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Learn to Teach: A Handbook for Teaching Practice
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Acknowledgements
Publishing Manager: Alida Terblanche
Publisher: Marisa Montemarano
Development Editor: Ilka Lane Project Manager: Kelly Williams
Editor: Catherine Damerell
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Indexer: Ethné Clarke
Illustrator: Jacques Coetzer
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Contents
Foreword
About the authors
Copyright 2016. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
PART 1
THE ART AND SCIENCE OF TEACHING
Chapter 1 The meaning of being a teacher
1.1
What is teaching? The art and the science of teaching
1.2
How to be a good teacher – teacher motivation
1.2.1
Extrinsic motivation
1.2.2
Intrinsic motivation
1.3
The focus is children, not content
1.4
Beyond the classroom
Chapter 2 Teacher professionalism and identity
2.1
Teacher professionalism and identity – between policy demands and everyday work
2.1.1
The professional in society – the policy view
2.1.2
The professional in practice – the practice theory view
2.2
Developing a professional identity
2.2.1
Teaching theories as the building blocks to professional identity development
2.2.2
Professional value for knowledge and experience through reflection
2.2.3
Making professional knowledge a resource for teaching
2.2.4
Making professional experience a resource for teaching
2.3
Becoming a professional teacher
2.3.1
Developing your professional attitude for teaching
2.3.2
Teaching as a professional service to the community
Chapter 3 Change theory – the teacher as reflective and change agent
3.1
Change theory and its theoretical underpinnings
3.1.1
Lewin’s three-step change theory
3.1.2
Lippitt’s phases of change theory
3.2
The twenty-first century teacher as reflective practitioner
3.2.1
Becoming a reflective teacher
3.2.2
Reflective practice as action research
3.2.3
The reflective process
3.2.4
Why the twenty-first century teacher needs to be reflective
3.3
The twenty-first century teacher as a change agent
3.4
Complexities of teaching and learning in the twenty-first century
3.4.1
Learner diversity
3.4.2
Use of technology in teaching and learning
3.4.3
Teaching for multiple literacies
3.4.4
Children’s rights
Chapter 4
The teacher and teacher personality
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4.1
4.2
4.3
Teacher personality
4.1.1
What a teacher is – characteristics
4.1.2
What a teacher does – skills
4.1.3
What and how a teacher thinks – knowledge and awareness
What does policy state about the role of the teacher?
4.2.1
What does policy say about being a professional and competent teacher?
4.2.2
South African Council for Educators (SACE) and teacher accountability
Teachers in context – what are the ground-level challenges?
4.3.1
Training and support
4.3.2
Classroom climate and motivation
PART 2
TEACHING PEDAGOGY – STUDY OF TEACHING METHODS
Chapter 5 Theories, principles and perspectives of teaching
5.1
The concept of a theory of teaching
5.2
Psychosocial development theory
5.2.1
What is psychosocial development?
5.2.2
Psychosocial stages
5.3
Learning theory – behaviourism
5.3.1
Background to behavioural theories
5.4
Cognitive theories
5.4.1
The human mind
5.4.2
Basic principles of cognitive theories
5.4.3
Key cognitive theories of teaching
Chapter 6 Bloom’s taxonomy and implications for teacher preparation
6.1
Domains in Bloom’s revised taxonomy
6.1.1
The cognitive domain
6.1.2
The affective domain
6.1.3
The psychomotor domain
6.2
Bloom’s taxonomy and the purpose of assessment
6.2.1
Assessment for learning
6.2.2
Assessment of learning
6.2.3
Assessment as learning
6.3
Bloom’s taxonomy and inclusive education
6.4
Teaching using Bloom’s taxonomy
6.4.1
Role plays
6.4.2
Case studies
6.4.3
Demonstrations
6.4.4
Simulations
6.4.5
Discussion
6.4.6
Projects
Chapter 7 Communication skills in teaching
7.1
Defining instructional communication
7.2
Instructional communication foundations
7.3
Basic communication cycle
7.4
Purposes of communication
7.5
Elements of communication
7.6
Categories of communication
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7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
7.12
7.13
7.14
Intercultural communication
7.7.1
Intercultural communication in the classroom
Communication barriers
7.8.1
Physical barriers
7.8.2
Psychological barriers
7.8.3
Physiological barriers
7.8.4
Perceptual barriers
7.8.5
Values
7.8.6
Gender bias
7.8.7
Background
7.8.8
Religion/beliefs
7.8.9
Semantic barriers
7.8.10 Choice of medium
7.8.11 Medium of instruction
7.8.12 How to overcome communication barriers
Teacher communication styles
Learner affective learning
7.10.1 Teacher immediacy
7.10.1.1 Verbal immediacy
7.10.1.2 Non-verbal immediacy
7.10.2 Teacher credibility
7.10.3 Teacher clarity
Conveying content
Listening
7.12.1 Benefits of listening in the teaching and learning environment
The instructional strategy
7.13.1 Communication and technology in the classroom
Types of questions used in the classroom
7.14.1 Why teachers ask questions
7.14.2 Types of questions
Chapter 8 Constructivism and teacher education
8.1
Pedagogical content knowledge
8.1.1
Development leads learning – Piaget’s cognitive constructivism
8.1.2
Learning leads development – Vygotsky and socio-cultural theory
8.2
Scaffolding as mediation – socio-cultural theory in the West
8.3
From mediation to mediated learning experiences – Feuerstein
8.3.1
Mediated learning experiences (MLE) in the classroom
8.4
Practice approaches
8.5
Teaching and learning in the constructivist classroom
Chapter 9 Lesson planning within a learning-centred context
9.1
Aims of a lesson – why are aims important?
