in the socialization of the child. Children learn through
imitation. This act of imitation through role taking forms the basis of the
socialization process. Children develop the necessary skills of role taking
(imitation) through social interaction. Mead visualized role taking as a three
step process involving the following (i) Imitation (ii) Play (iii) Organized
games.
Under three years of age, children lack a sense of self and gender identity.
Consequently, they can only imitate the action of others. Young children most
often imitate the gestures and actions of family members and others in their
immediate environment. By the time children reach school age, they begin to
take part in organized games. This stage requires internalizing the norms,
[34]
values attitudes, beliefs. Through role-taking individuals develop a sense of
identity.
According to Mead, the self consists of two related parts – the ‘I’ and ‘Me’.
The ‘I’ is the un-socialised spontaneous and self centred component of our
personality and self identity. The ‘Me’ is that part of our identity that is aware
of the expectations and attitudes of society – our socialised self. The
internalization of values takes place through identification with adult models.
Identification is where the child learns by imitation, play and organized
games.
b. Freud’s Theory of Gender Development
The most influential and controversial theory of the emergence of gender
identity is that of Sigmund Freud. According to Freud, the learning of gender
differences in children is centred on the genitals – the possession or absence of
the penis. “I have a penis” is equivalent to “I am a boy” while “I am a girl” is
equivalent to “I lack a penis”. According to Freud, the possession or absence
of the penis is symbolic of masculinity and femininity.
Girls on the other hand, supposedly suffer from “penis envy” because they do
not possess the visible organ that distinguishes boys. The mother is devalued
in the eyes of the little girl because she is also seen to lack a penis and is
unable to provide one. When the girl identifies with the mother, she takes
over the submissive attitude involved in the recognition of being the second
best.
Major objections have been raised against Freud’s ideas. Firstly, Freud seems
to identify gender too closely with genital awareness. Secondly, the theory
seems to depend on the notion that the penis is superior to the vagina. Why
shouldn’t the female genitals be considered superior to those of the male?
Many writers have made use of Freud’s approach in studying gender
development; they have usually modified it in major aspects.
[35]
c.
Chodorow’s Theory of Gender Development
Nancy Chodorow argues that learning to feel male or female derives from the
infant’s attachment to its parents from an early age. She places much more
emphasis than Freud does on the importance of the mother rather than father.
A child tends to become emotionally involved with the mother. This
attachment has to be broken at some point in order to achieve a separate sense
of self – the child is required to become less closely dependent. Chodorow
argues that the breaking process occurs in a different way for boys and girls.
Girls remain closer to the mother – able for instance to continue imitating
what the mother does. Since there is no sharp break from the mother, the girl
and later in adulthood develops a sense of self that is more continuous with
other people. This tends to produce characteristics of sensitivity and
emotional compassion in women.
Boys gain a sense of self via more radical rejection of their original closeness
to the mother, forging their understanding of masculinity. Boys learn not to
be sissies or mommies. Consequently boys are relatively unskilled in relating
closely with others. They develop more analytical ways of looking at the
world. They take a more active view of their lives, emphasizing achievement;
they repress their ability to understand their own feelings and those of others.
Male identity is found through separation; thus, men later in life
unconsciously feel that their identity is endangered if they become involved
in close emotional relationship with others. Women on the other hand, feel
that the absence of a close relation to another person threatens their self
esteem. These patterns are passed on from generation to generation, because
of the primary role women play in early socialization of children. Women
express and define themselves mainly in terms of relationships. Men have
repressed these needs and adopt a more manipulative stance towards the
world.
[36]
Chodorow’s work has been criticized. Janet Sayers (1986) has suggested that
Chodorow does not explain the struggle of women, particularly in current
times, to become autonomous or independent beings. Sayers contends that
women and men are more contradictory in their psychological make-up than
Chodorow’s
theory
suggests.
Femininity
may
conceal
feelings
of
aggressiveness, which are revealed only in certain contexts.
Chodorow’s idea teaches us about the nature of femininity and helps us to
understand the origins of what has been called ‘male inexpressiveness’ – the
difficulty men have in revealing their feelings to others.
4.6 Unit Summary
The unit has explored the three main theoretical perspectives of gender
socialisation. The unit has given an account of how various factors determine
the extent of male or boy and female or girl self identity development. The
information in the preceding section has demonstrated the masculinity and
femininity conscious development in individuals as it develops from birth.
Activities
1. Evaluate some of the theoretical perspectives on socialisation?
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
2. Compare and contrast Sigmund Freud’s theory on gender and sex to
that of Carol Galligan?
3. ..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
[37]
UNIT FIVE
GENDER INEQUALITY
5.0 Introduction
Welcome to unit 5. This is the fifth unit in this module on Gender and
Development Course. The unit explores in quite detail gender inequality
arising from gender roles and further discusses the controversies and
misconceptions on gender roles especially on the changing roles between
males and females. The unit further looks at transgendered and inter-sexed
persons with reference to their roles. Finally the unit looks again at gender
roles from a feminist perspective. Stereotypes, origins of sex and gender
differences and gender relations are equally discussed as follow-ups to what
has already been discussed in the previous units.
5.1 Aim
The aim of this unit is to deepen and enhance students’ understanding on
gender inequality in society and how the situation would remedied.
5.2
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
a. Define gender inequality
b. Discuss controversies and misconceptions on gender roles
c. Discuss factors perpetuating gender inequality in the society
d. Describe the origins of sex and gender differences in society
[38]
5.3 Equipment and Requisites
There are a number of books that you can consult from on
gender inequality. You can still check from the works of
Anthony Giddens. You are further encouraged to explore this
area as often as possible. A number of works on the subject
matter have been done and is still being done. This will help you
to read about new ideas in the subject area.
5.4 Time Required
This unit might take you Two (2) days to walk through and
understand what is required of you to do. Roughly you will
need about Four (4) working hours of 2 hours each session
Before you proceed you can as well do the following exercise:
a. Do you think that roles are always an issue in gender matters?
b. If you were in the position of a gender expert what would have
been your approach to gender related issues?
c. In your view what are the major issues responsible for gender
inequalities in the society?
5.5 Gender Inequality
Gender inequality refers to the differences between men and women in the
distribution of societal resources of power, prestige or status and property.
Most positions of power around the world in politics, business, and the
military, religious and educational institutions are occupied by males. This
situation is justified by the belief that women do not project images of
leadership; that they are not socialized to be comfortable with power, and that
they do not have the same driving ambition as men do to reach the top.
As long as women assume major responsibility for raising children, they
cannot compete on equal grounds with men for positions that are thought to
require extraordinary investments of time and energy.
[39]
5.6 GENDER ROLES
A gender role is a set of behaviors, attitudes, and personality characteristics
expected and encouraged of a person based on his or her sex.
Gender role is a term used in the social sciences and humanities to denote a
set of behavioural norms that accompany a given gendered status (also called
a gendered identity) in a given social group or system. Gender is one
component of the gender/sex system, which refers to "the set of arrangements
by which a society transforms biological sexuality into products of human
activity, and in which these transformed needs are satisfied" (Halper & Diane
2000:159). Every known society has a gender/sex system, although the
components and workings of this system vary widely from society to society.
In many ways gender identity and roles function as any other social identity
and role. Every known human society presents individuals with a set of
statuses by which members of the society identify themselves and one
another. Such statuses may be assigned to an individual automatically, based
on the status of his or her parents, or based on some physical characteristic
(including ones that emerge through the aging process); such statuses are
called "ascribed." Other statuses may be achieved based on the activities and
accomplishments of an individual. Scientists used to believe that gender was
universally ascribed; today most recognize that elements of gender can be
achieved. In either case, gender, like any other role, involves socially
proscribed and prescribed behaviours, which may take the form of rules or
values. Such rules and values do not determine or control an individual's
behaviours absolutely.
Usually they define boundaries of acceptable behaviour within which there is
always variation and room for individual creativity. Most researchers
recognize that the concrete behaviour of individuals is a consequence of both
[40]
socially enforced rules and values, and individual disposition, whether
genetic, unconscious, or conscious, although some researchers emphasize the
objective social system, and others emphasize subjective orientations and
dispositions.
Moreover, such creativity may, over time, cause the rules and values to
change. Although all social scientists recognize that cultures and societies are
dynamic and change, there have been extensive debates as to how, and how
fast, they may change. Such debates are especially intense when they involve
the gender/sex system, as people have widely differing views about the
extent to which gender depends on biological sex.
According to the interactionist approach, roles, such as gender roles, are not
fixed, but are constantly negotiated between individuals. Gender role can
influence all kinds of behaviour, such as choice of clothing, choice of work
and personal relationships; e.g., parental status.
5.7 CONTROVERSIES AND MISCONCEPTIONS ON GENDER ROLES
Gender roles have long been a staple of the Nature/Nurture debate: "folk"
theories of gender usually assume that one's gender identity is a natural
given. For example, it is often claimed in Western societies that women are
naturally fit to look after children. This outlook is equally prominent in the
African set up and may not necessarily be a western concept. One would even
further argue that it is a universal ideology where women are always
associated with child rearing as far gender role is concerned. Therefore, the
idea that differences in gender roles originate in differences in biology has
found some (controversial) support in parts of the scientific community. 19thcentury anthropology sometimes used simplistic descriptions of the imagined
life of Palaeolithic hunter-gatherer societies for evolutionary explanations for
gender differences. For example, the need to take care of the offspring may
have limited the females' freedom to hunt and assume positions of power.
[41]
More recently, socio-biology and evolutionary psychology have turned to this
problem to explain those differences by treating them as adaptations. This too
is quite controversial.
Due to the influence of (among others) Simone de Beauvoir's feminist works
and Michel Foucault's reflections on sexuality, the idea that gender was
unrelated to sex gained ground during the 1980s, especially in sociology and
cultural anthropology. A person could therefore be born with male genitals
but still be of feminine gender. In 1987, Connell did extensive research on
whether there are any connections between biology and gender role and
concluded that there were none. However, the debate continues to rage on.
Simon Baron-Cohen, a Cambridge University professor of psychology and
psychiatry, argued that "the female brain is predominantly hard-wired for
empathy,
while
the
male
brain
is
predominantly
hard-wired
for
understanding and building systems." The current trend in Western societies
toward men and women sharing similar occupations, responsibilities and jobs
shows that the sex one is born with does not directly determine one's abilities.
