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Cambridge
International AS & A Level
Psychology
Third edition
David Clarke
Mandy Wood
Andrea Pickering
Laura Swash
Lisa Holmes
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Introduction
Introduction
This Study and Revision Guide is written to support
students following the Cambridge International AS and
A Level Psychology 9990 course.
The assessment of the AS Level is based on
examination papers 1 and 2, while at A Level the
results from the AS papers are combined with two
further papers 3 and 4.
Details of each examination are set out in the AS and A
Level exam-style questions sections.
Note: All papers include extended responses (higher
tariff) questions. Paper 1 and 2 cover questions from
across the AS syllabus. Paper 3 and 4 include questions
from the four specialist options. You are only required
to study two of the four options.
Get the most from this book
Everyone has to decide their own revision strategy,
but it is essential to review your work, learn it and test
your understanding. This Study and Revision Guide will
help you to do that in a planned way, topic by topic.
Don’t hesitate to write in this book, ticking off each
section as you revise. Personalising your notes and
checking your progress regularly should keep you on
track.
My revision planner
AS LEVEL
1
The Biological approach
1.1 Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams)
1.2 Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences)
1.3 Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans)
Biological approach revision checklist
2
The Cognitive approach
2.1 Andrade (doodling)
2.2 Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test)
2.3 Pozzulo et al. (line-ups)
Cognitive approach revision checklist
3
Features to help you succeed
4
Tips are given throughout the book to help you develop
your exam technique and maximise your achievement in
the exams.
19
23
26
30
The Learning approach
3.1 Bandura et al. (aggression)
3.2 Fagen et al. (elephant learning)
3.3 Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia)
Learning approach revision checklist
STUDY TIPS
6
10
13
18
32
36
40
44
The Social approach
4.1 Milgram (obedience)
4.2 Perry et al. (personal space)
4.3 Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans)
Social approach revision checklist
46
49
54
58
5.1
59
NOW
TEST YOURSELF
5
Research methodology
Research methods
5.2 Methodological
concepts
Short,
knowledge-based
questions 74provide the
Research methodology revision checklist
89
first step in testing your learning. Go to www.
AS Level exam-style questions
hoddereducation.com/cambridgeextras
for the
Paper 1 sample questions
91
Paper 2 sample questions
92
answers.
SKILLS BUILDERS
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
4
Example AS and A Level questions are given in
each section. Each question has guidance on
preparing for the exams, with examples provided
on how to answer, and comments indicating how
answers could be improved.
Check your answers at www.hoddereducation.com/cambridgeextras
Essential key terms are written in bold throughout
the book. Clear, concise definitions are available
in the glossary at www.hoddereducation.com/
cambridgeextras
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My revision planner
AS LEVEL
1
The Biological approach
1.1 Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams)
1.2 Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences)
1.3 Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans)
Biological approach revision checklist
2
6
10
13
18
The Cognitive approach
2.1 Andrade (doodling)
2.2 Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test)
2.3 Pozzulo et al. (line-ups)
Cognitive approach revision checklist
3
19
22
26
30
The Learning approach
3.1 Bandura et al. (aggression)
3.2 Fagen et al. (elephant learning)
3.3 Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia)
Learning approach revision checklist
4
31
34
38
43
The Social approach
4.1 Milgram (obedience)
4.2 Perry et al. (personal space)
4.3 Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans)
Social approach revision checklist
5
44
47
52
56
Research methodology
5.1 Research methods
5.2 Methodological concepts
Research methodology revision checklist
57
72
87
AS Level exam-style questions
Paper 1 sample questions
Paper 2 sample questions
4
89
90
Check your answers at www.hoddereducation.com/cambridgeextras
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My revision planner
A LEVEL
6
Clinical Psychology
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
Schizophrenia
Mood (affective) disorders
Impulse control disorders
Anxiety disorders and fear-related disorders
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
Clinical Psychology revision checklist
7
Consumer Psychology
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
The physical environment
The psychological environment
Consumer decision-making
The product
Advertising
Consumer Psychology revision checklist
8
Health Psychology
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
The patient–practitioner relationship
Adherence to medical advice
Pain
Stress
Health promotion
Health Psychology revision checklist
9
Organisational Psychology
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
Motivation at work
Leadership and management
Group behaviour in organisations
Organisational work conditions
Satisfaction at work
Organisational Psychology revision checklist
91
99
108
116
125
134
135
142
151
160
170
180
181
189
200
207
216
226
227
234
241
251
260
267
A Level exam-style questions
Paper 3 sample questions
Paper 4 sample questions
268
269
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AS LEVEL
1
The Biological approach
The main assumptions
Biological psychologists assume that:
1 Behaviour, cognitions and emotions can be explained in terms of the working
of the brain and the effect of hormones, genetics and evolution.
2 Similarities and differences between people can be understood in terms of
biological factors and their interaction with other factors.
(Cambridge International, 2021)
These ‘other factors’ could be environmental, social and/or cultural. This shows
that biological psychologists do not ignore other influences on behaviour,
cognitions and emotions, just that their primary focus is on the impact of
biological factors.
1.1 Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams)
▲ Figure 1.1 An EEG measures
electrical activity in the
brain. It can be used to
monitor time spent in
different sleep stages
(e.g. REM versus NREM)
Psychology being investigated
Sleep
During sleep, the body is inactive. Conscious awareness is temporarily halted. Five
sleep stages have been identified using electroencephalography (EEG). Each stage
is characterised by differing brain-wave activity (see Figure 1.1).
» Stages 1 and 2: light sleep; easily woken.
» Stages 3 and 4: deeper sleep; brain waves have higher amplitude and lower
frequency than brain waves in stages 1 and 2.
» Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep: lower amplitude/higher frequency brain
waves, similar to wakefulness; the eyelids move quickly but other muscles are
paralysed; dreaming is common.
Ultradian rhythms
Ultradian rhythms are bodily cycles that repeat more than once every 24 hours.
» During the night, we move through several 90-minute sleep cycles.
» Earlier in the night, the cycles include a higher proportion of non-REM (NREM)
sleep.
» Later in the night, we spend more time in stages 1, 2 and REM sleep.
STUDY TIP
Before revising
each study, briefly
read through the
description and list any
methodological terms
with which you feel less
confident. Review these
in Chapter 5 before you
begin. Reviewing the
study should help to
reinforce and consolidate
your understanding.
Using key terms like
‘reliable’ and ‘objective’,
in the right context, will
improve your written
work.
Dreams are subjective memories of our experiences during sleep.
Background
» Kleitman conducted sleep research using his relatives as participants for many
years.
» In 1953, his student, Aserinsky, used an EEG to identify REM and NREM sleep.
» Kleitman and Aserinsky also found that people woken in REM are more likely to
report dreams than those woken in NREM.
» Dement and Kleitman wanted to find a reliable and objective way to measure
whether a person is dreaming, using biological evidence rather than verbal
self-reports.
6
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1 The Biological approach
Aims
1 To investigate whether dream recall is more common in REM than in NREM sleep.
2 To investigate whether participants can accurately estimate the duration of their
dreams.
3 To investigate whether eye movements (vertical/horizontal) correspond with
dream content.
4 To investigate whether there is a correlation between the duration of a REM sleep
episode and the number of words (the narrative) used to describe any dreams
experienced.
Methodology
Research methods and design: experiment with repeated measures design
(aims 1–3) and correlation (aim 4).
Data collection techniques: self-report, interview.
Variables:
Independent variables – whether the participants were woken:
» during REM or NREM sleep (as shown by the EEG)
» following 5 or 15 minutes of REM sleep
» following REM sleep with mainly vertical, mainly horizontal, mixed or limited eye
movements.
Dependent variables:
» whether a dream was reported or not (quantitative) – dream has to be described
in detail to be counted
» perceived duration of dream:
– initially participants were asked to report dream length in minutes
– later the procedure was changed. Participants were instead asked whether
they had been dreaming for 5 or 15 minutes (fixed/forced choice question,
quantitative data)
» verbal description of dream content/narrative (qualitative data); number of words
used (quantitative).
Sample:
Size: seven men, two women (five studied in depth, four to confirm results).
Demographic: from Chicago, USA.
Sampling technique: not stated in the journal article.
Overview of procedure
Participants slept:
» in a quiet, dark room at the University of Chicago
» with electrodes placed near the eyes and on the scalp:
– wires were tied together to stop them from becoming tangled
– the EEG machine was in an adjoining room.
Participants were woken:
» several times each night
» to self-report all the dependent variables (see above) using a bedside recording
device.
The researchers:
» chose when to wake the participants using the EEG and a timer
» listened to the self-reports from the adjoining room
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» occasionally entered the sleep room to interview the participant about their dream
– they never revealed information about sleep stage or direction of eye
movements when questioning the participants.
Controls
» Participants all:
– abstained from alcohol and caffeine on the day of the study
– reported to the laboratory at their normal bedtime.
» The same loud doorbell was used for all awakenings.
» The positioning and number of electrodes was standardised (2–3 near the eyes
and on the scalp).
Ethical issues
» Confidentiality and privacy were maintained.
– Participants were referred to using their initials.
– Dream content was not paired with their initials.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
1.1Outline the use of interviewing to gather qualitative data in this study. [2]
1.2 Give one key feature of experiments as a research method, using an
example from this study.
[2]
SKILLS BUILDER
Describe the use of correlations as a research method in this study.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Suggest one or more
reasons why Dement
and Kleitman used an
EEG in this study. [3]
‘Suggest’ means
to present ideas or
considerations based
on your knowledge
and understanding
of psychology.
Little elaboration
is required as you
are not asked to
explain or justify
your reasons. You
may explain what the
EEG was measuring
and why that was
necessary in this
study. You could
also give strengths
of using scientific
equipment like
an EEG.
[4]
To answer this question, you need to understand the difference between
correlation and experiment. Refresh your memory of correlations on page 69
if you need to. Consider planning your answer carefully before you start
writing. For example, what is a correlational study? How did the researchers
operationalise their co-variables? What was the nature of the relationship?
Why did the researchers use correlation not experiment for this part of the
study?
Results
REM sleep never occurred immediately after sleep onset. All participants had regular
REM sleep periods throughout the night:
» one REM period every 92 minutes (range 70–104 minutes)
» average REM sleep duration of 20 minutes (range 3–50 minutes)
» longer REM sleep periods later in the night.
▼ Table 1.1 Sleep stage and dream reporting
Sleep stage when woken
Frequency of dream reports
REM
80%
NREM
7%
▼ Table 1.2 Accuracy of dream duration estimates
8
Duration of REM before waking
Accuracy rate of dream duration
estimates
5 minutes
88%
15 minutes
78%
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1 The Biological approach
One participant (DN) had a lower accuracy rate of only 65 per cent:
» He underestimated dream length.
» He was only correct 50 per cent of the time when woken after 15 minutes.
▼ Table 1.3 Eye movements and dream content
Eye movement
Dream content
Mainly vertical
Looking up and down while:
» operating a hoist at the bottom of a cliff where people
were climbing
» climbing a series of ladders
» throwing basketballs into a net
Mainly horizontal
Watching two people throwing tomatoes at each other
Mixed
» Talking in a group of people
» Searching for something
» Fighting with someone
Limited eye movement
Looking into the distance while driving a car
NOW TEST
YOURSELF
1.3 State one
difference
between REM
and NREM sleep
using evidence
from this study.
[2]
Correlation coefficients for REM duration and length of dream report (number of
words) for each participant:
» ranged from +0.40 to +0.71.
» the average was +0.58.
Conclusions
» Dreams are more likely to be reported in REM than NREM sleep.
» Dreams are experienced in real time – dream length and REM sleep duration match.
» Eye movements in sleep are not random; they match dream content.
» The subjective experience of dreaming can be measured objectively using EEG to
identify REM sleep.
Evaluation
▼ Table 1.4 Strengths and weaknesses of Dement and Kleitman
Strengths
Weaknesses
Reliability – the procedure was standardised
Validity – some data was discarded as recordings
(e.g. participants were always woken using the same loud were too muffled and dreams could not be accurately
doorbell), meaning the study can be replicated to test for transcribed.
reliability.
Objectivity – the use of quantitative EEG data
(e.g. amplitude and frequency of brain waves) removed
bias when deciding whether sleep was REM or NREM.
Generalisations – only nine people were studied (and only
five in detail); ages and occupations were not provided so
individual differences may have affected results.
Issues and debates
Application to everyday life
Understanding typical patterns of sleep and dreaming is important:
» Psychologists can identify people whose sleep and dreams are unusual.
» People are more likely to receive suitable treatment/support to improve sleep quality.
Nature versus nurture
» Support for nature: all participants demonstrated ultradian REM/NREM sleep
cycles and dreamed more during REM than NREM. This suggests these patterns
are innate and may help us to survive.
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» Support for nurture: dream content was diverse; differing life experiences affect
what we dream about and may affect the duration of REM sleep.
SKILLS BUILDER
Dement and Kleitman investigated ultradian rhythms. Outline one finding from
this study that supports the nature side of the nature–nurture debate.
[2]
This question has a stem – that is, a sentence before the question. Sometimes
stems are helpful as they remind you of details from the study. However, the
question does not say you have to refer to it.
1.2 Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences)
Psychology being investigated
Play
» Play is a universal, voluntary behaviour observed in the young of most species.
» Activities are often similar to adult behaviours.
» Play may be adaptive.
Sex differences
» Types of play and toy preferences differ between human infants with differing
sex chromosomes.
» For example, XY boys typically prefer cars to dolls, whereas the reverse is true of
XX girls.
Socialisation
» Many people believe these differences are due to society’s differing expectations
of girls and boys.
» Children learn these expectations through socialisation.
» Hassett et al. believed biological factors are also important.
STUDY TIP
Give dual-coding a try.
This means making
notes in both a verbal
and visual way. You
could draw a diagram of
the monkey enclosure to
help to consolidate the
procedure. Include the
different areas (inside/
outside), cameras, toys,
etc. Swap your diagram
with a classmate. Ask
them to add labels
and anything you have
missed. When you
revisit the study, cover
your diagram and try to
redraw it from memory.
The role of hormones
Sex hormones (e.g. testosterone, oestrogen) affect brain development. This may
explain why boys and girls prefer toys that can be played with in different ways.
Background
» Hassett et al. (2008) were interested in research into congenital adrenal
hyperplasia (CAH). For example, XX girls with CAH prefer stereotypically
masculine toys, even when encouraged to play with stereotypically feminine toys.
» Previous monkey research found that masculine toys were played with more
by male than by female monkeys; likewise, female monkeys showed a strong
preference for feminine over masculine toys.
» As monkeys are not affected by societal expectations about gender-appropriate
behaviour, Hassett et al. believed sex differences in toy preferences are
determined by nature more than nurture.
Aims
1 To investigate sex differences in monkey toy preferences when presented with a
stereotypically feminine toy and a stereotypically masculine toy.
2 To provide support for the role of nature (not nurture) in shaping sex differences
in human toy preferences.
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1 The Biological approach
SKILLS BUILDER
Explain why the study by Hassett et al. is from the Biological approach.
[2]
The command term ‘explain’ means that you need to think about reasons
why the study by Hassett et al. is part of the Biological approach. First, think
about key terms/phrases from the main assumptions of the approach, such
as ‘working of the brain’ and ‘hormones’. Which words/phrases link best to
the ‘psychology being investigated’ and/or the background of Hassett et al.?
Your first sentence could state a reason and the second sentence could show
detailed knowledge of the study to support the reason you have given.
Methodology
Research methods and design: experiment with independent measures design.
Data collection techniques:
» Seven 25-minute controlled, non-participant, covert observations of monkeys in
their normal outdoor enclosure.
» A behavioural checklist was used by two observers to analyse the video recordings.
Variables:
Independent variable – whether the monkey was male or female.
Dependent variable – whether monkeys spend longer (in seconds) interacting with
the wheeled toy or the plush toy.
Other information collected – age (juvenile, adult) and social rank (determined
through observation of grooming).
Sample:
Size: 135 juvenile and adult monkeys; 14 excluded (previous participation in
hormone research); 39 infants excluded (looked too alike to accurately record sex).
Demographic: the monkey troop had lived together at a research centre for 25 years.
Sampling technique: opportunity; the analysis included data from 23 females and
11 males, each of whom interacted with the toys at least five times.
Overview of procedure
» Different pairs of wheeled and plush toys were used in each observation (e.g. wagon/
teddy, truck/Scooby-Doo).
» Observers recorded:
– duration of toy interactions (in seconds)
– specific behaviours using a behavioural checklist (e.g. holding, dragging).
» Unclear behaviours were discussed between the two observers.
Controls
» Monkeys were kept indoors while toys were positioned.
» Toys were placed 10 m apart.
» Toy positions were counterbalanced – that is, whether wheeled/plush toys were
on the right/left side of the enclosure.
Ethical issues
» Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals guidelines were upheld, such as
appropriate housing:
– appropriate housing (25 m2 outdoor enclosure with a temperature-controlled
indoor area)
– constant access to water, daily monkey chow and fresh fruit and vegetables.
» The research was regulated by the Emory University Institutional Animal Care and
Use Committee.
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NOW TEST YOURSELF
1.4Outline two reasons why some of the monkeys
were not included in the final sample.
[2]
1.5 Give one weakness of the use of a behavioural
checklist in this study.
[2]
1.6 Give one strength of the use of controlled
observation as a way of collecting the data in
this study.
[2]
SKILLS BUILDER
Give one strength of using animals as participants in
this study.
[2]
The command term ‘give’ means you do not need
to give a reason for your strength. Think generally
about why psychologists might prefer to use
animals rather than humans in their research
(see page 79). As the question says ‘in this study’,
you must relate your point specifically to Hassett
et al. For example, naming a controlled variable
and showing how this would be impossible with
humans.
Results
» 73 per cent of the males preferred wheeled toys, 9 per cent preferred plush toys
and 18 per cent showed no significant preference.
» 30 per cent of females preferred the plush toys, 39 per cent preferred the
wheeled toys and 30 per cent showed no significant preference for either toy.
» The data from the monkey observations were compared with data from a similar
study using children. Figure 1.2 shows the similarity between the two sets of results.
– Both sets of results show that males significantly prefer masculine to
feminine toys and, although there is a difference in the preference of females
for feminine toys, this is far less pronounced, especially in the monkeys.
Sex difference in play with stereotypical masculine
and feminine toys in human participants
Sex difference in total frequency of interactions
with plush and wheeled toys by rhesus monkeys
500
14
12
Total interactions
(mean seconds)
Play time
(mean seconds)
400
300
200
100
10
8
6
4
2
Male
Female
Sex of human subjects
Male
masculine toys
Female
Sex of monkey subjects
feminine toys
▲ Figure 1.2 Bar charts showing the similarity between the findings of Hassett et al.
(right) and a similar study conducted with human infants (left)
Conclusions
Toy preferences in both humans and monkeys are influenced by hormonal sex
differences. These biological differences lead males and females to prefer different
activities. Differing activity/play preferences lead to sex differences in cognition
and behaviour.
12
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1 The Biological approach
Evaluation
▼ Table 1.5 Strengths and weaknesses of Hassett et al.
Strengths
Weaknesses
Reliability – the well-operationalised behavioural
checklist meant behaviours were consistently coded in
the same way.
Objectivity – the researchers who analysed the
videotapes were very familiar with the monkeys, which
could lead to observer bias.
Validity – use of unobtrusive video cameras meant
that behaviour was likely to be more spontaneous and
unaffected by human presence.
Generalisations – Eight of the 11 male monkeys were
juveniles, and the only high-ranking male in the troop
did not interact with any of the toys.
Issues and debates
Application to everyday life
» The findings may be helpful to people who design and market toys, as well as
parents and other adults when buying toys for children.
» Empathy and language skills could be developed in boys through play with
wheeled toys which have expressive faces.
» Visuospatial skills could be developed in girls using toys with moving parts that
can be used to create a social situation, such as a school bus with dolls for the
driver and children on board.
Nature versus nurture
» The findings support nature over nurture.
» Differences in toy preference result from hormonal differences between the
sexes.
» Males showed stronger sex-typed toy preferences than females.
» Toy preferences were also affected by social rank. Role within the group also
affected time spent interacting with toys. Sex was not the only important factor.
Use of children and animals in psychological research
» Conclusions from animals were extrapolated to children.
» Using animals allowed the researchers to control the environment, increasing
validity.
» From a very early age, children start to learn about social norms for play and toy
preferences based on gender (e.g. from advertising, observing their peers). Using
animals allowed the researchers to examine the effect of biological factors (e.g.
hormones) without the confounding variable of previous social and cultural
experiences.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Fenella thinks the
findings of Hassett et
al. support the nature
side of the nature–
nurture debate, but
her friend Meera is
not so sure. Outline
why you think either
Fenella or Meera
is correct, using
evidence from the
[2]
study.
This type of question
requires careful
reading of both the
stem (the sentence
about Fenella and
Meera) and the actual
question. Focus on
evidence to support
either Fenella or
Meera, but not both.
1.3 Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans)
STUDY TIP
Have you tried the Leitner technique? This technique relies on
spaced repetition, an evidence-based strategy to improve knowledge
retention. Watch online videos and check websites such as The
Learning Scientists (http://learningscientists.org) to find out more.
The technique involves revisiting material either daily, every other
day or every week, depending on how well you remember it. You can
use it to learn details, such as which brain structures increased or
decreased in grey matter concentration (GMC) in this study.
▲ Figure 1.3 Mindfulness could be used to
develop non-judgemental attitudes in
the workplace, helping team members to
work together more productively
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Psychology being investigated
Mindfulness
» Mindfulness is a stress-reduction technique used to improve wellbeing through
developing awareness of the present moment and encouraging compassionate,
non-judgemental attitudes.
» Biological psychologists are uncertain how Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction
(MBSR) enhances wellbeing, but neuroimaging reveals which brain structures
may be involved.
Localisation of function
» This is the idea that specific brain structures are responsible for specific
behaviours/cognitive processes.
» This study used magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and voxel-based
morphometry (VBM) to examine which brain structures (e.g. hippocampus, insula)
undergo structural plasticity (changes in neural tissue) following MBSR training.
Background
» Meditators have significantly more grey matter in the hippocampus and insula
than non-meditators. For example, functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI) research found the hippocampus to be active during meditation.
» Changes in wellbeing may be linked to increases in grey matter concentration
(GMC) following mindfulness/meditation practice.
Aims
1 To investigate changes in GMC following an eight-week MBSR programme.
2 To identify specific brain structures that undergo change following the eightweek MBSR programme.
Methodology
Research methods and design:
1 Longitudinal experiment with mixed design:
– Repeated measures - brain scans were conducted at the beginning and end of
an eight-week period.
– Independent measures - findings from the MBSR group were compared
with a no MBSR control group. (See page 58 to refresh your knowledge of
experimental designs.)
2 Correlations: The researchers analysed the correlation between the amount of time that
participants engaged in mindfulness practice (time in minutes) and increases in GMC.
Data collection techniques:
MRI:
» Scans were conducted two weeks before the first MBSR session and at the end of
the eight-week training programme
» A 3D digital brain model was created for each participant, using 128 sagittal (top
to bottom) images.
Self-reports:
» The Five Facets of Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) was used to measure 5 key
aspects of mindfulness that have been found to be positively correlated with
wellbeing.
» Participants rate 39 statements from 1 (‘never or very rarely true’) to 5 (‘very
often or always true’).
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1 The Biological approach
Variables:
Independent variables:
» MBSR: the experimental group (6 males, 10 females; mean age: 38) attended 2.5hour weekly group meetings for eight weeks and one 6.5-hour training day.
– Sessions included yoga, sitting meditation and body scanning (a relaxation
technique).
» The control group (11 males, 6 females; mean age: 39) did not attend these
meetings (independent measures) but were on a waiting list for future MBSR.
» MRI brain scans before and after the first MBSR session and at the end of the
eight-week study period.
Dependent/co-variables:
» VBM (see page 15) was used to measure grey matter concentration throughout
the brain, but specifically in the hippocampi and insulae (quantitative data).
» Mindfulness was measured using the FFMQ (quantitative data).
Additional co-variable: time spent on mindfulness exercises between training
sessions (daily diaries used to collect self-reported data).
Sample:
Size: 33; experimental group: 6 males, 10 females; control group: 11 males,
6 females.
Demographic: right-handed, healthy adults, age 25–55, no regular medication,
limited meditation experience.
Sampling technique: opportunity sample recruited from four MBSR courses held at a
mindfulness centre in New England, USA; all were referred or self-referred for stress.
Overview of procedure
» Stage 1: participants received MRI scans and completed the FFMQ two weeks
before the first MBSR meeting.
» Stage 2: eight weeks of MBSR for the experimental group only, who were also
given a 45-minute audio recording of mindfulness exercises to practise at home.
» Stage 3: participants received MRI scans and completed the FFMQ two weeks
after the final MBSR meeting.
Controls
» Participant variables were controlled by:
– using repeated measures design, i.e. testing the same people twice at the
beginning and end of the study
– checking that there were no significant differences between the two groups
in terms of key variables, such as age and educational background.
» Order effects were controlled by using a ‘no MBSR’ control group to determine
how much of the change in GMC at scan 2 was spontaneous/natural and how
much was due to the independent variable (the MBSR programme).
Ethical issues
» Participants in the experimental group gave informed consent – agreeing to aim
to participate in all meetings, complete ‘homework’ exercises and record duration
in daily diaries.
» MBSR fees were reduced to thank all participants.
» Participants with claustrophobia and/or metallic implants were excluded to
protect them from psychological and physical harm caused by the MRI scanner.
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SKILLS BUILDER
Explain how one finding from the study by Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain
scans) supports one of the assumptions of the Biological approach.
NOW TEST
YOURSELF
[2]
It would be good for your chosen finding to match a specific concept
mentioned in one of the main assumptions of the approach. For example,
‘The experimental group showed increased GMC in the left hippocampus
and posterior cingulate compared with the control group.’ This matches ‘the
workings of the brain’ mentioned in the first assumption.
The next sentence may link your chosen finding more clearly to the
assumption. For example, ‘This shows that changes in behaviour and cognition
(like becoming more aware, observant and less judgemental) may be caused
by increased GMC in these structures.’ This would show a good knowledge of
the specific brain structures and three of the five facets of mindfulness.
SKILLS BUILDER
Arthur aims to investigate changes in grey matter concentration in a group of six
art students before and after a 16-week observational drawing class. He expects
to see differences in key brain structures, including the cerebellum and prefrontal
cortex. Write a suitable non-directional (two-tailed) alternative hypothesis using
[2]
Arthur’s aim.
1.7Outline two
features of the
questionnaire
used to measure
mindfulness in
this study.
[2]
1.8 Explain how the
use of a control
group helped to
increase validity
in this study. [2]
1.9 Give two reasons
why Hölzel
et al. is an
example of an
experiment with
a longitudinal
[4]
design.
This question asks you to show understanding of the difference between
directional and non-directional hypotheses, and alternative and null hypotheses
(see Chapter 5). Make up possible hypotheses for all 12 of the core studies. Then
rewrite them as null hypotheses and/or switch from directional to non-directional.
Remember, when you are writing an alternative, non-directional hypothesis,
you will state that ‘There will be a difference’ in the results for each group or
condition, but you will not state the direction of this difference – for example,
which group/condition will have the higher score. Ensure that your hypothesis
includes both conditions/groups of the independent variable. Also, where possible,
ensure you have used information from the extract to operationalise both the
independent and the dependent variables (i.e. give the units of measurement).
Results
The average time spent on mindfulness exercises was:
» 27 minutes per day
» 22.6 hours over 8 weeks (SD = 6.3 hours)
▼ Table 1.6 Time (in minutes) spent on MBSR exercises over eight weeks
Mindfulness exercises
Mean
Standard deviation
Body scan
699
217
Yoga
327
194
Sitting meditation
332
211
Following MBSR training, the experimental group showed:
» significant improvement in three of the five facets of mindfulness: acting with
awareness, observing and non-judging
» a significant increase in GMC in the:
– left hippocampus
– posterior cingulate cortex
– temporoparietal junction
– cerebellum
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1 The Biological approach
» no significant correlation between GMC and time spent on mindfulness exercises
or the five facets of mindfulness.
The control group showed:
» no significant improvement in any of the five facets of mindfulness
» a significant decrease in GMC in the posterior cingulate cortex.
Conclusions
» Regular mindfulness practice can lead to localised structural changes in grey
matter concentration, in structures including the left hippocampus and posterior
cingulate cortex.
» Changes in these structures may underpin the wellbeing benefits of mindfulness,
as they have been previously linked to learning, memory, emotion regulation and
perspective-taking.
» Previous research on the insulae was unconfirmed. Changes in this structure may
take more than eight weeks.
Evaluation
▼ Table 1.7 Strengths and weaknesses of Hölzel et al.
Strengths
Weaknesses
Reliability – the FFMQ is highly reliable. For example, Validity – changes in GMC in the experimental groups may
the correlation between the eight questions on
have resulted from increased social interaction at the MBSR
‘acting with awareness’ was +0.87.
group. This confounding variable was not controlled.
Objectivity – analysis of quantitative data from VBM
is objective as it is conducted via computer software.
Generalisations – findings may not be representative of people
older or younger than 25–55 or with fewer years of education.
Issues and debates
Application to everyday life
Integration of regular opportunities for daily mindfulness in the workplace could
lead to improved wellbeing. This may also lead to increased productivity and fewer
days lost to ill health.
Nature versus nurture
The impact of both nature and nurture are supported.
» Nature: localised increases in GMC were correlated with changes in three of the
five facets of mindfulness.
» Nurture: environmental experiences (e.g. MBSR group attendance) affect wellbeing.
SKILLS BUILDER
Hölzel et al. measured grey matter concentration
throughout the brain before and after participation
in an eight-week MBSR programme. Suggest one
situational and one individual factor that could affect
the extent to which participants in the experimental
group experienced changes in grey matter
concentration.
[4]
This book includes ideas to help you to think about
how the issues and debates at AS Level can be
applied to each of the 12 studies. However, you
may sometimes be faced with a question on an
issue/debate which has not been covered. These
questions can be fun as they offer an opportunity to
think creatively rather than scour your memory for
missing facts.
Individual factors relate to the person. They are
characteristics or traits that may lead the person to
perform differently from others who do not possess
that characteristic or trait. Situational factors relate
to the circumstances or context in which a person’s
behaviour is observed. For example, a person’s age
may influence changes in GMC (individual factor).
Furthermore, environmental stressors, such as noise
or overcrowding in the setting in which mindfulness
is practised, may decrease the extent of GMC change
(situational factor).
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Biological approach revision checklist
Dement and
Kleitman (sleep
and dreams)
Hassett et al.
(monkey toy
preferences)
Hölzel et al.
(mindfulness and
brain scans)
Explain links to the assumptions of the Biological
approach
Define all the key words from the psychology
being investigated (see online glossary)
Describe the background
Describe the aim
State and evaluate the research method(s)
State and evaluate the technique used for data
collection (if different from the method)
Describe and evaluate the sample (e.g. size,
demographic and/or sampling technique)
State and evaluate the experimental design
(if relevant)
State the manipulated and measured (co-)variables
(if relevant) and evaluate how these were
operationalised
State at least two controls (if relevant) and
evaluate the effect of these controls on the
findings
State and evaluate the type of questions used
(if relevant)
Describe and evaluate the procedure
Explain at least two ethical issues and discuss how
these affected the study
Describe three to four quantitative findings
Describe at least two qualitative findings
(if relevant)
Explain how the results were presented
Explain how the results are/could be interpreted
and how they relate to one or more of the
assumptions of the approach
Describe one or more conclusion(s)
Identify two strengths that be could discussed in
a ten-mark extended response question
Identify two weaknesses that be could discussed
in a ten-mark extended response question
Identify two applications to everyday life
Explain how the study links to the debate about
individual and situational explanations
Explain how the study links to the debate about
nature versus nurture
Explain how the study links to the issue of the use
of children/animals in psychological research
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AS LEVEL
2
The Cognitive approach
The main assumptions
Cognitive psychologists assume that:
1 Information is processed through the same route in all humans: input – process –
output, in a similar way to how information is processed by a computer.
2 People have individual differences in their cognitive processing, such as
attention, language, thinking and memory. These processes can also help to
explain behaviour and emotion.
(Cambridge International, 2021)
2.1 Andrade (doodling)
Psychology being investigated
Memory
STUDY TIP
Memory is:
» the encoding, storage and retrieval of information, including sights, sounds and
smells
» the process of retaining this information over a long period of time.
Incidental memory is the memory of information you have not been asked to
remember/are not focused on. Information is therefore remembered unintentionally.
Attention
Attention is the process of focusing on a particular piece of information or task.
» There is a limit to how much information we can process at any one time, so we
are selective in which information we focus on.
» Selective attention is the process of focusing/concentrating on information that
is important while blocking out irrelevant information.
Andrade’s study uses
several important key
terms for example,
incidental memory and
monitoring accuracy.
Create a matching game
in which you have to
match key terms to their
definitions. Write the
terms and definitions
onto squares of paper,
mix them up and see if
you can put the pairs
back together.
Background
» Doodling may impair performance by moving concentration away from the
primary task.
» However, doodling may help us to concentrate better:
– especially on tasks that are not very interesting (i.e. low arousal)
– by increasing arousal and alertness and reducing daydreaming, which
decreases concentration on a task.
Aims
1 To investigate whether doodling while listening improves attention/
concentration.
2 To investigate whether doodling while listening improves recall.
Methodology
Research method and design: laboratory experiment with an independent measures
design and random allocation.
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Data collection techniques:
» Monitoring task: Participants listened to a pretend telephone message about a
party, including names of people and places (see below).
– They had to pay attention and write down the names of people who were able
to attend the party (monitored information).
» A surprise memory test.
Variables:
Independent variable: whether the participants were allowed to doodle (shading lines
of shapes on A4 paper) or not while listening to the pretend telephone message.
Dependent variable(s):
» Monitoring
– accuracy: number of correct names (out of eight)
– performance: correct names minus false alarms (wrong answers).
» Memory for:
– monitored information: number of correct names recalled (out of eight) after
false alarms were deducted
– incidental information: number of correct places recalled (out of eight).
Sample:
Size: 40 (35 women and 5 men); doodling condition: 20; control condition: 20.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Outline why doodling
may help people to
concentrate on a
task.
[2]
You could start
by talking about
how doodling
inhibits (reduces)
daydreaming. Then in
the second sentence
you could talk about
how this improves
performance by
increasing arousal
levels and alertness,
meaning we are able
to concentrate better
on the task.
Demographic: 18–55-year-olds; members of the University of Plymouth participant
panel.
Sampling technique: opportunity; participants had just finished another experiment.
Researchers asked whether they would stay to complete another study hoping that
this would increase the likelihood of boredom.
Overview of procedure
» Participants sat alone in a quiet, dull room and were given a sheet a A4 paper.
This was either:
– printed with rows of shapes to shade (the experimental group).
– lined with no shapes to shade (the control group).
» They were asked to listen to a 2.5-minute audio recording of a pretend telephone
message
» The message mentioned:
– eight people who would be at the party
– three people and a cat who could not come, called ‘lures’
– eight place names
– a lot of irrelevant information.
» Both groups had to write down the names of the people coming to the party on
the A4 paper.
» One minute after listening to the tape, there was a surprise memory test.
Participants had to write down:
– the names of the party-goers
– the place names.
Controls
All participants:
» heard the same 2.5-minute tape in the same room
» were given standardised instructions before listening to the tape.
NOW TEST
YOURSELF
2.1Outline one
difference
between
monitored
and incidental
information, with
an example from
this study.
[2]
2.2 Describe how
quantitative data
was gathered in
this study.
[2]
2.3Outline one
disadvantage
of the way that
doodling was
operationalised
in this study. [2]
Half the participants recalled the names first and the other half recalled
places first (counterbalancing) to avoid order effects. (Revise order effects and
counterbalancing on page 59.)
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2 The Cognitive approach
Ethical issues
» Deception: Participants were told that they did not need to remember anything
on the tape, which was not true.
» Informed consent could not, therefore, be given.
SKILLS BUILDER
Suggest one strength of using counterbalancing during
the surprise memory test.
[2]
The command term ‘suggest’ requires you to
present ideas or considerations based on your
knowledge and understanding of psychology. Think
about a possible strength of using counterbalancing
in Andrade’s study. For example, first, you could
identify the strength (e.g. controlling order effects)
and second, link it back to the study/surprise
memory test. When you link back to the study, you
may explain how counterbalancing would help
improve the validity of the specific findings of this
study, which is about doodling and memory.
Results
Monitoring accuracy
▼ Table 2.1 Number of correct names recorded and number of false alarms
Number of names accurately recalled
Mean
Standard deviation
Number of people
scoring full marks
(8/8)
Number of people
making false alarms
Doodlers
(experimental group)
7.8
0.4
15/20
1
Non-doodlers
(control)
7.1
1.1
9/20
5
▼ Table 2.2 Monitoring performance score (correct names remembered minus number of
false alarms)
Monitoring performance score (maximum score = 8)
Mean
Standard deviation
Doodlers (experimental group)
7.7
0.6
Non-doodlers (control)
6.9
1.3
Recall performance
» Total recall (monitored and incidental information: max 16) for doodlers was 29
per cent higher (7.5) than for the control group (5.8).
» Doodlers remembered both types of information better than the control group.
» Both groups remembered monitored information better than incidental
information.
» The average number of false alarms was low (0.3) for both groups.
Conclusions
» Doodling improves concentration during boring listening tasks.
» Doodling improves memory, even for information we have not intentionally tried
to store.
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Evaluation
▼ Table 2.3 Strengths and weaknesses of Andrade
Strengths
Weaknesses
Reliability – highly standardised procedure which can be
replicated easily to test for reliability. For example, all
participants listened to the same tape, in the same room,
and they were given standardised instructions.
Objectivity – misheard words (e.g. writing Greg instead
of Craig) were counted as correct. The assumption that
words have been ‘misheard’ rather than being incorrect
makes the coding of answers subjective.
Validity – Andrade checked whether any participants had Generalisations – there were more females (87.5 per
detected the deception. A total of 18 per cent said that
cent) than males (12.5 per cent), meaning that the
they had. The data was re-analysed without their scores, findings should be generalised to males with caution.
and the results were the same.
Issues and debates
Individual and situational explanations
The study shows that:
» attention/memory is affected by situational factors, such as being able to doodle
» cognitive performance is not always fixed and stable
» that parents/teachers/employers need to be aware that small changes in a
situation can improve people’s performance.
Application to everyday life
» Benefits of doodling should be communicated to employers/teachers, etc.
» It should not be assumed that people who doodle in classes/meetings are not
concentrating.
» People who find it hard to concentrate could be offered paper to doodle. This
could improve their concentration on dull tasks.
SKILLS BUILDER
Penny is a manager at a local company. Her
employees are struggling to concentrate in work
meetings. Outline how the results of the study by
Andrade could be applied to Penny’s company to
help employees to concentrate.
[2]
The command term ‘outline’ means you do not need
to go into great detail within your answer. Show your
knowledge of the results of Andrade’s study and
then how this can be applied to Penny’s company.
You could talk about any result in the study, as long
as you make it relevant to Penny and her employees.
However, the results from the ‘monitoring’ part of
the study are the most relevant to concentration.
For example, Penny could provide paper and
coloured pens in meetings to encourage doodling, as
this could help the employees to focus more on what
people are saying, but only if the meeting is boring.
2.2 Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test)
Psychology being investigated
Theory of mind
» Theory of mind is the ability to determine the mental state of ourselves and
other people.
» It is linked to social sensitivity and the ability to understand other people’s
opinions or views.
» There are two stages:
– What? Identifying a person’s mental state. For example, ‘He feels sad … ‘
– Why? Understanding the context of that mental state. For example, ‘ …
because he lost his ball’.
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2 The Cognitive approach
» People with autism spectrum disorders often do not have a fully developed
theory of mind. This is called a a theory of mind deficit.
Social sensitivity
» Social sensitivity is the ability to identify and understand social cues and
contexts when interacting with others.
» It refers to how well you can understand other people’s feelings.
Background
Measuring cognitive dysfunction
» It is difficult to develop tests that are sensitive enough to detect cognitive
dysfunction, especially for adults with typical intelligence but impaired social
understanding.
» Therefore, most tests are developed for children.
The original ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’ test
» This was a test for adult social sensitivity/theory of mind.
» It included 25 photographs of eyes of famous actors.
» Participants selected one of two words to best describe how the person in the
photograph was feeling.
» Adults with high functioning autism (HFA) or Asperger syndrome (AS) scored
significantly lower than matched controls.
STUDY TIP
To better understand the
evaluation points for this
study, why not take the
eyes test yourself. There
are many websites
where you can try it,
such as https://docs.
autismresearchcentre.
com/tests/adult_part1.
pdf. When completing
the test, think about how
it could be improved.
▼ Table 2.4 Problems with the original eyes test
Problems with the original Eyes Test
Solutions in the Revised Eyes Test
Each item had only two possible answers; a score of 68 per Increased number of items from 25 to 36; increased
cent or more was needed to be higher than chance alone.
number of possible answers from two to four.
Basic mental states were used (e.g. happy, angry); even
very young children can identify these states.
Only included complex mental states (e.g. contempt).
Eye direction could be used to identify some mental
states (e.g. noticing).
These were not included in the new test.
More female than male faces were included.
The same number of male and female faces were used.
The correct and incorrect (foil) answer options were
opposites, such as sad versus happy, which was too easy.
Similarity between the target word and the three foils
was increased, making it more difficult.
Words may not have been understood.
The test was presented with a glossary.
Aims
1 To investigate whether scores on the Autism Quotient (AQ) and the Revised Eyes
Test scores are negatively correlated.
2 To trial the Revised Eyes Test with adults with high-functioning autism and
Asperger syndrome as shown in Table 2.5.
▼ Table 2.5 Aims of Baron-Cohen et al.
Participants
To investigate whether…
Adults with highfunctioning autism
(HFA)/Asperger
syndrome (AS)
2.1 they score lower on the eyes test than other groups, as with the previous version of the
test
Neurotypical adults
2.2 they score higher on the AQ than other groups
2.3 females score higher than males on the Revised Eyes Test
2.4 males score lower than females on the Revised Eyes Test and higher than females
on the AQ
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SKILLS BUILDER
Explain one similarity and one difference between the
study by Baron-Cohen et al. and one other core study
from the Cognitive approach.
[8]
You could identify a similarity or difference and then
provide reasons why this is relevant using evidence
from both of the studies in some detail. Your
comparison points should make detailed reference
to both studies. You could use any part of the study
(background, methodology, procedure, results,
evaluation, issues and debates) but, remember,
only use studies from the approach named in the
question – in this case, Andrade or Pozzulo et al.
Methodology
Research method and design: experiment with an independent measures design;
correlation. (Revise the difference between experiment and correlation on pages 69
and 70.)
Data collection techniques:
» Questionnaire: the AQ test – 50 closed questions, answered on four-point rating
scales. (Revise questionnaires on page 61.)
» The Revised Eyes Test: 36 black and white photographs of eyes with four possible
answers.
Variables:
Independent variables – whether the participants:
» had HFA/AS or not
» were male or female.
Dependent variable/co-variable: test scores on the Revised Eyes Test and the AQ.
Sample:
▼ Table 2.6 Sample in Baron-Cohen et al.
Group 1: HFA/AS
adults
Group 2: general
population controls
Group 3: students
Group 4: IQ matched
controls
Size
15
122
103
14
Demographics
Male adults with
HFA/AS from the
United Kingdom;
socioeconomic class
and educational
background similar to
Group 2
Neurotypical adults
from the United
Kingdom; wide range
of occupations/
socioeconomic
classes and education
backgrounds
53 males and 50
females; neurotypical
undergraduate
students; high IQ
as from a highly
selective university
General population;
matched on IQ to
Group 1
Sampling technique
Volunteer sample;
adverts placed in
the National Autistic
Society (NAS)
magazine and at
support groups
Opportunity sample
from community and
education classes and
libraries
Opportunity sample
from Cambridge
University, United
Kingdom
Random sample
Overview of procedure
Eye test development
» The first draft was trialled with eight independent ‘judges’.
» Items were accepted if the target word was selected by five of the eight judges.
» Items were rejected if the same foil was picked by more than two judges.
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2 The Cognitive approach
» Next, the test was trialled on Groups 2 and 3. Items were accepted if 50 per cent
(of the 225 participants) selected the target word and no more than 25 per cent
picked the same foil.
» Four items were rejected, leaving 36 items on the Revised Eyes Test.
The Revised Eyes Test
» Participants took the Revised Eyes Test individually in a quiet room.
» Groups 1, 3 and 4 completed the AQ.
» Group 1 (HFA/AS) also identified the gender of the people in the photographs.
» Participants could refer to the glossary to clarify word meanings.
Controls
» The same tests were taken in the same way (quiet conditions with glossary).
» All items in the Revised Eyes Test were the same size, in black and white, with
four options and three foils.
Ethical issues
Psychological harm:
» A lack of understanding of the words/emotions may cause distress/
embarrassment.
» People in Groups 2–4 who received extreme scores may need referral for more
detailed assessment, especially for those with HFA/AS.
SKILLS BUILDER
For the study by Baron-Cohen et al., outline how two results support
the aims of this study.
[4]
To answer ‘how’ the results link to the aims, choose one result and briefly
describe it. Then link it back to the aims made by Baron-Cohen et al. As you
are asked about two results, you need to do this twice. In this section, the aims
and results are numbered. This is to make it easier for you to link each result
to the relevant aim/part of an aim. It is worth revising in this way so you do not
get them mixed up.
NOW TEST
YOURSELF
2.4 Describe how
Baron-Cohen
et al. chose the
target words
and foils for the
Revised Eyes
Test.
[4]
2.5The research
methods used
in the study by
Baron-Cohen
et al. included
experiments and
correlations.
Outline what
is meant by
a correlation
giving an
example from
this study.
[3]
2.6 Give one
advantage of
the use of a
questionnaire
as a way of
collecting the
data in this
study.
[2]
Results
1 There was a negative correlation between the AQ scores and the Revised Eyes Test
scores (–0.53) for all three groups.
2 2.1Group 1 performed significantly lower on the Revised Eyes Test than other
groups. There were no impairments in the gender recognition task.
2.2Group 1 scored significantly higher than Groups 3 and 4 on the AQ.
2.3Although not significant, females scored higher than males on the Revised
Eyes Test.
2.4 Males scored higher on the AQ than females.
Conclusions
The Revised Eyes Test:
» is a more sensitive test for social intelligence than the original Eyes Test
» can be used as a measure of severity of autistic traits due to the negative
correlation with the AQ.
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Evaluation
▼ Table 2.7 Strengths and weaknesses of Baron-Cohen et al.
Strengths
Weaknesses
Reliability – the standardised procedure, using Validity – the pictures of eyes are static and do not reflect human
the same photos for all participants, means the emotions in real-life settings, with real people who move about, change
study can be repeated to test for reliability.
expression quickly and provide a wide range of other non-verbal cues.
Objectivity – there was no interpretation
needed for the data collected as the answers
on the eyes test were either right or wrong.
Generalisations – volunteer sampling means generalisations should be
made with caution. Results may not be representative of adults with
HFA/AS who do not attend support groups or read the NAS magazine.
Issues and debates
Individual and situational explanations
» Individual explanation: autism is an individual difference between people that
affects the ability to understand mental states from facial expressions.
» Situational explanation: people with HFA/AS are better at recognising other
people’s mental states in some situations more than others – for example, where
there is less noise or fewer distractions or when they are given sufficient time.
Application to everyday life
» People with brain damage could take the Revised Eyes Test to detect social
sensitivity deficits. Support could then be offered to help them to detect mental
states in others.
» The Revised Eyes Test could also be used in schools to target children who may
benefit from interventions to improve theory of mind skills.
SKILLS BUILDER
Samuel is 15 and suffered brain damage in an accident.
He struggles to understand people’s emotions and mental
states at school and at his part-time job. Suggest two
situational factors that could improve Samuel’s ability to
understand emotions and mental states in others.
[4]
understand emotions and mental states. For example,
you could identify noise as a relevant situational
factor and link this back to Samuel by suggesting that
reducing noise levels might increase his ability to
focus on social cues from his co-workers.
The command term ‘suggest’ means you could put
forward ideas that to improve Samuel’s ability to
2.3 Pozzulo et al. (line-ups)
Psychology being investigated
Eyewitness testimony
» The police may ask people present at the scene of an accident and/or crime to
provide a description of what they saw/heard/smelt.
» These descriptions may help the investigation and/or provide evidence that is
later used in legal proceedings against the culprit(s).
STUDY TIP
It may be tempting to just read your notes over and over again, but this may not be that
effective. Putting your notes into a different format will help you to process them at a
deeper level than simply re-reading. If you enjoy learning by listening, you could read
your notes aloud into a device such as your smartphone, so that you can listen to them
at a later time. Research shows that listening to your own voice is more effective for
revision than listening to an unfamiliar voice (Forrin and MacLeod, 2018).
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2 The Cognitive approach
False positive responses
In relation to eyewitness testimony (EWT), a false positive response is when a
witness picks out a person from a line-up and says they were present at the crime
scene when they were not. Pozzulo et al. suggested that this may occur in children
due to social pressure rather than poor memory.
Background
» Children and adults produce similar correct identification rates from line-ups
when the target is present (target-present line-ups), but even 13-year-olds
struggle to correctly reject target-absent line-ups, leading to higher rates of
false positive responses than with adults.
» These errors may be due to social factors, such as social pressure, rather than
cognitive factors, such as bad memory.
» The desire to please the interviewer, who is often an authority figure, may also
be a social factor that leads to higher false positive responses in children.
Aims
To investigate whether children:
» are less able to recognise human faces than adults
» make more false positive identifications than adults when faced with:
– target-absent line-ups versus target-present line-ups
– human faces and cartoon characters.
Methodology
Research method and design:
Laboratory experiment with a mixed design:
» Independent measures – two groups were compared: children and adults.
» Repeated measures – all participants viewed both types of line-up with both
types of face.
Data collection techniques:
» Questionnaire: the demographic and cartoon watching form measured variables
such as the participants’ age, gender and time watching cartoons, familiarity
with the target cartoons.
» Participants had to identify the cartoon/person in the video (if present) by
pointing on a PowerPoint (children) or a matching sheet (adults).
Variables:
Independent variables:
» age: children (4–7-year-olds) versus adults (17–30)
» type of target faces: familiar cartoon or unfamiliar human faces
» type of line-up: target-present or target-absent.
Dependent variables:
» correct identification rates for target-present line-ups
» correct rejection rates for target-absent line-ups. (Revise the difference between
independent and dependent variables on page 57.)
Sample:
Size: 59 children and 53 adults.
Demographic: 4–7-year-olds from three private schools in Canada; 17–30-year-olds
from the Introductory Psychology Participant pool of an Eastern Ontario University.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Describe the
psychology being
investigated in
the study by
Pozzulo et al.
[5]
The command term
‘describe’ requires
you to make a
series of distinct
points. Revise
the ‘psychology
being investigated’
thoroughly. For
Pozzulo et al. you
could describe
eyewitness testimony
and false positive
responses within
your answer. You
could make two
distinct points about
each, and then
provide an example
of one from Pozzulo
et al.
Sampling technique: not stated in the journal article.
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Overview of procedure
The videos:
» Participants individually watched four videos (in colour), each with a photo line-up:
– Two featured familiar cartoon characters, Dora and Diego.
– Two featured an unfamiliar human character, either male or female.
» Next they completed a filler task in which they were asked, ‘What did the cartoon
character/person look like?’ and ‘Do you remember anything else?’.
Photo line-ups:
» Next, participants viewed photo line-ups that included four tightly cropped black
and white headshots.
» Target-present line-ups included one target photo and three foils (people who
looked similar).
» Target-absent line-ups had four foils.
» Participants were asked to point to the photo if the target was present, or
another box if not.
Controls
» The four videos and the order of the faces in the line-ups were randomised for
each participant to prevent order effects. Revise order effects and randomisation
on page 59.
» Standardised instructions were given to each participant prior to presentation of
the photo line-ups.
» All experimenters wore the same type of ‘professional-casual’ clothing.
NOW TEST
YOURSELF
2.7Outline the filler
task used in the
Pozzulo et al.
study.
[2]
2.8 Suggest one
weakness of
using laboratory
experiments to
study children as
eyewitnesses.[2]
2.9Name two
controls that
were used in the
Pozzulo et al.
study.
[2]
Ethical issues
» The researchers gained written informed consent from parents of all child
participants and from all adult participants.
» Participants were told that targets may not be present, so there was no attempt
to deceive/mislead them.
» All children were monitored for anxiety, stress and fatigue in order to minimise
possible harm. This is important as children are less likely to exercise their right
to withdraw.
SKILLS BUILDER
Xander and Toph are discussing the study by Pozzulo
et al. Xander thinks the study used an independent
measures design, but Toph thinks it used a repeated
measures design. Using evidence from this study,
explain one reason why Xander is correct and one
reason why Toph is also correct.
[4]
The command term ‘explain’ means that you need
to justify your answer, or give reasons why both
Xander and Toph could be considered to be correct.
In the world of research, the design used in Pozzulo
et al. would be referred to as a mixed design. This is
because some aspects are independent measures
(e.g. looking for a difference in the skills of children
versus those of adults) and other aspects are
repeated measures (e.g. participants are asked about
both human and cartoon faces). You need to show
your understanding of both independent measures
and repeated measures by explaining what these
terms mean in the context of both this study (i.e.
Pozzulo et al.) and with reference to Xander and Toph.
Results
Target-present line-ups
» Children and adults were significantly better at identifying familiar cartoon
characters than human faces.
» Children performed much worse than adults when identifying human faces.
▼ Table 2.8 Success rate for identifying faces in target-present line-ups
Familiar (cartoon)
Unfamiliar (human)
28
Children
0.99
0.23
Adults
0.95
0.66
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2 The Cognitive approach
Target-absent line-ups
» Children had a significantly higher correct rejection rate when cartoon characters
were used (0.74) compared with human faces (0.45).
» Adults also performed significantly better with cartoon characters (0.94)
compared to human faces (0.70).
» Children’s rate of false positive responses was much higher than adults.
Conclusions
» As children were able to correctly identify cartoon characters in target-present
line-ups, cognitive factors were not responsible for the lower success rate in
target-absent line-ups.
» Errors were caused by social factors – that is, incorrectly believing that the
researcher wanted them to make a positive identification, no matter whether the
child thought it was right or wrong.
» Children are less accurate when faced with human actors and more likely to give
false positive responses than adults.
Evaluation
▼ Table 2.9 Strengths and weaknesses of Pozzulo et al.
Strengths
Weaknesses
Validity – using repeated measures meant results were
not affected by participant variables, such as having
better/worse working memory skills.
Reliability – although standardised instructions and
procedure were used, the questions during the filler
task were not exactly the same for everyone. This may
have affected the participant on the line-up task, thus
lowering reliability.
Objectivity – the data obtained was quantitative. The
participants were either right or wrong in their answers
on the line-up task. Therefore, there was no room for
interpretation/researcher bias.
Generalisations – the findings may not be generalisable
to participants from lower socioeconomic backgrounds
as the children were all from private schools. The adults
were also all from a university, suggesting higher than
average intelligence.
Issues and debates
Application to everyday life
» Eyewitness testimonies can be affected by the expectations of others, especially
with child witnesses.
» The findings could be used to develop police guidelines for interviewing child
witnesses. This could reduce incorrect identifications, especially with targetabsent line-ups.
Individual and situational explanations
» When a target is present in a line-up of cartoon characters, adults and children
are as accurate as each other. However, this is not the case for human faces.
Individual characteristics such as age or memory may not be as important as
situational characteristics such as familiarity.
» The findings of the study suggest that situational factors such as social pressure
(i.e. the perceived expectations of others) may explain why children are more
likely to identify a suspect even in a target-absent line-up.
Use of children in psychological research
Young children are vulnerable to social pressure, so they were protected from harm by:
» seeking parental consent as children cannot understand the risks of participation
» telling them that they could change their mind and not get into trouble
» conducting craft activities to put them at ease before the experiment started
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SKILLS BUILDER
Serena believes the findings of Pozzulo et al. support
the situational side of the individual–situational debate.
Outline whether Serena is correct in her belief, using
evidence from the study.
[2]
Read every question carefully, using strategies
such as drawing a box around the command
term and underlining psychological terminology.
This question is asking you to argue one side of
a debate or another. It is important to note it is
asking you whether Serena is correct, so it is not
suggesting that she is correct (or not). Use your
knowledge of the study’s findings to make an
informed judgement.
Cognitive approach revision checklist
Andrade
(doodling)
Baron-Cohen
et al. (eyes test)
Pozzulo et al.
(line-ups)
Explain links to the assumptions of the Cognitive approach
Define all the key words from the psychology being
investigated (see online glossary)
Describe the background
Describe the aim
State and evaluate the research method(s)
State and evaluate the research technique used for data
collection (if different from the method)
Describe and evaluate the sample (e.g. size, demographic
and/or sampling technique)
State and evaluate the experimental design (if relevant)
State the manipulated and measured (co-)variables
(if relevant) and evaluate how these were operationalised
State at least two controls (if relevant) and evaluate the
effect of these controls on the findings
State and evaluate the type of questions used (if relevant)
Describe and evaluate the procedure
Explain at least two ethical issues and discuss how these
affected the study
Describe three to four quantitative findings
Describe at least two qualitative findings (if relevant)
Explain how the results were presented
Explain how the results are/could be interpreted
Describe one or more conclusions
Identify two strengths that could be discussed in a tenmark extended response question
Identify two weaknesses that could be discussed in a tenmark extended response question
Identify two applications to everyday life
Explain how the study links to the debate about individual
and situational explanations
Explain how the study links to the debate about nature
versus nurture
Explain how the study links to the issue of the use of
children/animals in psychological research
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AS LEVEL
3
The Learning approach
The main assumptions
Psychologists from the Learning approach assume that:
1 We all begin life as a blank slate. Experiences and interactions with the
environment shape our behaviour and these changes are directly observable.
2 We learn through the processes of operant conditioning, classical conditioning
and social learning. This can be understood using the stimulus–response
model.
(Cambridge International, 2021)
3.1 Bandura et al. (aggression)
Psychology being investigated
Social learning theory
New behaviours are learned by watching the behaviour of others (observational
learning).
» The person whose behaviour is observed is called the model; imitation of their
behaviour is called modelling.
» Learning may be spontaneous (without intention to learn).
» Reinforcement (including vicarious reinforcement) increases the likelihood of
learned behaviours being imitated.
» Stages of observational learning include attention, retention, motivation and
reproduction.
Aggression
» Aggression is an act of hostility with the intention of harming another.
» It can be physical or verbal.
STUDY TIP
Goal-setting is an
important skill for
independent learners
but monitoring your
progress and revising
your goals accordingly
is even more important.
Generate three specific,
measurable, attainable
and realistic targets
to work towards while
reviewing the next
research study. Effective
targets are time-bound
so set a deadline to
complete the work by.
Background
» Previous research showed that children imitate observed behaviour when models
are present. Bandura wanted to know whether children would imitate observed
aggressive acts in new settings when models were absent.
» Parents tend to reinforce children’s ‘sex-appropriate’ behaviour (Fauls and Smith,
1956) so children may be more likely to imitate same-sex models. For example,
boys may be more likely to imitate male models than females; and an aggressive
male model may be imitated more than an aggressive female model.
Aims
To investigate whether observed behaviour is imitated in a new setting in the
absence of the model, specifically to discover whether:
» children observing an aggressive model exhibit more aggressive acts than
children observing a non-aggressive model
» children observing a non-aggressive model exhibit fewer aggressive acts than
children who do not observe a model
» children who observe same-sex aggressive models exhibit more aggressive acts
than children who observe opposite-sex aggressive models
» boys exhibit more aggressive acts than girls.
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SKILLS BUILDER
Explain how the children’s aggressive behaviour was
scored in the study by Bandura et al. (aggression). [2]
Even short-answer questions like this one can be
easy to misinterpret. You may find it helpful to read
each question several times so you know what is
expected. Refresh your knowledge on the scoring
of children’s behaviour using time sampling in a
structured observation on a behaviour checklist.
You may also include details such as ‘recording
behaviours every 5 seconds, providing 240
observations per child’ and ‘recording examples of
imitative aggressive responses, partially imitative
responses and non-imitative responses’. This would
demonstrate that you are able to select relevant
details from the study by Bandura et al.
Methodology
Research method and design: laboratory experiment with a matched design:
» Each child was observed by the experimenter and a nursery teacher. Their
aggression level was rated using four five-point scales.
» Children were put into groups of three with children of a similar aggression level
to each other (matched). Next, one child was randomly allocated to the control
group, one to the aggressive model group and one to the non-aggressive model
group (see below).
Data collection techniques:
» Observation: covert, non-participant, structured, controlled; observed through
a one-way mirror using behavioural categories. (Revise the different types of
observation on page 67 and time sampling on page 74.)
» Time sampling: a 20-minute session divided into 5-second intervals, giving 240
response ‘units’.
Variables:
Independent variables:
» control group (no model), aggressive model, non-aggressive model
» sex of model (same or opposite to the child)
» sex of children (male or female).
Dependent variable: number of behaviours (out of 240 maximum) in each of the
following response categories:
» imitative aggression responses – physical aggression, verbal aggression, nonaggressive verbal responses
» partially imitative responses – mallet aggression, sits on Bobo doll but does not
behave aggressively
» Non-imitative aggressive responses – punches Bobo doll, non-imitative physical
and verbal aggression, aggressive gun play.
Sample:
Size: 36 boys and 36 girls.
NOW TEST
YOURSELF
3.1 Describe how
a structured
observation
was conducted
in the study by
Bandura et al. [3]
3.2 In the study by
Bandura et al.,
the participants
were matched
before allocating
them to the
experimental
and control
groups.
a Describe
how the
children were
matched in
the study by
Bandura
et al.
[2]
b Give one
advantage
of matching
participants
in this way.[2]
Demographic: 3–6 year-olds (mean age: 4 years, 4 months); attended Stanford
University nursery school.
Sampling technique: not stated in the journal article.
Overview of procedure
Phase 1: Modelling
» The child played with potato prints and stickers and the adult played with a
tinker toy set. The room contained a five-foot inflatable Bobo doll (adult-size)
and other toys.
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3 The Learning approach
» The model then behaved either in a non-aggressive way or in an aggressive way:
– aggressive group: hits Bobo with a mallet, sits on Bobo and punches his nose,
throws and kicks Bobo; verbal aggression included ‘sock it in the nose’ and
‘kick him’
– non-aggressive group: the model played quietly
– control group: no model present in the playroom
» After ten minutes, the child was taken to another room by the experimenter.
Phase 2: Mild aggression arousal
NOW TEST
YOURSELF
3.3Outline the
‘aggression
arousal’
procedure.
[3]
» The second room contained attractive toys, including a fire engine, doll set and
spinning top.
» After two minutes, the experimenter told the child the toys were for other
children and took the child to a third room.
Phase 3: Test for delayed imitation
» This room contained aggressive toys (e.g. mallet) and non-aggressive toys (e.g.
tea set) and a three-foot Bobo doll (child-size).
» The child was left alone. His/her behaviour was observed for 20 minutes through
a one-way mirror.
Controls
» Toys in rooms one and three were placed in the same positions.
» The model’s actions were always the same, in the same order and for the same
length of time.
» Observations were made by two independent observers.
– Observer data was compared (to assess inter-rater reliability) and showed
correlations in the 0.9 range. (Revise inter-observer reliability on page 81).
Ethical issues
» Psychological harm: the children witnessed aggressive behaviour and were mildly
provoked; the expected outcome was to imitate aggression.
» Confidentiality: children were not named in the article, but the nursery the
children attended was named.
SKILLS BUILDER
Bandura et al. used a covert observation in their study.
Explain one methodological issue which may have arisen
if an overt observation was conducted.
[2]
Effective evaluation includes key terms and is
clearly linked to the research. An overt observation
may have made the children aware that they were
being watched. ‘Demand characteristics’ could be
raised as a methodological issue. A link to the study
by Bandura et al. would show you have considered
the method in context of this specific study. You
could do this by mentioning how children may pay
more attention to the aggressive model or that
children will be restrained in their aggressive
behaviour if they know they are being watched.
Results
» Children in the aggressive model condition showed significantly more imitation of
physical and verbal aggression than children who saw the non-aggressive model or
no model condition.
» Children in the non-aggressive model condition showed very little aggression.
» There was evidence of a same-sex effect for boys but not for girls. Boys imitated
the male model more than the female model.
» Male models had a greater influence on behaviour than female models in both
boys and girls.
» Boys imitated more physical aggression than girls.
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Conclusions
» Observing aggressive models can lead to imitative aggression in another setting
and in the absence of the model.
» Aggressive behaviour of male models is more likely to be imitated than
aggressive behaviour of female models.
Evaluation
▼ Table 3.1 Strengths and weaknesses of Bandura et al.
Strengths
Weaknesses
Reliability – two independent observers recorded
the children’s behaviour. Their scores were highly
correlated, showing high inter-observer reliability.
Generalisation – children were from the nursery of a
prestigious university, so the sample may not be representative
of children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds.
Validity – participants were matched on prior
aggression levels. Individual differences in prior
aggression levels should not have caused differences in
aggression shown within the study, increasing validity.
Validity – only two stooges were used, so the children may
have imitated the model due to some individual feature that
was unique to the model, rather than their sex.
Issues and debates
Use of children in psychological research
» Children are more vulnerable to demand characteristics.
» Children may believe the adults expect them to copy the aggression of the adult.
Application to everyday life
» The study suggests children should be exposed to friendly and prosocial role
models so the findings can be applied to parenting and education of children.
» TV networks should censor content or provide warnings to prevent children from
viewing aggressive content in programmes.
SKILLS BUILDER
Outline two issues of using children in psychological
research using evidence from Bandura et al.
[4]
When answering this question you should identify
two relevant issues such as ‘increased likelihood
of demand characteristics’ and ‘the need for
parental consent’. You will need to write two
detailed sentences for each of your issues. Try using
some of the wording from the question to show
that you are fully focused, e.g. “One issue of using
children in psychological research is that...” This
is sometimes called ‘signposting’ as it helps the
reader to understand how your response answers
the question. Your second sentence could start
with another signpost such as “In Bandura et al.’s
study....”
3.2 Fagen et al. (elephant learning)
Psychology being investigated
Operant conditioning
Behaviours are reinforced (become more likely) when they are rewarded. Behaviours
that are punished become less likely. There are five types of reinforcement (see
Table 3.2). These can be used to modify an animal’s behaviour through two processes:
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3 The Learning approach
» Shaping: behaviour is gradually modified through a series of stages until the
animal is able to consistently reproduce the desired behaviour. Rewards are given
for behaviours that are increasingly similar to the desired behaviour.
» Behavioural chaining: animals are trained to perform a sequence (chain) of
behaviours using reinforcement. Each behaviour in the chain is learned through
shaping. Next, the animal is only rewarded when the first two behaviours are
performed consecutively. Then a third behaviour will be added, withdrawing and
presenting rewards until the full chain has been learned.
STUDY TIP
Have a look online for videos of ‘clicker training’ which is used to teach tricks to pets and
other animals. Compare clicker training with the techniques used by Fagen et al. This
should help you to process what you are revising in a different way and hopefully retain
what you have learned.
▼ Table 3.2 Types of reinforcement
Type of reinforcement
Description
Example: teaching an elephant to raise
its trunk
Positive reinforcement Target behaviour is followed by something
desirable (a reinforcer/reward); behaviour
becomes more likely
Elephant is given chopped banana for raising
its trunk
Negative
reinforcement
Removal of an aversive/negative
stimulus as a reward following a target
behaviour; behaviour becomes more likely
Elephant is prodded with a stick until it raises
its trunk
Punishment
Undesirable behaviours are followed by an
unpleasant/aversive stimulus; behaviour
becomes less likely
Prodding elephant with a stick when it puts
its trunk in any position other than raised
Primary reinforcement Using a reinforcer that meets a biological
need
Giving chopped banana after elephant raises
its trunk
Secondary
reinforcement
A whistle is blown as a reward for raising
trunk (after the elephants had been
classically conditioned to associate the
whistle with banana)
Using a reinforcer that does not meet a
biological need but is associated with a
primary reinforcer
Background
» Traditional elephant trainers (mahouts) use operant conditioning techniques to
train working elephants using punishment and negative reinforcement.
» These methods raise concerns about animal welfare and keeper safety, so this
study used rewards (rather than punishments) to teach the elephants.
» The target behaviour was a ‘trunk wash’ (a chain of behaviours necessary to test
the elephants for tuberculosis).
» Secondary reinforcement training was used to shape the necessary behaviours
and then chain them together. First, a whistle (secondary reinforcer) was
associated with the primary reinforcer (chopped bananas). The trainers then
rewarded the elephants directly after each desired behaviour, using the whistle.
Aim
To investigate whether secondary positive reinforcement could be used to train
elephants to voluntarily complete a trunk wash.
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Methodology
Research method: structured, non-participant observation. (Revise strengths and
weaknesses of the different types of observation on pages 67–8.)
Data collection techniques:
A behavioural checklist (page 67) was used to measure how successful the
elephants were in completing trunk-wash behaviours, which included:
1 Trunk here: put trunk into trainer’s hand (for insertion of saline/sterile water
using syringe).
2 Trunk up: lift up trunk and hold (to let fluid flow to trunk base).
3 Trunk down: lower trunk into bucket.
4 Blow into the bucket: to collect fluid.
5 Hold steady: keep trunk still.
Variables:
An assistant observed each training session and recorded:
» minutes of training
» number of verbal cues made to the elephant
» success rate for each behaviour and sequence (after session ten, they were tested
every fifth session on everything they had learned so far); success criteria 80 per
cent (correct behaviour shown eight out of ten times).
Sample:
Size: 5.
Demographic: elephants housed at the same stable in Nepal; four aged 5–7 years
(juvenile), born at the stable; one adult in her 50s; all female.
Sampling technique: the elephants were chosen as they were docile (easy to handle)
and not pregnant; also their handlers were available and willing.
Overview of procedure
Training the elephants
The five-step trunk wash (see above) was taught using secondary positive
reinforcement, shaping and behavioural chaining (see above). Training sessions
lasted 2.5-3 hours. Other techniques included:
» capturing: banana given following naturally occurring desired behaviours
» luring: positioning banana to encourage desired behaviours
» verbal cues: one-syllable verbal cues to prompt the elephants to show the five
trunk-wash behaviours
» desensitisation: the trainers gradually brought the syringe (an aversive
stimulus) closer to the elephant’s trunk; the elephant was given banana each
time she allowed the syringe nearer
» counter conditioning: conditioning the elephant to associate the syringe with
banana.
Controls
» The observer used the same behavioural checklist in each session, including
detailed operational descriptions.
» The training procedure was standardised. For example, the same verbal cues were
used and all training took place in the stalls.
NOW TEST
YOURSELF
3.4 Describe how
the elephants
were chosen
for the study by
Fagen et al. [3]
3.5 Suggest one
weakness of the
observational
method giving
an example from
this study.
[2]
3.6 Give one reason
why this study
may be said
to be high in
validity.
[2]
Ethical issues
» Elephants, although chained, were free to walk away if they did not want to
participate.
» This reduced distress/psychological harm for the animals and risk of physical
harm to the trainers if the elephant became uncooperative.
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3 The Learning approach
SKILLS BUILDER
Describe how quantitative data was collected in this
study.
[2]
Quantitative data is numerical so you will need
to think about one or more ways the researcher
gathered numerical data from the observation of the
elephants. For example, you could mention that the
researcher recorded the duration of each session in
minutes. You may also describe that the researcher
recorded whether the elephants passed or failed
each of the trunk-wash behaviours and whether
they could do the sequence in order or not. You
could elaborate by saying that to ‘pass’ they had to
get the behaviour correct on eight out of ten efforts.
Results
» The juveniles learned the full trunk wash in 25–35 sessions, averaging 12 minutes
per session (total training time: 367 minutes).
» The adult failed to learn the full sequence.
– She did not meet success criteria for blowing and hold steady.
– She was also never fully desensitised to the syringe.
» Two juveniles also failed hold steady, except as part of the full trunk wash.
» The success rate for accurate individual behaviours/sequences increased from 39
to 89 per cent after 35 sessions.
» The most difficult behaviour to learn was trunk here/trunk in hand (295 offers).
» The easiest behaviour to learn was blow into bucket (54 offers).
SKILLS BUILDER
Explain how one finding from the study by Fagen et al.
supports one assumption of the Learning approach. [2]
Think about some specific findings from Fagen
et al. and then think about which finding best
matches one of the assumptions of the Learning
approach. You might know that it was easier to train
the elephants to blow into the bucket than to put
their trunk in the trainer’s hand, but it is difficult
to link this to an assumption. You may consider
that performance improved from 39 to 89 per
cent over 35 sessions. You could link this to the
assumption that we all start as a blank slate and
that experience shapes and changes our behaviour.
Combine your knowledge from the study, such
as how the mahouts responded to the elephants
in the training sessions (experience) and how the
elephants’ behaviours slowly changed from the
early to the later sessions.
You could use phrases such as ‘This clearly shows
that experience can shape and change behaviour … ‘
before making links back to the study.
Conclusions
Secondary positive reinforcement is effective for training juvenile elephants to
voluntarily and reliably participate in a trunk wash.
Evaluation
▼ Table 3.3 Strengths and weaknesses of Fagen et al.
Strengths
Weaknesses
Reliability – the clear operational definitions of
trunk-wash behaviours increased the reliability of the
observer’s decisions about whether the elephants passed
or failed.
Subjectivity – only one observer made the decisions
about whether elephants passed or failed. They may have
been biased as they might have wanted the elephants to
be successful.
Validity – the mahouts did not speak or signal to the
elephants, meaning that behavioural changes were due to
the secondary positive reinforcement and not additional
communication.
Generalisations – the older female elephant in the study
may have had poor vision and physical problems. Her
poor performance on the trunk wash may not generalise
to other older females.
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Issues and debates
Individual and situational explanations
» The adult was the only elephant not able to learn the full trunk wash. Individual
differences in age/physical health may explain her lack of learning.
» Situational factors may have affected her ability to learn the trunk wash. For
example:
– The trainers may have responded differently to her due to her age.
– A young calf kept wandering into her stall. This may have distracted her.
Application to everyday life
» Fagen et al. developed a safe, ethical and effective way of training elephants to
perform health checks.
» This procedure will help improve animal health and benefit humans, who can
catch tuberculosis from infected elephants.
» Animals could be trained for other veterinary procedures using these principles,
e.g. taking blood samples or X-rays, decreasing stress and improving wellbeing.
The use of animals in research
» The small sample follows advice to reduce sample size and use the minimum
number of animals required.
» Distress/pain was reduced by only using positive reinforcement (not aversive
stimuli). The elephants were able to move away if they wished.
SKILLS BUILDER
Jemima is discussing animal research with her friend.
Jemima suggests that animal research can benefit
both the animals and society.
through reducing accidents and risk of infection. It
is preferable to give the reason first and store up
the example for the second sentence.
Suggest one reason why Jemima may be correct in her
assumption that animal research can benefit animals
and society. Use an example from this study in
your answer.
[2]
Remember, you need to focus on society (meaning
humans, not just animals). You might say that
Fagen et al’s procedures can be used to safely
test elephants for tuberculosis, meaning infected
elephants can be removed from public areas. Show
that you understand that this reduces transmission
to humans.
This question is asking you to think of a reason that
Jemima might be right – that animal research can
benefit animals and society. Questions like this assess
your knowledge of the psychology you have learned,
so before you start writing, think about how Fagen et
al.’s findings benefit society and not just the animals.
You could state that animal research can improve
the health and wellbeing of people in society
Alternatively, you could explain that Fagen et al.’s
research has shown that elephants can be trained
with rewards rather than punishments. This
should reduce accidents resulting from elephants
becoming aggressive when punished.
3.3 Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia)
Psychology being investigated
The study investigates how learning theories can be used to explain the acquisition
and treatment of phobias.
» Classical conditioning: a previously neutral stimulus triggers the same
emotional or bodily reaction as an unconditioned stimulus with which it has been
previously paired.
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3 The Learning approach
– Example: Watson and Rayner (1920) showed a baby a white rat (neutral
stimulus) before loudly hitting a metal bar (unconditioned stimulus). After
several repetitions, the baby became distressed (a conditioned response)
whenever he saw the rat (now a conditioned stimulus).
– This is called expectancy learning. The baby expects a negative and
potentially threatening event (the loud bang) whenever he sees the rat.
» Evaluative learning: a strong emotional response to a previously neutral
stimulus acquired via classical conditioning.
– There is no expectation of a certain type of event (positive or negative).
However, the object/situation is now associated with strong feelings
(e.g. disgust).
– Example: a woman picks a flower (neutral stimulus) and is disgusted
(unconditioned response) when a slimy worm (unconditioned stimulus)
touches her hand. She now feels sick (a conditioned response) at the sight of
similar flowers (conditioned stimulus).
» Operant conditioning: behaviours that are followed by positive reinforcement
(reward) become more common. Behaviours followed by punishments become less
common.
– Example: praising a person with a dog phobia for stroking a dog, to help the
person to learn that dogs are typically friendly and harmless.
SKILLS BUILDER
Outline an example of either classical or operant conditioning using an example
from the study by Saavedra and Silverman.
[2]
This question includes the command term ‘outline’. You will need a brief
description of one type of conditioning only. Choose the one with which you feel
most confident.
An example of operant conditioning: the boy acquired his button phobia via
evaluative learning, a type of classical conditioning. His treatment included
praise (positive reinforcement) for touching buttons (the desired/target
behaviour) from his mother. Either (but not both) could be used in this answer.
STUDY TIP
Interleaving is an
evidence-based revision
strategy. At first sight,
it may seem rather
counter-intuitive. Instead
of learning a whole block
of material at one time
(e.g. everything there
is to know about the
Saavedra and Silverman
study), it involves
practising several
different types of new
material in succession
and periodically revisiting
them. For example,
revising the aims of each
of the core studies for
the Learning approach,
then the methodology
of each study, then the
results and so on. As you
do so, you should draw
comparisons between
the studies. Mixing things
up in this way has been
shown to improve longterm retention. It may not
work for everyone, but
it’s worth a try.
Background
Diagnosis
» Phobias are diagnosed by psychiatrists and clinical psychologists using manuals
such as the DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
» Semi-structured interviews are often used to diagnose patients, including
assessing the severity and duration of symptoms.
Previous research
» Targeting disgust can help treat adults with blood-injury phobias.
» As fear decreases, so does disgust in spider-phobic children.