9.2
Lesson introductions – creating a hook
9.3
Lesson development – the major component of teaching and learning
9.3.1
Teacher presentation
9.3.2
Learner practice
9.4
Consolidating and concluding
9.5
Differentiating your teaching – inclusive teaching and learning
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9.6
9.7
Assessment – a critical component
Critical reflection
PART 3
MICROTEACHING AND WORK-INTEGRATED TEACHING PRACTICE
Chapter 10 The theory and practice of microteaching – scaling down to scale up
10.1 History, background and nature of microteaching
10.1.1 Definition of microteaching – scaling down to scale up
10.1.2 A short history of microteaching
10.1.3 Why is microteaching popular in pre-service teacher education?
10.2 Models of microteaching – how does microteaching work?
10.2.1 Cyclical model – basic steps
10.2.2 Reflection and feedback model
10.2.3 Microteaching skills
10.2.4 Assessing a microteaching lesson
10.2.5 Scaling down to scale up – learning ‘in’ and ‘from’ microteaching
10.3 A theoretical framework for a microteaching programme
10.3.1 Two useful theorists – towards constructivist learning
10.3.1.1 Paolo Freire and ‘critical self-reflexivity’
10.3.1.2 Erving Goffman and ‘the student as main focus and frame’
10.4 Microteaching examples – Social Sciences (History) and Natural Sciences (Physics)
10.4.1 Example 1: A History microteaching lesson
10.4.2 Example 2: Framing a Physics lesson
Chapter 11 Teaching practice – its purpose and implementation
11.1 Teaching practice as a vital component of teacher education
11.2 The art of teaching as experienced during teaching practice
11.3 Models of teaching practice
11.3.1 Overview of the framework
11.3.2 Apprenticeship model
11.3.4 Cognitive apprenticeship model
11.4 The role of mentoring
11.4.1 What is the role of a mentor?
Chapter 12 The teaching practice approach and models used in South Africa
12.1. The concept of teaching practice
12.2 Exploring the South African teaching practice approach
12.2.1 Teaching school model in South Africa
12.3 Four main components of teaching practice in South Africa
12.3.1 Identifying a school for teaching practice
12.3.2 Placement period during TP
12.3.3 Assessment during TP
12.3.4 Mentors during teaching practice
12.3.5 Mentoring process during TP
Chapter 13 Leadership and management of teaching practice – teachers’ and student teachers’
roles
13.1 Management and leadership within the context of education
13.1.1 Management
13.1.2 Leadership
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13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
Designing the learning structure and evidence of learning
13.2.1 Policy documents
13.2.2 Knowledge of the school curriculum
13.2.3 Qualifications required to teach in a South African school
13.2.4 The influence of personal attributes on the learning-to-teach environment
Planning
13.3.1 Schools
13.3.2 Placement of students
Assessment, reflection and evaluation
13.4.1 Assessment of student teachers
13.4.2 Reflections of students, lecturing staff and school mentors
13.4.3 Evaluation of experience, schools and partnerships
The use of ICT
13.5.1 How can ICT contribute to the management of teaching practice?
Chapter 14 Basic classroom management
14.1 Perspectives on classroom management
14.1.1 Teaching philosophy for successful classroom management
14.1.2 Defining classroom management
14.1.3 Basic classroom management skills
14.1.4 Classroom management and control
14.1.5 Types of classroom discipline problems
14.1.6 Effective and positive classroom discipline practices
14.2 The concept of punishment
14.2.1 Relationship between discipline and punishment
14.2.2 Punishment practices among teachers
14.2.3 Ineffective classrooms traditions among teachers
14.3 Strategies for maintaining classroom management
Chapter 15 Policy implications for teaching practice in South Africa
15.1 Policy implications in relation to teaching practice in South Africa
15.1.1 Norms and Standards for Educators, 2000
15.1.2 Revised Policy on the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications
15.2 Policy on teaching practice – international perspectives
15.2.1 United States of America
15.2.2 Finland
15.2.3 West African context
15.3 Comparing the policies of South Africa and other countries
15.3.1 South African and US policy
15.3.2 South African and Finnish policy
15.3.3 South Africa and Cameroon and Nigeria
15.3.4 Best practice and rationale
Chapter 16 Portfolios in teaching practice – paper-based versus e-based portfolios