This situation is further discussed in the next section on changing roles of
both males and females.
5.8 CHANGING ROLES
Gender role is comprised of several elements. A person's gender role can be
expressed through clothing, behaviour, choice of work, personal relationships
and other factors.
Gender roles were traditionally divided into strictly feminine and masculine
gender roles, though these roles have diversified today into many different
acceptable male or female gender roles. However, gender role norms for
women and men can vary significantly from one country or culture to
another, even within a country or culture. People express their gender role
somewhat uniquely.
[42]
Gender role can vary according to the social group to which a person belongs
or the subculture with which he or she chooses to identify. Historically, for
example, eunuchs had a distinct gender role. Androgyny, a term denoting
the display of both male and female behaviour, also exists. Many terms have
been developed to portray sets of behaviours arising in this context. The
masculine gender role for instance has become more malleable since the
1950s. One example is the "sensitive new age guy" (SNAG), which could be
described as a traditional male gender role with a more typically "female"
empathy and associated emotional responses. Another is the metro-sexual, a
male who adopts similarly "female" grooming habits.
According to sociological research, traditional feminine gender roles have
become less relevant and hollowed in Western societies since industrialization
started. For example, the cliché that women do not follow a career is obsolete
in many Western societies. On the other hand, in the media there are attempts
to portray women who adopt an extremely classical role as a subculture.
One consequence of social unrest during the Vietnam War era was that men
began to let their hair grow to a length that had previously been considered
appropriate only for women. Somewhat earlier, women had begun to cut
their hair to lengths previously considered appropriate only to men. Hence
gave birth to issues of transgendered and inter-sexed people and this is
further discussed in the next section.
5.9 Transgendered and Inter-sexed People
As long as a person's perceived physiological sex is consistent with that
person's gender identity the gender role of a person is so much a matter of
course in a stable society that people rarely even think of it. Only in cases
where, for whatever reason, an individual adopts a gender role that is
inconsistent with his or her perceived gender identity will the matter draw
attention. When an individual exhibits a gender role that is discordant with
his or her gender identity, it is most often done to deliberately provoke a
[43]
sense of incongruity and a humorous reaction to the attempts of a person of
one sex to pass himself or herself off as a member of the opposite sex. People
can find much entertainment in observing the exaggerations or the failures to
get nuances of an unfamiliar gender role right.
Not entertaining, but usually highly problematic, however, are cases wherein
the external genitalia of a person, that person's perceived gender identity,
and/or that person's gender role are not consistent. People naturally, but too
easily, assume that if a person has a penis, scrotum, etc., then that person is
chromosomally male (i.e., that person has one X chromosome and one Y
chromosome), and that the person, in introspection, feels like a male. Nature
is much more inventive than our language and system of traditional concepts
allow.
In one example, a person may have a penis and scrotum, but may be a female
(with XX chromosomal sexual identity and with normal female sexual organs
internally). When that person reaches puberty, "his" breasts may enlarge to
ordinary female proportions, and "he" may begin to menstruate, passing
menstrual blood through "his" penis. In addition, this person may have
always accepted a gender identity that is consistent with "his" external
genitalia or with "her" internal genitalia. When the true sex of the individual
becomes revealed at puberty, the individual and/or the community will be
forced to reconsider what gender role is to be considered appropriate.
Biological conditions that cause a person's physiological sex to be not easily
determined are collectively known as intersex.
Another example is to consider transgender people, some who refuse to
adhere to one set of gender roles or to transcend the scheme of gender roles
completely, regardless of their physiological sex. Trans-sexualism also exists,
where a person who is born as one sex and is brought up in that sex, but has
[44]
gender identity of the opposite sex and wishes to live and does live according
to the gender roles associated with that sex.
When we consider these more unusual products of nature's inventiveness, the
simple picture that we saw originally, in which there was a high degree of
consistency among external genitalia, gender identity, and gender role, then
dissolves into a kind of jigsaw puzzle that is difficult to put together correctly.
The extra parts of this jigsaw puzzle fall into two closely related categories, a
typical gender identity and a typical gender role.
In Western society, there is a growing acceptance of inter-sexed and
transgendered people. However, there are some who still do not accept these
people and may even react violently and persecute them: this kind of negative
value judgment is sometimes known as trans-phobia.
Nevertheless, such incidents are rare. For the vast majority of people their
gender is commensurate with their genitalia. In the next section we discuss
the gender roles with reference to feminism and this is in an attempt to find
out how these roles assume a feminine position in our communities.
5.1.0 GENDER ROLES AND FEMINISM
Most feminists argue that traditional gender roles are oppressive for them.
They assume that the female gender role was constructed as an opposite to an
ideal male role, and helps to perpetuate patriarchy. For approximately the
last 100 years women have been fighting for equality (especially in the 1960s
with second-wave feminism and radical feminism, which are the most notable
feminist movements) and were able to make changes to the traditionally
accepted feminine gender role. However, most feminists today still argue that
there is still work to be done in the area of gender roles.
Numerous studies and statistics show that even though the situation for
women has improved during the last century, discrimination is still massive:
women earn a smaller percentage of aggregate income than men, occupy
lower-ranking job positions than men and do most of the housekeeping work.
Some feminists, dispute this claim. They argue that women actually earn 98
[45]
percent dollars than men when factors such as age, education, and experience
are taken into account.
Furthermore, there has been a perception of Western culture, in recent times,
that the female gender role is dichotomized into either being a "stay at home
mother" or a "career woman". In reality, women usually face a double burden:
the need to balance job and child care deprives women of spare time. Whereas
the majority of men with university educations have a career as well as a
family, only 50 percent of academic women have children. The double
burden problem was introduced to scientific theory in 1956 by Myrdal and
Klein in their work "Women's two roles: home and work," published in
London.
When feminism became a conspicuous protest movement in the 1960s critics
often times argued that women who wanted to follow a traditional role
would be discriminated against in the future and forced to join the workforce.
This has not proven true. At the beginning of the 21st century women who
choose to live in the classical role of the "stay at home mother" are acceptable
to Western society. There is not complete tolerance of all female gender roles
— there is some lasting prejudice and discrimination against those who
choose to adhere to traditional female gender roles (sometimes termed being
a girly girl"), despite feminism not being about the choices made but the
freedom to make that choice. In the next section we discuss the gender roles
with reference to stereotypes.
5.1.1 GENDER ROLES AND STEREOTYPES
Gender roles are "socially and culturally defined prescriptions and beliefs
about the behaviour and emotions of men and women" (Anselmi and Law
1998: 195). Many theorists believe that perceived gender roles form the basis
for the development of gender identity. Prominent psychological theories of
gender role and gender identity development include
[46]
Evolutionary Theory (Buss 1995; Shields 1975), Object-Relations Theory
(Chodorow 1989), Gender Schema Theory (Bem 1981, 1993) and Social Role
Theory (Eagly 1987).
Evolutionary theories of gender development are grounded in genetic bases
for differences between men and women. Functionalists propose that men
and women have evolved differently to fulfill their different and
complementary functions, which are necessary for survival. Similarly, sociobiologists suggest that behavioral differences between men and women stem
from different sexual and reproductive strategies that have evolved to ensure
that men and women are able to efficiently reproduce and effectively pass on
their genes. These evolutionary-based theories share similarities with the
essentialist and maximalist perspectives discussed previously.
In contrast, object-relations theorists focus on the effects of socialization on
gender development. For example, Nancy Chodorow (1989) emphasizes the
role of women as primary caregivers in the development of sex differences.
Chodorow asserts that the early bond between mother and child affects boys
and girls differently. Whereas boys must separate from their mothers to form
their identities as males, girls do not have to endure this separation to define
their identities as females. Chodorow (1989) explains that the devalued role of
women is a product of the painful process men undergoes to separate them
from the female role.
Gender schema theory (Bem 1981) focuses on the role of cognitive
organization in addition to socialization. This theory postulates that children
learn how their cultures and/or societies define the roles of men and women
and then internalize this knowledge as a gender schema, or unchallenged core
belief. The gender schema is then used to organize subsequent experiences
(Bem 1993). Children's perceptions of men and women are thus an interaction
between their gender schemas and their experiences. Eventually, children will
[47]
incorporate their own self-concepts into their gender schema and will assume
the traits and behaviors that they deem suitable for their gender.
Alice Eagly (1987) offers yet another explanation of gender development that
is based on socialization. Eagly's social role theory suggests that the sexual
division of labor and societal expectations based on stereotypes produce
gender roles. Eagly (1987) distinguishes between the communal and agentic
dimensions of gender-stereotyped characteristics. The communal role is
characterized by attributes, such as nurturance and emotional expressiveness,
commonly associated with domestic activities, and thus, with women. The
agentic role is characterized by attributes such as assertiveness and
independence, commonly associated with public activities, and thus, with
men. Behaviour is strongly influenced by gender roles when cultures endorse
gender stereotypes and form firm expectations based on those stereotypes
(Eagly 1987).
As Eagly suggests, gender roles are closely linked with gender stereotypes.
Stereotypes are "over generalized beliefs about people based on their
membership in one of many social categories". Gender stereotypes vary on
four dimensions: traits, role behaviours, physical characteristics, and
occupations (Deaux and Lewis 1983). For example, whereas men are more
likely to be perceived as aggressive and competitive, women are more likely
to be viewed as passive and cooperative. Traditionally, men have been
viewed as financial providers, whereas women have been viewed as
caretakers. Physical characteristics and occupations have also been considered
consistent or inconsistent with masculine or feminine roles.
Traditional gender stereotypes are most representative of the dominant
(white, middle-class) culture. Landrine (1999) asserts that although race and
social class may not be mentioned when inquiring about gender stereotypes,
most people will make assumptions about these categories. Her research
[48]
suggests that when race and social classes are specified, different gender
stereotypes emerge.