Aims
1 To identify the cause of the boy’s phobia.
2 To test cognitive-behavioural therapy, including imagery exposure, as a
treatment for a disgust-based phobia of buttons.
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SKILLS BUILDER
Saavedra and Silverman was a case study. Explain one
limitation of a case study as a research method in this
study. You must not refer to generalisability in your
answer.
[2]
People often refer to all psychological studies as
case studies, but this is wrong. You can refresh
your knowledge of the key features of this research
method on page 66.
This question focuses on limitations or
disadvantages of case studies. A possible limitation
is that findings should be generalised with caution
as they focus on one individual or small group only
and they may not be representative of other people
in the target population.
However, the question states that you must not
use generalisability in your answer. This shows
that you need to know at least two advantages and
disadvantages of each research method. Once you
have selected a suitable limitation (e.g. subjectivity
due to the rapport that may develop, longitudinally,
between the researcher(s) and the participant),
your second sentence needs to focus on why this
is a limitation. Your point and your reason should
be linked to specific details of Saavedra and
Silverman’s methodology as the question includes
the key phrase ‘in this study’.
Methodology
Research method and design: case study with a longitudinal design; data was
gathered before, during and after therapy and at 6- and 12-month follow-ups.
8
Data collection techniques:
7
Quantitative data:
6
» A psychometric rating scale called a feelings thermometer was used to measure
subjective distress from 0–8.
» The number of buttons touched, held or manipulated was counted in each
session.
5
Qualitative data:
» There was a semi-structured interview and observation of therapy sessions.
Notes were made about approach/avoidance of buttons. (Revise different
interviewing techniques and formats on pages 64–65, and different types of
observation on page 67.)
4
3
2
1
0
Sample:
Size: 1.
Demographic: A Hispanic-American boy (age nine) was refered to a clinic in Florida,
USA due to a phobia of buttons. He had no other disorders (e.g. OCD).
Sampling technique: opportunity sample – chosen by the researchers due to his
unusual phobia.
▲ Figure 3.1 A feelings
thermometer was used
to provide quantitative
data to assess changes
in the boy’s level of
distress before, during
and after therapy
Overview of procedure
Assessment of phobia
» The Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV–Child and Parent (ADIS-C/P)
was used to confirm the boy’s phobia diagnosis using a semi-structured interview.
» A ‘feelings thermometer’, a nine-point scale (from 0–8), was used to assess
symptom severity.
» Possible triggers of the phobia were explored (e.g. trauma) to inform treatment.
Treatment of phobia
» Four 50-minute exposure sessions (20 minutes with mother):
– Boy ranked 11 button-related stimuli from least to most distressing using a
feelings thermometer (0–8 point scale) (see Figure 3.1).
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3 The Learning approach
– The ranked list was used to create a disgust/fear hierarchy.
– The boy was gradually exposed to each stimulus.
– The boy was positively reinforced for tolerating/touching the buttons
(e.g. praised by his mother).
» The therapist conducted seven disgust-related imagery exposure sessions:
– The boy imagined and described the look, smell and feel of buttons.
– The therapist used cognitive restructuring.
» The ADIS-C/P was used to measure symptoms after the treatment sessions had
finished and at six and twelve months after treatment.
Ethical issues
» Informed consent was obtained from mother and child, helping to protect both
from psychological harm.
» Personal details relating to the acquisition of the phobia may have compromised
the boy’s anonymity. This increases his risk of psychological harm.
Results
Cause of phobia
Button avoidance began following a distressing event when the boy was five years old:
» He tipped a bowl of buttons onto himself at kindergarten.
» This happened in front of the class and the bowl was on the teacher’s desk.
Difficulties experienced following this event:
» He was unable to touch/handle buttons, including dressing/undressing.
» He had poor concentration at school due to buttons on his uniform.
» He avoided clothes with buttons and people with buttons on their clothing.
Exposure therapy progress (sessions 1–4)
Positive outcomes:
» The boy worked through all the situations on the disgust hierarchy.
» He handled more buttons in each exposure session.
Negative outcomes:
» Feelings thermometer distress ratings increased.
» Some of the situations from the disgust hierarchy received higher ratings after
the first four sessions than before.
Disgust-related imagery and cognitions (sessions 5–11)
» The boy said buttons are ‘disgusting’ and ‘gross’. He could not say why, except
that buttons smell unpleasant.
» Distress ratings on the feelings thermometer decreased:
– Hundreds of buttons falling all over his body went down from 8 to 5 to 3.
– Hugging his mother with a ‘shirt full of buttons’ went down from 7 to 4 to 3.
Follow-up sessions at 6 and 12 months (after therapy ended)
Phobia criteria were not met when assessed using the ADIS-C/P:
» Buttons no longer triggered distress.
» School uniform with small clear plastic buttons was worn daily without issue.
Conclusions
Childhood disgust-based phobias:
» can be explained using evaluative learning
» may require imagery exposure and cognitive restructuring as well as exposure
therapy.
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Evaluation
▼ Table 3.4 Strengths and weaknesses of Saavedra and Silverman
Strengths
Weaknesses
Validity – triangulation of qualitative and quantitative
data-gathering techniques increases credibility
(e.g. semi-structured interview, observations of therapy
sessions, use of feelings thermometer).
Reliability – therapy sessions were patient focused and
therefore cannot be replicated exactly. Reliability of
findings cannot be checked.
Validity – follow-up sessions at 6 and 12 months meant
long-term efficacy of treatment could be assessed.
Subjectivity – self-reported data may be biased. For
example, the mother sees child’s behaviour differently
from child, and vice versa. Both may be overly positive
about the long-term benefits of the therapy due to their
relationship with the therapist.
Issues and debates
Application to everyday life
» Disgust-based phobia therapists should be trained in the use of imagery exposure
and cognitive restructuring.
» These techniques may help treatment-resistant clients who have not shown
improvement with traditional exposure theory.
Nature versus nurture
» Nurture is supported as learning experiences in therapy helped change the boy’s
behavioural and emotional responses.
» Phobias may be influenced by nature and nurture:
– The disgust response helps us to avoid germ-ridden stimuli and therefore has
survival value. It is part of our evolutionary inheritance.
– Evaluative learning also has survival value as we learn to avoid stimuli that
are associated with disgust.
Use of children in psychological research
» The diagnostic interview schedule used in the study had been adapted for use
with children to improve validity.
» A ‘feelings thermometer’ was created to help the boy to express changes in his
feelings of distress/disgust.
SKILLS BUILDER
The study by Saavedra and Silverman has been used to inform the treatment of
people with disgust-based phobias. Outline one alternative way that the findings
from this study could be applied in everyday life.
[2]
When you are revising the 12 core studies, try to prepare two applications
to everyday life for each as you may be faced with a question like this. The
opportunity to outline the most obvious application is ruled out in this question
and instead you must come up with another suitable response.
Thinking about the aim of the study should help you. Saavedra and Silverman
were not only interested in treatment of phobias but also in their development.
How could an understanding of the way in which the disgust response is
learned be useful in everyday life? For example, could we possibly create a
disgust response to deter someone from something they once liked but is bad
for their health?
42
NOW TEST
YOURSELF
3.7 Saavedra and
Silverman treated
a boy with a
phobia of buttons.
Explain two ways
in which the
boy’s subjective
ratings of
distress changed
throughout his
therapy.
[4]
3.8 Give one
strength of the
use of semistructured
interviewing in
this study.
[2]
3.9 Saavedra and
Silverman
also collected
data using
observation
of therapy
sessions. Explain
one way that the
researcher could
have collected
quantitative data
during these
observations. [2]
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3 The Learning approach
Learning approach revision checklist
Bandura et al.
(aggression)
Fagen et al.
Saavedra and Silverman
(elephant learning) (button phobia)
Explain links to the assumptions of the Learning
approach
Define all the key words from the psychology
being investigated (see online glossary)
Describe the background
Describe the aim
State and evaluate the research method(s)
State and evaluate the research technique used
for data collection (if different from the method)
Describe and evaluate the sample (e.g. size,
demographic and/or sampling technique)
State and evaluate the experimental design
(if relevant)
State the manipulated and measured (co-)variables
(if relevant) and evaluate how these were
operationalised
State at least two controls (if relevant) and
evaluate the effect of these controls on the
findings
State and evaluate the type of questions used
(if relevant)
Describe and evaluate the procedure
Explain at least two ethical issues and discuss
how these affected the study
Describe three to four quantitative findings
Describe at least two qualitative findings
(if relevant)
Explain how the results were presented
Explain how the results are/could be interpreted
Describe one or more conclusions
Identify two strengths that could be discussed in
a ten-mark extended response question
Identify two weaknesses that could be discussed
in a ten-mark extended response question
Identify two applications to everyday life
Explain how the study links to the debate about
individual and situational explanations
Explain how the study links to the debate about
nature versus nurture
Explain how the study links to the issue of the
use of children/animals in psychological research
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AS LEVEL
4
The Social approach
The main assumptions
Social psychologists assume that:
1 Behaviour, cognitions and emotions are influenced by social contexts, social
environments and groups.
2 Behaviour, cognitions and emotions are influenced by the actual, implied or
imagined presence of others.
(Cambridge International, 2021)
4.1 Milgram (obedience)
Psychology being investigated
» Obedience is the result of social pressure where one person complies with a
direct order of an authority figure.
» According to Milgram, people have a strong tendency to be obedient and a
system of obedience is needed for people living in a community.
» Milgram proposed a variety of explanations for why people obey others.
Background
» Obedience is important for social life but can be destructive.
» According to Milgram, the slaughter of millions of people from 1933 to 1945
‘could only be carried out on a massive scale if a very large number of persons
obeyed orders’.
» He believed extreme obedience to authority was a one-off, that ‘the Germans
were different’. He expected that in the 1960s in the USA, no one would obey if
he created an extreme situation.
» Before the study, Milgram asked 14 Yale University senior students, ‘Would you
give an electric shock to another person?’ Less than 3 per cent said they would.
His colleagues believed that few, if any, would give shocks.
» Milgram wanted to test the ‘Germans are different’ hypothesis, which explains
obedience in terms of dispositional factors, such as personal conscience.
STUDY TIP
Revision notes can be
transformed in creative
ways to suit your
information processing
style. Try writing a
newspaper article to the
people who live in New
Haven (in 1960) about
the research conducted
by Milgram.
Aim
To investigate the level of obedience when the authority figure’s command requires
destructive behaviour.
SKILLS BUILDER
Explain one feature of Milgram’s procedure which
increased the realism of the situation.
[2]
For these types of questions where you are
explaining features, use psychological terms in
your answers. You first need to identify features of
the study that increased the realism, such as the
sample shock given, drawing slips to decide who
44
was the teacher/learner or meeting Mr Wallace
(the confederate) before the experiment. You can
explain the feature fully so do not forget your key
terms. What does realism mean? You can refer
to either the mundane realism of the task or the
ecological validity of the setting – either way,
you are showing you understand the process of
psychological research.
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4 The Social approach
Methodology
Research method: controlled, covert, non-participant observation in a laboratory
setting
Data collection techniques:
» Observation: behaviour was observed using a one-way mirror. The observer
recorded the participant’s level of obedience (the maximum voltage of shock
delivered) and signs of anxiety.
» Interview: after the study, an unstructured interview was carried out using openended questions about how the participants felt about obeying authority.
Variables:
Measured variable: Maximum voltage of shock administered before refusing to go
any further. There were 30 switches (ranging from 0 to 450 volts). Participants were
classed as ‘defiant’ if they stopped before 450 volts.
Sample:
Size: 40 men.
Demographic: All aged 20–50 years; from New Haven, United States of America; from
a variety of manual and professional occupations.
Sampling technique: self-selected via newspaper and direct mail advertisements.
Volunteers were paid $4.50.
Overview of procedure
» The study was conducted at Yale University.
» Participants were told that the study was about the effect of punishment on
learning.
» Naive (real) participants were introduced to another participant, ‘Mr Wallace’ by
the experimenter who were both confederates of the study.
» A rigged lottery was used to decide who would be ‘teacher’ and ‘learner’. The real
participant was always the teacher.
» The teacher and learner were taken to an adjoining room. The learner was
strapped to a chair and electrodes were attached to their wrists.
» The teacher was taken to an adjoining room and seated in front of a shock
machine. The teacher received a sample shock of 45 V.
» The experimenter remained in the same room as the teacher throughout the test.
» The learning task involved the learner memorising word pairs. Participants read
word-pairs to the learner and then read the first word of a word pair with four
options.
» The experimenter instructed the teacher to administer a shock when the learner gave
an incorrect answer. They were told to increase the voltage each time (by 15 V).
» Four standardised prods were used if the teacher resisted:
1 Please continue.
2 The experiment requires that you continue.
3 It’s absolutely essential that you continue.
4 You have no other choice; you must go on.
» A thorough debrief was given at the end of the study, and the teacher and
learner were reunited and interviewed about the experience.
SKILLS
BUILDER
In Milgram’s study,
there were two
confederates playing
different roles. Outline
the roles of the
confederates in this
study.
[4]
When outlining
the roles of the
confederates, you
need to provide some
detail of who they
were (in relation
to the participant),
what they did and as
confederates how
they contributed to
the deception.
Controls
» All participants drew lots, the same prods were given and the same word pair
task was used.
» All participants heard the learner supposedly pounding on the wall in protest at
300 volts and 315 volts.
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Ethical issues
» Participants were deceived when they were told the aim of the research was
learning and memory.
» Milgram thoroughly debriefed his participants, revealing that the experimenter
and learner were confederates. The learner reassured the participant that he was
completely unharmed.
» Participants were further deceived into believing that the learner (confederate)
was another participant and that the electric shocks were real.
» The prods used by the experimenter prevented participants from leaving the study.
» Three participants had seizures and the majority showed signs of intense distress.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
4.1 Explain why Milgram ensured the participant met the learner
at the end of the study.
[2]
4.2 A fake shock generator was used to measure obedience in this study.
Describe how Milgram collected quantitative data using this apparatus. [2]
4.3Outline two prods used by the experimenter if the participants
expressed an unwillingness to continue.
[2]
Results
Quantitative results
» 26 out of 40 participants administered the maximum 450 V (65%).
» 40 out of 40 went up to 300 V (100%).
Qualitative results
» Extreme tension was observed (sweating, trembling, biting lip, etc.).
» Fourteen participants showed signs of nervous laughter and smiling.
» Three participants had seizures.
Conclusions
» Participants were willing to oppose their moral values to obey an authority
figure, even when it meant harming another person.
» Following destructive orders caused emotional strain on the participants.
Evaluation
▼ Table 4.1 Strengths and weaknesses of Milgram
Strengths
Weaknesses
Reliability – controls of the procedure (same instructions Generalisation – the study had low population validity
by the experimenter, feedback from the learner) led to
as it included only Americans. Obedience may be
higher level of standardisation.
different in other countries.
Validity – participants were unaware their reactions
were being recorded and a false study aim was given,
decreasing the chance of demand characteristics.
Validity – shocking a stranger is not an everyday task so
does not reflect obedience to situations in real life.
Issues and debates
Individual and situational explanations
» Only 65 per cent obeyed to the maximum voltage, supporting an individual
explanation of obedience; 35 per cent were defiant and resisted the
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4 The Social approach
experimenter’s prods to continue causing harm. This suggests personal factors
were responsible for their resistance.
» Situational factors, such as the location of the experiment (Yale University),
resulted in all 40 participants giving 300 V.
Application to everyday life
The findings can be used to educate people to resist authority in cases of
destructive obedience. Training programmes have been developed for soldiers in
some armies to highlight the importance of resisting orders on moral grounds.
SKILLS BUILDER
Darcie believes Milgram’s study supports the individual
side of the debate, but Freja believes it supports the
situational side of the debate. Outline why you think
either Darcie or Freja is correct, using evidence from
the study.
[4]
Your skills of supporting claims is being tested here
so you need to write effectively (not excessively).
A side does need to be taken and supported clearly.
You could use the PEEL method to put forward your
answer with questions like this:
» Point: Darcie is correct in believing Milgram’s
study supports the individual side of the debate.
» Evidence: Thirty-five per cent of participants
refused to obey the commands given by the
experimenter and stopped before 450 V.
» Explain: By refusing to obey to the end, defiance
was shown in participants, suggesting personal
factors, such as empathy, were responsible for
their behaviour.
» Link: Therefore, Darcie’s claim, that the
individual’s characteristics are important
in determining behaviour when exposed to
destructive obedience, is supported in Milgram’s
research.
4.2 Perry et al. (personal space)
Psychology being investigated
Interpersonal distance
» Interpersonal distance is the distance between people, such as how close they sit
or stand to each other.
» It often shows how comfortable people feel with one another.
Personal space
» Personal space is the invisible boundaries around our bodies that, if crossed,
make us feel uncomfortable or threatened.
» Preferred distance from others depends on:
– cultural values
– individual differences
– the relationship with the other person: intimate or social
– the situation: formal or public.
Empathy
» Empathy is a person’s ability to understand the thoughts, feelings and
experiences of others.
» Empathy has two dimensions:
– cognitive: the ability to determine another’s emotional/mental state
– affective: the ability to ‘feel’ the same emotional state.
STUDY TIP
You may be asked
to compare studies
in terms of their
similarities and
differences. As you
review Perry et
al., consider other
social studies, such
as Milgram. One
technique to increase
understanding is to
create Venn diagrams
that clearly outline
similarities and
differences between
studies.
Social hormones
» Social bonding can be affected by hormones such as oxytocin.
» Psychologists are interested in how oxytocin affects an individual’s interpersonal
distance preference (how close they are willing to be to another person),
depending on whether they are high or low in empathy.
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Background
Amygdala
» The amygdala is a brain structure that is involved in processing emotions.
» The amygdala triggers strong emotional reactions following personal space
violations, so regulating interpersonal distance in humans.
» Oxytocin regulates amygdala activity.
» Lesions to the amygdala reduce the need for interpersonal distance.
Social salience hypothesis
» Oxytocin increases attention to social cues.
» Attentiveness affects how cues are processed and our responses.
» Processing and responses are also affected by social setting (e.g. presence of a
physically attractive stranger).
» This explains why some people feel threatened while others feel comfortable in
the same social situation.
Perry et al. predicted that preferred interpersonal distance following oxytocin
administration may differ depending on whether the person is high or low in
empathy. People with high empathy would prefer closer distance and those with low
empathy would prefer greater distance.
Aim
To investigate the effect of oxytocin on preferred interpersonal distance for those
scoring high or low in empathy traits.
Methodology
Research methods and design: two laboratory experiments; half of the participants
did Experiment 1 first and the other half did Experiment 2 first.
Both experiments used mixed designs:
» Repeated measures design with randomisation – participants took part in two
conditions, with and without oxytocin, one week apart. (Revise the difference
between randomisation, random allocation and random sampling on pages 59–60.)
» Independent measures design – whether participants were in the high or low
empathy group (see ‘variables’).
Data collection techniques:
» Questionnaire: the Interpersonal Reactivity Index was used to create the high
and low empathy (interpersonal reactivity) group scores. Participants with scores
of over 40 were assigned to the high empathy group (n = 20) and those with
scores of under 33 were assigned to the low empathy group (n = 20).
» Standardised tests:
– Experiment 1: the Comfortable Interpersonal Distance (CID) paradigm.
– Experiment 2: the ‘choosing rooms’ task.
Variables:
Independent variable 1: empathy (low or high).
Independent variable 2: oxytocin or placebo/saline solution.
Sample:
Size: 54 men.
Demographic: Undergraduates from an Israeli University, aged 19-32 years; five were
left-handed; all had normal vision and were mentally well (confirmed by a screening
interview).
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4 The Social approach
Sampling technique: volunteer (self-selecting), participating for exchange of course
credit or payment provided.
Overview of procedure
» An online questionnaire was completed for empathy score.
» Three drops of nasal solution (oxytocin or saline) were self-administered in the
presence of experimenters.
» Participants waited 45 minutes (in a comfortable, quiet room) before further
testing. Nature magazines were given to reduce social interaction.
Experiment 1: CID
Independent variable 3: condition (stranger, authority, friend or ball). Repeated
measures.
Dependent variable: preferred interpersonal distance was measured using the CID
paradigm. Participants indicated when they wanted the person/object to stop.
A percentage score was given of the remaining distance from the total distance:
0 = figures touching; 100 = furthest distance.
» Participants sat at a computer while three-second animations were displayed
showing a figure approaching the centre of a circle.
» Participants were shown the name of the approaching figure (stranger, friend,
authority or ball) for one second, followed by a fixation point for 0.5 seconds.
» Participants saw a still picture of a circular room with a figure at the centre and
an approaching figure at one of the eight entrances.
» Participants imagined themselves at the centre of the room and pressed the
spacebar on the computer keyboard to show when they wanted the figure
(protagonist) to stop
» Each of the four figures appeared three times from each of the eight entrances,
resulting in 96 trials in total.
Experiment 2: Changing rooms (Figure 4.1)
Independent variable 3: condition – positioning of chairs (experimental) versus
positioning of table and plant (control).
Dependent variables:
1 Mean average preferred distance between the two chairs (cm)
2 Mean average preferred angle of the two chairs (degrees).
All participants gave preferences for both the chairs and the table and plant.
(repeated measures)
» Participants were informed the task was to aid planning a room layout for
conversation with another participant on a personal topic.
» They were shown colour pictures of two very similar rooms. Rooms contained
identical chairs in the middle, a table and a plant (see Figure 4.1).
» 84 pairs of rooms, shown twice. Participants chose the left or right room. Only
one independent variable differed on each trial.
» Researchers compared the preferences for the spatial arrangement of the chairs
(measure of interpersonal distance measurement) and the table and plant
(control condition).
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▲ Figure 4.1 Which room layout would you prefer for engaging in conversation of a
personal nature? Pictures differ in terms of the angle (degrees) and distance between
(cm) the chair and the table/plant.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
4.4Outline how a repeated measures design was used in this study.
4.5 Explain the use of a placebo group in this study.
4.6Outline the procedure of the ‘choosing rooms’ task.
[2]
[3]
[2]
Controls
» Neither the participant nor the researcher conducting the standardised tests
knew whether saline or oxytocin had been administered (double blind design).
(Revise researcher effects, single and double blind designs on pages 60 and 61.).
» The order of the experiments was counterbalanced.
» All participants waited 45 minutes before starting the experiment after
administering a solution (oxytocin or saline).
» The same three-second animation was used for all participants.
» Fixation points were used to ensure attention. (Revise researcher effects, single
and double blind designs on page 61.)
Ethical issues
» Informed consent was gained before participants administered the nasal
solution.
» A debrief was given of the full purpose of the study at the end of the second
experiment.
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4 The Social approach
Results
Experiment 1
» Oxytocin decreased the preferred mean distance from a protagonist in the high
empathy group and increased it in the low empathy group.
» Significant differences were found for the preferred distance between a friend
and an authority figure, and a friend and a stranger in the high empathy placebo
group.
» Participants were willing to be closer to the ball than the stranger or authority
figure in the oxytocin condition.
Experiment 2
» The high empathy group chose closer chair distances in the oxytocin condition
compared to the placebo. The opposite effect was found in the low empathy
group.
» Oxytocin did not significantly affect preferred chair angle.
Conclusions
Oxytocin affects preferred interpersonal distance dependent on empathy level. High
empathy individuals prefer closer distances after oxytocin compared to the placebo.
Preferred interpersonal distance increased with the use of oxytocin for individuals
with low empathy scores compared to the placebo.
SKILLS BUILDER
Give one strength of using a double-blind technique in
the research by Perry et al.
[2]
Refer to page 72 and review what is meant by the
double blind technique. Make a clear point ‘The
technique reduces experimenter bias and demand
characteristics’. Give a clear link to Perry et al by
referring to how the participants and experimenters
were unaware of which solution was administered
(saline or oxytocin). You can elaborate by outlining
the impact this had e.g. participants could not
exaggerate their responses to the oxytocin by acting
more sensitively to changes in personal distance.
Evaluation
▼ Table 4.2 Strengths and weaknesses of Perry et al.
Strengths
Weaknesses
Validity – the double-blind procedure avoided
experimenter effects and demand characteristics. Prior
expectations did not influence the effect of oxytocin.
Validity – bias may exist in the self-report measure.
Participants may have over-reported their empathy to
appear more socially desirable.
Objectivity – quantitative data allows scores to be
compared. The percentage distance remaining was
measured without subjective interpretation.
Generalisability – All male sample used, the findings
may not be true for girls and women with ASD who might
still benefit from oxytocin.
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Issues and debates
Application to everyday life
» The findings suggest that oxytocin may not be an effective treatment for
individuals with social deficit disorders e.g. Autistic Spectrum Disorder.
» Participants in the low empathy group preferred increased interpersonal distance
when oxytocin was administered, so this may strengthen social biases.
Individual and situational explanations
» Individual differences (level of empathy) determine the effect oxytocin has on a
person’s social behaviour.
» Oxytocin administration resulted in predictable outcomes in behaviour. This
suggests that situations promoting oxytocin release could influence social
behaviour, which supports the situational explanation.
4.3 Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans)
Adjacent area
Critical area
Exit
doors
Exit
doors
Observer 2
Remainder
of car
Victim
Observer 1
Exit
doors
Exit
doors
Doors
to next
carriage
Motorman’s
box
▲ Figure 4.2 Layout of adjacent and critical areas of the subway carriage
STUDY TIP
Reflecting on what you have learnt is an important skill in your AS and A Level studies.
You can make use of technology by creating a crossword online. Include key concepts,
research terms and evaluation issues of Piliavin et al. as a revision aid.
SKILLS
BUILDER
‘Research into personal
space has no relevance
in everyday life.’
Explain how Perry et
al.’s research provides
evidence for and
against this claim. [4]
First, consider what
‘relevance in everyday
life’ means. Relevance
is about usefulness,
and many factors can
affect it. You can refer
to the applications
in everyday life, but
you can also refer
to methodological
issues which restrict
these applications.
For instance, you
could discuss
ecological validity and
how the research is
based on laboratory
studies and computerbased tasks, so not
reflecting personal
space decisions in
everyday life.
Psychology being investigated
Bystander apathy
The presence of other people discourages a person from helping/intervening in an
emergency/high danger situation. Therefore, people are more likely to help when
they are alone than when they are part of a group.
Diffusion of responsibility
Responsibility to help is shared between the number of bystanders present; the
more bystanders, the less responsible each person feels and the less guilty felt for
not helping.
Background
» Interest in bystander apathy increased following the murder of Kitty Genovese
(1964).
» A newspaper claimed that none of the 38 witnesses telephoned the police.
» Psychologists began to conduct laboratory experiments into ‘bystander
behaviour’.
» Darley and Latané conducted studies such as ‘a lady in distress’, ‘an epileptic
seizure’ and ‘the smoke-filled room experiment’.
» The findings showed that, as group size increased, the amount of helping
decreased. This was termed diffusion of responsibility.
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4 The Social approach
Aim
To investigate how the following factors affect helping behaviour in a real-life setting:
» type of victim (drunk or ill)
» race of the victim (black or white)
» modelled help
» group size.
SKILLS BUILDER
Explain what psychologists have learned about
bystander behaviour using two results from the Piliavin
et al. study.
[4]
Read the question a second time so you can focus
your attention:
»Circle the command words.
» Underline the subject words.
» Box any limiters.
Explain what psychologists have learned about
bystander behaviour using two results from the Piliavin
[4]
et al. study.
Only when you have understood the question are
you ready to answer. This question is focused
on results so you should explicitly refer to two
separate results and how each findings links to
psychological concepts such as bystander apathy
and diffusion of responsibility. Take care, the
findings of this study contrast with some of the
findings in the background research. It appears that
bystanders are not always as apathetic as you might
think!
Methodology
Research methods and design: field experiment with independent measures design
(participants experienced either an ill/black, an ill/white, a drunk/black or a drunk/
white trial).
Data collection techniques:
Covert observation (revise different types of observation on pages 67.):
» Observer 1 recorded:
– sex, race and location of passengers (seated or standing) in the critical area
(see Figure 4.2)
– total number of people in the car
– total number of people who went to help (including race, sex and location).
» Observer 2 recorded:
– sex, race and location of passengers in the adjacent area
– time taken for the first passenger to help (the latency)
» Both observers recorded comments by passengers.
» Movement of passengers out of the critical area was also recorded.
Variables:
Independent variables:
» type of victim, 65 ill (carried a cane) or 38 drunk (smelt of alcohol, carried a
liquor bottle).
» race of victim (black or white)
» modeled help (from confederate): time (70 or 150 seconds after collapse) and
proximity (confederate helper was in the critical or adjacent area)
» group size (naturally occurring, e.g. number of passengers in the carriage).
Dependent variables:
» frequency of helping
» speed of helping
» race of helper
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» sex of helper.
» movement of passengers in and out of critical and adjacent areas.
» Comments made by passengers (qualitative data)
Sample:
Size: 4,450 unaware passengers.
Demographic: men and women; passengers on the New York subway; approximately
45 per cent black and 55 per cent white.
Sampling technique: opportunity sample consisting of passengers travelling on the
8th Avenue subway between 11 a.m. and 3 p.m. on weekdays.
Overview of procedure
» Two male confederates (victim and model) and two female observers boarded the
express subway train via separate doors.
» The observers took separate seats while the male victim stood in the critical
area. The male model varied position (adjacent or critical area).
» Seventy seconds after leaving the station, the victim staggered forward and
collapsed. He lay still and looked upwards until he was helped.
» The model helped the victim to his feet. None of the passengers helped.
Controls
» The same seven-and-a-half minute train journey was used for all trials.
» Victims wore the same clothes (old trousers, jacket and no tie) and fell after
70 seconds in the same place and in the same way.
» Each team member started the journey in the same place (e.g. Observer 1 in the
adjacent carriage near the exit door and Observer 2 in the adjacent carriage in
the far corner).
Ethical issues
» Informed consent: participants were not informed that an observation was
occurring on the subway.
» Lack of debrief: passengers moving out of the carriage when the subway stopped
meant debriefing was impossible.
» Passengers may have left the carriage in a negative psychological state (shocked/
distressed).
» Deception: passengers were unaware of the use of confederates.
NOW TEST
YOURSELF
4.7Outline one
difference
between
the adjacent
area-early and
adjacent
area-late
conditions. [2]
4.8Outline what
is meant
by a covert
observation. [2]
4.9Outline one
feature of
Piliavin et al.’s
research that
increased
the validity of
the results. [2]
SKILLS BUILDER
Two ethical guidelines are informed consent and debriefing. Suggest how ethical
issues raised in the Piliavin et al. study relate to these two ethical guidelines. [4]
As with the previous Skills Builder, read the question again and actively
process it:
» Circle the command words.
»Underline the subject words.
» Box any limiters.
You can apply this process to all questions. A command term shows which skill
is being assessed. The subject words relate to the topic/aspect the question is
about. Limiters refer to specific demands of the question.
Two ethical guidelines are informed consent and debriefing. Suggest how ethical
issues raised in the Piliavin et al. study relate to these two ethical guidelines. [4]
Avoid focusing on one aspect of the question and consider the limiters given.
You can define what is meant by informed consent and debriefing but the
command is to ‘suggest’. Therefore, you need to say how these are ethical
issues within Piliavin et al.’s procedure.
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4 The Social approach
Results
» Type of victim: a person appearing ill received more help than a person appearing
drunk (62/65 of trials versus 19/38 of trials).
» Race of victim: there was a tendency for same-race helping in the drunk condition.
» Modelled help: early models were more likely to prompt additional help than late
models.
» Group size: there was a weak positive correlation between group size and
helping, but this was not significant.
Other findings:
» Males helped more than females: 90 per cent of first helpers were male.
» People left the critical area in 20 per cent of trials.
» Female comments included: ‘It’s for men to help him’, ‘I wish I could help him –
I’m not strong enough.’
Conclusions
» Observation of an emergency situation creates unpleasant arousal bystanders aim
to reduce.
» The strength and nature of arousal depends on empathy for the victim, distance
from the emergency and length of time without intervention.
» People reduce arousal by directly helping, fetching help or leaving the scene.
» Individuals compare costs of helping (effort, ability, disgust) with the cost of
not helping (self-blame, guilt) and rewards (e.g. reduced arousal, approval from
others).
» No support was found for diffusion of responsibility
– help was offered frequently and quickly.
Evaluation
▼ Table 4.3 Strengths and weaknesses of Piliavin et al.
Strengths
Weaknesses
Objectivity – quantitative data allowed comparison of
helping behaviours between the drunk and ill conditions.
Reliability – the observers recorded different things, so
inter-rater reliability could not be checked.
Validity – insight into bystanders’ thinking was given
with comments recorded. Meaningful conclusions could
be drawn about the justifications of not helping.
Generalisation – the research lacked population validity
as passengers were observed on an urban train route;
people in more rural areas may behave differently
meaning findings should be generalised with caution.
Issues and debates
Individual and situational explanations
» The situation of an ill victim falling triggered helping behaviour – help was
offered without a model intervening on every trial.
» Ninety per cent of first helpers were male, suggesting individual characteristics
affect rates of helping. The cost–reward matrix suggests appraisal of whether to
offer help differs between individuals.
Application to everyday life
» Responses to emergency situations could be changed through education and
training.
» Programmes could be developed for young people to understand the cost–reward
matrix and their own biases and emotions to emergency situations.
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SKILLS BUILDER
Piliavin et al. concluded that the cost–reward matrix
determines whether people help. Outline how this model
supports an individual explanation of behaviour.
[3]
pause for a moment between carefully reading the
question and putting pen to paper, your answer will
be more coherent and concise.
As you learn to actively process questions and
recognise the limiters, you will see the importance
of allowing yourself time (at least a minute) to think
through your answer. Planning saves time. If you
Your planning time should be spent thinking of the
individual side of the situational or individual debate
and how this can be seen in the cost–reward matrix.
Social approach revision checklist
Milgram
(obedience)
Perry et al.
(personal space)
Piliavin et al.
(subway Samaritans)
Explain links to the assumptions of the Social approach
Define all the key words from the psychology being
investigated (see online glossary)
Describe the background
Describe the aim
State and evaluate the research method(s)
State and evaluate the research technique used for
data collection (if different from the method)
Describe and evaluate the sample (e.g. size,
demographic and/or sampling technique)
State and evaluate the experimental design (if relevant)
State the measured and manipulated (co-)
variables (if relevant) and evaluate how these were
operationalised
State at least two controls (if relevant) and evaluate
the effect of these controls on the findings
State and evaluate the type of questions used
(if relevant)
Describe and evaluate the procedure
Explain at least two ethical issues and discuss how
these affected the study
Describe three to four quantitative findings
Describe at least two qualitative findings (if relevant)
Explain how the results were presented
Explain how the results are/could be interpreted
Describe one or more conclusions
Identify two strengths that could be discussed in a
ten-mark extended response question
Identify two weaknesses that could be discussed in a
ten-mark extended response question
Identify two applications to everyday life
Explain how the study links to the debate about
individual and situational explanations
Explain how the study links to the debate about nature
versus nurture
Explain how the study links to the issue of the use of
children/animals in psychological research
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AS LEVEL
5
Research methodology
5.1 Research methods
5.1.1 Experiments
Features of experiments
» Experimenters compare data collected from two or more experimental groups/
conditions with data collected in a control group/condition to draw conclusions
about cause and effect.
» Control groups/conditions provide baseline data.
» Independent variables are manipulated (changed) and dependent variables are
measured.
» The dependent variable is measured with the belief that any difference in values
is caused by the independent variable.
» Cause and effect can be inferred when other variables that could affect the
dependent variable are controlled (kept the same for both groups/conditions).
» Standardised procedures and standardised instructions are often used to give
participants the same experience.
STUDY TIP
Many key terms are
reviewed when looking
at research methods.
Familiarise yourself
with them and create
your own glossary as
part of your independent
study.
Laboratory experiments
» A laboratory setting is maintained where the experimenter has a high level of
control (e.g. temperature regulated, lighting controlled and noise managed).
» Controls are in place to ensure only the independent variable changes between
conditions.
▼ Table 5.1 Evaluating laboratory experiments
Strengths
Weaknesses
Ethics – participants give a degree of
consent, but not necessarily informed. The
right to withdraw is often given.
Validity – artificial conditions (setting
and task) can produce unnatural behaviour,
lowering ecological validity.
Reliability – procedures involve
standardised instructions and procedures,
giving consistency.
Validity – features of the environment
may reveal the aim, leading participants
to act in a way they feel the researchers
want them to (demand characteristics).
Validity – a high level of control allows
cause and effect to be shown.
Ethics – there may be deception of the
aim of the study to ensure validity.
Links to studies
» Pozzulo et al. (line-ups) asked participants to observe video clips in a controlled
setting before identifying the target person in different types of line-up.
» Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) got participants to sleep in a controlled
setting and they were awoken in either REM sleep or NREM sleep.
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SKILLS BUILDER
In Perry et al.’s (personal space) laboratory
experiment, the dependent variable of interpersonal
distance was measured using CID, with the
participants indicating when they wanted the person/
object to stop. A percentage score was given of the
remaining distance from the total distance (0 = figures
touching, 100 = furthest distance).
Describe one other way this dependent variable can be
measured, using any examples.
[3]
Suggested answer structure (What, How,
Elaborate):
Participants could be measured on their preferred
personal distance using a questionnaire (What).
They could be asked, ‘What distance would you
stand away from a stranger?’ (How). This could be
a closed question, with choices such as ‘less than
18 inches’, ‘18 inches to 4 feet’, ‘4 feet to 12 feet’
(Elaborate).
You need to do more than just identify another way
of measuring interpersonal distance. Give detail of
how it will be measured.
Field experiments
» Field experiments take place in natural settings (e.g. streets, workplaces).
» Natural environments may involve uncontrolled variables both within and
between groups/conditions.
» Controls are difficult to implement in a natural setting (e.g. public places).
Uncontrolled, situational variables make it hard to draw firm conclusions.
▼ Table 5.2 Evaluating field experiments
Strengths
Weaknesses
Validity – participants do not know they are taking part,
so they are less likely to show demand characteristics.
Ethics – participants often do not know they are taking
part so this removes their right to withdraw and means
debriefing is often impossible.
Validity – there is high ecological validity as
participants are in their everyday environment.
Reliability – there is less control over extraneous
variables, making research difficult to replicate.
Link to study
Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans) carried out a field experiment on an express train
between two New York stations and the researchers manipulated the type of victim
and whether help was offered by a confederate or not.
SKILLS BUILDER
Anya wants to plan a study using a field experiment to investigate the effect of the
presence of others on shopping habits. Describe how Anya could conduct this
study.
[10]
Key features of experiments you could include in your answer:
»Review how the independent variable (presence of others) will be changed.
» Detail how the dependent variable (shopping habits) will be measured (fully
operationalise).
»Outline procedures to collect data (step-by-step in the natural location).
Highlight it as a field experiment, so describe the natural environment that the
test will be conducted in (shopping centre).
58
NOW TEST
YOURSELF
5.1Outline two
features of
the laboratory
experiment
used by Andrade
(doodling).
[4]
5.2 Suggest one
weakness
of Piliavin et
al. (subway
Samaritans)
conducting
research on
the New York
subway.
[2]
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5 Research methodology
5.1.2 Experimental designs
An experimental design is how participants are allocated to groups/conditions
of the independent variable. There are three types of design: repeated measures,
independent measures and matched pairs.
Independent measures
Each participant takes part in one group/condition of the independent variable.
▼ Table 5.3 Evaluating independent measures designs
Strengths
Weaknesses
Validity: There are no order effects as participants take
part in only one condition e.g. fatigue, boredom, or
practice effects.
Validity: More participants are needed to gather data.
Validity: Less chances of demand characteristics:
participants are less likely to guess the aim.
Validity: There is no control for participant variables.
For example, participants in one group may be naturally
better at the task given.
One way to eliminate participant variables is to randomly allocate participants to
conditions. Random allocation is done by tossing a coin or allowing a computer to
allocate groups.
Links to studies
» Andrade (doodling) randomly allocated participants to either the doodle or the
non-doodle condition.
» Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans) tested participants with either an ill or a
drunk victim.
Repeated measures
Each participant takes part in all conditions of the independent variable.
▼ Table 5.4 Evaluating repeated measures designs
Strengths
Weaknesses
Validity: Participant variables are
controlled as the same people do both
conditions.
Validity: Order effects can occur.
Chances of demand characteristics are
increased.
Fewer participants are needed, which is
useful if samples are limited.
Apparatus may need duplicating – for
example, for two variations of a test.
One way to eliminate order effects is to counterbalance conditions. Each condition
is tested first in equal amounts. So half the participants first experience condition A
and then condition B, while the other half of participants first experience condition
B and then condition A.
STUDY TIP
Include examples of
studies using different
experimental designs
in your revision notes.
How are they identified
as that design? For
example, Hassett et al.
used an independent
measures design to
compare male rhesus
monkeys with female
rhesus monkeys.
Pozzulo et al. used an
independent measures
design to compare
young children to
adults.
Links to studies
» Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) compared recall of dreams from REM and
NREM sleep with each participant.
» Perry et al. (personal space) tested all participants with and without oxytocin.
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SKILLS BUILDER
Xiu is carrying out a laboratory experiment to
investigate the effect of lighting on attention.
Participants took part in either a brightly lit or a dimly
lit room and completed a listening task to test attention
levels. Suggest one participant variable that could
affect Xiu’s experiment.
[2]
Imagine carrying out this research before
answering the question. This will help you think
about the process participants would go through.
Clearly state a participant variable which could
impact Xiu’s experiment (e.g. participants could
have different levels of listening skills so the
task may be easier for some). Then say how this
participant variable could affect the results (e.g.
differences in scores on the listening task may
be due to the pre-existing listening skills of the
participant).
Matched pairs
Participants are matched for variables that could affect the results. Then, each
participant takes part in only one condition of the independent variable.
▼ Table 5.5 Evaluating matched pairs designs
Strengths
Weaknesses
Validity: Participant variables are
controlled.
Validity: It is questionable whether all
relevant variables can be matched.
Validity: There are no problems with
order effects.
It can be difficult (and time-consuming)
to find and match participants.
Links to studies
» Bandura et al. (aggression) matched children on pre-existing levels of
aggression.
» Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test) matched 14 individuals from the general
population on IQ in Group 4 with the AS or HFA participants in Group 1.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
5.3 Outline what is meant by order effects using any example.
[4]
5.4 Erla is conducting an experiment to investigate if people enjoy a movie
more if they have read a positive review before the film. Ten participants
were asked to read a positive review before watching the film and ten
participants did not read a review before watching the film. After the film,
they were asked to rate how much they enjoyed the film
a Briefly explain the experimental design used in Erla’s experiment. [2]
b Explain one disadvantage of using this experimental design for this
study.
[3]
SKILLS
BUILDER
In Baron-Cohen et al.
(eyes test), explain one
reason for having a
matched pairs
design.
[2]
You need to provide
an explanation of
why Baron-Cohen et
al. used a matched
pairs design. Show
your knowledge of
the study by including
details of the sample
in the matched groups.
Consider the strengths
of the design when
justifying it to show
your understanding of
research design.
Baron-Cohen et
al. used a matched
pairs design in
Group 4 to eliminate
the confounding
influence of other
variables (Generic)
– for example, the
effect of intelligence
quotient on theory of
mind (Link).
5.1.3 Randomised control trials
Referred to as the ‘gold standard’ for clinical and health research. Randomised
control trials (RCTs) use a variety of techniques to increase validity when testing a
new drug, treatment or intervention.
» Researchers can isolate the cause of any improvement to ensure it is due to the
drug rather than the expectancy effect.
» Participants are randomly allocated to either the experimental condition
(real drug/intervention) or the control condition (placebo drug/intervention).
» The placebo group is administered a treatment with no active ingredients.
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5 Research methodology
» Participants are not informed of which drug has been given (real drug or
placebo), known as a single-blind design.
» Measures of clinical symptoms are taken before and after treatment.
» Placebo groups may experience significant improvement over time (the placebo
effect). Any significant difference in the improvement between the experimental
and control groups will be due to the independent variable (the active ingredient
in the real drug).
» In a double-blind design, participants and researchers (measuring the severity
of participants’ symptoms) are unaware of whether the participants are in the
placebo group or the treatment group.
NOW TEST
YOURSELF
5.5 Outline what is
meant by the
placebo effect.[2]
SKILLS BUILDER
Katarzyna would like to test the success of a new
drug to support patients with anxiety. Suggest why a
randomised control trial would be a suitable method. [2]
Clearly outline the benefit of using this method. For
example, ‘Katarzyna is able to isolate the cause of
any improvement by using a single-blind design.’
Link to Katarzyna’s research to show a developed
understanding: ‘This ensures any improvement
in anxiety is due to the new drug rather than the
participant expecting anxiety to improve’.
▼ Table 5.6 Evaluating RCTs
Strengths
Weaknesses
Validity – there is increased objectivity as experimenter
bias and demand characteristics are reduced.
Ethics – valid informed consent is not possible. This
method is reliant on participants not knowing which
condition they are in.
Validity – interventions (e.g. treatments and therapies)
are tested in a controlled way.
Ethics – participants assigned to the control group do
not have access to treatments that could improve their
wellbeing.
SKILLS BUILDER
Chen has been suffering from chronic pain in his back.
He has been placed in a single-blind randomised
control trial to test the effectiveness of a new
physiotherapy on pain measures versus traditional
methods.
Explain one ethical issue relating to randomised
control trials. Refer to Chen in your answer.
[2]
Describe why it is an ethical issue and link clearly
to Chen. The ethical issue of valid informed
consent should be developed and clearly linked.
For example, ‘It is not possible for Chen to know if
he is in the new physiotherapy group or in receipt
of traditional treatment as participants are not
informed of their condition in a single-blind design.’
5.1.4 Self-reports: questionnaires
Self-reports allow participants to respond to questions about their beliefs and
opinions, and discuss their behaviours. Researchers should consider the method used
to ask questions (questionnaire or interview) and the format of the questions (open
or closed).
Features of questionnaires
» Questionnaires can be completed by hand or distributed digitally online.
» How questions are asked depends on the type of response/data the researcher wants.
» Data can be quantitative (numerical) or qualitative (with detail). There are
advantages and disadvantages to both these types of data (see pages 74–75).
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▼ Table 5.7 Evaluating questionnaires
STUDY TIP
Strengths
Weaknesses
Questionnaires can obtain views from
a large sample.
Participants may not elaborate on answers
when writing, limiting depth of the data.
Anonymity can lead to more honest
answers.
Participants may give socially desirable
answers, not reflecting their own views/beliefs.
Things to consider:
» Leading questions should be avoided to increase validity as these could suggest
a correct answer.
» Questions should be clear and understandable, so they should be checked to
avoid ambiguity.
» Anything offensive or upsetting in the questions should be avoided to prevent
distress to participants.
SKILLS BUILDER
Ezra is planning a case study of a child with a phobia of balloons. Suggest one way
Ezra could collect data from the child’s parents, other than by interview.
[2]
Have you conducted
a questionnaire? An
effective way to learn
more about this method
is to carry out your
own study. You can
create questionnaires
online using websites,
or write one by hand
and distribute face
to face. Pick a topic
you want to learn
more about (phobias,
personal space or even
current issues, such as
attitudes about climate
change). Once data is
collected, evaluate what
went well and what
barriers to success you
experienced.
Although this question does not state self-report, this is the only way to gather
data on a person’s attitudes, opinions or experience – so an alternative selfreport method other than interview should be suggested.
You could develop your answer by referring to types of questions asked or how
it would be distributed to the parents. For example, ‘A questionnaire could be
sent to parents through the post asking them to detail which types of balloons
the child is most frightened of.’
Question types
Closed questions
Closed questions offer pre-determined answers for the participant to choose from.
There are several forms:
» Yes/No – for example, Do you doodle while carrying out tasks? Yes/No
» Category choice – for example, How many times do you doodle per week? 1–5,
6–10, 11–15, 16+
» Likert/rating scale – participants circle/tick the response to show the extent
they agree with a statement. For example:
I find doodling while working increases my concentration.
Circle the response that best fits your view:
1
2
3
4
5
1 = Completely disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neither agree nor disagree, 4 = Agree, 5 = Completely agree
A simple yes/no response may not provide options reflecting the participants’
experiences with doodling, lowering validity. A Likert/rating scale allows
participants to provide more perspective.
Dichotomous questions (with two answers) can be helpful if you want the
participant to ignore questions not relevant to them. For example, ‘If yes, please
answer questions 2–4’ (developing on their experience of doodling). ‘If no, please
continue to question 5.’
Forced/fixed-choice scales do not allow answers like ‘unsure/undecided’ and are
intended to ‘force’ the participant to make a response (e.g. Kouzes and Posner’s
Leadership Practices Inventory; see page 238).
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5 Research methodology
▼ Table 5.8 Evaluating closed questions
Strengths
Weaknesses
Data is quantitative and can be analysed
(e.g. mean, median, range) and displayed
visually (e.g. using a bar chart).
A limited choice of categories can reduce
validity.
Forced choice questions prevent
participants from avoiding questions.
Participants may not be able to freely
express their opinions.
Open questions
» Participants can express their opinion freely without pre-determined responses.
» ‘Why’, ‘describe’ and ‘how’ are used in the questions to give detailed, qualitative
answers.
▼ Table 5.9 Evaluating open questions
Strengths
Weaknesses
Data is qualitative so can give more insight. Data is harder to analyse.
Participants can give different opinions,
allowing researchers to understand the
complexity of an issue.
Data may be open to interpretation.
SKILLS BUILDER
Milgram (obedience) interviewed participants at the
end of the study. Suggest why it could have been better
for Milgram to conduct a questionnaire.
[2]
This question requires you to show understanding
about what could have been done differently in
the research by Milgram. Review the differences
between these two self-report methods and in your
answer recognise the benefits of questionnaires in
relation to Milgram’s investigation. For instance,
questionnaires would ensure the same questions
are asked to each participant, unlike unstructured
interviews which vary questions between
participants.
Questionnaire distribution
Online: sending out email requests/online advertisements to complete online.
» Strength: access to a large group and easily completed/returned.
» Weakness: only targets those online.
In person: approaching face to face and asking them to complete there and then.
» Strength: lower costs.
» Weakness: limits the sample to those available at the time.
Postal: sent via the postal system to be returned.
» Strength: can target specific groups.
» Weakness: expensive and takes time for people to return.
Links to studies
» Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans) used the Five Facets of Mindfulness
Questionnaire (FFMQ).
» Pozzulo et al. (line-ups) asked parents to estimate how long their child spent
watching cartoons each week via a questionnaire.
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SKILLS BUILDER
Hasna is planning a questionnaire to investigate the
use of social media by teenagers (aged 13–18 years).
Describe how Hasna could conduct this study to collect
quantitative and qualitative data.
[10]
Key features of self-reports you could include in
your answer:
» Detail the procedure (including instructions).
» Identify the question format (both open and
closed to collect quantitative and qualitative data).
» Identify the total amount of questions.
»Outline what questions will be asked (e.g. How
many minutes per day do you use social media
accounts?).
»Outline question scoring and interpretation of
key questions.
Highlight the use of a questionnaire by describing
how it could be distributed (online, in person, by post).
NOW TEST YOURSELF
5.6 Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans)
gave participants a questionnaire to measure
the five facets of mindfulness. Explain how the
use of this measure affected reliability in this
study.
[2]
5.7 Alfie is using a questionnaire to investigate
parents’ opinions on toy preferences in young
children.
a Suggest one closed question that Alfie could
use in his investigation.
[2]
b Suggest one disadvantage of using a
questionnaire in this study.
[2]
5.1.5 Self-reports: interviews
Types of interview
Structured
Fixed questions are pre-prepared and every participant receives the same questions
in the same order.
» Strength: standardised as all participants receive the same questions, increasing
reliability.
» Weakness: do not allow participants to elaborate on interesting answers.
Unstructured
There is no pre-preparation. Questions are asked depending on the direction in
which the discussion goes.
» Strength: allow researchers to gain an insight into the area they are researching,
not constrained by set questions.
» Weakness: there is more risk of researcher bias.
Semi-structured
Some structured questions and some unstructured questions:
» Strength: allow researchers to gain insight into the area.
» Weakness: at more risk of researcher bias.
SKILLS BUILDER
Nadine is conducting a study about people’s experience
of back pain. Nadine plans to collect data using a
questionnaire. Suggest one reason why it may be
better for her to use an interview to collect this data. [2]
When considering answers, think of the group
being studied and why an interview would be more
accessible to this group. For example, with this
target sample:
64
» People with bad back pain may find writing
answers more difficult than talking about it.
» With interviews, researchers can tailor
questions to the individual’s needs, making
questions more fitting to that person’s
experience of back pain.
»Non-verbal cues can be noted (grimaces/facial
expressions), which may indicate pain being
experienced.
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5 Research methodology
Access to participants
Telephone: can be quicker and more cost-effective than face-to-face interviews,
as travel to meet participants is not required. Some participants may not feel
comfortable speaking over the phone and less willing to speak indepth. However,
there are no non-verbal signals (e.g. facial expressions) in the conversation as it is
not face-to-face.
Face to face: researchers can gather information on non-verbal communication (e.g.
gesture, posture), increasing the validity and providing cues about emotional state.
Face-to-face interviews may be impractical for those with limited mobility or
transport.
▼ Table 5.10 Evaluating interviews
Strengths
Weaknesses
Interviews can gather rich, in-depth data. There is an increased likelihood of socially
desirable answers as participants will be
afraid of being judged.
The participant can explain their
behaviour.
Researchers have to be cautious of
leading questions.
Links to studies
» Milgram (obedience) conducted interviews with participants after the study to
ask them about their obedience.
» Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) occasionally interviewed participants
after their dream recall.
Psychometric tests
» Psychometric means ‘measure of mind’.
» Psychometric tests are designed to be valid and reliable measures of individual
differences (e.g. personality, aptitude, knowledge or skills).
» They are standardised on large samples to establish average scores.
» Individual scores can be compared to the norm, revealing whether they score
higher or lower than average. Valid psychometrics provide a range of scores (very
low to very high), giving a normal distribution.
» Some tests do not differentiate between people well (e.g. the range of scores
is low).
If the majority of scores are high, there is a ceiling effect as people are unable to
achieve any higher.
If everyone receives a low score, this is known as a floor effect.
These effects lower validity as participants cannot be ranked. An intelligence test,
for example, must not be too hard (to avoid floor effects) or too easy (to avoid
ceiling effects).
▼ Table 5.11 Evaluating psychometric tests
Strengths
Weaknesses
Psychometric tests use numerical data,
which is objective.
Participants may respond to demand
characteristics.
Individuals can be tested against the
normal distribution of the population.
If assessed under stress, it can affect
performance.
Links to studies
» Baron-Cohen et al. (Eyes Test) used the Revised Eyes Test to measure theory of
mind.
» Perry et al. (personal space) used the Interpersonal Reactivity Index to measure
empathy levels.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Saavedra and
Silverman (button
phobia) conducted an
interview to investigate
the phobia of a nineyear-old boy. Outline
how Saavedra and
Silverman conducted
their interview.
[2]
Key terms could
be used to show
understanding of the
method. Saavedra
and Silverman
utilised a semistructured interview
with the boy and his
mother using the
Anxiety Disorders
Inventory Schedule.
This method allowed
the researchers to
assess the criteria
for diagnosis of
phobia.
NOW TEST
YOURSELF
5.8 Describe two
disadvantages of
self-reports. [4]
5.9 Perry et al.
(personal
space) used a
psychometric
measure (the
Interpersonal
Reactivity Index)
to measure
cognitive
and affective
dimensions of
empathy. Outline
one strength
of using a
psychometric
test in this study.
[2]
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5.1.6 Case studies
Features of case studies
» Case studies are detailed investigations involving a single ‘unit’: one individual
or a group/organisation of people.
» This type of study is useful when researching rare cases.
» Data is gathered using a number of different techniques (interviews,
observations and psychometric tests). Triangulation is often used.
» Data is often gathered over an extended period of time (making them
longitudinal studies).
» Both qualitative and quantitative data can be gathered.
» Data can be gathered from the participants but also from family, friends and
official records (school, psychiatric, workplace, etc.).
» Case study reports often begin with a case history.
STUDY TIP
Active learning skills can
be developed leading
to improvements in
understanding. Become
more involved in the
information reviewed
by critically evaluating
it. Consider the
implications and note any
questions you have about
the material covered.
SKILLS BUILDER
Parminder is studying a man who has problems with
his short-term memory. He is unable to remember
new people or facts. Parminder is collecting data using
techniques including interviews and observations.
Suggest one advantage of using a case study in this
[2]
study.
Acknowledging that the individual can be studied
in detail is correct, but also basic. To fully answer
the question, link your answer to the scenario. For
example, ‘By looking in depth at the case of shortterm memory loss, Parminder gains a greater
insight into how he is affected using interviews and
observations to gather detailed data. She can learn
about which parts of his memory are most affected
(people, places, routines) and the impact this has on
his everyday life.’
Link to study
Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia) documented the clinical case of a nine-yearold Hispanic-American boy’s phobia of buttons. The treatment using exposure-based
cognitive-behavioural therapy and interviews with the boy and his mother were
included.
SKILLS BUILDER
Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test) conducted a laboratory experiment to investigate
the theory of mind of adults with high-functioning autism. Alternatively, they could
have conducted a case study. Explain why using a case study would have been
less suitable for this research.
[2]
You could develop an answer to this question by justifying why a case study
would be inappropriate based on the research aims.
For example, ‘Baron-Cohen et al. tested adults with autism to see if the
revised eye test works. A large sample was needed so results could be
generalised to the wider target population of individuals with autism. If a case
study was used in this research, improvements in the test would not have been
shown and findings could not be generalised to others.’
▼ Table 5.12 Evaluating case studies
66
Strengths
Weaknesses
Validity – a case study provides rich and
detailed information giving insight into
an individual’s psychology.
Validity – researcher bias can occur as
they work closely with the participant.
There would be less objectivity.
Validity – triangulation of methods helps
reduce researcher bias and increases
validity.
Reliability – case studies are difficult to
replicate as they are detailed analyses of
one individual/small group.
NOW TEST
YOURSELF
5.10Outline one
strength and
one weakness
of conducting
a case study,
using Saavedra
and Silverman
(button phobia)
as an example.
[4]
5.11 Lance is
planning a case
study of a girl
with autism
to investigate
her social
interactions.
Suggest how
Lance could use
two different
techniques to
collect data in
his case study.[4]
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5 Research methodology
5.1.7 Observation
Features of observations
» Data is collected through observing (watching) participants with the aim of
recording the behaviour shown.
» Key features of observation are based on participant awareness, observer roles,
data collection and setting.
Overt or covert
This feature concerns what participants are aware of:
» Overt observation is when the participants know they are being observed.
» Covert observation is where the participants do not know they are being observed.
▼ Table 5.13 Evaluating overt and covert observations
Strengths
Weaknesses
Overt observations are more ethical
as participants know they are being
observed, which avoids deception.
Overt observations may produce demand
characteristics as participants know they
are being watched so may act unnaturally.
Covert observations avoid demand
characteristics as participants do not
know they are being observed.
Covert observations are less ethical as
participants do not know they are being
observed and cannot withdraw.
STUDY TIP
Hassett et al. (monkey
toy preferences) carried
out observations of
rhesus monkeys in
the outdoor area of
their enclosure at
the research centre.
Carry out your own
observation on a variety
of animal species using
live feeds from the
Smithsonian’s National
Zoo and Conservation
Biology Institute:
https://nationalzoo.
si.edu/webcams
Participant or non-participant
This feature concerns the observer’s role in the setting of the observation:
» Participant observation is when the observer becomes part of the community
(or group of people) they wish to observe (can be overt or covert).
» Non-participant observation is when the observer is not a part of the group and
they observe from a distance (can also be overt or covert).
▼ Table 5.14 Evaluating participant and non-participant observations
Strengths
Weaknesses
Participant observers may gain a greater understanding of the Participant observers may become too involved with
participants’ behaviour as they are involved in the situation. those they are observing and become less objective.
Non-participant observers are more likely to be objective as
they are not personally involved in the situation.
Non-participant observers may miss behaviours as
they are observing from a distance.
SKILLS BUILDER
Rosie is using an observation to investigate children’s play behaviour in a public
park. Outline one ethical issue of this research.
[2]
Consider ethical guidelines and put them into context. Rosie is conducting her
observation in a public park. This does not pose an issue of informed consent
as people should expect to be observed in public. Therefore, Rosie could focus
on privacy and maintaining confidentiality of participants (e.g. not revealing
identifiable features of the park or children).
Structured or unstructured
This feature concerns the data collected:
» Structured observations have behavioural checklists in place before beginning
the observation. A tally is kept of behaviours. Researchers plan what will be
observed.
» Unstructured observations do not include planning before the observation and the
observer records behaviour that is relevant to the aim of the research as it occurs.
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▼ Table 5.15 Evaluating structured and unstructured observations
Strengths
Weaknesses
Unstructured observations can be part of a pilot study, giving Within an unstructured observation, it can be
an overview of the range of behaviours.
difficult to record all behaviour.
Structured observations are more reliable than unstructured
ones as the behaviours are decided in advance and
operationalised. Inter-rater reliability can be assessed.
Structured observations may not include all relevant
actions within the behavioural categories.
Link to study
Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans) recorded whether the helpers where male/female
and black/white using a pre-determined checklist.
Naturalistic or controlled
This feature concerns the setting of the observation:
» Naturalistic observations are conducted in real-world settings.
» Controlled observations are conducted in laboratory settings.
▼ Table 5.16 Evaluating naturalistic and controlled observations
Strengths
Weaknesses
Naturalistic observations record behaviour that is likely
to be normal, increasing ecological validity.
Naturalistic observations are harder to control for
extraneous variables that may affect participants’
behaviour, lowering the validity.
Controlled observations can be replicated by others when
using the same behaviour schedule.
Controlled observations may be less natural if
participants are aware of the controlled setting.
SKILLS BUILDER
Darcie is aiming to observe emotional responses
to different films at the cinema. She is planning a
structured observation with fixed behaviours to record.
Describe how Darcie could conduct her study.
[10]
Key features of observations could be included to
develop your answer:
»Review the location of research (naturalistic,
cinema, types of screening).
» Detail the role the researcher will play in
research (participant or non-participant).
» Describe how collection of data will be
structured (behavioural checklist).
»Outline whether it will be a covert or
overt observation.
Highlight it as an observation, so describe the
behavioural categories (emotional responses and
how they are recognisable).
Links to studies
» Bandura et al. (aggression) used covert observation – the children did not know
they were being observed. It was a non-participant observation as a one-way
mirror was used. It was a controlled observation in a laboratory setting (same
toys and timings). It was a structured observation as a behavioural checklist was
used (imitative physical aggression).
» Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans) was a covert observation – the passengers
did not know they were being observed. It was a participant observation as the
model and observers were bystanders and passengers. It was structured as each
observer recorded pre-determined items (race, sex, location of helpers, etc.) and
naturalistic as the subway was an everyday situation for the participants.
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5 Research methodology
NOW TEST YOURSELF
5.12 Give one similarity and one difference in the type of observations
conducted by Bandura et al. (aggression) and Piliavin et al. (subway
Samaritans).
[4]
5.13 George wants to investigate doodling behaviour of children in the
classroom. He has decided to conduct an overt observation. Suggest
why carrying out a covert observation would be better for George’s
investigation.
[4]
5.1.8 Correlations
(b) Negative correlation
(a) Positive correlation
(c) No correlation
5
5
5
4
4
4
3
3
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
STUDY TIP
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
▲ Figure 5.1 Correlations can be shown clearly on a scatter graph
Mistakes are important
when learning and
should be seen as
opportunities to identify
gaps in knowledge.
This is a key skill
for becoming an
independent learner.
Features of correlations
» Correlational studies look at the relationship between variables.
» Variables that are correlated are called co-variables.
» For each participant, two sets of data are gathered which can be plotted on a
scatter graph to see the correlation between the two measures.
» Correlations are often used to investigate topics where it is not practical or
ethical to manipulate variables.
» Various methods are used to collect data in correlations (questionnaire,
observation, etc.).
Links to studies
» Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) investigated the relationship between
time spent in REM sleep and the number of words in a dream narrative.
» Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans) investigated the relationship between
time spent on mindfulness exercises and increases in grey matter concentration.
» Baron-Cohen et al. (Revised Eyes Test) investigated the relationship between
Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) and Revised Eyes Test scores.
Operationally defining co-variables
Co-variables should be operationalised by stating what the variables are and how
they will be measured. For example:
» Co-variable 1: scores on a test (out of 50).
» Co-variable 2: amount of hours spent revising in one week.
Clearly operationalised variables allow for testable hypotheses.
Positive, negative and no correlation
Correlations can be positive or negative. This is how the variables interact with
each other.
Positive correlation (Figure 5.1, left) is when the scores of co-variables move in the
same direction (increase or decrease together). For example, Dement and Kleitman
(sleep and dreams) found the amount of words used to describe a dream increased as
the time spent in REM sleep increased.
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Negative correlation (Figure 5.1, middle) is when the scores of the co-variables
move in opposing directions (as one increases, the other decreases). For example,
Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test) found that the higher the autism spectrum quotient,
the lower the score on the revised eye test.
No correlation (Figure 5.1, right) is when no consistent relationship is found
between scores. For example, Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans) found no
correlation in the time spent on mindfulness activities between the weekly MBSR
sessions and grey matter concentration.
SKILLS BUILDER
Kayden is testing the hypothesis that ‘There will be
a positive correlation between level of brain activity
and how much a person can recall.’ Each participant
is asked to describe an event that happened one week
ago while having their brain scanned.
Explain whether Kayden will be able to conclude that
greater recall causes more brain activity.
[2]
Begin an explanation with what is known: ‘Kayden is
looking for a relationship between variables.’
Develop your answer with knowledge and
understanding of the weakness of correlational
studies. `You cannot demonstrate cause and
effect relationships from correlations as there
may be intervening variables explaining why the
co-variables are linked’. Clearly link back to the
scenario as ‘In Kayden’s research, brain activity
may be affected by other variables, such as caffeine
intake or amount of sleep.’
Correlation coefficient
The correlation coefficient is a number between 0 and 1 that expresses how strong a
correlation is. If the number is close to 0, there is no close relationship between the
two variables.
The closer the coefficient is to 1 (for a positive correlation) or –1 (for a negative
correlation), the stronger the correlation is. A correlation of +0.75/–0.75 is
considered a strong correlation.
▼ Table 5.17 Evaluating correlations
Strengths
Weaknesses
Correlations can provide information that
may prompt further research.
Correlations do not tell us why that
relationship has occurred. Causality
cannot be assumed.
Correlations allow areas to be researched
when it is impractical or unethical to
manipulate variables.
A third variable not being measured may
have influenced the relationship.
SKILLS BUILDER
70
Willow wants to investigate how physically active
people are, and she believes that this may be related
to how happy they are. Describe how Willow could
conduct a correlational study to investigate the
relationship between how physically active people are
and how happy they are.
[10]
» Describe the tests involved.
»Outline the procedures used to collect data
Key features of correlations could be included in an
answer:
»Review how the co-variables will be measured
(fully operationalise).
» identifying the use of a scatter graph and
(standardised).
You could highlight it as a correlation by:
» including a reference to positive, negative or no
correlation in a hypothesis
coefficient score to analyse data.
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5 Research methodology
NOW TEST YOURSELF
5.14 Explain why a researcher in a correlational
study could not conclude a causal
relationship between variables.
[2]
5.15 Jean-Luc is planning to investigate if amount
of exercise affects quality of sleep.
a Suggest one reason why it is more
appropriate to conduct a correlational
study than an experiment to test this
idea.
[2]
b Explain what the term positive correlation
means with reference to Jean-Luc’s
investigation.
[2]
5.1.9 Longitudinal studies
Features of longitudinal studies
» Longitudinal design describes studies conducted over an extended period of time.
» Successive measures at different points in time can track the development of
individuals.
» Changes in thoughts, feelings and/or behaviours can be documented.
» Various techniques can be used (psychometrics, experiments, questionnaires, etc.).
SKILLS BUILDER
Huang is testing the effectiveness of a programme designed to increase school
attendance in children aged 8–11 years old. Attendance is reviewed every four
weeks. Suggest how validity may be affected by using a longitudinal design within
this study.
[2]
STUDY TIP
Time is an important
feature for this method.
It is also important to
keep track of time in
your AS and A Level
studies. Have you
written a revision
timetable? Calculate the
time you have available
and divide the time you
have between topics in
your assessment.
Validity is how well a measure actually measures what it intends to measure.
It can be affected positively and negatively, so strengths can be considered.
For example, participant effects are avoided as the same group of participants
are followed in longitudinal designs. In Huang’s research, the same children’s
attendance is reviewed every four weeks.
Links to studies
» Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans) collected data over an eight-week
period to compare the effectiveness of MBSR.
» Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia) assessed the boy’s behaviour before,
during and after treatment, including follow-up sessions at 6 and 12 months.
▼ Table 5.18 Evaluating longitudinal studies
Strengths
Weaknesses
Longitudinal studies have an advantage over crosssectional studies, where sub-samples from a population
are tested and compared at the same point in time.
Therefore, longitudinal designs do not have participant
variables as the same individuals are followed over time.
Participant attrition is more likely as participants may
move away or lose contact.
Longitudinal studies allow topics such as child
development to be studied.
Temporal validity may impact on the findings as social
changes occur.
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SKILLS BUILDER
John is interested in testing the cognitive abilities of 6-7- and 8-year-olds. He is
interested in their mathematics, reasoning and problem-solving abilities. Describe
how John can conduct a longitudinal study to investigate the development of
these cognitive abilities.
[10]
»Review when the children will be tested (independent variable).
» Highlight the cognitive tests to assess the children at each age (a maths
test, a reasoning task and a problem-solving task). Develop these into the
procedure of the study.
» Describe the sample (size of sample, sample method).
»Outline the procedures used to collect data from each child (standardised).
Highlight it as a longitudinal study, so include reference to revisiting the same
sample to retest and compare their scores from previous tests.
NOW TEST
YOURSELF
5.16 Explain one
strength of
longitudinal
studies relating
to validity. [2]
5.17 Explain how
Saavedra and
Silverman
(button
phobia) used
a longitudinal
design.
[2]
5.2 Methodological concepts
5.2.1 Aims, hypotheses and variables
Aims
An aim is a statement describing the purpose of research. For example, Fagen et al.
(elephant learning) aimed to investigate whether secondary positive reinforcement
could be used to train elephants to complete a trunk wash.
Hypotheses
A hypothesis is a testable statement predicting the outcome(s) of an investigation.
For example, Perry et al. (personal space) predicted preferred interpersonal distance
following oxytocin administration would differ depending on whether the person
was high or low in empathy.
Operationalisation
Variables need to be operationalised. This means clearly defining the independent
variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV) in an experiment or the co-variables in a
correlation.
STUDY TIP
Knowledge of our
cognitive processes
(‘How am I thinking
about this?’) and
questioning (‘Would it
be better if I thought
about this differently?’)
is needed in A Level
revision. This gives
us the opportunity
to monitor thinking
processes relating to
our learning.
Operational definitions are needed to describe how the variables will be observed
or measured.
A researcher interested in the effects of sleep deprivation (IV) on level of stress
(DV) must consider the following:
» What is sleep deprivation? Is it missing one night’s sleep or is it having less than
10 hours’ sleep over a 72-hour period?
» How will the level of stress be measured – a score from a questionnaire or a
physiological measure (e.g. heart rate monitor, beats per minute)?
Making these choices clear in the hypothesis is operationally defining the variables.
Types of hypotheses and how to recognise them
» Experimental hypothesis: predict an outcome for experiments (IV and DV
present).
‘Participants who experience 24 hours’ sleep deprivation will have significantly
higher levels of stress as measured by a heart rate monitor compared to
participants who experience no sleep deprivation.’
» Alternative hypothesis: the alternative to the null hypothesis (see below) and
used for all types of research (including correlations).
‘There will be a significant relationship between the reaction time in seconds
and amount of sugar consumed (in grams) in the previous two hours.’
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5 Research methodology
» Directional hypothesis: states the kind of difference/correlation – higher/lower,
better/worse or positive/negative.
» Non-directional hypothesis: states there will be a difference/correlation but does
not state the direction of the difference, effect or relationship.
» Null hypotheses: states that results are due to chance (no significant
relationship/difference) and lack statistical significance.
SKILLS BUILDER
Liam’s hypothesis is: There will be no significant difference between performance
on a test in the morning compared to the afternoon. Identify whether this is an
experimental or a null hypothesis. Include a reason for your answer.
[2]
Give a justification for the decision in your answer. Identify the type of
hypothesis clearly: ‘Liam’s hypothesis is a null hypothesis.’ You could then
explain your reason: ‘This is because Liam has stated there will be no
difference between performance on a test in the morning compared to the
afternoon.’
Data analysis
Inferential statistics show the probability (p value) that the results are due to chance.
Data analysis shows which hypothesis should be accepted (alternative or null).
When analysis is complete, the researchers will reject the null hypothesis if the p
value is less than 0.05 (1 in 20) and accept it if it is more than 0.05 (1 in 20).
SKILLS BUILDER
Describe different types of hypotheses in research, using any examples.
[6]
Include key terms as you review at least three types of hypotheses to show an
understanding of the various types used in research. Structure your answer
to make your description of each type of hypothesis clear. For example, a
directional hypothesis predicts (Terminology) which level of the IV will perform
‘better’ in an experiment (Outline). Dement and Kleitman predicted more
dreams would occur in REM sleep than NREM sleep (Example).
NOW TEST
YOURSELF
5.18 Bandura et al.
(aggression)
hypothesised
that observing a
non-aggressive
model
would inhibit
aggressive
behaviour.
Identify
whether this is
a directional or
non-directional
hypothesis.
Justify your
answer.
[2]
5.19 Sara wants to
see whether
confidence in
their doctors
affects people’s
adherence
to medical
requests.
Write an
operationalised,
directional
hypothesis for
Sara’s study. [2]
5.2.2 Controlling of variables
A teacher conducts a study to find out whether students can complete revision
effectively while listening to music. The study involves two groups: ‘revision in
silence’ and ‘revision with music’:
» IV: music or no music
» DV: score on the test.
The teacher wants to know the effect of the IV (music during revision) on the DV
(test scores).
STUDY TIP
Within your revision
timetable, plan in time
for breaks, rewards and
a good amount of sleep.
Revision is best when
well rested.
But what if other factors affected the DV? The room the groups are tested in
might be different (one cooler than the other), which could affect students’
attention.
Consequently, the teacher would not have tested what they intended to test.
Instead, the influence of another (extraneous) variable could be the cause of any
difference found.
Control is important for validity. Therefore, experimenters should control as many
extraneous variables as possible.
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Standardisation
One control is to standardise the procedure to ensure participants have the same
experience.
» The only difference should be what is manipulated (the independent variable).
» Participants should be given the same information and instructions.
SKILLS BUILDER
Explain one control used in the research by Bandura et al. (aggression).
[3]
One control in Bandura et al.’s research was the use of a matched pairs
design. An explanation of why it was used (‘to control for participant variables’)
could be given. To develop your answer further, justify why: ‘Matching children
in each group based on pre-existing levels of aggression ensures all groups
have an equal level of aggression before beginning the test. This lowers the
chance of participant variables affecting the dependent variable (imitative
aggression), increasing validity.’
Uncontrolled variables
Situational variables
» Factors in the environment can act as extraneous variables.
» In the example above, participants in the ‘no music’ condition may have taken
the test in a different room with more distractions, which could have affected
their test scores.
» Situational variables can be controlled using standardised procedures, ensuring
the same conditions for all participants.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Define situational and
participant variables,
using any examples.[6]
These questions
will stretch your
knowledge and
understanding of key
concepts in research.
Here you could
show a developed
understanding of
both situational and
participant variables
by elaborating and
giving clear examples
from research.
Balance is important
in your answer.
Dedicate time to both
types of variable.
Participant variables
» The participants in one group may be different from participants in the other
group in important ways.
» In the example above, one group may have higher levels of confidence in
the subject on the test. Intelligence and experience are characteristics of
participants that are variable.
» Participant variables can be controlled using random allocation to groups, a
matched pairs design or a repeated measures design giving an even spread of
important characteristics.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
5.20Outline what is meant by controlled variables.
5.21Orla is investigating whether there is a difference in employees’
performance working in teams rather than alone. Suggest how
participant variables may affect her results.
[2]
[2]
5.2.3 Types of data
Quantitative data
» Quantitative data describes human behaviour and experience using numbers and
statistical analysis.
» Quantitative data can be measured.
» Examples include: a score recorded for each participant, the time taken to
complete a task.
74
STUDY TIP
Organise your notes
into knowledge and
understanding,
application, and analysis
and evaluation. Use
different coloured pens
and highlighters to help
separate revision notes.
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5 Research methodology
▼ Table 5.19 Evaluating quantitative data
Strengths
Weaknesses
Scores can be compared. Results can be
compared if the study is replicated.
It does not always allow us to understand
what a participant is thinking or feeling.
Scales may limit how participants can
respond, reducing validity.
Numbers and statistics are more objective
and less prone to researcher bias.
It reduces behaviour to a single number,
failing to find out why a participant has
behaved a particular way.
It is more scientific as statistical tests
can be conducted.
Link to study
Andrade (doodling) recorded the mean number of correctly recalled names and
places, false alarms and memory scores.
Qualitative data
» Qualitative data deals with descriptive, in-depth detail of behaviour and
experience.
» Qualitative data is not measured.
» Examples include: descriptions of events, quotes from participants, descriptions
of responses to a task.
Some studies produce a mixture of qualitative and quantitative data.
▼ Table 5.20 Evaluating qualitative data
Strengths
Weaknesses
Data provides an in-depth understanding
of the thoughts and feelings of
participants.
Analysis is prone to researcher bias as the
interpretation is more subjective.
Data can be rich in detail and insightful,
so not reductionist.
Statistical analysis cannot be made, so it
is less scientific.
Researchers can gain an understanding of
why people behave in a particular way.
Studies are harder to replicate so findings
can be less reliable.
Link to study
Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) gathered qualitative data through
participants’ descriptions of dreams.
Subjective data
» Subjective data can be influenced by personal thoughts, feelings or opinions.
» This is more likely with qualitative data, which requires interpretation.
» Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia) used an interview with responses given
on a ‘feelings thermometer’. This data is subjective as the boy with the button
phobia gave his own personal judgement as to which number represented his
feelings.
Objective data
» This is data that is unbiased and factual.
» Researchers can improve objectivity by getting another researcher to interpret
the data, removing researcher bias.
» Quantitative data is often thought of as objective. Some are and some aren’t. For
example, a rating scale requires a person to score themselves. This is quantitative
but it is subjective.
» Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans) collected data with an MRI scan using
voxel-based morphometry. Analysis of this data was objective.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Identify the
quantitative findings
from the research by
Piliavin et al. (subway
Samaritans).
[2]
One mistake that
might be made
is to review the
quantitative data
(demographic
characteristics,
frequency of helping)
rather than what was
found. For example,
90 per cent of
people helping were
male; the median
helping time in the
ill condition was 5
seconds and in the
drunk condition was
109 seconds.
NOW TEST
YOURSELF
5.22Outline what
is meant by
qualitative
data, using an
example.
[2]
5.23 Identify two
pieces of
quantitative
data collected
by Fagen et al.
[2]
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SKILLS BUILDER
Tristan is planning to investigate the types of dreams people have, using an
interview. He wants to collect both quantitative and qualitative data.
Describe how Tristan could conduct a semi-structured interview.
[10]
Key features of interviews you could include:
» Detail the procedure (including instructions).
» Identify the question format (both open and closed questions would be
needed to collect quantitative and qualitative data).
» Identify the total amount of questions.
»Outline what questions will be asked (e.g. How frequently do you have scary
dreams?).
» Detail the scoring and interpretation of questions.
Highlight it as an interview by describing whether it is a face-to-face or
telephone interview.
5.2.4 Sampling of participants
Sample and population
Researchers cannot test everyone. A sample is selected to represent the target
population and findings from the studied group should be generalisable to the
target population.
When evaluating generalisability of research, the sample tested and how it was
selected can be considered.
A researcher can choose from different sampling techniques to recruit participants.
STUDY TIP
Explaining concepts and
research to someone
else is a good test
of your knowledge.
Revising in pairs or in
groups will help develop
your understanding.
Sampling techniques
Opportunity: selecting those available at the time of research.
» Strength: a large sample can be obtained quickly and without much effort.
» Weakness: researchers may choose people who look suitable and therefore bias
the sample.
Link to study
Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans) recruited an opportunity sample of 33
right-handed, healthy adults from four MBSR courses at the Centre for Mindfulness.
SKILLS BUILDER
Sharmin is conducting research on the patient–
practitioner relationship at a local health centre. She
believes a random sample of patients would be the
best technique. Give one reason why a random sample
would be better than an opportunity sample in this
research.
[3]
You may want to explain why random sampling is
better in this situation and use key terms to show
your understanding. By conducting an opportunity
sample, Sharmin would use patients who are
attending the local health centre on the day she
chooses to carry out her research. It would be
those patients available at the time. This would
not be representative of all patients at the centre
as those seeing doctors and nurses on other
days would not be included. Sharmin could use a
computerised random patient generator to create,
a random sample of all patients registered at the
healthcare centre. This would make the findings
more generalisable to the target population.
Random: each participant is randomly selected from the target population. Every
member of the group has an equal chance of being selected (e.g. the names of
every member of the group is put in a hat and the required number of names is
picked out).
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5 Research methodology
» Strength: more likely to be representative.
» Weakness: some of the people picked may not want to take part and will need
replacing.
Volunteer (self-selecting): asking for volunteers to take part in research through
advertisements.
» Strength: useful when the research requires participants of a specific type or
with a particular experience.
» Weakness: people may not see the advert or make time to reply, or they may just
ignore it. Those who do volunteer may be different from those who do not choose
to volunteer.
Link to study
Milgram (obedience) used a newspaper advertisement in the New Haven district.
Volunteers responded to take part in an experiment on learning and memory.
SKILLS BUILDER
Outline the differences between an opportunity sample and a volunteer sample,
using any examples to support your answer.
[6]
To ensure your differences are clearly identifiable, you could use a sentence
starter such as ‘One difference between…’. This gives structure and makes
your points clear.
Differences can be about how participants are selected for research or
evaluative issues:
»Volunteer samples select themselves for research, whereas opportunity
samples are available at the location of research.
»Volunteer samples may have participant bias as those selecting themselves
will have different characteristics from those not wanting to take part.
However, opportunity samples may have researcher bias as participants
will be chosen by the researcher based on where the study is conducted.
NOW TEST
YOURSELF
5.24 Explain one
advantage of
the sampling
method used
in the study by
Milgram.
[2]
5.25 Jude is
carrying out an
investigation
into whether
college
students feel
happier during
the day if they
have had a
pleasant dream
the night
before. Suggest
one feature of
the participants
that Jude
should consider
to make
his sample
representative.
[2]
You could develop your answer by including relevant examples from the
studies reviewed to demonstrate the points made.
5.2.5 Ethics and human participants
Ethical guidelines
Guidelines on how to treat participants are set by institutions such as the British
Psychological Society and the American Psychological Association to maintain
respect for participants and ensure responsibility.
Valid consent
» Participants should be asked if they want to take part and be given relevant
information about what is involved.
» Consent should be provided before collecting data.
» All participants, including children, should consent.
» Vulnerable groups (including children) should have consent given by family
members/caregivers.
STUDY TIP
Locate a set of ethical
guidelines from the
website of the British
Psychological Society
or the American
Psychology Association
and use it to evaluate
the ethics of research.
Link to study
Milgram (obedience) failed to get informed consent as the participants thought they
were taking part in a study on learning and memory, not obedience to authority.
Right to withdraw
» Participants should be made aware they can withdraw from the study at any time
during or after data collection.
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» There should be no pressure for them to remain in the study.
» This cannot be granted if the participants do not know that they are being studied.
Link to study
Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans) denied the right to withdraw as participants were
unaware they were being tested on levels of helping.
Minimising harm
» Researchers must minimise harm to participants’ psychological wellbeing,
personal values, privacy or dignity and mental health.
» The risk of harm should be no greater than the participant might expect in their
everyday lives.
Link to study
Bandura et al. (aggression) exposed children to aggressive behaviour, which could
have led to negative consequences (children acting more aggressively).
Lack of deception
» Participants should not be deceived about the aims or misled about the study.
» The use of a stooge or confederate (such as in Milgram) would be considered
deception.
» It is difficult to conduct research without any deception, as knowing the true
aim can change a participant’s behaviour.
» When deception is involved, a full debrief is needed.
Link to study
Deception was used in Perry et al. (personal space). In Experiment 2, participants
were told they were choosing a room for a personal meeting. They were told the
following week that the meeting would not take place.
SKILLS
BUILDER
One ethical guideline
is the right to
withdraw. Explain
how this guideline
may have been broken
in one core study
from the Learning
approach.
[2]
Ensure the
study chosen is
appropriate. Fagen et
al. (elephant learning)
studied animals so
the ethical issue of
right to withdraw
does not apply.
Therefore, you could
discuss Saavedra and
Silverman (button
phobia) or Bandura et
al. (aggression).
Confidentiality
» Participants’ data should not be passed to others who are not involved in the
research and it should not be published in a way that would reveal their identity.
» Participants’ names should not be included with their data.
» In longitudinal research, a code number should be assigned to participants so
data can be connected when returning to the research.
Link to study
Saavedra and Silverman’s (button phobia) case study did not include the boy’s name.
Privacy
» Privacy is considered within observational research.
» Participants should only be observed in public situations where they might
expect to be observed by others.
» It is not acceptable to observe people in their own homes without consent.
» Consent is required from whoever owns/is responsible for the public space
(e.g. the manager of a supermarket).
Link to study
Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans) carried out an observation on a subway train. As
this was a public setting, privacy was not breached.
Debriefing
» Participants should be told what has happened, asked if they have concerns and
given explanations at the end of the study.
» Participants should leave the study in the same state they arrived.
Link to study
Andrade (doodling) debriefed participants to see if any had suspected it was a
memory test.
78
NOW TEST
YOURSELF
5.26 What is meant
by the term
confidentiality?
[2]
5.27Rosa is carrying
out a controlled
observation into
conformity. She
is not informing
participants of
the research.
Explain why it
is sometimes
necessary
to break the
guideline
of informed
consent, using
Rosa’s research
as an example.
[3]
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5 Research methodology
SKILLS BUILDER
Carys wants to interview young people about how environmental issues such as
climate change make them feel. One participant says that Carys’ questions are
too distressing. Explain two ethical guidelines that are important to overcome this
problem. Do not refer to minimising harm or right to withdraw in your answer.
[4]
Identify the ethical guidelines and give a clear link to the scenario with a
detailed solution.
Participants must understand the aims/procedure and give fully informed
consent (Guideline). Carys’ participants may not have expected questions on
environmental issues and emotions (Link). Participants should understand
and agree to the aims of the research. Therefore, Carys should have told them
that the questions would include ones on their emotions (Solution).
Participants should be returned to their previous state after participation, but
they weren’t (Guideline). After the study, Carys’ participants were still upset
by the questions about environmental issues and emotions (Link). Therefore,
a full debrief should have been offered to discuss their emotions relating to
climate change (Solution).
5.2.6 Ethics and non-human animals
Ethical guidelines
Research involving ‘protected’ animal species is governed by the Animals (Scientific
Procedures) Act 1986, amended in 2012. The British Psychological Society outlines
guidelines for working with animals.
Minimise harm and maximise benefit
Researchers should minimise harm, discomfort and suffering to the animals and
maximise the benefit of the research (e.g. applying findings to help other animals
or humans).
Replacement
Alternatives to using animals should be considered where possible (e.g. computer
simulations or videos of previous studies).
Species (and strain)
Appropriate species should be chosen (e.g. those least likely to suffer). Some
animals are considered more sentient than others (i.e. have the ability to feel). Nonhuman primates should be avoided due to the high level of sentience.
Numbers
Researchers should use the smallest number of animals possible to meet the research
aims. Animals should not be used over a long period of time as this could prolong
suffering.
Pain and distress
» Death, disease and psychological or physical discomfort should be avoided.
» An animal’s environment should be enriched where possible.
» Potential harm and the benefits being gained should be balanced.
Housing
SKILLS
BUILDER
In Fagen et al.
(elephant learning),
explain how two
ethical guidelines
relating to using
animals in research
were followed.
[4]
Give enough detail
from the study to
show how ethical
guidelines were
followed. For example,
‘The elephants were
able to walk away if
they did not want to
participate, avoiding
distress’ and ‘Normal
feeding patterns
were also adhered
to and aversive
stimulation was
avoided in training.’
These points could
be developed to show
an understanding
of the study and the
guidelines.
The social and natural behaviour of the species should be considered. Animals who
would normally live in social groups should not be isolated. Overcrowding should
also be avoided to prevent stress and aggression.
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Reward, deprivation and aversive stimuli
Normal feeding patterns should be adhered to and deprivation or aversive stimulation
should be avoided, or kept to the minimum needed to achieve the goals of the study.
SKILLS BUILDER
Outline what is meant by species and housing when carrying out research
with animals, using any examples.
[6]
Examples can be used from Hassett et al. (monkey toy preference) and Fagen
et al. (elephant learning) to show the range of animal studies covered. Link clearly
to species and housing, showing an understanding of the ethical guidelines.
Link to study
Fagen et al. (elephant learning) did not deprive the elephants while they were
learning the trunk wash. Chopped banana (a treat) was selected to reinforce
behaviour even when the elephants were well fed.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
5.28 Describe the ethical guideline of pain and distress when conducting
research with animals.
5.29 In the study by Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences), explain how
the ethical guideline of housing was upheld.
[2]
[2]
5.2.7 Validity
Validity refers to whether the observed effect is a genuine one. This includes the
extent to which a researcher has measured what they intended to measure (internal
validity) and the extent to which findings can be generalised beyond the research
setting (external validity).
Internal validity
Examples of threats to internal validity:
» Social desirability bias: participants may want to present themselves in the best
way possible, so answers may not represent true thoughts and feelings.
» Subjectivity: the researcher’s interpretation of behaviour may be biased by
personal thoughts, feelings or opinions.
» Demand characteristics: participants will not behave as they usually do if they
alter behaviour as a consequence of the cues in research.
» Low controls: a lack of control over extraneous variables may lead to other
factors affecting the dependent variable.
STUDY TIP
Ensure your revision
is valid. Begin with the
content and list all of the
topics featured in the
specification. Construct
your revision timetable
with all of the topics
in mind and allocate
time accordingly. Use
specimen and past
papers to guide you on
how questions will be
asked.
SKILLS BUILDER
Priya conducts a study on the health behaviours of
students using a questionnaire. Explain what is meant
by validity in the context of this research.
[2]
To provide enough detail on what validity is, you
may use key terms and give an appropriate example
from the study. ‘Validity is ensuring the measure is
measuring what it intends to measure. Priya should
ensure the questionnaire includes a range of health
behaviours on the questionnaire, such as diet and
exercise.’
Link to study
Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test) checked the validity of words/foils for each set of eyes.
The words were chosen by two of the authors and judged by an eight-member team. At
least five of the judges had to agree that a particular word was the correct one.
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5 Research methodology
External validity
Generalisability
» It should be possible to apply findings to people other than those who
participated (generalisable).
» The extent to which findings can be generalised beyond the sample is sometimes
referred to as ‘population validity’.
» Findings should be generalised to the target population only if the sample was
sufficiently representative.
» Generalisability can be affected by sampling technique as random samples are
more representative than opportunity or volunteer samples.
Ecological validity
» Ecological validity is the extent to which the results of research can be
generalised from the environmental conditions created by the researcher to other
environmental conditions.
» Research conducted in real-life settings (e.g. field experiments) is likely to be
higher in ecological validity.
» We can generalise from research high in ecological validity because behaviour is
natural and normal. However, studies with low ecological validity cannot be used
to generalise because they are less true to real life.
Temporal validity
» Temporal validity is whether the results can be generalised to a different time period.
» Milgram’s research was based in the 1960s and values of society at the time may
have had a significant influence over obedience levels.
» Social research is susceptible to temporal validity issues as values and norms change.
SKILLS BUILDER
In Priya’s study on the health behaviours of students using a questionnaire, one
threat to validity could be social desirability bias. Explain how Priya could deal
with this.
[2]
It is tempting to discuss how social desirability would be a problem for Priya,
but this would not answer the question. The focus needs to be on dealing with
the issue, so solutions should be offered – for example, hiding the aim of the
research or making questionnaires anonymous.
NOW TEST
YOURSELF
5.30 Suggest
one reason
why demand
characteristics
may cause a
validity issue,
using any
example.
[2]
5.31 From the study
by Pozzulo et
al. (line-ups),
describe two
ways the study
was valid. [4]
5.2.8 Reliability and replicability
Reliability
Reliability of a psychological measure (e.g. a test or scale) is the extent to which it
gives consistent measurements.
If an intelligence test was given to a person and a week later the same test was
taken again, the same (or very similar) score should be obtained.
If a very different result is obtained, the test would be criticised for lacking
reliability.
The reliability of an experiment is the extent to which it can be replicated.
Reliability can be assessed using the following methods:
STUDY TIP
Revising involves
reflection and
observation. Look at
the organisation of your
notes and see if you can
make them simpler and
clearer. Fill in gaps in
your material, otherwise
this could lead to gaps
in your understanding.
» the test-retest method: administering the same test to the same person on two
different occasions (e.g. three weeks apart) and comparing the results
» the split-half method: splitting the test into two and administering each half
to the same person; the scores from the two halves should be the same (if test
items are balanced equally)
» checking observations using inter-rater reliability: the extent to which two or
more independent observers agree on the observations they have made.
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Replicability
» If another psychologist can carry out a study in the same way to see if they get
consistent results, it is referred to as replicable.
» Replicability helps researchers show the reliability of findings.
» Standardisation allows others to replicate studies.
Standardisation
» A set of standardised procedures and instructions can be given. These are the
same for all participants to allow replication to take place.
» This ensures the experience of the research is consistent for all participants.
» The instructions given to participants should be identical (standardised instructions).
» Procedures in research should be the same to ensure fairness and replicability.
SKILLS BUILDER
Sara decides to collect data on confidence of patients in their doctors, using a
questionnaire. Explain how she could assess the reliability of the questionnaire. [4]
Focus on how Sara could assess the questionnaire and justify why certain
procedures should be followed. Within your reasoning, you should show an
understanding of reliability.
For example, ‘A split-half method could be used where each participant
is given two halves of the same questionnaire and the results from the
confidence scales compared. If the scores are similar then it suggests the
questionnaire is reliable.’
SKILLS
BUILDER
Describe how the
study by Bandura et
al. (aggression) was
reliable.
[2]
Utilise key terms to
effectively answer
this question. High
levels of inter-rater
reliability were
found in Bandura et
al. Two observers
independently
recorded participants’
behaviour using
a behavioural
checklist in fivesecond intervals.
Their results were
correlated and found
to be in the +0.90 s.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
5.32 Explain what is meant by reliability, using one example from the study
by Andrade (doodling).
[2]
5.33 George is investigating doodling behaviour of children in the classroom
using an observation. Suggest how George can assess the reliability of
his investigation.
[3]
5.2.9 Data analysis
Measures of central tendency
Raw data does not tell us much until it is organised and summarised using
measures of central tendency. A raw data table (e.g. scores out of 20 for a memory
test with and without noise) may look like Table 5.21
▼ Table 5.21 Raw data for word recall with and without noise
82
Word recall with noise
Word recall without noise
10
16
12
14
11
15
10
14
7
17
8
17
10
17
13
16
12
17
14
14
STUDY TIP
Have a go at writing your
own exam questions for
the research methods
sections covered. Swap
these with a friend in
class and attempt to
answer each other’s
questions.
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5 Research methodology
The mean is the arithmetic average. To calculate:
1 Add up the scores to find the sum (Σ).
2 Find N: the number of scores in each set.
3 Divide the sum by the number for each set to give the mean.
For example:
» Word recall with noise: Σ = 107, n = 10, the mean is 107 divided by 10 = 10.7.
» Word recall without noise: Σ = 157, n = 10, the mean is 157 divided by 10 = 15.7.
All scores in a data set are taken into account. However, exceptional scores
(outliers) can affect the mean.
The median is the middle value of a set of scores.
To calculate:
1
2
3
4
Put all scores in increasing order.
Cross off the lowest score and highest score sequentially.
Do this at each end until one score remains.
If there are two numbers remaining, add them together and divide by 2
(see Table 5.22).
▼ Table 5.22 Calculating the median
Word recall with noise
Word recall without noise
14
17
13
17
12
17
12
17
11
16
10
16
10
15
10
14
8
14
7
14
Median = 10.5
Median = 16
The mode is the most frequent score.
To calculate: the most occurring score is the mode.
Sometimes, there are two modes (bi-modal).
In Table 5.21:
» The mode for the ‘with noise’ group is 10 (3 scores of 10).
» The mode for the ‘without noise’ group is 17 (4 scores of 17).
SKILLS
BUILDER
Explain why the mean
would not be an
appropriate measure
of central tendency for
the following data:
Time taken to
complete memory task
(in seconds): 24, 26, 26,
31, 37, 39, 88.
[2]
Reasoning why
some data is more
appropriate is a key
skill. Review the
raw data in the set.
Outliers affect the
mean as all data in
the set are taken into
account.
Measures of spread
Measures of spread show ‘how spread out’ your data is.
The range is the difference between the lowest and highest score.
Using the word recall example:
» Word recall with noise: 14 (highest score) – 7 (lowest score) = range of 7.
» Word recall without noise: 17 (highest score) – 14 (lowest score) = range of 3.
The standard deviation is the measure of spread of data around the mean.
To calculate the standard deviation:
1 The mean is subtracted from each score to see how each deviates from the mean.
2 The remaining calculation identifies the average deviation from the mean.
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For the word recall data, the standard deviations are:
» Word recall with noise: sd = 2.16.
» Word recall without noise: sd = 1.33.
The ‘without noise’ group has less spread around the mean (sd = 1.33, mean = 15.7)
than the ‘with noise’ group (sd = 2.16, mean = 10.7).
The larger the score, the more spread out the data.
SKILLS BUILDER
In the study by Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test), standard
deviations were calculated on the Autism Spectrum
Quotient (AQ) scores and are shown in the table below.
Standard deviation
of AQ scores
AS/HFA group
IQ matched
group
6.0
2.9
Explain what the information in this table indicates
about the results of these two groups.
[2]
An understanding of standard deviation can be
shown with an understanding of what the scores
show. The higher the value of the standard
deviation, the more spread out the scores in the
data set (around the mean). In Baron-Cohen’s
scores, the AS/HFA group were more variable in
their AQ scores than the IQ matched group, with a
higher standard deviation (6.0) compared to the IQ
matched group (2.9).
Data displays
Raw data (and measures of central tendency) can be represented graphically.
Bar charts
Bar charts can be used when data is in categories. Differences in the measures of
central tendency between groups can be shown.
Using the data from the word recall test, the bar chart shown in Figure 5.2 can be
drawn.
A bar chart should have a full title and the axes should be fully labelled:
» The x-axis (horizontal) names the categories/conditions (independent variable:
‘noise’ and ‘no noise’ groups).
» The y-axis (vertical) shows the scale/frequency (dependent variable: ‘the mean
number of words correctly recalled out of 20’).
Mean number of words correctly
recalled out of 20
20
15
10
5
0
Noise
No noise
▲ Figure 5.2 A bar chart to show the mean number of words correctly recalled out of 20
for ‘with noise’ and ‘without noise’
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5 Research methodology
Histograms
Histograms are used when data is on a continuous scale.
A distribution of scores can be shown (see Figure 5.3).
A histogram should have a full title and the axes should be labelled clearly:
» The x-axis (horizontal) names the categories of the distribution – in Figure 5.3,
this is the time taken (in seconds).
» The y-axis (vertical) shows the frequency of occurrences – in this case, the
number of students.
14
12
Number of students
10
8
6
4
2
0
<12
12.1–12.5
12.6–13
13.1–13.5
>14
13.5–14
Time taken (in seconds)
▲ Figure 5.3 A histogram to show numbers of students running 100 metres
Scatter graphs
Scatter graphs are used to show correlations (see page 69).
A scatter graph needs a full title and the axes should be fully labelled (see Figure 5.4):
Number of words correctly recalled
» The x-axis (horizontal) shows one co-variable – in Figure 5.4, this is the number
of hours deprived of sleep.
» The y-axis (vertical) shows the second co-variable – in this case, the number of
words correctly recalled.
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
5
10
15
20
Number of hours deprived of sleep
▲ Figure 5.4 A scatter graph to show the correlation between number of words correctly
recalled and number of hours deprived of sleep
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NOW TEST YOURSELF
5.34 Describe how you would calculate the mean as a measure of central
tendency.
[2]
5.35 In the study by Andrade (doodling), two groups were compared – a
doodling condition and a control condition. Each participant produced
a memory score. Name and justify a suitable graph to display the
mean memory scores.
[2]
5.36 Manus is conducting a correlation on the time spent revising and
level of confidence with the exams. How would Manus display the
[2]
data for the correlation found?
SKILLS BUILDER
Gautam is reviewing the scores of children in his class. One week their test was taken in the morning. The
next week they took a similar test in the afternoon. Draw and label a bar chart for the following data to
represent the mean scores (out of 20) of each condition.
[4]
▼ Table 5.23 Children’s scores in the morning and afternoon tests
Charlie
Freida
Amelie
Elijah
Greta
Morning
18
15
17
11
14
Afternoon
14
15
18
9
10
First, complete the arithmetic average (mean) for each group by adding the five scores and dividing by the
amount of scores:
» Morning: Σ = 75, n = 5, the mean is 75 divided by 5 = 15.
» Afternoon: Σ = 66, n = 5, the mean is 66 divided by 5 = 13.2.
When drawing a bar chart, include a title, labels for the x and y axes and scores for each group.
Score (out of 20)
15.5
15
14.5
14
13.5
15
13
13.2
12.5
12
Morning
Afternoon
Time of test
▲ Figure 5.5 A bar chart to show the scores of children on a test in the morning compared to the afternoon
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5 Research methodology
Research methodology revision checklist
Revised
Describe the main features of laboratory experiments
Describe the main features of field experiments
Define what is meant by independent variable and dependent variable
Evaluate the reliability, validity and ethics of laboratory experiments
Evaluate the reliability, validity and ethics of field experiments
Describe and evaluate experimental designs
Give examples of experimental designs used within the core studies
Describe the main features of questionnaires
Describe the main features of interviews
Evaluate the use of self-reports in research
Outline the case study method
Evaluate the use of case studies in psychological research
Describe the main features of observations
Define key observation features (covert/overt, participant/non-participant, etc.)
Evaluate the use of observations in research
Describe correlations, co-variables
Evaluate the use of correlation in psychological research
Describe longitudinal studies
Evaluate longitudinal designs
Describe and write aims
Recognise null and alternate hypotheses (including directional and non-directional)
Describe how dependent variables can be measured
Identify independent variables in research
Understand how to operationalise independent variables and dependent variables
Outline how variables can be controlled
Define uncontrolled variables, participant variables and situational variables
Describe quantitative and qualitative data
Outline subjective and objective data
Evaluate types of data collected in research
Describe and evaluate sampling techniques in research
Describe ethical guidelines used in research with human participants
Describe ethical guidelines used in research with animal research
Outline validity and evaluate studies based on their validity, including considerations of
demand characteristics, generalisability and subjectivity
Describe different types of reliability
Evaluate research based on reliability
Present and interpret data using bar charts, histograms, scatter graphs
Identify and know how to find measures of central tendency
Outline what is meant by measure of spread
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AS LEVEL
AS Exam-style questions
This section contains sample questions for Papers 1
and 2. The style of the questions is similar to the ones
you will find in your real Cambridge International
exams.
Find sample answers to these questions
from pseudo-students, Aliyah and Talib at
www.hoddereducation.com/cambridgeextras.
You will also find suggested marks, as well as
commentaries highlighting key strengths and
weaknesses in their responses.
Time management
To help you to make a revision plan:
Monday
Tuesday
Block 1:
17.40–18.10
Test yourself on learning from previous
revision session, e.g. Bandura et al. ‘Now test
yourself’ or past paper questions
Test learning from previous revision session
(Fagen et al.)
Start research methods: correlation
Mini-break:
5 minutes
Break
Break
Block 2:
18.15–18.45
New topic: Learning approach
Fagen et al. background, aim and method
Research methods: reliability
Longer break:
10 minutes
Break
Break
Block 3:
18.55–19.25
Learning approach: Fagen et al. results,
conclusions and evaluation
Set Tuesday’s targets, including ways of
assessing Fagen et al. in study block 1.
Research methods: validity
Target setting
Setting achievable targets is a great way to feel
good about your revision. Start each day with targets
already in place. At the end of each study day,
review your targets and decide whether you need to
incorporate more work on a specific area into your plan
for the next day.
Tuesday block 1 targets
1 10 mins: Answer Fagen et al. ‘Now test yourself’
questions.
2 5 mins: Review ‘Now test yourself’ sample answers.
Identify strengths and areas for improvement.
3 5 mins: Read a Fagen et al. Skills builder; bulletpoint an answer to the question and compare with
the advice.
88
» Review the course content by completing the
revision checklists at the end of each approach.
» Use your checklists to identify learning objectives
for which you have no class notes.
» Now write a revision plan including all topic areas.
» Time yourself while doing some revision to find out
the best duration for your study sessions. This will
help to make your revision time more focused and
effective.
» Break your day and/or evening into study blocks.
These blocks should finish before you become less
focused and productive so you don’t forget what
you have learned.
» See the sample revision plan below with 30-minute
study blocks. Notice that there are different lengths
of break as the evening goes on.
4 10 mins: Make correlation flashcards or brain
map from class notes; add extra information from
textbook.
Revision strategies
Ideas for revision tasks
» Read aloud to an imaginary audience or in a small
study group. Make an audio recording so you can
listen again.
» Ask yourself a question about the information
covered: ‘What are the main points made?’, ‘Are
these points supported by evidence?’ and ‘What
issues or debates arise from what I just read?’. Jot
your answers down to maintain focus.
» Take notes from the textbook to deepen
understanding and develop better critical
awareness. Use subheadings and highlighters
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AS Exam-style questions
to organise the material into sections, such as
method, conclusions and evaluation points.
» Reorganise your notes into mind maps and crossreference with other topics to show the links
between different areas of your knowledge. For
example, Perry et al. (Social approach) looked at
the influence of oxytocin, a hormone (Biological
approach), on personal space.
» Try a mini-experiment: learn two of your key studies
using different strategies. Now, measure which
strategy worked best by comparing your marks on
the ‘Now test yourself’ questions for each key study.
Command terms and definitions
Command term Meaning
Analyse
Examine in detail to show meaning,
identify elements and the
relationship between them
Compare
Identify and comment on similarities
and/or differences
State/Identify
Name a specific thing
Define
Give precise meaning
Describe
State the points of a topic, overview of
the characteristics and main features
Evaluate
Judge/calculate the quality,
importance, amount or value
Explain
Give purposes or reasons/make the
relationship between things clear;
say why and support with relevant
evidence
Give
Produce an answer from a written
source or recall from memory
Identify
Name/select/recognise
Outline
Set out the main points
State
Express in clear terms
Suggest
Apply knowledge and understanding
to situations where there is a range of
valid responses to make proposals/put
forward considerations
Use these command terms to create your own
exam-style questions. For example, ‘State the sampling
technique used by Perry et al.’ or ‘Outline the research
method used by Hassett et al.’.
Mark allocations and timing
It is important to practise answering exam-style
questions under timed conditions. This means that
you need to use something to time yourself, such
as a watch. The number of marks will give you some
guidance about how much you should write. For
example, for a two-mark question, you might spend
around three minutes, whereas a four-mark question
should take around six minutes.
Your answer needs to be relevant and focused. Each
sentence you add should do a slightly different job.
Remember, these suggested timings allow for reading,
thinking, planning, writing, proofing and editing – all
key exam skills that will help you to create concise,
relevant and effective answers.
Paper 1 sample questions
Section A: Short answer questions
Question 1
Name two features of the sample used by Bandura
et al. (aggression).
Question 2
From the study by Pozzulo et al. (line-ups), outline
the aim of the study.
[2]
Question 3
From the study by Dement and Kleitman, outline one
quantitative result from the ‘dream-duration
estimates’. You must use data in your answer.
[2]
Question 4
Describe the psychology being investigated in the
study by Fagen et al. (elephant learning).
[5]
Question 5
a Describe one assumption of the Biological
approach.[2]
b Explain how one finding from Hölzel et al.
(mindfulness and brain scans) supports the
assumption of the Biological approach defined
in (a).
[2]
Question 6
Studies in cognitive psychology can be applied to
improve learning in classrooms. Suggest how the study
by Andrade (doodling) could be applied to classrooms.
Your suggestion must be ethical.
[4]
Question 7
Outline the nature–nurture debate in psychology.
[2]
Question 8
Two students, Anna and Isabelle, are discussing the
study by Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences) in terms
of the nature versus nurture debate. Anna believes this
study supports nature but Isabelle believes this study
supports nurture. Outline why you think either Anna or
Isabelle is correct, using evidence from the study. [4]
Question 9
Renée is working on a campaign to encourage people
in her local community to carry out volunteer work at
an animal shelter. Suggest how Renée could encourage
others to help the animals, using your knowledge of
the study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans).
[4]
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[2]
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Section B: Extended responses
worth 8–10 marks
Question 9
State one way the research methods of self-report and
observation are different.
[2]
Question 10
Explain one similarity and one difference between
the study by Dement and Kleitman and one other core
study from the Biological approach.
[8]
Question 11
Evaluate the study by Fagen et al. (elephant learning)
in terms of two strengths and two weaknesses. At least
one of your evaluation points must be about ethical
guidelines, in relation to animals.
[10]
Question 10
State one advantage of using the mean as a measure
of central tendency.
[1]
Paper 2 sample questions
Section A
Methodology of the 12 core studies
Question 1
From the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and
dreams), describe how qualitative data was analysed. [2]
Question 2
Explain how and why psychologists use longitudinal
studies. You must refer to an example from a core
study from the Biological approach in your answer. [3]
Question 3
Describe one feature of the case study as a research
method, using an example from the study by
Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia).
[2]
Question 4
Explain what is meant by ‘structured observation’, using the
study by Fagen et al. (elephant learning) as an example. [3]
Question 5
a Describe one of the sampling techniques used in the
study by Baron-Cohen et al. to gather participants
with autism.
[2]
b Give one disadvantage of this sampling technique. [2]
Question 6
Identify two ethical guidelines that were broken in
the study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans).
[2]
Question 7
From the study by Perry et al. (personal space),
describe two ways in which variables were controlled/
procedure was standardised.
[4]
General research methods questions
Question 8
Explain one advantage of using a postal questionnaire
rather than an in-person questionnaire.
[2]
90
Question 11
Describe what is meant by ‘experimental conditions’ and
‘control conditions’ in research, using any examples. [6]
Scenario-based research questions
Question 12
Inaaya is conducting a correlational study in a
warehouse to investigate the relationship between two
variables:
» the number of hours worked by an employee
» how confident the employee is in their work.
a Suggest one way that Inaaya could record how
confident each employee is in their work.
[2]
b For her sample, Inaaya is looking for a warehouse
where there are a variety of jobs for the employees.
Suggest two reasons why this is important.
[4]
c Suggest how Inaaya could display her data from
the correlation.
[1]
Question 13
Sarang is interested in theory of mind. He is comparing
adults who work with others to adults who work alone.
Sarang plans to use the eyes test to measure theory of
mind.
a Identify the independent variable in this
experiment.[1]
b Explain why an independent measures design is a
suitable experimental design for Sarang’s study. [3]
c The participants had never completed the eyes
task before. Explain why this was important.
[2]
Section B
Research design question
Question 14
a Peter is planning an observational study on the
social behaviours of students in a school canteen.
b Describe how Peter could conduct a structured
non-participant observation.
[10]
Research evaluation questions
i
Identify one weakness/limitation with the
procedure you have described in your answer to
part (a)
[2]
ii Suggest how your study might be done
differently to overcome the problem. Do not
refer to ethics or sampling in your answer. [4]
Check your answers at www.hoddereducation.com/cambridgeextras
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A LEVEL
6
Clinical Psychology
6.1 Schizophrenia
6.1.1 Diagnostic criteria (ICD-11) for schizophrenia
STUDY TIP
Create a Venn diagram
to compare Aneja et
al. (2018) and Freeman
et al. (2003). This will
help you to evaluate
and discuss both
studies as you think
about similarities and
differences relating to
the methodology and
how they relate to the
issues and debates.
▲ Figure 6.1 Positive symptoms of schizophrenia may include auditory hallucinations,
such as hearing voices
Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder. To be diagnosed, a person must have at least
two symptoms for at least one month, with one from the first four in Table 6.1.
▼ Table 6.1 Positive and negative symptoms
Type
Description
Symptoms
Example
Positive
Presence of
an abnormal
symptom
Hallucinations: involuntary perceptual
experiences in the absence of external
stimuli
Auditory: hearing one or more voices
Experiences of influence, passivity or
control: subjective experience that
thoughts, feelings and actions are
controlled by external forces
Thought insertion: for example, aliens
implanting ideas into your mind
Delusions: fixed beliefs that conflict with
reality
Persecution: you are being monitored
by the police
Grandeur: you believe you are superior,
such as having special powers
Disorganised thinking, speech and
movements: thoughts become jumbled,
leading to incoherent speech
Derailment: ‘train of thought’ diverts
onto unrelated topics; speech hard to
follow
Affective flattening: lack of normal range
of emotions
When asked about a death in the family,
facts may be shared but not how the
person feels
Avolition: inability to perform goaldirected behaviours
Difficulties in everyday functioning,
such as cooking a meal
Negative
Absence of a
normal way of
thinking, feeling
or behaving
Asociality: the person is socially withdrawn Avoids social events
Relevant research: Aneja et al. (2018)
Aim: to investigate the clinical features of very early onset schizophrenia and
treatment options.
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Methodology: six-month analysis of a boy who lived with his grandparents, did not
go to school, had aggressive/violent outbursts and required multiple hospital
admissions:
» primary data = observation and self-report
» secondary data = IQ test and medical records.
Results:
» Positive symptoms: shouting/muttering at unseen others; voices teased him.
» Negative symptoms: asociality, difficulties with self-care.
» Treated with many drugs and electroconvulsive therapy (see page 97).
» Family received psychoeducation and dietary advice.
Conclusions: schizophrenia is rare in children. When it does occur, it can be difficult
to find an effective combination of drugs.
▼ Table 6.2 Evaluating Aneja et al. (2018)
Strengths
Weaknesses
Validity – the detailed case history
provides insight into home and school
life.
Generalisation – the study included only
one 14-year-old boy in Northern India.
Mental health is less stigmatised in some
cultures, so it may not be representative.
Applications – the study provides
doctors with treatment options, such as
combining atypical antipsychotics.
Reliability – the doctors were unable to
re-test the boy’s IQ; secondary data
(IQ = 90) may be unreliable.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Outline one difference
between positive and
negative symptoms of
schizophrenia.
[2]
Focus on the defining
difference between
positive and negative
symptoms. You need
to compare them.
You may use terms
like ‘in contrast’
and ‘whereas’.
What do the positive
symptoms have in
common with each
other that separate
them from the
negative symptoms?
SKILLS BUILDER
Chantel is conducting semi-structured interviews
with participants with schizophrenia. Explain one way
that Chantel could ensure that the data she collects is
valid.
[4]
Combine your knowledge of research methods
with what you have learned in Clinical Psychology.
How might positive and negative symptoms affect
the way a person with schizophrenia responds in
an interview with a researcher? What could the
researcher do to help the person to provide detailed
and honest answers? The question only requires
you to write about one way. Choose your best idea
and explore that in detail.
▼ Table 6.3 Evaluating the ICD-11 criteria
Strengths
Weaknesses
Symptoms only need to be present for one month,
meaning people can access treatment quickly.
As symptoms only need to be present for a month,
this could lead to invalid diagnosis, and potentially
stigmatisation and marginalisation.
Some subtypes of schizophrenia (e.g. paranoid, catatonic) Symptom overlap makes it difficult to reliably diagnose
were removed from ICD-11 as diagnoses were often
schizophrenia. For example, hallucinations can result
unreliable.
from depression.
Key study: Freeman et al. (2003)
Context:
» Avatars can trigger emotions (Slater et al., 1999). Freeman wondered how people
interpret their behaviour.
» He believes research in this area will lead to new ways to diagnose and treat
schizophrenia.
Aims and hypotheses:
» Aim: to investigate the extent to which neutral, non-threatening avatars provoke
persecutory thoughts in people with no previous clinical diagnoses.
» Hypothesis: people with higher levels of paranoia and emotional distress are
more likely to experience persecutory ideation.
92
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6 Clinical Psychology
Research method(s) and design:
» Method/design: correlation.
» Data collection technique: questionnaires (self-report) and semi-structured
interviews.
Co-variables: pre-existing mood, anxiety, paranoia (traits) and state paranoia/
persecutory ideation measured after the virtual reality (VR) experience.
Sample: volunteer: 21 mentally healthy university students and three administrative
staff (mean age: 26) from London, UK.
Procedure:
» Participants completed questionnaires to assess mood, anxiety and paranoia.
» They were told they would encounter avatars in a VR library and should ‘form an
impression’ of them.
» After five minutes in the VR library they completed the questionnaires again plus
a newly designed measure of situation-specific paranoia.
» Participants were interviewed about their VR experience. Interviews were filmed.
A clinical psychologist rated levels of persecutory ideation.
Controlled variables: same VR experience, avatars behaved in the exact same way;
same time in the VR library; same psychologist rating the interviews.
Ethics:
» No evidence of increased anxiety following the VR experience.
» Consent was obtained but to avoid demand characteristics participants were not
told the study was about persecutory thoughts.
Results:
» The mean paranoia score was relatively low. The majority of participants had
positive beliefs about the avatars.
» 46 per cent agreed at least a little with negative beliefs such as ‘They were
talking about me behind my back.’
» VR persecutory ideation was positively correlated with paranoia, interpersonal
sensitivity and anxiety.
» Qualitative data included: ‘It was nice when they smiled, made me feel welcome’
(positive) and ‘Some were intimidating’ (negative).
Conclusion:
» Anxiety contributes directly to the development of persecutory ideation.
» VR is a promising tool for research and patient assessment and therapy.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Describe the study by
Freeman et al. (2003)
on virtual reality and
persecutory ideation.
[6]
In your response,
always try to explain
any specialist
terminology that you
use – for example,
persecutory ideation,
paranoia, avatars and
virtual reality.
▼ Table 6.4 Evaluating Freeman et al. (2003)
Strengths
Weaknesses
Quantitative data – questionnaire data could be scored
objectively and statistics used to draw conclusions.
Validity – there were low levels of presence within the
virtual library (2.3/6). Participants were only in the
library for five minutes.
Reliability – standardisation of the VR experience makes the Subjectivity – interviews were rated by one observer,
procedure replicable; findings can be tested for reliability.
who may have been biased.
Issues and debates
Individual and situational explanations
Freeman et al. (2003) examined how persecutory ideation may be more common
in people with higher levels of trait anxiety and/or paranoia. They also looked at
how persecutory ideation can be affected by situations, such as being in the VR
environment with avatars.
Use of children in psychological research
Aneja et al. (2018) focused on a 14-year-old child, so parental consent was required.
Assent is also important when studying children, especially very vulnerable
children, such as the boy in this study.
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NOW TEST YOURSELF
6.1 Kasper rarely speaks and prefers to isolate
himself in his bedroom. Sometimes he behaves
as though someone is chasing him. He hides
behind things and appears very scared. Explain
one positive symptom of schizophrenia, with
reference to Kasper and his behaviour.
[2]
6.2Using examples of research into schizophrenia,
explain what is meant by idiographic versus
nomothetic.
[4]
6.3 From the key study by Freeman et al. (2003),
explain one strength of the data from the
semi-structured interviews.
[2]
6.4Using an example of a case study on
schizophrenia, explain one reason why the
findings may be described as subjective.
[2]
6.1.2 Explanations of schizophrenia
Biological explanations of schizophrenia
The genetic explanation
» Family and twin studies suggest a predisposition to schizophrenia can be inherited.
» The concordance rate for monozygotic (MZ) twins = 42 per cent, dizygotic (DZ)
twins = 9 per cent (Gottesman and Shields, 1966).
» Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) show that certain alleles are more
common in schizophrenia, such as those linked to dopamine and GABA.
» Deletion of certain genes (e.g. COMT) increases schizophrenia risk.
Biochemical explanation: the dopamine hypothesis
» Scientists used to believed schizophrenia was caused by excess dopamine.
» However, dopamine antagonists were found not to reduce negative symptoms and
did not work for some people.
» In the 1990s, researchers claimed that:
– a lack of dopamine in mesocortical pathways causes negative and cognitive
symptoms
– excess dopamine in the mesolimbic pathways may result from upregulation.
SKILLS BUILDER
Jimi works in a laboratory investigating biochemical explanations for mental
disorders. His team often use animals in their research.
Plan an experiment to help Jimi to investigate the dopamine hypothesis as an
explanation of schizophrenia. Your plan must include details about design and a
directional or non-directional hypothesis.
[10]
If you decide to design an animal experiment, make sure you fully understand
the relevant ethical guidelines. Section B of Paper 4 ‘Plan a study’ will ask
for psychological knowledge upon which your plan is based. Think about
this before making your plan. You could talk about the relevant theoretical
knowledge as inspiration (development of the dopamine hypothesis or use the
studies with rats and apomorphine).
SKILLS BUILDER
Explain one strength of the dopamine hypothesis.
[2]
When you are evaluating explanations, think about
evidence, applications to everyday life (e.g. the
development of effective drug treatments) or the
way in which the explanation compares favourably
94
with other explanations (e.g. cognitive). You
could also think about whether it is possible to
scientifically test the explanation. For example, the
dopamine hypothesis can be tested using animal
experiments.
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6 Clinical Psychology
Psychological (cognitive) explanation of schizophrenia
▼ Table 6.5 Psychological (cognitive) explanations
Information
processing problem
Symptom(s)
Explanation
Self-monitoring error
Auditory
hallucinations
People with schizophrenia mistakenly perceive their own sub-vocal
thoughts to be coming from an external source.
Difficulties with
mentalising
Paranoia, social
withdrawal
People with schizophrenia have difficulty understanding others’
intentions/mental states. Neutral behaviour is perceived as hostile
and social difficulties lead to distress.
Counter-evidence bias
Delusions
Inferences are made in the absence of sufficient evidence. There is a
failure to update/modify beliefs in the light of conflicting evidence.
▼ Table 6.6 Evaluating explanations of schizophrenia
Explanation of
schizophrenia
Strengths
Weaknesses
Biological
Evidence – rats injected with drugs that
increase dopamine (amphetamines) showed
schizophrenic-like symptoms (e.g. strange
movements, social withdrawal).
Evidence – apomorphine, a dopamine agonist,
does not increase symptoms in people with
schizophrenia or trigger symptoms in healthy
controls.
Cognitive
Evidence – people with schizophrenia are less
likely to recognise recordings of their own
voices than healthy controls.
Validity – it is impossible to know whether
cognitive differences are a cause or an effect
of schizophrenia.
SKILLS BUILDER
Suggest how the cognitive explanation can explain
why individuals differ in the development of
schizophrenia.
This question requires more than a description
of the cognitive explanation and may seem rather
challenging at first. The question assumes
[2]
that there are differences between people with
schizophrenia. What might those differences be?
One person may suffer more from hallucinations
and another may suffer more with social
withdrawal. These differences may be explained by
stating that people demonstrate different types of
thinking error.
Issues and debates
Individual and situational explanations
Schizophrenia can result from individual differences in the genome but situational
factors also play a role, such as drug-taking and stress (also affected by cultural
differences).
Nature versus nurture
Twin studies (e.g. Gottesman and Shields, 1966) support nature, but findings may be
invalid (shared environment fallacy).
The cognitive explanation does not explain why some people have faulty thinking,
such as through biochemical differences (nature) or modelling family members
(nurture).
Schizophrenia is likely to result from an interaction of nature and nurture.
Environmental (epigenetic) factors cause genes to be expressed or silenced.
Diathesis-stress model: some people are genetically predisposed but only develop
symptoms if they encounter situational stressors (nurture), such as traumatic life
events, discrimination or poverty.
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SKILLS BUILDER
Evaluate the biochemical explanation (the dopamine
hypothesis) of schizophrenia, including a discussion of
reductionism versus holism.
[10]
You may want to address the named issue/debate
first, as it is an important part of your answer.
Which do you think is more reductionist – the
biological or cognitive explanation? Why? Our
‘biology’ is affected by lifestyle choices, such as
mindfulness, sleep, exercise and diet. Thinking
in more depth about the interaction of individual
and situational factors with regard to nature and
biology will help you to realise that biological
explanations may not be as reductionist as first
thought.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
6.5Noah is researching his family tree. He is
surprised to discover that more than half of
the relatives he has been investigating showed
symptoms of schizophrenia at some point in
their lives. Using your knowledge of biological
explanations of schizophrenia, suggest one
reason why Noah should not be surprised by
this discovery.
[2]
6.6 Explain two weaknesses of the cognitive
explanation of schizophrenia.
[4]
6.7 Suggest one reason why a researcher
investigating the dopamine hypothesis as an
explanation of schizophrenia might use a
non-directional hypothesis.
[2]
6.8 Suggest one application of the cognitive
explanation of schizophrenia.
[2]
6.1.3 Treatment and management of schizophrenia
Biological treatments
Biochemical
» Antipsychotic drugs (see Table 6.7) can be given orally or transdermally (through
the skin).
» Regular check-ups help to monitor dosages, symptoms and side effects.
» The order in which drugs are prescribed is usually based on evidence-based
protocols.
» Treatment-resistant patients may be given mood stabilising drugs and
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT).
▼ Table 6.7 Biochemical treatments of schizophrenia
Type of antipsychotic
Mode of action
Effects
Typical (e.g. chlorpromazine)
Blocks dopamine receptors without
activating them; decreases dopaminergic
signalling (dopamine antagonists)
Reduces positive symptoms for about
60 per cent of people; negative
symptoms usually remain
Atypical (e.g. clozapine)
Blocks dopamine and serotonin receptors
Decreases tardive dyskinesia; treats
positive and negative symptoms; can
lead to agranulocytosis
SKILLS BUILDER
Many people with schizophrenia do not like taking
antipsychotics and this can lead to non-compliance.
Plan a study using a questionnaire to find the main
reasons why people with schizophrenia fail to take
their medication. Your plan must include details about:
» question format
» sampling technique.
[10]
Section B of Paper 4 will always ask you to plan a
study for one of your options. The mark allocation
96
will always be 10 for part a and 8 for part b. What is
less predictable are the questions in part c. Always
read these before starting your plan. Reasons for
the choices you have made, and the strengths and
weaknesses of these choices, are often required.
Remember, questions starting with ‘Why’ are
always open, such as ‘Why do you dislike your daily
medication?’. Questions with rating scales are
always closed, such as ‘How much are you affected
by side effects? 1 (not at all) to 10 (severely affected)’.
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6 Clinical Psychology
Electroconvulsive therapy
» ECT is an addition, not an alternative, to medication.
» It is believed to trigger gene expression and improve neural connectivity (Singh
and Kar, 2017).
» 70–150 V electrical pulses are delivered to the brain via electrodes.
» This triggers brief, controlled seizures.
» Patients typically receive muscle relaxants and general anaesthetic.
» Two to three sessions a week for one month, and maintenance ‘doses’ for up to a
year.
SKILLS BUILDER
Michaela is starting ECT as a treatment for
schizophrenia. Suggest one reason that Michaela’s
doctor might have referred her for ECT.
[2]
You need to understand what is meant by ECT
to answer this question. Think about why a
doctor would refer a patient for ECT rather than
prescribing medication or cognitive-behavioural
therapy. For example, ECT is only used when other
treatments have failed. Other treatments may have
failed because Michaela suffered bad side effects
and became non-compliant, or she may have
struggled to develop a strong rapport in cognitivebehavioural therapy (CBT), meaning the therapy
was ineffective for her.
SKILLS BUILDER
Evaluate biological treatments for schizophrenia,
including a discussion of generalisations from
findings.
[10]
Think about evidence to support efficacy from
RCTs, longitudinal studies and meta-analyses (see
pages 60 and 71 to review these methods). Each
method has strengths and weaknesses that you
could discuss. You might also consider practical
issues regarding the use of these treatments in
clinical settings, as well as drawing comparisons
with psychological treatments such as CBT. The
named issue here is about generalisation from
findings. Do you think drug treatments would be
as effective in the population as they seem to be in
research studies? Why might they be less effective
in the community? Think about the samples used
in studies. Tip: they are often WEIRD (Western,
Educated, Industrialised, Rich and Democratic).
Psychological treatment and management
Cognitive-behavioural therapy
» Therapists develop supportive therapeutic alliances with clients.
» Links between events, sensations, thoughts and feelings are discussed.
» Clients are helped to identify early warning signs of an imminent episode.
Stress management techniques and coping skills can then be used to prevent
deterioration.
» Techniques include:
– keeping symptom diaries
– challenging delusions and reflecting on whether they are supported by
evidence
– thought linkage; a technique to address disorganised thinking
– paced activity scheduling to reduce fatigue and stress.
» Psychoeducation is provided for the person and their family, such as informing
them about the links between schizophrenia and stress.
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Relevant research: Sensky et al. (2000)
Aim: to compare the efficacy of one-to-one CBT and a befriending intervention for
people with schizophrenia.
Methodology:
» Adult with schizophrenia received CBT or befriending (e.g. talking about
hobbies); average of 19 sessions over 9 months.
» Symptoms were assessed before and after treatment and nine months later.
Results: both groups showed a reduction in post-treatment symptoms. Only the CBT
group showed continued improvement at the nine-month follow-up.
Conclusions: in the long term, CBT was more effective than befriending.
▼ Table 6.8 Evaluating Sensky et al. (2000)
Strengths
Weaknesses
Validity – including the befriending control group meant
the researchers could conclude that improvement in the
CBT group was not simply due to time spent with an
interested companion.
Validity – it was unclear whether CBT was effective on
its own, as all clients were also using medication.
Generalisations – the sample included clients from five
clinical services from different parts of the UK.
Longitudinal design – 15 people dropped out; findings
may only be generalisable to people who are fully
committed and form a strong rapport with the therapist.
SKILLS BUILDER
Explain two ethical guidelines that should be followed
when conducting research into the effectiveness of
treatments for schizophrenia.
[4]
Note down all the ethical guidelines you can think
of (think DDRIPP: Deception, Debriefing, Right to
withdraw, Informed consent, Protection from harm,
Privacy/confidentiality). Now, select two that are
particularly relevant to treating schizophrenia – for
example, how data could be stored confidentially
and why this is important; the importance of
informed consent in studies involving placebos.
▼ Table 6.9 Evaluating treatments for schizophrenia
Biochemical
ECT
Cognitivebehavioural
therapy
98
Strengths
Weaknesses
Evidence – 94 per cent of antipsychotics tested
in a meta-analysis of 56 RCTs had lower relapse
rates than placebos.
Evidence – 22 per cent of antipsychotics
performed no better than the placebos.
Applications – drug treatments help
people to live in the community and reduce
hospitalisations.
Side effects such as dizziness, nausea and
excessive weight gain can lead to noncompliance and may be fatal.
Evidence – 50 per cent showed a reduction
in symptoms of 40 per cent or more when
combining clozapine and ECT.
Validity – double-blind experiments using sham
ECT show no significant difference between
experimental and control groups.
Applications – rapid improvement has been seen
for some people after just one session.
Ethics – many countries deliver unmodified ECT
(i.e. without the safeguards of muscle relaxant
and anaesthetic).
Ethical – clients take ownership of their
recovery; they are actively involved, unlike drugs
or ECT, which are more passive.
Applications – efficacy relies on the therapeutic
alliance and homework.
Patients who lack commitment, communication
and organisational skills may benefit less.
Supporting evidence – Sensky et al. (2000) (see
below).
Applications – more expensive and
time-consuming than drug treatments as more
appointments are required.
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6 Clinical Psychology
Issues and debates
Idiographic versus nomothetic
Meta-analyses take a nomothetic approach, allowing for generalisations due to the
very large sample sizes. Numerical data from rating scales means statistics can be
used to draw generalisable conclusions. Idiographic studies, such as interviews and
case studies, may help researchers to understand the role of social support and the
therapeutic alliance in the efficacy of treatments.
Cultural differences
ECT is controversial in many cultures (e.g. Slovenia), but in China, more than 50 per
cent of people with schizophrenia receive ECT (Wang et al., 2018a). China is a high
power distance index (PDI) culture – clients may exaggerate the efficacy of ECT due
to the unequal relationship between patients and health professionals/researchers.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
6.9
Lockie has recently been diagnosed with
schizophrenia. He has been prescribed an
atypical antipsychotic. Suggest one reason
Lockie’s doctor might have decided to
prescribe an atypical antipsychotic.
[2]
6.10 Lockie’s doctor also refers him to a
cognitive-behavioural therapist. Suggest
two ways Lockie and his therapist might
[4]
try to reduce his symptoms.
6.11 With reference to relevant research, explain
one strength of experiments as a way of
investigating the effectiveness of treatments
for schizophrenia.
[4]
6.12Outline one weakness of longitudinal studies
as a way of investigating the effectiveness of
[2]
treatments for schizophrenia.
6.2 Mood (affective) disorders
6.2.1 Diagnostic criteria (ICD-11) for mood (affective)
disorders
Mood is on a continuum from mania/euphoria to severe depression. Typically,
mood fluctuates around the centre. If very high or very low mood dominates for an
extended period and impairs daily functioning, a mood disorder may be diagnosed.
STUDY TIP
When revising the Beck Depression Inventory, you could download a copy from the
internet (see https://tinyurl.com/j9ed7rwb). Choose a few of the items and create a
mnemonic to help you remember them. For example, the first three items are sadness,
pessimism and past failure; you could remember these as SPF: ‘study prominent facts’.
▼ Table 6.10 ICD-11 definitions of mood disorders (World Health Organization, 2018)
Symptoms
Duration
Depressive
disorder (unipolar)
Depressed mood; reduced interest in activities; difficulty
Most of the day,
concentrating; feeling worthless; excessive or inappropriate guilt;
nearly every day, for
hopelessness; recurring thoughts of death/suicide; changes in appetite at least two weeks
or sleep; feeling agitated; slow movements; low energy; fatigue
Bipolar disorders
Alternating depressive and manic episodes; manic episodes include
euphoria, irritability, grandiosity, highly active, subjective sense of
increased energy, rapid speech, rapidly changing thoughts/ideas,
decreased need for sleep, easily distracted, impulsive and reckless
Mania for at least one
week; depressive and
manic symptoms may
be experienced within
the same week or even
day (mixed episodes)
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SKILLS BUILDER
[2]
Describe one symptom of unipolar disorder.
‘Describe’ means to give a detailed account. Avoid simply identifying or stating
a symptom. Write a full sentence that gives detail about what it might be like to
experience this symptom. For example, ‘Difficulty concentrating means that,
although you are focusing on a task, your mind might wander onto thoughts
about other things that you have to do, or you might be distracted by sights
and sounds around you.’ You could also give an example, such as how the
symptoms might affect a person at school or work.
Measuring depression: Beck Depression Inventory
» The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) is a psychometric test (see page 100) that
measures symptom severity using 21 items scored from 0–3.
» It considers symptoms from the last two weeks.
» It is designed to be used by qualified health professionals (not self-diagnosis).
▼ Table 6.11 Evaluating the diagnosis and measurement of mood disorders
Strengths
Weaknesses
ICD-11 diagnosis of
mood disorders
Reliability – inter-rater reliability is high (84 per
cent) for bipolar disorder and recurrent depressive
disorder using ICD-11 (Reed et al., 2018).
Reliability – ICD-11 is less reliable when
diagnosing dysthymia (45 per cent)
(Reed et al., 2018).
The BDI
Validity – there is a positive correlation between
the BDI and the Hamilton Psychiatric Rating
Scale for Depression.
Self-report – social desirability bias may
reduce validity; symptoms may be underreported or exaggerated.
Practical – provides quick and precise data; good
for assessing treatment efficacy in research and
clinical practice.
Quantitative data – ignores contextual
information (e.g. why a person has
depressive symptoms).
SKILLS BUILDER
Explain one strength of the Beck Depression Inventory
with reference to quantitative data.
[2]
Read the question carefully. You are not being
asked for a strength of quantitative data or just
any strength of the BDI. Think about the strengths
of quantitative data and how these strengthen the
BDI as a measure of the severity of depressive
symptoms. Think about what the BDI does: it
categorises people’s symptoms as mild, moderate
and severe. Why is this a good thing and why is
using numerical data helpful in achieving this goal?
SKILLS BUILDER
a Describe the Beck Depression Inventory.
b Evaluate the Beck Depression Inventory,
including a discussion of psychometrics.
Although this question seems unlikely, it is still a
legitimate Paper 3 extended response question.
It is a good one to practise as it will push you to
really elaborate your points. Your evaluation is
likely to include two well-elaborated strengths
100
[6]
[10]
and two weaknesses. Use the points in Table 6.11
to create full PEEL paragraphs (state your point,
explain evidence, link back to your argument, e.g.
‘This is important because … ‘). When discussing
psychometrics (see page 65), you could give an
alternative, such as the trauma-informed approach,
which uses a psychological formulation and is
therefore more idiographic.
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6 Clinical Psychology
Issues and debates
Cultural differences
ICD-11 explains that people from low-to-middle-income countries (LMICs) report
bodily (somatic) symptoms such as aches and pains more than emotional or
cognitive symptoms.
Individual versus situational explanations
▲ Figure 6.2 Somatisation
ICD-11 views mood disorders as an individual difference in the way a person
refers to the idea that people
with depression from low-tothinks, feels and behaves. Alternatives such as the trauma-informed approach
middle-income cultures often
(Johnstone, 2018) focus more on situational factors, including what has happened
report aches and pains rather
to the person that has led them to feel like this.
than emptiness or apathy
SKILLS BUILDER
When answering question 6.16 below, think about
general features such as aim(s), procedure, sample/
sampling technique and ethical considerations, as
well as ensuring that the findings will be valid and
reliable. Also think about the type(s) of data Sissi
might collect and the descriptive statistics she
should use to analyse her data.
Part b of the question asks about a piece of
psychological knowledge on which your plan
is based. This could be the ICD-11 criteria for
unipolar depression or the BDI, which you could
use as your measure of severity of symptoms. The
required method is correlation, so you will need two
variables, each measured using quantitative data.
Remember, if you use a rating scale, show how the
responses will be scored, e.g. ‘How often do you
exercise? 1 (never) to 7 (at least once a day)’.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
6.13 Kari is a mother and a secondary school
teacher. She has been diagnosed with unipolar
depression. Explain two ways in which her
diagnosis may affect her functioning in
everyday life.
[4]
6.14 Suggest one way to improve the validity of the
Beck Depression Inventory.
[2]
6.15 Explain what is meant by a psychometric
test, with reference to the Beck Depression
Inventory.
[2]
6.16 Sissi is planning a correlation in which she
will investigate whether people with unhealthy
lifestyles have more severe depressive
symptoms.
a Plan a correlational study that will allow
Sissi to investigate this topic. Your plan
must include details about:
– the measurement of the two covariables
– a suitable directional hypothesis. [10]
b For one piece of psychological knowledge
on which your plan is based:
i Describe this psychological knowledge.
[4]
ii Explain how you used two features of
this psychological knowledge to plan
your correlation.
[4]
6.2.2 Explanations of mood (affective) disorders:
depressive disorder (unipolar)
Biological explanations
Biochemical
» Depression is caused by low levels of noradrenaline.
» Serotonin regulates noradrenaline.
» A serotonin imbalance could cause noradrenaline levels to decrease, leading to
depression, or increase, leading to mania.
» A serotonin deficiency may result from:
– a low tryptophan diet
– a high level of cortisol (stress hormone)
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– overly sensitive, post-synaptic receptor sites
– high levels of monoamine oxydase (an enzyme)
– abnormalities of the presynaptic reuptake pumps (transporter molecules).
Genetic
» Vulnerability is inherited.
» Specific alleles of candidate genes linked to serotonin may increase the risk.
» For example, short alleles of the 5-HTT gene appear to increase depression risk
when facing stressful life events compared with long alleles (Caspi et al., 2003).
Key study: Oruč et al. (1997)
Context: depression research has focused on serotonin-specific genes. For example:
» 5-HTR2c: codes for postsynaptic receptors; linked to appetite, which is often
disrupted in depression
» 5-HTT: codes for presynaptic transporter molecules; short alleles linked to
depression (Caspi et al., 2003).
Aim: to determine whether specific alleles of the 5-HTR2c and 5-HTT genes are more
frequent in people with bipolar disorder than controls.
Research method(s) and design:
» Method/design: correlation.
» Data collection technique: interviews and blood tests.
Co-variables: whether a person has bipolar disorder or not; whether the person is
carrying the 5-HTR2c alleles Cys (C) or Ser (S) and the 5-HTT alleles 1 or 2.
Sample: opportunity sample of 82 adults from Croatia, 42 with bipolar disorder.
Procedure:
» Interviews and medical records were used to diagnose bipolar disorder.
» Blood samples were used to determine 5-HTR2c and 5-HTT alleles.
Controlled variables: bipolar diagnoses checked; control group matched for age/sex.
Ethics:
» Confidentiality: medical records had to be kept secure.
» Informed consent: participants needed to understand why their blood was being
tested and why their medical records were being accessed.
Results:
» In the bipolar group, 38 per cent had at least one first-degree relative with a
mood disorder, compared with 0 per cent in the control group.
» The S and 1 alleles were more common in diagnosed females than healthy female
controls.
Conclusion: S and 1 variants of the 5-HTR2c and 5-HTT genes may increase
depression risk in females.
SKILLS BUILDER
Cordelia is worried about developing unipolar depression
since she found out that both her biological parents have
this disorder. Explain why Cordelia might be worried,
with reference to one or more biological explanations.[4]
This question gives you the option to include
one or more explanations. Bullet-point two
explanations in the margin before you start (e.g.
genetic and biochemical). Write down a few key
words associated with each explanation before
you start writing your answer (e.g. alleles, inherit,
102
vulnerable). Now your memory is refreshed,
start your answer. For example, Cordelia might
be worried because she thinks she has inherited
specific gene variants (alleles) from her parents
that could increase her vulnerability to depression.’
You could also explain why this is a worry. Improve
your answer by referencing specific knowledge, like
the role of the S allele of the 5-HTR2c gene, which
codes for serotonin transporter molecules on the
presynaptic cell.
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6 Clinical Psychology
▼ Table 6.12 Evaluating Oruč et al. (1997)
Strengths
Weaknesses
Validity – two experienced psychiatrists checked
whether participants had bipolar or not using the
Croatian version of a structured interview schedule.
Generalisation – the sample size was small; only three
people (all male) had the SS genotype of the 5-HTR2c
gene.
Reliability – other studies had the same results for both
the 5-HTR2c and 5-HTT genes (Gutiérrez et al., 1996;
Kelsoe et al., 1996).
Validity – cause and effect cannot be be established as
the variables were naturally occurring and the groups
were only matched on age and sex.
SKILLS BUILDER
Explain one strength of the key study by Oruč et al.
(1997) with reference to reliability.
[2]
Reliability refers to the consistency of an instrument
used to make measurements in a psychological
study. In this study, S or C alleles of the 5-HTR2c
gene were determined with a blood test. This type
of data requires little interpretation (objective); two
or more researchers are likely to code the data in
the same way, so the measurements are reliable.
Another way of answering would be to talk about
the reliability of bipolar diagnoses.
Psychological explanations
Beck’s cognitive theory of depression
» Depressive symptoms are caused by negative thoughts stemming from
dysfunctional core beliefs (Beck, 1962).
» The more negative thoughts a person has, the worse their symptoms.
» Depressed people hold negative beliefs about the self, the world and the future
(the negative cognitive triad).
» These beliefs develop in childhood due to criticism, rejection, neglect, abuse,
bullying, experiences of loss and overprotective parenting.
» Confirmation bias means depressed people focus on information that supports
negative beliefs and ignore conflicting evidence.
» Other faulty thinking strategies include catastrophising and personalising.
Learned helplessness/attributional style
» Depression is a learned response to a negative experience.
» If a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unavoidable negative stimulus,
people may fail to initiate coping strategies when faced with a similar situation
in the future.
» Apparent lack of control over the environment leads to hopelessness, passive
acceptance and overgeneralisation to other situations.
» Depressive attributional style (pessimism) is a negative bias in the way that
people process information about success and failure (see Table 6.13).
▼ Table 6.13 Psychological explanation of depression: depressive attributional style
Pessimism
Internal: failures
are blamed on
dispositional factors.
Global: failure is
generalised to many
areas of life.
Stable: expectation of
continued failure.
Optimism
External: failures are
blamed on situational
factors.
Specific: failure is
seen as specific to
one area of life.
Unstable: expectation
of future success.
Relevant research: Seligman et al. (1988)
Aim: to replicate previous research showing a positive correlation between
depressive attributional style and severity of depressive symptoms.
Methodology:
» Mood-disordered participants completed the BDI (see page 100) and a
questionnaire measuring attributions relating to 12 positive and negative events.
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» They were interviewed to check their diagnosis and reassessed after six months
of cognitive therapy.
» Post-therapy reassessments were completed at one and twelve months.
» Scores were compared with a matched control group.
Results:
» Depressive attributions for negative events were positively correlated with
severity of depressive symptoms before and after therapy, including follow-up
assessments.
» The greater the decrease in pessimism post-therapy, the greater the improvement
in depressive symptoms.
» Improvements were impressive and stable over time.
» Post-therapy pessimism scores were associated with relapse at 12 months.
Conclusions: people with mood disorders tend to make internal, global and stable
attributions about negative events, but this tendency can be altered in therapy.
▼ Table 6.14 Evaluating Seligman et al. (1988)
Strengths
Weaknesses
Validity – pessimism was relatively stable in the control
group, suggesting that pessimism is a fixed trait rather
than a reaction to current circumstances, i.e. a cause of
depression and not an effect.
Generalisations – the sample included 50 per cent more
females than males, who may not represent all men with
depression.
Validity – triangulation (BDI and interviews) increased
the validity of measures of symptom severity.
Attrition – 33 per cent dropped out before the final
follow-up. The remaining participants may not be
representative of all people with depression (e.g. they
may have had less severe symptoms).
▼ Table 6.15 Evaluating explanations for mood disorders
Approach
Explanation
Strengths
Weaknesses
Biological
Biochemical
Evidence – reducing tryptophan
through diet increased depressive
symptoms in people with depression.
Evidence – low serotonin may be an
effect of depression, not a cause.
Serotonin decreases in monkeys whose
social status changes from dominant
to submissive.
Applications – enabled the
development of drug treatments,
helping people improve daily
functioning, e.g. working, caring for
family.
Deterministic – suggests that
everyone responds in the same way to
reduced serotonin and noradrenaline.
Supporting evidence – concordance
rate for MZ twin pairs = 38 per cent,
DZ = 14 per cent.
Validity – the shared environment
fallacy reduces the validity of the
findings of MZ/DZ twin studies
(see page 94).
Applications – a better understanding
of the genes associated with
different types of depression could
mean treatments can be tailored to
each patient’s individual genome
(pharmacogenomics).
Reliability – genome-wide
association studies (GWAS) have failed
to identify consistent patterns of
genes associated with depression.
Beck’s cognitive
theory
Scientific: Experiments can be
designed to test hypotheses derived
from the theory, e.g. whether
depressed people use confirmation
bias more than non-depressed people.
Overly deterministic: Some people
may exercise their freewill and regain
control of automatic thinking through
therapy or coaching.
Learned
helplessness/
attributional style
Evidence: Seligman et al. (1988)
(see above)
Bidirectional ambiguity: Depressive
attributional style may be an effect
rather than a cause of depression.
Genetic
Psychological
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6 Clinical Psychology
Issues and debates
Nature versus nurture
Twin studies support nature, but adoption studies are unclear. For example, Kendler
et al. (2018) found an increased risk for depression in adoptive children where the
adoptive parent had depression (supporting nurture). However, Mendlewicz and
Rainer (1977) found that 31 per cent of biological parents of adopted children
with bipolar disorder also had a mood disorder, compared with only 12 per cent of
adoptive parents (supporting nature).
Oruč et al. (1997) support nature, whereas Seligman et al. (1988) support nurture.
Reductionism versus holism
The study by Oruč et al. (1997) is an example of biological reductionism as it
examines the role of single genes and fails to acknowledge epigenetic factors, which
affect gene expression.
Studies that investigate the diathesis-stress model provide a more holistic account
as they explore the ways in which biological and social factors interact.
Determinism versus freewill
Psychological explanations may be seen as overly deterministic. Some people
may exercise freewill and regain control of automatic thinking through therapy or
coaching.
SKILLS BUILDER
When answering ‘Plan a study’ questions such as 6.20 below, think about the
key studies you have revised for the topic area named in the question, such
as Oruč et al. (1997). You could use a similar design as the basis of your study.
How would you recruit a representative sample using random sampling, for
example? Would this be practical? Part b of question 6.20 asks you to justify
your choice of hypothesis. As Oruč et al. (1997) did not find significant results
overall (only the results for women were significant) but others have, which
type of hypothesis would be most sensible, directional or non-directional?
NOW TEST YOURSELF
6.17 Destiny is very tearful and finds it difficult to
concentrate at work. Her doctor explains that
this may be due to a serotonin imbalance.
Outline the biochemical explanation of
unipolar depression with reference to
Destiny’s symptoms.
[2]
6.18 Explain one strength of the cognitive
explanation of depression.
[2]
6.19 From the key study by Oruč et al. (1997),
explain one advantage of using blood tests
in this study.
[2]
6.20 aPlan an experiment to investigate the
genetic explanation of unipolar depression.
Your plan must include details about:
– sampling technique
– a directional or non-directional
hypothesis.
[10]
b Explain one reason for your choice
of a directional or non-directional
hypothesis.
[2]
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6.2.3 Treatment and management of mood (affective)
disorders
Biological treatments
▼ Table 6.16 Antidepressant drugs
Type of
antidepressant drug
Mode of action
Side effects
Tricyclics
Block presynaptic serotonin and noradrenaline
transporter molecules, increasing levels of both
neurotransmitters in the synapse
Dry mouth, dizziness, drowsiness,
blurred vision
Monoamine oxidase
inhibitors (MAOIs)
Stops serotonin, noradrenaline and dopamine
from being broken down by an enzyme, increasing
availability of all three neurotransmitters
Increased risk of stroke due to
interactions with some foods
Selective serotonin
reuptake inhibitors
(SSRIs)
Increases serotonin by blocking presynaptic
transporter molecules so serotonin cannot be
reabsorbed
Agitation, shakiness and anxiety,
nausea, reduced appetite
Psychological treatments
Beck’s cognitive restructuring
» Depression can be treated by identifying, challenging and changing irrational
beliefs about the self, the world and the future.
» The goal is to help people to become less reliant on dysfunctional/irrational
beliefs and use all available evidence when making attributions (i.e. become
more objective/rational).
» Therapists ask clients how they feel when they are thinking differently to
demonstrate the link between thoughts and emotions.
» Techniques include Socratic questioning, psychoeducation and homework.
» Clients usually attend between five and twenty 50-minute sessions.
SKILLS BUILDER
Explain one weakness of cognitive restructuring as a treatment for mood
disorders.
[2]
Think about how psychologists conduct studies to support therapies
(e.g. longitudinal studies). A classic weakness of longitudinal research is that
generalisability can be affected by attrition. Think about why attrition might
be high for people undergoing cognitive therapy. Now you should be able to
state that the evidence base supporting the use of cognitive therapy may be
flawed. Elaborate carefully and link specifically to cognitive therapy to get
both marks.
Ellis’s rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT)
» Therapy should focus on interpretations of events/situations, as opposed to the
events themselves.
» REBT focuses on present solutions, not past events.
» Therapists work collaboratively to help clients to challenge self-defeating
thoughts and reduce negative emotions and behaviours.
» Musturbation is tackled through disputing.
» The end goal is for clients to accept themselves, other people and their life,
including all good and bad points.
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SKILLS
BUILDER
Compare one
biological and
one psychological
treatment for one
mood disorder.
[4]
‘Compare’ means
to identify/comment
on similarities and/
or differences. You
could write about
two similarities, two
differences or one of
each. For example,
non-compliance
can be a problem
for both biological
and psychological
treatments. This
could be your first
similarity and then
you could elaborate
your point by
showing why people
stop taking their
medications or stop
attending therapy.
Your second point
could show how
the treatments are
similar or different
with regard to one
of the issues and
debates.
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6 Clinical Psychology
▼ Table 6.17 Evaluating treatments for mood disorders
Biological
Psychological
Strengths
Weaknesses
Evidence – all 21 drugs investigated in a metaanalysis of 522 double-blind trials were more
effective than placebos (Cipriani et al., 2018).
Side effects – side effects can be debilitating;
some of the most effective drugs have the worst
compliance rates.
Practical – biological treatments are a cheap
and low commitment solution for many people,
unlike cognitive therapy, which is timeconsuming and costly.
Limited effects – differences between drugs and
placebos may be statistically significant but may
not lead to a great deal of change in everyday life.
Remission rate – 75 per cent of people who
received drug treatment plus cognitive therapy
were symptom-free after two years, compared with
25 per cent using drugs alone (Fava et al., 1998).
Non-compliance – some people are not
sufficiently organised/self-motivated to carry
out weekly homework exercises.
No side effects – compliance rates may be
higher than drug treatments.
Accessibility – cognitive therapy requires welltrained therapists; location and financial cost
may mean this is not an option for many people.
SKILLS BUILDER
Joel is carrying out research into patient experiences regarding the treatment of
mood disorders. Plan a study using semi-structured interviews to help
Joel to investigate this topic. Remember to think about the aim(s), procedure,
[10]
sampling and ethical considerations.
Think of some open and closed questions Joel could ask and then think about
how he would analyse the answers. Would the interviews be better face to
face, online or over the phone? Think about how he could ensure people
answer the questions honestly, to increase validity, and how he can check that
his data is reliable.
Issues and debates
Individual versus situational explanations
Both biological and psychological treatments focus on changing aspects of the
individual – that is, their biochemistry or their beliefs.
This sidelines the role of situational factors. Tackling sources of stress in society
(e.g. poverty and discrimination) could also improve wellbeing without the need for
treatment.
Determinism versus free will
Free will means people are not at the mercy of negative/irrational beliefs. Instead,
they can wilfully choose to control these thoughts through cognitive restructuring
and/or REBT.
SKILLS BUILDER
Evaluate one or more psychological treatments for mood (affective) disorders,
including a discussion of reductionism versus holism.
[10]
If the essay question asks explicitly about biological or psychological
treatments, you can always use the other one as part of your evaluation. You
could mention that the treatment named in the question is either stronger
or weaker than the alternative (e.g. why psychological treatments might be
considered better than biological treatments). Often people are prescribed
antidepressants and offered cognitive therapy (e.g. restructuring or REBT).
This is known as eclectic approach and could lead into a discussion of
reductionism versus holism.
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NOW TEST YOURSELF
6.21 Annie has weekly REBT for unipolar depression. She is not enjoying the
sessions and wants to stop going. Suggest one reason that Annie may
not enjoy REBT.
[2]
6.22 Explain one similarity and one difference between Beck’s cognitive
restructuring and Ellis’s rational emotive behaviour therapy.
[4]
6.23 With reference to studies investigating the effectiveness
of treatment, suggest one reason why the findings might not be
generalisable.
[2]
6.24Outline one individual and one situational factor that might reduce the
effectiveness of treatments for mood disorders.
[4]
6.3 Impulse control disorders
6.3.1 Diagnostic criteria (ICD-11)
Impulse control disorders (ICDs) involve:
» a build-up of tension
» recurrent, irresistible urges to carry out specific behaviours
» short-lived euphoria/relief when the behaviour is performed
» distress and dysfunction due to shame/guilt.
▼ Table 6.18 Impulse control disorders
Type
Urge/compulsion
Prevalence
Age/gender differences
Kleptomania
Stealing unwanted/unnecessary 0.6 per cent of general
items
population
Can develop at any age; more
common in women
Pyromania
Fascination with fire, firestarting paraphernalia and the
fire service
Relatively young age of onset;
severity increases over time
Gambling
disorder
Impaired control over
4 per cent (in the US; Black
gambling; prioritising gambling and Shaw, 2019)
over other daily activities
Between 3 and 6 per cent of
psychiatric inpatients (Burton
et al., 2012)
Average age of onset is mid-30s but
can be 8–80; earlier onset in men
than women (Black et al., 2015)
SKILLS BUILDER
Omid works in a casino. He wonders whether any of
his customers have a gambling disorder. Explain one
difference Omid might observe between people with
and without a gambling disorder.