16.1 Paper-based portfolios in teacher education
16.1.1 The nature of paper-based portfolios for teaching practice
16.1.2 Purpose of portfolios
16.1.3 Portfolio content
16.1.4 Teaching philosophy
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16.2
16.3
16.1.5 The role of reflection in portfolio management
16.1.6 Reflective journal as tool in compiling the portfolio
16.1.7 Relevance of portfolio development
16.1.8 Collaborative partnerships
Using electronic portfolios (eportfolios) in teacher education
16.2.1 Defining an eportfolio
16.2.2 Purpose of developing an eportfolio
16.2.3 Compiling specific content in paper-based or eportfolios throughout teaching practice
16.2.4 Benefits of using eportfolios
16.2.5 Reasons to adopt eportfolios
16.2.6 Steps in planning and compiling an eportfolio
16.2.7 Choosing the right software
16.2.8 Portfolios as a teaching practice tool for professional growth and development
Making an informed decision – paper versus eportfolios in teaching practice
Chapter 17 Electronic learning aids and social media in teaching
17.1 Electronic/technological teaching aids for successful learning
17.1.1 Guiding principles for using technology in multi-mode teaching strategies
17.1.2 Points of departure for technology use
17.1.3 Integrating technology in the teaching strategy
17.2 Different technologies (non-social media) available to support quality teaching strategies
17.2.1 Advantages of using technology in teaching
17.2.2 Challenges in using integrated technology in teaching
17.3 Social media technologies for learning to teach
17.3.1 Using social media tools in the classroom
PART 4
TEACHER EDUCATION IN A CROSS-CULTURAL CONTEXT
Chapter 18 Internationalisation as a concept in teacher education
18.1 Internationalisation of teacher education – conceptual clarification
18.2 Why is the internationalisation of teacher education important?
18.2.1 Trends in twenty-first century society
18.2.2 Political reasons
18.2.3 Economic reasons
18.2.4 Cultural reasons
18.2.5 Academic reasons
18.2.6 Student perspectives
18.2.7 The uneven global pattern of teacher supply and demand
18.2.8 The rise of international schools
18.3 Current levels of internationalisation of teacher education
18.3.1 Individual mobility of students and staff
18.3.2 Programme and provider mobility
18.3.3 Internationalisation of the objectives and curriculum
18.3.4 Internationalisation of campuses
18.3.5 International cooperation
Chapter 19 Overcoming cross-cultural barriers in teacher education and practice
19.1 Understanding diversity
19.1.2 Personal values
19.1.3 Stereotype and prejudice
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19.2
19.3
19.1.4 Ethnocentrism and xenophobia
19.1.5 Cultural relativism
19.1.6 Culture shock
Developing a culturally responsive pedagogy
19.2.1 Sources of intercultural miscommunication and misunderstanding
19.2.1.1 Verbal communication
19.2.1.2 Non-verbal communication
The value of competence in intercultural communication
Chapter 20 The theory and practice of vocational teaching
20.1 Vocational vs academic education
20.1.1 Philosophy and origins of vocational education in South Africa
20.1.2 Type of institution
20.1.3 Vocational education as pedagogy
20.2 Curriculum planning for vocational settings
20.3 Methods and media commonly used in vocational education
20.4 Assessment and quality assurance in vocational education
20.5 Work-integrated learning
20.5.1 Forms of work-integrated learning
20.5.2 WIL in TVET
20.5.3 Challenges associated with WIL
Appendices
Index
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Copyright 2016. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
Foreword
Learn to Teach is a timely and welcome contribution to the teacher education curriculum. It is a bold
attempt to tackle the vexing problem of how to produce quality teachers who can be relied on to promote
greater learner success. This is against the backdrop of the national Department of Basic Education’s
(2015) Action Plan to 2019: Towards the Realisation of Schooling 2030, whose goals, among others, are
to improve the “…average performance of learners…” and to “…attract motivated and appropriately
trained teachers…”. The book has come at a time when serious concerns have been raised about the
quality of teacher education programmes both at the initial and continuing education levels. In 2011, a
policy intervention in the form of the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications
(MRTEQ) policy was gazetted, and later revised in 2015. All of this was in an effort to respond to some
of the identified quality issues and to put in place programmes that will produce strong teachers who can
help to achieve the goals outlined in the Department of Basic Education’s plan. Written in succinct and
persuasive language, this book helps the reader to navigate a myriad of complex theoretical and practical
issues that form the compendium of what it is to be a teacher.
Influenced by the context outlined above, as well as practical experiences and challenges encountered
in helping large classes of student teachers learn to teach, especially during work-integrated teaching
practice, a group of academics in the Faculty of Education at the University of Fort Hare, coordinated by
Professor Adele Moodly, hatched the idea of a handbook on teaching practice. As they deliberated on the
idea, they drew in expertise from within and beyond the Faculty. The result is a book conceptualised and
put together by a team of eminent scholars and teacher educators from within and outside South Africa.
The book starts by inviting readers to formulate their own understanding of what teaching is, in a way
that balances the notions of the art and science of teaching. It then moves on to expose the student to the
theoretical aspects, covering principles and skills that a competent teacher is expected to have. In the third
section, a great deal of time and space is devoted to ideas relating to the practical dimensions of learning
how to teach. However, instead of giving a simplistic toolkit, the book provokes the reader to think and
be innovative as an educator. It ends, in the final part, by focusing on current contextual issues in
teaching.
While the book does not claim to exhaust the field of teacher education, it goes a long way in
providing a path and plan to initiate the novice teacher to the profession. I find it a compelling
introduction to teaching and recommend it to every teacher educator and student teacher.
Professor George Moyo
Dean of the Faculty of Education
University of Fort Hare
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About the authors
Lead editor and section editors
Copyright 2016. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
Prof Chinedu I.O. Okeke (lead editor) is a professor and leader of the Early Childhood Development
(ECD) Research Niche in the Faculty of Education at the University of Fort Hare. His main research
areas include the sociology of early childhood education, and the influence of parental participation in the
education of their children.
Dr Jane-Francis A. Abongdia is a senior lecturer in Communication Studies in the Department of
Accounting, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town.
Prof Emmanuel Olusola Adu is a professor in the School of General and Continuing Education, Faculty
of Education, University of Fort Hare, East London Campus. His research interests include economics
education; teacher education and development; curriculum studies; ICT in education; and educational
research.