Gender roles and stereotypes affect couple and family interaction. Often, for
example, the division of household labor is based on gender. Traditionally,
white women in heterosexual couples remained at home and completed most
of the domestic labor, while their male partners worked outside the home to
provide the family income. Although women have increasingly joined the
workforce over the past thirty years, they continue to do the majority of the
household labor. Kurdek (1993) studied white, heterosexual, gay, and lesbian
couples without children. He found that heterosexual and gay couples were
more likely than lesbian couples to divide household labor so that one partner
did the majority of the work. Lesbian couples were most likely to share
domestic tasks or take turns doing the tasks (Kurdek 1993).
Gender roles often become more differentiated when men and women
become parents. Overall, women provide more direct care for and spend
more time with children (Walzer 2001). This care includes taking
responsibility for the mental work of gathering and processing information
about infant care, delegating the tasks related to infant care, and worrying
about infant health and well-being. In sum, the unequal division of both
household labor and childcare, with women doing the bulk of the work, is
thought to contribute to the reported lower marital satisfaction for women
(Walzer 2001).
Gender roles and stereotypes affect men and women in different ways.
Specifically, men and women may be judged by how well they conform to
traditional stereotypes. In his theory of masculine gender role strain, Pleck in
Beal (1994), asserted that boys and men are pressured to fulfill a standard of
masculinity. Boys and men, for example, who do not fulfill the standard often,
suffer from low self-worth (Beal, 1994). Other lifelong consequences befall
men who experience traumatic socialization practices such as rites of passage
[49]
that entail violence. Even men who successfully fulfill the standard of
masculinity suffer psychologically or emotionally from rigid constraints on
acceptable parenting roles for men. Basow (1980), contend that gender role
strain is pronounced with men of colour. Men of colour must balance the
dominant standards of masculinity with their cultures' standards of
masculinity in an effort to fulfill both satisfactorily. In addition, men of colour
must overcome prejudice and other obstacles to fulfill the standards of
masculinity. The result is increased gender role strain for men of colour.
Likewise, white women and women of colour may be constrained by
standards of femininity, such as the pressure to have children.
Gender stereotypes can also affect men's and women's performance.
Stereotype threat is defined as "an individual's awareness that he or she may
be judged by or may self-fulfill negative stereo-types about her or his gender
or ethnic group" (Fausto, 1992). Research indicates that stereo-type threat can
negatively affect performance by increasing anxiety. For example, Steven
Spencer, Claude Steele, and Diane Quinn (1999) found that women performed
significantly worse than men on a math test when the participants were led to
believe that the test would probably produce gender differences. In contrast,
women and men performed equally well when the participants were led to
believe that the test did not produce gender differences. These findings
suggest that negative stereotypes can and do negatively affect performance
even when the stereotype has not been internalized or incorporated into the
view of the self.
5.1.2 ORIGINS OF SEX DIFFERENCES
Discussion of sex starts with human genetics, our sex and much of our
biological make up is a result of genes contributed by our fathers’ sperm cells
and the mothers’ egg cells at conception. That is at the formation of a new cell.
All of this genetic material is contained in 23 pairs of chromosome which
reside in that new cell. The sperm and egg each contribute genetic
information one member of each pair. We are concerned to the 23 rd pair of
[50]
chromosome, the sex chromosome. This pair is noted XX for female or XY for
male. It is the logic of genetics that an egg, (female cell) can contribute only an
X to the 23rd chromosome pair since it has the XX cell. But since the sperm
(male cell) contains the XY pair, it can contribute either in X resulting in an XX
pair which is female child or a Y resulting in an XY pair which is a male child.
5.1.3 ORIGINS OF GENDER DIFFERENCES
When we move from the physical differences, that is sex difference between
women and men to differences in attitudes and behaviour which is gender
differences we enter a much more disputed area.
There is a general agreement about what the main physical differences
between female and males are, and how those develop. Opinions are from
time to time divided, however about what general differences in the
behaviour of women and men. Which is found in all cultures and given that
these do exist and how they should be explained. Many writers and scholars
hold that there are biologically built in differences of behaviour between men
and women. That appears in every community of any society. Some believe
that the findings of social biology point strongly in this direction. They are
likely to draw attention to the fact that in all known early cultures men rather
women took part in hunting. Surely they argue, this demonstrates that men
have biologically based tendencies towards aggression that women luck.
Though this is challenged by others who argue that, it varies between
different cultures.
It is said that the first thing we ask of a new-born baby is "Is it a boy or a girl?"
But it might be considered that this is the first thing we ask ourselves
whenever we meet anyone new. Perhaps this is why we find it so threatening
if the cues are uncertain or ambiguous, and even more so if we find our first
assumptions turns out to be incorrect. Men are different from women. That
would seem to be self-evident. They are different in aptitude, skill and
behaviour, but then, so is every individual person. So why do we make such a
[51]
fuss about it? It seems not unreasonable to suggest that the sexes are different
because their brains are different, but then no two human brains are the same.
It is suggested that our culture is in trouble because many women have been
brought up to believe they should be as good as a man. Well, why not?
We will only touch on these topics briefly. There is enough material for a
dozen books. Suffice it to say that all the studies report on the way boys and
girls are not how they got to be that way. Or rather how they were at the time
of the study. Commonality across cultures and species implies some
biological basis. The fact that the situation is changing reflects the power of
socialisation.
Other stereotypes about girls are more sociable, more nurturing, and more
compliant and have lower self-esteem, are hard to sustain. One that definitely
seems to have disappeared over the last two decades is that girls have less
motivation to achieve.
There are studies about relative abilities of perception, vision sound and
touch. Certainly, if you watched a carpenter run his fingers along a planed
surface and being able to tell how "true" it was, you would find it difficult to
believe that boys lack tactile sensitivity.
Another is that girls tend to pick up auditory information while boys do
better visually. Several studies suggested that, from school age on, boys
outperformed girls in areas of mathematics involving abstract concepts of
space, relationships and theory. It turned out that these were gifted pupils.
The studies said nothing about the average boy or girl.
Why
are
girls
more
successful
at
school?
Perhaps
emphasis
on
communication in projects and exams submerges differences. Success at
school nowadays depends on being able to writes essays and examination
papers. If girls are better at verbal communication than boys, then they are
likely to succeed. But, if there are more boys in remedial reading classes, does
it not imply a serious defect in our educational system?
In general, men are taller and heavier than women. In sports, men tend to
outperform women in strength and speed. Women seem to have greater
[52]
endurance. In spite of many attempts, sports have never become completely
unisex.
Men, it is said, are generally more aggressive, physically and verbally, and
enjoy taking risks. They play fighting games and enjoy 'dares.' More men than
women are convicted for crimes, especially crimes of violence.
Some say that this is simply a matter of biology, others suggest that it is a
function of the way we organise the sex and gender roles in our society. In
fact, many of the findings, in this area, have turned out to be unsatisfactory,
and often they turn out to be very small differences with a large degree of
overlap.
Biologically, men certainly seem to be the weaker sex. Although one would
expect there to be an equal chance of the foetus being a boy or girl, it appears
that the ratio for boys is about 20 percent higher, yet only about the same
number come to term. This greater tendency for male foetuses to be aborted
carries on, with more boys stillborn and susceptible to congenital or inherited
conditions, such as haemophilia, cerebral palsy, convulsions, or heart disease.
"On average, men experience heart attacks 10 years earlier than women, and
have a better rate of survival after one year. Symptoms also vary by sex:
women experience shortness of breath, fatigue, and chest pain; most male
heart attacks come on as a sudden, striking pain in the chest." In adulthood,
men have greater vulnerability to virus infections and a shorter average
lifespan.
In recent years, a great many biological sex differences have been found
throughout the body, including the brain, both in metabolism and genetic
expression. They have for instance, raised worries about differences in the
efficacy and side effects of various drugs. Another new area of study is the
phenomenon of imprinting whereby a given gene from the father could
silence or activate a gene from the mother, or vice versa. However, regardless
of the findings that sex differences really do exist after all, or the pressure to
deny them, socially we still expect women to behave like women and men
like men. The real problem is not that sex differences exist but, in our
[53]
everyday intuition of what sexual, or gender, behaviour is appropriate, our
concepts may be too narrow or too rigid. The biological determinism
argument, too often, reinforces this.
While others now say that there is too much biological evidence that
personality development is based on innate precursors to deny the fact of
sexual difference, we cannot ignore the effect of learning. For a start, the idea
that we are the helpless products of our heredity takes away our free will.
We must not allow those who insist on the difference to blind us to the
similarities and we must not allow the biological stereotypes to get away with
the idea that there is only one kind of man and one kind of woman. As Sandra
Bem puts it: "Fluffy Women and Chesty Men."
Then Sayers puts it: "When one examines these supposedly purely biological
accounts of gender roles one finds that they are rooted in appeal to social, not
biological, considerations. This is true not only of recent biological analyses of sexual
divisions in Society but also of the analogous biological explanations of these divisions
advanced in the nineteenth century. The similarity between earlier and current
versions of the theses that 'biology is woman's destiny' is striking" (Parpart, 1996).
The big issue is the difference in the spatial abilities between men and
women. It seems that men find it much easier to visualise and deal with
spaces, the position of objects, relative heights and dimensions. In a test
involving a three dimensional mechanical apparatus, only a quarter of the
women could perform the task better than men. It is as well to remember that
at least some of the women could perform the task as well as the men and it
isn't recorded if any men were actually worse. Out of the plethora of papers
that had been produced up until 1974, about differences between boys and
girls, Maccoby and Jacklin found only the following main differences: Males
are more aggressive than females.
Though this finding has been challenged, and the definition of aggression
itself questioned, it is a fairly common feature, both of human cultures and of
[54]
the more complex species that male offspring are more likely to engage in
play fighting and adults more likely to fight. Many workers challenge this,
while others assert that it is the primary indicator of masculinity or
femininity. Females have more verbal ability than males, while males have
better visuo-spatial skills (Maccoby, 1998).
The distinction seems to appear at about the age of eleven and, because of the
relevance to education, it has received a great deal of attention. Although girls
and boys seem to have the same ability for computational arithmetic, teenage
boys also seem to do better at the more abstract maths. It might seem that a
childhood of social experience is the primary factor. However, the biological
argument suggests that the hormonal changes of puberty activate previous
dormant differences.