[2]
Your answer needs to link a characteristic of
gambling disorder to something Omid might
observe in his customers. For example, ‘Omid
might see people with gambling disorders coming
to the casino when he knows they should be at work
(prioritising gambling over other daily activities),
whereas other people only visit the casino after
working hours.’ Notice how the example includes
‘whereas’, showing that the answer includes both
people with and without gambling disorder.
Measuring impulse control disorders
The Kleptomania Symptom Assessment Scale
» The Kleptomania Symptom Assessment Scale (K-SAS) is an 11-item self-report
scale, scored from 0 to 4.
» The respondent considers thoughts, feelings and actions in the past week.
» More than 31 out of 44 is considered severe; more than 21 is considered
moderate.
» Sample item: ‘If you had urges to steal during the past week, on average, how
strong were your urges? None (0) Mild (1) Moderate (2) Severe (3) Extreme (4)’.
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6 Clinical Psychology
▼ Table 6.19 Evaluating the K-SAS
Strengths
Weaknesses
Practical – the K-SAS only takes ten
minutes; no training is required to
administer/score.
Self-report – may not be valid unless
answered honestly.
Quantitative data – no interpretation
is necessary. This increases objectivity,
leading to less biased diagnosis.
Reliability – people may interpret labels
on the rating scales differently. For
example, one person’s moderate may be
another person’s extreme.
SKILLS BUILDER
Explain one feature of a case study as a way of
investigating impulse control disorders.
[2]
First, bullet-point some ideas about case studies.
Refresh your memory on page 66 if you need to. Which
of these features would make case studies especially
useful for investigating impulse control disorders?
Remind yourself of key words associated with ICDs
(e.g. tension, urges, euphoria). Choose a feature that
you can link to these key words. For example, ‘Case
studies take an idiographic approach by collecting
detailed information about an individual. This would
be useful when studying an ICD like pyromania simply
because it is such a rare condition, making it difficult to
recruit a larger sample.’
Issues and debates
Idiographic versus nomothetic
The K-SAS enables a nomothetic approach to kleptomania research. For example,
scores can be measured before and after therapy, so conclusions can be generalised
regarding treatment efficacy.
Case studies (e.g. Glover, 1985; see page 114) are more idiographic; they allow
greater understanding of contextual details and the impact of ICDs on people’s lives.
SKILLS BUILDER
Evaluate the Kleptomania Symptom Assessment Scale (K-SAS), including a
discussion of objective and subjective data.
[6]
This question asks you to think about objective and subjective data. You could
discuss K-SAS as being objective as the researchers do not have to use any
clinical judgement. They simply add up the ratings given to each item and
compare them with the published ranges to determine the severity of the
problem. However, K-SAS scores could be seen as subjective as the individual
respondent has to interpret each question with reference to their own
experiences. This means their answers are specific to them and may not be
comparable with other people with the same score.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
6.25Outline one similarity and one difference between kleptomania and
pyromania.
6.26 aOutline what is meant by idiographic versus nomothetic.
b Explain one weakness of taking a nomothetic approach when
diagnosing/researching impulse control disorders.
6.27Nevis is planning a study on gambling disorders and cannot decide
which type of data to collect. Give one or more reasons why Nevis
might decide to use quantitative data rather than qualitative data.
6.28 Explain one strength of the K-SAS as a measure of kleptomania.
[4]
[2]
[2]
[4]
[2]
SKILLS
BUILDER
Bembe wants to
conduct a case study
about a client he is
working with who has
pyromania. Explain
how Bembe could
collect and analyse his
data.
[4]
What advice would
you give Bembe
to ensure that his
findings are valid
and reliable? If you
need to, revisit the
sections in Chapter 5
on case studies
(page 66) validity
(page 80) and
reliability (page 81).
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6.3.2 Explanations of impulse control disorders
Biological explanation: dopamine
STUDY TIP
» The stimulation of reward centres (e.g. the nucleus accumbens) leads to
dopamine signalling and a pleasure rush.
» Behaviour followed by pleasure becomes more frequent (see operant
conditioning, page 38).
» Dopamine is also released before previously rewarded behaviours, leading to
excitement and anticipation.
» Cues associated with previously rewarded behaviours also lead to dopamine
release (see classical conditioning, page 39).
Reward deficiency syndrome
» Impulse control disorders result from reduced dopamine.
» Dopamine deficiency encourages people to seek opportunities to increase
dopamine.
» Dopamine deficiency may be genetic.
SKILLS BUILDER
Kesten has pyromania. His doctor thinks this could be related to levels
of dopamine in his brain. Explain the dopamine explanation of impulse
control disorders with reference to Kesten’s pyromania.
[4]
Remind yourself of the key features of pyromania, other than fire-starting.
Next, think about which brain regions are involved. Are dopamine levels
thought to be too high or too low? Why might this be? What effect does
carrying out the behaviour have on dopamine?
Create diagrams
and flow charts to
visually represent the
explanations in this
section. Find images
online to illustrate your
notes, such as a picture
of the brain with the
nucleus accumbens
labelled, a dopamine
molecule or someone
starting a fire and a box
of matches. Use these
to create infographics –
for example, on the role
of dopamine in impulse
control disorders.
Simply selecting
appropriate images
should help to process
information more deeply
and help you to retain it
more effectively.
Psychological explanations
Behavioural explanation: positive reinforcement
» Behaviours that are rewarded will be repeated.
» The rush of dopamine that follows stealing, fire-starting and gambling acts as
positive reinforcement.
» Variable ratio reinforcement (VRR) leads to the highest rates of behaviour,
explaining why gambling is so addictive as rewards are unpredictable.
» Behaviours learned using VRR are highly resistant to extinction, explaining why
repeated losses in gambling have no obvious effect on behaviour.
Cognitive explanation: Miller’s feeling-state theory
» Tension triggers retrieval of addictive memories (state-dependent memory).
» They may also be triggered by people, objects and events (context-dependent
memory).
» Recall triggers positive feelings (feeling-states) and compulsive behaviour.
» The release of tension and resulting euphoria strengthen the feeling-state,
increasing the probability of compulsive behaviour even further.
» Negative emotions following the behaviour may also trigger the feeling-state,
creating a vicious circle.
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6 Clinical Psychology
▼ Table 6.20 Evaluating explanations for impulse control disorders
Approach
Explanation
Strengths
Weaknesses
Biological
Dopamine
Supporting evidence – 51 per cent of
people with a gambling disorder carry
the A1 allele of a gene that codes for
dopamine receptors (Comings et al., 1996),
compared with only 25 per cent in the
general population (Blum et al., 1996).
Ignores nurture – rats living in a
poor environment were more likely to
become addicted to morphine than rats
in an enriched environment (Alexander
et al., 1981).
Applications – helps to explain why
dopamine agonists (used to treat
Parkinson’s disease) sometimes lead to
ICDs as a side effect. This knowledge
can help people make informed decisions
about treatments.
Reductionist – underestimates the role
of cognitive and social factors; prenatal
tobacco exposure, maternal depression
and childhood bullying are all linked to
brain development; stress could also
increase vulnerability to ICDs.
Focus on nurture – explains findings
that cannot be explained by nature alone.
For example, some people with gambling
disorder do not carry the A1 allele.
Incomplete explanation – the focus on
positive reinforcement may be misplaced;
removal of tension is negatively
reinforcing.
Evidence – supported by Miller’s case
study of John, who became addicted
to gambling, which he associated with
‘belonging’ and stopped him feeling like
‘a loser’.
Reliability – the ‘John’ case study
was based on interviews which cannot
be replicated. Interpretation of
the qualitative data may have been
subjective.
Psychological Behavioural
Cognitive
SKILLS BUILDER
Evaluate positive reinforcement as an explanation of
impulse control disorders, including a discussion of
reductionism versus holism.
[10]
This is a relatively unlikely question as it only
focuses on one of the three explanations. However,
it is a legitimate question, meaning you need
to prepare for this possibility. Think about how
psychologists support their explanations. They
collect evidence from research studies, each of
which has at least one method and data collection
technique. How are the effects of positive
reinforcement tested (e.g. animal experiments)?
Could stealing, fire-starting or gambling be similar?
Your discussion of reductionism might focus on the
idea that humans have self-awareness and feelings
of shame based on social norms and how we should
behave. This means a more holistic explanation that
takes account of cognitive processes may provide a
better explanation.
SKILLS BUILDER
Compare one biological and one psychological
explanation of impulse control disorders.
[4]
Your comparison point could be about supporting
evidence, application and/or issues and debates.
For example, the dopamine hypothesis is supported
by objective data regarding the percentage of
people with ICD carrying the A1 allele, whereas
feeling-state theory is supported by subjective
evidence, such as Miller’s case study of John.
Explain why this is important. For example,
objective data is seen as more scientific,
strengthening the biological explanation, whereas
the feeling-state theory is more difficult to test as
the concepts are more abstract. You could look at
one comparison point in detail or more than one in
less detail. Either way your answer is likely to be
around 80 words.
Issues and debates
Individual and situational explanations
The dopamine explanation is an individual explanation. It focuses on differences
in people’s dopamine activity, which may be genetic. Situational factors are
acknowledged though; cues in the environment may trigger dopamine release, such
as lights and sounds on arcade machines.
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The cognitive explanation is partly an individual explanation. It refers to life events
relating to addictive memory and feeling-states, such as John’s father calling him
‘a loser’, but also recognises situational factors, such as environmental cues that
trigger feeling-states.
Determinism versus free will
The idea that A1 allele carriers are predisposed to dopamine deficiency and thus
ICDs is determinist. People can and do seek help to overcome their urges and control
their own behaviour, demonstrating the role of free will (e.g. Glover 1985 case
study; see page 114).
The idea of feeling-states is also determinist. It implies that once triggered, the
behaviour is unavoidable, yet cognitive-behavioural therapy demonstrates that
people are not at the mercy of pre-existing cognitive patterns and biases. People
can change the way they think, feel and behave.
SKILLS BUILDER
Question 6.32 below asks about ‘one piece of
psychological knowledge’. This could include
theories and/or research studies. There are no
named studies for this section, but if you have
learned about Olds and Milner (1954), you could
use it to evaluate both the dopamine deficiency
and the positive reinforcement explanations. Part
b asks for ‘features of psychological knowledge’.
You could use the fact that Olds and Milner (1954)
conducted an animal experiment (high levels of
control increase internal validity) and/or the fact
that lever pressing is an observable behaviour,
making the data more objective.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
6.29 Flavia is walking through a department store.
She suddenly feels very tense and feels the
urge to take items from the make-up counter
without paying for them. Explain Flavia’s urge
to steal from the store using Miller’s feelingstate theory.
[2]
6.30 Explain one similarity and one difference
between any two explanations of impulse
control disorder.
[4]
6.31Outline one application to everyday life of
the biological explanation of impulse control
disorders.
[2]
6.32 Clarisse wants to design an experiment to test
explanations of impulse control disorders.
Choose one piece of psychological knowledge
that Clarisse might use to help design her
study.
a Describe this psychological knowledge. [4]
b Explain two features of this knowledge that
may inform her plan.
[4]
6.3.3 Treatment and management of impulse control
disorders
Biological treatments
Drug treatments include SSRIs (see page 106), mood stabilisers and topiramate
(for kleptomania) and opioid antagonists (see Grant et al., 2008, below).
Key study: Grant et al. (2008)
Context:
» Endorphins bind to opioid receptors, inhibit GABA and allow dopamine to
increase.
» Opioid antagonists block opioid receptors and reduce euphoria.
» Lack of reinforcement (euphoria) leads to extinction of compulsive behaviours.
Aims and hypothesis:
» Aim: to investigate opiate antagonists as a treatment for gambling disorder.
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6 Clinical Psychology
» Hypothesis: opiate antagonists are more effective in reducing gambling disorder
in people with a family history of alcoholism, stronger urges and euphoric
response to alcohol compared to people who do not fit into these categories.
Research method(s) and design:
» Method/design: experiment/randomised control trials, independent measures,
double-blind.
» Data collection technique: structured and semi-structured interviews,
questionnaires and psychometric tests.
Variables:
» Independent variable: random allocation to low, moderate or high dose of
nalmefene, naltrexone or placebo.
» Dependent variable: difference in Y-BOCS (see page 126) post-treatment.
Sample: 284 pathological gamblers; all had gambled in the past two weeks and
were outpatients from 15 psychiatric centres.
Procedure:
» Comorbid diagnoses were identified using a structured interview.
» Severity of gambling disorder was investigated using a questionnaire (Y-BOCS).
» Measures were taken after the drug trial, which lasted up to 18 weeks.
Controlled variables:
» Participants had not used these medications before.
» None were taking other medications that could interact with the opiate antagonist.
Ethics:
» Written informed consent was given, including information about alternative
treatments.
» The fewest number of people possible were put into the placebo group.
» Screening took place to eliminate anyone for whom the trial might have been
harmful.
Results: three factors were associated with positive treatment outcomes:
» family history of alcoholism
» stronger baseline urges
» age (reduced placebo effect in older participants).
Conclusion: opiate antagonists have the greatest effect for gamblers who have a family
history of alcoholism. The stronger the urges, the higher the probability that these
drugs will be effective. Efficacy in younger gamblers may be due to placebo effects.
SKILLS BUILDER
Suggest one ethical issue Grant et al. (2008) would
have considered when conducting the semi-structured
interviews about family history of alcoholism.
[2]
Your first sentence should identify a suitable
ethical issue. Bullet-point your ideas first; a
mnemonic like DDRIPP will remind you to think
about Deception, Debriefing, Right to withdraw,
Informed consent, Protection from harm, and
Privacy and confidentiality. As the topic is personal
and sensitive, it would make sense to talk about
confidentiality or right to withdraw.
▼ Table 6.21 Evaluating Grant et al. (2008)
Strengths
Weaknesses
Validity – Y-BOCS was administered by a researcher who
was unaware which drug group the person was in or their
family history (double-blind).
Self-report – participants may not have accurate
knowledge regarding family history of alcoholism.
Generalisations – participants in the nalmefene group
were diverse in terms of age/ethnicity.
No follow-up – the long-term efficacy is unknown;
family history may predict short-term improvement only.
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SKILLS BUILDER
Marino has a gambling disorder. His doctor has suggested
that he tries an opiate antagonist. Marino is wary of taking
daily medication. Suggest one or more ways that his
doctor could persuade Marino to try a drug treatment. [4]
The question asks for ‘one or more ways’. It makes
sense to write two sentences about two ideas. Be
creative if you need to be. Maybe Marino’s father
had alcohol addiction. If so, the drugs are likely to
be more effective, according to Grant et al. (2008).
Another way to persuade Marino might be to explain
that this treatment will require lower commitment
than cognitive-behavioural therapy.
Psychological (cognitive-behavioural) therapies
Covert sensitisation
» Covert sensitisation uses classical conditioning to create unpleasant associations
with the behaviour the person wishes to stop.
» Therapists help clients to visualise disturbing images (unconditioned stimulus) that
create unpleasant feelings, such as disgust or shame (unconditioned response).
» Images are paired with thoughts about the target behaviour.
» Eventually, thinking about the target behaviour elicits negative feelings that
override urges to perform the behaviour.
Relevant research: Glover (1985)
Aim: to evaluate the efficacy of covert sensitisation for kleptomania.
Methodology:
» Case study: woman with long-term daily kleptomania.
» Four therapy sessions: use of muscle relaxants and self-hypnosis to increase
vividness of imagery relating to vomiting/people staring.
» She practised visualisations several times a day at home.
» Follow-up sessions after three, nine and nineteen months.
Results:
» Urges and stealing reduced. Occasional thefts did not relieve tension.
» Daily visualisation exercises were completed several times a day.
» The woman became increasingly confident to shop alone.
» Nineteen months post-treatment, there were no further relapses.
Conclusions: clearly imagining unpleasant scenes helped reduce urges to steal.
▼ Table 6.22 Evaluating Glover (1985)
Strength
Weakness
Cross-case analysis – Kohn and Antonuccio (2002)
successfully treated a 39-year-old man who had been
stealing from the age of six.
Generalisation – the study focused on one 56-year-old
woman, so the findings may not represent the wider
population.
SKILLS BUILDER
Evaluate one study of covert sensitisation, including
a discussion of generalisations from findings.
[10]
Typically, essays focus on the treatment rather
than focusing on ‘one study’ (unless it is a section
containing a key study). However, this is a legitimate
question. Take care; it would be easy to mix up the
case studies of covert sensitisation and imaginal
desensitisation as both studies are about women
with impulse control disorder and the names of
the therapies are similar. When writing about
generalisation, think about whether the treatment
would be equally effective for people from different
cultural backgrounds (e.g. individualist versus
collectivist).
Imaginal desensitisation
» Therapists interview clients to design personalised guided imagery scripts,
including cues that trigger tension/urges and venues where the target behaviour
will be performed.
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6 Clinical Psychology
» Clients are taught progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) to combat tension.
» Scripts have six stages (see Blaszczynski and Nower, 2003, below) separated by
brief PMR.
» Clients practise guided imagery two to three times a day for five to seven days a
week and record their progress.
Relevant research: Blaszczynski and Nower (2003)
Aim: to provide therapists with instructions on how to conduct imaginal
desensitisation.
Example: case study of a client with long-term gambling disorder. Mary lost $25,000
in casinos. The therapist created a script based on details about stressors in her life
(see Table 6.23).
▼ Table 6.23 Stages in Mary’s guided imagery script
1
Initiating the urge
Feeling lonely when others leave work
to go home
2
Planning to act on the urge
Driving to the casino, feeling excited
3
Arriving at the venue
Looking at lights, hearing music at
the casino
4
Generating arousal (positive
emotions)
Finding her favourite dealer
5
Second thoughts, creating sense of
boredom and guilt
Other gamblers look bored, thoughts
turn to previous losses/unpaid bills
6
Negative outcomes/potential
alternatives
Leaving the casino, feeling good,
going to the movies
▼ Table 6.24 Evaluating Blaszczynski and Nower (2003)
Strength
Weakness
Qualitative data – the Mary case study
includes a detailed example script to
support therapists in creating successful
scripts of their own.
Lack of evidence – the Mary case study
does not report on her progress posttreatment. Therapists may need guidance
on expected outcomes.
▼ Table 6.25 Evaluating treatments for impulse control disorders
Approach
Treatment
Strengths
Weaknesses
Biological
Opiate antagonists
Evidence – Grant et al. (2008) (see
above).
Side effects include nausea, vomiting,
stomach pain, hypertension and fever.
Psychological
Covert
sensitisation
Supporting evidence – Glover
(1985), Kohn and Antonuccio
(2002) (see above).
Subjectivity – the longitudinal aspect
of the study means researchers form
a relationship with participants; they
may become biased, such as seeing
improvement in the absence of solid
evidence.
Comparison to drug treatments – Individual differences – not everyone
opiate antagonists have unpleasant can create vivid visual images, such as
side effects; therapy may have a
people with aphantasia.
better compliance rate.
Imaginal
desensitisation
Practical – patient satisfaction
is high; only 2–3 sessions are
required, so it is cheaper and
quicker than covert sensitisation.
Individual differences – might
be ineffective for people who are
undermotivated, poorly organised or
who find relaxation difficult.
Evidence – 80 per cent of people
with gambling disorder found longterm relief following six sessions
(Grant et al., 2011).
Commitment – drug treatments
require less effort than imaginal
desensitisation, which requires
practice throughout the day.
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Issues and debates
Reductionism versus holism
Treating ICDs with opiate antagonists is reductionist. It ignores sociocultural factors
that might differ between people with ICDs. Grant et al. (2008) is more holistic. It
considers how the efficacy of drug treatments is affected by a range of factors.
Idiographic versus nomothetic
Grant et al. (2008) takes a nomothetic approach. The findings should allow
practitioners to predict the efficacy of opiate antagonists for their patients. Glover
(1985) is idiographic. The aim was to gain insight into the recovery journey of one
patient. The study does not suggest that the results are generalisable to other people.
SKILLS BUILDER
Tia is a therapist. She is working with Alfred, who has
gambling disorder. She wants to learn more about the
cues that trigger Alfred’s urges. Plan a participant
observation to help Tia to investigate gambling
disorder.
[10]
You will need to consider all the general features
involved in planning a study but also focus on
the specific type of observation named in the
question (participant). Think about locations Tia
and Alfred might visit and how this could affect
her ability to record valid and reliable data. How
would the type of observation affect whether the
data is quantitative or qualitative? What are the
implications of this?
NOW TEST YOURSELF
6.33Outline opiate antagonists as a treatment for
impulse control disorders.
[4]
6.34 Suggest one reason a person might prefer
imaginal desensitisation to opiate antagonists
as a treatment for an impulse control
disorder.
[2]
6.35Using the key study by Grant et al. (2008),
explain what is meant by a randomised
control trial.
[2]
6.36 With reference to Blaszczynski and Nower
(2003), explain how you could use two features
of this psychological knowledge to plan an
interview to investigate the effectiveness of
imaginal desensitisation.
[4]
6.4 Anxiety and fear-related disorders
6.4.1 Diagnostic criteria (ICD-11)
Anxiety disorders are characterised by intense, persistent and unreasonable
apprehension and worries about everyday things. A diagnosis is made only if:
» symptoms have persisted for almost every day for several months
» the person feels distressed by their symptoms
» symptoms disrupt everyday life
» other conditions have been discounted.
▼ Table 6.26 Anxiety and fear-related disorders
Type of anxiety and fear-related disorder Symptoms
116
Generalised anxiety disorder (GAD)
Muscle aches and pains, insomnia,
restlessness, irritability, poor concentration
Agoraphobia
Excessive fear/anxiety outside the home,
fear of panic attacks in public places
Specific phobia (blood-injection-injury)
Decreased blood pressure causing fainting
(vasovagal syncope)
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6 Clinical Psychology
Measures of anxiety and fear-related disorders
The self-report questionnaires shown in Table 6.27 can also be used as structured
interview schedules.
▼ Table 6.27 Self-report questionnaires for measuring anxiety and fear-related disorders
Generalised Anxiety Disorder
Assessment (GAD-7)
The Blood Injection Phobia
Inventory (BIPI)
Number of
items
Seven items, rated on frequency 18 situations relating to blood and
needles, rated on frequency of 27
cognitive, biological and behavioural
reactions in each situation; 486 data
points per person
What is
measured?
Frequency of symptoms in the
last two weeks
Situational and anticipatory
anxiety
Answer format Four-point scale (0–3)
Four-point scale (0 = never,
to 3 = always)
Sample item
Trouble relaxing?
Not at all (0)
Several days (1)
More than half the days (2)
Nearly every day (4)
When I see an injured person after
an accident, bleeding in the road
or on the television:
I feel my face is hot.
Scoring
5/21 = mild, 10/21 = moderate
(referral needed), 15+ = severe
(treatment priority)
n/a
[6]
Essays drawn from the diagnosis section of each disorder may focus on any
tests used to help make a diagnosis. You will need to know quite a lot about
each test, including the type of questions asked, how they are answered and
how the researchers score them. Think about where and by whom these tests
might be administered, as well as when and why. The W questions are always
helpful to extend your thinking if and when you are running out of things to say.
Relevant research: Mas et al. (2010)
Aim: to develop a measure of blood phobia symptoms for first-language Spanish
speakers.
Methodology:
» Compared scores from blood phobics and controls on 50 anxiety-related items,
rated on four-point Likert-style scales.
» Following initial analysis, items were removed that were least helpful in
differentiating between blood phobics and controls.
» Blood phobics were interviewed and completed the Fear Questionnaire (FQ).
Results:
» There was a strong positive correlation between the BIPI and the blood
subsection of the FQ.
» Blood phobics had higher scores on the BIPI than the control group.
Conclusions: the BIPI is a valid measure of blood phobia in Spanish speakers.
Outline one similarity
and one difference
between generalised
anxiety disorder and
agoraphobia.
[4]
Read the general
information above
and compile a list
of aspects that all
anxiety disorders
have in common.
When writing your
similarity, use
words like ‘both’
and ‘likewise’.
When writing your
difference, use words
like ‘in contrast’ and
‘whereas’.
SKILLS
BUILDER
SKILLS BUILDER
Describe the GAD-7 as a measure of anxiety and fear-related disorders.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Merv’s child needs an
injection but he feels
sick and light-headed
every time he thinks
about taking his son
to the appointment.
Explain one reason
Merv might be
diagnosed with a
blood-injection-injury
phobia.
[2]
What do we know
about Merv? Is his
anxiety situational or
anticipatory? What
type of symptoms
does he have –
physical, affective or
cognitive? Which test
is used to diagnose
blood-injection-injury
phobias? You may
want to give a reason
relating to the extract
and then explain
how this information
relates to the BIPI.
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▼ Table 6.28 Evaluating Mas et al. (2010)
Strength
Weakness
Quantitative data – used statistical analysis to
eliminate items that were least useful in differentiating
between blood phobics and controls.
Generalisations – there were three times as many women
as men in the blood phobic group; the BIPI may be less
effective for men.
SKILLS BUILDER
Question 6.40 below is a ‘Plan a study’ question.
Think about the studies you have learned about in
this section. You could use knowledge from Mas
et al. (2010) and the BIPI to design a similar study
for the GAD-7. Alternatively, you could design a
correlational study in which you give participants
the GAD-7 and another established measure of
anxiety (such as the Fear Questionnaire, also used
in Mas et al.). You could collect pairs of scores
from each person and plot them on a scatter graph
to see whether there is a positive correlation.
However you design your study, make sure you
word your hypothesis carefully to reflect the design.
See page 72 for more on hypotheses.
▼ Table 6.29 Evaluating diagnosis and measurement of anxiety disorders
Strengths
Weaknesses
Generalised Anxiety Strong test-retest reliability. (Spitzer
Disorder Assessment et al., 2006, +0.83)
(GAD-7)
Validity: strong positive correlation
with other anxiety measures
Test-retest data collected only one week apart
The Blood Injection Validity: Mas et al. (2010) (see above)
Phobia Inventory
(BIPI)
Applications: wealth of data available
when designing treatment plans
Subjective: self-report asks how people think they would
respond, not an observation of actual behaviour
Nomothetic approach ignores the context of anxiety
Validity: response set possible (see page 61) as timeconsuming to complete
NOW TEST YOURSELF
6.37Outline what is meant by psychometrics, using
the GAD-7 as an example.
[2]
6.38 Hiro has worked from home since the
pandemic. He dreads going into the office for
monthly meetings with his boss. His doctor
thinks he might have agoraphobia. Suggest
one open and one closed question that Hiro’s
doctor might ask to decide whether Hiro has
an anxiety/fear-related disorder.
[2]
6.39 Explain one weakness of questionnaires as
a way of diagnosing blood-injection-injury
phobias.
[2]
6.40 aPlan a study to investigate the validity of
the GAD-7. Your plan must include details
about:
– sampling technique
– a directional or non-directional
hypothesis.
[10]
b State two reasons for your choice of
[2]
sampling technique.
6.4.2 Explanations of anxiety and fear-related
disorders
Biological explanation
Genetic inheritance
» Family and twin studies suggest anxiety/fear-related disorders are inherited.
» Concordance rates: MZ = 39 per cent, DZ = 9 per cent (Distel et al., 2008).
» Genetic mutations, such as duplication of the NTRK3 gene, may increase
vulnerability.
» Over-expression of the NTRK3 gene has been linked to increased noradrenaline,
which is associated with stress and anxiety (Armengol et al., 2002).
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6 Clinical Psychology
Relevant research: Öst (1992)
Aim: to determine whether blood phobics are similar enough to injection phobics to
justify treating blood-injection as one phobia.
Methodology:
» Self-report data was gathered about phobia origins, age of onset, family history
and fainting from people with blood, injection and other phobias (e.g. animals).
» While participants watched a surgery video (blood phobics) or had a finger-prick
test (injection phobics), researchers recorded:
– the time taken to withdraw
– self-reported anxiety on a scale of 0–10
– heart rate and blood pressure.
Results:
» Compared with injection phobics, blood phobics:
– had more first-degree relatives with the same phobia
– were more fearful of fainting as a phobic response.
» Anxiety and time of withdrawal were similar.
» There were differences in bodily reactions between the two groups (see Table 6.31).
▼ Table 6.30 Differences between blood and injection phobics when withdrawing from the
behavioural tests
Blood phobics
Injection phobics
Heart rate/blood pressure
Decrease
Increase
Fainting
More likely
Less likely
Conclusions:
» There are more similarities than differences between blood phobics and injection
phobics so blood-injection phobia should remain as one diagnosis.
» Although, compared with injection phobia, blood phobia has:
– a stronger genetic component
– more severe biological reactions.
SKILLS BUILDER
Professor May is preparing a presentation about
the genetic explanation of fear-related disorders.
Suggest one way that she could convince her
audience that genes contribute to this disorder.
[2]
This question is simply another way of asking you
to explain a strength of the genetic explanation.
You just need to use your knowledge in a slightly
different way. ‘Suggest’ means to think of an idea.
You could state why this is a good suggestion (i.e.
how it might help to persuade the audience). You
could also suggest that Professor May includes
research evidence from Öst (1992), Gratacòs et al.
(2001) or Dierssen et al. (2006), and then focus on
specific findings. Focus on why your chosen finding
might be particularly persuasive. If you chose the
Dierssen study, for example, you could emphasise
the strengths of animal experiments.
▼ Table 6.31 Evaluating Öst (1992)
Strengths
Weaknesses
Internal validity – data was discounted from seven
participants who did not meet criteria for diagnosis
when re-assessed.
Ecological validity – watching a video of surgery is not
the same as encountering blood in real life.
Objective data – the behavioural tests did not rely on
subjective self-reports in which people have to imagine/
recall encounters with feared stimuli, as have been used
in other studies.
Validity – primary data about first-degree relatives
was not checked to verify whether the diagnosis was
accurate.
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SKILLS BUILDER
Explain one validity issue relating to one study
investigating the genetic explanation of one fear
disorder.
[2]
You only have to know one study relating to genetic
explanations (e.g. Öst, 1992). However, you could
be asked a range of different questions about the
methodology. Your point could be a strength or a
weakness and could relate to operationalisation
or control of confounding variables. Remember,
though, the question asks you to explain, so state
your point giving detail from the study and say why
this is an issue. For example, how does it affect the
researcher’s ability to draw firm conclusions from
the data?
Psychological explanation
Behavioural: classical conditioning
» Phobias are acquired through classical conditioning, where an association may be
formed between the two stimuli.
» If the neutral stimuli (NS) is encountered again, it may also lead to a fear
response (expectancy learning).
» The NS is now a conditioned stimulus; fear is a conditioned response (see page 39).
Relevant research: Watson and Rayner (1920)
Aim: to investigate whether emotional responses can be classically conditioned and
whether conditioned fear generalises to other situations.
Methodology:
» Nine-month-old Albert’s responses to animals (e.g. rat, rabbit) and non-animal
stimuli (burning newspaper, building blocks, fur coat, cotton wool) were
observed under controlled conditions.
» His responses were recorded and filmed. Qualitative data was recorded.
» Next, the rat was presented, followed by a loud crash. This was repeated several
times and responses were recorded.
» Once Albert had been conditioned to fear the rat, he was retested with other
animals and white furry stimuli. He was also tested in an alternative room.
Results:
» Albert was initially fearless when confronted with all stimuli except the loud noise.
» After seven pairings of the rat and noise, he began to fear the rat.
» He also feared other animals and white furry stimuli but this fear reduced over time.
» When tested in another room, Albert still showed some fear towards the rat.
Conclusions: fear can be classically conditioned and generalises to other similar
stimuli and settings.
▼ Table 6.32 Evaluating Watson and Rayner (1920)
Strengths
Weaknesses
Longitudinal – multiple observations allowed the
researchers to record changes in Albert’s fear over time,
suggesting fear was learned.
Ecological validity – it may have been more difficult
to condition Albert if he had been in a familiar setting,
such as his own home.
Qualitative data – detailed observations about bodily
movement, facial expressions and self-soothing provide
rich insight.
Generalisations – only one infant was studied.
Temperamental differences might mean others are more
or less easy to condition.
Psychodynamic explanation
Phobias stem from unconscious, unresolved psychosexual conflicts, such as the
Oedipus complex.
Freud explains phobias using defence mechanisms. For example, fear is transferred
from one situation to another to protect us from awareness of unconscious desires
for sex/aggression.
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6 Clinical Psychology
Relevant research: Freud (1909)
Aim: to describe phobia development and recovery in a young child.
Methodology:
» Case study of a five-year-old boy with a phobia of white horses.
» Qualitative data was gathered in an interview with the child and letters from
his father to Freud. The letters contained observations made by the father and
things Hans had said.
Results:
» Widdlers (penises): Hans talked a lot about this body part. His mother told him she
would cut it off for touching it. Freud suggested this led to castration anxiety.
» Dreams: Freud interpreted a dream about giraffes as symbolising the Oedipus
complex. A later dream about a plumber was interpreted as the resolution of this
complex, in which Hans identified with his father.
» Horse phobia = displacement: Freud believed the horse symbolised the father.
Castration anxiety was displaced onto the horse, which Hans thought would bite him.
Conclusion: phobias are a way of expressing unconscious fears. They can only be
treated through reducing the unconscious fear.
STUDY TIP
You have to learn two
case studies involving
children for this section,
which are commonly
referred to as Little
Albert and Little Hans.
These could be easily
muddled up if you don’t
revise them with care.
This tip could help you
out: Hans starts with H
and so does Horse, the
animal he was scared
of. Albert contains all
the letters of the animal
he was scared of – a rat.
▼ Table 6.33 Evaluating Freud (1909)
Strengths
Weaknesses
Qualitative data – letters provided insight that could
not be gained any other way.
Subjective – data was mainly from the father’s
perspective. He may have only shared information that he
thought would be of interest.
Longitudinal – the letters spanned three years. Fear
intensity could be monitored over time and conclusions
drawn about any changes.
Generalisations – Hans was from a wealthy family in
Vienna, Austria. The findings may not apply to modern
children who spend more time outside the family home.
▼ Table 6.34 Evaluating explanations of anxiety disorders
Approach
Explanation
Strengths
Weaknesses
Biological
Genetic
Evidence – 90 per cent of people with fearrelated disorders had a NTRK3 duplication
compared with 7 per cent of controls
(Gratacòs et al., 2001). Over-expression
of NTRK3 increased anxiety/panic in
transgenic mice (Dierssen et al., 2006).
Validity – twin studies (e.g. Distel
et al., 2008) may suffer from shared
environment fallacy (see page 95).
Evidence – Ost et al. (see below).
Reductionist – genes may be
silenced or expressed depending on
environmental (epigenetic) factors.
Evidence – see Watson and Rayner (1920)
below.
Partial explanation – does not
explain why phobic responses are so
resistant to extinction; this is better
explained by operant conditioning.
Applications – led to the development of
systematic desensitisation (see page 123),
i.e. learned behaviours can be unlearned.
Conflicting evidence – cannot
explain why certain fears are more
easily learned than others, such as
snakes versus flowers.
Psychological
Behavioural:
classical
conditioning
Psychodynamic Evidence – Little Hans case study (Freud,
1909); see below.
Case studies – evidence is highly
subjective and difficult to generalise.
Patients were selective in what they
shared with Freud. He interpreted
their disclosures according to his
theories (researcher bias).
Applications - contributed to the
development of psychoanalytic therapy,
which paved the way for modern talking
therapies (e.g. CBT).
Unscientific – concepts such as the
unconscious are difficult to test; it is
not possible to demonstrate that the
unconscious does not exist.
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Issues and debates
Determinism versus free will
The genetic explanation is deterministic. Certain genes increase vulnerability to
anxiety disorders. However, humans have the capacity and choice to make positive
lifestyle choices (e.g. diet, exercise) that help to overcome genetic predispositions.
Behavioural explanations are also deterministic. Negative experiences mean fears
are learned. This ignores cognitive factors that are within conscious control – how
we interpret events influences how much they affect us.
Nature versus nurture
Traditional biological explanations focus on nature but recent discoveries in
epigenetics demonstrate the importance of interaction between genetic and
environmental factors (nurture). Environmental factors may increase the risk of
anxiety disorders but may be positive, such as increasing resilience and reducing risk.
Behaviourist explanations do not account for nature. This limits their explanatory
power. For example, they cannot explain the results of twin studies.
The psychodynamic explanation combines nature and nurture. Drives for sex and
aggression are innate. If they’re not expressed, it may increase vulnerability to
anxiety. Experiences (nurture) determine the extent to which needs are met and
complexes are resolved.
SKILLS BUILDER
Evaluate one or more psychological explanations of one fear-related disorder,
including a discussion of nature versus nurture.
[10]
This question allows you to focus on just one of the two psychological
explanations in this section, or to include both. It may be sensible to include
both explanations so you can compare the supporting evidence and the issues
and debates. You could also compare psychological and biological explanations
so long as you clearly justify why one or the other type of explanation is better.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
6.41Ricardo has a fear of goats. His mother believes that it started when
the family visited a farm when he was three years old. Using either the
psychodynamic or the behavioural explanation, explain how Ricardo’s
fear might have developed.
[2]
6.42 Compare one study investigating the behavioural explanation of
one fear disorder and one study investigating the psychodynamic
[4]
explanation of your chosen disorder.
6.43Outline what is meant by validity using one study investigating
[2]
one fear-related disorder.
6.44 Suggest two reasons why a psychologist might choose a case
[4]
study to investigate explanations of fear-related disorders.
SKILLS
BUILDER
India wants to
investigate the
development of
childhood fears
using families from
the nursery where
she works. Plan a
longitudinal study to
help India investigate
[10]
this topic.
You will need to
consider all the
general features
involved in planning
a study. Focus on the
tests/tasks that India
might use, how she
will score them, how
often she will collect
data from either
the children and/
or their parents and
any controls that she
needs to consider to
ensure her findings
are valid.
6.4.3 Treatment and management of anxiety and
fear-related disorders
Behavioural therapy: systematic desensitisation
» Phobic patients are taught to relax using deep muscle relaxation and other
techniques.
» Clients and therapists develop a fear hierarchy (see Chapter 3, page 41).
» Clients are then exposed to the least fear-inducing situation while employing
relaxation techniques (reciprocal inhibition).
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6 Clinical Psychology
» Gradually, clients work up the hierarchy, moving on when they are able to
tolerate each situation without fear.
» Exposure may be in vivo or imagined.
Psychological therapy
Cognitive-behavioural therapy
» Therapists assume that fear/anxiety results from cognitive fear structures.
New (positive) information is never assimilated into the fear structure due to
avoidance of feared situations.
» Therapists help people to disconfirm and replace inaccurate fear structures
through exposure. Restructuring is usually possible within 20 sessions.
» Therapists challenge automatic negative thoughts and ask people to provide
evidence for their irrational beliefs, encouraging greater objectivity.
» Homework is used to practise skills/strategies between sessions and to report
back on experiences.
Applied tension
» Applied tension (AT) reduces fainting in people with blood-injury-injection
phobias (BII).
» The client tenses their arm, torso and leg muscles while sitting.
» Tension is held for 10–15 seconds, released for 20–30 seconds and repeated five
times.
SKILLS BUILDER
Explain one similarity and one difference between two treatments for
fear-related disorders.
[4]
First, you need to remember the two treatments for fear-related disorders. This
may be difficult; there are five disorders in this clinical chapter and many of the
treatments are quite similar. This is the only section in which there are no drug
treatments. Don’t get confused and start writing about anti-anxiety drugs. The
command term is key – explanations require justification. Why is this similarity or
difference important? How does it affect the effectiveness or client satisfaction?
Key study: Chapman and DeLapp (2013)
Context:
» CBT is more effective in reducing fear than disgust in people with BII phobias.
» Disgust in response to blood is associated with fainting.
» Applied tension targets fainting, which is less treatable with CBT alone.
Aim: to investigate the efficacy of applied tension as a treatment for BII phobias.
Research method(s) and design:
» Method/design: case study.
» Data collection technique: questionnaires and interview.
Variables: anxiety, fear and BII symptoms were measured using psychometric tests
(questionnaires).
Sample: 42-year-old male with severe BII symptoms (including fainting) for
20 years; avoided doctors and hospitals; family history of BII and experienced
childhood bereavements.
Procedure:
» Baseline data was collected using psychometric tests.
» Nine sessions of CBT with AT:
– Homework included AT five times a day, graduated exposure tasks,
rating anxiety from 0 to 100, and listing thoughts, feelings and
behaviours.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Describe how T’s
reaction to situations
involving blood
changed during
therapy.
[2]
You can be asked
quite specific
questions about the
key studies so revise
them carefully. You
could learn one or
two of the specific
findings from Table
6.36. Choose one
now that stands out
to you. Create an
image in your mind
using the situation
and the numbers.
For example, a man
who is 65 today (he
is wearing a big
badge with his age
on it) is giving blood;
his blood type is O.
Incorporating the
figures into a story
(65 and 0) should help
you to recall them
when you need them.
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» Early sessions included psychoeducation and creating a ten-item fear hierarchy.
Items were rated on the Subjective Units of Discomfort Scale (SUDS).
» Graduated exposure exercises at home and in sessions:
– watching blood tests on YouTube
– finger-prick blood test
– observing people donating blood
– booking and having a blood test.
» Further data was collected at four, ten and twelve months after treatment.
Controlled variables: the same psychometric tests were taken before and after
treatment.
Ethics:
» Anonymity was maintained through the use of initial (‘T’).
» T progressed through the hierarchy at his own pace, protecting him from harm.
Results:
▼ Table 6.35 Results from Chapman and DeLapp (2013)
Session
Situation
Initial SUDS
Reduced SUDS
6
Watching blood test videos
35
20
7
Having a finger-prick test
45
20
8
Watching blood donations
65
0
9
Having a blood test
40
0
At the 12-month follow-up, all test scores were significantly reduced. For example,
on the Blood-Injection Symptom Scale, T said he experienced all 17 sensations
before treatment but only 4 out of 17 after treatment.
Conclusion: CBT with AT is an effective treatment for BII phobias.
▼ Table 6.36 Evaluating Chapman and DeLapp (2013)
Strengths
Weaknesses
Quantitative data – SUDS scores
collected before, during and after
treatment allowed changes to be
monitored within and between sessions.
Self-reports – SUDS scores were
given orally so may be subject to
social desirability bias and demand
characteristics; validity may be reduced.
Applications – a detailed case history
about the client helps other therapists to
determine whether AT might be helpful
for similar clients.
Validity – with no control group, it
is impossible to know how much BII
symptoms might reduce in the absence of
treatment or through CBT alone.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Describe applied
tension as a treatment
for blood-injectioninjury phobia.
[6]
Extended response
questions are often
centred around
key studies. In
this question,
your knowledge
will be derived
almost entirely
from Chapman and
DeLapp (2013). Be
mindful not to just
revise the technique
but also how it
disrupts the diphasic
response and
prevents fainting. You
could also include
how the technique
is combined with
graduated exposure
tasks and SUDS
ratings.
▼ Table 6.37 Evaluating treatments for anxiety disorders
Strengths
Weaknesses
Supporting evidence – cats were taught
to fear cages using shocks and then
gradually deconditioned using food
(Wolpe, 1976).
Time-consuming – gradual progress over
several sessions may be too expensive
for some people. Flooding therapy has no
hierarchy and is as effective as systematic
desensitisation.
Applications – has been used to treat
phobias, including agoraphobia (Lipsedge
et al., 1973), as well as specific phobias,
such as spiders.
Individual differences – some people find
it difficult to relax without anti-anxiety
medications.
Psychological therapy:
Cognitive- behavioural
therapy
Efficacy – Can be more effective than
behavioural techniques alone, especially
when treating disgust-based phobias (see
Saavedra and Silverman, pages 38–42).
Efficacy – May not be effective for
treating BII phobia which may require
applied tension as well to reduce fainting
(see Chapman and DeLapp (2013) above).
Applied tension (for bloodinjection-injury phobia)
Supporting evidence: See Chapman and
DeLapp (2013) above.
Methodology – See weaknesses of
Chapman and DeLapp (2013) above.
Behavioural therapy:
systematic desensitisation
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6 Clinical Psychology
Issues and debates
Idiographic versus nomothetic
The case study of T is idiographic. It provides detailed insight into one client. The
therapists wrote up the study to raise awareness of the potential benefits of AT to
other clients, not to make generalisations to all BII phobics and all CBT/AT therapists.
SKILLS BUILDER
Question 6.48 below is a ‘Plan a study’ question. In
this section, you have learned about the key study
by Chapman and DeLapp (2013). You may be able to
borrow ideas from this study to inspire your own.
You are asked to include details about question
formats and scoring. Think about how Chapman and
DeLapp quantified T’s progress using SUDS. There
is another clue in the question that should prompt
you to consider another useful area of the syllabus.
The disorder being asked about is generalised
anxiety disorder. What can you remember about the
GAD-7?
NOW TEST YOURSELF
6.45Outline one feature of systematic
desensitisation as a treatment for fear-related
disorders.
[2]
6.46 Morag faints every time she sees blood.
Explain how and why Morag might benefit
from applied tension.
[4]
6.47 Suggest one reason why researchers may be
cautious about making generalisations from
their findings. You should refer to one study of
fear-related disorders in your answer.
[2]
6.48 aPlan a study using self-reports to
investigate the effectiveness of cognitivebehavioural therapy for people with
generalised anxiety disorder. Your plan
must include details about:
– question format (open and closed
questions)
– scoring/interpretation.
[10]
b Describe one piece of psychological
knowledge on which your plan is based. [4]
6.5 Obsessive-compulsive disorder
6.5.1 Diagnostic criteria (ICD-11)
Symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) include:
» obsessions: repetitive, persistent thoughts and images that are unwanted and
intrusive
» compulsions: repetitive behaviours, such as tapping (physical) or sub-vocal
counting (mental), often to neutralise obsessive thoughts.
For a diagnosis, these obsessions and compulsions must take up at least an hour per
day and symptoms must cause distress/dysfunction.
Insight is variable, either poor–absent or fair–good.
Relevant research: Rapoport (1989)
Aim: to investigate OCD in a teenage patient, including efficacy of drug treatments.
Methodology:
» Case study of Charles (age 14), who was obsessed with stickiness; compulsive
washing took many hours a day.
» Researcher conducted an EEG.
» He was prescribed clomipramine (a tricyclic antidepressant).
Results:
» Charles spent all night washing after the EEG due to the stickiness of the electrodes.
» Four weeks after starting clomipramine, he poured/touched honey.
» He relapsed within 12 months due to tolerance, but symptoms reduced.
Conclusions: clomipramine is effective in the short term but maintenance doses are
required to prevent relapse.
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SKILLS BUILDER
Using research evidence, explain one way that obsessive-compulsive
disorder could affect a person’s ability to function in everyday life.
[2]
By the end of this chapter, you will have learned about two children with
OCD: Charles and Jason. Everyday functioning for children typically involves
going to school, so you might want to explain how Charles’ time-consuming
compulsions made this impossible. Try to avoid giving generic information that
does not really answer the question. For example, daily medication helped
Charles to function in everyday life but this knowledge doesn’t fit this specific
question and would be unlikely to gain credit.
▼ Table 6.38 Evaluating Rapoport (1989)
Strength
Weakness
Qualitative data – open question responses provided
Generalisation – one 14-year-old boy may not be
detailed insight into Charles’ beliefs, such as ‘What would representative of other age groups (children often count,
happen if your washing routine was disrupted?’.
check and repeat movements; adults tend to ruminate).
SKILLS BUILDER
Suggest one way a researcher could increase the reliability of data collected as
part of a case study.
[2]
Reliability is an important concept and understanding ways to improve it will
also help you in ‘Plan a study’ questions. Think about Rapoport’s observations
of Charles pouring honey, for example. She could have filmed him and
asked another person to watch and record Charles’ behaviour to test for
inter-observer reliability. You could justify why your idea would increase the
consistency of the data. Be careful not to deviate into a discussion of objectivity.
Measures
The Maudsley Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory
» The Maudsley Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory (MOCI) includes 30 true and false
statements developed through interviews with 30 people with OCD.
» Sample item: ‘I avoid using public telephones because of possible contamination.’
» The MOCI categorises respondents into four types: cleaning, checking, slowness
and doubting.
The Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale
» The Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS) uses a semi-structured
interview schedule with ten items measuring symptom severity (mild to extreme)
on a five-point scale (0–4).
» An accompanying checklist can be used to diagnose OCD type.
» Interview duration = 30 minutes.
▼ Table 6.39 Evaluating the diagnosis and measurement of OCD
126
Strengths
Weaknesses
MOCI
Reliability – 50 students completed
the MOCI twice one month apart; 89
per cent responses were the same.
Validity – fixed-choice questions
force people to make a decision and
items are subjective. For example,
‘I use an average amount of soap’
(average for whom?).
Y-BOCS
Reliability – agreement was
excellent when four interviewers
assessed 40 people with OCD.
Validity – difficult to report on
symptoms in ‘the last week’ if
symptoms were worse on some days
than others.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Zoubir is a trainee
clinical psychologist.
He is testing the
validity of a new
structured interview
schedule to assess
the severity of OCD
symptoms. Plan a
correlational study
that will help Zoubir
with this goal.
[10]
You will need to
consider all the
general features
involved in planning
a study. You will also
need to focus on how
Zoubir will measure
two co-variables
that can be plotted
on a scatter graph
in order to assess
the validity of the
interview schedule.
Can you suggest a
suitable directional
hypothesis for
Zoubir’s study?
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6 Clinical Psychology
SKILLS BUILDER
Evaluate measures of obsessive-compulsive
disorder, including a discussion of quantitative
and qualitative data.
[10]
Read through the information in this section
about the Y-BOCS and the MOCI and create a Venn
diagram to pick out similarities and differences.
This should help you to begin evaluating these
measures. One of the first things you will notice
is that, while they are both self-reports, one is a
questionnaire and the other is a semi-structured
interview. Both result in quantitative data though.
This is because the MOCI interviewer rates the
person according to what they have said in the
interview. What problems does this raise for the
MOCI that are less problematic with the Y-BOCS?
NOW TEST YOURSELF
6.49 Explain one strength of quantitative data using
the Y-BOCS as an example.
[2]
6.50Romash has been having intimate thoughts
about his neighbour Jessie. He feels ashamed
and disgusted. Romash feels better if he
vigorously scrubs his bathroom but he is now
spending hours cleaning when he should
be studying. Explain one or more reasons
why Romash may fit the diagnostic criteria
for OCD.
[4]
6.51 Explain two reasons why it may not be
possible to make generalisations from the
findings of case studies of OCD. Refer to
relevant research in your answer.
[4]
6.52 Suggest two open questions that could be
asked to investigate the effects of OCD on
functioning in everyday life.
[2]
6.5.2 Explanations of obsessive-compulsive disorder
Biological explanations
Genetic
OCD appears to be inherited:
» 37 per cent of people with OCD have a parent with OCD (Lewis, 1936).
» Concordance rates: MZ twins = 87 per cent; DZ twins = 47 per cent.
OCD is polygenic and frequency of certain alleles is more/less common in people
with OCD. For example:
» Allele 2 of the DRD4 gene is less common in people with OCD.
» Low activity allele of the COMT gene is more common in people with OCD.
» Under-expression of the SLITRK5 gene is linked to OCD.
SKILLS BUILDER
Peggy is interviewing people with obsessive-compulsive
disorder to investigate whether any of their relatives
also have the same disorder and if so, whether they
share similar symptoms. Peggy has asked you to help
her to think about the interview format and sampling
technique. Which format and technique would you
choose?
a State two reasons for your choice of interview
format.
[2]
b Explain one reason for your choice of sampling
technique.
[2]
The interview can have a structured, semi-structured
or unstructured format. You will need at least
two strengths and two weaknesses of each. This
question requires you to use the strengths that you
have learned as reasons why Peggy should use this
format. You will need to think carefully about the
topic of Peggy’s interviews and how the format of the
interview could affect the validity and reliability of
the data.
Likewise, think about the most practical way to
recruit a sample of people with OCD. You need
to know how random, volunteer and opportunity
sampling affect generalisability in order to decide
upon the best technique. Sometimes the most
scientific is not always the most practical.
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Biochemical
Serotonin and/or dopamine imbalance may increase OCD risk. This may be caused by
abnormalities relating to:
» presynaptic serotonin reuptake
» postsynaptic receptors, such as D4 dopamine
» enzymes such as MAO-A (see page 106).
SKILLS BUILDER
explanations assume OCD is inherited’, show that
[6] you understand what inherited means. You could say
something like: ‘First-degree relatives of people with
You could discuss genetics and biochemicals here.
OCD are more likely to also have the disorder than
Show both knowledge and understanding in your
more distant relatives as they share more DNA.’
response. For example, instead of saying ‘genetic
Describe the biological explanation of obsessivecompulsive disorder.
Psychological explanations
Cognitive (thinking error)
» People with OCD find it impossible to ignore passing thoughts.
» They make a thinking error; all thoughts must be meaningful and significant.
» The thoughts themselves are not problematic; the meaning attached to them
causes distress (e.g. shame, disgust).
» Thought-action/event fusion: people believe that imagining a certain action or
event increases its probability.
» Compulsions are seen as a way of neutralising obsessive/negative thoughts.
» Personal responsibility for negative outcomes may be overestimated, leading to
anxiety.
SKILLS BUILDER
Roxy and Dana are discussing the cognitive
explanation of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Roxy
thinks it is more of an individual explanation, whereas
Dana thinks it could also be seen as a situational
explanation. Explain whether you agree more with
Roxy or with Dana.
[2]
There is no right or wrong answer, so long as you
can justify your reason. Individual explanations
suggest that OCD is caused by dispositional factors
that differ between people, whereas situational
explanations emphasise environmental cues
which trigger OCD symptoms. You need to state
whether you agree more with Roxy or Dana and
give a reason. Then elaborate by stating why the
information you have presented supports either an
individual or a situational explanation.
Behavioural (operant conditioning)
» Compulsive behaviours develop as they help to reduce negative feelings.
» Actions are repeated as they are negatively reinforced.
Psychodynamic
» OCD symptoms are a defence mechanism. They protect the person from becoming
aware of unresolved conflicts from the unconscious mind.
» The id’s desires may be expressed through obsessional thoughts.
» Compulsive acts may result from excessive guilt generated by an overly dominant
superego.
» Unresolved conflicts stem from early childhood, specifically during the anal stage
of psychosexual development (age 1–3):
– Potty training that is too early or too harsh may result in fixation at this
stage. Obsessive traits include orderliness and perfectionism.
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6 Clinical Psychology
SKILLS BUILDER
Compare the genetic explanation and the psychodynamic
explanation of obsessive-compulsive disorder.
[4]
Anywhere that you see two or more explanations in
the syllabus, be prepared for a compare question.
You may present either two similarities, two
differences or one of each. Comparison points
usually include both explanations within the
same point, using connectives such as ‘likewise’
(similarity) and/or ‘whereas’ (difference). You could
compare the explanations with regards to issues
and debates (e.g. ‘the genetic explanation is more
reductionist because … whereas the psychodynamic
approach is more holistic because … ‘) or
applications to everyday life.
▼ Table 6.40 Evaluating explanations of OCD
Biological
Psychological
Strengths
Weaknesses
Evidence – silencing the SLITRK5 gene caused
compulsive grooming and hoarding behaviour in
mice (Shmelkov et al., 2010).
Validity – exercise caution when extrapolating
data from mice to humans. Mice can only display
compulsions; this does not explain the origin of
obsessions.
Applications – led to the development of drug
treatments, such as clomipramine (see Rapoport,
1989, see page 125).
Comparison – high concordance rates in
family studies can also be explained by nurture
(e.g. modelling).
Evidence – people with ‘checking-type’ OCD
reported decreased urges and distress when
told that they were not responsible for negative
outcomes (Lopatka and Rachman, 1995).
Unscientific – psychodynamic concepts such
as id and superego are unfalsifiable; there is no
evidence that people with OCD are more likely to
have experienced conflicts aged 1–3.
Applications – therapies such as exposure and
response prevention (ERP; see page 130) were
developed as a result of psychological theories.
Comparison – psychological explanations
cannot explain genetic evidence, such as the low
frequency of allele 2 of the DRD4 gene in people
with OCD.
Issues and debates
Individual and situational explanations
All the explanations give individual accounts of OCD, focusing on the person rather
than the situation – for example, inherited genes make some people vulnerable.
Research shows that symptom severity is affected by situational factors such as
temperature (Brierley et al., 2021).
Nature versus nurture
OCD prevalence is universal, supporting nature, but there are cultural differences in
how symptoms manifest, supporting nurture (Fontenelle et al., 2004).
Psychological explanations cannot explain case studies such as Thobois et al.
(2004), in which a blood clot on the caudate nucleus led to OCD symptoms.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
6.53Using an example, describe one ‘thinking
error’ in people with obsessive-compulsive
disorder.
[2]
6.54 Explain one similarity and one difference
between biological and psychological
explanations of obsessive-compulsive
disorder. You must refer to reductionism
versus holism in your answer.
[4]
6.55 Explain one application to everyday life of the
biochemical explanation of
obsessive-compulsive disorder.
[2]
6.56You are planning a naturalistic observation
to investigate the behavioural explanation
of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Explain
how and why a behavioural checklist could be
used in your study.
[4]
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6.5.3 Treatment and management of obsessivecompulsive disorder
Biological treatments
» OCD is treated with medications that increase serotonin (SSRIs) and
noradrenaline (tricyclics, e.g. clomipramine; see page 106).
» Treatment-resistant patients may be prescribed risperidone (an atypical
antipsychotic; see page 96).
Psychological therapies: exposure and response prevention
» Environmental cues that trigger obsessions are identified and rated using SUDS
(see page 124). Cues are arranged into a hierarchy.
» Clients are exposed to the lowest rated cue until habituation (SUDS decreased to
50 per cent below baseline).
» Therapists prevent compulsive acts. Clients must learn to reduce anxiety in other
ways.
» Homework includes graduated exposure tasks and recording change in SUDS.
» Relaxation exercises and anti-anxiety drugs are banned. People must learn that
anxiety goes up but also comes down on its own.
Relevant research: Lehmkuhl et al. (2008)
Aim: to investigate the efficacy of CBT for a child with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
and OCD.
Methodology:
» Case study of 12-year-old Jason.
» Obsession = contamination, compulsion = handwashing.
» ASD symptoms = sensory issues, self-harm, limited and repetitive language and
play, poor social relationships.
CBT was adapted to his needs:
» The therapist used phrases like ‘not letting OCD be the boss’.
» Homework (e.g. touching elevator buttons) was reinforced using a reward chart.
» Parents and teachers were involved.
Results:
» Y-BOCS score dropped from 18 to 3.
» Three months later, Jason showed no signs of relapse.
Conclusions: CBT can be personalised for children with additional needs.
▼ Table 6.41 Evaluating Lehmkuhl et al. (2008)
130
Strengths
Weaknesses
Validity – the study used method
triangulation; primary data = observation,
interview, psychometric tests (IQ test
and Y-BOCS), secondary data = medical
records.
Case study – can only generalise with
caution. Jason had average IQ and a lot
of support at home/school. ERP may not
work for all children with ASD.
Replicable – an RCT with 46 adults with
ASD supports the efficacy of ERP for this
population (Russell et al., 2013).
Application – ERP may only have been
effective due to the skills of the specific
therapist; other therapists may not form
such effective therapeutic alliances.
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6 Clinical Psychology
SKILLS BUILDER
Evaluate psychological treatments for obsessivecompulsive disorder, including a discussion of the
use of children in research.
[10]
Now that you have almost reached the end of the
clinical chapter, you should be quite familiar with
ways of evaluating treatments. Start by discussing
research evidence (e.g. Lehmkuhl et al., 2008; Lovell
et al., 2006). Focus on how the findings demonstrate
the efficacy of CBT and ERP. Compare the types of
evidence they supply, such as the validity of Lovell
et al. versus Lehmkuhl et al. You could also discuss
how these therapies compare to the use of SSRIs.
Most importantly, though, you need to address the
named issue. Think about how the therapies can be
adapted for children (e.g. Lehmkuhl et al.) and why
psychological therapies might be preferred to drug
treatments with child patients.
Key study: Lovell et al. (2006)
Context:
» Weekly, in-person therapy is costly. Lengthy waiting lists can make it
inaccessible.
» New modes of delivery are being trialled, such as online/telephone.
Aims and hypothesis:
» Aim: to compare telephone versus face-to-face ERP treatment.
» Hypothesis: telephone ERP is not less effective than face-to-face ERP.
Research method(s) and design:
» Method/design: randomised control trial, independent measures, random
allocation, longitudinal.
» Data collection technique: questionnaires (psychometric tests).
Variables:
» Independent variable: mode of ERP delivery – telephone versus face to face.
» Dependent variable: compulsive behaviour checklist based on the Y-BOCS
(see page 126), the BDI (see page 100) and a client satisfaction questionnaire.
Sample: opportunity sample (n = 72) of 16–65-year-old outpatients with OCD from
the UK (all scored 16+ on the Y-BOCS).
Procedure:
» Baseline symptoms were assessed by researchers twice, four weeks apart. The
researchers were unaware of each participant’s mode of delivery (i.e. blind).
» Symptoms were reassessed at one, three and six months after treatment.
» ERP was delivered by experienced therapists.
Controlled variables:
» Therapy manuals were used to standardise treatment across different therapists/
clients.
» Random allocation controlled participant variables.
» The blinding procedure eliminated researcher bias.
Ethics: protection from harm; ten people at increased risk of suicide were
deselected.
Results:
» There was no significant difference in symptom severity between the telephone
and face-to-face treatment groups before treatment or at any of the follow-up
assessments.
» Client satisfaction did not differ immediately after treatment.
» Treatment was successful for 77 per cent of the telephone group and 67 per cent
of the face-to-face group.
Conclusions: telephone ERP for OCD is as effective as face-to-face therapy, despite
50 per cent less therapist contact time.
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SKILLS BUILDER
a Plan a randomised control trial to test the
effectiveness of SSRIs as a treatment for
obsessive-compulsive disorder. Your plan must
include details about controlled variables and
a directional or non-directional hypothesis.
[10]
b For one piece of psychological knowledge on
which your plan is based:
[4]
i Describe this psychological knowledge.
ii Explain how you used two features of this
psychological knowledge to plan your
experiment.
[4]
Try to identify a study you have learned about with
the same research method. This will provide you with
ideas for your own study. Lovell et al. (2006) is an RCT
comparing two modern versions of ERP. You can use
some of the design features to help plan your study.
For example, the researchers used an independent
measures design with random allocation. You could
randomly allocate your participants to either the
SSRI group or a control group.
You could use a study from another part of the
chapter to help you if you wish. For example,
Grant et al. (2008) compared opiate antagonists
(for gambling disorder) with a placebo group. You
could also use placebos in your study. For part
b, think carefully whether you would rather write
about Lovell et al. or Grant et al. Think about the
similarities between their study and the one you are
planning. You will need two identifiable features that
inspired your planning – for example, double-blind
design, use of a psychometric test (e.g. Y-BOCS).
▼ Table 6.42 Evaluating Lovell et al. (2006)
Strengths
Weaknesses
Reliability – baseline measures were taken twice
(test-retest).
Validity – the blinding procedure broke down for 13 per cent of
participants, reducing validity due to possible researcher bias.
Validity – random allocation reduced the effect of
participant variables, such as symptom severity,
employment and marital status.
Longitudinal design – 11 people dropped out. Attrition can lead
to differences in key participant variables between the groups,
reducing validity and generalisability.
SKILLS BUILDER
Explain why random allocation was used to assign
participants to the two groups in the key study by
Lovell et al. (2006) about telephone-administered
cognitive-behavioural therapy.
[2]
If you are unsure about any of the methodological
concepts mentioned, revisit them now (e.g. for
random allocation, see page 59). Link your ideas to
specific details from the study. Think about what
was being measured (i.e. average Y-BOCS scores
of people receiving telephone versus face-to-face
ERP). Can you think of any individual differences
that might have caused the average to be higher
in one group than the other (besides the type of
therapy)? Random allocation would mean that any
difference in the Y-BOCS averages is more likely
to be due to the type of therapy (the independent
variable) than participant variables, such as
comorbid disorders, age or gender.
▼ Table 6.43 Evaluating treatments for OCD
Biological
Psychological
132
Strengths
Weaknesses
Evidence – a meta-analysis of RCTs showed that
17 real drugs were superior to placebos.
Individual differences – up to 60 per cent of
people report no improvement.
Comparison – low commitment and effort
compared with psychological therapies, also
cheaper and therefore more accessible.
Applications – improvement can take 12 weeks;
maintenance doses may be required to prevent
relapse.
Supporting evidence – see Lehmkuhl et al.
(2008) and Lovell et al. (2006), both below.
Applications – difficult to deliver for
inexperienced therapists who sometimes fail to
include relatives and friends, who reinforce OCD
behaviours.
Comparison – 86 per cent of ERP clients
achieved a clinically relevant reduction in
symptoms, compared with 48 per cent of people
taking clomipramine.
Applications – old compulsions may be replaced
with new ones unless the therapist is able to
reveal the core underlying fear.
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6 Clinical Psychology
Issues and debates
Cultural differences
Lovell et al. (2006) only tested people in the UK, an individualist culture with a low
power distance index (PDI). People from collective cultures and/or those with high
PDI may respond less favourably. However, face-to-face ERP had long-term positive
effects for men with OCD in Iran (Khodarahimi, 2009).
Use of children in research
Lehmkuhl et al. (2008) successfully adapted ERP for a child with additional needs.
A strong rapport was developed with the family/teachers to develop a personalised
plan and facilitate transfer of treatment outcomes to home/school environments.
SKILLS BUILDER
Floss is a cognitive-behavioural therapist. She is
working with Manal, who has obsessive-compulsive
disorder. Explain how cultural differences between
Floss and Manal might influence the effectiveness
of the treatment she provides.
[2]
Think about what you have learnt about the
ways cultures differ from one another, such as
individualism-collectivism and power distance
index. You also need to think about key features of
CBT (e.g. it is collaborative). If Manal is from a high
PDI culture, he might see Floss as an authority
figure and expect her to tell him how to recover.
If Floss is from a low PDI culture, she might see
Manal as an equal and expect him to participate in
creating treatment goals. Once you have thought
of some ideas, re-read the question. It is about
effectiveness of treatment, so you need to think
about whether these differences might make the
treatment more or less effective and why.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
6.57 When Hafiz was made redundant from his job, he began compulsively
tapping on his laptop. He taps the keys A, E, I, O, U 30 times before
sending emails or opening attachments. Hafiz’s doctor has referred him
for exposure response prevention (ERP) therapy. Explain how this might
help Hafiz to overcome his OCD symptoms.
[4]
6.58Outline one reason why Hafiz might prefer ERP to SSRIs as a treatment
for his obsessive-compulsive disorder.
[2]
6.59The Y-BOCS is often used in studies designed to investigate the
effectiveness of treatments for OCD. Explain two advantages of
using the Y-BOCS in this type of study.
[4]
6.60 Describe one research method used to investigate ERP with
reference to one relevant study.
[4]
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Clinical Psychology revision checklist
Check the syllabus to ensure you have covered all required content for each
subtopic. There are typically two to three bullet points per subtopic. You should
ensure that your evaluation points for each subtopic match the relevant issues and
debates and methodology listed in the syllabus.
Topic
Subtopic
Schizophrenia
Diagnostic criteria for schizophrenia
Revision notes Now test yourself
complete
questions
complete
Past papers
questions
complete
Grant et al.
(2008)
Lovell et al.
(2006)
Explanations of schizophrenia
Treatment and management of
schizophrenia
Mood (affective)
disorders: depressive
disorder (unipolar)
and bipolar disorder
Diagnostic criteria for mood
(affective) disorders
Explanations of mood (affective)
disorders: depressive disorder
(unipolar)
Treatment and management of mood
(affective) disorders
Impulse control
disorders
Diagnostic criteria for impulse
control disorders
Explanations of impulse control
disorders
Treatment and management of
impulse control disorders
Anxiety and fearrelated disorders
Diagnostic criteria for anxiety and
fear-related disorders
Explanations of anxiety and fearrelated disorders
Treatment and management of
anxiety and fear-related disorders
Obsessivecompulsive disorder
Diagnostic criteria for obsessivecompulsive disorder
Explanations of obsessive-compulsive
disorder
Treatment and management of
obsessive-compulsive disorder
Freeman et al.
(2003)
Oruč et al.
(1997)
Chapman and
DeLapp (2013)
Context (including
relationship to other
studies)
Main theories/
explanations
Aim(s) and
hypotheses
Methodology
Results/findings
Conclusions
Discussion points
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A LEVEL
7
Consumer Psychology
7.1 The physical environment
7.1.1 Retail store design
Types of store exterior design
Features of the storefront can affect consumer behaviour, including:
» entrance, exit and window displays
» building height, size and colour scheme
» the surrounding area, such as facilities and parking.
Window displays trigger quick judgements about the store’s ability to meet
consumers’ needs:
» They are a cost-effective way to increase customer satisfaction and sales.
» New products sell better when showcased with other accessories.
Flowers/foliage and ornamental features (e.g. fountains) can:
» improve mood/perceived quality of life
» increase distances travelled/sales
» enhance self-reported quality of the environment/products.
Relevant research: Mower et al. (2012)
Aim: to investigate the effect of window displays and landscaping on:
» pleasure
» arousal
» liking of the external environment
» purchase intentions.
Methodology: participants read a description of a small boutique and completed an
online questionnaire. Descriptions were identical, except the store had either:
» plants outside or not
» a mannequin in the window or not.
Results: landscaping and window displays increased liking and purchase intentions
but had no effect on mood.
Conclusions: landscaping and window displays improve attitudes associated with
higher purchase intentions.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Florentina runs a
fish shop. Suggest
two ways Florentina
could change the shop
exterior and/or interior
to increase sales. [4]
Try to include
research evidence
in your answer, such
as Vrechopoulos et
al. (2004) on store
interior and/or
Mower et al. (2012)
on store exterior.
Take care – the end
of the sentence
links to increasing
sales. Mower
et al. measured
purchasing intention.
Vrechopoulos et al.
measured time in
seconds in store.
Neither of these
points are about
actual sales but both
could be tweaked to
suit the question.
Types of store interior design
Use of virtual store layouts
» Since the COVID-19 pandemic, ecommerce has increased by 74 per cent.
» Seventy per cent of all product searches begin online.
» User-friendly interfaces between customers and the online store are critical.
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▼ Table 7.1 Types of store interior design
Layout
Description
Purpose
Example
Proportion of
virtual stores
Grid
Rectangular arrangement of
shelving/displays; parallel
aisles
Useful:
» predictable; products are
easy to find
» helpful when shopping for
predetermined items.
Western
supermarkets
21%
Freeform
Customers move freely
among displays of differing
styles, sizes and shapes
Easy to use:
» favoured by shoppers who
enjoy browsing
» increases time in stores and
probability of impulse sales.
Many large Western
department stores
51%
Racetrack
Shoppers follow a
designated route through
themed areas
Entertaining:
» unusual, interesting and fun
» increases positive emotions
and possible sales.
Ikea, Tiger
1.5%
*Based on a survey of 551 retail websites in six countries.
Relevant research: Vrechopoulos et al. (2004)
SKILLS
BUILDER
Aim: to investigate the effect of virtual grocery store layout on:
» planned purchases
» ease of navigation
» perceived entertainment
» time in store.
Methodology:
» The study involved 120 participants who shopped for groceries in a grid, freeform
or racetrack virtual store and completed an online questionnaire.
» The computer recorded the duration of the shopping experience.
Results:
▼ Table 7.2 Expected versus actual outcomes
Expected outcome
Actual outcome
Grid
Most useful
Easiest to use
Freeform
Easiest to use
Greatest time duration
Most useful and entertaining
Easier to use than racetrack
Racetrack
Most entertaining
Greatest time duration
▼ Table 7.3 Mean average scores for the three virtual store layouts
Perceived usefulness
Grid
Freeform
Racetrack
4.0
4.8
3.5
Ease of use
5.7
5.0
4.2
Entertainment
3.6
4.3
3.4
Time in virtual store (seconds)
747.5
817.8
971.3
Explain one strength
of objective data. Use
an example relating to
research investigating
the physical
environment.
[2]
This question tests
your methodological
knowledge while
also requiring
an answer that
relates to consumer
psychology (e.g.
spending habits). You
will need to choose
the right research
from the syllabus,
including topics such
as retail store design
(above), sound and
consumer behaviour
(page 137) or retail
atmospherics
(page 140).
Conclusions:
» Perceived usefulness, ease of use, entertainment and duration of online shopping
depend on the virtual store layout.
» Differences do not match those seen in real stores.
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7 Consumer Psychology
▼ Table 7.4 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Ecological validity – Vrechopoulos
et al. (2004) is similar to real life
(e.g. blank shopping lists, real groceries
were delivered).
Ecological validity – Mower et al. (2012)
measured purchase intentions for a
fictional shopping trip; results may differ
in real life.
Objective data – both Vrechopoulos et
al. and Mower et al. use quantitative
data (e.g. from rating scales) so no
interpretation is necessary in the
analysis.
Questionnaires – in Vrechopoulos et al.,
participants may have assigned similar
scores due to response set. In Mower et
al., participants may have been more
positive about purchase intentions due to
demand characteristics.
Issues and debates
Cultural differences
The same display might elicit different emotional responses based on shoppers’
cultural identity. Collectivists may prefer displays emphasising durability and
function. Individualists may prefer displays that trigger emotional responses and
enhance personal identity.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
7.1Tallulah makes hats. She has a shop in a very stylish mall. Using research
evidence, explain why Tallulah might sell fewer hats if her shop was in
a less stylish location.
[2]
7.2 Explain why an understanding of cultural differences is important in
retail store design. Use at least one example in your answer.
[4]
7.3Research on retail store design is sometimes criticised for lacking
ecological validity. Using an example about exterior and/or interior
store design, explain what is meant by ecological validity.
[2]
7.4 Explain two weaknesses of the use of questionnaires to study the
effects of the physical environment on consumer behaviour.
[4]
SKILLS
BUILDER
Esteban works for a
company that runs gift
shops in theme parks.
He wants to explore
how exterior and
interior design affect
mood and spending.
Plan a questionnaire
that will help him to
collect quantitative and
qualitative data. [10]
Use features of the
studies from this
section to guide
you. For example,
Vrechopoulos et al.
used rating scales to
collect quantitative
data. How could
Esteban use rating
scales in his study?
7.1.2 Sound and consumer behaviour
Key study: North et al. (2003)
Context: when pop music was swapped for classical music, research has found that:
» spending on wine increased by $5.25
» a cafeteria was seen as more ‘upmarket’ and estimated spending was greater.
Aims and hypothesis:
» Aim: to investigate the effect of classical versus pop music on diners’ spending.
» Hypothesis: spending will be greater when listening to classical than pop music.
Research method(s) and design:
» Method: field experiment.
» Design: independent measures.
» Data collection technique: observation.
Variables:
» Independent variable: classical, pop or no music.
» Dependent variable: average spend for each course, total bill and time in
restaurant.
Sample: opportunity sample of 393 male and female diners in an affluent UK town.
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Procedure:
» A waitress recorded average spending in an expensive restaurant six nights a
week for three weeks.
» The restaurant played either classical, pop or no music.
Controlled variables: volume, lighting, menu, temperature.
Ethics: diners’ privacy was respected; lack of consent was justified.
Results: average spending was greater for classical music compared with pop or no
music for starters, coffees, total food bill and overall spend (see Figure 7.1).
Conclusion: previous research is supported. Classical music may increase spending
due to:
» enhancement of other atmospherics
» increased enjoyment/arousal
» customers being ‘primed’ to spend more due to ‘upmarket’ image.
Classical music
Pop music
No music
£40.00
£32.51
£29.46 £29.73
£30.00
SKILLS
BUILDER
Describe the study
by North et al.
(2003) on music in
restaurants.
[6]
Try answering this
question in nine
minutes. You should
aim for around 200
words. The command
term is ‘describe’
so try to include
knowledge and
understanding only
(no strengths and
weaknesses). Learn
key studies very
carefully – answers
need to be detailed
and accurate.
£24.13
£21.91 £21.70
£20.00
SKILLS
BUILDER
£10.00
£4.92
£0.00
£4.04 £3.93
£1.07 £0.80 £0.54
Starters
Coffee
Total spend on food
Overall spend
▲ Figure 7.1 A bar chart to show average spend (pound sterling) when the background
music in the restaurant was either classical or pop versus no music
Background noise and taste
Previous research
» Artificially increasing chewing volume increased perceived freshness of crisps
(Zampini and Spence 2004).
» White noise makes pretzels seem less moist (Masuda et al. 2008).
» Background noise increases liking for sweet solutions but not for salty
solutions.
Reasons sound may affect taste perception
» Noise is a stressor – sugar cravings increase due to the need for energy.
» Research with rats found that sound activates 19 per cent of neurons in the
olfactory tubercle.
» Information from multiple senses combines when judging taste intensity. Taste
is less intense when sound is louder. Noise distracts us from paying attention to
taste.
Greta is conducting an
experiment on noise
and taste perception.
Participants rated
the sweetness of a
chocolate cake while
listening to white
noise or no noise.
They wore blindfolds
and headphones at
all times. Explain
why Greta asked the
participants to wear
headphones.
[2]
Avoid describing what
headphones do (e.g.
block noise in the
testing room). Try
to give reasons why
these things were
necessary. Focus
on just one reason
so you have time to
elaborate.
Relevant research: Woods et al. (2011)
Aim: to investigate whether tastes are more intense in quiet versus noisy
conditions; and whether background noise affects taste perception of hard versus
soft foods.
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7 Consumer Psychology
Methodology: participants rated sweetness, saltiness and liking for soft, hard,
sweet and savoury foods while listening to loud, quiet or no white noise.
Results:
» Taste intensity was lower in the loud compared with the quiet condition. Sweet
foods were affected more than salty foods.
» Liking was highest in quietness and lowest in the noisy condition.
» Hardness did not affect liking or intensity.
Conclusions: sweetness and saltiness is negatively affected by noise, regardless of
hardness/crunchiness.
▼ Table 7.5 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Validity – confounding variables are controlled in both
Generalisations – unrepresentative sample in North et
studies. Woods et al. eliminate participant variables by using al. (wealthy, middle-class, United Kingdom).
a repeated measures design; North et al. control situational
variables such as decor and lighting.
Replicability – in Woods et al., standardisation means
the study can be replicated and tested for reliability
(e.g. portion size of sample foods). In North et al, the
music was at the same volume each night and the naming
of artists/tracks means others could replicate the study.
Validity – in Woods et al., participants wore blindfolds;
in the real world, taste perception would also be affected
by visual cues. Likewise in North et al., there was no
control for musical preference, reducing validity.