Prof Micheal van Wyk is a professor in Curriculum and Instruction in the School of Teacher Education,
College of Education, University of South Africa. His research interests are in technology-integrated
teaching and learning strategies; social media tools for the classroom; Afrocentric-indigenous pedagogy
and research methodology; cooperative learning; social entrepreneurship and economics education.
Prof Charl Wolhuter is a professor in Comparative and International Education in the School of
Education, Faculty of Education Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus. In addition to
being visiting professor at a number of overseas universities, he has authored various articles and books
on the history of education and comparative education.
Contributing authors
Dr Stanley Adendorff is a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Education and Social Sciences, Cape
Peninsula University of Technology, Mowbray Campus.
Prof Gregory Alexander is an associate professor in Educational Psychology in the Department of
Postgraduate Studies, Central University of Technology, Bloemfontein, Free State. He has extensive
teaching experience in multicultural school contexts and his teaching and research focus is on teaching
and learning in diverse school settings.
Mrs Megan Alexander is a lecturer in Communication in English and Introductory Research, Faculty of
Business and Management Sciences, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Mowbray Campus. Her
research interests are the first-year university experience: personality, adjustment and participation of
first-year students; and teaching pedagogy.
Dr Vincent C. Bosman currently teaches and supervises postgraduate students in the Faculty of
Education, Cape Peninsula University of Technology. His professional and research interests include
mentoring and supervision in higher education and community engagement.
Dr M. Noor Davids is a senior lecturer in the Department of Educational Foundations, College of
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Education, University of South Africa. His professional and research interests include teacher
professional development, history of education, and HIV education.
Dr Joyce Phikisile Dhlamini is a senior lecturer in the School of Management Leadership and
Development, North-West University, Mafikeng Campus.
Dr Melanie Drake is a senior lecturer and researcher for the Niche Area (ECD) in the School of General
and Continuing Education, University of Fort Hare, East London Campus. Her research interests are
values education, character education, teacher education, and educational policy.
Prof Ntombozuko S. Duku is an associate professor in the School of General and Continuing Education,
Faculty of Education, University of Fort Hare, East London Campus. Her research involves participation
in the Leadership and Management (ACE) feasibility study; Ubuntu Archaeology (NRF-funded)
coordinated by UNISA; ECD Niche Area and Large Class projects.
Dr Nazeem Edwards is a lecturer in Science Education in the Curriculum Studies Department, Faculty
of Education, Stellenbosch University. His research interests include science teacher education, focusing
on students’ conceptual understanding through enquiry-based teaching.
Dr John W. Foncha is a senior lecturer in Language Education (English) in the Department of
Language, Social Sciences and Educational Management, School of Education, University of Limpopo.
His research interests include identity, intercultural communicative competence, reading and writing
pedagogies, and text-based approaches to language teaching and learning.
Dr Greta Galloway is a senior lecturer and head, School of General and Continuing Education, Faculty
of Education, University of Fort Hare, East London Campus.
Dr Emily Ganga is a lecturer in Educational Psychology, Great Zimbabwe University. She has
researched extensively in the areas of human development and learning, vulnerability in children, HIV
and AIDS and other critical issues affecting the African child today.
Dr Joanne Hardman is a senior lecturer in Educational Psychology in the School of Education,
University of Cape Town. Her membership of the Cultural-Historical Approaches to Children’s
Development and Childhood society currently informs much of her research.
Ms Mary-Jane Jackson is a lecturer in the School of General and Continuing Education, University of
Fort Hare, East London Campus.
Prof Ina Joubert is an associate professor in the Department of Early Childhood Education, Faculty of
Education, University of Pretoria, where she is programme coordinator for the Bed Foundation Phase
programme. She is a member of the World Education Research Association, and specialises in
democratic citizenship education and language education for the young child.
Prof Kostas G. Karras is assistant professor and director of the Educational Research Center, Faculty of
Education, University of Crete, Greece.
Ms Manthekeleng A. Kganedi is a lecturer in Further and Continuing Education, Faculty of Education,
University of Fort Hare, Alice Campus. Her current teaching involves supervising research at the
undergraduate, PGCE and postgraduate levels. Her research interest is in reading and writing pedagogies,
and L2 language learning and acquisition.
Mr Mark N. Lawrence is head of department at an FET college and part-time lecturer at CPUT in the
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National Professional Diploma in Education (NPDE) programme.
Prof Mncedisi C. Maphalala is a professor in the Department of Curriculum and Instructional Studies,
Faculty of Education, University of Zululand.
Prof Cosmas Maphosa is a research associate professor in the Faculty of Education, University of Fort
Hare. His research interests are in educational management, curriculum issues, and higher education
studies.
Ms Nomafa V.P. Mdaka is a senior lecturer in the School for Further and Continuing Education, Faculty
of Education, University of Fort Hare, Alice Campus.
Dr Colleen Moodley is a lecturer in the Faculty of Engineering, Cape Peninsula University of
Technology.
Dr Trevor Moodley is a registered educational psychologist and a senior lecturer in the Department of
Educational Psychology, Faculty of Education, University of the Western Cape.
Prof Adele Moodly is an associate professor in Education and the deputy dean of the Faculty of
Education, University of Fort Hare.
Dr Ndileleni P. Mudzielwana is a senior lecturer and head of Early Childhood Education in the School
of Education, University of Venda. She is a member of the South African Research Association for Early
Childhood Education (SARAECE) and specialises in early literacy, teaching reading in the Foundation
Phase, and assessment practices in higher education institutions.