5.1.4 Gender Relations and Interaction
In simple terms; sex refers to the permanent and immutable biological
characteristics common to individuals in all societies and cultures, while
gender defines traits forged throughout the history of social relations. Gender,
although it originates in objective biological divergences, goes far beyond the
physiological and biological specifics of the two sexes in terms of the roles
each is expected to play. Gender differences are social constructs, inculcated
on the basis of a specific society's particular perceptions of the physical
differences and the assumed tastes, tendencies and capabilities of men and
women. Gender differences, unlike the immutable characteristics of sex, are
universally conceded in historical and comparative social analyses to be
variants that are transformed over time and from one culture to the next, as
societies change and evolve.
Gender relations are accordingly defined as the specific mechanisms whereby
different cultures determine the functions and responsibilities of each sex.
They also determine access to material resources, such as land, credit and
[55]
training, and more ephemeral resources, such as power. The implications for
everyday life are many, and include the division of labour, the responsibilities
of family members inside and outside the home, education and opportunities
for professional advancement and a voice in policy-making.
Many studies are being conducted or carried out on whether or not gender
differences are as a result of social factors. Studies of mother infant interaction
show differences in treatment of boys and girls even when parents believe
their reaction to both are the same. Adults who are requested to assess the
personality of a baby give different answers according to whether or not they
believe a child to be a girl or boy. One study analyzed the words used about
new born babies by the medical personnel attending to pet. New born male –
infants where more described than the female counterparts. Males were
described as handsome, sturdy, strong and tough. Female infants were more
often talked as deity, delicate, beautiful, sweet, and charming and so on.
There was no overall size or weight differences between the infants in
question (Ref. Hundsen quoted in Scanzoni and Fox 1980). In short male and
female adults handle infants differently. Cosmetic differences attached to both
girls and boys, systematic differences in dress, hair style provide visual clues
for the infants in the learning process.
5.1.5 Unit Summary
In this unit we have attempted to focus on various concepts and issues that
have significance or great effect in gender equality and inequality. The issues
or themes raised show the many attributes that account for the imbalances or
bias within the gender and development discourse.
Activities
1. What are some of the controversies and misconceptions on gender
roles?....................................................................................................................
[56]
..............................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
2. With clear examples, explain the origins of gender and sex
differences?.........................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
3. What are some of the changing roles in society with regard to gender
and sex?
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
4. Why do you think that issues evolving around gender equality have
become topical in Zambia and what would be your proposal in
addressing the problem?
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
[57]
UNIT SIX
DEVELOPMENT
6.0 Introduction
Welcome to unit 6. This is the sixth unit in this module on Gender and
Development Course. The unit explores development as a subject of intense
scholarly and policy interest. The nature and form of any discussion that is
centered on gender cannot and should not be divorced or isolated from
development. Thus, this unit focuses on explaining development as a
discourse. It defines development as a multidimensional concept. It further
discusses on some of the key concepts and issues in development.
6.1 Aim
The aim of this unit is to deepen and enhance students’ understanding on
development.
6.2
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
a. Define development
b. Discuss the discourse of development
c. Examine core values and objectives of development in a given situation
6.3 Equipment and Requisites
There are a number of books that you can consult from on
development. You can still check from a number of sources. You
are further encouraged to explore this area as often as possible.
A number of works on the subject matter have been done and is
still being done. This will help you to read about new ideas on
development.
[58]
6.4 Time Required
This unit might take you Two (2) days to walk through and
understand what is required of you to do. Roughly you will
need about Four (4) working hours of 2 hours each session
Before you proceed you can as well do the following exercise:
a. Development and gender cannot be discussed in isolation of each
other. Discuss
b. If you were in the position of a development expert what would have
been your approach to gender related issues?
6.5 DEFINITION OF DEVELOPMENT
Development implies increasing human well-being not just economic growth.
It involves or has the following core elements: Survival, Security and
Autonomy. Development is and should be conceived as a multidimensional
process involving major changes in social structures, popular attitudes, and
national institutions, as well as the acceleration of economic growth, the
reduction of inequality, and the eradication of poverty (Todaro & Smith 2007).
6.6 DEVELOPMENT AS A DISCOURSE
Development discourse refers to the process of articulating knowledge and
power through which particular concepts, theories, and practices for social
change are created and reproduced (Escobar 1995; 1999; 2000; Crush 1996).
Historically, the approach to development in terms of discourse has evolved
out of debates on modernization and Marxist dependency theory rooted in
social evolutionism (Dependency Theories). Departing from the linear models
of social progress, this approach to development seeks to articulate the
processes and meanings of more nuanced social control and challenges.
Epistemological premises are grounded in poststructuralist concepts asserting
[59]
language and discourse of development as systematically organizing power
through the subjectivity of social actors and their actions. Attention to
development discourse emerged in the 1990s, building upon critical
approaches to development communication studies. Development discourse
studies tend to view dominant models of development as a highly contested
domain in which dominant groups attempt to assert control over
marginalized groups of people (Power in Inter-group Settings). Studies of
development discourse tend to examine strategic communicative intervention
of development institutions for social change in terms of the constructed
problems and solutions designated.
6.7 Three Core Values of Development
It is possible to conceptualize what we mean when we talk about
development as the sustained elevation of an entire society and social system
toward a better or more humane life. What constitutes a good life therefore is
a question as old as philosophy and humankind, one that must be
periodically reevaluated and answered afresh in the changing environment of
world society. The appropriate answer for developing nations in the first
decade of the twenty-first century is not necessarily the same as it would have
been in previous decades. A host of literature has shown that at least three
basic components or core values should serve as a conceptual basis and
practical guideline for understanding the inner meaning of development.
These are values-sustenance, self-esteem, and freedom – representing
common goals sought by all individuals and societies. They relate to
fundamental human needs that find their expression in almost all societies
and cultures at all times. Let us therefore examine each one of them in turn.
a.
Sustenance: The Ability to Meet Basic Needs
All people have certain basic needs without which life would be impossible.
These life-sustaining basic human needs include food, shelter, health, and
protection.
[60]
When any of these is absent or in critically short supply, a condition of
absolute underdevelopment exists. A basic function of all economic activity,
therefore, is to provide as many people as possible with the means of
overcoming the helplessness and misery arising from a lack of food, shelter,
health and protection. To this extent we may claim that economic
development is a necessary condition for the improvement in the quality of
life that is development. Without sustained and continuous economic
progress at the individual as well as the societal level, the realization of the
human potential would not be possible. One clearly has to have enough in
order to be more. Rising per capita incomes, the elimination of absolute
poverty,
greater
employment
opportunities,
and
lessening
income
inequalities therefore constitute the necessary but not the sufficient conditions
for development.
b. Self- Esteem: To Be a Person
A second universal component of the good life is self-esteem, a sense of worth
and self-respect, of not being used as a tool by others for their own ends. All
peoples and societies seek some basic form of self-esteem, although they may
call it authenticity, identity, dignity, respect, honor, or recognition. The nature
and form of this self-esteem may vary from society to society and from
culture to advanced culture. However, with the proliferation of the
modernizing values of developed nations, many societies in developing
countries that have had a profound sense of their own worth suffer from
serious cultural confusion when they come in contact with economically and
technologically advanced societies. This is because national prosperity has
become an almost universal measure of worth. Due to the significance
attached to material values in developed nations, worthiness and esteem are
nowadays increasing conferred only on countries that possess economic
wealth and technological power – those that have developed. Thus,
development is legitimized as a goal because it is an important, perhaps even
an indispensable, way of gaining esteem.
[61]
c.
Freedom from Servitude: To Be Able to Choose
A third and final universal value that we suggest should constitute the
meaning of development is the concept of human freedom. Freedom here is to
be understood in the sense of emancipation from alienating material
conditions of life and from social servitude to nature, ignorance, other people,
misery, institutions, and dogmatic beliefs, especially that one’s poverty is
one’s predestination. Freedom involves an expanded range of choices for
societies and their members together with a minimization of external
constraints in the pursuit of some social goal we call development. We can
also add that the relationship between economic growth and freedom from
servitude is based on the notion that, the advantage of economic growth is not
that wealth increases happiness, but that it increases the range of human
choice. Wealth can enable people to gain greater control over nature and the
physical environment (for example; through the production of food, clothing,
and shelter) than they would have if they remained poor. It also gives them
freedom to choose greater leisure, to have more goods and services, or to
deny the importance of these materials wants and choose to live a life of
spiritual contemplation (Todaro and Smith 2008).
The concept of human freedom should also encompass various components
of political freedom including, but not limited to, personal security, the rule of
law, freedom of expression, political participation, and equality of
opportunity.
6.8 The Three Objectives of Development
Having looked at the core values of development, it would be important also
to discuss the objectives of development. We may conclude that development
is both a physical reality and a state of mind in which society has, through
some combination of social, economic, and institutional processes, secured the
means for obtaining a better life. Whatever the specific components of this
[62]
better life, development in all societies must have at least the following three
objectives:
a. To increase the availability and widen the distribution of basic lifesustaining goods such as food, shelter, health, and protection.
b. To raise levels of living, in addition to higher incomes, the provision of
more jobs, better education, and greater attention to cultural and
human values, all of which will serve not only to enhance material
well-being but also to generate greater individual and national selfesteem
c. To expand the range of economic and social choices available to
individuals and nations by freeing them from servitude and
dependence not only in relation to other people and nation-states but
also to the forces of ignorance and human misery.
Based on the above analysis, it can be summarized that the nature and
character of development in any given society is based the premise that
development should be a major concern of all; irrespective of gender,
political, ideological, or economic orientation.
6.9 Unit Summary
This unit has defined development in its different forms and it has described
the different domains that concern development as discourse. It has further
suggested the main objectives of development and how they are interwoven
with gender. However, it is important for you to note that there is more that
can be said about development even as it relates to gender and it is hoped that
you will do some further reading in this area to fill up the gaps left out in this
unit.
[63]
Activities
1. Explain the best way of conceptualising development?
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2. To what extent is development linked to gender?
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3. What are the core principles of development and explain how they are
measured?
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4. Apart from the development objectives mentioned in this unit, identify
others and in your discussion you should also pay attention to gender.