Issues and debates
Individual and situational explanations
Background music/noise is a situational factor that influences spending. Individual
differences (e.g. musical preference, neurodiversity) may also affect spending and
taste perception.
Reductionism versus holism
In North et al., a specific atmospheric (music) is isolated to determine its influence
on spending, so the study is reductionist. Increased spending may be due to
interactions between the music and other atmospherics.
SKILLS BUILDER
a Describe what psychologists have discovered
about sound and consumer behaviour.
[6]
b Evaluate what psychologists have discovered
about sound and consumer behaviour, including a
discussion about individual and situational
explanations.
[10]
You could include any of the studies from this section
in your answer to either of these questions. The most
obvious is North et al. as this is the key study. You
could also include Woods et al., Zampini and Spence
or Masuda et al. (2008). Very little information is
provided about these last two studies but they can
still be used to show breadth of knowledge.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
7.5Outline what is meant by determinism, using an example from sound and
consumer behaviour.
[2]
7.6 Wolfgang and Antonio are eating popcorn at the cinema. Suggest two
ways that the film’s soundtrack might affect the taste of the popcorn. [4]
7.7 From the key study by North et al. (2003) on musical style and restaurant
customers’ spending, explain the purpose of the control condition.
[2]
7.8The researcher who collected the data in North et al. was also a
waitress in the restaurant. Explain one advantage and one disadvantage
of this.
[4]
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7.1.3 Retail atmospherics
The PAD model of the effects of ambience (Mehrabian
and Russell, 1974)
Atmospherics combine to create the ambience of leisure/retail settings. They
influence feelings, decision-making and behaviour. All human emotional responses
can be described in terms of three dimensions:
» pleasure
» arousal
» dominance.
▼ Table 7.6 The effects of pleasure, arousal and dominance on consumer attitudes and
behaviour
Effect on consumer behaviour
High
Low
Pleasure
Approach behaviours (e.g. entering Avoidance behaviours are more
stores, handling products) are
likely when experiencing negative
more likely when experiencing
emotions.
positive emotions.
Arousal
Alert consumers spend more due to Relaxed consumers spend less due
higher product/staff engagement. to product/staff disengagement.
Excess arousal decreases sales
(overwhelming).
Dominance
Control/autonomy enhances
positive emotions. The effects of
dominance are unclear.
STUDY TIP
Try using scents to
enhance your recall.
Rosemary may enhance
memory (Moss et
al., 2003) because it
contains a substance
that inhibits the
enzyme that breaks
down acetylcholine
(a neurotransmitter
important for memory).
Be careful – relaxing
scents such as lavender
may reduce anxiety but
they can also impair
working memory.
Feeling restricted creates negative
emotions/increased arousal. This
may trigger avoidance.
Odour and the PAD model
» Olfactory nerves connect the brain’s memory and emotion centres.
» Manipulating smells may alter emotions and trigger recall.
» Scent marketing: signature scents can increase sales/brand loyalty:
– Vanilla (warm scent) increased perceived crowding and spending on luxury/
premium items compared with eucalyptus (cold scent).
– Scents may enhance product/environment perception and/or pleasure, arousal
and dominance.
Relevant research: Chebat and Michon (2003)
Aim: to investigate whether scents change consumer behaviour by affecting
emotions or cognition.
Methodology:
» Shoppers rated product quality, mall environment, pleasure and arousal while
exposed to citrus scent or no scent.
» Total spend on non-grocery items was recorded.
Results: in the scent condition, mall environment and product quality were perceived
as higher/better. This was not mediated by pleasure but arousal was higher.
Conclusions:
» Scents enhance perception of the environment and product quality.
» Enhanced perception increases arousal and pleasure.
» This supports cognitive over emotional factors.
Crowding and the PAD model
» Perceived crowding reduces pleasure/dominance and increases stress.
» Increased arousal may increase spending; if arousal is already high, spending may
decrease.
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7 Consumer Psychology
▼ Table 7.7 Types of crowding
Type of crowding
Description
Effects
Spatial crowding
Poor layout negatively affects
shopper movements
Social crowding
Discomfort when volume of shoppers
exceeds need for personal space
» Increased negative emotions/arousal
» Decreased dominance
» Differences in store, customer service, product
perception and spending
Relevant research: Machleit et al. (2000)
Aim: to investigate relationships between expectation, perception and tolerance of
crowding, and shoppers’ thoughts and feelings.
Methodology: participants completed rating scales to measure perceived crowding,
tolerance, expectations, emotions and satisfaction.
▼ Table 7.8 Example items from Machleit et al. (2000)
Examples of measured variables
Example items from questionnaire
Perceived social crowding
‘The store seemed very crowded to me.’
Satisfaction
‘I was satisfied with my shopping experience.’
Emotions
‘I felt nervous.’
Crowding tolerance
‘I avoid crowded stores whenever possible.’
Results:
» There was a negative correlation between crowding and pleasure/satisfaction.
» Expected crowding eliminated the correlation between social crowding and
satisfaction.
Conclusions: the effects of spatial/social crowding are affected by situational
factors, such as type of store, and individual differences, such as expectations/
tolerance.
▼ Table 7.9 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Questionnaires – both studies used
closed questions (e.g. rating scales).
Statistics could be used to measure
correlations (Machleit et al.) and
difference between scent and non-scent
conditions (Chebat and Michon).
Quantitative data – in Chebat and
Michon, shoppers rated products from
‘outdated’ to ‘up to date’, but they were
unable to express opinions about these
ratings.
Replicability – Chebat and Michon used a
standardised procedure (e.g. ten diffusers
emitted scent every sixth minute), so it
can be tested for reliability.
Subjectivity – in Machleit et al.,
participants made comparisons between
current and past shopping experiences.
Ratings scales may be interpreted
differently by participants in both studies.
Issues and debates
Individual and situational explanations
Situational factors, such as ambient smell and spatial layout, affect pleasure,
arousal and dominance (PAD).
However, individual factors, such as cultural differences, past experiences, personality
and mental health, can lead to varied responses to environmental features.
Application to everyday life
Scent marketing can be used to increase sales. Stores can be organised to limit
negative effects of spatial and social crowding.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Suggest two ways
that research into the
effects of crowding
on shopper pleasurearousal-dominance
could be applied in
everyday life.
[4]
You could state one
way relating to spatial
crowding and one
way relating to social
crowding. For each
application, you could
say what should be
done by whom and
in what context. You
could then follow
up by explaining
why such changes
should be made
and how they might
affect shoppers’
pleasure, arousal and
dominance.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Brock is interested in
cultural differences
and how these affect
consumers in crowded
open-air markets.
Plan an observational
study to help Brock to
investigate this. [10]
Use features of
Machleit et al.
(2000), but take
care – this study
used questionnaires.
Brock wants to carry
out an observational
study. How could
he adapt this study?
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Cultural differences
Cultural differences determine the extent to which certain smells are perceived as
pleasant/unpleasant. They also affect perceived crowding and whether this increases
positive or negative emotions.
SKILLS BUILDER
a Describe Mehrabian and Russell’s pleasurearousal-dominance (PAD) model.
[6]
b Evaluate the effects of odour and/or crowding on
shopper pleasure-arousal-dominance, including a
discussion about cultural differences.
[10]
Part a requires a detailed description of the model.
You could explain how high or low levels of PAD
might affect a consumer and give examples. In
part b, you could present evidence for and against
the model, such as Machleit et al. (for) and Chebat
and Michon (against). Think carefully – would
the findings have differed if the study had been
conducted in a different culture?
NOW TEST YOURSELF
7.9Ravi plays exciting music from action
movies in the car showroom where he
works. His customers often comment on
the scent of new leather in the air. Using the
PAD model, suggest one or more reasons
for Ravi’s choice of music and odour in the
showroom.
[2]
7.10 Explain one strength and one weakness of
research on retail atmospherics.
[4]
7.11 A consumer psychologist is investigating the
effects of crowding on people at a food festival.
He has decided to collect qualitative data.
Explain one strength of the use of qualitative
data in this study.
[2]
7.12 Saffron works at a theatre. She is
conducting a correlational study to
investigate how crowding in the bar before
a show is related to people’s evaluation
of the show. Explain one way that Saffron
can reduce subjectivity in her study.
[4]
7.2 The psychological environment
7.2.1 Environmental influences on consumers
Wayfinding in shopping malls
Shopping mall designers should consider ways to:
» increase legibility and spatial recall using landmarks (e.g. fountains/escalators),
clear signage and maps
» expose shoppers to new experiences/opportunities to increase enjoyment and
spending.
Relevant research: Dogu and Erkip (2000)
Aim: to investigate how signage/maps affect wayfinding.
Methodology: shoppers completed a questionnaire about the usefulness of ‘You Are
Here’ maps and confidence in giving directions.
Results: visit frequency and mall area browsed were positively correlated but
unrelated to wayfinding.
▼ Table 7.10 Results from Dogu and Erkip (2000)
Said signs were insufficient
60%
Said ‘You Are Here’ (YAH) maps were insufficient
68%
Claimed there were no YAH maps at the mall (there were in fact three)
47%
Accuracy when asked to point in the direction of a randomly selected store
63%
Conclusion: wayfinding and legibility are positively correlated.
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7 Consumer Psychology
Relevant research: Gil et al. (2009)
Aim: to investigate how spatial configuration and individual differences affect shoppers.
Methodology: CCTV cameras tracked movements of 480 shoppers who were
interviewed as they left a supermarket.
Results:
» Visit types included short, round, central and wave (Table 7.11).
» Shopper types included: specialists, natives, tourists, explorers (typically lone
females) and raiders (typically male) (Table 7.12).
▼ Table 7.11 Types of shopper visit
Type of visit
Shoppers’ movement
Short trip
A quick, in-and-out visit; few specific targets
Round trip
Up and along the main/furthest aisles with short episodes in
the side aisles, mainly in the vegetable, fruit and bread sections
Central trip
Up the main aisle, then into the top aisles, back down the main
aisle to the bottom side aisles and out
Wave trip
Up the main aisle, zigzagging left and right along the side
aisles to the exit at the far end
▼ Table 7.12 The five types of shopper
Type of shopper Description of shopper movements
Aim of shopping trip
The specialist
A long time spent looking at a few items
Top-up or non-food shop
The native
A long trip to specific aisles, likely to make purchase
Main or top-up shop
The tourist
Fast movers staying mainly in the main aisles near the entrance, unlikely Food or non-food shop
to purchase
The explorer
The longest trips, slowly doubling back down the aisles, buying a great
deal
Main shop
The raider
Fast-moving and decisive shoppers, clear preference for main aisles
unless necessary to go further; highest number of male shoppers
Top-up or for tonight
Conclusions: shoppers with differing purposes exhibit different spatial/movement
strategies.
SKILLS BUILDER
Consumer psychologists sometimes use CCTV to
investigate spatial movement patterns, such as
how shoppers move around a store. Explain two
advantages of using CCTV in this way. You must
refer to reliability in your answer.
[4]
Think about how and why psychologists use CCTV
in this context. For example, CCTV footage can
be video-recorded, meaning that two or more
observers could watch the recording to check for
inter-observer reliability. It is recommended to
elaborate your points.
▼ Table 7.13 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Ecological validity – everyday shopping trips were
observed. Shoppers used their own money, unlike other
studies.
Validity – in Gil et al. (2009), shoppers knew their
movements were being observed; behaviour may not be
natural. Likewise, in Dogu and Erkip (2000), self-reports
about wayfinding may have been affected by demand
characteristics.
Reliability – CCTV recordings meant inter-observer
reliability could be established in Gil et al. Dogu and
Erkip’s pointing task should achieve reliable results.
Generalisations – in Gil et al., data was from one
supermarket. Likewise, questionnaires in Dogu and Erkip
were only completed at weekends at one very busy mall.
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Issues and debates
Reductionism versus holism
Both studies were holistic in their approach. Both collected qualitative and
quantitative data, using a variety of methods.
Idiographic versus nomothetic
Both studies are nomothetic. Findings about legibility/wayfinding and shopper
movement patterns are generalised to the wider population.
SKILLS BUILDER
Explain one strength of research into environmental influences on consumers from
the holistic side of the debate.
[2]
Thinking about Dogu and Erkip (2000) and Gil et al. (2009), which one is more
holistic? That is, which one considers complex interactions between factors
and uses multiple research methods? Look back at the question – first, you
could make a point about what it is that makes the study holistic. Next, you
could say how this improves the findings/conclusions.
STUDY TIP
When answering ‘Plan
a study’ questions like
question 7.16 at the
end of this section, link
your plan to research
evidence. Clues in
the question can be
used to select the best
study (e.g. Dogu and
Erkip). Use a familiar
study to guide your
decision-making. This
will help with part b of
the question, where you
will need to summarise
the study in about 100
words and focus on two
specific features that
inspired your plan.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
7.13Outline the spatial movement patterns of
‘specialists’ and ‘raiders’.
[2]
7.14 Helios is out shopping in a new town. He
feels ill and needs to find somewhere to buy
medicine. He decides to look for a ‘You Are
Here’ map to find a pharmacy. Using research
evidence, explain one reason why Helios may
[4]
find it difficult to find a pharmacy.
7.15Outline one ethical issue relating to the use
of CCTV in research into spatial movement
patterns of shoppers.
[2]
7.16The owners of a new shopping mall want
to investigate how easy shoppers find it to
navigate the mall, and find the shops and
facilities that they wish to visit.
a Plan a study using a questionnaire to find
out about wayfinding in shopping malls.
Include details about question format
and sampling technique.
[10]
b For one piece of psychological
knowledge on which your plan is based:
i Describe this psychological
knowledge.
[4]
ii Explain how you used two features
of this psychological knowledge to
plan your study.
[4]
7.2.2 Menu design psychology
Relevant research: Pavesic (2005)
Menus are valuable marketing tools that influence spending and loyalty.
Evidence-based menu design is highly recommended.
▼ Table 7.14 Negative impact – common menu mistakes
144
Menu mistakes
Explanation
Poor design, including
size
Poor font size, layout, colour and size; items do not stand
out; unattractive/forgettable; difficult to hold
Over-emphasised prices
Customers opt for cheaper rather than more expensive dishes
Poor salesmanship
Failure to showcase most profitable dishes
Incongruent
Incoherent branding; design does not match restaurant decor
STUDY TIP
For ‘relevant research’,
try to oppose the
points presented in
the methodological
issues tables. For
example, if the table
gives a strength
relating to validity, try
to create a validityrelated weakness.
Systematically ‘arguing’
in both directions (for
and against) will elevate
your evaluation, possibly
to the top band.
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7 Consumer Psychology
▼ Table 7.15 Positive impact – organisation and sequencing
Positive features
Explanation
Eye magnets
Eye magnets:
» are stand-out features that help to organise menu items
» decrease order time by decreasing looking time
» increase revenue.
Reducing cognitive
load
» Diners spend 109 seconds viewing menus.
» 60–70 per cent of customers choose the same 18–24 dishes.
» Short, carefully organised menus are:
– easier to process
– more profitable.
Eye-tracking
Wearable eye-trackers collect data about visual attention. Data is presented using
heat maps and gaze motion plots.
Primacy and recency effects
» First and last items are recalled better than middle items (Murdock, 1962).
» Diners show edge bias with menu choices. Edge avoidance is also supported
(Rubinstein et al., 1996).
Relevant research: Dayan and Bar-Hillel (2011)
Aim: to investigate whether menu position affects customer choices.
Methodology:
Study 1 – laboratory experiment:
» Students chose an appetiser, entrée, drink and dessert.
» Independent variable: position of menu item (see Table 7.16).
» Dependent variable: how often each dish was selected.
Study 2 – field experiment:
» A 15-day study at a café in Tel Aviv, Israel.
» Independent variable: position of menu item:
– standard/control menu
– experimental menu (items from top and bottom of the list were moved to the
middle and vice versa).
» Dependent variable: how often target items were purchased.
▼ Table 7.16 Sequencing of menu items
Condition
List order
Example
Baseline
1, 2, 3, 4
juice, Sprite, cola, Fanta
Mirror
4, 3, 2, 1
Fanta, cola, Sprite, juice
Inside-out base
2, 1, 4, 3
Sprite, juice, Fanta, cola
Inside-out mirror
3, 4, 1, 2
cola, Fanta, juice, Sprite
Results:
» The majority of choices were from the first or last two dishes.
» Croissant was chosen twice as often when it was first on a ten-item menu
compared with fifth (18:9).
Conclusions: dish popularity can be increased by moving dishes from middle to first
or last position due to edge bias.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Zeph runs a fish
restaurant. He has
a lot of expensive
salmon that needs to
be used up. Suggest
one change Zeph could
make to the menu to
encourage diners
to choose the salmon.
[2]
Think about how Zeph
could encourage
diners to choose the
salmon using eye
magnets or primacy/
recency effects.
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The effect of food name on menu item choice
Descriptive wording on menus:
» elicits positive emotions/anticipation
» helps diners to make informed choices
» reinforces branding.
Relevant research: Lockyer (2006)
Aim: to investigate effects of wording on menu choices.
Methodology:
» Participants rated the appeal of five versions of the same menu and discussed
their reasoning in focus groups.
» Questionnaires were developed based on the findings and randomly distributed.
Results:
» The seasonal menu was rated as ‘most appealing’ by 42 per cent of participants; 2
per cent rated the French menu as ‘most appealing’.
» Simple, precise, appealing descriptions that increased perception of dishes as
mouth-watering, fresh and natural were preferred.
Conclusion: clear and precise descriptions are favoured and are most likely to affect
menu choices.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Lila works in a pizza
restaurant that also
serves cocktails and
many flavours of gelato
(ice cream). Plan a
field experiment to
help Lila to investigate
how simple changes
to the descriptions
of each dish/drink
influence sales. [10]
Use features of
Lockyer (2006) to
guide you, but take
care. This study
involved a focus
group. Lila wants
to carry out a field
experiment.
▼ Table 7.17 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Generalisations – Lockyer (2006) sampled random
households so data should be representative of the
geographical region.
Generalisations – opportunity sampling in Dayan and
Bar-Hillel (2011) is unrepresentative (small coffee shop in a
capital city).
Validity – in Dayan and Bar-Hillel (study 1), confounding
variables were controlled (e.g. dish price). Study 2 was a
field experiment so ecological validity was increased as
customers did not know they were being observed.
Validity – in Lockyer, people in focus groups may have
conformed with dominant views; social desirability bias
may decrease honesty.
Objectivity/subjectivity – in Dayan and Bar-Hillel, dish
selection is an objective way of measuring customer
preferences and the effect of edge bias.
Objectivity/subjectivity – in Lockyer, analysis of
qualitative focus group data required interpretation;
conclusions may be affected by researcher bias.
Issues and debates
Application to everyday life
Profits can be cheaply and quickly increased by adapting menus. Diners can also be
directed to healthier, more nutritious options.
SKILLS BUILDER
a Describe what psychologists have discovered about menu design psychology. [6]
b Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about menu design psychology,
including a discussion about objective and subjective data.
[10]
Always look at part b before you start writing. As part b refers to objective
and subjective data, you may want to include at least one piece of research in
part a that can be evaluated in this respect. The study does not need to have
collected both types of data – you could discuss how the usefulness of the
findings would differ if another type of data had been collected.
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7 Consumer Psychology
NOW TEST YOURSELF
7.17Nguyen is surprised when he discovers that he and six friends have all
chosen the same dish at their local noodle bar. Using your knowledge
of menu design psychology, outline one reason why Nguyen and his
friends may all have chosen the same dish.
[2]
7.18Outline one or more reasons why psychologists should be cautious
when making generalisations from findings about primacy and
recency effects and menu item choice.
[4]
7.19 Klara is rewriting the menu for the school dining hall where she works.
She wants to encourage the children to choose healthier options. Using
your knowledge of research into food names and menu item choice,
suggest one way that Klara could encourage children to choose more
[2]
fruit and vegetables.
7.20 Explain two strengths of eye-tracking as a way of researching the
effects of menu design on consumer attitudes and behaviour.
[4]
7.2.3 Consumer behaviour and personal space
Key study: Robson et al. (2011)
Context: banquette seating allows for six additional diners, increasing revenue by
37.5 per cent. However, this may:
» increase customer discomfort through reduced privacy
» reduce revenue in non-contact cultures.
Aim: to explore perceived adequate distance between tables and how this is
influenced by social context/familiarity and culture.
Research method(s) and design:
» Method: experiment.
» Design: independent measure with random allocation.
» Data collection technique: web-based questionnaire with images of restaurant
tables.
Variables:
» Independent variables: table spacing – 6, 12 or 24 inches apart; dining partner –
a business colleague, friend or romantic partner.
» Dependent variables: seven-point Likert scales (1 = strongly disagree to 7 =
strongly agree), measuring beliefs, emotional responses and behavioural intentions.
Sample:
» Size: 1,013.
» Demographics: American, majority white (80 per cent), 53 per cent female; 6.1
per cent under 21 years old, 39 per cent over 50.
» Sampling technique: survey link shared by a sampling company.
Procedure: participants were told to answer questionnaires as though they were
dining with one of three different types of dining partner (see above).
Controlled variables: random allocation controlled for participant variables.
Ethics:
» Confidentiality was maintained – personal data was recorded, such as gender, but
there was no identifying information.
» Privacy was not invaded, as might be the case if observed in a restaurant.
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Results: the less distance between the tables, the more uncomfortable and dissatisfied
the customers felt and the less privacy they felt they had (see Tables 7.18 and 7.19).
▼ Table 7.18 Participants’ reactions to different table spacings
Table spacing
Participants’ reactions
6 inches
Participants worried about being overheard, disrupting others; 70 per cent said they would ask to
be reseated; particularly stressful in the romance scenario.
12 inches
There were negative feelings but respondents felt more in control than those in the 6 and 24 inch
groups.
24 inches
This was the condition with least negativity, yet 35 per cent said they would feel uncomfortable.
▼ Table 7.19 Effect of individual differences on attitudes and preferences
Individual differences
Effect on attitudes/preferences
Age
Younger participants were more positive than older participants at 6 inches and more
stressed at 24 inches.
Gender
Women felt more stress, less control and greater discomfort than men, who felt more
arousal at each distance.
Ethnicity
Asian participants were more comfortable and in control at both 6 and 24 inches than
other groups.
Frequency of restaurant
visits
Frequent restaurant diners were more comfortable at all distances than non-frequent
diners.
Residence
People from densely populated areas were more aroused by close proximity than those from
less densely populated areas.
Conclusions:
» Consumers, especially women, dislike closely spaced tables, especially for
romantic dates.
Personal space and Hall’s four zones
Hall (1966) pioneered the study of proxemics, including:
» the four interpersonal distance zones (see Table 7.20)
» how individual and situational factors affect interpersonal distance.
▼ Table 7.20 The four zones of personal space (Hall, 1966)
Zone
Who can enter?
Size of zone
Intimate
Romantic partner, children and other close family and
friends
<46 cm
Personal
Friends, family, colleagues
46–122 cm
Social
Acquaintances, strangers
122–210 cm
Public
The wider, more impersonal space, reserved for public
lectures/speeches, etc., more anonymous
>210 cm
▼ Table 7.21 Factors affecting personal space
148
Factor
Effect on size/shape of personal space ‘bubble’
Position of other person/
intruder
‘Bubbles’ may not be circular; people are more
comfortable with others standing/sitting to the side
rather than in front/behind.
Individual differences
Gender, age, culture, autism and traumatic brain injury
(TBI) also affect the size/shape of the ‘bubble’.
Social context/situation
Crowding; intimacy of the relationship and familiarity
with others typically reduce the need for personal space.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Explain one function of
personal space. Refer
to the key study by
Robson et al. (2011) in
your answer.
[2]
This question
requires a good
working knowledge
of the syllabus,
which refers to
three functions:
overload, arousal and
behaviour constraint.
Try explaining how
and why diners feel
uncomfortable at 6
inches apart using
all three and decide
which is the easiest
to explain within the
time limit.
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7 Consumer Psychology
Arousal, overload and behavioural constraint
Functions of personal space:
» overload – prevents overstimulation from people coming too close
» arousal – keeps arousal at an optimal level
» behaviour constraint – strategies are employed to maintain personal space,
control and behavioural freedom.
Relevant research: Milgram et al. (1986)
Aim: to investigate factors affecting reactions to queue jumpers, including
reactions of other queue members.
Methodology:
» Confederates tried to queue jump 129 times in various locations in New York.
» The independent variable was whether the people positioned before and after the
queue jumper were also confederates or not and how many people attempted to
queue jump – one or two. Confederate queue members (buffers) did not react to
the intruder(s) and faced forward.
» Responses were noted by a non-participant covert observer.
Results:
▼ Table 7.22 Type and frequency of objections
Type of objection
Examples
Frequency
Physical
Touching, sleeve tugging, shoulder tapping, pushing 10%
Verbal
‘Excuse me, you have to go to the back of the line’
22%
Non-verbal
Hostile stares and gestures
15%
▼ Table 7.23 Frequency of objections under the different conditions
Number of intruders
Number of buffers
Frequency of objections
1
0
54%
1
25%
2
5%
0
91%
1
25%
2
30%
2
Conclusions: objections to queue jumpers are more common with two intruders and
no buffers.
SKILLS BUILDER
Gary and Greg love watching football but hate queuing
for hotdogs at half time. They often try to ‘ jump’ the
queue. Using your knowledge of consumer psychology,
explain how other people in the queue are likely to
respond to Gary and Greg’s behaviour.
[4]
This question includes the words ‘jump’ and ‘queue’,
which should cue you to think about Milgram et al.
(1986). You could focus on the findings and relate
them to Gary, Greg and the other people at the
football match. For example, Milgram et al. found
that people responded with verbal disapproval 22
per cent of the time and physical acts 10 per cent of
the time. This means Gary and Greg are more likely
to be shouted at than punched.
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▼ Table 7.24 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Quantitative and qualitative data – Milgram
et al. (1986) tallied objection types (quantitative)
but also gathered field notes to provide contextual
information (qualitative). Robson et al. provided tables
and graphs so findings can be quickly understood and
used by restaurant managers.
Observation – in Milgram et al., naturalistic settings
(ticket counter, betting shop) may make it difficult
to remain covert and lack of control over confounding
variables could decrease validity.
Ethics – in Robson et al. (2011), the use of questionnaires Ethics – Milgram used deception (confederates, covert
meant participants were not made to feel actual
observation). No consent or right to withdraw was given.
discomfort through invasion of their personal space.
Public places were used but harm was still possible.
Issues and debates
Individual and situational explanations
Situational factors such as the social context determine how we feel about the
proximity of other diners (e.g. who we are dining with) and reactions to behaviours
such as queue jumping are affected by proximity and buffers.
Individual factors such as culture, gender, age and neurodiversity influence personal
space and how people respond to violations of social norms, such as queue jumping.
Cultural differences
Mean annual temperature and preferred interpersonal distance are negatively
correlated, so the hotter the country, the less need for personal space. People in
short-term orientation cultures (e.g. the US) might be more likely to object to queue
jumpers than people in long-term orientation cultures.
SKILLS BUILDER
a Describe what psychologists have discovered
about consumer behaviour and personal space. [6]
b Evaluate what psychologists have discovered
about consumer behaviour and personal space,
including a discussion about observations.
[10]
Essays may be phrased at the subtopic level
(e.g. ‘Consumer behaviour and personal space’).
Remember which research is identified in each
subtopic (e.g. Robson et al., 2011). Milgram et al.
(1986) would be a good choice for these questions
as they used covert observation so you could
evaluate their research in part b. Remember,
part a should focus on the findings of research
(the discoveries) and part b should focus on the
strengths and weaknesses of the methodologies
of the studies that led to these discoveries;
weaknesses of the studies mean that the
discoveries are also questionable.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
7.21Outline what is meant by the nomothetic
approach, using an example from consumer
behaviour and personal space.
[2]
7.22 People often try to jump the queue at
airports. Sometimes people ignore the
queue jumper; other times they confront
them, verbally or even physically. Outline
one individual factor and one situational
factor that influence how people respond
to queue jumpers at airports.
[4]
7.23 Suggest one way in which personal space
at restaurant tables could be studied, other
than using a questionnaire.
[2]
7.24 Lubna is investigating attitudes towards
personal space on public transport, such as
150
buses and trains, which can be very crowded
during the rush hour and at other times
almost empty.
a Plan a study using an interview to help
Lubna with her investigation. Your plan
must include details about:
– sampling technique
– interview technique.
[10]
b
i State two reasons for your choice of
sampling technique.
[2]
ii Explain one weakness of your choice
of sampling technique.
[2]
iii Explain one reason for your choice of
interview technique.
[2]
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7 Consumer Psychology
7.3 Consumer decision-making
7.3.1 Consumer decision-making
Models, strategies and theories
▼ Table 7.25 Theories that help to explain how consumers make buying decisions
Theory
Claims
Example
Evaluation
Utility theory
Consumers are rational;
all available information
is used when making
purchasing decisions.
Buying a chocolate bar: utilitarian
value is decided based on hunger
and liking.
For: requires time and effort;
leads to optimal purchases (high
utilitarian value).
Satisficing
theory (Simon,
1956)
Rational choices are
impossible due to missing
information and limited
processing capacity;
bounded rationality
allows for ‘good enough’
choices based on what
will satisfy us and will
suffice (Simon, 1991).
Buying a car: the car we buy
will ‘suffice’; it has the majority
of our ‘must have’ features but
may not meet all of our original
criteria. Despite this, we will be
satisfied with our purchase.
For: less time and effort than
utilitarian decision-making;
explains individual differences –
aspiration level varies based on
personality and experience.
Against: aspiration level =
subjective concept; ‘He bought
that because of his aspiration
level; his aspiration level must
be this because he bought that’ –
this is circular reasoning.
Prospect theory
(Kahneman
and Tversky,
1979; Tversky
and Kahneman,
1981, 1992)
Humans have a tendency
towards loss aversion.
Loss is feared more than
gain is valued, leading to
risky, seemingly irrational
decision-making.
Investing in combating rare,
potentially fatal disease: if
information was phrased in
terms of:
» lives saved: people preferred a
smaller certain outcome over a
larger possible outcome
» lives lost: people avoided
smaller certain losses,
favouring risky options,
possibly leading to a larger
number of possible losses.
For: can be used to inform
advertising campaigns – for
example, focusing on losses
avoided if consumers purchase
certain products or shop at
certain places.
Against: supporting evidence is
eurocentric; people in collectivist
cultures are less loss averse than
those in individualist cultures
(Wang et al., 2016).
Against: regrets more likely
due to not finding the ‘perfect’
purchase.
▼ Table 7.26 Strategies of consumer decision-making
Strategy
Explanations
Example
Evaluation
Compensatory
Pros and cons of limited
options are weighed; positive
attributes compensate for
negatives; value is based on
personal evaluations.
Buying a plane ticket: more
expensive, but direct route is
chosen over cheaper, indirect
ferry ticket.
For: appeal of comparison
websites is explained (Todd and
Benbasat, 2000).
Against: ignores emotion in
decision-making; reductionist.
Non-compensatory
Used when deciding between
many options and time and
information are limited.
Negatives not compensated
for by positives – products
are simply rejected.
Buying a new smartphone: you
want an 8-megapixel camera;
all phones without this
feature are rejected.
For: quicker and easier than
compensatory; explains
individual differences –
different people value different
attributes.
Against: suitable products may
be excluded early on; may not
make optimal choices.
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Strategy
Explanations
Example
Evaluation
Partially
compensatory
Attributes of two competing
products are evaluated;
the best is retained and
compared with the next until
the product with the most
positive features remains.
Choosing wedding venue:
two venues with desirable
attributes are compared
(e.g. seats 150 guests,
attractive gardens); one venue
eliminated and the winner is
compared with the next listed
venue.
For: rational and holistic
strategy that allows for
individual differences/personal
preferences.
Against: time-consuming to
make a decision.
Relevant research: Jedetski et al. (2002)
Aim: to investigate factors affecting consumer decision-making, including:
» possibility of comparing products or not
» number of products (e.g. >100 versus <30).
Methodology:
» Twenty-four participants purchase items (e.g. baby monitors, golf clubs) from a
website where products can be compared (CompareNet) or not (Jango).
» Dependent variable: decision-making strategies.
» Participants completed seven-point Likert scales, such as ‘I am confident that I
made a good decision.’
Results:
» Non-compensatory strategy was used more on Jango than CompareNet; and when
there were more than 100 different products to consider.
» Satisfaction was greater with CompareNet than Jango.
Conclusions: compensatory strategy is more common when product comparison is
possible; non-compensatory is more common with many possible alternatives.
SKILLS BUILDER
Compensatory strategies have been researched using
rating scales to measure consumer attitudes. Give one
difference between rating scales and forced/fixedchoice questions as a way of investigating consumer
decision-making.
[4]
This question tests your knowledge of the additional
research methods required for A Level compared
with AS Level. Refresh your knowledge of forced/
fixed-choice questions on page 62. The command
term is ‘give’, which means you do not have to
describe why rating scales are better or worse than
forced/fixed-choice questions, just describe how
they differ. You could give an example of a rating
scale from Jedetski et al. (2002) and show how the
question would have changed if forced/fixed-choice.
▼ Table 7.27 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Internal validity – it was an independent
measures design; participants bought
items on only one website, so there were
no order effects.
Ecological validity – this was low as
participants were asked to purchase
products they didn’t want/need.
Questionnaires – Seven-point Likert
scales meant participants were not forced
to agree or disagree.
Generalisations – Sample size was very
small. There were only 22 in each group
and only two websites were sampled.
Issues and debates
Determinism versus free will
Jedetski et al. (2002) showed online decision-making is determined by available
comparison tools and number of options. Free will may play a smaller role than we think.
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7 Consumer Psychology
Reductionism versus holism
Utility theory and compensatory strategy assume we are rational and that we
reduce consumer decision-making to a mathematical weighing up of pros and
cons. However, decisions may be automatic, impulsive and emotional. A holistic
approach to understanding these processes may result in models with better
predictive power.
SKILLS BUILDER
a Describe what psychologists have discovered about consumer decisionmaking.
b Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about consumer decisionmaking, including a discussion about determinism versus free will.
[6]
[10]
These may seem like difficult questions as you only have one study in this
subtopic, on internet shopping and website design. However, you could include
anything from the sections on choice heuristics (see page 153) and mistakes in
decision-making (see page 156). Think about the implications of believing that
our behaviour is determined by internal/external forces (e.g. people cannot be
held accountable for overspending on impulse purchases).
STUDY TIP
Try writing an alternative
and null hypothesis for
Jedetski et al. (2002).
Remember, hypotheses
can be directional or nondirectional, correlational
or experimental, null or
alternative. Refresh your
memory of these terms
on page 72, if you need
to. Writing hypotheses
for each study is a good
way of processing the
information at a deeper
level, making future
recall more likely. But
remember – a good
hypothesis will always
mention both variables,
fully operationalised. If
you do not know what this
means, check page 72.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
7.25 Petal is comparing spa breaks using a
online comparison website to help choose
the best venue. Her friend, Rona is scrolling
through a long list of venues on her
tablet. Explain why Petal and Rona may
use different consumer decision-making
strategies to decide on a venue.
[2]
7.26 Give one advantage of using laboratory
experiments to investigate decision-making
strategies applied to internet shopping and
website design.
[2]
7.27 Paulo is buying a bicycle on an online
marketplace. He wants disk brakes, a
lightweight frame and a bottle holder. Using
satisficing theory, explain one reason Paulo may
settle for a bike without all of these features. [2]
7.28 Explain two limitations of utility theory
relating to consumer decision-making in
[4]
everyday life.
7.3.2 Choice heuristics
▼ Table 7.28 Choice heuristics
Explanations
Example: buying shampoo
Availability
Decisions are determined by products that
come readily to mind. Less easily remembered
brands are ignored.
You choose a brand you have just seen
advertised.
Representativeness
Choosing products based on an image we have
of ourselves or how we believe we will benefit
by using them.
You choose a brand with similar packaging
to a luxury brand, particularly if advertising
features an aspirational image.
Recognition
Unfamiliar brands/products are chosen based
on recognition of similarities with familiar
products, as long as there are no negative
connotations.
When abroad, you choose an unfamiliar local
brand because the packaging is the same
colour as your regular brand.
Take-the-best
A single attribute is prioritised; all others
are ignored.
‘This shampoo is for blonde hair. I have blonde
hair and so I will buy it.’
Anchoring
A product’s perceived value is relative to a
previous product, which acts as an anchor/
baseline.
A shampoo displayed next to a more expensive
product is more likely to be purchased than
one next to a cheaper product.
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SKILLS BUILDER
Shelley sells beauty product hampers. She arranges
hampers of various sizes/prices side by side and
showcases her pricier items in her window display.
Explain how one or more choice heuristics may affect
consumer decision-making in Shelley’s shop.
[4]
Identify key words in the question and read the
extract again with these words in mind. This
should help you to identify helpful parts of the
extract for answering the question. Here, the key
term is ‘choice heuristics’. Think of a way to help
you remember them all – for example, 2A, 2R,
1T (availability, anchoring, representativeness,
recognitions and take-the-best).
Which heuristic best matches the extract? Be
careful – the question is not just about heuristics,
it is about their effect on decision-making. Make
links to Shelley’s customers and what they might
purchase and why.
Point of purchase decisions
Strategic advertising/promotions are used to encourage unplanned ‘impulse’
purchases.
▼ Table 7.29 Strategic advertising/promotions
Strategy
Explanation
Example
Multiple unit pricing
(MUP)
Offering a reduced price for purchasing multiple
units can lead to unplanned purchases; customers
believe they are making long-term savings.
‘8 for $8’ generates higher sales than
single item pricing (SUP), such as $1.
However, ‘2 for $2’ or ‘4 for $4’ was no
more effective than single item pricing.
Suggestive selling, also Salespeople sometimes offer additional low-priced
A salesperson offers shoe polish
known as upselling
products at the point of purchase, such as a
or insoles at the counter when the
product that complements products already chosen. consumer pays for new shoes.
Relevant research: Wansink et al. (1998)
Aim: to test the anchoring and adjustment model at the point of purchase.
▼ Table 7.30 Methodology and results from Wansink et al. (1998)
154
Study
Methodology
Results
Field
experiment 1
86 shops were randomly allocated to SUP or MUP of toilet
rolls, sweets and soft drinks. Weekly sales were compared
with the six-month average.
MUP increased sales by 32 per cent
compared with SUP promotions.
Field
experiment 2
Cans of soup were advertised in three supermarkets at 79 cents, Sales increased as the limit
with a limit of either four or twelve cans per person, or no limit. increased.
Laboratory
experiment 1
Six products were offered at 20 or 40 per cent off or at
normal price. Advertising either did or did not include a high
anchor – for example, ‘Buy them for your freezer’ versus ‘Buy
18 for your freezer’.
High anchors increased purchase
quantity intentions, even without a
discount.
Laboratory
experiment 2
Students were shown scenarios involving 25–30 per cent
discounts on single units of snacks. External anchors were
purchase limits of 14, 28 or 56 units.
Participants were asked, ‘How many of this product do you
usually buy at a time?’ (default internal anchor) or to imagine
situations in which they might consume the product. They
were then asked, ‘How many of this product do you think you
might use in the next month?’ (expansion internal anchor).
Purchase intentions:
» no internal anchor = 7.1
(increased with external anchors)
» default internal anchor = 5.2
(regardless of external anchors)
» expansion internal anchor = 10.3
(regardless of external anchors).
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7 Consumer Psychology
Conclusions: point of purchase decisions are affected by situational factors (e.g.
external anchors presented through MUP and purchase quantity limits) and by
individual factors (e.g. internal anchors).
Relevant research: del Campo et al. (2016)
Aim: to investigate whether choice of heuristic (recognition versus take-the-best)
depends on individual decision-making style.
Methodology:
» Participants in Austria and Spain chose a box of eggs from five sample products.
They were randomly allocated to one of two groups: 40 seconds to choose or no
time pressure.
» They had to explain their choice and complete a questionnaire to measure
decision-making style (rational, intuitive, dependent, avoiding or
spontaneous).
Results:
» In the time pressure condition, take-the-best was used in Austria, but not in Spain.
» Dependent and avoiding styles were expected to favour recognition, but this was
not supported.
» In Austria, but not in Spain, recognition was favoured by those with a
spontaneous decision-making style.
Conclusions:
» Distribution of decision-making styles is similar across cultures, but there are
cross-cultural differences.
» The choice of heuristic is determined by decision-making style.
▼ Table 7.31 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Experiments – in Wansink et al. (1998), field and laboratory
experiments mean findings have high ecological and
internal validity. In del Campo et al., control over labelling
of egg cartons (e.g. price, country of origin) increases
internal validity.
Subjectivity – both studies measured purchase
intentions; these are subjective opinions so may be
more unreliable than measuring actual purchases (more
objective).
Quantitative – in del Campo et al. (2016), the strength
of relationships between decision-making styles, time
pressure and choice heuristics could be calculated.
Likewise, in Wansink et al., counting soup cans purchased
means data is objective and increases reliability.
Quantitative – as all data is quantitative in Wansink
et al., reasons for purchases and purchase intentions
is unclear. In del Campo et al., decision-making style
was measured using psychometric tests; no contextual
information was supplied.
Issues and debates
Application to everyday life
Store keepers and website owners can increase profits by employing evidence-based
strategies such as MUP, consumer purchase limits and upselling.
Individual and situational explanations
Del Campo et al. (2016) demonstrated that choice of heuristic depends on situational
factors (e.g. time pressure), but also individual differences (e.g. personal decisionmaking style).
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STUDY TIP
SKILLS BUILDER
[2]
Using an example, describe what is meant by ‘multiple unit pricing’.
Theoretically, you could get credit for an example of your own, or alternatively,
you could use an accurate example that you have discussed in class or read
from a real research study, such as Wansink et al. (1998).
NOW TEST YOURSELF
7.29 Compare the use of the recognition heuristic and take-the-best
heuristic.
[2]
7.30 Wilbur is interviewing shoppers at a supermarket to investigate the
reasons behind the choices they have made. Explain one or more
ways that Wilbur could make sure that his data is objective.
[4]
7.31Outline one situational explanation for point of purchase decisions.
[2]
7.32 Gita believes that the choice heuristics used by consumers are
influenced by measurable individual differences in decision-making
style. She decides to investigate this in her local garden centre.
a Plan a field experiment to help Gita investigate the influence of
decision-making style on heuristics. Your plan must include details
about controls/standardisation and choice of experimental design. [10]
b For one piece of psychological knowledge on which your plan is
based:
i Describe this psychological knowledge.
[4]
ii Explain how you used two features of this psychological
knowledge to plan your study.
[4]
‘Plan a study’ questions,
such as question 7.32
below, tend to focus
on specific research
methods (e.g. field
experiments). The general
and required features
that you need to include
are outlined on page
52–53 of the Cambridge
International Psychology
A Level syllabus. One
general feature is ethics,
so in question 7.32
think carefully about
the considerations Gita
should make. Also, as
it is a field experiment,
location is a critical
required feature. The
question tells you the
location is a garden
centre but to show you
are thinking clearly
and making the study
replicable, you should
give more information
about exactly where in the
garden centre the study
would take place (e.g.
in the furniture or tools
section).
7.3.3 Mistakes in decision-making
Thinking fast and thinking slow
» In his popular book in Thinking, Fast and Slow, Kahneman (2011) explains why
people are not always logical and why decisions are sometimes unpredictable.
» He outlines two types of thinking: System 1 (fast) and System 2 (slow).
▼ Table 7.32 System 1 and System 2 types of thinking
System
Description
When it is used
Examples
System 1
Fast, intuitive, automatic,
unconscious and effortless;
‘best guess’
Automatic, especially
when time-pressured
and overloaded with
information
Non-compensatory strategy (page 151);
heuristics (page 153); external anchors
(page 154); buying stocks when prices are
rising and selling when they are falling
(Shleifer, 2012)
System 2
Slow, deliberate, uses all
available information;
logical, conscious, rational,
controlled, effortful,
statistical
May override System 1
leading us to question
our first choice/answer;
time may be spent ‘fact
checking’ our first response
Utility theory (page 151); compensatory
strategy (page 151); internal anchors
(Wansink et al., 1998, see page 154); buying
stocks when they are falling and selling
when they are rising (Shleifer, 2012)
Interaction between System 1 and 2:
» System 2 sometimes uses information initially processed by System 1.
» System 1 uses years of stored knowledge processed by System 2, to make fast,
but expert decisions (e.g. experienced chess players).
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7 Consumer Psychology
Shleifer (2012) discusses how, when using the representativeness heuristic (System
1 thinking), we:
» ignore available evidence and rely on stored knowledge
» over-emphasise the relevance of past trends/experience.
More System 2 thinking could help overcome dysfunctional consumer behaviours.
SKILLS BUILDER
Bamba is shopping for a gift for his mother, while
talking on the phone to his brother, Osei. He grabs a
discounted jewellery set without thinking much about
it. Osei compares prices of perfume online before
deciding which is the best value but also something
that their mother will really like. Explain System 1 and
2 thinking using Bamba and Osei as examples.
[2]
You need to avoid giving too much description of
each type of thinking, otherwise you may not get
time to refer effectively to Bamba and Osei. Try
writing one sentence where you use at least three
adjectives to describe the type of thinking and
identify which brother is using this thinking style
and why. Then do the same for the other thinking
style. Aim for no more than 40–50 words.
Key study: Hall et al. (2010)
Context:
» Many people cannot remember choices they have only just made – for example,
which of two faces they said they found most attractive.
» The study investigates choice blindness using smell/taste as opposed to visual
stimuli (faces).
» It was conducted in a naturalistic setting (supermarket) rather than a laboratory.
Aim and hypotheses:
» Aim: to investigate the effect of similarity, liking and incentives on choice
blindness in a naturalistic setting.
» Hypotheses: choice blindness will be less common when shoppers:
– sample teas/jams with dissimilar tastes/smells
– have a preference for one product over another
– are offered a free sample of their preferred option.
Research method(s) and design:
» Method: field experiment.
» Design: independent measures.
» Data collection technique: structured interview.
Variables:
Independent variables:
» whether participants were:
– told they would receive a free gift or not
– presented with teas/jams that were similar versus dissimilar
» whether the experimenter secretly switched the products over or not.
Dependent variables:
» whether participants expressed a concern or not
» if so, whether the concern was:
– concurrent (expressed immediately)
– retrospective (at the study’s end)
– sensory change detection: different smell/taste detected second time round.
Sample:
» Size: 180
» Demographics: 66 per cent female; aged 16–80 (mean: 40).
» Sampling technique: opportunity sampling; asked while at a supermarket in
Sweden to take part in a quality control test.
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Procedure:
» Shoppers tasted two jams and smelt two teas.
» Preferences were measured on a ten-point scale.
» Next, shoppers were asked to taste/smell their preferred product again. In
reality, they were offered their least liked product using a ‘magic’ jar with two
compartments; it contained both types of jam/tea without the participant realising.
» Finally, they were asked about: the reasons for their preference; how difficult
it was to discriminate between the two products on a ten-point scale; and how
confident they were that they were offered the correct product.
» Each participant tried two jams and two teas in a counterbalanced order; the jar
was flipped when sampling either the teas or the jams.
Controlled variables: neutral ambient odour; noise and density of shoppers
(moderate); the ‘magic’ jar was flipped in exactly the same way each time; whether
participants sampled jam or tea first was counterbalanced.
Ethics:
» Deception was involved, so there was no informed consent.
» Approval was gained from the Regional Swedish Ethics Board, Lund.
» Safeguards included debriefing, including right to withdraw or provide written
consent, and confidentiality.
Results:
» Most participants (68 per cent) were choice blind (no concerns expressed):
– Detection rates were higher with dissimilar pairings than similar pairings.
– Switch detection (e.g. not choice blind) was more common when one of the
products was disliked.
» Unexpected outcome: in the tea condition, detection of the switch was less common
(i.e. choice blindness) in the free gift group (20 per cent versus 46 per cent).
Conclusion: choice blindness:
» occurs in real-world settings involving smell and taste as well as vision
» is not affected by consequences of decisions or difficulty differentiating between
similar products.
Relevant research: Burke and Srull (1988)
Aim: to investigate the retroactive and proactive effects of competitive advertising.
Methodology:
» Students were shown 12 text-only magazine advertisements. They were asked to
rate either:
– the likelihood of buying each product
– their interest in each product.
» Two minutes later, they recalled the three products either shown earlier
(retroactive effects) or later (proactive effects) in the 12 advert series.
» The researchers also varied whether the 12 adverts showed:
– varied brands and types of product
– varied brands/same products
– same products/same brand, varied models.
Results:
» Twice as much information was recalled when items were rated for purchase
intention versus interest (review activity).
» The best recall was for varied as opposed to same product/brand.
» The worst recall was for early as opposed to late in the series (retroactive
interference); effect was not moderated by review activity.
Conclusions:
» Retroactive interference affects recall of advertisements but this is improved by
thinking about purchase intentions.
» Proactive interference reduces recall.
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7 Consumer Psychology
▼ Table 7.33 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Experiment – control of confounding variables means
cause and effect can be established in both Hall et al.
(2010) and Burke and Srull (1988). Researcher bias was
controlled in Burke and Srull through use of a double-blind
design; randomisation controlled order effects in Hall et al.
Validity – most advertisements are made of images
and text; Burke and Srull only used text-based adverts.
In Hall et al., participants may have spoken to other
shoppers, which could have altered their behaviour.
Interviews – face-to-face, self-report data can be
affected by social desirability bias, reducing validity
(Hall et al.); shoppers may not have voiced concerns as
they did not wish to be ‘uncooperative.’
Reliability – noise and crowding may have varied across
the 180 trials in Hall et al.; lack of standardisation limits
replicability.
Issues and debates
Individual and situational explanations
In Hall et al. (2010), only half the sample showed choice blindness when products
were dissimilar. This phenomenon may be affected by personality (individual
factor).
The similarity of the paired products and free gift offer (situational factor) elicited
more choice blindness.
Determinism versus free will
The dual processing model is deterministic; purchasing decisions are affected by
automatic unconscious System 1 thinking. Likewise, ignoring available information
and failure to think rationally (System 2) suggests behaviour is less affected by free
will than we might think.
Hall et al. (2010) demonstrated that sometimes behaviour/cognitive processing is
determined by factors outside of our awareness. Unless we force ourselves to pay
conscious attention to sensory experiences, cognitive capacity may be diverted to
other tasks.
STUDY TIP
What would be the best
way to analyse the data
in Hall et al. (2010)?
Refresh your memory
of descriptive statistics
on page 82, if you need
to. Asking questions like
this every time you look
at a piece of research will
help you to remember
the details better,
consolidate key research
methods terminology and
prepare for ‘Plan a study’
questions. Thinking about
how data is recorded and
analysed is an important
part of these questions.
SKILLS BUILDER
a Describe what psychologists have discovered about
mistakes in decision-making.
[6]
b Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about
mistakes in decision-making, including a discussion
about structured interviews.
[10]
Part b should take you no more than 15 minutes.
Discuss a good range of issues, including the
named issue. Remember, each idea needs to be
well developed – fewer issues in greater depth
are better than many brief ideas. Issues can be
chosen from the issues and debates, but can also
include methodological issues, such as validity and
reliability.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
7.33 Aurelio is handing out free samples of two
new coffees: cherry-ccino and liquorice-latte.
When he asks customers which one they
prefer so he can give them a sachet to take
home, they often don’t notice if he gives them
the wrong one. Suggest two closed questions
that Aurelio could ask to investigate choice
blindness in his customers.
[2]
7.34 Explain one or more ethical issues in the study
of choice blindness by Hall et al. (2010).
[4]
7.35 Cecil watches trailers for four new action
films at the cinema. When he tells his friend
about the films, he mixes details of the first
film in with his description of the last film.
Explain one strength of proactive interference
as an explanation for Cecil’s confusion.
[2]
7.36 Compare experiments and interviews as
ways of investigating consumer memory for
advertising.
[4]
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7.4 The product
7.4.1 Packaging and positioning of a product
Gift-wrapping
Types of wrapping and why gifts are wrapped:
1 Symbolic meanings:
– Ancient China: red and gold paper = good fortune and happiness
– Korea: gifts are wrapped in fabric squares (bojagi); hiding the gift = protection.
2 Greater approval:
– The same gift in attractive wrapping receives greater approval, especially
high-quality wrapping.
– Wrappings trigger curiosity, anticipation and happy memories; this positive
affect transfers to the gift.
3 Social norms: people expect gifts to be wrapped.
Beliefs and expectations
Research shows that blankets in opaque boxes with ribbons were rated as more
likely to be expensive and pristine than the same blankets in boxes with transparent
windows.
Friends appreciate poorly wrapped presents more than neatly wrapped presents.
Rixom et al. (2019) explains this using expectation disconfirmation:
» Poor wrapping = low expectations, so the gift is a pleasant surprise even if it is
not something the recipient would have chosen (blankets, etc.).
» Recipients prefer gifts from acquaintances to be neatly wrapped; this is an
indicator of the value placed on the relationship (friends, etc.).
STUDY TIP
Drawing appropriately labelled graphs can help you to remember the direction of any
differences in study findings (e.g. the shape of the pot with the best-tasting yoghurt in
Becker et al., 2011). Even if you do not have the data (e.g. percentages, means, etc.) to
plot the graphs accurately, you can still show which bar is taller/shorter, or plot the
points on a scatter graph to show a strong or weak positive or negative correlation.
Sketching graphs in this way is useful for your revision, especially if you make them
colourful/distinctive and re-visit your images regularly.
Key study: Becker et al. (2011)
Context:
» Packaging is important when consumers’ brand/product awareness is limited or
there is time pressure.
» Colour, shape and materials create expectations about quality, healthiness and/or
taste.
Packaging shape and colour:
» Cross-modal correspondence may affect how we experience a product – for
example, the brighter green the can, the more intense the lemon flavour.
» Processing fluency and congruence: mismatched shapes and colours
(e.g. rounded shapes in bright/high saturation colours) are incongruent – they
have low processing fluency (see Table 7.34).
» Individual differences: design-sensitive individuals are more likely to experience
the positive effects of cross-modal correspondence and the negative effects of
incongruence.
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7 Consumer Psychology
▼ Table 7.34 Processing fluency and congruence of shapes and colours
Shape
Colour saturation
High
Low
Rounded
Incongruent;
low fluency;
negative emotion
Congruent;
high fluency;
positive emotion
Angular
Congruent;
high fluency;
positive emotion
Incongruent;
low fluency;
negative emotion
Aim and hypotheses:
» Aim: to investigate the effect of packaging colour/shape on taste.
» Hypotheses:
1 Yoghurt in angular pots will have a stronger flavour than the same yoghurt in
rounded pots.
2 Yoghurt in high colour-saturation pots will have a stronger flavour than the
same yoghurt in low colour-saturation pots.
3 Attitudes will be more positive for yoghurts in congruent pots (e.g. angular
shape and high colour saturation) than in incongruent pots.
4 Colour and shape congruence will have a greater effect on yoghurt flavour for
highly design-sensitive consumers than consumers with low design sensitivity.
Research method(s) and design:
» Research method: field experiment.
» Design: independent measures.
» Data collection technique: self-report questionnaire.
Variables:
Independent variables:
» Differences in the yoghurt packaging
– colour saturation – high versus low
– shape angularity – angular versus rounded
» design sensitivity – higher versus lower than the median on the ‘Individual
Differences in the Centrality of Visual Product Aesthetics’ scale (Bloch et al.,
2003); 11 items, rated 1–7.
Dependent variables: rated from 1 to 7 (‘not at all’ to ‘very much so’) on:
» taste intensity (e.g. sharp, bitter, mild)
» product evaluation (e.g. superior, eye-catching, high-quality)
» price expectation (in Euro cents).
Sample:
» Size: 151.
» Demographics: German supermarket customers; 77 female, 74 male; mean age: 31.
» Sampling technique: opportunity sampling; customers asked to participate in a
‘taste test’.
Procedure:
» Pre-test: participants rated pairs of pots; those that differed most were selected
for the design of the pots in the main study.
» Main study: shoppers watched a 20-second video of one of the four pots rotating.
» Next, they tasted a lemon yoghurt; all samples were the same.
» Finally, they completed an online questionnaire.
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Controlled variables: all participants:
» tasted the same lemon yoghurt, regardless of shape/colour of the pot
» watched the same duration of video clip (20 seconds) and the pots all rotated in
the same way
» answered the same structured questionnaire after watching the video.
Ethics:
» Deception: participants thought they were taking part in a yoghurt ‘taste test’.
They did not know that they were all tasting the same yoghurt.
» They were told that the design sensitivity questionnaire was about ‘customer
lifestyle profiling’.
» Deception reduced demand characteristics and risk of harm was low.
Results:
» There was no difference in taste intensity between packaging that was:
– angular and rounded
– high and low colour saturation.
» The high (but not low) design sensitivity group rated the yoghurt in the angular
pot as more intensely flavoured than the yoghurt in the rounded pot.
» Angular pots were rated more positively and the suggested price was higher than
the rounded pots. This effect was mediated by potency – that is, angular pots
were perceived as more impressive (potent) and hence more expensive.
» Price was marginally higher for the low colour saturation pots than the high
colour saturation pots.
Conclusion: angular packaging increases taste intensity but only in people who are
sensitive to design, providing some support for cross-modal correspondence.
Attention and shelf position
Shoppers typically select central item(s) in a horizontal display; consumer
psychologists call this horizontal centrality. For example, products displayed in the
middle of a shelf were found to be chosen 71 per cent of the time.
SKILLS
BUILDER
From the key study by
Becker et al. (2011)
on food package
design and taste
perception, explain
how participants
were allocated to the
high and low design
sensitivity groups. [4]
Think about how you
could break down
the information.
For example, you
could mention the
questionnaire that
the participants had
to complete, how the
items were rated,
how the researchers
calculated participant
scores and finally
how the researchers
calculated the
median and split
the participants into
those who scored
over or under the
median.
The use of eye-tracking
Also see page 145.
» This is an objective technique for investigating visual attention
– for example, gaze location and duration of fixations and
saccades.
» Data can be used to create heat maps (digital representations of
how shoppers scan shelves) (e.g. see Figure 7.2).
Relevant research: Atalay et al. (2012)
Aim: to investigate the effect of horizontal centrality on choice
likelihood and how it is linked to increased visual attention and/or
inferences.
Methodology:
▲ Figure 7.2 Eye-tracking technology can
provide a ‘heat map’ style representation
of the visual field, showing the areas that
attract the most visual attention
» Sixty-three students viewed two planograms for as long as necessary to select a
product.
» Eye-trackers monitored gaze location and duration as participants made their
choice.
» Attitudes towards different brands were measured via a questionnaire.
Results:
» The average time taken to select a product was 35 seconds.
» Horizontally central brands attracted greater visual attention specifically during
the first 0.5 seconds and the last 5 seconds before selecting a product.
» Centrally located products were selected 18 per cent more often than those at
the sides.
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7 Consumer Psychology
Conclusions: horizontal centrality and central gaze cascade effect are supported.
Centrally located brands attract more attention and are chosen more frequently.
SKILLS BUILDER
Explain one weakness of research into packaging and
positioning from the holism side of the reductionism
versus holism debate.
[2]
Try focusing your answer on a problem with either
Becker et al. (2011) or Atalay et al. (2012) that can
be related to holism. Think about types of data
(e.g. quantitative), then think about what was being
measured, such as attitudes towards the taste of
a yoghurt in Becker et al. Was the data collected
reductionist? Was it more or less so than Atalay
et al., who measured gaze location and duration
of fixations while looking at a planogram? Once
you have thought about this, you are ready to think
about a weakness of the research. The command
term ‘explain’ means you need to state your
weakness and say why it is a weakness.
▼ Table 7.35 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Validity – both studies have strong internal validity.
Atalay et al. (2012) controlled brand names, background
colour and readability. Becker et al. (2011) designed
the pots based on a pre-test to ensure the independent
variable was valid.
Validity – choosing a product from a planogram is not
the same as choosing from a real or online store (Atalay
et al.). Becker et al. only tested lemon yoghurt; findings
may not be the same for other foods with different
textures or flavours.
Objectivity – eye-tracking data is objective and provides
quantitative data that can be statistically analysed
(Atalay et al.). Manipulation of ‘design sensitivity’ should
be objective (Becker et al.); scores were collected using
a psychometric test and median-split used to create two
groups.
Generalisations – older consumers in real-life settings
may not favour centrally placed items to the same
extent (Atalay et al.). Becker et al. only sampled German
shoppers.
Issues and debates
Reductionism versus holism
Consumer decisions may be based on other factors besides shelf location and
packaging. Individual differences such as brand knowledge and recommendations,
and situational factors such as time pressure and crowding may also be involved.
Investigating interactions between factors could provide more valid predictions.
Determinism versus free will
Consumers may be unaware of the extent to which shelf location and packaging
determines purchasing. The findings of these studies may encourage consumers to
exercise free will when making decisions, especially ones that affect finances and
health.
SKILLS BUILDER
a Describe what psychologists have discovered about
packaging and positioning of a product.
[6]
b Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about
packaging and positioning of a product, including a
discussion about generalisation from findings. [10]
The key terms ‘packaging’ and ‘positioning’ tell
you that this essay should include information
about the studies by Becker et al. (2011) and
Atalay et al. (2012). But what exactly is meant by
‘what psychologists have discovered about … ‘?
Discoveries are basically the findings of research
studies, so the way variables are related or affect
one another (or not, as the case may be). In part a,
you could write about processing fluency and crossmodal correspondence in relation to Becker et al.
Next, you could write about horizontal centrality in
relation to Atalay et al.
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NOW TEST YOURSELF
7.37Using an example, explain what is meant by
the central gaze cascade effect.
[2]
7.38 Xiao-Mei is wrapping thank-you gifts for his
co-workers to celebrate a successful year. He
wraps the presents very neatly in expensive
paper and adds bows and dried flowers to
each parcel. Outline one or more beliefs held
by gift-givers and recipients that explain why
Xiao-Mei goes to so much effort.
[4]
7.39Outline one difference between objective and
subjective data using examples from research
into packaging and positioning of products. [2]
7.40 Anande is investigating how shelf position and
packaging influence consumer attitudes and
behaviour. She decides to focus on mobile
phone accessories, including chargers, cases
and portable batteries.
a Plan a correlational study to help Anande
to investigate packaging and positioning of
products. Your plan must include details
about:
– measurement of the variables
– descriptive statistics.
[10]
b i State two reasons why you chose to
measure the variables as you did. [2]
ii Explain one weakness relating to the
measurement of variables in your
study.
[2]
iii Explain one reason for your choice of
descriptive statistics.
[2]
7.4.2 Selling the product
Sales techniques and the buyer–seller relationship
▼ Table 7.36 Sales techniques and their effect on buyer–seller relationships (DelVecchio
et al., 2003)
Focus
Customer
Salesperson
Effect on buyer–seller relationship
Customer
Each customer has a
unique problem to be
solved.
Experts provide individualised
services and use active listening
to understand customer
problems.
Increases cooperation, trust and repeat
trade; decreases conflict.
Salespeople who ask too many questions
can be seen as poorly informed.
Competitor
Customers have similar
needs.
Salesperson tries to show the
customer how they are similar
to other satisfied customers;
features, advantages and
benefits (FAB) are emphasised
and compared with rival brands.
Decreased customer satisfaction
compared with customer-focused.
Buyers show greater negotiation/
bargaining; negative impact on
developing relationships.
Too many comparisons with rival brands
can be seen as a sign of incompetence.
Product
Customers are
fairly passive; little
information is shared
as they are asked few
questions.
Salesperson convinces/
persuades buyers that they need
the product; detailed product
information and demonstrations
are provided; no comparison
with rival brands.
Buyers perceive sellers as experts,
increasing trust and promoting positive
relationships.
SKILLS BUILDER
a Describe what psychologists have discovered about
selling the product.
[6]
b Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about
selling the product, including a discussion about
field experiments.
[10]
In part b, a popular strategy is to evaluate the
methodology of the research studies used in
part a. However, this section of the syllabus
only includes one piece of research (an example
of DTR; Kardes et al., 2007). The research by
DelVecchio et al. (2003) could cue you to discuss
issues such as objectivity and generalisations.
Remember, you don’t always have to know
researchers’ names to use their studies, as long
as the study is recognisable and relevant.
.
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7 Consumer Psychology
Interpersonal influence techniques
Kardes et al. (2007) investigated the disrupt-then-reframe (DTR) technique at a
supermarket.
▼ Table 7.37 The DTR technique
Selling technique
Percentage of shoppers
who bought candy
Control condition: ‘The price is now 1 Euro. It’s a bargain!’
44%
Disrupt-then-reframe: ‘The price is now 100 Euro cents’
(‘disrupt’), ‘That’s 1 Euro. It’s a bargain!’ (‘then reframe’)
65%
The need for cognitive closure and ambiguity aversion
» Humans are ambiguity averse; cognitive closure is sought through quick, simple
solutions.
» Some people have higher need for cognitive closure (NFCC) than others.
» The disrupt-then-reframe (DTR) technique is more effective with people who have
high NFCC.
» Reframing resolves ambiguity created through disruption.
Relevant research: Kardes et al. (2007)
Aim: to investigate the effect of NFCC on the effectiveness of the DTR technique.
Methodology: a confederate selling club membership to students said either,
‘You can now become a member for half a year for 3 Euros. That’s a really small
investment!’ or, ‘You can now become a member for half a year for 300 Euro cents’,
followed by, ‘That’s 3 Euros. That’s a really small investment!’ (DTR group). Students
completed a NFCC questionnaire.
Results:
▼ Table 7.38 Percentage of DTR and control groups who paid for membership
Percentage of the group who paid for membership
DTR
Control
30%
13%
Buyers in the DTR group were more likely to have high NFCC than buyers in the
control group.
Conclusions: DTR increases compliance but this is moderated by need for cognitive
closure.
NFCC increases when:
» time is short
» the situation is boring
» the individual is from a high uncertainty avoidance culture (e.g. Japan).
Cialdini’s six ways to close a sale
SKILLS
BUILDER
The disrupt-then
reframe technique is
affected by the need
for cognitive closure.
Outline one or more
factors that affect
the need for cognitive
closure.
[4]
The stem mentions
the DTR technique
and NFCC, so you
might decide to
define these terms
and/or explain how
they are related, but
be careful – this is
not what is required.
The key words are
‘factors that affect’.
How do cultural
differences or time
pressure affect
NFCC?
▼ Table 7.39 Six ways to close a sale
Way to close a sale
Description
Example(s)
Reciprocation
Humans have a tendency to return favours.
The salesperson ‘helps’ us by giving a
discount; we feel indebted to them and
obliged to buy the item.
Commitment and
consistency
Humans prefer/expect others to behave
consistently.
If a person commits to doing a job at a
certain price, we expect them to stick to this.
Social proof
Consumers ‘look to’ others as a guide to how
to behave, especially people they admire.
Influencers on social media platforms such as
TikTok and Instagram can influence how we
behave.
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Way to close a sale
Description
Example(s)
Authority
People are more likely to buy from people
with authority (e.g. expertise, charisma).
Celebrities with connections to products are
used in adverts, such as sports personalities
selling vitamin supplements.
Liking
Sales are more likely when there is good
rapport between seller and potential buyer.
‘Chuggers’ seeking charitable donations from
passers-by often pay compliments in an
attempt to build a relationship.
Scarcity
Rare products/services automatically become
more valuable.
Shops often state that ‘stocks are limited’ or
that ‘special offers’ will not be available after
a certain date.
Research evidence
Support for reciprocity: when given a free gift, participants rated a company more
favourably than participants who did not receive a gift (Beltramini, 1992). However,
gift recipients were no more likely to contact the company in future; gifts improved
attitudes but not sales.
▼ Table 7.40 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Validity – Beltramini (1992) has high ecological validity
as it was conducted in genuine business settings. In
Kardes et al. (2007), students were unaware of their
participation, decreasing demand characteristics.
Field experiment – students in Kardes et al. (2007) were
unaware of their participation so could not consent or
withdraw. They were told the NFCC questionnaire was
about ‘lifestyles and opinions’.
Objectivity – DelVecchio et al. (2003) measured buyerresponsiveness, which is a more objective measure than
self-reports from salespeople, which can be biased and
subjective. In Kardes et al., NFCC was measured using sixpoint scales; quantitative data analysis is more objective
than qualitative.
Generalisations – in DelVecchio et al. the sample was 85
per cent men (androcentric); this is not representative of
how female buyers/sellers interact. All students in Kardes
et al. studied at a Dutch university.
Issues and debates
Applications to everyday life
Selling strategies can be tailored for different-sized organisations that respond
differently to various techniques, based on evidence. DTR can be used to help
organisations to increase sales, including not-for-profit organisations.
Cultural differences
Buyers in uncertainty avoidance cultures may respond more positively to productfocused selling techniques. Social proof is more effective than commitment/
consistency in uncertainty avoidance cultures.
Determinism versus free will
NFCC is partly determined by time pressure but low NFCC customers may exercise free
will when there is no time pressure. This makes purchasing difficult to predict.
SKILLS BUILDER
Jalita is the top seller on Me2U, a home shopping
channel. She sells everything from bedding to
blenders, often shifting thousands of units in minutes.
Plan a case study to investigate the sales techniques
Jalita uses and why she is so successful.
[10]
166
Remember, case studies involve triangulation,
so you will need to think of at least two ways in
which data could be collected about Jalita’s selling
techniques. Also, think carefully about how you will
ensure these data-collecting methods are valid and
reliable (revisit page 80, if you need to).
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7 Consumer Psychology
NOW TEST YOURSELF
7.41 Holly is a social media influencer who loves
stationery and cosmetics. Using one or more
of Cialdini’s six ways to close a sale, explain
why products that Holly features often sell out
within hours of her live streams.
[2]
7.42 Explain two differences between customerfocused and competitor-focused sales
techniques.
[4]
7.43 Jake is training a new sales team who will be
selling a new range of robot vacuum cleaners.
Outline two features of the product-focused
sales technique that Jake could mention in his
presentation.
[2]
7.44 Explain two advantages of field experiments
for investigating interpersonal influence
techniques.
[4]
7.4.3 Buying the product
The Engel-Kollat-Blackwell model
This five-stage model takes an information processing approach to understanding
buying behaviour.
▼ Table 7.41 The five stages of the Engel-Kollat-Blackwell model
Stage
Description
Input
Attention may or may not be paid to incoming information
(stimuli) about brand, price and/or company identity.
Information
processing
If attention is paid, further processing begins; determined by
cognitive style and life experiences.
Decision-making
To make a purchase, consumers must identify/recognise a need for
a product; a product search begins, alternatives are compared and
evaluated.
Decision process
variables
Internal (dispositional) factors affect decision-making – for
example, beliefs, values, attitudes, personality and lifestyle.
External factors
External factors affect decision-making, such as family and cultural
norms.
STUDY TIP
There are some small
but important parts
of the syllabus in this
section that could be
easily missed, such as
factors that increase
or reduce dissonance.
Keep a copy of the
relevant syllabus
section at the front of
each set of revision
notes. This will help
you familiarise yourself
with the exact wording/
phrasing of the content.
Purchase(s) may or may not be made following each of the five stages.
Finally, consumers feel satisfaction/pleasure or dissatisfaction/cognitive dissonance.
Deciding where to buy
▼ Table 7.42 Factors affecting store choice
Type of factor
Examples
Situational
factors
Aspects of the store
Accessibility, convenience, price, quality
Purpose of shopping trip
Weekly food shop, buying gifts, browsing
Individual
differences
Beliefs, values and attitudes Sustainability versus price
Personality
Need for personal gratification (see Sinha
et al., 2002 below)
Age
Older consumers are more likely to shop for
recreation/pleasure than younger shoppers
Relevant research: Sinha et al. (2002)
Aim: to investigate reasons for store preferences.
Methodology: shoppers are asked to complete Likert-scale items and one open question
(give three reasons for store choice) as they leave shops, in Ahmedabad, India.
Results: over 70 per cent stated convenience and product range but these reasons
differed by age, gender and store type.
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▼ Table 7.43 Reasons for store preference by age, gender and store type
Convenience
Product range
Age
Least common in under 20s and over 50s Common in 25–40-year-olds
Gender
More common in males than females
(40 per cent versus 30 per cent)
More common in females than males
(40 per cent versus 30 per cent)
Store type
Consumables (e.g. groceries)
Non-consumables (e.g. clothing)
Other common reasons included:
» service: common in 30–40-year-olds
» ambience: important to those aged 25–40, and males more than females
» previous patronage: more common in females than males.
Females spent more time considering alternatives than males.
Conclusions: store choice is determined by multiple factors, including age and
gender of shoppers.
SKILLS BUILDER
Yaakov and his daughter Verusha are shopping in a
wealthy area. They do not always want to go into the
same types of store. Outline one or more reasons
to explain why Yaakov and Verusha prefer different
types of store. Refer to psychological research in your
answer.
[2]
Review the study by Sinha et al. (2002). What would
they have to say about Verusha (the daughter) and
Yaakov (the father) regarding the shops they might
like to visit? Use Table 7.43 to guide you. There are
just three minutes for this question – focus on just
one reason (e.g. gender) to avoid running out of time.
Post-purchase cognitive dissonance
▼ Table 7.44 Factors that increase dissonance
Factor
Description
Commitment
Stronger values/beliefs lead to greater post-purchase dissonance
when behaviour is inconsistent.
Involvement
Greater time/effort (high involvement) invested at product
search stage leads to greater dissonance. However, dissonance
may also result from impulse purchases (low involvement).
Culture and religion
Purchasing products that are prohibited by some cultures yet
highly desirable in others may increase dissonance.
▼ Table 7.45 Ways of reducing post-purchase dissonance
Strategies for
decreasing dissonance
Description
Adaptive preference
formation
Exaggerating positive features of purchased items;
reconstructing memory of alternatives to make them seem
less desirable.
Social proof
Reading reviews from other satisfied customers.
Feedback
Leaving positive reviews for online purchases.
Relevant research: Nordvall (2014)
Aim: to investigate dissonance and adaptive preference formation following
purchase of low-involvement products.
Methodology:
» Students rated how often they purchased 25 unbranded organic and non-organic
products.
» Items with similar ratings were paired (each item was equally desirable).
168
SKILLS
BUILDER
Explain one way
that post-purchase
dissonance can be
reduced.
[2]
Three ways to reduce
dissonance are listed
in Table 7.45. As this
question asks you
to ‘explain’ rather
than ‘outline’, choose
the way that you
feel most confident
about, in terms of
how and why it helps
to reduce dissonance.
For example, leaving
feedback means the
buyer will have to
articulate why they
particularly liked
the product they
have bought. You
could link this to
adaptive preference
formation as an
explanation of how
dissonance can be
resolved.
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7 Consumer Psychology
» Dissonance was created by asking participants to reject one item in each pair.
» All 50 products were presented again with reminders about whether the products
were accepted/rejected.
» Participants re-evaluated each product and were asked to justify their decisions
by choosing reasons from a list.
Results:
▼ Table 7.46 Ratings for items and reasons for rejection
Ratings
Reasons
Organic item rejected
Increased for both products
Price and appearance
Organic items accepted
Decreased for non-organic option
Animal welfare and environmental concern
Conclusions:
» Cognitive dissonance also occurs with low-involvement purchases.
» Adaptive preference formation as a way of resolving dissonance was supported.
▼ Table 7.47 Methodological issues
Strengths
Validity – online grocery shopping is common in Northern
Europe, increasing validity of Nordvall (2014). In Sinha et
al. (2002), shoppers were stopped as they exited stores;
reasons are likely to be well remembered (more accurate).
Objectivity – Sinha et al. used Likert scales; these do not
require interpretation when analysed.
Weaknesses
Validity – shoppers did not rate or give reasons for
online purchases; potential for demand characteristics
and social desirability bias decrease validity.
Subjectivity – although there is no interpretation required
at the point of analysis, Likert statements (Sinha et al.)
may be interpreted differently by individuals when they
complete them, so could also be considered subjective.
Issues and debates
Application to everyday life
Understanding reasons for rejecting organic products is important for increasing
environmentally friendly behaviour.
Cultural differences
Nordvall et al. (2014) was conducted in Sweden, an individualist culture (consistency
between values and behaviour is important). Post-purchase dissonance may be less
common in collectivist cultures.
Idiographic versus nomothetic
Sinha et al. (2002) was mainly nomothetic. Consumers answered one open question
compared with 43 closed questions. An idiographic approach might provide greater
insight. Nordvall et al. (2014) was also more nomothetic (measured attitudes using
Likert scales and asked people to select reasons from a predetermined list). Reasons
for rejecting organic products may have been missed.
Reductionism versus holism
The Engel-Kollat-Blackwell model is holistic. It considers interactions, external
stimuli, internal processes (e.g. memory, emotion) and social context. Buyers and
their decisions are seen as unique.
SKILLS BUILDER
a Describe what psychologists have discovered about
buying the product.
[6]
b Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about
buying the product, including a discussion about
reductionism versus holism.
[10]
Create a table with five columns, one for each of
the five research studies you need to know for this
section (‘7.4 The product’). Add eight rows, one per
issue/debate. Share this online document with your
study group so you can all benefit from each other’s
ideas. The first set of ideas could go in one colour,
then you could add to/improve each other’s ideas in
another colour.
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NOW TEST YOURSELF
7.45 Explain one factor that increases postpurchase dissonance.
[2]
7.46Udela has post-purchase dissonance. She is a
supporter of animal rights but has discovered
that her new nail polish contains a substance
made from beetles. Suggest one way that Udela
might reduce post-purchase dissonance.
[2]
7.47 Explain one strength and one weakness
of the Engel-Kollat-Blackwell model of
buyer decision-making. You must refer to
applications to everyday life in your answer. [4]
7.48 Qing is interested in how people think and feel
before and after making expensive purchases
(e.g. household appliances) compared with
everyday items (e.g. food and drink).
a Plan a longitudinal study to help Qing
investigate how post-purchase dissonance
changes over time and ways to reduce it.
Your plan must include details about:
– type of data
– frequency of testing.
[10]
b For one piece of psychological knowledge
on which your plan is based:
i Describe this psychological knowledge.
[4]
ii Explain how you used two features of
this psychological knowledge to plan
your study.
[4]
7.5 Advertising
7.5.1 Types of advertising and advertising techniques
Advertising campaigns increase awareness of brands and products. They target key
audiences whose attitudes and behaviour they hope to change.
The Yale Model of Communication
» Explains why some attempts to change attitudes are more effective than others.
» Applies to many areas of psychology, such as health and consumer psychology.
» Can be summarised as ‘who said what to whom?’.
» Two more factors were added later: ‘how?’ and ‘to what effect?’ (McGuire, 1968).