Dr Rose Mugweni is a specialist lecturer in Early Childhood Education and currently acting dean of the
Robert Mugabe School of Education, Great Zimbabwe University. Her research interests are in
contemporary issues in early childhood education, gender, education policy and HIV and AIDS.
Dr Martin Musengi is the founding chairperson of the Jairos Jiri Centre for Special Needs Education in
the Robert Mugabe School of Education, Great Zimbabwe University, where he teaches. His teaching and
research interests are in the psychology of special and inclusive education in developing countries.
Ms Ellen Musesengwe is a principal lecturer in Theory of Education, Morgan ZINTEC Teachers’
College, Zimbabwe. Her areas of research interest are language education and literature; curriculum
issues; and specifically, inclusive education.
Dr Gamuchirai T. Ndamba is a senior lecturer in the Department of Teacher Development, Great
Zimbabwe University. Her research interests are in language-in-education policy, reflective practice and
mentoring in education.
Dr Therza Palm-Forster is a senior lecturer in the School of General and Continuing Education, Faculty
of Education, University of Fort Hare, East London Campus.
Prof Nkidi Phatudi is an associate professor and chair in the Department of Early Childhood Education,
College of Education, University of South Africa. She is also responsible for teaching literacy pedagogy
of the early years. She was a leading researcher of the mother tongue learning group in the
EU–DHET-funded project involving universities around South Africa.
Dr Johannes Pylman is a senior lecturer in the School of General and Continuing Education, Faculty of
Education, University of Fort Hare, East London Campus.
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15
Prof Symphorosa Rembe is a professor in Educational Management and Policy in the School of Further
and Continuing Education, Faculty of Education, University of Fort Hare. Her research interests include
education management; public policy and administration; gender issues; and children’s rights and issues.
Mrs Irene Roy is a lecturer in the School for General and Continuing Education, Faculty of Education,
University of Fort Hare, East London Campus.
Dr Mantsose J. Sethusha is a senior lecturer in the College of Education, Department of Early
Childhood Education, University of South Africa. Her research areas include teaching practice; early
childhood teaching; and learning and classroom assessment.
Dr Jenny Shumba is a post-doctoral fellow in Education in the School of Further and Continuing
Education, Faculty of Education, University of Fort Hare. Her research interests include curriculum
issues, psychosocial issues, children’s rights, and teacher education.
Dr Namhla Sotuku is a senior lecturer in the School of General and Continuing Education, Faculty of
Education, University of Fort Hare, East London Campus.
Prof Hennie Steyn is a professor in Comparative Education in the School of Education, Faculty of
Education Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus.
Mr Raju Thomas is a lecturer in Economics Education in the School of Teacher Education and Training,
Faculty of Education, North-West University, Mafikeng Campus.
Mr Andre van der Bijl is a doctoral candidate and senior lecturer in Education in the Faculty of
Education and Social Sciences, Cape Peninsula University of Technology.
Dr Mariaan van der Walt is a senior lecturer in the School of General and Continuing Education,
Faculty of Education, University of Fort Hare, East London Campus. Her professional and research
interest is in quality assurance in higher education institutions.
Prof Dr Clemens Wieser is an assistant professor in the Department of Educational Research, University
of Graz, Austria.
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16
Part 1
The art and science of teaching
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1
The meaning of being a teacher
Melanie Drake
Copyright 2016. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Distinguish between teaching as an art and teaching as a science.
• Recognise what it means to teach and to be a teacher.
• Reflect on the ongoing debate about effective teaching and learning.
• Analyse your responsibility as a teacher through the lens of teacher motivation.
• Investigate your personal motivation for becoming a teacher: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
• Reflect on the importance of understanding children, and your own commitment to children’s education.
• Evaluate why teaching is so important for society.
Key concepts
Art of teaching: a concept that involves the presentation, facilitation and mediation of complex material
to learners in a creative way that makes the material readily understandable.
Science of teaching: a concept that entails a comprehensive knowledge of the teaching and learning
discipline, relying on historical foundations and current research findings.
Extrinsic motivation: doing or seeking to do something because it leads to an independent outcome (like
money or status).
Intrinsic motivation: doing something because you find the activity or task essentially interesting and
enjoyable.
Self-efficacy: teachers’ personal belief about their ability to perform a task.
CASE STUDY: SHE’S A NATURAL
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Rosie Maphela is the teacher and principal of Happy Days Preschool in the Nompumelelo township of
East London. She has been involved in the school from the age of 10 years old, watching and
observing her mother teaching, counselling, developing and educating the young children in her
community. She loves children. As an older sister to four younger siblings, Rosie has spent her whole
life caring for and nurturing the children around her. She loves her work. She wakes up very early in
the morning to set out the tables, chairs and resources for her learners. As she sees them approaching
the school gate, she cannot help but smile. This is her life. This is her calling.
Happy Days Preschool is known as the best preschool in the area. Parents approach Rosie when
their children are just babies to try and get their names on the waiting list. Foundation Phase schools in
the area want to attract Rosie’s learners into Grade 1, as they know her learners are well ahead
academically and socially when compared with other preschool children. She is a dedicated and
committed educator.
Rosie has never had a day of formal teacher training in her life. She has learned what she knows
from her mother who ran the school before her and from the many books she reads about teaching and
learning. Rosie loves a challenge. Throughout her years of teaching, she has often had learners who
need special attention. This is where Rosie thrives. She finds great reward in developing new and
different ways to teach learners who require special help and assistance.