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[64]
UNIT SEVEN
GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
7.0 Introduction
Welcome to unit 7. This is the seventh unit in this module on Gender and
Development Course. In this unit different issues that relate to gender and
development are discussed. In an attempt to discuss or show the link between
gender and development, it is important to capture the many issues that
contribute to gender and development as distinct discourses that form a
continuum with one emerging into the other.
7.1 Aim
The aim of this unit is to deepen and enhance students’ understanding on the
relationship between gender and development.
7.2
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
a. Show the link between gender and development
b. Discuss the gender implications in development, policy formulation
and implementation
7.3 Equipment and Requisites
There are a number of books that you can consult from on
gender and development. You can still check from a number of
sources. You are further encouraged to explore this area as often
as possible. A number of works on the subject matter have been
done and is still being done. This will help you to read about
new ideas on development and the relationship that is there
with gender.
[65]
7.4 Time Required
This unit might take you Two (2) days to walk through and
understand what is required of you to do. Roughly you will
need about Four (4) working hours of 2 hours each session
Before you proceed you can as well do the following exercise:
Development and gender cannot be looked in isolation of each other.
Discuss.
If you were in the position of a development expert what would have been
your approach to gender related issues
7.5 The Relationship between Gender and Development
Social scientists and development experts use two separate terms to designate
biologically determined differences between men and women, which are
called "sex differences", and those constructed socially, which are called
"gender differences". Both define the differences between men and women,
but they have very different connotations.
In recent years there has been an increasing awareness that development has
had a differential impact on the relations between men and women, and
usually to the detriment of the latter. In the 1970s and 1980s there was a new
emphasis by international and bilateral agencies on gender matters in
development. This shift was shaped in part by the emergence of a range of
feminist and progressive social theory at the time. The major concern was that
women were being overlooked or marginalised in four crucial areas, namely
political rights, legal rights, access to education and training, and their
working lives. As such the year 1975 was proclaimed International Women’s
Year, which was followed by the Decade for the Advancement of women
(1976 – 1985). This new emphasis saw many agencies and development
practitioners shifting to Women in Development policies.
[66]
Two broad theoretical positions were later identified as the Women in
Development (WID) and the Gender and Development (GAD) approaches.
The former tends to coincide with positions adopted by various governments
and international development organisations in the later 1970s and after,
though in a somewhat diluted form. The GAD approach was shaped by the
elaboration and changes proposed by academics and development
professionals and activists, and have gradually/partially supplanted WID in
national and international bodies. This however, may not be the core
discussion under this unit but has implications on development, policy
formulation and implementation as will be seen in the next section.
7.6 Gender implications in development, policy formulation and
implementation
Gender social constructions by and large depend upon time and culture.
Therefore, gender roles are neither universal nor unchangeable. There is a
global gender imbalance in favour of men and in that sense it becomes
necessary to include gender planning in development interventions.
Women and men do not play identical roles in any society; nor do they have
equal access to education, work, career opportunities and economic resources.
This means that political and economic leadership is also unequally shared,
which leads to gender disparities in the enjoyment of benefits from economic
and social development. In recent decades, advocates of women's rights have
drawn attention to these facts and the need to consider them in policy and
programme formulation.
For several years now, governments and development agencies have given
top priority to gender issues in development planning and policies. Gender
equity, concerning resource access and allocation as well as opportunities for
social and economic advancement, has been a prominent item on the agenda
of all recent international meetings, which have also investigated the basic
[67]
link between gender equity and sustainable development, defining specific
mechanisms and objectives for international cooperation. For instance, the
1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de
Janeiro (known as the "Earth Summit") explicitly included gender issues in
Agenda 21, its platform statement. You will also note with interest here that
even The World Conference on Human Rights, held in Vienna in 1993,
equally made significant progress in recognizing the rights of women and
girl-children as an inalienable, integral and indivisible part of universal
human rights. This principle was taken up again by the International
Conference on Population and Development, held in Cairo in 1994.
Discussions focused on gender issues, stressing the empowerment of women
for equitable development: "...the objective is to promote gender equality in
all spheres of life, including family and community life, and to encourage and
enable men to take responsibility for their sexual and reproductive behaviour
and their social and family roles." The World Summit for Social Development,
held in Copenhagen in 1995, took gender equity as the core strategy for social
and economic development and environmental protection. The 1995 Fourth
World Conference on Women, held in Beijing, reiterated the importance of
these new options, drawing up an agenda to strengthen the status of women
and adopting a declaration and platform for action aimed at overcoming the
barriers to gender equity and guaranteeing women's active participation in all
spheres of life.
Since the First World Conference on Women, held in Mexico City in 1975,
approaches to "women's issues" have undergone considerable change. The
original strategy approach was to treat women as a separate, homogeneous
entity in isolation from global policies, and this often aggravated existing
form of discrimination. Projects designed specifically with women in mind
were underfunded. Specialized "women and development" units were
allocated few resources, so had little say at the policy level. Awareness of this
led to a reorientation of approaches and the vision expanded from an
[68]
exclusive focus on women's concerns to a more holistic view of gender
interaction within the full social context - the gender perspective.
This new approach focuses on gender disparities in the impacts of economic
and social policies, and the fact that men, women and their interactions affect
every aspect of the development process. The gender perspective pays close
attention to the mechanisms that regulate gender interactions and their
impact on men and women, by making reference to gender-based socioeconomic characteristics.
Nowadays, international organizations and governments give greater
recognition to the need to strengthen the participation of women in order to
achieve sustainable development. However, although the contribution of
women is rather more visible now than it was 25 years ago, there is still a long
way to go. The lack of adequate data on true gender disparities in everyday
life, as well as in the economic, social and political spheres, has frequently
given rise to inappropriate policies, plans and projects. The issue can only be
resolved by a carefully planned approach to statistics production.
Many development programmes and policies have actually exacerbated
poverty or done nothing to improve local standards of living, especially those
of women.
Development plans are formulated primarily in terms of economic criteria,
while social and human parameters are seen mostly as justifications for
economic decisions. When the human factor is given as much importance as
the economic aspects, planning exercises become very complex; introducing a
gender perspective complicates the issue even more. Planners rarely see the
relevance of the gender perspective, partly because they lack reliable,
impartial data on the type and extent of men's and women's separate
contributions.
[69]
In a world in which economic value is reckoned in purely monetary terms,
women's work, which is often unpaid, is not considered to be productive
work. So, although women are the pillars of subsistence economies and
pivotal to food security, their activities tend to be excluded from economic
accounts. Agricultural statistics therefore tend to under-represent, or even
omit, variables that are essential to a clear understanding of rural sector
activities and rural development. This severely limits planners' grasp of the
real situation in rural economies which, in turn, constrains their potential to
act.
Until a few years ago, the demand for specific data and indicators
incorporating a gender perspective was limited to advocates of the rights of
women and disadvantaged groups. Nowadays, the user audience has
expanded to include decision-makers at every level and in every area of social
and economic development. Presently, there is general awareness of the need
for a gender perspective in development policy formulation, and of the
corresponding need for pertinent statistics. At the same time, as reliable data
become available, they help to promote and justify change and to dissipate
doubts and skepticism with respect to the relevance of innovative approaches
such as the gender perspective.
Planners and policy-makers must be mindful of the major aspects of socially
ascribed gender functions and the specific needs of men and women. If
development policies are to be sustainable, they must consider existing
gender disparities in employment, poverty, family life, health, education, the
environment, public life and decision-making bodies. There are discussed at
close range in the next section.
a.
Work
Households in all societies differentiate various household activities and
responsibilities by gender. For women, production and reproduction are two
interlinked activities, and much of the work women do, although productive,
[70]
is unpaid. Men have always played a minor role in domestic work; societies
tending to assume that they have paid work outside the home.
Gender disparities in access to economic resources, including credit, land and
economic power-sharing, directly affect women's potential for achieving the
kind of economic autonomy they need to provide a better quality of life for
themselves and their dependants. Limited access to agricultural inputs,
especially for food crops, severely curtails women's potential productivity.
Sections A and B of the Beijing Platform for Action recognize women's lack of
access to productive resources and limited access to economic power-sharing
as being major causes of poverty. The 1995 FAO Plan of Action for Women in
Development identifies women's lack of access to land and other agricultural
inputs as one of the major obstacles to productivity.
Discrimination against women in employment is also frequent outside the
agricultural sector, and has an impact on the kinds of work, careers and career
advancement that women can expect. Over the past 20 years or so, women all
over the world have increased their participation in the labour market, but
they continue to work in less prestigious jobs, are paid less and have fewer
opportunities for advancement (UN, 1995).
Women face a number of disadvantages in the labour market. As well as
coping with sexist prejudices, they must reconcile the twin roles of
homemaker and money-maker. This often affects their work status, the length
and structure of their workday and their salary level. In addition, the
employment sector offers less scope and potential for women than for men, as
well as lower pay for the same work.
b. Poverty
Poverty can be defined as the combination of uncertain or non-existent
income and a lack of access to the resources needed to ensure sustainable
[71]
living conditions. It often goes hand-in-hand with hunger, malnourishment,
poor health, high mortality and morbidity rates, insufficient education and
precarious and unhealthy housing.
Studies have revealed an increasing feminization of poverty. Compared with
men, the number of women living below the poverty line increased between
1970 and 1980. By 1988, an estimated 60 percent of poor people were women.
As well as sexism in the employment sector, contributing factors included the
economic restructuring imposed on many countries, government budget cuts
and the adoption of neo-liberal economic models. Women have borne the
brunt of cutbacks in civil service jobs, social services and benefits. Their
workload has increased as welfare structures have broken down, leaving
them in sole charge of children and of elderly, ill and disabled people who
were previously looked after, at least partially, by the social services sector.
While trying to cope with the impact of the crisis of the welfare state, women
are also desperately trying to juggle their meager resources. The feminization
of poverty is much more visible among female-headed households. In a maleheaded household, both the man and the woman contribute to the family's
welfare; the man brings in income and the woman, in addition to the goods
and services she provides the family, may also seek paid work outside the
home (ILO. 1995).
The indices of even limited studies show that the status of female headed
household with dependent children is comparable to that of older widows
living alone - both tend to be poorer than men.
In rural areas, where services and job opportunities are even fewer than in
urban areas, poverty is also more acute. The situation is worse for women,
who are less likely to have access to production factors, services and resources
such as credit, land, inheritance, education, information, extension services,
technology and farm inputs, as well as a say in decision-making.