▼ Table 7.48 The Yale Model of Communication
The source
» Credibility, expertise, authority, charisma, attractiveness and popularity
» Audiences need to identify with the source
The message
» ‘Hard sell’ – product information, pros and cons of rival brands; repeated and explicit
showcasing of the product
» ‘Soft sell’ – subtle, subjective, uses imagery and positive associations with product;
information provided about the target consumer’s identity/lifestyle
» First and last messages are often the most effective
The audience
» Age, gender, cultural identity
» Level of education
» Self-esteem
The medium/channel
For example, television, radio, print, social media, product placement in films, billboards, etc.
To what effect
Receptivity/yielding are more likely if audience members:
» pay attention
» understand/accept the messages
» are motivated.
Research evidence
» Celebrity endorsement improved perception of adverts in India (source
credibility).
» Over-exposure of celebrities who do not ‘match’ the brand leads to negative
attitudes/reduced message clarity.
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7 Consumer Psychology
SKILLS BUILDER
Plan a laboratory experiment to investigate one aspect
of the Yale Model of Communication in relation to
advertising, (e.g. source, message).
[10]
Remember, laboratory experiments take place
in controlled settings, which decrease ecological
validity. To counteract this, can you think of ways of
ensuring the task that participants have to complete
has high mundane realism? This is important as you
should always think about how the plan makes the
study valid.
Advertising media
▼ Table 7.49 Types of advertising media
Type of advertising
Strengths
Weaknesses
Print, such as newspapers
and magazines adverts
» Companies reach receptive consumers
» Pages can be cluttered with rival
through special interest magazines,
increasing product credibility.
» Less annoying than other types of
advert (Elliott and Speck, 1998).
brands, decreasing clarity.
Television
» Reaches huge audiences.
» Stimulating and emotionally arousing
» Television advertising is expensive.
» On-demand streaming is replacing
storylines build brand identity.
traditional television viewing.
» Website ‘cookies’ facilitate targeted
Internet
advertising.
» Psychographic profiles are developed
based on consumers’ online activity.
» Adverts are shown selectively to
consumers who match the product’s
target demographic.
Smartphones and social
media
» Purchasing decisions are affected by
social media for 75 per cent of ‘Gen Z’,
48 per cent of ‘millennials’ and 68 per
cent of ‘boomers’.
» Trust, loyalty and brand identity are
built through repeated exposure.
» High-quality ‘user-generated content’
(UGC) can turn interest into purchasing
intent.
» Internet users ignore online adverts –
for example, banner blindness.
» People sometimes do not recognise
adverts following online exposure.
» Lack of transparency regarding
relationship between influencers and
brands leads to negative attitudes and
decreases impact.
Neuromarketing
Neuromarketing is the use of physiological measures (e.g. EEG and eye-tracking)
to measure responses to advertising, packaging and/or point of purchase displays,
leading to evidence-based marketing.
Relevant research: Ciceri et al. (2020)
Aim: to investigate differences in brain activity, visual attention and recognition of
print or digital adverts.
Methodology:
» Participants viewed a mock newspaper – in print online or on a desktop computer
or tablet.
» The location/duration of fixations were measured with eye-tracking.
» Frustration was measured using EEG.
» One hour later, participants were asked to select 25 adverts that were in the
newspaper from a set of 50.
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Results:
» The desktop group had the lowest average fixation and recognition.
» The tablet group had the highest average fixation and recognition.
» Frustration was the same for both digital groups.
Conclusions:
» Less attention is paid to website adverts than print (e.g. banner blindness).
» Website adverts are less recognisable, suggesting less impact.
Lauterborn’s 4Cs marketing mix model
Lauterborn (1990) modified the outdated 4Ps model (McCarthy, 1960) (see Table 7.50).
▼ Table 7.50 Lauterborn’s 4Cs marketing mix model
4Ps model;
seller-centric
Product
Price
Place
Promotion
4Cs marketing mix model; Explanation
consumer-centric
Customer wants and needs Customers are persuaded that they
need/want the product
Cost
Delivery/travel expenses, guilt due to
ethical concerns/cognitive dissonance
Convenience
Online shopping creates greater
competition between sellers
Communication
Selling should involve cooperative
communication, including feedback
SKILLS BUILDER
Indie sells organic sausages at farmers’ markets. He regularly sells out within the
first two hours. Explain how Indie’s understanding of Lauterborn’s 4Cs marketing
mix model may have helped him develop such a successful brand.
[2]
Start by searching for the part of the syllabus that is referenced – the 4Cs.
Next, read again and work out what the question is really asking. Indie sells
a lot of sausages, suggesting that he is a good salesman. How do the 4Cs link
to Indie? Choose the one you think is the ‘best fit’ and that you can explain,
not just describe. How and why have customer needs, convenience, cost or
communication helped Indie to develop his brand?
SKILLS
BUILDER
Compare the use
of eye-tracking
and EEG as ways
of investigating
advertising
techniques.
[4]
‘Compare’ requires
you to think of
similarities and
differences; try
to think of one of
each. Each point
should refer to
both eye-tracking
and EEG and use
words like ‘whereas’
(differences)
and ‘likewise’
(similarities) to
connect the two
parts of your point.
Try starting your
points with terms
like ‘Alternatively’
and ‘In contrast’
(differences) or ‘Both’
(similarities). For
example, ‘Both EEG
and eye-tracking
are objective ways of
collecting data, for
example … ‘.
▼ Table 7.51 Methodological issues
Strengths
Replicability – there was a standardised procedure
in Ciceri et al. (2020) (e.g. screen luminance, angle,
size and order of adverts).
Objectivity – Ciceri et al. used EEG and eye-tracking
data; measurements were not open to human error,
bias, demand characteristics/social desirability bias
as they measured unconscious processing.
Weaknesses
Validity – the Yale Model of Communication has low
temporal validity; ecommerce, product placement, buyerto-buyer communication and influencers are not considered.
It is also over-simplified and does not consider yielding in
under-motivated audiences. Internal validity in Ciceri et al.
is reduced due to confounding variables (e.g. differing screen
sizes for tablet versus desktop).
Generalisations – Ciceri et al. sampled only 24 participants
per group; this may not be representative of all news readers.
Issues and debates
Applications to everyday life
Lauterborn’s 4Cs marketing mix model sees buyers as diverse/active participants,
whereas the 4Ps saw them as passive/homogenous. This encourages sellers to
explore customers’ needs/wants. The findings from Ciceri et al. (2020) could inform
budgeting decisions regarding investment in print versus digital marketing.
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7 Consumer Psychology
Cultural differences
Ciceri et al.’s (2020) participants were Italian, so the study needs to be replicated in
other cultures.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
7.49 Harry is working with a sportswear brand to
create a series of advertisements that will
appear in an e-magazine and in print. Using
research evidence, suggest two limitations of
online advertising that Harry may discuss with
the sportswear brand before the campaign
goes live.
[2]
7.50 Explain one strength and one weakness of
Lauterborn’s (1990) 4Cs marketing mix
model.
[4]
7.51 Explain two ways in which the Yale Model of
Communication can be applied to advertising
on the internet and smartphones.
[4]
7.52 Explain two strengths of EEG as a way of
investigating advertising techniques.
[4]
7.5.2 Advertising–consumer interaction
Key study: Snyder and DeBono (1985)
Context: hard and soft sell marketing (Fox, 1984). For more information, see page 170.
▼ Table 7.52 Hard and soft sell marketing
Soft sell (image-oriented)
Hard sell (quality-oriented)
Self-monitoring
More effective with high self-monitors.
More effective with low self-monitors.
Explanation
High self-monitors: concerned with the
image they project to others; soft sell
focuses on this.
Low self-monitors: behaviour is consistent with
their values, regardless of others; hard sell helps
them to determine if a product meets their needs.
Aim and hypotheses:
» Aim: to investigate the relationship between self-monitoring and imageoriented/soft sell versus quality-oriented/hard sell advertising.
» Hypotheses:
1 High self-monitors are more likely to try new shampoo when image-oriented
(soft) selling is used compared with quality-oriented (hard) selling.
2 Low self-monitors are more likely to try new shampoo when quality-oriented
(hard) selling is used compared with image-oriented (soft) selling.
Research method(s) and design:
» Research method(s): experiment.
» Design: double-blind, independent measures, random allocation.
» Data collection technique: self-reports/psychometric scale.
Variables:
Independent variables:
» Type of advertising: image-oriented (appearance) or quality-oriented (cleanliness).
» Self-monitoring (high versus low) using median-split on the Self-Monitoring
Scale (Snyder, 1974).
Dependent variable: ‘willingness to use’ (new shampoo) index:
STUDY TIP
If you like talking
things through, why not
create a collaborative
spreadsheet with
classmates or online
contacts. If you each
fill in your areas of
expertise, you can
use the information to
match with the best
study partners for
each topic. Add rows
to your spreadsheet
for describing and
evaluating. You could
be an expert on the
details of a key study
like Snyder and
DeBono (1985) but still
struggle to make strong
evaluation points.
» five-point scale – ‘definitely not’ to ‘definitely, yes’
» percentage from 0 to 100 – 0 ‘not at all’ to 100 ‘definitely willing’.
Sample:
» Size: 40 undergraduate psychology students.
» Demographics: University of Minnesota, USA.
» Sampling technique: opportunity sample – received course credit for
participation.
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Procedure:
» Participants were telephoned and given image-oriented or quality-oriented
information about new shampoo.
» They were asked about willingness to try the new shampoo (see above).
Controlled variables:
» The telephone call was scripted/standardised; controlled for tone of voice,
gender of caller.
» Random allocation reduced participant variables, such as interest in hair care
products.
Ethics: deception – participants were told the telephone call was market
research, which was not true; there was no informed consent or right to withdraw;
participants may be mistrustful of future legitimate calls.
Results:
» Image-oriented messages = higher willingness to use for high compared with low
self-monitors.
» Quality-oriented messages = higher willingness to use for low compared with
high self-monitors.
Conclusion: responsiveness to hard and soft sell is dependent on the consumer’s
level of self-monitoring.
STUDY TIP
Think carefully about
the named research
method in ‘Plan a study’
questions like 7.56 at
the end of this section.
You need to consider
the type of data that will
be produced and how
it can be analysed. For
example, qualitative
interview data can be
turned into quantitative
data by counting the
frequency of certain
themes. Then data
from high and low
self-monitors could be
compared. You might
show different types of
adverts and ask your
participants about them,
but what will you ask,
how and why?
SKILLS BUILDER
a Describe the study by Snyder and DeBono (1985) on
consumer personality and advertising.
[6]
b Evaluate the study by Snyder and DeBono (1985),
including a discussion about self-reports.
[10]
Complex procedures can be difficult to summarise
in nine minutes and this requires lots of practice.
The word GRAVE (generalisations, reliability,
applications, validity and ethics) can be helpful for
remembering different ways of evaluating studies.
You do not need to cover all of these concepts
though; fewer, fully elaborated ideas are a better
way to increase your grade.
Effect of product placement in films on choice
▼ Table 7.53 Possible explanations for the effects of product placement
Explanation
Description
Evaluation
Mere
exposure
» Repeated exposure increases positive
Product placement (without reminders or later product
recognition) increased positive attitudes (Ruggieri and
Boca, 2013); this supports implicit memory.
Cultural differences: purchase intention increased more
for US than French or Austrian participants following
mere exposure to product in a film (Gould et al., 2000).
attitudes.
» Product exposure in films/television
increases familiarity and positivity.
Reminders
» Familiarity (through repeated viewing)
Auty and Lewis (2004); see below.
increases product familiarity/liking.
» Familiar stimuli are easier to process
(processing fluency); this increases
positive emotion.
Relevant research: Auty and Lewis (2004)
Aim: to investigate the effect of product placement on children.
Methodology:
» Six to twelve-year-olds watched a clip of Home Alone (a popular children’s film)
featuring either:
– pizza and Pepsi, or
– macaroni and milk.
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7 Consumer Psychology
» They were interviewed about the clip and asked to name the cola brand if they
did not mention it spontaneously.
» They were then offered Pepsi or Coca-Cola.
Results:
▼ Table 7.54 Percentage selecting Pepsi following the interview
Chose Pepsi
‘Pepsi’ group
62%
‘Milk’ group
38%
▼ Table 7.55 Percentage naming Pepsi when prompted
Age
Percentage who named Pepsi
when prompted
Number of prompts required
6–7
50%
4.4
11–12
67%
2.1
Younger children:
» needed more prompts to recall brand names
» were as likely as older children to select Pepsi over Coca-Cola.
Children who had seen the film before were more likely to:
» recall the cola brand without prompting
» choose Pepsi over Coca-Cola.
Conclusions:
» Viewing products on film increases the probability that the product is chosen in
future (implicit memory).
» Product placement is more effective following repeated exposures (reminders
effect).
▼ Table 7.56 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Validity – Snyder and DeBono (1985) used a double-blind
design (researchers did not know whether the students
were high or low self-monitors). Auty and Lewis (2004)
randomly allocated children to the milk or Pepsi groups
to control for participant variables.
Validity – in Auty and Lewis, prior drink preference
(Coca-Cola or Pepsi) was a possible confounding variable.
Also, the children may have thought they were meant
to choose Pepsi as they were asked about it in the
interview.
Quantitative data – both studies used quantitative data, Self-reports – in Snyder and DeBono, people may have
such as counting drink choices and measuring willingness given socially desirable answers to telephone researchers;
to try a new shampoo, so data was more objective.
this may not match actual purchasing and trial of new
products.
Issues and debates
Determinism versus free will
Responses to advertisements may be difficult to determine. Self-monitoring changes
between situations. Matching advertising style to personality may increase product
engagement but predicting purchasing behaviour is difficult.
Application to everyday life
Soft/hard sell does not work for everyone. Different campaigns could be targeted at
different subgroups within the target audience. Benefits to society include banning
product placement in children’s films and high-sugar products in UK films.
Use of children in research
Children did not know their drink selections were being observed. This could be seen
as unethical, even with parental consent.
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SKILLS BUILDER
With reference to product placement, explain one
weakness of mere exposure as an explanation for
choices.
[2]
When revising explanations, theories or models,
make sure you can give at least two strengths
and weaknesses. These should refer to issues
and debates, research evidence, applications
to everyday life and how the named explanation
(e.g. mere exposure) compares with alternative
explanations (e.g. reminders). In this question, think
about the findings of Auty and Lewis (2004). What do
they tell us about mere exposure explanation?
NOW TEST YOURSELF
7.53 In Snyder and DeBono’s (1985) study,
participants were split into two groups:
high and low self-monitors. Describe one
difference between high self-monitors and
low self-monitors.
[2]
7.54 Sales of Rotter’s chewing gum have tripled
since the launch of the new season of
Sylvester, a popular British detective show.
Fans have noticed that the main character,
Sylvester, chews this brand of gum in multiple
episodes. Describe one explanation for the
increase in sales of Rotter’s gum.
[4]
7.55The Self-Monitoring Scale is a psychometric
test designed by Snyder (1974) and used in his
experiment on quality versus image-oriented
advertising (Snyder and DeBono, 1985). Explain
one way that reliability of psychometric tests
such as the Self-Monitoring Scale can be
tested.
[2]
7.56Research suggests that different types of
advertising suit different types of people – for
example, high versus low self-monitors.
a Plan a study using questionnaires to
investigate attitudes towards television
advertisements. Your plan must include:
– question format (open and closed
questions) with examples
– ethical issues.
[10]
b iState one or more ways that you
will increase the validity of your
questionnaire data.
[2]
ii Explain one strength of your choice
of question format.
[2]
iii Explain one way in which the findings
of your study could be applied to
everyday life.
[2]
7.5.3 Brand awareness and recognition
Brand recognition in children
Piaget (1970) said under-sevens can’t grasp abstract concepts, including brand logos:
» Counter-evidence: even three-year-olds recognise familiar logos.
» Critical research topic: fast-food brand recognition predicts childhood obesity.
Relevant research: Fischer et al. (1991)
Aim: to investigate logo recognition in children aged three to six years old.
Methodology:
» Three- to six-year-olds matched 22 logos to pictures on a board, including logos
for products targeted at children (e.g. Cheerios, Disney) and adults (e.g. IBM
computers, Camel cigarettes).
» Parents reported on smoking, television habits and children’s requests for
branded products.
Results:
» Six-year-olds easily recognised logos targeted at children and adults.
» Three-year-olds were better at recognising logos targeted at children.
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7 Consumer Psychology
▼ Table 7.57 Percentage of children recognising logos targeted at children and adults
Brand target audience
Logo recognised
Percentage of sample
Children
TV channel (Disney)
91%
Cereal (Cheerios)
25.3%
Car (Chevrolet)
54.1%
Computer (IBM)
16.2%
Adult
▼ Table 7.58 Percentage of children recognising the Camel cigarettes logo
Age of children
Percentage who recognised Joe the Camel regardless
of family smoking habits
Three-year-olds
30%
Six-year-olds
91.3%
Conclusions:
» Children recognise brand logos targeted at adults and children.
» Exposure to cigarette advertising may lead to serious future health risks.
Brand awareness and image
» Brand awareness involves product familiarity and understanding what
differentiates the product from competitors.
» Consumers are more likely to purchase familiar brands due to the availability
heuristic (see page 153).
» Branding should convey information about potential gains associated with the
product.
Effective slogans
Slogans should help to:
» maintain and enhance brand awareness
» create, support or modify brand image
» prime consumers to buy the product by increasing familiarity and liking.
Unlike brand names/logos, slogans are updated often to attract new target
consumers and increase market value. Changes suggest new marketing strategies and
improved knowledge of target consumers.
SKILLS
BUILDER
a Describe what
psychologists have
discovered about
brand awareness
and recognition. [6]
b Evaluate what
psychologists have
discovered about
brand awareness
and recognition,
including a
discussion about
applications to
everyday life. [10]
Using appropriate
psychological
terminology in your
writing is a key skill.
You don’t need to
define every term;
just try to use the
right terms in the
right places. Test
your understanding
of key vocabulary
regularly using
flashcards to help
with this. Using key
terms in conversation
will also help you to
transfer them to your
written work.
Types of slogans
Effective slogans are stored in long-term memory; they are easily retrievable/
accessible.
▼ Table 7.59 Types of slogans
Type of slogan
Description
Example
Polysemous
Multiple meanings; appealing
to multiple target consumers
Nike (sportswear): ‘Just do it’
Business
Provide information about the
company’s values
Zara (clothing): ‘Love your curves’
Descriptive
Create visual imagery
Cadbury’s Dairy Milk (chocolate bar):
‘A glass and a half in every bar’
Persuasive
Attempt to change consumer
behaviour
Nestlé (chocolate bar): ‘Have a
break, have a KitKat’
Creative
Word play/humour increase
memorability
Tide (laundry detergent): ‘Tide’s
in. Dirt’s out’
Emotive
Trigger an emotional reaction
Tesco (supermarket): ‘Every little
helps’
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SKILLS BUILDER
Sure Smile toothpaste is one of the best-selling toothpaste brands on the market,
but the new company director has decided she wants to update their logo and
change the slogan. Outline one advantage and one disadvantage of these changes. [2]
Under ‘Effective slogans’ above is an explanation of how changing slogans
can increase market value (an advantage) and a brief reason for this. You may
need to think a bit more about the disadvantages of changing the slogan or
logo. How could you link this to brand recognition/awareness, similarity to
competitors or processing fluency?
Relevant research: Kohli et al. (2007)
Aim: to develop guidelines for creating effective advertising slogans.
Procedure: literature review. Researchers summarised and evaluated research on
slogan design following a search for articles in academic and business journals.
Results: guidelines were proposed based on findings of the literature review (see
Table 7.60).
▼ Table 7.60 Guidelines for creating effective slogans
Keep your eye on the
horizon
Avoid language that could become dated (keep it
‘timeless’).
Every slogan is a brand
positioning tool
Emphasise the brand’s unique selling point (USP) – its
benefits compared to rival brands.
Link the slogan to the brand Include slogans on packaging and in advertising.
Please repeat that
Repeat the slogan in different advertising campaigns
to increase memorability.
Jingle, jangle
Use music to increase memorability (take care, music
can distract from the message).
Use slogans at the outset
Use as soon as a product comes to market; makes
brand identity easier to establish.
It’s OK to be creative
Complex/ambiguous slogans that require deeper
processing increases memorability.
Conclusions: these guidelines should help businesses to develop effective slogans that:
» are memorable
» match existing brand perception
» highlight differences between the brand and its competitors.
STUDY TIP
Using Table 7.60 for
inspiration, create a
set of correlational
hypotheses to help
you to remember the
features of effective
slogans. Remember,
with correlational
hypotheses, you are
not stating that there
will be a difference
between two groups
or conditions; you are
saying that there will be
a relationship/association
between two measured
variables. For example,
‘There will be a positive
correlation between
the number of times a
slogan is used in a radio
advert and free recall of
the slogan three weeks
later.’
▼ Table 7.61 Methodological issues
178
Strengths
Weaknesses
Validity – Kohli et al. (2007) used real
slogans from real businesses (e.g. BMW,
Nike), not purely academic studies.
In Fischer et al. (1991), the brand
recognition test was age-appropriate, so
unlikely to be affected by language skills,
speaking or reading.
Temporal validity – some of the slogans
in Kohli et al. were from the 1960s;
guidance may lack relevance to modern
advertising.
Experiments – standardised procedure
in Fischer et al. allowed researchers to
measure logo recognition reliably using a
picture-matching task.
Objectivity – Fischer et al.’s research was
funded by Doctors Ought to Care and the
American Cancer Society; this could lead
to experimenter bias.
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7 Consumer Psychology
Issues and debates
Use of children in research
Fischer et al. (1991) used young children, who are very receptive to social cues from
adults. This may decrease validity.
Determinism versus free will
Research into logos and slogans may have helped change smoking and other
unhealthy behaviours. However, individuals retain the ability to choose whether to
smoke or quit, or to engage in other unhealthy consumer behaviours (e.g. gambling).
Application to everyday life
Guidelines have been designed to be used by businesses to increase sales through
creating brand identity and improving brand awareness.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
7.57 Chico is three years old. His older brother comes home holding a bag
with a logo on it. Chico gets very excited and asks his brother if he can
look inside. Using research evidence, explain one reason for Chico’s
excitement when he sees the logo.
[2]
7.58 aOutline what is meant by free will.
[2]
b Explain one weakness of brand recognition research from the
free will side of the debate.
[2]
7.59 Brittany is deciding which soft drinks to serve at an event she is
planning. She remembers the slogan for Zest, a very popular new
brand. She orders several cases. Suggest three reasons why Brittany
may have remembered Zest’s slogan.
[3]
7.60 Suggest two ways of increasing the validity of research into brand
recognition in children.
[4]
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Consumer Psychology revision checklist
Check the syllabus to ensure you have covered all required content for each
subtopic. There are typically two to three bullet points per subtopic. You should
ensure that your evaluation points for each subtopic match with the relevant issues
and debates and methodology listed in the syllabus.
Topic
Subtopic
The physical
environment
Retail store design
Revision notes
complete
Now test yourself
Past papers
questions complete questions complete
Sound and consumer
behaviour
Retail atmospherics
The psychological
environment
Environmental influences
on consumers
Menu design psychology
Consumer behaviour and
personal space
Consumer decisionmaking
Consumer decision-making
Choice heuristics
Mistakes in decisionmaking
The product
Packaging and positioning
of a product
Selling the product
Buying the product
Advertising
Types of advertising and
advertising techniques
Advertising–consumer
interaction
Brand awareness and
recognition
North et al.
(2003)
Robson et al.
(2011)
Hall et al.
(2010)
Becker et al.
(2011)
Snyder and
DeBono (1985)
Context (including
relationship to other
studies)
Main theories/explanations
Aim(s) and hypotheses
Methodology
Results/findings
Conclusions
Discussion points
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A LEVEL
8
Health Psychology
8.1 The patient–practitioner relationship
8.1.1 Practitioner and patient interpersonal skills
Non-verbal communication
In medical consultations, verbal and non-verbal interpersonal skills are displayed
by the patient and practitioner. Argyle (1975) suggested that non-verbal
communication is four times more powerful than verbal, but that it should match
verbal communication. For example, trust is lost if a practitioner tells a patient
there is nothing to worry about, but has an anxious facial expression.
Types of non-verbal communication
» Facial expression: patients may look at their practitioner’s face for clues about
their diagnosis. Practitioners may use facial expressions to interpret how a
patient is feeling about a diagnosis (Silverman and Kinnersley, 2010).
» Paralanguage: non-verbal parts of speech, including ‘ums and ers’, volume,
speed and pitch. Voice tone can indicate to patients that the practitioner is
uninterested in them (Marcinowicz et al., 2010).
» Personal space: practitioners often invade their patients’ personal space to
examine them, making patients feel uncomfortable. Patients reporting greater
invasion of their personal space were those who had more privacy at home and
were lonelier (Marin et al., 2018).
» Gestures: these can accompany verbal/non-verbal communication to help the
patient’s understanding. However, they must be used cautiously. What might be
acceptable in one culture may be considered rude in another.
» Appearance: the practitioner’s physical appearance (clothes and hair) can affect a
patient’s confidence in them.
STUDY TIP
When revising lists
of factors, like the
types of non-verbal
communication, try
making a ‘sentence
story’ to help your
memory: paralanguage,
appearance, gestures,
facial expression and
personal space can
become, ‘Without
speaking (non-verbal),
a parachutist with a
nervous appearance
gestured to the pilot
and jumped into space
with a surprised facial
expression.’ Try writing
the sentence on one side
of a card and the list on
the other and see if your
friends can guess the
factors.
Relevant research: McKinstry and Wang (1991)
Aim: to investigate whether doctors’ clothing influenced patients’ respect for them
and how acceptable patients found different clothing styles.
Methodology:
» Involved 475 patients of 30 doctors from five Scottish practices.
» Questionnaire was administered on five separate occasions:
– five photos of male doctor – white coat, suit, tweed jacket, cardigan or jeans
– three photos of female doctor – white coat, skirt or trousers.
» Participants were asked:
– which doctor they would feel happiest about seeing for the first time
– their level of confidence in the doctor
– which photo looked most like their own doctor
– about clothes worn in the photos.
Results:
▼ Table 8.1 Percentage of top acceptability score (5) for the doctors in the different styles
of clothes
Percentage of patients
Male doctor
Female doctor
Acceptability
score
White
coat
Suit
Tweed
jacket
Cardigan
Jeans
White
coat
Skirt
Trousers
5
38%
50%
30%
16%
13%
55%
47%
22%
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» There was a significant relationship between patient age and doctor choice.
» Older patients gave higher scores to the male doctor in a suit and white coat and
the female doctor in a white coat.
» Some voted in a way that matched the clothing choice of their own doctor.
» Clothing style was very important/quite important for 64 per cent of
participants, and not important to 36 per cent.
Conclusion: patients prefer conservatively dressed doctors. The researchers
concluded that doctors may dress in a certain way to gain patients’ approval.
Verbal communication
Verbal communication focuses on how the practitioner questions the patient about
their condition and conveys information about diagnosis and treatment.
Factors affecting verbal communication
» Primacy effect: information from the beginning of the consultation is stored in
long-term memory and remembered better than later information (Ley, 1988).
» Forgetting: patients often remember little of their doctor’s consultations.
Richard et al. (2016) reported patients remembering as little as 20 per cent
of information and immediately forgetting between 40 and 80 per cent.
Recently, attention has turned to how practitioners communicate using medical
terminology.
Relevant research: McKinlay (1975)
Aim: to investigate Scottish working class families’ understanding of medical
terminology.
Methodology:
» Participants were 87 unskilled working-class women attending obstetrics and
gynaecology appointments.
» They were split into utilisers and underutilisers.
» Participants were presented with a 13-word list used by practitioners when
speaking to patients:
– Words were spoken aloud.
– They were heard again in a sentence.
– Participants were asked to say their meaning.
– Responses were recorded verbatim and scored (‘blind’) in categories, as shown
below.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Mark is a newly
qualified doctor in
a small clinic in a
village with a large
population of elderly
people. Suggest one
way that Mark could
dress, and one action
that he could take, to
instil confidence in his
patients.
[4]
Try to include
research evidence
in your answer. For
example, McKinstry
and Wang (1991)
looked at how
clothing style can
inspire confidence
in patients. Argyle
(1975) and Silverman
and Kinnersley
(2010) investigated
non-verbal
communication.
Make sure you cover
both clothing style
and action.
Results:
▼ Table 8.2 Percentage of the sample who showed wrong or vague knowledge compared
with adequate understanding on 5 of the 13 words
Utilisers
Underutilisers
Wrong
or vague
knowledge
Adequate
understanding
Wrong
or vague
knowledge
Adequate
understanding
Antibiotic
44.4
41.7
60.0
28.9
Breech
0.0
100
6.7
84.4
Mucus
22.2
47.2
33.3
33.3
Glucose
36.1
44.4
44.4
37.8
Enamel
30.6
61.1
40.0
51.1
» Utilisers had consistently higher understanding than underutilisers.
» Researchers also investigated the relationship between how well physicians
thought patients understood medical terminology and how often they used it.
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8 Health Psychology
▼ Table 8.3 Percentage of patients that doctors expected to have ‘adequate knowledge of
words’ compared to the percentage of patients who actually had adequate knowledge
and the percentage of doctors using the word
% of patients
that doctors
‘thought’
would have
an adequate
understanding
of the words
% of
underutilisers
who had
adequate
knowledge
% of utilisers
who had
adequate
knowledge
% of the
doctors
actually using
the words with
patients
Antibiotic
5.6
28.9
41.7
44.4
Breech
22.2
84.4
100.0
38.9
Membranes
0.0
44.4
63.9
44.4
Protein
16.7
0.0
11.1
55.6
Conclusions:
» Physicians consistently underestimated the comprehension of working-class
participants.
» Many used words with patients that they assumed they had little
understanding of.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Using research into
practitioner–patient
communication,
explain one weakness
of quantitative data.
Use an example
from research into
practitioner–patient
communication.
[2]
This question tests
methodological
knowledge and
can be answered
using research into
verbal or non-verbal
communication.
▼ Table 8.4 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Validity – McKinstry and Wang (1991) used photographs
of unknown doctors rather than asking participants to
talk about their own doctors.
McKinlay (1975) interviewed patients at the clinic about
words they would hear there. Understanding of these
words represents their real-life understanding.
Generalisability – McKinstry and Wang’s sample, from
Lothian in Scotland, may not be representative of other
areas. McKinlay’s participants were working-class women.
Including patients with a wider range of conditions
and from a wider range of backgrounds would increase
generalisability.
Usefulness – McKinlay’s results may be used in healthcare Quantitative data – McKinlay’s data showed
settings to address miscommunication and improve
underutilisers generally had poorer technical vocabulary;
understanding between practitioners and patients.
qualitative interview data is needed to discover why.
Questionnaires – McKinstry and Wang included
quantitative data reliably obtained from closed
questions.
Validity – McKinstry and Wang used more photos of males
than females, with no picture of a female doctor in a suit.
A white coat being voted highest for the female doctor
could just be because this was the most formal style.
Issues and debates
Application to everyday life
The research moves the responsibility for communication barriers from the patient
to the practitioner. Strategies can be used to change working practices in health
care and improve comprehension.
Idiographic versus nomothetic
The research uses a nomothetic approach, focusing on groups of people. This is
useful for generalisation of findings, but an idiographic approach using qualitative
methods would discover individual needs. For example, patients with minor problems
would require different styles of communication from those with mental health
problems or serious illness.
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NOW TEST YOURSELF
8.1 Janis is a new doctor in a large city practice.
Explain how she should dress in order to
promote confidence in her older patients. [2]
8.2 Explain why an understanding of interpersonal
skills is important for medical practitioners
when examining patients. Use at least one
example in your answer.
[4]
8.3Outline what is meant by utilisers and
underutilisers when referring to attendance
at health facilities.
[2]
8.4 Explain one strength and one weakness
of research into practitioner and patient
interpersonal skills.
[4]
8.1.2 Patient and practitioner diagnosis and style
Practitioner diagnosis
Disclosure of information
Misunderstandings when communicating symptoms can occur because of:
» patients’
– lack of vocabulary
– unwillingness to give information
– mistrust of the doctor
» the practitioner’s gender: Hall et al. (1994) found that patients gave more
information to female practitioners, who asked more questions and conducted
longer appointments.
Practitioners should correctly diagnose ill people as ill, and healthy people as
healthy:
» A false positive is when a healthy person is diagnosed as ill when they are not.
» A false negative is when an ill person is diagnosed as healthy. This is medical
negligence and the consequences can be serious.
Presenting a diagnosis
Non-verbal communication is more important than verbal communication when
presenting a diagnosis:
» Shapiro et al. (1992) found that female participants receiving mammogram
results from a ‘worried’ practitioner remembered fewer details than those
receiving results from a ‘not worried’ practitioner.
» During the COVID-19 pandemic, telephone diagnoses meant there was no nonverbal communication, increasing the risk of misunderstandings.
Key study: Savage and Armstrong (1990)
Context:
» Research has shown that a sharing style is preferred by patients and this ensures
they follow medical advice willingly.
» A traditional directed style is seen as paternalistic and limiting patient
autonomy.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Valerie is giving a
diagnosis of serious
illness to a patient.
Explain one way that
Valerie could ensure
that the patient
remembers as much
as possible of the
information she is
relating.
[4]
Combine your
knowledge of
practitioner verbal
and non-verbal
communication
with what you have
learned about
diagnosis and
style. How might
Valerie’s style and
communication
affect the way her
patient remembers
the consultation
and diagnosis?
The question only
requires you to write
about ‘one way’.
Choose your best
idea and explore it in
detail.
Aim: to investigate whether a sharing consultation style increases patient
satisfaction compared to a directed style.
Research method(s) and design: field experiment.
Variables:
» Independent variable: directed or sharing consultation style.
» Dependent variable: patient level of satisfaction.
» Controlled variables: random selection of patients; same doctor used throughout.
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8 Health Psychology
Sample: 200 randomly sampled patients (aged 16–75) from a London GP practice.
Procedure:
» Participants were randomly allocated to the ‘directed’ or ‘sharing’ practitioner
style by cards placed on the doctor’s desk, face down.
» The doctor also had prompts giving examples of directed and sharing styles of
consultation.
» At the end of the consultation, the participant completed a five-question
questionnaire (see Table 8.5).
» Participants received a second identical questionnaire to mail back one week
later.
» Researchers noted the length of consultation and demographics.
Ethics: participants gave consent for their appointments to be audio-recorded.
Results:
▼ Table 8.5 Results of questionnaires
Questionnaire 1 (%)
Questionnaire 2 (%)
Directed
Sharing
Directed
Sharing
I was able to discuss my problem well.
73
74
61
53
I received an excellent explanation.
45*
24*
33*
17*
I perceived the practitioner to have
complete understanding.
62*
37*
39*
18*
I felt greatly helped.
54
45
49*
28*
I felt much better
33
32
33
26
*significant difference
Conclusion:
» Patients with simple physical illnesses benefit more from a directed style of
consultation.
» Patients prefer certainty and paternalism – doctor to be the authority figure.
» Directed style did not provide greater satisfaction during longer advisory
consultations when patients had chronic or psychological illnesses.
▼ Table 8.6 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Ecological validity – Savage and Armstrong’s (1990)
study was a real-life setting, with a real doctor and their
patients.
Ecological validity – Shapiro et al.’s (1992) participants
watched video clips of practitioners giving a diagnosis
and evaluated them. Savage and Armstrong’s doctor
followed prompts, which may not match their normal
style, and thus may have affected patients’ experiences.
This lowers the validity of both studies.
Holistic approach – Shapiro et al.’s research focused on
the practitioner’s and patients’ verbal and non-verbal
communication. This holistic approach increases validity.
Cultural differences – Elwyn et al. (2002) reported how
in the USA patients are told the diagnosis, no matter
how serious it is; but in Japan patients are often not told
about a serious or terminal diagnosis (Noguchi, 2007).
Cultural factors are important when presenting diagnoses.
Representativeness – participants selected by random
sampling are representative of patients registered to
the doctor. Opportunity sampling might have meant only
those known well were selected.
Generalisability – in Savage and Armstrong, 11 per cent
of patients did not complete the first questionnaire and
44 per cent did not complete the second. This lowers
generalisability.
Issues and debates
Application to everyday life
There are significant applications to everyday life. By understanding which style of
consultation works best, practitioners can adapt to suit individual patients. This
may help with information disclosure, meaning more accurate diagnoses.
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Individual and situational explanations
Savage and Armstrong’s (1990) research offers situational explanations for patient
satisfaction increasing with either a sharing or a directed style. This ignores
individual differences that could impact a patient’s preference.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
8.5 Savage and Armstrong’s research offers situational explanations for
patient satisfaction increasing with either a sharing or a directed style,
ignoring individual differences that might affect a patient’s satisfaction.
Describe two individual differences that could influence a patient’s
preference.
[4]
8.6 Suggest one way in which non-verbal communication might affect how a
patient receives a diagnosis.
[2]
8.7Using the key study by Savage and Armstrong (1990) on the
directed or sharing style of practitioners, explain one strength
of the method used.
[2]
8.8 Mo is very tired and fears making an error with a patient diagnosis
because of his inability to concentrate.
[2]
a Describe two possible errors Mo could make.
b Explain which one he should be most worried about, and why.
[2]
SKILLS
BUILDER
Describe the study by
Savage and Armstrong
(1990) on directed
and sharing styles of
practitioners.
[6]
In your response,
try to explain the
procedure and
results clearly
and show how the
conclusion links back
to the aim.
8.1.3 Misusing health services
Delay in seeking treatment
▼ Table 8.7 Reasons for delay in seeking treatment
Research
Reason
Safer et al. (1979)
» People have different thinking and decision-making processes when first experiencing a
symptom from when first suspecting illness.
» They lack trust in doctors.
» They perceive stigma around seeking treatment for mental health concerns.
Fernando et al.
(2017)
» People in Sri Lanka are influenced by their own and family’s perception of stigma.
» 15 per cent of patients and carers reported delays in seeking help due to stigma-related
concerns.
Bruffaerts et al.
(2007)
» The median duration of delay was one year for mood disorders, but 16 years for anxiety in a
Belgian sample.
» The onset of mental disorders might be during childhood/adolescence and so viewed by
people as normal.
Health belief model
According to the health belief model (HBM), people who feel threatened by
their symptoms tend to see a practitioner more quickly, whereas those who view
symptoms as no threat, delay or avoid seeking medical help.
▼ Table 8.8 HBM explanation for delays in seeking medical help
186
Perceived…
Explanation
Threat
Extent to which someone views a health problem as being serious
affects cues to action
Susceptibility
Extent to which someone thinks they are at risk of a certain illness
Seriousness
How serious the patient thinks their health problem is
Benefits
What the patient views as the advantages of treatment
Barriers
Anything the patient thinks will make it difficult to follow a
treatment programme
STUDY TIP
Using your knowledge
of the practitioner–
patient relationship and
of misusing the health
service, make yourself
a mind map of all the
reasons why a person
might delay seeking
treatment. Then expand
the map to include a
study for as many as
possible. Work with
a friend to make this
easier.
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8 Health Psychology
Relevant research: Safer et al. (1979)
Context: most research into delays in seeking medical care focuses on the time
between noticing the symptom and the first appointment. Safer et al. investigated
whether delay can be broken into different stages and factors, involving different
decisions/processes.
Aim: to investigate factors that influence delays in seeking medical treatment.
Methodology:
» A 45-minute structured interview with an opportunity sample of 93 patients in a
waiting room of an inner-city hospital.
» If the patient was seeing a practitioner about a new symptom or illness, they
were asked to take part in the study.
» They were asked questions about symptoms and reactions, such as ‘Do you expect
the treatment will be uncomfortable?’
» Patients were given:
– a scale to measure emotional reactions to symptoms.
– a seven-item scale measuring the extent to which they imagined negative
consequences of symptoms and treatment.
– a ten-item scale measuring level of pain.
» Patients were asked length of delay at illness stages (see Table 8.9).
▼ Table 8.9 Safer et al.’s four stages of delay
Delay stage
Description
Appraisal
Delay from first noticing symptoms to concluding they were ill
Total
Delay from first noticing symptoms to first appointment
Illness
Delay from deciding they were ill to deciding to get medical help
Utilisation
Delay from deciding to seek help to attending appointment
Results:
▼ Table 8.10 Length of delay at each stage
Delay stage
Length of delay in days
Appraisal
» Pain: severe = 2.5; none = 7.5
» Reading about symptoms = 19.6; not reading = 3.5
» Bleeding = 1.2; no bleeding = 4.8
Total
» Competing problem/issue = 23.8; no competing problem = 7.2
» Severe pain = 8.6; little/no pain = 23.8
» Reading about symptoms = 50.2; not reading = 11.5
Illness
» New symptoms = 2.5; old/frequently experienced = 11.3
» Negative visual imagery of outcome = 4.4; no negative imagery = 1.9
Utilisation
» Concerned with cost = 9.7; not concerned = 2.0
» Severe pain = 1.6; little/no pain = 3.8
» Felt symptoms incurable = 4.3; felt curable = 1.8
Conclusions:
» Bleeding or severe pain reduces the delay in seeking medical help.
» Negative imagery, concerns over costs, researching symptoms and believing
symptoms are incurable all increase delay.
Munchausen syndrome
Munchausen syndrome (factitious disorder) is when people seek out excessive
medical attention, often going from city to city to get a new diagnosis and new
surgical intervention. It is not malingering, which is when a person feigns or
exaggerates symptoms for an obvious gain or incentive. There is no thought of gain
with Munchausen syndrome. It is thought to be very rare, but prevalence is hard to
establish due to the deception involved.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Explain one feature
of a structured
interview as a way of
investigating factors
influencing delays in
medical treatment. [2]
First, bulletpoint some ideas
about structured
interviews. Refresh
your memory by
revisiting section
5.1.5 if you need
to. Which of these
features would make
structured interviews
especially useful for
investigating factors
influencing delays in
medical treatment?
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Aleem and Ajarim (1995) developed a list of diagnostic features of Munchausen
syndrome (see Table 8.11).
▼ Table 8.11 Diagnostic features of Munchausen syndrome (Aleem and Ajarim, 1995)
Essential features
Supporting features
Pathological lying (pseudologia
fantastica)
Borderline and/or antisocial personality
traits
Peregrination (travelling or wandering)
Deprivation in childhood
Recurrent feigned or simulated illness
Equanimity for diagnostic procedures
Equanimity for treatments or operations
Evidence of self-induced physical signs
Knowledge of or experience in a medical field
Most likely to be male
Multiple hospitalisations
Multiple scars (usually abdominal)
Police record
Unusual or dramatic presentation
Relevant research: Aleem and Ajarim (1995)
Aim: to present a case study of Munchausen syndrome.
Methodology:
» A 22-year-old female university student was referred to hospital with a possible
case of immune deficiency or neutrophil disorder.
» She was initially investigated at the age of 17 for menstrual cycle issues.
» She developed symptoms of deep vein thrombosis; medication to treat this was
ineffective.
» She was admitted to hospital aged 22 with a painful swelling on her breast.
» She told doctors of similar swellings previously over her abdominal wall which
had required drainage at other hospitals multiple times – there were scars.
» Later she had abscesses drained and doctors discovered suspicious bacteria in
fluid.
Findings:
» The psychiatrist diagnosed Munchausen syndrome.
» A nurse found a syringe containing faecal matter with which the patient had
been injecting herself.
» The patient became angry when informed and left hospital.
Conclusion: Munchausen syndrome diagnosed, but nothing further could be
concluded.
▼ Table 8.12 Methodological issues
188
Strengths
Weaknesses
Case study – Aleem and Ajarim (1995) used an
appropriate method for a condition that is difficult to
research ethically; experimental method cannot be used.
Validity – Safer et al. (1979) used retrospective data.
Memories could be inconsistent, especially under stress.
Usefulness – from Safer et al., medical practices can
develop strategies to reduce patient delays. Aleem and
Ajarim provides information, allowing more reliable
diagnosis of Munchausen syndrome.
Reliability – qualitative data is subject to interpretation
by the researchers. For example, Aleem and Ajarim
possibly interpreted information about the first
hospitalisation differently due to already knowing about
the discovered syringe.
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8 Health Psychology
Issues and debates
Reductionism versus holism
The health belief model explanation is holistic, considering multiple reasons. This
makes it hard to isolate which variables have the strongest effect in delaying
seeking treatment. It is also difficult to create effective interventions. A more
reductionist approach may be necessary, but it is often impossible to manipulate
variables for practical and ethical reasons.
Idiographic versus nomothetic
An idiographic approach with rich in-depth information is appropriate in Aleem and
Ajarim (1995) as Munchausen syndrome is relatively rare and generalising from small
samples in a nomothetic manner may not be valid. Practitioners can decide whether
findings may apply to their own clients.
SKILLS BUILDER
Julia wants to conduct a case study about a client
she is working with who has Munchausen syndrome.
Explain how Julia might collect and analyse her
data.
[4]
This will involve knowledge of method triangulation.
What advice would you give Julia to ensure that her
findings are valid and reliable? If you need to, revisit
the sections on case studies, validity and reliability
in Chapter 5.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
8.9
Donald decides he needs some time off work
and is going to ‘be ill’ for a few days. He will go
to his doctor complaining of severe backache.
Donald looks at the weather forecast for the
next week and picks his days.
Suggest what behaviour Donald is displaying.
Give one reason for your answer.
[2]
8.10 aOutline what is meant by idiographic versus
nomothetic.
[2]
b Explain one weakness of taking a
nomothetic approach when diagnosing/
researching Munchausen syndrome.
[2]
8.11Outline one problem with the holistic
approach taken by the health belief model
explanation for delay in seeking treatment. [4]
8.12 Explain one of the factors that influences
delay in seeking medical treatment. Refer to
relevant research in your answer.
[4]
8.2 Adherence to medical advice
8.2.1 Types of non-adherence and reasons why
patients do not adhere
Adherence to medical advice is when patients follow specific guidance from health
professionals.
Failure to follow treatments
» Unintentional non-adherence: the patient wants to follow a treatment but
there are uncontrollable barriers:
– not remembering
– not understanding the doctor
– unable to afford treatment
– unable to take time off work
– simply forgot.
» Intentional non-adherence: the patient decides not to follow treatment. This
may be due to their beliefs, levels of motivation or lack of faith in the treatment.
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Laba et al. (2012) identified six intentional factors:
1
2
3
4
5
6
Immediate medication harms
Long-term medication harms
Immediate medication benefits
Long-term medication benefits
Financial cost of medication
Regime
(See ‘Relevant research’ below.)
Failure to attend appointments
Individual failure to attend appointments is an expensive and persistent worldwide
problem. Previous failure to attend appointments predicts future failure to attend.
Other predictors are:
» age (either young or over 80 years old)
» work commitments
» difficulties getting to hospital
» feeling an appointment is unnecessary
» being too ill to attend
» fear/mistrust of hospitals
» fear of serious illness being discovered.
Parsons et al. (2021) reviewed 12 studies, reporting that work/family commitments,
forgetting an appointment and transportation difficulties were most commonly
reported reasons.
Most likely to miss appointments are:
» those under 21
» those from low social status/class
» individuals who have missed appointments previously
» those who already have a mental or physical diagnosis
» minority ethnic groups.
STUDY TIP
Draw a Venn diagram
for unintentional
and intentional nonadherence to medical
treatment. You should
have found that financial
issues were in the
overlapping section of
the diagram. This is one
of the factors identified
by Laba et al. (2012).
Look at the list of
reasons why people
do not attend medical
appointments and
see how many could
be down to financial
problems. This
shows you the web of
connections between
non-attendance at
appointments and nonadherence to advice
and medication. Draw
yourself a diagram of
the links. Learning
these and thinking
about how they apply
in real life helps with a
depth of understanding
that memorisation
cannot give.
Problems caused by non-adherence include:
» unresolved medical problems
» cost to health service
» delayed treatment, leading to:
– later need for more expensive, stronger medication
– later need for surgery.
Explanation of non-adherence
Rational non-adherence
Reasons (Sarafino, 2006):
» Believing medication is not helping.
» Feeling that the side effects outweigh the benefits.
» Being confused about how often/how to take medication.
» Not having enough money to buy medication.
» Wanting to see if they still have the illness if they stop taking medication.
Bulpitt and Fletcher (1988) researched non-adherence to medication with side
effects in patients with high blood pressure:
» Eight per cent stopped due to sexual problems.
» Fifteen per cent stopped due to tiredness, sexual problems and gout.
» Patients stopped when the side effects outweighed the benefits.
Health belief model
Taking preventative action when faced with potential illness or injury depends on:
» how much of a threat the health problem poses
» the pros and cons of taking action.
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8 Health Psychology
▼ Table 8.13 Health belief model explanations for action
Consideration
Preventative action more likely if:
Perceived seriousness
Problem considered serious
Perceived susceptibility
Patient feels susceptible to problem
Cues to action
Cues seen – appointment reminders,
advertisements, posters
Perceived benefits/barriers
More perceived benefits than barriers
Other factors include demographic variables, personality traits and social class.
Relevant research: Laba et al. (2012)
Aim: to explore decisions that may lead to intentional non-adherence behaviour and
the relative importance of medication-specific factors and patient background.
Methodology: experiment:
» 248 Australians; median age: 57 years; 45 per cent male, 55 per cent female.
» 161 participants completed an online survey.
» The Beliefs About Medication Questionnaire (BMQ) was used to create a tenquestion discrete-choice questionnaire on two hypothetical drugs.
▼ Table 8.14 Example of a discrete-choice question
Symptom severity
On medication, daily symptoms are now felt
The severity of daily medication side effects
For every 100 people taking this medication, the number of people who will
have unwanted effects in the next ten years is:
For every 100 people with this illness, 85 will die in the next ten years. On
medication, this number reduces to:
The medication is taken:
Can you drink alcohol?
Your monthly cost for the medication
Which would you prefer?
Medication A
1 out of 10
6 days per week
1 out of 10
35
Medication B
7 out of 10
2 days per week
4 out of 10
95
65
65
Once a day
Yes
$10
Once a day
Yes
$50
» Six out of eight factors influenced medication choice.
» Those with medical insurance were less sensitive to costs.
» Side effects had greater influence than benefits to health.
» The ability of medication to reduce death was most important, followed by
current side effect severity and future side effect risk.
Conclusions:
» Patients make rational choices.
» Adherence could be improved by:
– reducing costs of medication
– altering regime
– educating patients on medication benefits.
▼ Table 8.15 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Usefulness – results from Laba et al. (2012) show factors
that influence patients’ adherence to their treatment regime.
This could help practitioners design interventions to improve
adherence.
Representativeness – 1,668 people were
initially invited to participate. However, only 248
respondents commenced the questionnaire and 161
completed it = 10 per cent participation rate. Maybe
a certain type of person participated.
Reliability – objective quantitative data from discrete-choice Ecological validity – the questionnaire scenarios
questionnaire meant that the results had high reliability.
were all hypothetical and may not reflect real life.
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Issues and debates
Application to everyday life
Explanations of non-adherence are applicable to real life. If health service
professionals understand that cost and complexity affect non-adherence then
strategies to overcome this can be introduced, such as lowering the cost or making
instructions clearer.
Idiographic versus nomothetic
Laba et al.’s nomothetic approach allowed generalisable conclusions about rational
non-adherence. Quantitative data collected using fixed-choice questions and
statistically analysed led to objective and reliable findings. A lack of open questions
meant participants could not explain. Adding an idiographic approach may have
helped to gain greater insight.
SKILLS
BUILDER
NOW TEST YOURSELF
8.13 Explain one weakness of questionnaires as a way of identifying why
people fail to keep appointments.
[2]
8.14 Frida is puzzled why so many of her patients seem to not take the
medication she prescribes for them. It is frustrating as then they do not
get better and often return to see her with the same symptoms.
Suggest two reasons why people may fail to take their medication.
Use relevant research in your answer.
[4]
[2]
8.15Outline one strength of the health belief model.
8.16 aPlan a study to investigate non-adherence to medical treatment.
Your plan must include details about:
– sampling technique
[10]
– data collection methods.
[2]
b Explain one reason for your choice of sampling technique.
Explain two cues
to action that may
encourage patients
to seek treatment. [4]
Check the mark
allocation; each
‘cue to action’ needs
to have enough
elaboration for two
marks. Remember,
don’t just describe
them, but explain
how they work.
8.2.2 Measuring non-adherence
Subjective measures
▼ Table 8.16 Subjective measures of adherence
Method
Details
Strengths
Weaknesses
Self-report
Patients complete questionnaires regarding
adherence to treatment plan, such as the
ten-item Medication Adherence Report
Scale (MARS), with forced choice yes/no
format.
» Cheap and quick
» Quantitative data
» Large numbers easily
» Relies on memory
reached
» Increases
(low reliability)
» Social desirability
bias (low validity)
generalisability
Semi-structured
clinical
interview
192
Focused dialogue between patient and
practitioner to help with diagnosis and
treatment. Medical Adherence Measure
(MAM) designed to elicit details from
patients about adherence. Success of
interview based on supportive relationship
so patients feel comfortable enough to be
honest. (Zelikovsky and Schast, 2008.)
» Detailed qualitative
» Time-consuming and
data
expensive
» Increases validity and » High drop-out rate
usefulness
» Lower generalisability
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8 Health Psychology
Relevant research: Riekert and Drotar (1999)
Aim: to assess implications of non/incomplete participation of adolescents with
diabetes in treatment adherence research.
Methodology:
» Fifty-two of the original 94 families (parents plus adolescents aged 11–18)
completed the study.
» Adolescents had diabetes for over a year.
» Participants were recruited through a clinic.
» They were interviewed using the Adherence and IDDM Questionnaire-R,
regarding:
– diet
– glucose testing
– preparedness for hypoglycaemia.
» Number of blood glucose tests was monitored through a reflectance meter.
» Metabolic control was measured at clinic appointments.
» Parents completed a questionnaire on demographics and the family took two
questionnaires, to be mailed back.
» Researchers reviewed medical charts of all 94 adolescents initially requested to take
part, to obtain the number of blood glucose tests per day and metabolic control
levels. Demographic data of families refusing to take part was also obtained.
Results:
» Demographics were similar for all three groups: participants completing the
study, those not returning the questionnaires (non-returners) and those not
consenting to take part (non-consenters).
» Adolescents of non-returner families tested their blood glucose levels
significantly less frequently than those of families who returned the
questionnaire, or non-consenter families.
» Adolescents of non-returner families also had significantly lower rates of
adherence than those of families who returned their questionnaires.
Conclusion: lower adolescent adherence to treatment regime is associated with
lower participation in adherence studies by adolescents and their families.
Objective measures
▼ Table 8.17 Objective measures of adherence
Method
Details
Strengths
Weaknesses
Pill counting
Typically conducted in person
at clinic.
» Unannounced pill counts
Medication
dispensers
Dispensing correct pills at set
day/time; can use visual/audio
alarms; also record date and
time pill leaves device, and
frequency of use.
» Advantage to patient as
» Lacks validity: just because
they are more likely to take
medicine with reminders,
meaning relapse less likely.
» It is a reliable way to
measure adherence.
medicine was removed from
dispenser does not mean it
has been taken.
» Helps forgetfulness, but not
deliberate non-adherence.
» Burden to patients as they
by telephone or home
have to attend clinic with
visits overcome patient
medication.
manipulation.
» Patients may manipulate pill
» Increases validity: there was
count if they know date and
a 92 per cent agreement
time of check, decreasing
between telephone and home
validity.
pill counts and measures of
viral load in HIV+ patients
(Kalichman et al., 2008).
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Relevant research: Chung and Naya (2000)
Aim: to electronically assess compliance with an oral asthma medication.
Methodology:
» Forty-seven patients with asthma, aged 18–55.
» Two to three weeks of screening, then 12 weeks’ treatment; one pill twice a day.
» Tablets in bottles fitted with TrackCap recording date and time when opened.
» Patients gave informed consent but did not know about the device.
» Tablet count and TrackCap removal were both measured.
Results:
» There was 80 per cent compliance with TrackCap (taken off twice a day); 89
percent compliance with tablet count.
– Difference due to patients taking out more than one tablet at a time, maybe
to put in a dispenser.
» There was 64 per cent compliance on TrackCap and tablet count: two tablets
daily, 12 hours apart.
» Under-compliance by 20 per cent of participants: one tablet removed daily.
» No compliance for up to eight days by 10 per cent of participants.
Conclusion: monitoring systems like TrackCap measure adherence effectively.
Biological measures of adherence
» These provide assurance that medication has been taken, not just removed from
the bottle.
» They allow for a personally adjusted dose to be calculated.
▼ Table 8.18 Biological measures of adherence
Method
Details
Strengths
Weaknesses
Urine analysis
Donated in sterile jar
» Chemically stable for 14 days
Drug/drug and drug/food
interactions may interfere with
accuracy of results. Cannot be used
if patients are on more than one
medication.
under refrigeration
» Cheap and non-invasive
» Objective visual results
Blood
sampling
» Traditional
» Dried blood spot
(DBS) testing
» Reliable: Burnier (2020) found
that DBS testing can show
levels of hypertension drugs as
reliably as traditional plasma
testing.
» DBS is less stressful than
traditional blood sampling.
Traditional sampling is invasive
and some find it unpleasant/
stressful, so it is not suitable for
all patients.
▼ Table 8.19 Methodological issues
194
Strengths
Weaknesses
Application to everyday life – in Riekert and Drotar
(1999), the families not completing research tasks
may lack organisational skills. This allows reallife interventions for non-participants, increasing
adherence.
Chung and Naya (2000) measured adherence at home
when patients would normally take medication.
Ethical issues – Reikert and Drotar used data from
non-consenters. There are ethical issues about informed
consent and using information without permission.
Chung and Naya deceived participants as to how they
were monitored.
Quantitative data – electronic monitoring is objective,
giving quantitative analysis of adherence to medical
advice. No social desirability bias or misremembering
means increased validity.
Validity – Chung and Naya found adherence rates to be
high. However, participants knew adherence was being
measured. It would have been more valid if participants
were blind to the true aim.
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8 Health Psychology
Issues and debates
Quantitative and qualitative data
Qualitative and quantitative methods have strengths and weaknesses. Reikert
and Drotar (1999) used method triangulation to gain quantitative and
qualitative data, improving the validity of results. Chung and Naya (2000) used
objective quantitative measures, which told them about adherence, but not the
reasons for this.
Application to everyday life
Research into reasons for non-adherence can be applied to improve the medical
profession’s understanding of why people may not adhere to advice or regimes, and
what they can do about it.
SKILLS BUILDER
Chris is a caring pharmacist who worries that elderly
customers forget to take their medication at the
appropriate time. What one suggestion could he make
to help them to remember their medication?
[2]
This question requires knowledge of the different
methods of ensuring people take their medication
and choosing one. As the question talks about
elderly customers, the method should be one they
can use at home.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
8.17 Explain two differences between subjective
and objective measures of non-adherence to
medical treatment.
[4]
8.18 Simi is planning a study on non-adherence to
medical treatment and cannot decide which
type of data to collect. Compare qualitative
and quantitative data as ways of investigating
[4]
non-adherence.
8.19 aOutline what is meant by biological
measures of adherence to medical
treatment.
[2]
b Choose one biological measure and
explain one strength of it as a measure of
[2]
adherence to treatment.
8.20 Suggest one application to everyday life of
research into reasons for non-adherence. [2]
8.2.3 Improving adherence
Improving adherence in children
Strategies include:
» simple regime
» pleasant-tasting medicine
» easy-to-take liquids rather than tablets
» text message reminders for older children
» regular phone contact with parents
» involving children fully with treatment plans, considering their concerns
(Benn, 2014).
Asthma can cause breathing difficulties in all ages. Spacer devices are plastic
containers with a mouthpiece or mask at one end and a space to insert an
asthma inhaler at the other end. Fitting over the mouth, they can be scary for
children.
The Funhaler is based upon operant conditioning principles, where children
are rewarded if they use the device correctly, making them more likely to repeat
it. The rewards are spinners and a whistle activating if the device is used
correctly.
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Relevant research: Chaney et al. (2004)
Aim: to compare the Funhaler device to currently used spacer devices.
Methodology:
» Participants were 32 children aged 1.5–6 years old diagnosed with asthma,
currently using a standard spacer device.
» They were randomly recruited through seven local clinics.
» Parents were initially telephoned before any home visits were conducted.
» Informed consent was given and parents were interviewed by questionnaire
about their child’s current asthma device.
» The questionnaire included questions about problems associated with the
delivery of the medication and parental and child adherence to using the device.
» The Funhaler device was used instead of the current device for two weeks (with
adult supervision).
» Parents were contacted once by phone randomly to see if they had medicated
their child the previous day.
» The families were visited at home at the end of the two-week trial.
» A second questionnaire regarding use of the Funhaler was completed by the same
parent.
Results:
▼ Table 8.20 Adherence to prescribed technique
Current device
Funhaler
Medicated the previous day 59%
81%
Using the recommended 4+
breath cycles per aerosol
delivery
80%
50%
▼ Table 8.21 Child’s attitude and parental approach to using the device
Existing spacer device
Funhaler
Child’s attitude towards using the device
Pleasure
10%
68%
Strong fear or dislike
19%
0%
Panic or phobia
31%
0%
Parental approach to medicating their child
Completely happy
10%
61%
Dislike
16%
0%
Conclusions:
» The Funhaler could be useful in managing asthma in young children.
» It could improve clinical outcomes in children.
» Behaviourist theories (like operant conditioning) are effective in increasing
children’s adherence to medication.
▼ Table 8.22 Individual behavioural techniques
196
Technique
Description
Strengths
Weaknesses
Contract
Verbal/written behavioural
contract between patient and
practitioner regarding regime
In Neale (1991), participants
» Not effective in the long
who signed a contract agreeing
term (Bosch-Capblanch et
to increase exercise and adopt
al., 2007).
a cholesterol-reducing diet
» Bosch-Capblanch et al.
made significantly more positive
(2007) found research into
health changes than those
contract effectiveness
without a contract.
was small-scale and poorly
executed, lowering the
validity of results.
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8 Health Psychology
Technique
Description
Strengths
Weaknesses
Prompts
Texts (usually), phone or letter
reminders of medication/
appointments
Schwebel and Larimer (2018)
reviewed 162 studies and
concluded that prompts were
beneficial, convenient, costeffective and acceptable to
patients.
» Not everybody uses text
Tailoring treatment to best
fit with the patient’s ability
and lifestyle. Heath et al.
(2015) looked at intervention
mapping: how and why the
patient needs to change, and
targeting the desired behaviour
using behavioural techniques.
(e.g. operant conditioning).
Supported by research evidence: » Costly due to the time
Lakhanpaul et al. (2020) used
invested in collaborating
intervention mapping to improve
with community groups.
South-East Asian families’
» Counterproductive if not
understanding of asthma.
conducted with sensitivity
to cultural differences.
Customising
treatment
messages. Elderly patients
may not find them
beneficial.
Key study: Yokley and Glenwick (1984)
Context:
» The researchers wanted to investigate behavioural psychology applied to
increasing immunisation adherence.
» At the time of the research, preventable diseases such as polio, whooping
cough, tetanus and rubella killed over five million children worldwide.
» Yokley and Glenwick (1984) reported 10,000 cases of preventable diseases in
the USA.
Aim: to evaluate the impact of four conditions on motivating parents to have
children immunised.
Research method(s) and design: field experiment; longitudinal design.
Variables:
» Independent variables:
1 General prompt to parents regarding immunising their children.
2 Specific prompt with dates, times and locations.
3 Specific prompt with extended clinic hours, drinks, movies and snacks.
4 Specific prompt with monetary incentive (three prizes of $100, $50 and $25).
» Dependent variables:
1 Number of children receiving one or more immunisations at the clinic.
2 Number of children attending clinic (for any reason).
3 Total number of immunisations received by children.
» Controlled variables:
1 Contact control group: received telephone call asking whether child was
immunised and general demographic information, but no specific prompt to
have child immunised.
2 No contact control group: received no contact during the study.
3 Parents with two or more immune-deficient pre-schoolers were assigned to
conditions as families, to prevent siblings being in different conditions of the IV.
Sample:
» Participants were 715 pre-school immune-deficient children; 50 per cent female;
64 per cent white.
» The children needed one or more inoculation for diphtheria, tetanus, whooping
cough, polio, measles, mumps or rubella.
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Procedure:
» Participant record cards were created containing information directly relevant to
the research.
» Participants were randomly assigned to receive either:
1 General prompt: ‘Dear parent … ‘.
2 Specific prompt: ‘To the parents of … our records show … ‘.
3 Specific prompt plus extended clinic hours, with child-minding, movies and snacks.
4 Specific prompt plus monetary incentive of a lottery ticket with three prizes
worth a total of $175. To be eligible, parents had to bring their children to
the clinic for immunisation, tear off their ticket stub and put it in the clinic’s
lottery box.
» After two months, the lottery was drawn for the money-incentive group and
prizes were delivered directly to the winners’ homes.
» A further follow-up took place after three months.
Ethics:
» Parents did not consent to participate.
» They were unaware behaviour was being manipulated.
» There are questionable ethics around encouraging one group with money.
» Ethical strength: following data collection, both control groups received a
specific prompt letter ensuring parents of children in these groups were also
reminded that their children required immunisation.
Percentage increase children being immunised compared with the
combined results of the two control groups
Results:
40
After 2 weeks
After 2 months
After 3 months
30
20
10
0
General prompt
Specific prompt
Specific prompt
+ increased access
Specific prompt
+ monetary incentive
Types of prompt
▲ Figure 8.1 Percentage increase in children being immunised compared with the
combined control groups
Conclusions:
» Using behavioural incentives to motivate parents to immunise children is
effective.
» A single general prompt is not enough to motivate parents to immunise children.
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8 Health Psychology
▼ Table 8.23 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Experimental method – the random assignment of
participants meant that participant variables should not
have biased results, increasing validity.
Generalisability – in Chaney et al. (2004), 32 Australian
children is not representative of the wider population.
This only showed differences with children already used
to a conventional spacer.
Yokley and Glenwick’s (1984) findings may not generalise
to other parts of the USA or other countries. The final
sample was 36.9 per cent less than the original, so the
results may also not be representative of the target
population.
Reliability – Yokley and Glenwick used standardised
procedures, meaning research is replicable.
Validity – in Chaney et al., parents probably wanted to
show they were doing their best for their children, so
put in extra effort to ensure adherence; this lowers the
validity of results.
Issues and debates
Use of children in research
Although Yokley and Glenwick (1984) used children in their research, the focus was
on parental behaviour. It is still important to consider the effects on children’s
immunisation. Control groups received a follow-up reminder letter after the study
ended, ensuring no group was disadvantaged. Chaney et al.’s (2004) research took
place in children’s own homes, with full parental permission and minimal researcher
contact. All ethical considerations were met.
Applications to the real world
Yokley and Glenwick’s study has practical applications. Where immunisation levels
are low and preventable diseases are returning, incentivised programmes might
increase the number of immunisations.
SKILLS BUILDER
Suggest one ethical issue Yokley and Glenwick (1984)
would have considered when conducting their research
into immunisation adherence.
[2]
Your first sentence should identify a suitable
ethical issue. Bullet-point your ideas first; a
mnemonic like DRIP will remind you to think about
deception, right to withdraw, informed consent and
protection from harm (including confidentiality and
privacy). As the topic is sensitive, relevant issues
would be informed consent, confidentiality or right
to withdraw. Be sure just to choose one.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
8.21Outline one strength of longitudinal studies
when investigating improving adherence to
medical treatment.
[2]
8.22 Suggest two reasons why a psychologist
might choose a field experiment to investigate
improving children’s adherence to medical
treatment.
[4]
8.23Using the key study by Yokley and Glenwick
(1984), explain why families with two children
were randomly allocated to a condition as a
family, rather than each child being randomly
allocated.
[2]
8.24 aDescribe what psychologists have
discovered about improving adherence to
medical treatment.
[6]
b Evaluate what psychologists have
discovered about improving adherence to
medical treatment, including a discussion
about the use of children in research. [10]
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8.3 Pain
8.3.1 Types of pain
Functions of pain
Pain is subjective, with a sensory and affective component. Those believing pain is
a threat to health will rate the affective level as higher than someone who believes
the same pain is just because they over-exercised. Individual response to pain is
affected by social, genetic and cognitive factors.
Pain’s function is to prevent us from further injuring ourselves. Doctors use pain as
a clue when diagnosing.
Acute and chronic pain
Acute pain is sudden, sharp pain lasting less than six months (ICD-11).
Chronic pain:
» usually lasts longer than six months
» causes high levels of anxiety and exhaustion
» can affect sleep and impact the ability to lead a normal life.
STUDY TIP
A good working
knowledge of the
syllabus will mean you
should not be short
of ideas on some of
the less predictable
questions (e.g. Paper
4, Section B). Look at
your revision checklists
regularly and practise
sorting topics into their
respective categories
until you can remember
all the specific research
methods and studies
that you need to know
for each section.
Phantom limb pain
» Phantom limb pain is experienced by 80 per cent of people after limb loss.
» It is more common in women than men.
» It may be explained by mixed signals, brain adjustment or damaged nerve endings.
» It is a chronic condition, either recurrent or intractable, described as ‘shooting’,
‘burning’ or ‘cramping’ pain (Sarafino, 2006).
Mirror treatment
» Mirror treatment uses a mirror to create the illusion of the amputated limb
being there, by placing the opposing limb in front of the mirror, with the
amputated limb behind it.
» The patient massages and moves the opposing limb and feels the benefit in the
phantom limb.
» Ramachandran et al. (1995) describe how this breaks the negative feedback loop
telling the brain the limb is not moving and establishes new connections to ‘feel’
it again, easing the pain.
Relevant research: MacLachlan et al. (2004)
Aim: to report the effects of mirror treatment on a person with lower limb amputation.
Methodology:
» Case study of 32-year-old man with leg amputation.
» He had used painkillers and a Transcutaneous Nerve Electrical Stimulation
(TENS) machine for phantom limb pain, but it worsened.
» He then tried mirror treatment.
Results:
» Pain reduced to 0 on a 0–10 scale.
» He felt more control over the phantom limb than prior to mirror treatment.
Conclusion:
» Mirror treatment is effective for phantom limb pain.
» It avoids patients taking pain medication, giving them control over their pain.
200
▲ Figure 8.2 Mirror
treatment for phantom
limb pain
SKILLS
BUILDER
Suggest two reasons
why a psychologist
might choose a case
study to investigate
pain treatment.
[4]
Make a list of the
advantages of case
studies, thinking, for
example, about the
idiographic approach,
triangulation of
methods or type of
data. Then choose
two reasons that
are directly relevant
to studying pain
treatment.
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8 Health Psychology
Theories of pain
Specificity theory
This is a biological theory that suggests we have a sensory system specifically
dedicated to pain. The more the specific pain pathway (pain nerve fibres and
specific pain centre) is used, the more intense the pain is.
Gate control theory
Melzack and Wall (1965) proposed this theory of pain based on the action of T-cells
(transmission cells):
» Small, slow fibres carry pain stimulation to the spinal cord.
» They pass through a ‘gating mechanism’, activating T-cells to transmit the pain
signal to the brain.
» The extent to which the gate is open depends on the following:
– Activity level in slow pain fibres: the more activity there is, the wider the
gate opens.
– Activity level in other peripheral fibres: they carry information about
harmless stimuli or mild irritations and close the gate.
– Messages from the brain to the spinal cord: neurons in the brainstem and cortex
send impulses relating to emotions down the spinal cord to open or close the gate:
– Anxiety and boredom open the gate.
– Happiness and distraction close it.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Evaluate one theory
of pain, including a
discussion of nature
versus nurture. [10]
This question allows
you to evaluate just
one theory of pain
from this section,
focusing in detail
on the supporting
evidence and the
issues and debates.
Remember to discuss
nature versus
nurture.
▼ Table 8.24 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Application to everyday life – MacLachlan et al.’s (2004)
case study of mirror treatment shows how it could be
used by practitioners or even by people in their own
homes.
Validity – specificity theory is now outdated and
discredited. There is no physical evidence of a gating
mechanism in the spinal cord, suggesting other
mechanisms might be involved.
MacLachlan et al.’s study results could have been a
‘placebo effect’ – just receiving treatment can have
positive effects. Attention from clinicians as part of the
treatment may have contributed to the results.
Case study – MacLachlan et al.’s research gave detailed
insight into the patient’s background and effectiveness
of treatment compared to other treatments.
Generalisability – MacLachlan et al.’s findings cannot
be generalised to the wider population as individual
experience with mirror treatment differs. Pain is
subjective and varies with culture and gender.
Issues and debates
Nature versus nurture
The gate control theory of pain focuses on the nature side of the debate. However,
this ignores environmental (nurture) factors affecting pain perception, such as
hearing other patients in pain or harsh overhead lighting. It also ignores other
factors that can reduce pain, such as psychological treatments.
Reductionism versus holism
Gate control theory and MacLachlan et al.’s research take a holistic approach to pain,
accounting for both physical and psychological factors. However, neither accounts
for individual differences in pain experience.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
8.25 Explain one strength and one weakness of qualitative data, using
research from pain treatment as an example.
8.26Outline one feature of mirror treatment for phantom limb pain.
8.27 Explain one weakness of the gate control theory of pain.
8.28 Describe the placebo effect in relation to treatment for pain.
[4]
[2]
[2]
[4]
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8.3.2 Measuring pain
Subjective measures
Subjective measures, such as self-report, are important to understand the severity/
daily impact of patients’ pain.
Clinical interview
» Clinical interviews are used to assess patients with chronic pain.
» They allow observation and assessment of a patient’s emotional state and beliefs
about pain causes.
» They may use psychometric tests to help understand the type and intensity of the
patient’s pain, everyday functioning, emotional distress, beliefs and expectations.
Evaluation
» Strength: they are an effective way to assess pain. Although using standardised
questions, the physician can ask patients to elaborate to allow for a tailored
treatment plan. This increases adherence and likelihood of treatment success.
» Weakness: they may not be effective for all as they rely on good communication
and trust between patient and physician.
Psychometric measures and visual rating scales
McGill pain questionnaire
The McGill pain questionnaire (MPG) was constructed by Melzack and Torgerson
(1971), who asked doctors and university graduates to group 102 adjectives
describing different aspects of pain. They identified four categories, subdivided into
20 questions:
1 Sensory (questions 1–10): patients choose word describing their pain.
2 Affective (questions 11–15): looking at emotions the pain makes the patient feel,
with choices from numbered words such as tiring, sickening or fearful.
3 Evaluative (question 16): subjective intensity of pain, measured on a five-point
scale.
4 Miscellaneous (questions 17–20): various aspects of pain on three-to-five point
rating scales.
Three major results measurements:
» Pain rating index (PRI): high score = high pain levels. Total score given for all
questions, plus sensory, affective and evaluative score.
» Number of words chosen.
» Present pain intensity (PPI) at time of the questionnaire.
Evaluation
Strengths:
» Reliable: Ferraz (1990) found r = +0.96 correlation between 91 patients in a testretest analysis.
» Valid: Byrne et al.(1982) compared results of patients with back pain to previous
research and found similar results.
Weaknesses:
» Quantitative pain measures may limit the patient’s ability to communicate their
real experience of pain: descriptive words used in questionnaire do not fit their
experience; or may misunderstand the terms used.
Visual analogue scales
Visual analogue scales (VAS) avoid some problems with language by also using
pictures. The psychometric scale is designed to measure subjective pain along
a continuum. The patient identifies their current intensity of pain. It can be
completed on each clinic visit to monitor pain.
202
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8 Health Psychology
No pain
0
Mild, annoying
pain
1
Nagging, uncomfortable,
troublesome pain
2
3
4
Distressing, miserable
pain
5
Intense, dreadful,
horrible pain
6
7
8
Worst possible,
unbearable,
excruciating pain
9
10
▲ Figure 8.3 An example of a VAS for measuring pain
Evaluation
Strengths:
» It is quick and easy to use.
» It is designed to show pain on a continuum, so no ‘gaps’ in pain intensity.
» Patients should feel their pain is represented on the scale, so it is a valid
measure.
Weaknesses:
» Patients are unable to elaborate on pain experience and its impact.
» It is a basic measurement of pain.
Behavioural measures
UAB pain behaviour scale
» The UAB pain behaviour scale measures observable pain behaviour and verbal/
non-verbal signs of pain.
» Using a three-point scale, an observer judges how frequently each behaviour
occurs across a three-week period.
▼ Table 8.25 One measure on the UAB pain behaviour scale
Body language
(clutching, rubbing
of site of pain)
M
T
W
T
F
S
S
M
T
W
T
F
S
S
M
T
W
T
F
S
S
None
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Occasional
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
Frequent
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Evaluation
Strengths:
» It is quick to score and easy to use.
» It can be used with a large number of patients, including those who cannot
complete a self-report.
» A wider sample makes results more generalisable.
Weaknesses:
» It is dependent on the observer’s ability to accurately record pain behaviour.
» There is a low correlation between observer scores on the UAB and self-reports
on the MPQ.
Key study: Brudvik et al. (2016)
Context:
» Research shows that hospital doctors underestimate children’s pain,
administering pain relief medication less often, later and at lower doses than for
adults.
» Parents are better estimators than nurses, yet they still underestimate their
children’s self-reported pain (Rajasagaram et al., 2009).
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Aims: to explore
» the relationship between children’s self-reported pain and parents’ and doctors’
pain ratings
» how age, medical condition and severity of pain affect pain estimates
» whether pain assessment affects administration of pain relief.
Research method(s) and design: field study; correlational, using questionnaires.
Variables:
» Dependent variables:
– Numeric rating of child’s pain by doctors and parents.
– Three- to eight-year-olds’ responses on two visual analogue scales (e.g. see
Figure 8.4).
– Nine- to fifteen-year-olds’ responses using a visual analogue scale, with a
coloured green–red line.
Sample: opportunity sample of 243 paediatric patients aged 3–15 years old (mean
age: 10.6), their parents and 51 doctors.
Procedure:
» Participants completed scales and questionnaires as detailed in ‘Variables’ above.
» Parents answered demographic questions.
» Doctors gave details of experience, whether they were parents, pain relief given
and match between child’s rating and their own.
» Child’s diagnosis classified as infection, fracture, wound injury or soft tissue,
ligament or muscle injury.
» Each family’s total waiting time was recorded.
Ethics:
» Parents gave written consent for themselves and their children.
» The researchers ensured someone was always available to provide extra support
or guidance.
» The children’s medical condition could change rapidly, so it was important
parents knew someone was available if they wished to exercise their right to
withdraw.
Results:
» Only 42 per cent of children with severe pain (judged by doctors) were given pain
relief medication.
» Only 14.3 per cent of children self-rating pain as severe were given pain relief
medication.