Rosie hears about a part-time, formal BEd Foundation and Intermediate Phase degree being offered
at the University of Fort Hare. She does not hesitate to get the application forms and register. Her
family and friends cannot understand why she wants to do this course. She is already the best teacher
in the area – everyone knows that. The course will cost Rosie at least three months’ salary each year.
They try to persuade her not to do it, but Rosie persists. She cannot wait to begin her formal teacher
training at university.
STOP AND REFLECT
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Why do you think Rosie is such a good teacher?
What do you think Rosie has or does that other preschool teachers do not do?
What keeps Rosie committed to a job she has been doing for such a long time?
Why is Rosie determined to gain a formal qualification after so many years of successful teaching?
What do you think it takes to be a teacher like Rosie?
Introduction
As a student teacher, you have chosen one of the most challenging and most rewarding professions there
is or ever will be. You are about to embark on a journey filled with joy, frustration and discovery. As a
teacher, there will be days of pure ecstasy, watching a child discover something you thought not possible.
There will also be grindingly slow days, and a few of grief and tears, where you feel you just cannot
connect with learners or make progress. What we can assure you along this journey, is that the
psychological and emotional rewards are enormous – the smile on a face when a concept is finally
grasped, the delightful laughter of a child who finds a new friend, the grateful gestures from thankful
parents, the internal satisfaction of knowing that you are dedicating your life to making a difference. You
will spend years and years enjoying that satisfaction and appreciating a career that allows you to feel such
things. Like Rosie, each day will be filled with smiles. Each day will be filled with self-discovery.
This chapter is an introduction to the many areas and specialisations of teaching addressed in this
book. Different theoretical and philosophical perspectives will be presented to you from Chapter 2
onwards. However, this first chapter is about inspiring you as you learn more about the intricate business
of teaching and learning. The layout of this chapter includes:
• A discussion around the art and science of teaching
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•
•
•
Investigating teacher motivation
Understanding that our primary focus is the development and nurturing of children, and
Recognising that your current teaching degree or diploma is only the first step on a lifelong journey of
further learning, understanding and self-discovery.
To begin, let us embark on an exploration of the art and science of teaching.
1.1
What is teaching? The art and the science of teaching
For some of you, you will remember always wanting to be a teacher. When you were asked as a young
child what you wanted to be when you grew up, your answer would have always been – a teacher! For
others of you, teaching may have been a second choice, and although you do not feel that it is a natural
ability, you know that you can learn how to be a good teacher. Regardless of whether you consider
yourself a ‘natural’ teacher or not, the truth is that this profession will always require an
acknowledgement of teaching as both an art and a science. Let us explore these terms.
Teaching is an art in that it involves no specific script or instructions for all effective teachers to
follow. Effective teachers are as different in their characteristics, skills and traits as are effective students.
If you believe in teaching as an art, you understand that teaching can be considered an ability with no
direct instructional guide or recipe that you can follow. The art of teaching is about getting your heart,
soul and mind around something as dynamic as a classroom full of young learners, and the way they
think. Learners bring a constantly changing set of challenges and issues from their lives at home and in
their communities, into their school and classroom. Teachers have to gain a detailed and realistic
understanding of them as young people, while earning their respect and maintaining an environment
conducive to effective teaching and learning principles, through fair discipline, respect and
accountability. Teachers need to ‘light the fire’ for learners to be curious and inquisitive for weeks and
months at a time, so that they build a base of knowledge and skills step-by-step, over time while at
school, and well into their adult lives (Gates 2013).
Teaching is a science in that there are strategies and techniques that have been researched over long
periods of time that have been shown to have a high probability of enhancing learners’ achievement
(Marzano 2009). These high probability strategies are the tools in an effective teacher’s toolkit. Not every
teacher uses the tools in the same way, or at the same time, but most effective teachers have developed a
way to incorporate them in their teaching strategies. The science of teaching is about new, stimulating
information about teaching, and current research that investigates what tends to work best in a classroom
or school context. The results of research in teaching and best teaching practice can help point you as
student teacher in the right direction. They can also assist experienced teachers facing a specific
challenge. “Teachers [ … ] are hungry for deep and specific critiques about their own teaching, so they
can improve in ways specific to them and their students” (Gates 2013). Teaching as a science is working
with other teachers, academics, authors and researchers who share a passion for the field, and engaging
with current research and up-to-date literature to help become more productive in your classroom, while
remaining constant in ensuring you bring out the best in your learners (Gates 2013). In this book, Learn
to Teach, there will be many ‘art’ and ‘science’ features of teaching discussed, and they are all equally
important in ensuring that you become the best teacher you can be.
APPLYING IT TODAY
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Spend some time thinking carefully about the following statements. Do you think the statements relate
to teaching as an art, or teaching as a science? Respond by writing out your own reasoning, for each
statement.
1. A teacher suspects that a learner is being physically abused at home, but does not know how to best
support this learner. She makes an appointment with a community social worker to find out what
she can do.
2. A Grade 4 teacher is unsuccessful in teaching basic mathematical skills. He seeks out another
mathematics textbook to find out a different way to teach the content.
3. A teacher is required to share a message at a special Mandela Day assembly. She spends much time
preparing displays and resources to engage with the learners, creating a message they will never
forget.
4. A learner is very weak in English language and literacy skills. The teacher writes a letter to the
parents, emphasising the importance of daily reading to improve her English literacy.