[72]
Another reason for the persistence of female poverty is gender vulnerability
within the home. When poor families fail to send all of their children to
school, parents favour investing in the boy-children, keeping the girls at home
so that they help with domestic work or some income-generating activity.
c.
Family life
In all societies women are the prime careers of children, the elderly and the ill,
and do most of the domestic tasks. Women's lives are greatly affected by
reproduction, which has a very serious and direct impact on their health and
on their educational, employment and earning opportunities. In societies
where women marry very young and much earlier than men, wives defer
more to husbands, and this has a substantial bearing on women's chances of
finding paid work and receiving an education.
Growing male migration in search of work has combined with unstable
conjugal arrangements to increase the number of female-headed households.
There are also more widows than widowers because women tend to live
longer and men are more likely to remarry or seek alternative living
arrangements. The 1990 censuses showed that 21 percent of Latin American
households were headed by women while, in the Caribbean, the figure was 35
percent - the highest of any region worldwide.
Women in developing countries are estimated to do between two-thirds and
three-quarters of the domestic work. A study of three cities in Mexico showed
that women spent an average of 56 hours per week on household tasks, while
men spent seven hours. The sexes also did different tasks; men mostly
shopped and took the children to school and women did the remainder of the
work in the home (Pedrero, 1996).
The differences between female- and male-headed households usually have a
bearing on all aspects of family life: the size and composition of the family
and how it is run; nutrition; raising children; and available income. A single
female headed household has a double responsibility - she must earn a living
[73]
and, at the same time, run a home. Whoever bears the family name is usually
listed as the head of household. Stereotypically, an adult male is often
automatically considered to be the head of the family even when a woman is
economically and otherwise responsible for that family. Most female-headed
households are, therefore, also one-parent households. Thus, Pedrero's study
(1996) showed that only 1.4 percent of female headed household lived with a
partner.
d. Health and nutrition
Biologically, men and women have different health needs, but lifestyles and
socially ascribed roles arising from prevailing social and cultural patterns also
play a part in the health picture. Men are more likely to be the victims of
occupational diseases, accidents at work, smoking, alcohol and other forms of
substance abuse. Men have a higher incidence of cancer and of cardiovascular
lesions and diseases (the principal cause of male mortality). Women's health
risks, which are mainly linked to reproduction, make them more vulnerable
during pregnancy to anemia, malnutrition, hepatitis, malaria, diabetes and
other illnesses.
For a more detailed analysis of causes of mortality and morbidity you can still
read further on your own (Murray & López 1994).
Women's life expectancy is greater than men's - women live for five to 12
years longer than men in Europe, North America and some countries of Latin
America. There are a number of hypothetical explanations for this
phenomenon, ranging from genetics and biology to environmental and social
causes, but no definitive consensus has yet emerged. Female life expectancy
does not conform to this pattern in some Asian countries, where cultural
norms and religious precepts restrict women's access to medical care and
health services.
Despite the generally poor provision of health services, particularly in rural
areas, there has been a surge of interest in the family planning, maternal and
[74]
child health care services offered by NGOs, which have benefited mothers,
children of both sexes and adult women in general.
Custom, social constraints and lack of resources also give rise to gender
disparities among children in terms of nutrition, morbidity and mortality. The
two sexes do not receive equal attention and care; the tendency being to
favour boy-children. Males are also fed more and better. Because food
production in the rural zones of many countries is largely carried out at home
by women, their own and their families' nutritional status would benefit from
women having greater access to the agricultural credit, technology and
services necessary for increased productivity.
e.
Education
"Education" here is taken to mean "schooling", as the word has connotations
far beyond mere formal instruction. The increasingly competitive labour
market demands ever-higher levels of education. People without it are at a
growing disadvantage.
At the same time, there is broad consensus that education can, in times of
change, move marginalized, excluded people into the mainstream. Despite
this, socio-cultural barriers and prejudices that restrict women's access to
education persist in a number of societies.
More women than men are illiterate; and the lower a country's literacy rate,
the wider the gap between the two sexes. The United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) estimates that 41 percent of
women in developing countries are illiterate, compared with 20 percent of
men. In some countries, the illiteracy rate of rural women between the ages of
15 and 24 years is twice to three times that of women in urban areas. Girls
leave school earlier, especially in rural areas where they are needed to help
with domestic and productive work. The lack of transport or of schools
located near the home widens the literacy gap by directly affecting girls'
[75]
school attendance, as parents tend to worry about the personal safety of their
daughters. In some societies, rigid cultural patterns and social rules restrict
women's movements outside the home (UNDP, 1995).
In some parts of the world, such as the Caribbean and western Asia, the
number of women enrolling in institutes of higher learning is increasing,
sometimes even exceeding male enrolments. However, the chosen fields of
study differ greatly. Cultural traditions, prejudices, stereotypes and family
reluctance frequently result in the exclusion of women from the scientific and
technical fields, inducing many to opt for the more "feminine", but less
remunerative and less promising careers - a choice that aggravates
segregation in the job market.
f. The environment
The impact of environmental degradation is gender-differentiated in terms of
workloads and the quality of life; women are the first to be affected by the
depletion of natural resources. In rural areas in most developing countries,
women are responsible for the daily management and use of natural
resources, as well as providing for the family by raising food crops, gathering
forest products and fetching wood and water. Widespread and growing
deforestation and the drying-up of water sources force women to range ever
further afield, spending more time and energy in producing and finding
essential commodities and making it even harder for them to engage in more
productive, more lucrative activities. A series of case studies by the United
Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) to evaluate the impact on women of
environmental degradation revealed the increasing difficulty of finding fuel
and water (UNFPA, 1995).
Environmental degradation caused by poorly managed and utilized waste
products and pollutants can have a disproportionate impact on women, who
seem to be more susceptible to the toxic effects of certain chemicals. The
[76]
health risk is even higher among the lower-income strata of the population,
who tend to live near industrial urban areas, or among rural people living
near fields that are sprayed from the air.
Consumption patterns and industrial production in developed countries are
very detrimental to sustainable development, natural resources and people
everywhere. Global warming, the shrinking ozone layer and reduced
biodiversity are some of the better-known effects of environmental
degradation.
In many countries the lives of rural people are wholly dependent on the
availability of natural resources. Both men and women over-exploit natural
resources in a struggle for survival in which soils are depleted, wildlife, plant
and marine resources destroyed, and the quality of water downgraded.
Environmental degradation is most keenly felt by the most vulnerable
members of the community and those who rely heavily on nature's bounty.
For this reason, gender disparities in natural resource management and
participation in policy-making must be clearly understood.
7.7 THE PUBLIC AND POLICY-MAKING SPHERES
Gender inequality is a persistent feature of the public and policy-making
spheres. Women continue to be under-represented in governments, legislative
bodies and many other crucial sectors affecting public opinion, such as the
mass media, the arts, religion and culture. Worldwide, there are only 16
countries in which more than 15 percent of ministerial posts are held by
women, and in 59 countries there are no women ministers at all. Although
women have the right to vote in nearly every country in the world, there are
very few women in government; in 1994, only 10 percent of the world's
parliamentary deputies were women.
[77]
7.8 Unit Summary
The gender and development discourses have been discussed in a more
condensed manner. The unit has addressed the current social structuring and
functions within the context of development. It has also shown the extent to
which both the reproductive and productive aspects which have been the
basis of oppression between both men and women are interrelated. It has
noted that there is a strong bond between gender and development by
considering the root causes of inequality in both sexes, misconceptions about
men and women.
It has also explored the gender implications in
development policy formulation and implementation. There is an inevitable
need to improve the gender perspective to development, policy formulation
both in theory and in practice in order to foster national sustainable
development through the involvement of both sexes. There is a paradigm
shift coming on board which attempts to reposition the status of men and
women in line with development; not at the exclusion of another group.
Trying to address gender issues from critical point of view and also trying to
make an evaluation on the performance of men and women in development.
Thus, a more precise method of knowing and understanding gender and
development studies approach requires a critical look of the various aspects
that are concerned with the gender and development discourses.
Activities
1. What is the relationship between gender and development?
..............................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
2. Explain why development is measured against gender?
..............................................................................................................................
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3. Explain the implication of gender to national development?
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[78]
UNIT EIGHT
GENDER BASED VIOLENCE (GBV) AND DEVELOPMENT
8.0 Introduction
Welcome to unit 8. This is the eighth unit in this module on Gender and
Development Course. In this unit different issues that relate to gender based
violence are discussed and attention is paid to the general understanding of
gender based violence, its nature, levels, the cost, measures and reduction,
unintended consequences of development and the cultural roles and other
aspects. It is important to capture the many issues that over the last few
decades have been recognized and discussed as a public, rather than a private
problem. Gender based violence has been said and seen to be a major obstacle
to men and women empowerment. It also retards development at every point
of service delivery. It can also compromise on issues of equity and equality. It
also reduces the full maximization of available resources, which can be in
form of human, financial, logistical, material and many more. As a result,
hundreds of potential responses have been identified within the state and
civil society. Against this understanding this unit will look at these issues in
the light of development.
8.1 Aim
The aim of this unit is to deepen and enhance students’ understanding on
gender based violence and its implication to development.
8.2
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
a. Define gender based violence
b. Discuss the nature and levels of gender based violence
c. Examine the measures of eliminating and reducing gender based
violence in the community
[79]
d. Assess the implications of gender based violence in the light of
development, culture and gender roles
8.3 Equipment and Requisites
There are a number of books that you can consult from on
gender based violence. Check from a number of sources. You
are further encouraged to explore this area as often as possible.
A number of works on the subject matter have been done and is
still being done. This will help you to read about new ideas and
challenges on gender based violence especially with reference to
Zambia and the world at large.