Conclusion:
» Doctors significantly underestimate pain in 3–15-year-olds.
» Anxiety increases pain perception.
» Doctors should place higher value on parental reports of children’s pain.
▼ Table 8.26 Methodological issues
204
Strengths
Weaknesses
Reliability – the MPQ was standardised. Brudvik et al.
(2016) used a standardised procedure.
Generalisability – Brudvik et al. only looked at one
Norwegian emergency department. They were not
specialist children’s doctors, so they did not routinely
assess pain. Doctors in other countries may have
assessed children’s pain more accurately.
Validity – Byrne et al. (1982) tested MPQ comparing
results of patients with back pain to previous research
and found similar results.
Brudvik et al. was in a natural setting, where doctors
had usual routines, with limited time to conduct
consultations.
Validity – in Brudvik et al., parents and children knew
each other’s answers. The children’s answers may have
been influenced by their parents’ reactions.
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8 Health Psychology
Issues and debates
Idiographic versus nomothetic
Brudvik et al.’s (2016) research illustrates the nomothetic approach: measuring
pain numerically and using statistical analysis to determine the significance. Open
questions would have collected qualitative data; a more idiographic approach means
they could have learned more about how/why some children experience greater pain
than others.
Application to everyday life
The study can be used to support changes in Norwegian paediatric care. Training
should include listening to children/parents regarding pain levels and remembering
individuals with the same condition may experience pain differently. This is critical
due to links between pain, recovery time and long-term problems like
hypersensitivity.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
8.29 Explain one strength and one weakness of Brudvik et al.’s (2016)
research into children’s pain.
[4]
8.30Outline what is meant by the nomothetic approach, using an example
from research into measuring pain.
[2]
8.31 Explain why an understanding of cultural differences is important in
research into measuring pain.
[4]
8.32Tomas is conducting research into measuring pain. He plans to design
and then test a questionnaire on chronic pain level in people over 65,
by asking them to complete it and then comparing their answers with a
standardised self-report measure.
a Suggest one strength and one limitation of the questionnaire
method for measuring pain.
[2]
b Suggest an additional method he could use to gain more data.
[2]
SKILLS
BUILDER
From the key study by
Brudvik et al. (2016)
on children’s pain,
explain one strength
of the data gathered
using visual analogue
scales.
[2]
Think about the
strengths of visual
analogue scales
and choose the one
that applies most
to children needing
to rate their pain.
Explain the strength
in terms of how it is
particularly related
to children.
8.3.3 Managing and controlling pain
▼ Table 8.27 Biochemical pain treatments
Type
Example
Description
Strengths
Weaknesses
Analgesics
(painkillers)
Paracetamol
Very common type of painkiller
Safe: serious
side effects
rare (Prescott,
2000)
» No better than placebo for
Effective for
reducing fever,
inflammation
and headache
pain
» Side effect – stomach
Effective
in treating
acute pain
(Rosenblum et
al., 2008)
» High doses slow breathing
NSAIDs
(e.g. ibuprofen)
Opiates
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs to reduce pain,
inflammation and temperature
Strong painkillers like morphine
and codeine
chronic pain
» Only effective in small
numbers of people for
acute pain (Moore, 2016)
» Exceeding dose is
extremely dangerous
irritation
» Conflicting research on
safety: decreased risk of
Alzheimer’s disease but
increased risk of breast
cancer
and heart rate
» Addictive
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Type
Example
Description
Strengths
Weaknesses
Local
Novocaine
anaesthetics
Injected near to the body area
affected and stops nerves
sending pain signals to brain
Fast-acting.
Acts within
5–10 minutes
» Can wear off after 30
Indirect
medication
The painkilling mechanism of
antidepressants is not totally
understood; they may increase
the neurotransmitters in the
spinal cord to reduce pain signals
Useful for
chronic pain
like migraines,
back pain and
sciatica
Do not work immediately and
pain relief is not total
Antidepressants
minutes, so often has to
be combined with another
painkiller
▼ Table 8.28 Psychological treatments
Type
Example
Description
Cognitive
strategies
Attention
diversion
Using distraction to help reduce » Inexpensive, selfpain perception
administered, effective,
no side effects
» Significantly reduces
perceived pain and
increases quality of life
(Holden, 2013)
Non-pain
(guided)
imagery
Helps reduce moderate pain
by imagining a pleasant
scene unrelated to the pain
experience; therapists ‘guide’
the patient to imagine the
scene
» No side effects
» Patients have control
Cognitive
redefinition
Through having clear
information, patients are
helped to think fearlessly
and rationally about pain,
challenging irrational thoughts
» No side effects
» Ineffective when
» Positive self-statements
fears are rational
Alternative
treatments
Strengths
over pain management
» Can be used whenever/
wherever needed
are helpful
Weaknesses
» Requires full belief
in the power of
distraction
» Less useful for
long periods as
difficult to maintain
visualisation
» Not everyone can
visualise things
and based on past
experience
Acupuncture
Fine metal needles inserted
» Reduce medication dose » Some people fear
under skin and swivelled around
and side effects
needles
or mild electrical current passed » Research support with
» For severe pain,
through to relieve pain; might
cancer patients
this needs to be
be explained by gate control
(Hu et al., 2016)
used alongside
theory of pain
conventional drug
therapy
Stimulation/
TENS
Electrodes placed on skin near
site of pain; mild electrical
current passed through the
skin; may also be explained by
gate control theory
Effective during labour
(Kaplan et al., 1998)
Effects are short-lived
with chronic conditions
like phantom limb pain
(Sarafino, 2006)
▼ Table 8.29 Methodological issues
206
Strengths
Weaknesses
Usefulness – psychological treatments have no side
effects. Patients feel in control of their own pain
management. Biological treatments are usually effective
against severe pain.
Effectiveness – psychological treatments alone are
ineffective for severe pain. Biological treatments may
have harmful side effects or be addictive.
Adherence – people are more likely to adhere to
psychological treatments if pain is moderate and/or
short-lived, as side effects are one of the main reasons
for non-adherence.
Reductionist – biological treatments are reductionist,
focusing on the biological mechanisms of pain and
ignoring environmental factors.
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8 Health Psychology
Issues and debates
Idiographic versus nomothetic
Biological treatments take a nomothetic approach. Paracetamol is often prescribed
for pain despite research finding it ineffective for many, and individuals also
experience differences in side effects.
Similarly, cognitive redefinition is ineffective for some patients. Therefore, an
idiographic approach is more appropriate.
Cultural differences
Acupuncture demonstrates alternative pain relief techniques to traditional Western
drug therapy, supported by research evidence. Hu et al. (2016) found that cancer
patients receiving acupuncture alongside conventional drug therapy experienced
greater reduction in pain than those just having drug therapy.
SKILLS BUILDER
Martina suffers from chronic back pain and strong
medication has only been partially successful. She is
thinking of trying acupuncture. Explain one strength of
acupuncture that might attract Martina.
[2]
You will need knowledge of the strengths of
psychological pain treatments, and particularly of
one strength of acupuncture for someone who is on
painkillers already.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
8.33Outline what is meant by reductionist with
reference to biological treatments for pain. [2]
8.34 Explain two differences between biological
and psychological treatments for pain.
[4]
8.35 Antonio has been experiencing some side
effects from his pain medication, so he has
stopped taking it. But the pain is disturbing
him, though it is not severe. He is afraid of
needles. Suggest a treatment that Antonio
could try as an alternative to medication.
Explain your answer.
[4]
8.36 Sherif is interested in how people manage
and control chronic pain. Plan a study to help
Sherif investigate this. Your plan must include
details about:
– type of data
– ethical issues.
[10]
8.4 Stress
8.4.1 Sources of stress
Defining stress
Stress is how our body reacts when we feel under pressure.
Sarafino (2006) provides three definitions:
1 Effect of environment on individuals.
2 Bodily response to stressful events.
3 Interaction between person and environment; individuals choose their response
using a combination of behavioural, cognitive and emotional strategies.
Physiology of stress
General Adaptation Syndrome
Selye (1936) suggests three stages of his General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS):
1 Alarm:
– Prepares body for fight or flight.
– Cortisol, epinephrine and norepinephrine maintain the body’s increased
arousal levels.
STUDY TIP
Use the Social
Readjustment Rating Scale
(SRRS) found at https://
tinyurl.com/vp4btbp6 and
complete your own stress
rating. Remember not to
take this too seriously, as
warned on the site. Think
how many of the measures
were not relevant to you
(your divorce, death of a
spouse, for example). Now
look at the others. Would
you rank them in the same
way? This gives you some
good evaluation tips for the
nomothetic approach taken
by this and similar scales.
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Stressor
Amygdala
Hypothalamus
Pituitary
ACTH
Adrenal cortex
> cortisol
Adrenal medulla
> epinephrine (adrenaline)
and norepinephrine
(noradrenaline)
▲ Figure 8.4 Alarm stage
2 Resistance:
– If stress continues, the body tries to adapt.
– The body resists efforts to return blood pressure and heart rate to normal by
allowing high levels of these hormones.
– The individual may not be showing outward signs of stress but becomes
susceptible to illnesses.
3 Exhaustion:
– The body cannot maintain arousal indefinitely.
– This weakens the immune system.
– The individual is likely to experience illness and physiological damage.
Effects of stress on health
Acute (short-term) stress
This can be protective in terms of health. For example, if you have surgery or a
vaccination, the acute stress response alongside immune system activation enhances
the immune response.
Chronic stress
Chronic stress affects the following systems:
» Digestive system:
– Chronic stress changes hormone levels and increases stomach acid, which may
lead to stomach ulcers.
– The behavioural response to stress can cause ulcers: smoking, drinking, use of
NSAIDs (ibuprofen) and lack of sleep.
» Circulatory system:
– Increased heart rate leads to strain on the circulatory system.
– Chronic stress affects the immune system and raises coronary heart disease
(CHD) risk by raising blood pressure (hypertension).
– Another risk for CHD is high cholesterol levels, which can lead to blood clots
and arteries narrowing.
– CHD risk is raised by the behavioural response to stress: overeating, drinking
alcohol and smoking.
» Immune system and immunosuppression:
– Chronic stress leads to immune system suppression, due to cortisol produced.
– Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1984) measured natural killer (NK) cells in American
medical students’ blood a month before exams and during exams. NK cells are
essential to the immune system. They found lower levels in the second sample,
and even more so for those reporting loneliness and/or stressful life events.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Stress can be
explained in terms of
deterministic factors.
Explain two ways in
which the explanations
that you have learnt so
far in this section are
deterministic.
[4]
By listing all of
the ways in which
the physiology of
stress and effects of
stress on health are
deterministic, you
can then choose two
and explain how they
are deterministic.
This will prepare you
for the free will side
of the debate later
when you come to
consider how people
reduce their stress.
Causes of stress
Life events
Holmes and Rahe (1967) investigated the relationship between stressful life
events and illness. They developed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)
measuring life events experienced in the last 12 months from a list of 43 (see
page 212).
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8 Health Psychology
Holmes and Rahe concluded that the more life events (positive or negative) in the
previous year, the higher the likelihood of stress and ill health.
Work
Work can be stressful for three main reasons:
» Under-stimulation: Johansson et al. (1978) studied Swedish sawmill workers and
compared the finishers (preparing timber) to the sawmill cleaners. Finishers had
highly repetitive work and higher stress hormone levels than cleaners.
» High workload: in the same study, Johansson et al. found that finishers had
a high level of responsibility and demand, and higher illness/absence than
cleaners.
» Low control: Marmot et al. (1997) studied 10,000 UK civil servants. They found
no correlation between workload and stress, but lack of control was associated
with CHD in lower grade civil servants.
Relevant research: Chandola et al. (2008)
Aim: to determine biological/behavioural factors linking work stress and CHD.
Methodology:
» A 17-year longitudinal study of 10,308 London-based civil servants aged 35–66.
» Self-reported work-related stress and isolation were assessed by the Job Strain
Questionnaire.
» Incidents of CHD were noted.
» Cortisol levels were measured on waking and 30 minutes later.
» Alcohol consumption, smoking and exercise were all measured.
» The study ended with a clinical examination.
Results:
» Self-reported work stress was lowest in the highest grades of civil service.
» Among younger participants, there was a significant association between work
stress and incidents of CHD. Little association was found in older participants
(aged 50–60).
» Higher work stress was associated with poor health behaviour.
» Work stress also correlated with a morning rise in cortisol towards the end of the
study.
Conclusion:
» Chronic work stress is a risk factor for CHD.
» Approximately 32 per cent of the effect can be explained by poor health
behaviours.
Type A personality
» Friedman and Rosenman (1974) were physicians working with male CHD patients
in the USA in the 1950s.
» They compared male patients’ incidence of CHD to their partners/spouses, who
had a similar diet.
» Partners/spouses were less likely to have CHD.
» Certain behaviours associated with cholesterol levels and blood clotting time
were associated with greater risk of CHD.
» They called these behaviour patterns ‘Type A’ personality, characterised as
competitive, ambitious, work-driven, time-conscious and aggressive.
» The Type A personality was identified as a risk factor for white, middle-class men
(Friedman and Ulmer, 1985).
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▼ Table 8.30 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Reliability – Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1984) used two
objective quantitative methods, measuring NK cells and
life events questionnaire.
Friedman and Rosenman (1974) studied 3,154 healthy
men between the ages of 39 and 59 for eight and a half
years. A personality questionnaire separated them into
Type A and Type B (relaxed) personalities. Almost twice
as many Type A people than Type B developed CHD. This
provides research evidence for the theory.
Research by Johansson et al. (1978) and Marmot et al.
(1997) supports Chandola et al.’s (2008) findings.
Validity – cannot determine which Type A personality
aspects increase individual risk of CHD. Some research
suggests hostility levels are a leading factor, not
personality as a whole.
Usefulness – understanding the relationship between
Type A personality factors and stress can help people
reduce their risky attitudes and behaviour.
Correlational research – data was generated mainly
through self-report and was correlational. This cannot
account for other factors that may be responsible for
CHD.
Longitudinal research – Chandola et al. used data
triangulation over a long period, increasing the validity
of their findings.
Cultural/individual differences – Holmes and Rahe’s
(1967) SRRS ignores individual/cultural differences.
Issues and debates
Reductionism versus holism
Biological, SRRS and Type A/B personality explanations are reductionist. They try
to describe complex human behaviours simplistically. Many people are a mixture
of both personality types, depending on context and current stressors. A holistic
approach may be beneficial as situational factors also impact people’s reaction to
stress.
Cultural differences
The research into work causing chronic stress was conducted in Western individualist
cultures. Busy, repetitive jobs with low responsibility and low control may be viewed
differently in other cultures.
SKILLS BUILDER
Johannes is always on the go. He works hard and
worries a lot, but finds consolation in eating, so he is
putting on weight. He says he doesn’t have time to eat a
healthy diet or to exercise.
a Suggest Johannes’ likely personality type.
[2]
b Describe one health problem that Johannes may
develop if he does not change his lifestyle.
[2]
Refer to psychological research in your answers.
Review the study by Friedman and Rosenman (1974)
and research from other studies into chronic stress
and health to inform your answer. There are just
three minutes for this question; focus on just one
health problem to avoid running out of time.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
8.37 Explain two weaknesses of using rating scales
in research into causes of stress.
[4]
8.38Outline one way in which research into
causes of stress is nomothetic.
[2]
8.39 Sylvie recently gave up a job with a lot of
responsibility and very tight deadlines over
which she had no control, because she found it
210
too stressful. Suggest the type of employment
Sylvie should look for now in order to reduce
her stress levels. Use psychological research
in your answer.
[4]
8.40 Explain one reason why a holistic approach
to investigating the causes of stress may be
preferable to a reductionist approach.
[2]
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8 Health Psychology
8.4.2 Measures of stress
Biological measures
Heart rate
» Hospitals often measure heart rate per minute using electrocardiography.
» Heart rate increases in acutely stressed individuals and decreases in the
chronically stressed (Schubert et al., 2009).
Heart rate variability (HRV)
» This is the variation in time between heart beats measured in milliseconds with
an electroencephalogram (ECG).
» When relaxed, HRV goes up but it goes down when stressed.
» Nowadays smart watches can measure HRV by detecting heartbeat optically
through wave of blood flow in the wrist and sending data to the phone.
Brain function (fMRI)
» Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanners record brain activity
using powerful electromagnets.
» The scanner recognises changes in blood oxygenation and flow that occur during
neural activity.
» Degrees of neural activity are different colours on the scan, showing active brain
areas.
Sample tests: salivary cortisol
» Cortisol released by adrenal glands as part of the ‘fight or flight’ response can be
measured non-invasively in urine and saliva.
» High levels of cortisol indicate that the individual is experiencing stress.
Relevant research: Wang et al. (2005)
Aim: to study neural circuitry of psychological stress.
Methodology:
» There were 32 participants: 25 experimental, 7 in control group.
» Participants in the experimental group were scanned using perfusion fMRI.
» There were four scans of eight minutes each, ending with a full anatomical scan.
The scans:
1 Baseline condition without task.
2 Low-stress condition: participants counted backwards aloud from 1000.
3 High-stress condition: performed verbal serial subtraction of 13 from a fourdigit number aloud; prompted to go faster during the task and if they made a
mistake, they had to restart.
4 Final baseline condition without task.
» Control group also had four scans, but no task.
» Participants in both groups completed a self-report stress scale (1–9).
» Saliva samples were collected immediately before and after each scan.
» Experimental participants reported level of effort, frustration and task difficulty
after low- and high-stress tasks.
» Heart rate was recorded every two minutes.
Results:
» The ventral right prefrontal cortex (RPFC) showed continued activation during
and after stress tasks.
» This demonstrates that perfusion fMRI is a suitable approach to measure stress.
Conclusion: the ventral RPFC plays a central role in stress response.
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Relevant research: Evans and Wener (2007)
Aim: to investigate how density and proximity of other train passengers affect
commuter stress.
Methodology:
» During the morning commute, 208 American commuters completed five-point
Likert scales reporting their stress.
» Near the journey’s end, they completed a proofreading task to measure
motivation/persistence.
» A saliva sample of cortisol levels was taken at the end of the journey.
» Crowding was measured via observation.
» At the weekend, researchers visited participants’ homes and took another
cortisol sample, at the same time as the workday one. The participant’s spouse/
partner was asked to evaluate interactions on a five-point rating scale, using a
questionnaire.
Results:
» Proximal crowding significantly correlated with cortisol levels, self-reported
mood and percentage of proofreading errors.
» Distal crowding was not correlated with stress.
» Longer commutes were associated with significantly higher cortisol levels, poorer
proofreading performance and higher levels of perceived commuting stress.
» Spousal ratings of commuter stress were not associated with longer commuting times.
Conclusion: proximal crowding is related to commuter stress, possibly due to
invasion of personal space, but distal crowding is not.
Psychological measures
Self-report questionnaires
These are easily completed and a convenient way to measure stress.
Friedman and Rosenman’s personality test
» Friedman and Rosenman studied couples with the same diet and found men had a
higher incidence of heart disease.
» They sent 150 questionnaires to San Francisco businessmen, asking which of ten
listed habits a friend had exhibited prior to a heart attack.
» The questionnaires were also sent to hospital workers looking after cardiac patients.
» They identified consistent traits in responses.
» Structured 25-question audio-taped interviews were conducted over more than
eight years, assessing how people responded to everyday pressures.
» Participants’ personalities were rated by two researchers to ensure inter-rater
reliability.
Jenkins et al. (1979) created a pen and paper version of this personality test – the
Jenkins Activity Survey. A subset of 21 items best predicted Type A behaviour:
questions about being punctual and competitive. Using this, psychologists can
identify an individual’s personality type as either A or B.
Life events questionnaire
Holmes and Rahe (1967) created the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS):
» This included 43 life events based on the type of events that their patients had
reported experiencing.
» Holmes and Rahe asked a sample of 394 participants to rate the life events
(regardless of whether it was positive or negative). They were then ranked and a
score assigned.
» Total scores for a 12-month period:
– fewer than 150 life change units = 30 per cent chance of stress
– 150–299 life change units = 50 per cent chance of stress
– over 300 life change units = 80 per cent chance of stress-related illness.
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8 Health Psychology
▼ Table 8.31 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Generalisability – the Jenkins Activity Survey is an
easy-to-score self-report questionnaire; it could be
completed online or sent out to large numbers of people.
Generalisability – Wang et al.’s (2005) fMRI research
was expensive and time-consuming, and there were just
32 participants, giving low generalisability.
Validity – Scully et al. (2000) reviewed SRRS 30 years
after it was first used. They reported it was still a
reliable measure of life events, stress and ill health,
suggesting it has temporal validity.
Validity – Holmes and Rahe’s (1967) research was
correlational, only looking at the relationship between
health and life events. There could be other variables
(like poor nutrition through stress) affecting health.
Objective data – Evans and Wener (2007) measured
cortisol in saliva samples; this is an objective way of
measuring physiological effects of stress. Wang et al.
used fMRI scans, which is a more objective and reliable
way of measuring stress than self-report methods.
Subjective data – self-report measures of stress or
personality (Friedman and Rosenman, 1974; Holmes and
Rahe, 1967) are prone to social desirability bias.
Issues and debates
Individual and situational explanations
The scales used take an individualist approach to stress and illness, seeing the cases
as lying in people’s individual behaviour. This fails to consider lifelong
environmental stressors like disability or poverty.
Cultural differences
Research into biological and psychological measures of stress has taken a Western,
individualist approach. Rating scales assume that Christmas, weddings and moving
house are all highly stressful events, but this has not been tested cross-culturally.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
8.41Using examples of research into measuring stress, explain what is
meant by individual and situational explanations.
[4]
[2]
8.42Outline what is meant by temporal validity.
8.43 Explain two strengths of self-report questionnaires for measuring
stress.
[4]
8.44 People’s stress can be personal, varying with individual age, gender and
circumstances. Rating scales for adults may not apply to younger people,
for example.
a Plan a study using self-reports to investigate stress in 16–18-year-old
full-time students. Your plan must include details about:
– question format (open and closed questions)
– scoring/interpretation.
[10]
b Describe one piece of psychological knowledge on which your
plan is based.
[4]
SKILLS
BUILDER
Suggest one strength
of using biological
measures of stress. [2]
Identify a strength
of using biological
measures and
explain why it is a
strength. Remember
just to choose one
and focus on the
reason for this being
a strength.
8.4.3 Managing stress
Psychological therapies
» Biofeedback is based on operant conditioning.
» It uses technology so an individual can see/hear the physiological reactions that
occur when under stress.
» The individual is taught relaxation techniques and connected to machines
measuring muscle tension (EMG), brain activity (EEG) and sweating (SCR).
» When increased activity is identified, visual/audio feedback is given.
» Relaxation techniques used while receiving positive feedback decreases heart
rate/tension.
» The individual learns how to use relaxation techniques when stressed.
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Relevant research: Budzynski and Stoyva (1969)
Aim: to describe a biofeedback instrument incorporating operant conditioning
principles.
Methodology:
» Fifteen participants were randomly allocated to one of three groups:
– Experimental group – correct feedback: participants were told the tone of
EMG would vary with forehead muscle tension. They were told to relax and
keep tone pitch low (high pitch = more tension).
– Control group 1 – no feedback (silence): participants were asked to relax,
especially forehead muscle.
– Control group 2 – irrelevant feedback: participants were asked to relax deeply,
especially forehead muscle, and told low monotone would help relaxation.
» EMG measured muscle action potential over 20 sessions.
» Participants were paid $1.50 for each session and told bonus would be given
according to their rank in the group of 15.
» Experimental group participants received continuous feedback about muscle activity.
Results: there was a 50 per cent mean decrease in action potential in the
experimental group; 20 per cent in the silent control group; and 28 per cent in the
irrelevant feedback control group.
Conclusion: biofeedback may be useful for people with certain psychosomatic
disorders.
Preventing stress
Stress inoculation training
There are three phases of stress inoculation training (SIT) (Meichenbaum and
Deffenbacher, 1988):
1 Conceptualisation involves two goals:
– building collaboration between client and trainer
– increasing the client’s understanding and awareness of nature/impact of
stress responses.
The client is taught how to recognise stress and anxiety through the process of
Socratic questioning.
2 Skill acquisition:
– The client is made aware of their anxious self-talk.
– They are taught specific self-statements to counter negative self-statements.
– They are taught techniques like problem-solving and self-reward for coping.
3 Rehearsal and application:
– This is the ‘inoculation’ part of training: clients work on transferring skills
across increasingly demanding levels of stressors.
– Role plays and imagery are used for assignments.
– The client feeds back to the trainer.
– Coping techniques are learnt.
Key study: Bridge et al. (1988)
Context:
» Relaxation and imagery techniques can help patients to deal with the
psychological stress of cancer diagnosis and treatment.
» Previous research with cancer patients suggests positive thought and guided
imagery can prolong life (Simonton and Simonton, 1975).
Aims and hypotheses:
» Aim: to see whether stress could be reduced in patients diagnosed with early
breast cancer and receiving radiotherapy.
» Hypothesis: women receiving relaxation training with an imagery component
would show less stress than women given relaxation training alone.
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8 Health Psychology
Research methods and design: randomised control trial using questionnaires.
Sample: opportunity sample of 139 women (average age: 53, all under 70) treated
either by mastectomy or lumpectomy; attending six-week radiotherapy treatment
at a UK hospital.
Procedure:
» Participants completed the Profile of Mood States and the Leeds General Scales
Questionnaire.
» All participants were seen individually by the researcher, once a week for six weeks.
» Participants were allocated to one of three conditions:
1 Control
2 Relaxation
3 Relaxation plus imagery.
» Treatment groups were taught relaxation techniques involving diaphragmatic
breathing.
» The ‘relaxation plus imagery’ group imagined a ‘peaceful scene’ of their choice.
» The control group women chatted together.
» Sessions lasted 30 minutes.
» Treatment groups had audio tapes for home practice.
» Participants repeated the same questionnaires at the end of the study.
Ethics:
» Fully informed consent was given.
» Participants were informed that results would not appear in their medical records
and they would not be penalised if they refused to take part.
» No drugs would be given.
» Confidentiality was maintained.
Results:
» No significant differences were found between groups on the initial
questionnaire scores.
» Mood before and after the study was compared. There was no significant
difference in mood disturbance of the ‘relaxation’ group; there was a small
difference in the ‘relaxation plus imagery’ group; in the control group, total
mood disturbance worsened.
» However, when the researchers divided women into under-54 and over-54 groups,
the results differed.
Conclusions:
» Relaxation combined with imagery is effective at reducing mood disturbances.
» Mood disturbances worsen in patients with no intervention.
» Intervention is more effective in older women with more time to focus on the
techniques as they are less likely to be working or have young children.
▼ Table 8.32 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Reliability – Bridge et al. (1998) used standardised
procedures: the women in the treatment groups were
taught relaxation techniques in the same way. This
allows replicability.
Ethics – stress inoculation training (SIT) is expensive and
the cost is not covered by some countries’ health services.
The number of sessions needed may require unaffordable
time off work. Therefore, some people are excluded from this.
Mood disturbance for Bridge et al.’s control group worsened.
They needed to be offered the therapy afterwards.
Application to everyday life – in Budzynski and Stoyva Generalisability – in Bridge et al., there were only 44–48
participants in each group, and fewer when broken down
(1969), EMG techniques gave individuals a way of
by age. This is unlikely to represent the target population.
managing stress in different everyday situations.
SIT focuses on stress causes, not just symptoms. The skills
used in training can be applied to everyday situations.
Bridge et al.’s treatment groups used audio tapes at
home and could continue to do so.
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Issues and debates
Determinism versus free will
The research demonstrates that training helps people manage their low mood by
exercising free will, reducing feelings of helplessness and increasing empowerment
during difficult treatments. Mental wellbeing is determined by attitudes to
treatments.
Application to everyday life
Relaxation techniques could be carried out at home. They are more effective with
women over 54. Interventions could be targeted at older women who are most likely
to benefit.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
8.45Using examples of research into managing stress, explain
what is meant by determinism versus free will.
8.46 Jacqui suffers from tension headaches. Suggest one way
in which biofeedback might help her.
8.47 From the key study by Bridge et al. (1988):
a Explain how the participant’s age was relevant to the results
of the relaxation training.
b Explain what is meant by a ‘randomised control trial’.
8.48 Suggest one weakness of self-report methods when conducting
research into managing stress.
[4]
[2]
[2]
[2]
[2]
SKILLS
BUILDER
Explain one strength
of an operant
conditioning technique
for managing stress.
[2]
First, identify
the technique as
biofeedback and
bullet-point the
strengths. Choose
one and write about
it, explaining why it is
a strength.
8.5 Health promotion
8.5.1 Strategies for promoting health
Fear arousal
» Fear arousal uses vivid imagery to raise public awareness of risky health
behaviours, such as the use of graphic imagery on cigarette packets.
» Success is more likely if the individual has a high level of self-efficacy.
» If fear appeals are too anxiety-provoking, behaviour becomes defensive and
people avoid the fear message or even engage more in the activity (Brown and
Smith, 2007).
» Janis and Feschbach (1953) found that high fear appeals lead to a high level of
emotional stress and the individual may:
– ignore the message
– become distracted/unable to concentrate
– become aggressive to the person communicating the health message
– actively avoid the message.
» Low fear appeals are also ignored as they do not produce the motivation to
change.
Relevant research: Janis and Feschbach (1953)
Aim: to investigate potential adverse effects and defensive reactions to fear
appeals.
STUDY TIP
There are some small
parts of the health
option that could be
easily missed, especially
in the last section – for
example, psychological
therapies for managing
stress. Keep a copy of
the relevant syllabus
section at the front of
each set of revision
notes. This will help
you familiarise yourself
with the exact wording/
phrasing of the bulletpointed content. This
will assist in decoding
exam questions and
including the expected
content in your answers.
Methodology:
» Participants were 200 American high school students (mean age: 15).
» They were randomly allocated to either strong, moderate or minimal fear appeal
groups on dental hygiene or a control group.
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8 Health Psychology
» Fear appeal groups received the same essential information.
» Independent variable – strength of fear appeal:
– strong – serious dangers of poor dental hygiene given, using the word ‘you’
frequently
– moderate – consequences of poor dental hygiene given in a factual manner
– minimal – information given on the growth and functions of teeth
– control – information given on the structure and function of eyes.
» The effects of communication were measured in four ways:
1 A general health questionnaire on dental hygiene (a week before lectures).
2 Self-reported feedback on a five-point scale, from ‘very worried’ to ‘not at all
worried’.
3 A 23-item test on the factual content of lectures.
4 A follow-up questionnaire on the effect of lectures (one week later).
Results:
» There was no difference in the amount of knowledge remembered.
» In the strong fear group, 42 per cent thought about the condition most of the
time, compared to 22 per cent in the minimal fear group.
» In the strong fear group, 74 per cent felt worried about the condition of their
mouth, compared to 44 per cent in the minimal fear group.
» Participants in the strong fear group found the lecture more interesting than
other groups.
» More people in the strong fear group said there was something they disliked
about the illustrated talk.
» Groups’ conformity to oral hygiene behaviour:
– strong fear group = 8 per cent
– moderate fear group = 22 per cent
– minimal fear group = 36 per cent
– control group = 0 per cent.
Conclusion:
» Strong fear appeals create a high level of tension and concern, but little change
in behaviour.
» Low fear appeals result in greater behaviour change.
» Level of fear appeal does not affect the amount of knowledge gained from
communication.
Providing information
» This includes giving people information they need to stop an unhealthy habit. For
example, to help people give up smoking, they could be provided with links for
buying nicotine patches or details of stop smoking programmes (Sarafino, 2006).
» Waiting rooms can have booklets on various diseases and illnesses tailored to the
specific clinic.
Home-based exercise programmes
» Myocardial infarction (MI, or a heart attack) is distressing and requires the
survivor and their family to adjust their lifestyle and recover psychologically.
» MI rehabilitation reduces distress and improves quality of life.
» Not providing programmes may lead to a loss of confidence and depression.
» Home-based interventions are uncommon, despite evidence that they are as
useful as hospital-based ones.
Relevant research: Lewin et al. (1992)
Aim: to evaluate the effectiveness of a home-based post-MI exercise programme.
Methodology: field experiment; longitudinal design.
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» Three days after admission to a UK coronary care unit, 176 patients
(mean age: 56) were randomly assigned to one of two groups:
– Experimental group: self-help rehabilitation programme after discharge.
Spouses were given information, and invited to take part and to encourage
the patient.
– Control group: standard care plus placebo information package and informal
counselling.
» Both groups were followed up at one, three and six weeks.
» Postal questionnaires were sent at six weeks, six months and one year to measure
symptoms of anxiety and depression, general health and use of health services.
Results:
» There was a significant improvement in anxiety and depression in the
rehabilitation group at six weeks, six months and one year.
» The control group made an average of 1.8 more visits to the doctor in the first
six months compared to the rehabilitation group.
» At one year, the control group had made a mean of 0.9 more visits.
» More members of the control group were admitted to hospital in the first six
months (24 per cent versus 8 per cent of rehabilitation group).
Conclusion: self-rehabilitation programmes lead to improved psychological
adjustment, fewer cases of readmittance, fewer visits to the doctor and a lower rate
of anxiety and depression.
▼ Table 8.33 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Application to everyday life – the fear arousal method
of persuading individuals to change their behaviour is
still used today in health promotion campaigns. This
shows that fear appeals are useful.
Lewin et al. (1992) is supported by research. Campbell et
al. (1998) found an improvement in blood pressure and
28 per cent reduction in hospital admissions.
Individual differences – Janis and Feschbach (1953)
couldn’t completely predict how people will respond to
fear appeals. Individual factors such as personality and
prior experience could affect response.
Validity – Lewin et al. ensured patients in the
rehabilitation group did not talk to others about their
intervention. They used a double-blind method so neither
the cardiologist nor the nursing care team knew to which
condition patients were assigned.
Validity – Lewin et al.’s funding ran out; nearly half
of the participants in the experimental and control
groups were not followed up at the six months and one
year points. This could affect the validity of long-term
findings.
Longitudinal study – Lewin et al. were able to
investigate long-term effects of a home-based post-MI
exercise programme.
Ethics – fear appeals reduce the self-esteem of those
unable to follow guidance, increasing the belief that
they are unable to do anything to avoid negative
consequences (Simpson, 2017).
Issues and debates
Individual versus situational explanations
Research by Wu et al. (2021) looked at the effects of fear appeals during the
COVID-19 pandemic using situational factors such as notification of proximity to
infected person and whether this would motivate individuals to make behavioural
changes. This focused on situational factors and individual factors, like how
personality and prior experience affect responses. It is important for researchers to
consider both factors when researching fear appeals.
Cultural differences
Tannenbaum et al. (2015) reviewed data from 127 cross-cultural studies on fear appeals.
They found no evidence of cultural differences in effects. However, Chung and Ahn
(2013) found cultural differences when researching South Korea and the USA, suggesting
different culturally appropriate messages should be used. This suggests that research
around fear appeals and cultural differences is conflicting, and more research is needed.
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8 Health Psychology
SKILLS BUILDER
Sylvie is designing questionnaires to investigate the
efficacy of health promotion strategies. Explain one
way that Sylvie could ensure that the data she collects
is valid.
[4]
Combine your knowledge of research methods with
what you have learned in health psychology. How
might social desirability bias affect how participants
answer a questionnaire about their response
to health promotion strategies? What could the
researcher do to help participants provide detailed
and honest answers? The question only requires
you to write about ‘one way’. Choose your best idea
and explore that in detail.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
8.49Outline one ethical issue with fear appeals as
a method of health promotion.
[2]
8.50 Xavier thinks he would like to give up smoking.
His friends don’t smoke, and they are always
warning him of the health risks, but that just
makes him defensive. Suggest one way in
which his friends may have more success,
rather than relying on fear arousal.
[2]
8.51 Explain what is meant by individual versus
situational explanations, using research into
strategies for promoting health.
[4]
8.52 Plan a field experiment using questionnaires
to investigate strategies for promoting health.
Your plan must include details of:
– question format
– sampling technique.
[10]
8.5.2 Health promotion
Schools and healthy eating
Research shows that in some countries young children do not eat enough fruit and
vegetables. The UK Department of Health (2000) found that fewer than 4 per cent of
children ate the recommended five portions of fruit and vegetables a day, with one
in ten eating none.
Relevant research: Tapper et al. (2003)
Aim: to increase consumption of fruit and vegetables through the use of ‘Food
Dudes’ in schools.
Methodology:
» A variety of studies carried out, including one in a nursery.
» Researchers used a video of the ‘Food Dudes’ – a group of four children who gain
superpowers from eating vegetables.
» The Food Dudes battle against ‘Junk Punks’, who threaten to take over the planet
by destroying all the fruit and vegetables.
» Throughout the video, fruit and vegetables were eaten regularly.
» Rewards were stickers, pens and erasers, given for eating the target amount of
fruit and vegetables.
» This modelling plus rewards approach resulted in increasing fruit and vegetable
consumption that persisted at the 15-month follow-up.
Extended research to a whole school programme:
» Children aged 4–11 in three UK primary schools.
» School staff implemented the programme:
– Food Dude video
– Food Dude rewards
– letters from the Food Dudes encouraging children and reminding them how
they get rewards
– staff manual, briefing video and support materials.
» Children watched videos and listened to letters being read out for 16 days.
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» Rewards were given to children for tasting target food or eating a whole portion.
» A maintenance phase involved no videos but rewards and letters were used
intermittently.
» Two more schools were tested, one of which received the Food Dudes programme
and another which acted as a control and simply received extra fruit and
vegetables during the study.
» Parents completed questionnaires after the study commenting on whether their
child had enjoyed/benefited from the intervention.
» Impact was assessed four months later.
Results:
» There were significant increases from Monday to Friday in fruit and vegetable
consumption across all three initial schools.
» More fruit and vegetables were eaten at weekends but results were not
statistically significant.
» In the two extra schools, the experimental school showed significant increases
in fruit/vegetable consumption compared to the control school.
» Increases persisted at a four-month follow-up.
» Parents and teachers responded positively to the programme, suggesting children
enjoyed it, but also that they were more enthusiastic when doing work with the
Food Dudes theme.
» There was improved attendance and increased confidence among low-achieving
children.
Conclusion: behaviour modification programmes can change children’s eating
habits, in both the short term and the long term.
Worksites and health and safety
Promoting safe work practices is essential for reducing workplace accidents. South
Africa recorded 32 mining fatalities in the first six months of 2021, with many
other accidents. Behaviour modification methods using operant conditioning
principles, like token economies, have been used to try and decrease accidents (see
Organisational Psychology chapter, page 257). However, the long-term effects of
these have rarely been studied.
Relevant research: Fox et al. (1987)
Aim: to investigate whether token economies are an effective long-term way of
reducing accidents and injuries in two USA mines.
Methodology:
» Miners were divided into four hazard groups: from Group 1 – least hazardous jobs,
to Group 4 – most hazardous jobs.
» Miners who avoided lost-time and/or medically treated compensation were
rewarded with monthly stamps, to be exchanged locally for goods.
» Miners in hazardous jobs received more stamps for avoiding injuries than miners
in less hazardous jobs.
» Special payments were given to employees suggesting how to prevent serious
accidents or equipment damage.
» Injured miners lost monthly stamps depending on the number of workdays
missed.
Results: both mines showed substantial decreases in the number of days lost during
the first five years of the token economy programme.
Conclusion: token economies are a cost-effective way of reducing work-related
injuries in mining.
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8 Health Psychology
▼ Table 8.34 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Longitudinal design – both Tapper et al. (2003) and Fox
et al. (1987) tracked changes over time and found that
interventions were effective over the long term.
Validity – Tapper et al.’s questionnaires gathered data
about children’s fruit/vegetable consumption at home and
school. Parents may have given socially desirable answers.
Fox et al.’s reward incentive maybe stopped employees
reporting small accidents, so they may not have actually
decreased.
Generalisability – Tapper et al.’s findings were replicated Generalisability – Fox et al. looked at USA mining
companies. Therefore, study results may not generalise to
in five schools across England and Wales.
other countries and organisations.
Research by Wang et al. (2015) on Chinese middle
school children suggests similar interventions might be
effective in other countries.
Issues and debates
Application to everyday life
Time off work for accidents costs organisations work time, employee morale and
money. If workplace token economies can decrease accidents, there is less chance
of negative consequences for the employee; the cost of the programme will be lower
than the benefit, making the study useful.
Use of children in research
When researchers work with children, they must design age and/or developmentally
appropriate materials. Tapper et al.’s (2003) ‘Food Dude’ videos and rewards are an
example of this. The materials were particularly important as they could have a
long-term effect on the children’s health.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
8.53 aOutline what is meant by longitudinal research.
[2]
b Explain one strength of longitudinal research, using research
into workplace health and safety.
[2]
8.54 Howard is a school meals supervisor in a primary (elementary) school.
He would like to increase fruit and vegetable consumption in young
children. Using research into health promotion, suggest two strategies
Howard could use to encourage the children to eat fruit and vegetables. [4]
8.55Outline one ethical issue with the use of children in research.
[2]
8.56 Suggest one strength and one weakness of behaviour modification
techniques in health promotion.
[4]
SKILLS
BUILDER
a Describe what
psychologists have
discovered about
health promotion.
[6]
b Evaluate what
psychologists have
discovered about
health promotion,
including a
discussion about
application to
everyday life. [10]
Always look at part
b before you start
writing. As part b
refers to ‘application
to everyday life’, you
will need to include
at least one piece of
research in part a
that can be evaluated
in this respect.
8.5.3 Individual factors in changing health beliefs
Unrealistic optimism
This is the cognitive belief that negative events are less likely to happen to us than
other people and that positive events are more likely to happen to us. Individuals
feel invulnerable to disease and may disregard health advice and engage in risky
behaviour.
Relevant research: Weinstein (1980)
Aims:
1 To investigate whether people believe that negative events are more/less likely
to happen to them than others.
2 To investigate whether the more control people feel they have over negative
events, the more they think it will not happen to them.
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Methodology:
Comparative rating group:
» In Study 1, a diverse group of American college students estimated their chances
of experiencing particular life events compared to their classmates’ chances.
» Researchers used 42 life events: 18 positive, 24 negative; randomly divided
between two rating forms.
» Different versions of the rating form (each listing 21 events) were handed to
alternate students.
Comparative rating forms:
» Instructions said: ‘Compared to other students … same sex as you … what do
you think are the chances that the following events will happen to you?’
» Beneath the description of each event were the choices: 100% less (no chance),
80% less, and so on – through to 90% more and 100% more (certain).
Event characteristics group:
» The same life events were rated by 120 female students.
» They were instructed to estimate ‘the percentage probability of each event
occurring to students at the university’.
» Events were rated for:
– controllability
– desirability
– personal experience.
Results:
» Participants’ scores were in the predicted direction on 37 out of 42 events
(positive events = more likely to happen to them; negative events = less likely to
happen to them).
» There were some exceptions. For example, participants did not rate themselves as
being significantly more likely to be ‘not ill all winter’.
» There was a significant positive correlation between the positive events and the
extent to which participants perceived them as being likely to happen to them.
» When negative events were believed to be controllable, participants had a
stereotypical view of the type of person to whom this type of event would likely
occur, and they deemed themselves at less than average risk.
Conclusion: unrealistic optimism appears when an event is perceived as controllable
and people have some degree of emotional investment or commitment in its outcome.
Positive psychology
In the 1990s, Seligman started looking at happiness and wellbeing, rather than
mental illhealth. This is a free will approach – we control our own lives and
happiness.
Pleasant life, good life and meaningful life
▼ Table 8.35 Seligman’s three components of a happy life
222
Happy life
components
Focuses on
positive…
Description
Examples
Pleasant life
Emotions
Having positive emotions and taking
satisfaction from daily things
Relaxing, reading, spending time
with friends
Good life
Traits
Understanding our signature strengths and
using them to enhance our lives
A person whose signature
strength is creativity could focus
on creative aspects of their job
Meaningful
life
Institutions, such
as democracy,
family and free
inquiry
We will be happiest using our signature
strengths to help make other people’s lives
happier too; Seligman suggests this includes
developing positive connections with others
Helping neighbours, volunteering
with a charity or campaigning for
people in need
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8 Health Psychology
Relevant research: Seligman (2004)
Positive psychology:
» Seligman’s article is an overview of a four-week introductory course.
» It included weekly ‘real-world’ homework assignments.
» Students reviewed scientific literature, focusing on:
– the past – contentment and satisfaction
– the present – joy, comfort and pleasure
– the future – optimism, hope, trust and faith.
» They learned about:
– depressive realism: unhappy people are more accurate in their life perceptions
than happy people
– the effect of major life changes on happiness.
» They practised increasing their own optimism, to increase productivity, improve
physical health and lower vulnerability to depression.
Homework tasks:
» Gratitude night: gratitude increases happiness. Seligman organised ‘Gratitude
night’ for his students, families and close friends. Students thanked them for all
they had done for them.
» Pleasurable day: students learnt skills of ‘savouring’ – sharing good experiences
with others, through memories and mementoes. They also learnt mindfulness,
by being in the moment and slowing down. They planned and carried out a
‘pleasurable day’.
» Signature strengths: students completed a Values in Action (VIA questionnaire),
identifying their top five strengths out of 24. They then chose a boring task and
found a way of using their signature strength[s] to complete it.
Meaningful life (final part of course):
» Creating a family tree – students had family members complete a VIA
questionnaire and interviewed them about relatives who had died.
» Mentoring a younger student – with similar issues to ones they had overcome.
» Writing a positive vision – for the future of humankind and their role in it.
» Writing their own obituary – from the viewpoint of their future grandchildren.
SKILLS BUILDER
Unrealistic optimism has been researched using rating
scales to measure participants’ optimism. Give one
difference between rating scales and forced/fixedchoice questions as a way of investigating unrealistic
optimism.
[4]
This question tests your knowledge of the additional
research methods required for A Level compared
with AS Level. Refresh your knowledge of forced/
fixed-choice questions on page 42. The command
term is ‘give’, which means you do not have to
describe why rating scales are better or worse than
forced/fixed-choice questions, but just describe
how they differ. You could give an example of a
rating scale from Weinstein’s (1980) research and
show how the question would have changed if it was
forced/fixed-choice.
Key study: Shoshani and Steinmetz (2014)
Context:
» Many studies into positive psychology only look at short-term immediate effects
of intervention.
» This study takes a long-term approach.
Aims and hypotheses:
» To investigate whether participants in the positive psychology intervention
group had better mental health outcomes throughout middle school compared
with a control group.
» To investigate if the efficacy of the intervention was moderated by any specific
sociodemographic factors, including gender.
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Research method:
» Longitudinal field experiment.
» Mixed design:
– compared intervention and wait list control groups (independent measures)
– measured before and after intervention period (repeated measures).
Sample: 1038 seventh to ninth graders (age: 11.8–14.7 years) from two large schools
in Israel; 537 from one school = experimental group; 501 from the other school =
wait list control group.
Procedure:
» A wide range of self-report questionnaires was used to gather quantitative data
using rating scales.
Intervention group:
» Schoolteachers were trained in group dynamics and positive psychology
throughout the school year.
» A teachers’ textbook of lesson plans/activities was created to ensure all teachers
delivered lessons in the same way.
» Student sessions were conducted. These included activities, discussions, reading
poems and stories and watching video clips.
» Another part of the programme was gratitude – awareness and appreciation of
the positive aspects of our lives.
» An intervention group discussed five or more things for which they were grateful each
week, writing gratitude letters to people who had a positive impact on their lives.
Wait list control group:
» Teachers continued with their social science lessons, focusing on adolescents’
issues.
Ethics: by the time the intervention was introduced for the wait list control group,
the oldest students would have moved on to high school. This meant the beneficial
programme was withheld from some students.
Results:
» Both groups had slightly worse than expected mental health levels at the
beginning of the study.
» At the end of the study:
– Intervention group: significant decreases in psychological distress and
depression, and significant increases in optimism.
– Wait list control group: increased poor mental health symptoms.
Conclusions: intervention was effective for both low and high-risk middle school
students.
▼ Table 8.36 Methodological issues
224
Strengths
Weaknesses
Longitudinal design – Shoshani and
Steinmetz’s (2014) intervention ran for one
year and students were followed up over a
two-year period. This allowed monitoring of
longer-term effects.
Validity – Seligman’s (2004) self-report VIA questionnaire may result
in socially desirable answers, decreasing the validity of the data.
In Shoshani and Steinmetz, students completed the same
questionnaires across two years. Students may have recognised that
questionnaires measured success of the programme and provided the
answers they believed teachers hoped for (participant expectations).
Psychometrics – used by Weinstein (1980)
and Shoshani and Steinmetz as selfreport measures. Operationalisation and
standardisation of the concepts mean they
can be applied objectively and research can
be replicated.
Generalisability – Shoshani and Steinmetz involved two Israeli
middle schools. Positive psychology interventions may be
less effective with older teenagers or primary school children.
Weinstein’s research into unrealistic optimism sampled students
from one American university. Therefore, these findings are not
generalisable outside of this population.
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8 Health Psychology
Issues and debates
Individual versus situational explanations
There is a focus on situational explanations of happiness – for example, strong
social networks or faith can increase happiness (Myers and Diener, 1995). This
ignores individual explanations, such as how for some people (e.g. people who are
chronically ill) acknowledging negative aspects is important for them to be able to
adjust their behaviour.
Cultural differences
Two Israeli middle schools were involved in Shoshani and Steinmetz (2014). The
results may not apply to other cultures and other types of school.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
8.57 Explain what is meant by individual factors, using research into
changing health beliefs.
8.58 Suggest why measures of individual factors in changing health
beliefs may be culturally biased.
8.59 From the key study by Shoshani and Steinmetz (2014) on the
efficacy of a positive psychology intervention programme,
suggest one strength of collecting quantitative data.
8.60 Describe what is meant by meaningful life.
[4]
[2]
[2]
[2]
SKILLS
BUILDER
Using the key study
of Shoshani and
Steinmetz (2014),
explain two strengths
of a longitudinal design
field experiment as a
method to investigate
wellbeing.
[4]
The best way to
approach this is
to explain one
strength of a field
experiment and then
one strength of a
longitudinal design
when using a field
experiment.
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Health Psychology revision checklist
Check the syllabus to ensure you have covered all required content for each
subtopic. There are typically two to three bullet points per subtopic. You should
ensure that your evaluation points for each subtopic match with the relevant issues
and debates and methodology listed in the syllabus.
Topic
Subtopic
The patient–
practitioner
relationship
Practitioner and patient interpersonal skills
Adherence to
medical advice
Types of non-adherence and reasons why
patients do not adhere
Revision notes Now test
complete
yourself
questions
complete
Past papers
questions
complete
Brudvik et al.
(2016)
Shoshani and
Steinmetz
(2014)
Patient and practitioner diagnosis and style
Misusing health services
Measuring non-adherence
Improving adherence
Pain
Types of pain
Measuring pain
Managing and controlling pain
Stress
Sources of stress
Measures of stress
Managing stress
Health promotion Strategies for promoting health
Health promotion
Individual factors in changing health beliefs
Savage and
Armstrong
(1990)
Yokley and
Glenwick
(1984)
Bridge et al.
(1988)
Context (including
relationship to other
studies)
Main theories/
explanations
Aim(s) and hypotheses
Methodology
Results/findings
Conclusions
Discussion points
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A LEVEL
9
Organisational Psychology
9.1 Motivation at work
9.1.1 Need theories
Selfactualisation
morality, creativity,
spontaneity, acceptance,
experience purpose,
meaning and inner potential
Self-esteem
confidence, achievement, respect of
others, the need to be a unique individual
Love and belonging
friendship, family, intimacy, sense of connection
Safety and security
health, employment, property, family and social ability
Physiological needs
breathing, food, water, shelter, clothing, sleep
STUDY TIP
McClelland (1961)
measured motivational
needs using a
projective test, but this
has been criticised.
To understand the
weaknesses of such
tests, try one yourself.
Find examples of the
Thematic Apperception
Test on the internet,
such as https://utpsyc.
org/tatintro. Discuss
your findings with
others and identify
two strengths and two
weaknesses of this test.
▲ Figure 9.1 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Maslow’s theory of motivation (Figure 9.1) can be applied to the workplace:
1
2
3
4
5
Physiological: enough wages for food and heating.
Safety: pension and safe work environment.
Love and belonging: accepted and have social interactions.
Esteem: respected (e.g. getting promoted).
Self-actualisation: can grow, challenge yourself and have autonomy.
Maslow suggests you need to move up through the first four deficiency needs
before you can reach the growth need of self-actualisation.
Relevant research: Saeednia (2011)
Aim: to develop a reliable scale to measure basic needs satisfaction in children.
Methodology:
» Thirteen children (with parents and educators) – open question interview about
basic needs satisfaction.
» Themes – participants’ wishes, supportiveness of family to child’s independence.
» Coded and analysed based on Maslow’s hierarchy.
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» Constructed Basic Needs Satisfaction Scale (BNSS) based on themes.
» After pilot study, BNSS distributed to 300 participants.
Results: high reliability of BNSS for use with children (0.83).
Conclusions: qualitative methods are more appropriate when investigating Maslow’s
hierarchy due to children’s unconscious tendency to pretend that need is being met.
BNSS is an indicator of life satisfaction.
SKILLS BUILDER
Tamara owns a small family-run cafe. She wants to
ensure her staff are happy and will not leave. She
researched Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory to
help her achieve this. Suggest two ways that Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs theory could help Tamara ensure
her staff are happy and do not want to leave.
[4]
A balanced answer is required giving two detailed
applications of Maslow’s needs theory to Tamara’s
situation. For basic physiological needs, show your
knowledge of the need. For example, ‘One way
Tamara could ensure staff are happy is to ensure
physiological needs such as food and warmth are
met.’ Apply this to the workplace. For example,
‘Tamara could achieve this by ensuring workers’
wages are enough for them to buy food and pay
for heating.’ Repeat for a second need, such as
belonginess or esteem needs.
McClelland’s theory of achievement motivation (1961)
Work-related motivational needs
» There are three universal motivational needs within work.
» One could dominate the others and shape work behaviours.
» These can be shaped by life experiences and cultures.
McClelland’s three universal work-related motivational needs
1 Need for achievement:
– This is the urge to master a task.
– People with high achievement needs will:
– avoid easy low-reward/low-risk situations
– avoid very difficult high-risk situations
– make the best leaders within the workplace.
– People with low achievement needs avoid work responsibility due to fear of
failure.
2 Need for affiliation:
– People with high affiliation needs:
– desire interaction with others
– conform to the group
– avoid risk, preferring collaboration to competition
– dislike being singled out for praise.
– People with low affiliation needs:
– are not team players
– isolate from others
– do not seek acceptance.
3 Need for power:
– People with high power needs:
– are suited to leadership positions
– want prestige and high status.
– Two types of power needs:
– personal power: need to control others.
– institutional power: need to organise a group to further business goals.
– Most effective managers have high institutional power needs.
– People with low power needs depend on others to make decisions.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
» The TAT is a projective test to measure individual needs.
» It tests imagination. Individuals are shown a series of ambiguous pictures to
construct a story revealing their unconscious needs and motives.
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9 Organisational Psychology
▼ Table 9.1 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Usefulness – Saeednia (2011) gives
the basis for future research looking
at children’s needs. McClelland (1961)
allows employers to understand and meet
workers’ individual needs.
Internal validity – children may not
express themselves fully, so Saeednia’s
research may only measure language
ability. McClelland’s research used
self-reports, which is subject to social
desirability bias.
Reliability – Saeednia used quantitative
data (from the BNSS), reliably obtained
to scientifically test Maslow’s theory.
McClelland used projective tests and a
standardised scoring system, improving
replicability.
Generalisability – McClelland’s theory
focused on Western workplaces.
Saeednia’s participants were from a
wealthy area of Tehran. Both have low
generalisability.
Issues and debates
Cultural differences
McClelland’s theory concerned males working in individualistic cultures, so it may
not apply to collectivist cultures. Maslow assumes self-actualisation is universal,
but collectivist and individualistic cultures may understand it differently.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Suggest one strength
of using the Thematic
Apperception Test
(TAT) to identify an
employee’s individual
needs.
[2]
Identify a strength of
the TAT and explain
why it is a strength,
relating your answer
to worker motivation
and production
increase.
Individual and situational explanations
McClelland only considers individual needs, not situational explanations. However,
satisfied power needs mean an individual’s authority over others requires them to
be submissive, so the social situation has to be right. Maslow’s theory suggests
individual personality is important in determining love and belongingness in the
workplace, ignoring the role of the workplace situation.
SKILLS BUILDER
a Describe what psychologists have discovered about
need theories.
[6]
b Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about
need theories, including a discussion on cultural
[10]
differences.
‘Psychologists have discovered’ does not only mean
studies, but also the theories in this section. When
you are describing in part a, you can use Maslow,
McClelland and Saeednia, as well as the TAT. For
part b, you could address the issues and debates
(e.g. cultural differences). Talk about this in terms
of the study and the two theories in this section.
This will show the range of your knowledge. Include
application to real life, individual and situational
explanations, and validity.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
9.1 Jeremiah’s results on the Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT) suggest he has
a high need for affiliation. Suggest two
behaviours Jeremiah may show in the
workplace because of this.
9.2 Explain two weaknesses of need theories.
You must refer to individual and situational
explanations in your answer.
[2]
[4]
9.3Research that aimed to construct a reliable
test of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in
children has been criticised as lacking validity.
Explain one reason why this research may lack
validity.
[2]
9.4 Explain two ways need theories could be
applied to the workplace.
[4]
9.1.2 Cognitive theories of motivation
Locke and Latham’s (1990) goal-setting theory
Goal setting involves looking at what you want to achieve and devising a realistic
plan. Locke suggested an effective goal is specific and measurable (SMART).
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SMART goals are:
» Specific – well defined
» Measurable – using criteria to track progress
» Achievable – realistic and with resources to achieve it
» Realistic/relevant – a beneficial fit with wider life goals
» Time bound – have a start and end date.
Locke and Latham outlined five goal-setting principles:
1
2
3
4
5
Clarity: need clear goals
Challenge: need challenging goals linked to rewards
Commitment: workforce must be invested in the goals
Feedback: regular feedback to maintain focus
Task complexity: timescales are realistic, with sub-goals
Vroom’s (1964) expectancy (VIE) theory
» Individual motivation at work can be affected by expectations of future events.
» Behaviour results from people’s rational choices.
» Any decisions look at potential rewards and potential costs of an action/behaviour.
» There is less motivation if a task requires time and effort for little reward.
Vroom believed performance is based upon individual factors like personality, ability
and experience, and effort, motivation and performance are linked. Individuals,
therefore, will be motivated if they believe that:
» there is a positive correlation between effort and performance
» good performance leads to a desirable reward which satisfies a need, making the
effort worthwhile.
The theory is based upon three beliefs which affect motivation:
» Valence: personal worth of an expected reward.
» Instrumentality: whether you believe your good performance will lead to an
expected outcome/reward equal to the effort you put in. This can be affected by:
– trust in those deciding the outcome/reward
– complexity of the process of deciding the reward
– clarity of the relationship between performance and outcome.
» Expectancy: the perception that effort will lead to the intended performance
outcomes/reward. This can be affected by the level of skill possessed, the right
resources and information, and level of support from others. Therefore, increased
training may improve levels of expectancy.
Vroom’s formula for motivation level:
motivation = valence x instrumentality x expectancy
If any of the three beliefs is low, then motivation will be low. However, valence
(value of reward) is the most important, so if the reward is low, then motivation
tends to be low.
▼ Table 9.2 Methodological issues
230
Strengths
Weaknesses
Reliability – goal-setting theory is
supported by over 50 years of empirical
research, suggesting high reliability.
Ethics – collective agreement is needed
on what is ‘realistic’, or goal setting
may result in decreased motivation and
distress for workers.
Usefulness – Locke and Latham’s (1990)
and Vroom’s (1964) theories may improve
workplace experience for workers by
letting managers plan for a specific task
and ensure rewards/outcomes are explicit
and targeted.
Applications to everyday life – Vroom’s
expectancy theory assumes people make
rational choices. This may not be the case
with short-term needs; personality may
have an effect.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Outline one cognitive
theory of motivation in
the workplace.
[2]
Ensure you use a
cognitive theory
of motivation. Pay
attention to the
command word
(outline). You do not
need a lot of detail,
or any evaluation.
You should be writing
no more than two or
three sentences.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Suggest one reason
why expectancy theory
may not be applicable
to all cultures.
[2]
A suggestion such
as ‘rewards may not
be applicable to all
cultures’ is brief and
you could elaborate
further. To develop
your answer, suggest
that expectancy
theory assumes
both collectivist
and individualistic
cultures are
motivated identically.
However, rewards/
expectation of
rewards may be
more important
in individualistic
cultures than in
collectivist cultures
that are more
concerned about the
group.
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9 Organisational Psychology
Issues and debates
Reductionism versus holism
Both theories are reductionist, suggesting motivation is due to cognitive factors
and not factors such as physiological needs or past experiences.
Determinism versus free will
The theories are deterministic. Expectancy theory suggests motivation is determined
by expectation concerning an action’s rewards and costs; goal-setting theory
suggests motivation is determined by the types of goals set, ignoring free will.
SKILLS BUILDER
Locke and Latham suggest SMART goals are more
effective in increasing motivation than general goals.
Plan an experiment to investigate the effectiveness
of SMART goals versus general goals in increasing
motivation in the workplace.
Your plan must include details about:
» sampling technique
» a directional or non-directional hypothesis.
[10]
Paper 4 contains mandatory questions asking you
to devise a study based upon theories/studies you
have learnt. You could include specific features
of experiments (see page 57). Identify the type
of experiment, your IV/DV, any controls and the
experimental design (matched pairs/independent/
repeated measures). Include details about sampling
technique and hypothesis. You could also suggest
where your study will take place, what time of day,
etc. The procedure needs to be clear and replicable.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
9.5 Janice has told her staff that their most
important goal is to increase sales of coats at
‘some point soon’. Her staff tell her that this
target may not be very effective as it is too
general. Suggest two ways that Janice could
make her goals more effective.
[2]
9.6 Suggest two ways that Vroom’s expectancy
theory could be used to improve motivation in
the workplace.
[4]
9.7 Explain one way that cognitive theories
of motivation may be suggested to be
[2]
reductionist.
9.8 Explain one strength and one weakness of
cognitive theories of motivation.
[4]
9.1.3 Motivators at work
Extrinsic motivators at work
» Behaviour is driven by external factors through operant conditioning. The use of
rewards (money) and punishments (pay cuts) increase/decrease the likelihood of
a behaviour.
» Employees see the direct results of their behaviour, which increases motivation.
» This can be short term and lead to burn out and demotivation if it is only used to
get results.
Types of extrinsic motivation at work:
1
2
3
4
Pay
Bonuses
Profit sharing
Performance-related pay
Intrinsic motivators at work
» Behaviour is driven by internal emotions (e.g. feeling satisfied when reaching
targets).
» Recognition is gained from management or praise from others.
» Intrinsically motivated behaviours come from a feeling of being valued and a
sense of belonging.
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Types of intrinsic motivation at work:
1
2
3
4
5
Recognition
Praise
Respect
Empowerment
Sense of belonging
Deci and Ryan’s (1985) self-determination theory
Two key assumptions:
1 A need to grow drives behaviour:
– People are always looking to improve, to meet a challenge = intrinsic motivation.
2 Autonomous motivation is important:
– Self-determination theory focuses mostly on intrinsic motivation, but
acknowledges humans can be extrinsically motivated by money and fame.
– If behaviour is fully self-determined, then it will be intrinsically motivated
and done for internal satisfaction.
– If behaviour is non-self-determined, the task just has to get done with no
pleasure, little choice and no autonomy.
The three basic needs for intrinsic motivation are:
1 Autonomy: self-governance and independence
2 Relatedness: building relationships with others
3 Competence: having the right qualities and skills for a task.
SKILLS BUILDER
Tomas overhears a conversation between his
employees complaining about the pressurising
daily targets, and about their critical and controlling
team leader. Tomas has been reading about selfdetermination theory and concludes that all three
basic needs have not been met for his employees to be
intrinsically motivated.
Using self-determination theory, suggest two basic
needs that have not been met, giving examples from
the scenario.
[4]
This tests your knowledge of the three basic needs
of self-determination theory and your ability to
link knowledge to the scenario. Read this question
carefully. Use two needs from self-determination
theory. Do not see the words ‘intrinsically
motivated’ and talk about praise and respect as
this would be inaccurate. Autonomy, relatedness
and competence would all be appropriate here.
Key study: Landry et al. (2019)
Context: monetary rewards are extrinsic motivators, but:
» if given positive functional meaning, psychological needs are met, and
motivation and performance increase
» if viewed as controlling rewards, psychological needs are not met, and
motivation and performance decrease.
Aims and hypotheses:
» Aim: to explain the effect of monetary reward on employees’ motivation and
performance.
» Hypotheses:
1 Presenting rewards in an informational (autonomy-supportive) way leads to
greater performance; presenting them in a controlling (autonomy-threatening)
way leads to lower performance.
2 The effect of informational rewards on performance is mediated by greater
psychological need satisfaction, leading to higher intrinsic motivation;
the effect of controlling rewards on performance is mediated by greater
psychological needs frustration, leading to higher extrinsic motivation.
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9 Organisational Psychology
Research method(s) and design:
» Research method: experiment.
» Design: independent measures.
» Data collection technique: performance on anagram-solving task; self-report
questionnaires.
Variables:
» Independent variable: informational or controlling paragraph.
» Dependent variables:
– performance on 25 four-letter anagrams
– seven-point Likert-scale rating of how well psychological needs had been
satisfied or how strongly frustrated
– seven-point Situational Motivation Scale measuring intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation.
Controlled variables: three-point scale rating on how valuable the reward was
personally; scale rating of individual positive and negative affect (mood) resulting
from the experiment.
Sample: volunteer sample of 123 Canadian students (mean age: 20 years, 60 per
cent female).
Procedure:
» Participants read their allocated instruction paragraph about the task and
reward.
» They were given two minutes to solve anagrams.
» Participants completed the Likert scale and Situational Motivation Scale.
» They rated the personal value of the reward and their affect (mood) resulting
from the experiment.
Ethics:
» Informed consent was given by all participants and no deception was used.
» Confidentiality was maintained and there was no suggestion of psychological
harm.
Results:
» Hypothesis 1 supported: participants in the informational condition scored
significantly higher on anagram-solving (0.76) than participants in the
controlling condition (0.54).
» Hypothesis 2 mainly supported:
– Participants in the informational condition had significantly higher
psychological needs satisfaction (5.79) than those in the controlling
condition (5.39).
– Participants in the controlling condition had higher needs frustration (2.83)
compared to those in the informational condition (2.41). This predicted
greater extrinsic motivation.
– In the informational rewards condition, greater psychological needs
satisfaction predicted higher intrinsic motivation and also better performance.
– In the controlling rewards condition, psychological needs frustration
increased extrinsic motivation, but the extrinsic motivation was not linked to
performance.
Conclusion: rewards presented in an informational way lead to:
» increased performance on tasks
» increased needs satisfaction, leading to intrinsic motivation and better
performance, due to more engagement in the rewarded activity.
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▼ Table 9.3 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Validity – Landry et al.’s (2019) two after-test ratings
scales controlled for individual differences in motivation
and affect arising from the task.
Cultural differences – Deci and Ryan (1985) and Hagger
et al. (2013) found different aspects of motivation
important to different cultures. Landry et al. used
participants from the same course at one Canadian
university.
Reliability – Deci and Ryan reviewed 128 experiments
investigating the effect of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic
motivation. Supporting evidence increases reliability.
Landry et al. used objective, quantitative self-report data
and an overall performance score, allowing statistical
tests to be used.
Ecological validity – Deci and Ryan’s theory does not
consider how individuals may react differently in real
life. Landry et al.’s study lacks mundane realism, lowering
ecological validity.
Issues and debates
Reductionism versus holism
Suggesting that performance is dependent on self-determination, without
considering the effects of personality, pre-existing competence, experience and age,
is reductionist.
Idiographic versus nomothetic
Landry et al. (2019) was an experiment – a nomothetic method providing general
rules of behaviour from the results. This could be criticised for not considering
individual factors such as personality, life experiences and culture.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
9.9Outline one form of extrinsic motivation.
9.10 Simone has been researching intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and
believes that using intrinsic motivation would be motivating for her
workforce. Outline two forms of intrinsic motivation that Simone
could use.
9.11 Explain two weaknesses of theories on motivators at work.
9.12 Explain how operant conditioning theory could be applied to
motivation at work.
[2]
[4]
[4]
[4]
SKILLS
BUILDER
Describe the study
by Landry et al.
(2019) on applying
self-determination
theory to motivational
rewards.
[6]
You have nine minutes
to answer sixmark questions so
practise summarising
key studies to
approximately
200 words. As the
command term
is ‘describe’, the
question is assessing
knowledge and
understanding only;
therefore, strengths
and weaknesses are
unnecessary.
9.2 Leadership and management
9.2.1 Traditional and modern theories of leadership
Universalist theories
Great person theory
This is a nineteenth-century theory from Thomas Carlyle, who believed that leaders
are born, not made.
Charismatic leadership theory
Charismatic leaders are popular, communicative and inspirational, and expect the
highest standards of themselves and others.
Transformational leadership theory
Transformational leaders inspire positive change in their followers, increasing
motivation and performance through linking their sense of identity to the
organisation.
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9 Organisational Psychology
Warrilow (2012) identified four characteristics of transformational leaders:
1
2
3
4
Idealised influence: being a role model
Inspirational motivation: a vision that appeals to followers
Intellectual stimulation: challenging and encouraging creativity in followers
Personal and individual attention: extent to which the leader attends to
individualised needs and mentors followers.
Behavioural theories of leadership
Behavioural theories believe leadership can be learned rather than being inborn or
inherited.
Ohio University behavioural explanations
Researchers at Ohio University developed the Leader Behaviour Description
Questionnaire (LBDQ) to investigate behaviours exhibited by leaders, by questioning
followers in the military, education and industry, using a five-point rating scale.
Results identified two clusters of behaviour:
» Initiating behaviours (structural): the leader sets expectations as performance
standards, gives feedback, emphasises the importance of goals and coordinates
group work tasks. Gives certainty for employees but can limit worker autonomy
and result in punishment of those who do not meet targets.
» Consideration behaviours (nurturing): the leader listens to employees, treating
them as equals, showing empathy and supporting them. This increases trust in the
team, and the leader looks for areas where individual members can grow and improve.
These behaviours are independent of each other, and a leader could be high or low in
both. Usually a leader high in both behaviours is very effective; those who are high
in consideration behaviours and low in initiating behaviours are the least effective.
Michigan University behavioural explanations
Michigan University researchers looked at the impact of leader behaviour on small
groups, formulating a questionnaire similar to the LBDQ.
Researchers identified two different types of leadership behaviour, independent of
each other:
» Production orientation: the leader sees workers as a means of fulfilling the
technical and production goals of the job.
» Employee orientation: the leader values workers and ensures their needs are met.
Unlike the Ohio University research, the Michigan University researchers suggested
high employee orientation was most effective.
Heifetz’s six principles in meeting adaptive challenges
Adaptive challenges arise when beliefs and values are challenged and competing
values and perspectives emerge. Ways of working sometimes need to change for an
organisation to develop.
This is difficult for leaders because:
» workers have to adapt and change, learning new roles and having new
responsibilities
» it can be distressing and often workers want leaders to take all responsibility.
However, this expectation has to be unlearned. Leaders have a responsibility
to ask tough questions, show workers the reality of the situation and challenge
issues that arise.
Heifetz and Laurie (1997) identified six principles of adaptive leadership:
1 ‘Get on the balcony’: step back and take an objective view from a distance to see
the big picture.
2 Identify the adaptive challenge: identify and respond to the challenge
effectively.
STUDY TIP
If you like talking
things through, why not
create a collaborative
spreadsheet with
classmates or online
contacts. If you each
fill in your areas of
expertise, you can
use the information
to identify your
own strengths and
weaknesses, and match
with a partner who
can help you, as you
help them. Add rows
to your spreadsheet
for describing and
evaluating; you could
be an expert on the
details of a key study
like Landry et al. (2019)
but still struggle to
make strong evaluation
points.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Evaluate the three
universalist theories,
including a discussion
about individual
and situational
explanations.
[10]
Think about the
individualist
nature of the
three universalist
theories that see
leadership qualities
as properties of the
individual and not of
the situation. What
are their strengths
and weaknesses?
You could contrast
these theories with
behavioural theories,
but ensure you
refer throughout
to individual
and situational
explanations (see
‘Issues and debates’
at the end of this
section).
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3 Regulate distress: allow views to be expressed; manage conflict and have a
steady presence in the workforce.
4 Maintain disciplined attention: confront different values, beliefs and habits,
allowing all voices to be heard.
5 Give the work back to the employees: support the workers in taking initiative to
problem-solve.
6 Protect voices of leadership from below: listen to and protect whistleblowers
and creative deviants, as they can demonstrate a fresh approach to change.
▼ Table 9.4 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Usefulness – behavioural explanations suggest leaders
can be trained to be more effective, and be appointed
for specific behaviours. Heifetz and Laurie’s (1997)
principles can be applied in an organisation to meet
adaptive challenges.
Generalisability – the Ohio and Michigan universities
are based in the USA; Heifetz’s model focuses on Western
workforce organisation; findings may not apply to all
cultures.
Reliability – there is real-life support for great person
theory, as leaders often become leaders without any
training. Charismatic leadership theory is supported by
quantitative studies. Heifetz’s principles are applied
successfully in healthcare, educational and military
settings.
Ethics – Stevens et al. (1985) found that transformational
leadership can lead to emotional stress and work conflict,
which could make it unethical. Similarly, imposing
adaptive leadership in cultures where the workforce
is looking for clarity and guidance may cause workers
uncertainty and stress.
Issues and debates
Individual and situational explanations
Universalist and behavioural theories of leadership do not consider situational
explanations. Adaptive leadership takes situational aspects of the workplace into
account, such as changing situations that lead to adaptive challenges and changes
in individual leadership behaviour.
Nature versus nurture
Great person theory suggests only those born with leadership characteristics can
become great leaders. This ignores the role of leadership training and fails to
explain why some who seem born for leadership do not become leaders. The other
theories sit more on the nurture side of the debate.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
9.13 Aisha works in an organisation that has experienced challenges from
competitors recently and needs to adapt its working practices. She is
meeting with colleagues who are resistant to change to discuss how best
to meet these adaptive challenges.
Using Heifetz’s six principles of adaptive leadership:
a Describe which one of these principles she may follow in the
meeting.
[2]
b Explain why this principle may help her to overcome the resistance
[2]
to change in order for the organisation to grow.
9.14 Explain why universalistic theories of leadership are more individualist
than other theories of leadership.
[4]
9.15 Self-report questionnaires are sometimes used to gather data on
leadership qualities. Using an example from a behavioural theory,
explain two weaknesses of this method.
[4]
9.16 Evaluate traditional and modern theories of leadership. Refer to
[10]
individual versus situational explanations in your answer.
236
SKILLS
BUILDER
Describe Heifetz’s
concept of adaptive
challenges, with
reference to at
least one of Heifetz
and Laurie’s (1997)
six principles of
leadership.
[4]
Define adaptive
challenges and
say how they are
problematic for
leaders. Then choose
one of the principles
of leadership and
explain how it allows
a leader to meet an
adaptive challenge.
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9 Organisational Psychology
9.2.2 Leadership style
Muczyk and Reimann’s (1987) four styles of leader behaviour
» Directive autocrat: no employee participation in decision-making and strong
direction (control) from leaders.
» Permissive autocrat: no employee participation in decision-making but far less
direction by leaders over workers.
» Directive democrat: high employee participation and high directive control.
» Permissive democrat: high employee participation and autonomy, with no close
monitoring.
As an organisation adapts and matures, there is often a gradual movement from
directive autocrat to permissive democrat.
Scouller’s levels of leadership
Scouller (2011) identified four dimensions of leadership:
1 Motivating purpose: setting a purpose that inspires people to work together
collaboratively and willingly towards a goal.
2 Task progress results: checking pace and quality of progress towards the goal.
3 Upholding group unity and spirit.
4 Attending to individual effectiveness.
These can only be achieved through working on three leadership levels at the same
time (the 3Ps).
▼ Table 9.5 Scouller’s levels of leadership
Public
» Setting the vision
» Ensuring unity of purpose
» Achieving the group task
» Building trust and a sense of togetherness
» Creating peer pressure to ensure high performance standards
Private
» Attending to individual task behaviours, through appraisal, discipline
and review
» Relationship building and assessment of people’s talents, competence
and commitment
Personal
» Technical: time management, individual and group psychology
» Attitude: believing people are important and gaining their trust
» Self-mastery: self-awareness and connecting with own values to
serve those you lead
Key study: Cuadrado et al. (2008)
Context:
» Eagly et al. (1992) found that female leaders obtained poorer evaluations
than males if they adopted stereotypically male leadership styles when their
evaluators were men.
» Men did not gain poorer evaluations than women if they adopted stereotypically
female leadership styles.
» This led to development of the role congruity theory of prejudice towards
female leaders.
Aims and hypotheses:
» Aim: Cuadrado et al. investigated whether women who occupy leadership roles are
evaluated less favourably than men when they adopt male leadership styles.
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» Hypotheses:
1 Female leaders will receive less favourable evaluations than male leaders when
they adopt male leadership styles.
2 Male leaders will not receive less favourable evaluations than female leaders
when they adopt female leadership styles.
3 Female leaders will receive worse evaluations from males than from females.
4 Male leaders will receive similar evaluations from both males and females.
Research method(s) and design:
» Research method: experiment.
» Design: independent measures; 2x2 design (male vs. female leadership style; male
vs. female leader).
» Data collection technique: structured questionnaire using rating scales.
Variables:
» Independent variables:
– female leader/male leadership style
– male leader/male leadership style
– female leader/female leadership style
– male leader/female leadership style.
» Dependent variable: 14 adjectives (seven positive and seven negative) selected
from previous research.
Controlled variables: random allocation of participants to conditions, to reduce
participant variability; standardised narrative for all participants; standardised
rating scales for all participants.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Explain two ways
that Scouller’s theory
of leadership could
be applied in an
organisation.
[4]
One way could relate
to feedback from
workers on a leader’s
public leadership
level and another
way could relate to
reflection by leaders
during appraisal,
on their private
leadership level. The
command term here
is ‘explain’, so give
detail and examples
in your answer.
Procedure:
» Participants read a description of a leader’s behaviour in a hospital emergency service
setting where doctors are stereotypically male and nurses stereotypically female.
» They were told to imagine they were part of this service.