In this section, we have explored the notion of teaching as an art and science. We have discussed the
importance of understanding your responsibility to both dimensions on the teaching spectrum. As much
as you need to rely on research and strategies that have proved successful to ensure positive educational
outcomes for your learners, you also need to challenge yourself to be creative, spontaneous and
innovative in your classroom. “The teachers’ effectiveness is not measured by the numbers on the
teaching evaluations at the end of the term, but by what they have helped their students to achieve over
the course of a lifetime” (Weisman 2012: 119). In the next section, we explore how best teachers can be
motivated and supported.
1.2
How to be a good teacher – teacher motivation
“To be motivated means to be moved to do something” (Ryan & Deci 2000: 54). When you feel no
inspiration or energy to do something, we generally understand this to be a sign of an unmotivated
person. However, when you are energised and stimulated by an activity or towards a goal, we assume you
are a motivated person (Ryan & Deci 2000). Several countries around the world face various crises in
their education systems. Many times, it is teacher behaviour, teacher attitudes and values, and teacher
motivation that are among the critical components that fail learners and impact negatively on successful
educational outcomes. In this section, we will explore teacher motivation, unpacking what it means to be
extrinsically motivated and intrinsically motivated.
Teacher motivation can be described as a teacher’s desire to participate actively in the teaching and
learning processes within a school. It is the basis for a teacher’s involvement, or lack of involvement, in
teaching and learning, as well as other activities at school (Drake 2013). The teacher has the job of
translating educational content and objectives into knowledge and skills for the learners (Ofoegbu 2004).
Classroom and school climate are important for teacher motivation. If teachers feel that their classrooms
and school are a safe and supportive environment with adequate and useful resources and facilities to
teach for optimal learning, they tend to participate more than expected in the other school functions, such
as leadership and management (grade head or head of sport), extramural activities (sports and cultural
events), administrative tasks and after-hours meetings and commitments. For us to understand this teacher
motivation more deeply, let us investigate some research that highlights its importance.
In a study of teacher attitude and motivation, Jessop and Penny (1998) discuss the nature of teaching,
job satisfaction, motivation and morale, in the South African and Gambian contexts. In their South
African sample, they identified two groups of educators:
• Group A said they were drawn to teach for instrumental reasons, such as salary, status, the desire to
urbanise, and the attainment of qualifications.
• Group B saw teaching as an avenue of service, a noble profession, to which they were ‘called’. Only
one-third of their sample group fell into group B – that is, only 33.3 percent of the teachers saw
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teaching as a calling.
These findings correlate with aspects of teacher practice considered in another South African study
conducted in the Eastern Cape (Drake 2013). In this study, the minority of teachers spoke fondly of their
intentions (personal motivators) in becoming educators. They used words and statements such as
“wanting to make a difference”, “changing the lives of children” and “working with children” (Drake
2013: 137). These teachers modelled behaviour that was committed and motivated (giving of their best,
going the extra mile, meeting with parents regularly, being involved in school and district activities, and
seeking assistance for learners going through difficulties from other departments, such as social welfare).
In contrast, the majority of teachers’ behaviours seemed to be driven by external rewards, such as
salary, status, or holidays (none of which were adequate in their opinion). For example, the principal in
this study even relayed a story of a teacher who tried to increase her income by selling goods (such as
sweets, chips and chocolates) to learners during teaching time. The principal also questioned whether the
lack of material motivators such as cars or housing could be the reason for these educators’ bad behaviour
(absenteeism, arriving late for school, lack of preparation and teaching in class, avoiding of additional
school tasks/activities like extra-murals, not holding parent-teacher meetings, and the like). These
research findings indicate that teacher motivation plays a significant role in teaching and learning.
Teachers who are motivated by internal factors, such as a strong desire to teach, seem to put more effort
into teaching, and learners benefit as a result. On the other hand, teachers who are motivated by external
factors, such as money, appear to focus less on teaching and, in turn, learning is affected negatively.
STOP AND REFLECT
Take a moment to think deeply about why it is you want to become a teacher. Can you identify aspects
that relate to the two studies described above? What is motivating you to become a teacher?
Before we explore the meaning of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, look at the dialogue that follows and
then discuss the ethical issues it raises.
Phindile:
Nomvuyo:
Phindile:
Nomvuyo:
Phindile:
Hi Nomvuyo! I got my matric results yesterday.
Hey there! I am so happy for you. How did you do?
No man, I’m really disappointed. My results were not what I needed to get into the BCom
programme at university. I really wanted to become a CA [chartered accountant] – I like
the idea of making lots of money one day.
I’m sorry to hear you didn’t get in. But do you only want to become an accountant for the
money?
Yeah! Have you seen the fancy cars CAs drive? And their cool cellphones and gadgets? I
really want to have that lifestyle one day.
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Nomvuyo:
Phindile:
Nomvuyo:
Phindile:
Nomvuyo:
Phindile:
Nomvuyo:
Phindile:
But there is more to life than just money my friend. Do you even like accounting?
It’s ok. I mean, I did ok at school in Accounting.
What drives you? What is your passion?
I don’t know. All I know is that I need to do something this year and I really don’t have
money to study. Hey, I heard that Funza Lushaka give you money to study teaching – is
that right?
Yes, I’m a Funza Lushaka grant recipient. They fund me to do my teaching degree.
Cool! Then that is what I will do. I will do teaching so that someone will pay me to get my
qualification.
But think about it – do you know anything about becoming a teacher? Do you even like
children?
That doesn’t matter to me.