8.4 Time Required
This unit might take you Two (2) days to walk through and
understand what is required of you to do. Roughly you will
need about Four (4) working hours of 2 hours each session
Before you proceed you can as well do the following exercise:
Discuss the genesis of gender based violence at global level
How does gender based violence relate to development
8.5 Understanding and Defining Gender based Violence (GBV)
Gender based violence (GBV) also known as hidden violence; because it is
rarely reported to law enforcement agents, is any act or threat of harm
inflicted on a person because of their gender. It is rooted in gender inequality;
therefore women are primarily affected. Gender based violence refers to an
act that results in or is likely to result in physical, sexual and psychological
harm or suffering, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary
deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or private life. It
encompasses sexual violence, domestic violence, sex trafficking, harmful
[80]
practices (such as female genital mutilation/cutting), forced/ early marriage,
forced prostitution, sexual harassment and sexual exploitation, to name but a
few.
Gender based violence is a phenomenon of epidemic proportions prevalent in
many families, communities, societies and cultures across the globe. Many
women and girls, and to a lesser degree men and boys, either directly or
indirectly experience the consequences of some form of gender based violence
in their lifetime. Gender based violence manifests itself in multiple forms and
involves a wide variety of perpetrators from intimate partners and family
members, to strangers to institutional actors such as police, teachers and
soldiers. Intimate partner violence is the most pervasive form of gender based
violence experienced by women and girls. A summary statistic commonly
cited is that nearly one out of every three women globally has experienced
psychological, physical or sexual partner violence during their lifetime.
While gender based violence is a universal problem, it is a problem of extreme
magnitude in less developed countries. Studies that have been conducted in
the past have shown that a lot of women experience physical, sexual or
psychological violence at some point in their marriage/intimate relationship
world over. Gender based violence is exacerbated by war and is increasingly a
feature of conflicts. Various studies find a strong statistical association
between the socio-economic status of households and the risk of gender based
violence, particularly intimate partner violence. Violence in poor households
has costs for women and their families in terms of security, sustainable
livelihoods and well- being. Families affected by domestic violence are often
in communities with high levels of crime and tension undermining safety for
women and their children within those families and communities.
Gender based violence also known as battered women’s syndrome has
become a new terminology in gender related studies. This is where women
prefer to remain in these situations for various reasons such as children,
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powerlessness, social or any other family pressure. Mostly, it has been proved
through studies that a lot of women who go through or suffer this form of
abuse in various households, very often than not, chose to remain silent and
begin to blame themselves for the abuse or feel helpless about the situation
they are in.
8.6 The nature of Gender Based Violence
The forms and nature of gender based violence covers the following:
a. Physical battering; such as slaps, kicking, use of wooden or metal
instrument, horse pipe or anything that would inflict pain on the
victim.
b. Economic deprivation; this is luck of maintenance for wife and
children and general neglect of family and yet the man maybe
spending a lot money on beer and women.
c. Language; sometimes women are verbally assaulted through the use of
vulgar language and even some men are also assaulted under this
form.
d. Others; they include sexual intercourse inspection, inspection of
private parts and in case of young girls they are forced into marriage
through exchange for debts owed.
It is important to note that in many situations, verbal insults are calculated to
hurt the wife more and also exposure of extra marital relations of other
women designed to humiliate other women.
Studies have found out that, in most cases women were unable to challenge
or resist the violence or leave the violence situation.
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8.7 Levels of Gender Based Violence.
As a social act or vice, gender based violence takes place at different levels. It
manifests itself at:
a. Family level – the family tends to induct its members to accept
hierarchical relations between males and females and power over
allocation of resources.
b. Community level – this is made up of social economic, cultural and
religious institutions that provide the mechanism for permitting and
perpetuating male control over women’s sexuality, mobility and
labour.
c. The State – the State legitimises the rights of men over women by
providing legal basis to the family and community, through the
enactment of various laws and policies that discriminate against
women or through discrimination application of law.
Gender based violence has very close links to poverty and overall
development –downturns in the economy, such as the current economic
recession, and increasing poverty can actually trigger an increase in violence.
Equally important to note is that the consequences of gender based violence –
its impact on productivity, health and well-being, and intergenerational
transmission – can result in increased poverty and undermine development.
Gender based violence results in both immediate impacts and long-term
consequences, which together fuel the dynamics among gender based
violence, poverty, and development. Ultimately gender based violence costs
by obstructing participation in development, undermining the goals of
development and hindering progress towards the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs). Conversely, poverty reduction interventions that do not
consider and address underlying gender dynamics within communities can
increase the risk of gender based violence negating their positive economic
and social impacts.
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8.8 The Cost of Gender Based Violence
Gender based violence results in immediate costs for households and
communities. At the household level, violence often results in out of pocket
expenditure to access health services, the police, courts or informal resolution
bodies. In Uganda, the average out of pocket expenditure for services related
to an incident of intimate partner violence was $5 – three quarters of the
average weekly household income. Incidents of violence also drain household
incomes as women and men often miss paid work and household work is
neglected.
This drain on the resources of poor households has a direct impact on hunger.
The inability to work and potential desertion by the male partner can often
mean that household members literally starve – daily food purchases are not
made, and children are left in the care of extended family or neighbours.
An equally important impact of violence is its negative mental health
consequences with women often exhibiting post traumatic stress disorder,
further undermining their ability to work.
These costs are mirrored at the community and national levels. There are a
number of studies in both industrialised and developing countries that
describe the macro level costs of providing services for those experiencing
gender based violence. Ultimately, violence leads to lower productivity,
absenteeism and often lower earnings by survivors of violence. Each dollar in
lost earnings will lead in turn to a further decline in GDP through multiplier
effects.
Thus the immediate consequences of violence are significant and can
constitute a major economic leakage, particularly in resource-constrained
countries, exacerbating poverty. Gender based violence also has serious long
term consequences which cannot be cost such as the reduced physical and
mental health of women, increased child malnutrition, restricted education of
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girls and boys, weakened social capital of communities and overall reduction
in well-being of women, families and communities. Equally, gender based
violence results in lowered participation of women as agents of development
which has disastrous implications for realising safer communities and
sustainable livelihoods.
8.9 Gender Based Violence Measures of Elimination and/or Reduction
In order to realise the development prospects through the full inclusion of
both men and women, it is important to put up strategies that will and can
eliminate or reduce the occurrences of gender based violence. The following
are suggestions that can be employed in the quest to attain a gender based
violence free society that will foster development plan through the full
engagement of all regardless of gender or sex.
a. There is need to amend the penal code to bring in stiffer penalties for
those involved in gender based violence.
b. Need to develop specific legislation on gender based violence with a
view to amending relevant pieces of legal instruments.
c. There is need to implement sensitization and awareness activities to
change harmful and negative cultural practices of societies including,
the existing legal provisions protecting women and other vulnerable
groups against violence and sexual harassment and any other form of
abuse.
d. Need to establish appropriate mechanisms that encourage victims to
report cases of all forms of abuse including sexual abuse to the relevant
law enforcement agencies.
e. There is need to build capacity among law enforcement agencies to
handle cases of gender based violence by equipping their skills in
psychology, counselling, social work, gender, human rights with
emphasis on improving women’s participation in law enforcement and
crime prevention.
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f. There is need to strengthen the existing laws, enforcement mechanisms
and support system aimed at enhancing the integrated approach on
combating gender based violence for the sake of sustainable
development.
g. There is also need to provide free medical services to the victims of
sexual to the victims of sexual abuse.
h. There is need to continue revising the existing laws of Zambia in order
to provide full protection against all those women and men who would
be victims of gender based violence.
i. There is need to establish the one stop shocks by sexual and gender
based violence partners to provide support for victims and survivors of
gender based violence (GBV).
8.1.0 Unintended Consequences of Development Efforts
Furthermore, efforts to alleviate poverty can exacerbate gender based violence
if these do not consider the fundamental gender dynamics and gender norms
of households in terms of roles and responsibilities, access and control of
resources and decision making. Micro-credit interventions that did not pay
attention to gender norms and dynamics of decision making with households
ultimately increased economic violence and physical abuse.
With growing recognition of gender based violence as a universal pandemic,
governments, donors and civil society increasingly understand the need for a
range of responses to address the complex intersecting dynamics that
perpetuate gender based violence.
At an international level, United Nations Security Council Resolutions 1325
and 1820 (and more recently, Resolutions 1888 and 1889) are significant
advancements towards dismantling the culture of tolerance and impunity
associated with perpetrators of gender based violence.
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The Security Council has called for international leadership to take special
measures to protect women and girls from gender based violence in situations
of armed conflict; for an end to impunity, increased prosecution of those who
commit and condone acts of gender based violence as well as for the
increased participation of women in conflict resolution and peace building. At
the national level, an increasing number of governments have enacted
legislation criminalising gender based violence and many countries have
incorporated considerations of gender based violence into their national
development plans.
Local interventions are key in delivering real change. Efforts across
communities include the provision of services for survivors of violence to
rebuild their lives, legal reform to address the culture of impunity, training
for police, the judiciary and medical staff to strengthen implementation of
laws and policies, and awareness-raising to shift gender norms in
communities and institutions.
Many of these responses are singular in focus, working on a single sector such
as law or health with little active cross-sectorial learning or coordination. In
particular, there is little attention to integrating strategies to respond to
gender based violence within development interventions and women’s
groups advocating for and/or implementing gender based violence responses
are rarely involved in development programming discussions.
There are however examples of successful responses that are holistic,
integrated within development interventions, and multi-sectorial in their
approach. Gender based violence is an abuse of human rights and failure to
address it amounts to complicity. It is also unquestionably a critical
development issue that needs to be addressed for the effectiveness of poverty
reduction plans and strategies. The cost of not addressing gender based
violence is significant both socially and economically. The current economic
crisis threatens to undermine hard-won advances in human rights and
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accelerate an increase in gender based violence in countries most seriously
affected by the downturn.
Gender based violence needs to remain high on the political and development
agenda at all times including during periods of economic hardship.
Continued commitment and greater action is vital to build on existing efforts,
scale up successful interventions, integrate considerations of gender based
violence across all programming and strengthen co-ordination and learning
across programmes and sectors. Though some approaches are more effective
than others, the key to eliminating GBV lies in the participation of multiple
sectors and entire communities. When GBV is addressed from all angles, the
possibility of prevention becomes a reality, social networks are created which
ensure that victims of GBV get the care and protection they need, and fewer
women fall through the cracks.
Gender-Based Violence 'Any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is
likely to result in physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to
women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of
liberty, whether occurring in public or private life'
The premise held by many advocates against gender based violence (GBV) is
that women's inequality is a key obstacle to development and a major cause of
social injustice and that gender discrimination is the most widespread form of
social exclusion.