» They anonymously rated the degree that the 14 adjectives applied to a supervisor
trying out for a job, using two seven-point rating scales – one for leadership
capacity and one for effectiveness.
Ethics: participants received credit for completion, so they may have felt that they
could not withdraw.
Results:
▼ Table 9.6 Means of leader’s sex, leadership style and their interactions on adjective list,
leadership capacity and leadership efficacy
Dependent
variables
Adjective list
Leadership capacity
Leadership efficacy
Leader’s sex
Male
Female
4.92
4.76
4.87
4.90
4.73
4.74
Leadership style
Stereotypically Stereotypically
male (SM)
female (SF)
4.32
5.51
4.00
5.48
4.21
5.41
Sex x style interaction
Male
Female Male SF
SM
SM
4.30
4.34
5.55
3.83
4.17
5.63
4.18
4.21
5.52
Female
SF
5.47
5.36
5.33
» Hypothesis 2 was supported.
» Hypotheses 1, 3 and 4 were not supported.
Conclusions:
» Modern organisations value female leadership styles more.
» Female leaders using male leadership styles do not receive less favourable
evaluations than males.
» Males do not favour male leaders.
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9 Organisational Psychology
▼ Table 9.7 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Usefulness – Scouller’s (2011) levels of leadership and
Muczyk and Reimann’s (1987) theory are more complex
than other explanations of leader styles and explain reallife working practices.
Validity – Muczyk and Reimann’s theory ignores
individual differences in how workers respond and
the personal characteristics of leaders. Cuadrado et
al.’s (2008) rating scales do not allow researchers to
investigate reasons for results, especially those that did
not support the hypotheses.
Ethics – in Cuadrado et al., confidentiality was maintained Ecological validity – Cuadrado et al. was a narrative
and there was no potential for harm as it was a narrative
account task and anonymous evaluation may not
task with no consequences for the supervisor or worker.
accurately reflect workplace dynamics.
Reliability – Cuadrado et al. used a standardised
procedure with rating scales, producing objective
quantitative data; can be easily replicated.
Issues and debates
Application to everyday life
Female management styles were evaluated more highly than male leadership styles –
this can be applied in training.
Reductionism versus holism
Leadership effectiveness and capacity were broken down into rating scales and
adjectives. This does not give insight into individual reasons behind ratings and is
reductionist.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
9.17Outline what is meant by reductionism, using an example from
leadership style.
[2]
9.18 Ahmed is starting on a leadership training course preparing him for
a new role in his organisation. The course will be using Scouller’s
levels of leadership model as its framework. Describe two skills that
Ahmed may be asked to focus on from the public level of leadership. [4]
9.19 From the key study by Cuadrado et al. (2008) on leadership styles and
gender, suggest one strength and one weakness of the use of rating
scales to measure the dependent variables.
[4]
9.20 Suggest how an organisation looking to recruit more females into
leadership posts might use the findings of Cuadrado et al.
[4]
SKILLS
BUILDER
Describe Cuadrado et
al.’s research (2008)
on leadership styles
and gender.
[6]
You have nine minutes
to answer sixmark questions, so
practise summarising
key studies to
approximately
200 words. As the
command term
is ‘describe’, the
question is assessing
knowledge and
understanding,
so strengths and
weaknesses are
unnecessary. Focus
on giving a detailed
and accurate answer.
9.2.3 Leaders and followers
Kouzes and Posner’s Leadership Practices Inventory
Kouzes and Posner (2017) identified five practices of exemplary leadership,
developing a Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) to measure these.
1
2
3
4
5
Model the way: leaders set an example for others to follow.
Inspire a shared vision: leaders enlist others in their plans.
Challenge the process: leaders seek change and ways to improve the organisation.
Enable others to act: leaders foster collaboration and build teams.
Encourage the heart: leaders keep hope and determination alive. Rewards are shared.
The Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI)
» This is a questionnaire containing six behavioural statements for each practice
(30 in total).
» The leader completes the LPI-Self. Five to ten other people complete the LPIObserver, about the leader.
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» The sets of scores are compared.
» Typical statements include:
19 Supports the decisions that people make on their own (enable).
25 Finds ways to celebrate accomplishments (encourage).
27 Speaks with genuine conviction about the higher meaning and purpose of
work (inspire).
Supporting research
Kouzes and Posner (1993) involved 2876 managers and observers from a wide variety
of organisations and found results from the self and observer were identical in terms
of rank order. There were no significant differences between genders, and the type
of organisation did not significantly affect the scores.
SKILLS BUILDER
Kristoff is a human resources manager at a hotel
and has always used psychometric testing when
interviewing to hire staff. He wants to add a more
qualitative method to increase the data on possible
hires. Suggest another method he could use, and give
one strength of it.
[4]
Think first about a weakness of psychometric
testing, and then decide which qualitative method
would best address this weakness. Focus on
exactly how the qualitative method would enhance
Kristoff’s understanding of his potential employees.
Followership
Kelley (1988) identified two key features of good followers:
» independent critical thinking, as contrasted with dependent uncritical thinking
» whether the follower has active or passive participation in working towards goals.
These two dimensions result in five different followership styles:
1 Exemplary: think for themselves, have positive energy and are actively engaged.
2 Alienated: mainly negative, think for themselves but do not contribute to the
positive direction of the organisation.
3 Passive (‘sheep’): passive in their thinking and engagement and motivated by
their leader not themselves.
4 Conformist (‘yes people’): passive in their thinking and engagement but generally
positive and on the leader’s side.
5 Pragmatic: show minimal independent thinking and only get involved when they
see the direction in which a situation is heading.
▼ Table 9.8 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Reliability – Kouzes and Posner’s (2017) LPI rating scales Validity – Kouzes and Posner’s psychometric tests may
produce objective and reliable quantitative data on the
be subject to social desirability bias, affecting the
five practices of exemplary leadership. Empirical support performance of the practices’ measures, lowering validity.
gives Kelley’s (1988) theory greater reliability. Research
evidence supports the idea that exemplary followership
leads to higher performance.
Usefulness – the results of Kouzes and Posner did not
show gender or social desirability bias, and they suggest
that LPI is applicable across organisations.
Kelley’s theory can be applied when recruiting and
training, giving organisations some idea of how effective
followership can be obtained.
Generalisation – some of Kelley’s followership styles may
not be generalisable to all cultures. Those that involve
‘thinking for themselves’ only apply to more individualist
cultures.
Issues and debates
Cultural differences
Oyetunji (2013) studied lecturers in Botswana universities who self-reported their
followership style and their perception of their own job performance. The research
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9 Organisational Psychology
found that passive followers (not exemplary followers) saw themselves as the best
performers. This could be due to cultural differences in what is viewed as a good
follower.
Idiographic versus nomothetic
The theory does not take individual differences into account so it is nomothetic,
generating key features and styles of all followership that it aims to apply to all
organisations.
SKILLS BUILDER
a Describe what psychologists have discovered about
the psychology of leaders and followers.
[6]
b Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about
the psychology of leaders and followers, including
a discussion about idiographic versus nomothetic
approaches.
[10]
Look at part b before you start writing. As it refers
to ‘idiographic versus nomothetic approaches’, you
will need to include at least one piece of research
in part a that can be evaluated in this respect. The
study does not need to have taken both approaches;
you could discuss how the findings would differ if
another type of approach had been taken.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
9.21 Zain’s friend at work has been studying about
followership behaviour and has said that Zain
uses an ‘alienated follower’ style.
a Suggest characteristics that Zain may
be showing that led to his friend’s
suggestion.
[2]
b Explain which followership style would
be better for Zain to show for him to be a
good follower.
[2]
9.22 Explain why an understanding of cultural
differences is important in research into
followership.
[4]
9.23Research into followership has sometimes
been criticised for being reductionist. Using
Kelley’s theory, explain what is meant by
reductionism.
[2]
9.24 Explain two weaknesses of the use of
psychometric tests to study leadership. [4]
9.3 Group behaviour in organisations
9.3.1 Group development and decision-making
STUDY TIP
Rating scales are commonly used in organisational psychology research. Try designing
your own rating scale to measure something you are interested in – maybe your
revision progress. Test it on three or four friends. This is a good way to learn about the
strengths and weaknesses of rating scales.
Tuckman and Jensen’s (2010) stages of group development
Tuckman (1965) reviewed 55 articles studying small group development and
identified four common concepts that he used as the basis of his original group
development model: forming, storming, norming and performing.
In 1977, Tuckman and Jensen added a final stage – adjourning. Tuckman and Jensen
(2010) represent the latest five-stage model.
Individuals come together
Develop and present ideas;
some can cause conflict
Forming
Storming
Try to agree a strategy
Norming
Function
as a team
Performing
Goals accomplished; group
moves apart
Adjourning (1977)
▲ Figure 9.2 Tuckman and Jensen’s (2010) model of group development
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SKILLS BUILDER
Elisa is part of a team considering using an AI tool
to market the organisation’s service to customers.
The team has only just been formed and represents
a diverse range of opinions on, and experience with,
AI tools, from almost none to AI tools developers.
Using Tuckman and Jensen’s (2010) model of group
development:
a Describe the decision-making stages that the team
will move through before adjourning after the task
is completed.
[6]
b Explain which stage may be most challenging for
them, giving two reasons for your answer.
[4]
Knowledge (part a) and application (part b) of
Tuckman and Jensen’s model is required. For
part a, give a full description of each stage and
contextualise to Elisa’s marketing team. To answer
part b, choose two statements from the description
given and relate each to the stage chosen as
an explanation for why this stage will be most
challenging for Elisa’s team.
Belbin’s (1981) nine team roles
Belbin used observation of group dynamics and psychometric testing to develop his
nine individual team roles.
» Thought-related roles:
– Plants: propose new ideas and approaches.
– Monitor-evaluators: analyse and evaluate all options.
– Specialists: get the job done.
» People-related roles:
– Co-ordinators: are mature and confident; make good chairpersons.
– Resource investigators: explore opportunities and develop contacts.
– Team workers: are diplomatic and good negotiators.
» Action-related roles:
– Shapers: challenge the team to improve.
– Implementers: get things done efficiently.
– Completer-finishers: ensure project completion according to the deadline.
To measure these, Belbin constructed the Belbin Self Perception Inventory, a
forced-choice questionnaire. With this questionnaire, he also developed observer
statements to be used with six other people, which are not forced-choice. These six
responses are correlated to measure the validity of the inventory.
Faulty decision-making
Groupthink
The term groupthink (Janis, 1971) is used to understand why group members
continue with an obviously wrong decision or course of action.
Explanation:
» The desire for agreement becomes powerful, replacing objectivity.
» Group norms suppress critical thinking.
» Group pressures to conform discourage objections.
» The group sometimes has no outside information to help make decisions.
Social norms:
» Conformity increases as group cohesiveness grows and suppresses conflict.
» Members may think a proposal is a good one but have not examined it properly.
» Some may have doubts but ignore them and agree with the group.
Stress:
» The group shares the same values, so strong psychological pressure is created.
» A crisis situation encourages groupthink.
Eight features of groupthink
1 Illusion of invulnerability: over-optimism and risk-taking.
2 Rationale: members rationalise their beliefs, ignoring warnings.
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9 Organisational Psychology
3 Morality: members believe that their group has high morals and so ignore the
moral consequences of decisions.
4 Stereotypes: members have stereotypical beliefs of outgroups.
5 Pressure: members apply pressure to anyone who expresses doubts.
6 Self-censorship: members avoid expressing opinions that deviate from the group
opinion.
7 Illusion of unanimity: the assumption that anyone who remains silent agrees
with the group.
8 Mindguards: people in the group who guard members from outside arguments
that may break the consensus.
Strategies to avoid groupthink
» Invite outside experts or senior managers to meetings to challenge the ideas of the
group members. However, not everyone may express their views fully or be honest.
» Have a member play ‘devil’s advocate’ and go against the majority view to
challenge ideas and get justification of decisions.
» Have senior managers inform group members that they are all equally responsible
for the decisions being made, to reduce illusions of invulnerability.
» Each group member is assigned the role of critical evaluator with priority to air
doubts.
SKILLS BUILDER
DeAnna is leading a group aimed at improving
productivity among shop-floor workers. She started
by feeling positive, but the more meetings they have,
the more the other group members are convincing
her that this project cannot work. They seem to have
a stereotypically negative view of the other workers.
Explain one strategy DeAnna could use to counteract
this groupthink.
[2]
This will need knowledge of the theory of
groupthink and strategies to overcome it. Focus on
one strategy for overcoming groupthink and explain
it clearly in relation to DeAnna’s aim of improving
productivity amongst shop-floor workers.
Forsyth’s cognitive limitations and errors
In his book Group Dynamics, Forsyth (2006) discussed the three general categories of
potential biases first identified by Kerr et al. (1996):
1 Sins of commission (acting on false information):
– Belief perseverance: inaccurate information is relied on.
– Sunk cost bias: group is reluctant to change their decision because they have
invested money or time.
– Extra-evidentiary bias: information is used when group has been explicitly
told to ignore it.
– Hindsight bias: overestimating the accuracy of prior knowledge of an outcome.
2 Sins of omission (ignoring useful information):
– Base rate bias: ignoring relevant information about general trends.
– Fundamental attribution error: stressing dispositional (personality) causes for
people’s behaviour and ignoring situational factors.
3 Sins of imprecision (using heuristics that oversimplify):
– Availability heuristics: basing a decision just on available information.
– Conjunction bias: failing to realise that the probability that two events occur
together is always going to be less than only one of the events occurring.
– Representativeness heuristics: relying heavily on factors that seem initially to
make sense but are misleading.
Strategies to avoid cognitive errors
» Educate yourself on cognitive errors in order to understand why they occur.
» With fundamental attribution error, think of times when situational factors
caused behaviour.
» Ensure the group is diverse and that the leader’s appointment will not overpower
the group.
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▼ Table 9.9 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Validity – Tuckman and Jensen’s (2010) model has
changed with the times to include a final stage,
showing flexibility, increasing the theory’s validity.
Reliability – Tuckman and Jensen’s model lacks empirical
evidence, being based mainly on theoretical articles rather
than studies.
Reliability – Belbin (1981) used observations
to construct his theory, with self-reports and
observer reports to measure individuals’ team roles.
Triangulation of quantitative methods increases
reliability of the findings. Forsyth’s (2006) theory of
cognitive errors is supported by empirical research,
increasing its reliability.
Validity – Belbin’s forced-choice self-reports are subject
to social desirability bias, and do not allow reasons for
answers. Observer reports could be subject to situational
variables. Groupthink empirical support often comes from
retrospective case studies, subject to bias and faulty
memory.
Usefulness – organisations could use Tuckman and
Jensen’s group development model and Belbin’s
theory of team roles to review how teams approach
collaborative decision-making and develop effective
team work.
Janis (1971) used real-life examples to construct
groupthink theory, explaining poor decision-making, so
strategies can be implemented to ensure this does not
recur.
If organisations understand that groups with members
with similar beliefs lead to bias (Forsyth, 2006), care
can be taken to ensure a diversity of opinion within
the group.
Cultural bias – Tuckman and Jensen’s model was developed
in the USA, so it may not apply equally to all cultures. Case
studies used to develop groupthink theory are based upon
decisions made in individualist cultures. The decisionmaking process may be different in collectivist cultures.
Some of the cognitive errors suggested in Forsyth’s theory
(e.g. attribution error) only apply to individualistic
cultures.
Issues and debates
Application to everyday life
Theories of group decision-making have application to everyday life. Once leaders in
organisations understand the risks of groupthink and cognitive bias, they can apply
these theories to improve group decision-making in their organisation.
Individual and situational explanations
Groupthink considers the effects of personality, as well as the influence of the
situation, making it a more complete theory.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
9.25 Ewald is going to give a presentation about the dangers of groupthink.
Suggest two factors that he may focus on.
[4]
9.26 Belbin (1981) used observation of group dynamics and psychometric
testing to develop his nine individual team roles. Evaluate observation
as a research method for identifying team roles.
[6]
9.27 Joanna has identified heuristics as problematic in her group when it
comes to decision-making. Suggest two ways in which she can reduce
cognitive errors in the group.
[4]
9.28 Forsyth (2006) proposed a theory of cognitive biases as responsible for
faulty decision-making.
aOutline one of the biases proposed by Forsyth.
[2]
b Explain the difference between sins of commission and sins of
omission, giving an example of each.
[4]
c Explain one way in which this theory is reductionist.
[2]
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SKILLS
BUILDER
Explain one weakness
of research into
group behaviour in
organisations from
the situational side
of the individual
and situational
explanations issue. [2]
Focus your answer
on a problem with
Forsyth’s (2006)
cognitive limitations
and errors that can be
related to individual
thinking. Think about
what is being blamed
for errors (individual
cognitive biases),
then think about
situational factors that
could cause errors
in decision-making.
The command term
‘explain’ means you
need to not only state
your weakness but
also say why it is a
weakness.
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9 Organisational Psychology
9.3.2 Individual and group performance
Social facilitation
Social facilitation was studied by Triplett (1898), who observed that others’
presence affected performance.
Two factors affecting social facilitation are:
» drive: the increased levels of arousal and internal motivation used to reach a goal
– drive theory: Zajonc (Zajonc and Sales, 1966) suggested that in others’
presence, people perform simple familiar tasks better but complex or new
tasks worse (due to social inhibition) than if they were alone
» evaluation apprehension: anxiety a person feels about being judged by others.
Schmitt et al. (1986) randomly assigned 45 undergraduates to one of three working
conditions to demonstrate social facilitation and evaluation apprehension.
▼ Table 9.10 The effects of different working conditions on task speed
Condition
Simple task speed Complex task speed
Alone
Slowest
Fastest
In the presence of someone wearing a
blindfold and headphones
Faster than alone
Slower than alone
In presence of an evaluating experimenter Fastest
Slowest
Social loafing
Social loafing was first studied by Ringelmann (1913), who observed that people
did not reach their individual potential in groups. A group still outperformed an
individual, but not at the rate expected. He found that the more people who were
pulling on a rope attached to a pressure gauge, the further below their expected
pressure they performed.
Social impact theory
Latané (1981) used this to explain social loafing. In a group, social influence is
spread across all members and the bigger the group, the less influence each
individual member has. This can lead to social loafing if the person is not being
evaluated on their individual performance.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Explain one factor
that may lead to social
loafing.
[2]
Clearly identify the
factor and explain
how it affects the
likelihood of social
loafing. Social
loafing is mainly
affected by diffusion
of responsibility,
which is based on
two things: size of the
group and anonymity
of its members. You
could use Latané’s
(1981) social impact
theory to explain
how one of these is
related to an increase
in social loafing.
Relevant research: Earley (1993)
Aims:
» To investigate the effect of culture on social loafing.
» To see whether group and individual efficacy expectations will mediate the
effects of group context and collectivism-individualism on performance.
Methodology:
» Volunteer sample of 165 entry or middle managers: 45 Israelis, 60 Chinese and 60
Americans, aged between 25 and 40.
» Experiment, in which participants were randomly assigned to perform tasks under
three different conditions: alone; member of a ten-person outgroup; member of a
ten-person ingroup.
» In the group conditions, participants were not in the physical presence of others
but were told they were part of an ingroup/outgroup.
– Task: 60 minutes’ office work with a simulated ‘in-basket’ of 40 tasks.
– Measured performance, individualism-collectivism and individual and group
self-efficacy.
Results:
» Individualists performed better alone.
» Collectivists performed better in ingroups.
» Results were partly mediated by self-efficacy levels and expected performance.
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» Measures of group and individual self-efficacy and anticipated performance were
higher for collectivists in ingroups.
Conclusions:
» Individual and group efficacy increases in collectivists in ingroups.
» Individual loafing may occur in collectivists when working alone.
» Although collectivism-individualism affects group performance, type of group
may be more important.
Key study: Claypoole and Szalma (2019)
Context:
» Research suggests that electronic performance monitoring (EPM) may improve
productivity and performance.
» However, social facilitation suggests that evaluation apprehension may impair
performance of a difficult task that is monitored by another, and Aiello and Svec
(1993) found this was also the case with EPM.
Aim: to determine whether social facilitation effects could be observed when using
EPM on a vigilance task.
Research methods and design:
» Research method: experiment.
» Design: independent samples.
Variables:
» Independent variable: presence/absence of EPM (webcam and video recorder).
» Dependent variables: speed and accuracy of response to 20 random ‘critical
signals’ in a 24-minute period.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Outline one strength
and one weakness
of Earley’s (1993)
research into the
effect of culture on
social loafing.
[4]
Establish structure
by making clear
points about
Earley’s social
loafing research.
For a strength, you
could discuss how
Israelis, Chinese
and Americans were
used in the sample.
Then explain why it
is a strength – for
instance, ‘Findings
are relevant to
diverse cultures,
making results more
generalisable.’
Controlled variables: time period; random allocation of participants to either the
experimental or the control condition; identical task for both groups.
Sample: volunteer sample of 106 US undergraduates, 65 female/41 male
(mean age: 20.57 years).
Procedure:
» Participants completed a demographics questionnaire.
» Experimental condition participants were informed about recording (no actual
recording was done).
» Participants completed a three-minute practice session followed by a 24-minute
vigilance task:
– During a computer display of two-digit numbers, a number with only a
difference of 0 or +/–1 between each digit, like 45 or 66, would appear.
– As soon as it appeared, participants should press the spacebar.
– There were 20 of these critical signals.
Ethics: voluntary and anonymous participation – course credit was given; informed
consent obtained, with some deception, revealed in debriefing.
Results:
▼ Table 9.11 Correct detections, overall proportion of false alarms and over median
response time in milliseconds (ms)
Electronic presence (n = 53)
Control (n = 53)
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Correct detections 0.6906
0.20
0.6038
0.21
False alarms
0.0059
0.01
0.0201
0.05
Response times
767.34
67.41
802.02
75.67
» EPM condition participants detected significantly more critical signals and had
significantly fewer false alarms.
» EPM condition participants also had faster median times for each detection.
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9 Organisational Psychology
Conclusions:
» Social facilitation, including EPM, can be used to improve performance on
cognitively demanding but boring vigilance tasks.
» Video-based monitoring is an effective monitoring method.
▼ Table 9.12 Methodological issues
Strengths
Quantitative data – Earley (1993) used quantitative data
collection, increasing replicability. Claypoole and Szalma
(2019) measured data objectively and statistics were
used to draw conclusions regarding social facilitation
function of EPM.
Reliability – Earley used quantitative methodology
(e.g. rating scales); this is less open to interpretation
and more reliable than qualitative methods. Claypoole
and Szalma used a standardised procedure, which
increases the replicability of the research.
Usefulness – organisations can use social facilitation
theory to predict how people will work in others’
presence and change working practices accordingly.
Earley’s findings can be applied in individualist and
collectivist cultures, as the participants were from both.
Claypoole and Szalma’s research can be used to inform
organisations wanting to introduce EPM.
Weaknesses
Ecological validity – supporting research for theories of
individual and group performance is experimental, with
low mundane realism. Earley’s participants were just told
that they were members of an ingroup or outgroup; there
was no interaction with the group. Claypoole and Szalma
employed standardised conditions with an unrealistic task.
Generalisability – Claypoole and Szalma used
participants all from the same USA university. Social
facilitation may not be experienced similarly in other
populations.
Type of data – all of the individual and group
performance studies employed quantitative data
collection; this does not allow researchers to investigate
reasons for the results, making these explanations
incomplete.
Issues and debates
Cultural differences
Cultural differences may affect how people react to others’ presence, whether real
or electronic. Use of vigilance tasks and webcams varies, so participants would vary
depending on familiarity with surveillance.
Application to everyday life
If EPM can increase performance on vigilance tasks, then organisations can use it to
increase workplace productivity. However, volunteer participants agreed willingly to
EPM use. There are ethical considerations regarding workplace use.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
9.29 Annika complains about group work at school, and says even though the
other group members are her friends, they leave her to do most of the
task. She accuses them of social loafing and wants to work individually.
[2]
a Explain social loafing.
b With reference to Earley’s (1993) research, explain what Annika’s
desire to work alone, rather than with her ingroup, suggests
[4]
about her.
9.30 From the key study by Claypoole and Szalma (2019) on EPM and social
facilitation in relation to vigilance tasks, explain one strength of the
data gathered.
[2]
9.31Using examples of research into individual and group performance,
explain what is meant by cultural differences.
[4]
9.32Nelson is a manager in an organisation and wants to use EPM to
monitor workers’ performance. Explain two ethical guidelines that
should be followed when introducing EPM into the workplace to
increase productivity.
[4]
SKILLS
BUILDER
Describe the study by
Claypoole and Szalma
(2019) on EPM and
social facilitation in
relation to vigilance
tasks.
[6]
As the command
term is ‘describe’,
the question is
assessing knowledge
and understanding
only. You could
include who, what,
where, when and
how within your
answer so the main
features are covered
(sample, method,
location, timings and
procedure).
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9.3.3 Conflict at work
Levels of group conflict
The cause of workplace conflict can be:
» miscommunication between workers
» when workers believe another individual/group will affect them negatively in
some way.
The conflict may be:
» personal
» task-related
» due to procedural issues between employees.
Workplace conflict has been categorised on four levels.
Intra-individual conflict
Intra-individual conflict involves choice:
» between two positive options
» between two negative options
» concerning something that has both positive and negative factors, such as being
offered a good job in a bad location.
Inter-individual conflict
Barki and Hartwick (2004) identified three different components of inter-individual
conflict:
» behavioural (interference)
» cognitive (disagreement)
» affective (negative emotions).
Intra-group conflict
Intra-group conflict concerns:
» process conflict
» relationship conflict
» task conflict.
Inter-group conflict
Ingroup cohesiveness and loyalty may increase at work, but an ‘us’ and ‘them’
mentality may form. When budgets are limited, competition for scarce resources can
lead to inter-group conflict.
Causes of organisational group conflict
Miles (1980) identified a number of factors:
» frequency of working together
» status inconsistencies
» communication problems
» individual differences.
Other causes of organisational group conflict are:
» distrust
» scarce resources
» organisational changes.
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9 Organisational Psychology
Causes of individual/situational interpersonal group conflict
▼ Table 9.13 Causes of interpersonal group conflict
Individual
Situational
Personality differences
Competition for scarce resources, like
awards or promotions
Clashes of values and interests
Power and status differences
Poor communication
Thomas-Kilmann’s (1974) five conflict-handling modes
In conflict situations, an individual’s behaviour can be described along two
dimensions: assertiveness and cooperativeness.
The Thomas-Kilmann model identifies and measures five conflict-handling modes on
these two dimensions, using the Thomas-Kilmann conflict mode instrument (TKI),
comprising forced-choice answers to pairs of statements linked to each of the five
conflict-handling modes.
The five conflict-handling modes are:
1 Competing: when a person is assertive and uncooperative, pursuing their own
concerns.
2 Accommodating: when a person is unassertive and cooperative, neglecting their
own concerns.
3 Avoiding: this person is unassertive and uncooperative, avoiding conflict.
4 Collaborating: when a person is assertive and cooperative, working well with
others.
5 Compromising: this person is moderately assertive and cooperative – the true
middle-ground solution.
Certain people use some conflict-handling modes better than others. Workplace
conflict behaviour is therefore a result of both personal predispositions and the
situational requirements.
Bullying at work
Bullying occurs when someone at work is systematically subjected to aggression
from others over a period of time, where they cannot defend themselves or escape
the situation.
Relevant research: Einarsen (1999)
Aim: to review and summarise research and literature on the nature and causes of
bullying at work.
Methodology: review article, using secondary sources.
Results:
» Nature of bullying:
1 Work-related bullying, such as changing work tasks to make them more
difficult.
2 Social isolation.
3 Ridicule – insulting remarks or gossip.
4 Verbal threats – being criticised or humiliated in front of others.
5 Physical violence or threats of violence – this is very rare.
» Phases of bullying (escalating from 1 to 4):
1 Aggressive behaviour – subtle aggression begins against one or more people.
2 Bullying – aggression becomes more open.
3 Stigmatisation and victimisation – victim is harassed and alienated, or
subjected to offensive remarks and jokes.
4 Trauma – the situation affects the victim’s mental and/or physical health.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Explain one strength
of the levels of group
conflict explanation for
work conflict.
[2]
Focus on the theory
and explanation
when planning
your answer. You
could identify one
strength as the
ability to explain
conflict by referring
to both individual
and situational
factors, thus creating
a more complete
theory. You could
also think about
Sherif’s (1962) field
experiment evidence
of the competition for
scarce resources,
which provides
empirical support.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Suggest two ways that
Thomas-Kilmann’s
conflict-handling
modes could be used
in an organisation. [4]
Describe the conflicthandling modes first,
and then identify two
ways that a leader
could use this model,
including the TKI,
if you think this is
appropriate in the
workplace.
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» Causes of bullying:
1 The bully: engages in bullying because of competition for status and jobs,
feelings of envy and uncertainty.
2 The victim: the personality of the victim provokes aggression in others.
3 The workplace: poor workplace design, poor leadership behaviour, socially
exposed victim and low moral standards in the department can lead to
increased bullying.
Conclusions: future research should focus on victims’ feelings and also address both
predatory and dispute-related bullying and take these differences into account.
▼ Table 9.14 Methodological issues
Strengths
Reliability – Sherif (1962) developed realistic conflict theory,
so explanations of group conflict have research support.
TKI gathers objective, quantitative data and can be
replicated with large numbers of diverse participants, giving
high reliability. Einarsen’s (1999) review article methodology
used other research studies to summarise the current
understanding of bullying, so there is research support.
Usefulness – explanations for conflict at work are based
on individual and situational factors, so research is helpful
for organisations trying to resolve conflict at work.
Individuals can use Thomas-Kilmann’s (1974) different
styles of conflict resolution to recognise their own
strengths in terms of the style they are most comfortable
using and to consider other styles that they use less.
In Einarsen, awareness of early stages of bullying may
mean it can be stopped quickly, meaning less damage to
the victim and the organisation’s reputation.
Weaknesses
Ethics – research needs to minimise harm and maximise
benefits to the people being researched and the wider
population (Einarsen, 1999). Blaming victims for bullying
by pointing to their personality is unethical and puts
them at risk of further psychological harm.
Cultural differences – group conflict explanations are
individualistic, highlighting the importance of status,
respect and personality. These may not be important
factors in collectivist societies. In the Thomas-Kilmann
model, individuals from collectivistic cultures may select
avoiding and accommodating styles of conflict-handling
more often than those from individualistic cultures.
Validity – TKI and Einarsen’s self-report method are both
subject to social desirability bias.
Issues and debates
Individual and situational explanations
Einarsen (1999) considers the individual and situational aspects of bullying. He
discusses the role of personality in both the victim and the bully, but also the
relevance of situational factors in workplace leadership, design and morality.
Idiographic versus nomothetic
Thomas-Kilmann’s conflict styles take the nomothetic approach, assuming in conflict
situations all behaviour can be measured along two dimensions. A more idiographic
approach using case studies or interviews may show far more ways of responding to
conflict.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
9.33 Describe one individual and one situational cause of interpersonal
group conflict in work.
9.34 Fergus does anything to avoid work conflict, being very passive and
avoiding any disagreement, however minor.
a Suggest which of Thomas-Kilmann’s (1974) conflict-handling
modes Fergus is using.
b Suggest which of the other conflict-handling modes Fergus should
adopt, in order to feel more comfortable in handling work conflicts.
Give one reason for your answer.
9.35 Evaluate the self-report method of questionnaires when investigating
conflict at work.
9.36 Explain one ethical issue with Einarsen’s (1999) study into the nature
of bullying at work.
250
[4]
[2]
[4]
[6]
[2]
SKILLS
BUILDER
Explain the two
dimensions of
Thomas-Kilmann’s
(1974) five conflicthandling modes. [2]
Describe the two
dimensions (axes)
along which the
five modes fall and
explain how they
relate to the modes.
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9 Organisational Psychology
9.4 Organisational work conditions
9.4.1 Physical work conditions
The impact of physical work conditions on productivity
Böckerman and Ilmakunnas (2012) found that increasing workers’ satisfaction with
their environment also increased their productivity.
Some factors that may affect work performance are:
» temperature
» noise
» light.
The Hawthorne effect (Mayo et al.)
The term ‘Hawthorne effect’ was first used by the sociologist Landsberger in 1958
when he analysed the results of studies conducted between 1924 and 1932 at
the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago. Jackson et al.
conducted the first field experiments into the effect of lighting at the plant on the
productivity levels, in 1924–1927. The first of these is described below. Mayo took
over and extended the research from 1928 onwards.
STUDY TIP
For each piece of
‘relevant research’,
try to oppose the
points presented in
the methodological
evaluation tables.
For example, if the
table gives a strength
relating to validity, try
to create a validityrelated weakness.
Systematically ‘arguing’
in both directions (for
and against) will elevate
your evaluation, possibly
to the top band.
Aim: to investigate the effect of lighting on productivity levels.
Procedure and results:
» The control group’s lighting remained constant.
» In the experimental group, lighting levels were decreased:
– After one week, production had increased.
– In the second week, lighting levels were reduced further and productivity
increased again.
– Finally, lighting levels were decreased to ‘moonlight’, but productivity did not
change.
Conclusions: lighting levels were irrelevant; workers knew they were being
observed, and so the longer the study went on, the harder they worked.
Follow-on studies
Mayo et al. conducted a series of experiments changing one part of the work
environment, such as rest periods, working day or other physical conditions, for a
group of five women. The results provided support for the Hawthorne effect, as
whatever was changed, the women worked harder and more efficiently.
Kompier (2006)
Kompier (2006) suggested five reasons why the Hawthorne effect is a myth ‘that has
become a legend’.
▼ Table 9.15 Reasons why the Hawthorne effect is a myth
Myth
Description
Scientific worth
The quality of the original case studies is low.
Continuous improvement
In many of the original studies, researchers ignored periods of time when productivity
went down.
Social factors being the
most important
Researchers suggested that productivity improved because of a change in supervision
and the extra attention workers received, and not economic interest. However, when
incentivised pay was introduced in one study productivity increased, and when it was
taken away it dropped.
Wholehearted cooperation
Researchers suggested that in the first study everyone co-operated with the experiment
and with management. However, worker resistance towards management was documented.
Neurotic worker
Workforce conflict was blamed on the mental health or issues of the worker, blaming the
individual rather than the work situation.
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Impact of the work environment design: open-plan offices
An open-plan office is where all employees work on the same floor within the same
open space. These spaces are intended to increase collaboration, creativity and
productivity through skills and ideas-sharing.
James et al. (2021) identified three main factors influencing the recent move to
open-plan offices:
» type of work – more knowledge-based and complex
» technological changes – lightweight laptops and available internet mean work
can be done from home, leaving desks unoccupied
» cost – cheaper and more space-efficient.
There are contradictory findings regarding the impact of open-plan offices on health
and social relationships:
» Oommen et al. (2008):
– positive impacts – more communication, collaboration and flexibility to work
in different areas
– negative aspects – noisy, loss of concentration, lack of privacy and more
stressful.
» James et al. (2021):
– mainly negatives – affected health and increased stress, lack of privacy, poor
lighting, noisy and poor temperature control.
Relevant research: Oldham and Brass (1979)
Aim: to investigate changes in employees’ reactions to work after moving to an
open-plan office.
Methodology:
» Seven-point rating scale questionnaire measuring job satisfaction, interpersonal
satisfaction and internal work motivation.
» Completed by American newspaper employees; results compared with two control
groups.
» Management and employees were questioned informally for qualitative data.
» Interviews were held to see whether other changes in the working environment
may have occurred simultaneously.
SKILLS
BUILDER
a Describe what
psychologists
have discovered
about the impact of
physical
work conditions on
productivity.
[6]
b Evaluate what
psychologists
have discovered
about the impact
of physical work
conditions on
productivity,
including a
discussion on field
experiments. [10]
In part b, evaluating
the methodology
of the research
studies used in
part a, research by
Mayo et al. (1924)
and Kompier (2006)
could cue you to
discuss issues such
as objectivity and
generalisations.
Results:
» Quantitative findings:
– Employees’ internal motivation and satisfaction fell sharply after the move.
– There was almost no difference between the experimental group scores and
quasi-control group, so decreased motivation and satisfaction was not a
result of order effects from completing the questionnaire before and after the
move.
– A non-equivalent control group showed no difference in their scores before
and after the move.
» Qualitative findings:
– Interviewees described the open-plan office as a ‘fishbowl’, ‘cage’ or ‘warehouse’.
– They felt a lack of privacy and inability to concentrate due to noise.
Conclusion:
» Moving from conventional offices to open-plan office styles can reduce workers’
levels of motivation and satisfaction.
» Noise levels and lack of privacy can affect workers’ concentration levels negatively.
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9 Organisational Psychology
▼ Table 9.16 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Reliability – studies have replicated the Hawthorne
effect and found those who are observed act differently.
Detailed research makes it easy to replicate. Oldham and
Brass (1979) used a standardised procedure, with the
same structured questionnaire for every participant. This
allows easy replication.
Generalisability – for Mayo et al. (1920s and 1930s),
support came from one set of studies conducted at an
electrical plant in Chicago, USA. Oldham and Brass used
data from one US company. Particular characteristics may
be more prominent meaning open-plan offices did not
suit the workers. Cultural factors may have contributed to
results, limiting generalisability.
Quantitative and qualitative data – Mayo et al. used
quantitative and qualitative data from observations,
interviews, blood pressure and heart monitoring. Oldham
and Brass used seven-point rating scales and informal
interviews. The triangulation of methods increases internal
validity.
Validity – Oldham and Brass’ research is from 1979,
lowering the study’s temporal validity. However, James et
al. (2021) found a similar negative reaction to open-plan
offices nowadays.
Issues and debates
Determinism versus free will
The Hawthorne effect is deterministic, seeing behaviour as determined by social
situations and interactions. The researchers concluded that attention and the social
presence of others caused the workers’ behaviour change. This ignores the role of
free will.
Application to everyday life
These two studies into physical work conditions have high ecological validity. Both
used workers who were going about their normal work. Although Oldham and Brass
(1979) used standardised questionnaires, they also had informal conversations with
workers, enriching the findings from quantitative data and increasing application to
everyday life.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
9.37Outline what is meant by determinism, using an example from research
into physical work conditions.
[2]
9.38 Lori’s workplace manager is considering changing the environment to
an open-plan office, saying that it will encourage more collaborative
working. Lori and her colleagues are anxious about this and are
preparing a response. Suggest two arguments they may use to try and
persuade management that this may not be a good idea. Use evidence
from research in your answer.
[4]
9.39 Explain one strength and one weakness of research investigating the
Hawthorne effect.
[2]
9.40 A new shop-floor manager has taken over and wants to increase the
productivity of the sewing machine operators. First, she wants to find out
what conditions might improve productivity and what conditions either
have no effect or reduce productivity.
a Plan a study using worker questionnaires to find out what conditions
the workers need for productivity to improve. Your plan must
include details about question format and sampling technique.
[10]
b Choose a qualitative research method to give you some more
information, and explain two strengths of your choice.
[4]
STUDY TIP
Think carefully about
the named research
method in ‘Plan a
study’ questions like
9.40 below. You need
to consider the type
of data that will be
produced and how it
can be analysed. For
example, questionnaire
data is objective and
quantitative, but can
also make the results
reductionist. Adding
a qualitative method
makes the study more
holistic and allows you
to understand not just
the ‘what’ but the ‘why’.
What type of qualitative
research method would
you choose and how
would you conduct the
research?
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9.4.2 Temporal conditions of work environments
Rotational shift work
This is used in manufacturing sectors for continuous production.
For example:
» Forward rotation shift (phase delay): shift moves from a morning to evening
shift, then possibly to a night shift before the cycle begins again. This decreases
disruption to the worker’s circadian rhythm.
» Backward rotation shift (phase advance): shift moves from a night to evening
shift and then to a morning shift. This is known for its negative effect on health.
▼ Table 9.17 Rotation shifts
Type
Details
Issues
Rapid rotation:
metropolitan
Fast forward rotation – four teams x three eight-hour shifts. Each
team does two early shifts (6 a.m. to 2 p.m.), two late shifts
(2 p.m. to 10 p.m.) and two night shifts (10 p.m. to 6 a.m.) and
then has two days off, with a free weekend every eight weeks.
Difficult to cover if a worker is
absent.
Rapid rotation:
continental
Fast forward rotation – four teams:
» Week 1: two early, three late and two night shifts
» Week 2: two days off, three early and two late shifts
» Week 3: two night shifts, three days off, two early shifts
» Week 4: two late, three night shifts, two days off
More popular than metropolitan
shifts as it allows for every
fourth weekend off.
Slow rotation
Longer intervals between shift changes: day shifts for several
weeks and then night shifts for the same number of weeks.
More consistency and regular
patterns allow workers to plan
leisure time. The body adjusts
more easily to regular schedules.
On-call work patterns
To provide 24/7 coverage, workers are on ‘standby’ to respond. This is most common
in places such as hospitals or fire service.
Two types:
1 Go home after work and at weekends, but can be called back. Need to live near to
work and be able to get there very soon after being called. Not allowed to drink
alcohol during on-call periods, must always be contactable by phone and possibly
be awake at set times. Paid if you are called on.
2 Remain at place of work, but when on call you are able to rest. Paid for whole
on-call period.
Nicol and Botterill (2004) found that on-call work may increase stress, affect mental
health, decrease quality and quantity of sleep, and disrupt family and social life.
Flexi-time
With flexi-time working, people work the same number of hours weekly but
whenever they choose, within employer-set limits. This does not affect total working
hours or responsibilities. It requires workers to be disciplined and an ability to track
when everyone is working and where.
For example:
» Arrive: any time between 7 a.m. and 10 a.m.
» Lunch: any time between 12 p.m. and 2 p.m.
» Leave: any time between 4 p.m. and 6 p.m.
» Core working hours: 10 a.m.–12 p.m. and 2 p.m.–4 p.m.
Effects on workers:
» Flexi-time increases satisfaction and morale.
» It reduces stress and fatigue.
» Traffic can be avoided.
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9 Organisational Psychology
» Employees can choose to be in the office for more hours one day and work
shorter hours the next day.
» It allows people to work and meet family commitments.
Effects of shift work
Health
Ansiau et al. (2017) investigated the effects of shift work on various factors:
» Sleep quality: shift workers and ex-shift workers have poor quantity and quality
of sleep.
» Quality of life: shift workers have more chronic fatigue than non-shift workers,
but there are no differences in social isolation or stress.
» Physical health: shift workers are more likely to suffer from obesity, peptic
ulcers, gastric problems, failure to control blood sugar levels and cardiovascular
disease, especially those who work shifts for more than ten years.
» Cognition: shift workers have poorer attention span and episodic memory than
non-shift workers. Those who ceased shift work more than five years previously
had no differences in cognitive performance.
Cardiovascular disease (CVD)
Torquati et al. (2018) found the risk of CVD to be 17 per cent higher among shift
workers than non-shift workers. The risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) morbidity
was 26 per cent higher.
Abu Farha and Alefishat (2018) found night shift workers in Jordan had
raised risk of CVD and clogged arteries, with frequent and longer night shifts
increasing the risk.
Reproductive effects
Harrington (2001) found night shift work carries a higher risk to women of
childbearing age. This is possibly due to menstrual cycle disruptions and increased
stress because of conflicts between night shifts and family life. There was an
increased risk of miscarriage, low birth weight and premature birth.
Accidents
Shift work and tiredness may lead to lower performance levels and higher rates of
accidents. Ryu et al. (2017) studied factory shift workers in South Korea, finding current
shift workers were 2.7 times more likely, and past shift workers were 1.7 times more
likely, to have a work-related injury, compared to workers who had never worked shifts.
Relevant research: Gold et al. (1992)
Aim: to investigate the impact of work schedules on the sleep schedule, sleepiness
and accident rates of Massachusetts female nurses.
Methodology:
» Participants: 878 nurses (mean age: 33.9) and other auxiliary hospital staff.
» Questionnaires on their working shifts:
– rotator (four day/evening shifts, then four days of nights)
– day/evening shifts but no nights
– nights – eight shifts a month, no days or evenings
– day/evening with occasional nights
– nights with occasional days/evenings.
» Participants were also asked about:
– mixed day and night shifts
– sleep–wake times – four hours of sleep (‘anchor sleep’) on working days and
days off
– sleep quality
– alcohol consumption
– medication taken
– falling asleep at work or when driving to/from work
– accidents, errors and ‘near-misses’ in past year.
SKILLS
BUILDER
Research into shift
work often takes a
nomothetic approach,
using questionnaires.
Suggest why a more
idiographic approach
may be preferable
when researching
the different types
of shift work.
[4]
The characteristics of
the different types of
data produced by the
two approaches can
be utilised here. Start
by identifying the
particular weakness
of questionnaires in
relation to validity
of the findings.
Develop your answer
by suggesting why
this makes a more
idiographic approach
preferable.
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Results:
▼ Table 9.18 Comparison of effects of different work schedules
Type of shift work
Falling asleep at work Odds of falling asleep Odds of accidents/
at least once a week
while driving
errors
Odds of ‘near misses’
Rotational
35%
3.9x
2x
2.5x
Night
32.4%
3.6x
–
–
Day/evening
20.7%
1 (base measure)
1 (base measure)
1 (base measure)
Conclusion: rotating shift patterns disrupting sleep and circadian rhythms are
associated with increased error rates on tasks, due to lapses in attention.
▼ Table 9.19 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Reliability – research into temporal conditions of work
environments often uses questionnaires. Gold et al. (1992)
used standardised questionnaires – quantitative, objective
data from a large sample of nurses that can be analysed
statistically, giving easy replicability.
Validity – link between shift work and health or
accidents is correlational; maybe other factors caused
poor health, such as poor diet, family problems and
stress.
Gold et al.’s self-report measures are subject to social
desirability bias. Sleeping while driving or working is not
something participants want to admit to, so they may
not be honest in their answers.
Application to everyday life – if research shows
negative effects of shift work, then organisations can
adapt working patterns to reduce errors and improve
health.
Generalisability – Gold et al.’s study may have cultural
bias; results may not generalise to other nurses in other
cultures, or other USA states.
Issues and debates
Determinism versus free will
Shift work research takes a deterministic approach, suggesting a direct relationship
between shift work and poor health/accidents. This excludes other factors, including
those over which participants may exercise free will, such as diet or sleep quantity.
Quantitative versus qualitative data
Gold et al.’s study uses quantitative methods. A more idiographic approach using
qualitative methods such as interviews would give insight into the reasons why shift
work is problematic.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
9.41 Explain two weaknesses of using questionnaires in research into
temporal conditions of work environments.
9.42 Abu works as a nurse and has been working a rotating shift pattern
for several months. He will soon be moving to another department,
where he will be working a day/evening shift pattern. Outline one
reason why Abu is pleased about the change.
9.43Outline what is meant by the nomothetic approach, using an example
from research into temporal conditions of the work environment.
9.44Veronika is conducting research into accidents at her place of
employment, and believes that shift work may increase these. She
plans to give questionnaires on the number of work accidents to
health and safety supervisors as one way to collect her data.
a Suggest one additional method she could use to investigate work
accidents.
b Suggest one strength and one limitation of this additional method.
256
[4]
[2]
[2]
[2]
[2]
SKILLS
BUILDER
Describe Gold et al.’s
(1992) research into
the impact of different
work schedules.
[6]
As the command
term is ‘describe’,
the question is
assessing knowledge
and understanding
only. Strengths
and weaknesses
are unnecessary
and will not gain
credit. Your answers
need to be detailed
and accurate, so
review the method,
design, procedure,
sample, findings and
conclusion.
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9 Organisational Psychology
9.4.3 Health and safety
Accidents at work
▼ Table 9.20 Human errors in operator machine systems
Type of error
Commission
Omission
Sequencing
Timing
Description of operator action
Does something they should not do
Does not do something they should do
Does something in the wrong order
Does something at the wrong time
System errors in operator machine systems
Displays
» Visual: lights, dials and digital readouts, such as temperature, speed or time.
» Audio: pre-recorded messages and tones. Important if working in a dark room or
moving about. Used for warnings and time-dependent messages.
To reduce errors:
» Match display to use – for example, digital displays are better than dials for
accurate readings.
» Group together logically – displays for the same system belong together.
» Match display to control – put displays next to their controls.
» Use colour – to enhance the display and act as a warning.
Controls
» Levers, switches, handles, joysticks, pedals, keyboards used to control a machine.
To reduce errors:
» Group controls logically – in the order they are used and by frequency of use.
» Ensure controls can be easily reached and operated.
» Protect controls from accidental operation.
» Label each control.
Reducing accidents at work: token economy
A token economy is based upon the principles of operant conditioning where
behaviours are rewarded with tokens (secondary reinforcers) that can be exchanged
for goods or benefits (primary reinforcers).
Relevant research: Fox et al. (1987)
Context: every year many people die in mines. Before Fox et al.’s research, the
response had been short-term fixes rather than long-term prevention.
Aim: to investigate introducing a token economy system in two USA open-cast
mines where there had been accidents.
Methodology:
» Participants: workers in each mine were divided into hazard groups:
– Group 1 office jobs were least hazardous.
– Group 4 jobs were most hazardous – electricians, scrapers and operators.
» Procedure:
– Employees earned tokens for working without time lost for injury; not being
involved in accidental damage to equipment; behaviour that prevented
accidents or injuries.
– Tokens were lost for unsafe behaviour.
Results: there was a large decrease in days lost through injury as accidents were
reduced. The system was used at one mine for 12 years and at the other for 11 years.
Conclusion: behavioural programmes are effective at reducing accidents in the long
term.
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SKILLS BUILDER
a Describe what psychologists have discovered about
the health and safety of work environments.
[6]
b Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about
the health and safety of work environments, including
a discussion about operant conditioning.
[10]
Ensure you choose a study or studies in part a that
investigated a system based on operant conditioning
(i.e. token economy). When evaluating a study in
part b, use GRAVE (generalisations, reliability,
applications, validity and ethics) to help you
remember different ways of evaluating studies. You
do not need to cover all of these concepts though;
fewer fully elaborated ideas are a better way to
increase your grade.
Monitoring accidents at work
If accidents are to be prevented, then they need to be monitored and recorded first,
so the causes of them can be addressed. There is no universal way of doing this, so
accidents may be missed.
Key study: Swat (1997)
Context:
» Two types of monitoring may prevent accidents: active monitoring (preventive
checking) and reactive monitoring (post-incident checking).
» Poland’s system of documenting accidents was ineffective.
Aim: to develop an organisationally useful method of recording risk to find causes of
accidents and prevent them.
Research methods and design:
» Research method: case study and interviews with line managers, safety
supervisors and employees.
» Design: longitudinal.
Sample:
» Four industrial plants from different branches (foundry, machinery, meat
processing and furniture) in Lodz, Poland.
» All of the plants were old, with old equipment.
» The plants employed 2964 workers in 1993.
Procedure:
» Accidents in 1993 were analysed for frequency, severity and causes by:
– accident reports
– researchers’ investigations of accident protocols
– interviews with safety supervisors and line managers.
» Minor incidents in 1994 not resulting in death, serious injury or serious damage
were analysed, from the meat processing plant, using:
– data on first aid cases
– interviews with 96 employees.
Ethics:
» Confidentiality was upheld, though if there were only one of a certain type of
factory within that area, it may be easily identified.
» Results could be of benefit to the workers.
Results:
▼ Table 9.21 Frequency and severity of accidents across four industrial plants
258
Accident
Foundry
Machinery
Meat processing
Furniture
Average
Frequency (per 100 employees)
5.9
2.1
2.8
2.3
2.8
Severity (sick days per accident)
38.8
61.2
41.4
41.2
44.6
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9 Organisational Psychology
▼ Table 9.22 Frequency rates – types of accidents (per 100 employees) in all plants
Fall and slip
Manual work
Working parts
0.7
1.1 (highest in meat 0.7 (highest in
processing: 1.2)
foundry: 2.6)
Sources of energy
Other
0.2 (highest in
foundry: 0.9)
0.1
Four essential causes of accidents:
» insufficient supervision (highest – 89 per cent)
» poor workplace organisation
» technical factors (lowest – 11 per cent)
» human error.
▼ Table 9.23 Percentage of accidents caused by poor housekeeping/maintenance (slippery
floors, faulty staircases, improper tools, incorrect clothing)
Foundry
Machinery
Meat processing
Furniture
65
33.3
47.8
37.5
Incidents (meat processing plant, 1994):
» There were 254 injuries requiring medical treatment.
» There were 23 cases with sick leave days.
» Employee interviews suggested total incidents could be as high as 520, meaning
many were not reported.
Conclusions:
» Type and location of accidents and incidents should be recorded.
» Poor maintenance/housekeeping should be noted as a key cause.
▼ Table 9.24 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Validity – Swat (1997) used data triangulation and
quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative
organisational data can be compared with interview
results to identify differences, increasing the validity of
findings.
Subjectivity – in Swat (1997), participant and researcher
bias may have affected data quality. Employees/line
managers may not report accidents for fear of generating
problems. Researchers used their own analytical tools,
maybe leading to bias in interpretations.
Longitudinal design – Fox et al.’s (1987) research ran for
many years. Researchers gathered much time-sensitive
data and drew valid conclusions about the behavioural
programme’s long-term effectiveness. In Swat (1997),
researchers investigated trends over a three-year period,
allowing more detail to be obtained.
Generalisability – in Fox et al., the two mining
companies were in the USA, so it may not be
representative of all organisations and countries.
Case studies have low generalisability, so in Swat (1997),
the four plants are not representative of all industries
and Poland may not be representative of all countries.
Application to everyday life – Research into accidents
at work means once you understand the reasons for
them, you can develop systems to reduce them. If token
economy interventions can decrease workplace accidents,
then they are saving money and lives.
Validity – in Fox et al., reporting of smaller accidents
maybe decreased because of the incentive. The accident
level in one mine had reduced before the start of
the research. This may have continued without the
programme, reducing the validity of the findings.
Issues and debates
Individual and situational explanations
Research into health and safety at work looks at human and system errors,
explaining frequency, severity and lack of reporting as a product of both. Swat
(1997) used data from accident reports and individual interviews, taking into
account both individual and situational explanations.
Idiographic versus nomothetic
Swat’s study takes a nomothetic approach. However, a more idiographic approach with
qualitative data collection would allow investigation of individual reasons behind
accidents. Thematic analysis of responses could provide accident prevention information.
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SKILLS BUILDER
Miguel wants to investigate workplace accidents and
incidents at a local furniture warehouse. Plan a case
study that will help him identify the main causes of
these.
[10]
Remember, case studies involve triangulation,
so you will need to think of at least two ways in
which data could be collected about accidents and
incidents at the furniture warehouse. Also, think
carefully about how you will ensure these datacollecting methods are valid and reliable (revisit
page 80 if you need to).
NOW TEST YOURSELF
9.45 Compare questionnaires and interviews as
ways of investigating accidents at work.
[4]
9.46 Suggest one reason why findings from
research into accidents at work may lack
validity.
[2]
9.47 Explain one strength and one weakness of
using operant conditioning to reduce accidents
at work.
[4]
9.48 Jamal is responsible for health and safety and
believes that there is an increasing number of
minor accidents happening in his workplace.
According to Swat’s (1997) research,
suggest what Jamal’s first step should be to
investigate this with a view to improving work
[2]
safety.
9.5 Satisfaction at work
9.5.1 Theories of job satisfaction
Two-factor theory: Herzberg et al. (1959)
Herzberg et al. (1959) proposed that factors causing job satisfaction and factors
causing job dissatisfaction are separate.
▼ Table 9.25 Herzberg et al.’s two-factor theory
Motivational factors (satisfiers, intrinsic*)
Hygiene factors (dissatisfiers, extrinsic*)
Factor
For satisfaction
Factor
Achievement
Employees should have a
sense of achievement.
Company policy Policy should be fair and clear and include flexible
working, dress code, breaks, holidays, etc., health care
plans for workers and benefits for families.
Recognition
Employees should be
praised and recognised for
accomplishments at work.
Supervision
Supervision should be appropriate, with no
bullying.
Responsibility
Employees should be
accountable for their work.
Work
conditions
Conditions should be safe, clean and hygienic.
Advancement
There should be chances
for promotion.
Salary
Appropriate and reasonable salary should be offered,
equal to those at the same level in the same industry.
Growth
Personal growth should be
encouraged.
Relationships
with peers
There should be no conflict or bullying; relationships
should be friendly and appropriate.
Meaningfulness
Work should be interesting
and challenging.
Job security
Employees should feel secure in their job.
For satisfaction
*See page 230 on Vroom’s expectancy (VIE) theory and page 231 for discussion of extrinsic and intrinsic
motivators, which relate closely to intrinsic satisfiers and extrinsic dissatisfiers.
Job characteristics theory: Hackman and Oldham (1976)
» Job characteristics theory takes a person-fit approach – using personality,
behaviours and accomplishments to fit the person to the job.
» Beliefs, values and ethnicity also contribute to how someone matches with a job.
» Psychological needs must be met.
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9 Organisational Psychology
▼ Table 9.26 Hackman and Oldham’s job characteristics theory
Psychological states
Matching core characteristics
Meaningfulness of the work
Skill variety – diversity
Task identity – seeing a job through from start to finish
Task significance – impact on others’ lives
Responsibility of the work
Autonomy of decision-making
Knowing own effectiveness
Feedback regarding own performance
Techniques of job design: Belias and Sklikas (2013)
Job satisfaction can be increased by job design.
» Job rotation:
– Workers are moved from one task to another regularly.
– This prevents boredom and monotony.
– Workers can widen their skills, gaining an understanding of the overall work
process.
– This does not change responsibility level.
» Job enlargement:
– Jobs are expanded, allowing workers to take on additional tasks.
– This doesn’t mean employees are working harder or repetitively, but using
team work to complete the product.
– It is a more holistic way of working instead of reductionist.
– Job enlargement can bring increased responsibility and job satisfaction.
– This is a ‘horizontal’ extension of a job.
» Job enrichment:
– Workers are given more task responsibility.
– This might include redesigning a task or being responsible for a team of
workers completing a task.
– This is a ‘vertical’ extension of a job.
STUDY TIP
Create diagrams
and flow charts to
visually represent the
explanations in this
section. Use colour to
identify concepts in the
theories that refer to
the individual and those
that are relevant to the
workplace situation.
Look for connections
between the theories,
such as meaningfulness
and enrichment. How
might one connect to
the other?
▼ Table 9.27 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Reliability – Herzberg’s (1959) theory has support
from Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Vroom’s expectancy
theory and theories of motivation at work, increasing its
reliability.
Even before Belias and Sklikas (2013) developed their
theory, Chen and Lu (2012) found job design positively
impacted employee motivation and performance. This
gives empirical support for the theory.
Generalisability – for Hackman and Oldham (1976), the
core characteristics of USA workers may not apply in
collectivist countries where task diversity and autonomy
could be less important.
Herzberg interviewed employees in Pittsburgh, USA only.
This limits generalisability.
In relation to Belias and Sklikas, in some types of work,
it is not possible to have job rotation or to expand
job role. Also, rotation or expansion of job roles may
increase stress in some individuals.
Application to everyday life – using Herzberg’s theory,
organisations can ensure that workers have both hygiene
and motivational factors to improve productivity.
Hackman and Oldham’s five job characteristics could
be used as a checklist when a job is being created or
reviewed, to improve satisfaction and productivity.
Ayandele and Nnamseh (2014) found that worker job
satisfaction in the African civil service fits this model.
Validity – Herzberg’s theory assumes all employees’
needs for recognition and responsibility are identical.
However, different people may be motivated by different
needs due to their personal circumstances or personality.
Issues and debates
Reductionism versus holism
The job design categories are flexible enough to be applied in a holistic
manner. Jobs are not broken down to their constituent parts but are worked on
collaboratively or rotated through, so a holistic experience is gained.
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Cultural differences
If effective, job design stimulates employees’ motivation and job satisfaction,
leading to high levels of employee performance and productivity. However,
job rotation, enlargement and enrichment need to be applied in a way that is
appropriate to a particular culture; then this model has cross-cultural validity.
SKILLS BUILDER
Explain one strength of theories of job satisfaction
from the holism side of the reductionism versus holism
debate.
[2]
Focus your answer on the strength of a theory that
either looks at intrinsic and extrinsic motivators or
has flexible job characteristics. (Any of the three
theories above would be appropriate.) Think about
how the factors are listed, but not reductionist,
because both the individual and the situation are
given as reasons for flexibility in the approach. The
command term ‘explain’ means you should say why
the strength identified is a strength.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
9.49 aOutline what is meant by idiographic
research.
[2]
b Explain one weakness of theories of job
satisfaction from the idiographic side of the
debate.
[2]
9.50 Describe one difference between motivational
factors and hygiene factors, referring to
Herzberg et al.’s (1959) two-factor theory. [2]
9.51 Suggest one way in which job design can
improve job satisfaction.
[2]
9.52 Explain what is meant by situational factors,
using research into job satisfaction.
[4]
9.5.2 Measuring job satisfaction
Rating scales and questionnaires
Anonymous self-report employee questionnaires are the usual method for measuring
job satisfaction.
Job Descriptive Index (JDI): Smith et al. (1969)
This is a 72-item questionnaire assessing five dimensions representing job
satisfaction. Questions are descriptive and answered using a three-point scale
(Yes, No or Undecided [?]). After testing, each word is given a numerical value that
reflects how well it describes job satisfaction.
The five dimensions are:
1
2
3
4
5
Satisfaction with job in general
Satisfaction with level of supervision
Salary/pay
Satisfaction with co-workers
Opportunities for promotion
Positive items: ‘Yes’ scores 3, ‘?’ scores 2, ‘No’ scores 1.
Negative items: ‘Yes’ scores 1, ‘?’ scores 2, ‘No’ scores 3.
The higher the score on the dimension, the more job satisfaction there is.
Quality of Working Life (QWL): Walton (1973)
Walton argued that no matter the occupation, most employees are dissatisfied at work.
He suggested eight dimensions of working life:
1 Adequate and fair compensation – salary
2 Safe and healthy working conditions
3 Opportunity to use and develop human capacity – autonomy and chance to use skills
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9 Organisational Psychology
4
5
6
7
8
Opportunities for growth and security – promotion chances
Social integration in the work organisation – sense of belonging
Constitution of the work organisation – right to expression and equal treatment
Work and total life span – late work or travel away from family
Social relevance of work life – social responsibility of organisation
QWL evaluation scale: Timossi et al. (2008)
Timossi et al. developed a scale to measure each dimension by simplifying the
original terms into a standardised questionnaire with a five-point rating scale.
Example question (Timossi et al., 2008, p. 6)
In regard to a fair and appropriate salary (compensation):
1 How satisfied are you with your salary? (remuneration)?
Very dissatisfied
Dissatisfied
Neither
Satisfied
Very satisfied
1
2
3
4
5
▼ Table 9.28 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Quantitative data – JDI and QWL evaluation scales are
types of psychometric tests that generate objective
quantitative data, increasing the reliability.
Validity – JDI and QWL evaluation scales are self-report
questionnaires using forced-choice answers. Social
desirability or anxiety may lower the validity of the data.
Reliability – JDI and QWL evaluation scales are
standardised questionnaires, increasing replicability and
thus reliability.
Usefulness – perceptions of what is fair and adequate
treatment at work may vary depending on workers’
personal situations, not just their work situations. This
reduces the usefulness of the JDI and QWL scales.
SKILLS BUILDER
Job satisfaction has been researched using rating
scales and questionnaires. Give one difference
between rating scales and forced/fixed-choice
questions as a way of investigating job satisfaction. [4]
This question tests knowledge of additional
research methods required for A Level compared
with AS Level. Refresh your knowledge of forced/
fixed-choice questions on page 42. The command
term ‘give’ means you do not have to describe why
rating scales are better or worse than forced/fixedchoice questions; just describe how they differ. You
could give an example of a rating scale from the
QWL measure (Walton, 1973) and show how the
question would have changed if forced/fixed-choice.
NOW TEST YOURSELF
9.53 Describe one difference between the
Job Descriptive Index (Smith et al., 1969)
and the Quality of Working Life measure
(Walton, 1973).
[2]
9.54 Explain why measures of job satisfaction may
be culturally biased.
[2]
9.55 Suggest one strength and one weakness
of using self-reports to gather data on job
satisfaction.
[4]
9.56 Workers experience job satisfaction for
different reasons. Jennifer would like to
know her workers’ main reasons for job
satisfaction, so she decides to investigate this.
a Plan a study for Jennifer using a
questionnaire to find the main reason for
job satisfaction among her workers. Your
plan must include details about:
– question format
– sampling technique.
[10]
b State two reasons for your choice of
question format.
[2]
c Explain one reason for your choice of
sampling technique.
[2]
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9.5.3 Attitudes to work
Lack of job satisfaction can cause job withdrawal, absenteeism and sabotage.
Absenteeism and organisational commitment model: Blau
and Boal (1987)
Different interpretations of organisational commitment and job involvement had
previously led to variations in study results.
Blau and Boal (1987) operationalised both concepts:
» Job involvement – the extent to which an individual identifies with their job.
» Organisational commitment:
– Behavioural – worker is committed because it costs too much to leave.
– Attitudinal – worker identifies with the organisation and wishes to stay.
Four types of absenteeism
1 Medical: illness, injury or family demands such as a sick child. Occurs randomly.
2 Career enhancing: allows the employee to further other career goals. Harder to
detect, but may peak just before quitting a job or just before an internal transfer.
3 Normative: habitual response to the norms of the organisation regarding absence.
‘Personal day’ or ‘excused absence.’ A pattern will show, and frequency and timing
may be predicted.
4 Calculative: employee uses unexcused and excused absence days as permitted by
the company. Frequency and total number of days off would normally be greatest
for this type of absence.
Organisations should ensure absences are carefully recorded to ensure patterns are
spotted.
The framework of the model
Organisational commitment and job involvement were separated into high/low
categories and the type of absenteeism was matched to the category.
Key study: Giacalone and Rosenfeld (1987)
Context: cost of sabotage rising, but very little research done; classified sabotage
into different methods with different reasons.
Aim: to determine whether individuals who accept more reasons for sabotage will
justify sabotage more than those who do not.
Research method: survey.
Sample: a volunteer sample of 38 labourers (union members) at an electrical factory
in north-east USA.
Procedure:
» Designed a sabotage methods questionnaire and sabotage reasons
questionnaire.
» Four types of sabotage were asked about:
– work slowdowns
– destruction of machinery, premises or products
– causing chaos
– dishonesty.
» Answers were collated and grouped into ‘low reason’ (below median) and ‘high
reason’ (above median) acceptors.
Ethics:
» Consent was obtained but participants were not told the true reason for the
research (deception).
» Answers were anonymous and kept confidential – this could be problematic, as
the actions were in some cases criminal.
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9 Organisational Psychology
Results:
▼ Table 9.29 Mean scores for each of the four methods of sabotage (total taken from the
29 methods in total, split into the four categories)
Work slowdown
Destruction
Causing chaos
Dishonesty
High acceptors
25
19.8
13.5
15.5
Low acceptors
18.9
13
8.8
12.4
» The high reason acceptors saw all four forms of sabotage as being more justified
than did the low reason acceptors, but difference for dishonesty was not
significant.
Conclusions:
» Focusing on recognition and deterrence may help reduce accidents, risk exposure
and financial losses.
» Those who accept more reasons for sabotage are significantly more likely to
justify all types of sabotage except for dishonesty.
▼ Table 9.30 Methodological issues
Strengths
Weaknesses
Reliability – Blau and Boal (1987) operationalised and
standardised the concepts, meaning they can be applied
objectively and research can be replicated.
Giacalone and Rosenfeld (1987) collected quantitative
objective data which allowed statistical analyses and
comparisons to be drawn, increasing reliability.
Generalisation from findings – Blau and Boal’s research
was based upon individualist societies; findings may not
apply in other cultures with different norms regarding
absenteeism.
Giacalone and Rosenfeld’s study was conducted with
unionised workers in one USA factory; cannot generalise
findings to wider population.
Validity – in Giacalone and Rosenfeld, participants were
given the (socially sensitive) questionnaires by a nonsupervisory colleague, which reduced chances of lying.
Usefulness – Giacalone and Rosenfeld’s study was merely
an initial investigation; further research into recognition
and deterrence would be needed for it to be useful.
Issues and debates
Application to everyday life
If organisations can establish patterns of absenteeism within the workforce, they
may be able to address the reasons for it early and save money.
Researchers considered that more studies were needed to determine the relationship
between perceived justifiability and performing an act of sabotage or willingness
to report sabotage. Development of this approach could help encourage reporting
sabotage or identifying employees at risk of performing sabotage.
Idiographic versus nomothetic
Research used a nomothetic approach to workplace sabotage looking for general
laws/trends, using structured questionnaires, to apply to all workforces. Idiographic
methods (unstructured interviews and focus groups) could provide more insight into
sabotage, and why some find it acceptable.
SKILLS BUILDER
Describe the study by Giacalone and Rosenfeld (1987) on workplace sabotage.
[6]
You have nine minutes to answer six-mark questions so practise summarising
key studies to approximately 200 words. As the command term is ‘describe’,
the question is assessing knowledge and understanding only, so strengths and
weaknesses are unnecessary.
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NOW TEST YOURSELF
9.57 Maria’s friend Usha confides in her that she
works as slowly as she can when on the
production line, saying she does not think
she is paid enough to work hard. Maria totally
agrees. Using Giacalone and Rosenfeld’s
(1987) key study, explain why you think Maria
is also at risk of committing sabotage at work.
[4]
9.58 aSuggest one reason why the questionnaires
in Giacalone and Rosenfeld’s research
were given out by non-supervisory
colleagues rather than supervisors.
[2]
b Suggest one reason why the questionnaires
in Giacalone and Rosenfeld’s research
[2]
were completed anonymously.
266
9.59 Describe one of Blau and Boal’s (1987) types of
organisational commitment, according to their
model.
[2]
9.60 It would be useful for management to know
the main reason for absenteeism.
a Plan a study using questionnaires to find
the main reason for absenteeism among
workers in a workplace. Your plan must
include details about:
– question format
[10]
– sampling technique.
b For one piece of psychological knowledge
on which your plan is based, explain how
you used two features of this psychological
knowledge to plan your study.
[4]
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9 Organisational Psychology
Organisational Psychology revision checklist
Check the syllabus to ensure you have covered all required content for each
subtopic. There are typically two to three bullet points per subtopic. You should
ensure that your evaluation points for each subtopic match with the relevant issues
and debates and methodology listed in the syllabus.
Topic
Subtopic
Revision notes
complete
Motivation at work
Need theories
Now test yourself
questions complete
Past papers
questions complete
Cognitive theories of
motivation
Motivators at work
Leadership and
management
Traditional and modern
theories of leadership
Leadership style
Leaders and followers
Group behaviour in
organisations
Group development and
decision-making
Individual and group
performance
Conflict at work
Organisational
work conditions
Physical work conditions
Temporal conditions of
work environments
Health and safety
Satisfaction at
work
Theories of job
satisfaction
Measuring job satisfaction
Attitudes to work
Landry
et al. (2019)
Cuadrado
et al. (2008)
Claypoole and
Szalma (2019)
Swat (1997) Giacalone and
Rosenfeld (1987)
Context (including relationship
to other studies)
Main theories/explanations
Aim(s) and hypotheses
Methodology
Results/findings
Conclusions
Discussion points
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A LEVEL
A Exam-style questions
This section contains sample questions for Papers 3 and
4. The style of the questions is very similar to the ones
you will find in your real Cambridge International exams.
Find sample answers to these questions from pseudostudents, Aliyah and Talib at www.hoddereducation.
com/cambridgeextras.
You will also find suggested marks, as well as
commentaries highlighting key strengths and
weaknesses in their responses.
Preparing for your exams
In the chapter on AS Level exam-style questions we
looked at how to put together a realistic and effective
revision plan. You will need to plan the weeks before
your final exams very carefully, especially if you are
taking a linear route (or AS retakes), meaning you will
sit all four papers.
» As before, start by using the revision checklists at
the end of each of your A Level option chapters.
» Once you have identified any class notes that are
missing, you can start creating a plan as you will
have a better idea of how long you will need to
revise each section.
» It might be worth timing yourself again to check
whether the length of your optimum study block
has changed since you revised for your AS exams
(see the chapter on AS Level exam-style questions).
» As you did before, create a plan with topics to
revise each day, remembering to build in time to
test yourself on prior learning and also to set more
specific and detailed targets for the next day.
» Remember to experiment with different revision
strategies to see which ones work best for you. If
you find yourself losing focus before the end of a
study block, maybe you need to vary the activities
you set yourself. For example, make a storyboard
instead of flashcards.
The question papers
The content of the AS Level, including research
methodology, is required for the assessment of Paper
3 and Paper 4. Although the core studies are not the
direct focus of questions on Paper 3 and Paper 4, you
will be expected to show an understanding of the
approaches, issues and debates, and psychological
research methodology when discussing specialist
options. You will have studied two of the four option
topics and will be examined on both of these in both A
Level papers. Within each of your chosen option topics,
you must answer all the questions.
268
Paper 3 sample questions
Clinical Psychology
Question 1
Monique has a gambling disorder. Every day, after she
drops her children at school, she spends hours playing
a card game using an app on her mobile phone. She has
lost a lot of money on the app, including all the money
she saved for a holiday for her family. Her doctor has
referred her for covert sensitisation.
Explain how covert sensitisation could help in the
management and treatment of Monique’s gambling
disorder.[4]
Question 2
a Outline what is meant by individual and
situational explanations.
[2]
b Explain how one explanation for impulse control
disorders could be seen as an individual and/or a
[2]
situational explanation.
Question 3
a Benny’s teacher has noticed that he uses tissues
to cover the classroom door handle when he opens
it. He also quietly counts to ten while he is doing
it. When she asks him why he does this, he says it
makes him feel better about the germs. Outline one
difference between obsessions and compulsions
with reference to Benny.
[2]
b Explain one strength and one weakness of the
diagnostic guidelines for obsessive-compulsive
disorder.[4]
Question 4
a Describe biological treatments (biochemical and
electro-convulsive therapy) for the treatment and
[6]
management of schizophrenia.
b Evaluate biological treatments for the treatment
and management of schizophrenia, including a
discussion of ethics.
[10]
Consumer Psychology
Question 5
Lenny owns a chic waterfront restaurant. He is very
stressed as some noisy construction work has started
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A LEVEL EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
across the street. He says that it will interfere with
his customers’ dining experience and could affect his
profits.
Explain one or more reasons that Lenny might be
right. You must refer to research evidence in your
answer.[4]
Health Psychology
Clinical Psychology
Question 1
From the key study by Grant et al. (2008) on treating
gambling disorder with drugs and placebo:
a i Outline the independent variable in this
experiment.[2]
ii Explain what is meant by double blind with
reference to Grant et al. (2008).
[2]
Question 6
Cian works for a large company. Due to a change in
management and restructuring, he is experiencing
stress at work.
Suggest two ways the new management could measure
stress levels of employees.
[4]
Question 7
a Outline what is meant by the idiographic approach,
using an example from managing and controlling
pain.[2]
b Explain one strength of the idiographic approach,
using an example from managing and controlling
pain.[2]
Question 8
a Mr Trelawney is a dietician working in a school for
8–16-year-old students. He wants to improve the
healthy eating habits of students.
Suggest two strategies Mr Trelawney could use to
promote health and improve his students’ eating
habits.[4]
b For one of the ways to promote healthy eating
suggested in part a:
Explain one weakness of this way to improve
healthy eating.
Paper 4 sample questions
[2]
Question 9
a Describe the study by Shoshani and Steinmetz
(2014) on using positive psychology in schools to
improve mental health.
[6]
b Evaluate this study by Shoshani and Steinmetz
(2014), including a discussion about the
generalisations from the findings.
[10]
Organisational Psychology
Question 10
a Rashida is a factory manager. A colleague has
been observing leadership styles at work and
has said that Rashida uses a permissive autocrat
style. Suggest two characteristics Rashida may be
showing that led to her colleague’s suggestion. [2]
b Explain why the style of leader behaviour
suggested in part a could lead to a decrease in
production.[2]
b Suggest how Grant et al. could have used random
sampling to recruit participants for this study. [2]
c Explain one or more reasons Grant et al. controlled
whether or not participants had used opioid
antagonists before.
[4]
Consumer Psychology
Question 2
In the key study by Becker et al. (2011), participants
were asked to taste lemon yoghurt presented in
different pots. The study investigated food package
design and taste perceptions.
a i Describe one difference between the pots used
in this study.
[2]
ii Explain one reason why Becker et al. (2011)
manipulated the pots in this way.
[2]
b Suggest two ethical issues that Becker et al. would
need to consider in this study.
[4]
c Teresa and Kai are discussing the validity of Becker
et al. Teresa thinks the study is valid but Kai thinks
that it is not valid. Explain whether you agree more
[2]
with Teresa or Kai.
Question 3
Upbeat music such as pop or jazz is an important
retail atmospheric that influences the behaviour of
consumers. However, some people do not like this style
of music and prefer slower classical music or ballads.
a Plan an experiment to investigate the influence of
different musical genres in a department store. Your
plan must include details about:
– sampling technique
– a directional or non-directional hypothesis. [10]
b For one piece of psychological knowledge on which
your plan is based:
i Describe this psychological knowledge.
[4]
ii Explain how you used two features of this
psychological knowledge to plan your
experiment.[4]
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c i State two reasons for your choice of
sampling technique.
[2]
ii Explain one weakness of your choice of sampling
technique.[2]
iii Explain one reason for your choice of directional
or non-directional hypothesis.
[2]
Organisational Psychology
Health Psychology
b Explain why it was important for Swat to use a
variety of data collection methods when monitoring
accidents in the workplace.
[2]
Question 4
The Social Readjustment Rating Scale can be used to
measure stress.
a Describe how this scale is used to give a
measure of stress.
[2]
b Suggest why it is important to use quantitative
data to measure stress using the Social
Readjustment Rating Scale.
[2]
270
c Explain one weakness of using this scale
to measure stress.
[2]
Question 5
Suggest two ways to measure adherence to
medical requests objectively, other than
biochemical tests.
[4]
Question 6
From the key study by Swat (1997) on monitoring
accidents and risk events:
a Explain how accidents were defined by Swat.
[2]
c Robin and Louie are discussing the generalisability
of Swat’s research. Robin thinks the study is
generalisable but Louie thinks that it is not. Explain
[2]
whether you agree more with Robin or Louie.
Question 7
a Plan an experiment to investigate whether
an employee’s need for achievement changes
depending on whether they have been in their job
for a short time or a long time.
Your plan must include details about:
– sampling technique
– controls.
[10]
b For one piece of psychological knowledge that has
informed your plan:
Describe this psychological knowledge.
[4]
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