8.7 Culture and Gender Roles
Ideas of appropriate behaviour according to gender vary among cultures and
era, although some aspects receive more widespread attention than others.
An interesting case is described by R.W. Connell in Men, Masculinities and
Feminism: "There are cultures where it has been normal, not exceptional, for
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men to have homosexual relations. There have been periods in 'Western'
history when the modern convention that men suppress displays of emotion
did not apply at all, when men were demonstrative about their feeling for
their friends. Mate ship in the Australian outback last century is a case in
point."
Other aspects, however, may differ markedly with time and place. In preindustrial Europe, for example, the practice of medicine (other than
midwifery) was generally seen as a male prerogative. However, in Russia
health care was more often seen as a feminine role. The results of these views
can still be seen in modern society, where European medicine is most often
practiced by men, while the majority of Russian doctors are women.
In many other cases, the elements of convention or tradition seem to play a
dominant role in deciding which occupations fit in with which gender roles.
In the United States, physicians have traditionally been men, and the few
people who defied that expectation received a special job description:
"woman doctor". Similarly, we have special terms like "male nurse", "woman
lawyer", "lady barber", "male secretary," etc. But in China and the former
Soviet Union countries, medical doctors are predominantly women, and in
the United Kingdom and Taiwan it is very common for all of the barbers in a
barber shop to be women.
For example, in the Western society, people whose gender appears masculine
and whose inferred and/or verified external genitalia are male are often
criticised and ridiculed for exhibiting what the society regards as a woman's
gender role. For instance, someone with a masculine voice, a four o'clock
shadow if not a beard, an Adam's apple, etc., wearing a woman's dress and
high heels, carrying a purse, etc., would most likely draw ridicule or other
unfriendly attention in ordinary social contexts (the stage and screen
excepted). It is seen by some in that society that such a gender role for a man
is not acceptable. This, and other societies, imposes expectations on the
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behaviour of the members of society, and specifically on the gender roles of
individuals, resulting in prescriptions regarding gender roles.
It should be noted that some societies are comparatively rigid in their
expectations, and other societies are comparatively permissive. Some of the
gender signals that form part of a gender role and indicate one's gender
identity to others are quite obvious, and others are so subtle that they are
transmitted and received out of ordinary conscious awareness.
In all communities, tasks and responsibilities are typically undertaken by
either women or men. This allocation of activities on the basis of sex is known
as the sexual division of labour, and is learned and clearly understood by all
members of that community.
8.8 Unit Summary
This unit has given an all encompassing discussion on the most contested
theme of gender based violence and its implication to development. It has
also explained gender, culture and socialisation or gender learning by giving
a more intertwined view or picture of the aforesaid aspects.
Activities
1. Explain in detail the nature of gender based violence in society?
2. What is the implication of gender based violence to national
development?
3. How does culture perpetuate gender based violence?
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UNIT NINE
EDUCATION, GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
9.0 Introduction
Welcome to unit 9. This is the ninth unit in this module on Gender and
Development Course. In this unit different issues that relate to education,
gender and development are discussed. Against this understanding this unit
will look at these issues in the light of development.
9.1 Aim
The aim of this unit is to deepen and enhance students’ understanding on
education, gender and development.
9.2
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
a. Show the link among education, gender and development
b. Discuss the implication of civic education to education, gender and
development
9.3 Equipment and Requisites
There are a number of books that you can consult from on
education, gender and development. Check from a number of
sources. You are further encouraged to explore this area as often
as possible. A number of works on the subject matter have been
done and is still being done. This will help you to read about
new ideas and challenges on education, gender and
development.
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9.4 Time Required
This unit might take you Two (2) days to walk through and
understand what is required of you to do. Roughly you will need
about Four (4) working hours of 2 hours each session
Before you proceed you can as well do the following exercise:
Discuss how civic education linked to education in general, gender and
development?
9.5 Education, Gender and Development
While the importance of female education has been widely recognised,
gender disparity in education persists in a number of developing countries.
The evidence from sub-Saharan Africa shows that the disparity is prominent
both in access and quality. This unit attempts to discuss the issue of gender
and education from the perspectives of education and feminism" and gender
and development." Moser's framework of gender planning identifies strategic
and practical gender needs. Although the original framework does not
necessarily recognise schooling as a means for empowerment, this unit
attempts to use the framework in clarifying gender needs in education and
development at the levels of school and community/family. The concept of
gender has made a substantive contribution towards better understanding of
education and development. Studies in both gender and education should be
academic as well as practical. Therefore they should continue to be in touch
with the gender reality and the educational reality in order to further
productive research and also to enrich each other.
Gender is defined as a social phenomenon and a social construct, as
distinguished from sex which is biologically determined (Momsen 1991,
Mbilinyi 1992 and others).
The concept incorporates power, unequal divisions of labour, power and
domination (Mbilinyi 1992). Gender has been developed into a substantive
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issue in social science in this century. Recently gender has been recognised as
an important element in the discourse of development and education,
reflecting the importance of the issue in the field of education as well as in
development in general. The concept of gender has a common root with
feminist theories, though the orientation is not identical. The concept of
human capital theory underlies discussion of the individual and the social
benefit of female education.
9.6 Civic Education, Gender and Development
The gender perspective looks at the impact of gender on people's
opportunities, social roles and interactions. Successful implementation of the
policy, programme and project goals of international and national
organizations is directly affected by the impact of gender and, in turn,
influences the process of social development. Gender is an integral
component of every aspect of the economic, social, daily and private lives of
individuals and societies, and of the different roles ascribed by society to men
and women.
Civic education creates awareness on the fundamental link between gender
and development. It tries to instil in the learner a consciousness of
inclusiveness. Civic education transmits values of the vital importance that
men and women hold in the development agenda and these usually
transcends the issue of sex or gender. Civic education enhances the idea of
corporately working together of men and women. It sheds more light on the
place of women in the development prospects of a given community or nation
as a whole. The change of mind set and cultural backwardness that permeates
societies needs a well structured education system that incorporates civic
issues in many ways as discussed below.
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a.
Productive work
This is work that produces items for consumption by the household and
goods and services for exchange in the market place. Both men and women
contribute to family income with various forms of productive work, although
men usually dominate in productive work.
b. Community work
This work involves activities for the village usually voluntary unpaid work,
such as organising festivals or ceremonies, receiving visitors, or maintaining a
village resource, such as a well.
c.
Reproductive work
This work involves all the tasks associated with supporting the immediate
and extended family, young and old. It includes childcare, food preparation,
care for the sick or old, socialisation of the young, and so on. Reproductive
work is the basis of productive work. Women of all ages are mainly
responsible for this work, which is usually unpaid.
d. Access and control over resources
When examining how resources are allocated between women and men, it is
important to distinguish between access to resources (e.g. land, labour, credit,
income) and control over them. Access gives a person the use of a resource,
e.g. land to grow crops.
Control allows a person to make decisions about who uses the resource or to
dispose of the resource, for instance by selling the land.
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e.
Practical gender needs and interests
Women and men have different roles and responsibilities and therefore have
different needs and interests. Practical gender needs and interests relate to
living conditions. Women may identify safe water, food security, health care
and cash income as immediate needs which they must meet. Meeting these
practical needs is essential to improving living conditions, but does not in
itself change the position women have in the village.
f.
Strategic gender needs and interests
Strategic gender interests relate to issues of power and control and the
division of labour. They may include:
Changes in the division of labour (women to take on work not traditionally
seen as women's work, men take more responsibility for child care and
domestic work).
Legal rights, an end to domestic violence, equal wages. They are not as easily
identified as the practical needs and interests, therefore specific support and
opportunities to do so may have to be provided and facilitated from outside.
g. Empowerment
Empowerment is about women or men developing their ability to:
Collectively and individually take control over their own lives.
Identify their needs and agendas. Demand support from their communities
and the state to see that their interests are responded to. In most cases, the
empowerment of women requires change in the division of labour and
transformation of society.
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h. Gender equity
Gender equity is concerned with promoting personal, social, cultural, political
and economic equality for all. Traditions and discriminatory practices have
resulted in the systematic devaluation of attitudes, activities and abilities
attributed to, and associated with, girls and women. The consequences of
these discriminatory practices negatively affect men as well as women.
Initially however, gender equity initiatives will place greater emphasis on
improving conditions and attitudes as they affect girls and women. In the
long-term, these initiatives will also improve the situation for boys and men.
9.7 Unit Summary
Development policies that increase the productivity differentials between
men and women are likely to worsen earnings disparities as well as further
erode women’s economic status within the household. Since government
programs to alleviate poverty work almost exclusively with men. Studies
have shown that development efforts can actually increase women’s
workload while at the time reduce the share of household resources over
which they exercise control. Consequently, women and their dependents
remain the most economically vulnerable group in developing countries.
The fact that the welfare of women and children is strongly influenced by the
design of development policy underscores the importance of integrating
women into development programs. To improve living conditions for the
poorest, women must be drawn into the economic mainstream. This would
entail increasing female participation rates in educational training programs,
formal-sector employment, and agricultural extension programs. It is also of
primary importance that precautions be taken to ensure that women have
equal access to government resources provided through schooling,
employment, and social security programs. Legalizing informal-sector
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employment where the majority of the female labour force is employed
would also improve the economic status of women.
As a discourse, gender and development ascertains that any process of
growth that fails to improve the welfare of the people experiencing the
greatest hardship, broadly recognised to be women and children, has failed to
accomplish one of the principal goals of development. The gender and
development discipline considers that human capital is perhaps the most
important prerequisite for growth, education and enhanced economic status
for both men and women.
The empowerment and autonomy of men and women and the improvement
of their political, social, economic and health status are essential for the
achievement of sustainable development and for the long-term success of
developmental programs are most effective when steps have simultaneously
been taken to improve the status of especially women who have suffered a
subordinate prominence of late in various culture. Thus, this module has
sought to look at various aspects that encircle the gender and development
discipline.
Activities
1. Why are some jobs considered feminine and others masculine?
2. How does education enhance or hinder gender and development in
society?
3. How does civic education contribute to gender and development?
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