A question of ethics
With a classmate, or a group of peers if possible, discuss the issues raised in the dialogue, using the
following questions:
1. How would you respond to the school leaver as a student teacher yourself?
2. Do you think the school leaver could be a good teacher? Why or why not?
3. What would you do if you knew that the school leaver had a drug or alcohol problem?
4. What are the potential problems with teaching degrees and diplomas being fully funded by government
departments?
1.2.1
Extrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation refers to “doing something because it leads to a separable outcome” (Ryan & Deci
2000: 55). Gold stars, top learner awards, being elected prefect or house captain, honours rolls and
leadership awards, small prizes for reading, and other reward-focused incentive systems have long been
part of what happens in schools (Deci, Koestner & Ryan 2001). Extrinsic motivation means doing an
activity simply for its instrumental value. Phindile, the school leaver in dialogue, demonstrated an
extrinsic desire and motivation to becoming a teacher; it would be a way he could have his undergraduate
degree funded. He also shared this desire to make ‘lots of money’ and live a specific kind of lifestyle. For
many teachers, the profession attracts them because of the perceived extended and numerous school
holidays, shorter daily working hours and a regular, dependable income.
Teachers form the foundation for shaping and teaching values in school environments. Yet this
responsibility is considered part of teachers’ work, and does not manifest in additional monetary or other
rewards. Strike action, stayaways, toyi-toyis and go-slows for educator salary increases in South Africa at
times create a very disruptive atmosphere in school life. Salary and educator working conditions are a
continual area of contest in many countries. Ofoegbu (2004) recommends that, in this era of materialism
and pursuit of wealth, teachers need to be appropriately motivated for a school system that is effective
and efficient. Certain research findings suggest that the majority of educators could possibly be motivated
by material incentives, such as increased remuneration and better overall benefits (such as bonus cheques,
medical cover, decent annual increases, housing subsidies, and the like).
APPLYING IT TODAY
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Look at the following newspaper headlines and explain why you think these teacher behaviours occur.
Can you relate these to the extrinsic factors discussed earlier?
1.2.2
Intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation refers to “doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable” (Ryan &
Deci 2000: 55). Intrinsic motivation has become an important aspect of teachers work – “a natural
wellspring of learning and achievement” (Ryan & Deci 2000: 55). Intrinsic motivation can be enhanced
and grown, or undermined and taken away, by parents, school leaders, education departments, curriculum
requirements and teacher practices (Ryan & Stiller 1991). Because a teacher who is intrinsically
motivated is usually more creative and innovative in teaching and learning, it is especially important to
understand what makes a teacher feel this way – or not. If we think back to the opening case study, and
Rosie’s approach to her teaching career, we gain a sense of her intrinsic motivation. She believes that
teaching is a calling; it gives her meaning in life.
Self-efficacy is the belief that we have in our ability to do certain things now and in the future. For
example, if you believe that you will do well during your teaching practice, this means that you have a
high sense of self-efficacy in this regard. Teachers with a high sense of self-efficacy are good planners
and organisers. They are open-minded and keen to try new methods. They spend more time with
struggling learners, try even harder when these learners underperform, and continue to try to improve the
performance of battling learners for longer than other teachers would (Thoonen, Sleegers, Oort, Peetsma
& Geijsel 2011). Research findings tell us that a teacher’s sense of their efficacy positively influences
their engagement in school life and overall professional learning, which enhances what they do in their
classrooms (Geijsel, Sleegers, Stoel & Kruger 2009). Self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation are closely
related and both link to more motivated teachers and better educational outcomes. In order for you to
experience a happy and fulfilled career in the teaching profession, you need to ensure that you keep
feeding into and building your sense of intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy (Hohnbaum 2012). In the
next section, we provide a few ways that you can keep nourishing this essential part of yourself as a
teacher. It is particularly important in the first few years when stress levels are usually at their highest.
Teachers have the most important job in the world – educating the children of today – and hence, they
must take care of themselves.
Strategies for success
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How to build intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy
•
•
•
•
Don’t be afraid to take risks: It is important that you try new things on a regular basis. Many student
teachers admit to ‘following the rules’ in their first few years of teaching, out of fear that they might
fail. What sometimes happens is they get bored and frustrated with the monotony of the same
curricula, the same procedures, and the same tiresome deadlines. Do not be afraid to try something
new and perhaps fail initially. Failure is one of the most important parts of becoming a successful
teacher. Try that new activity, take the learners on a different outing, or implement that unusual
classroom management procedure. And if these innovations fail, learn from it and move forward.
Becoming an intrinsically motivated teacher with a strong sense of self-efficacy, is being a teacher
who is not afraid to take risks.
Build relationships (Thomas 2015): Networking and building relationships with other teachers is one of
the strongest foundations teachers can create for themselves. Having someone who understands, who
can go through challenges with you, offer a different view of a problem, or just listen to a problem, is
an invaluable asset to a teacher. Make sure you seek out other teachers to build strong relationships
with.
Seek opportunities for growth: Because teachers are often swamped with marking, assessments and
lesson preparation, they can turn down opportunities to continue learning and growing. Professional
development exercises and activities are a vital part of a teacher’s career. You will always learn
something. Make sure you sign up for every opportunity to ensure you keep growing and networking.
This will assist your intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy.
Model lifelong learning: In section 1.4, we discuss lifelong learning and the importance of teachers
exploring postgraduate studies after their undergraduate degree. In order to continue learning about
this important profession, you need to ensure you keep learning and growing. Research-focused
degrees and diplomas are an important avenue to model lifelong learning as they expose you to
current and emerging teaching trends, ideas and philosophies. Short courses, conferences and
workshops will also keep you from becoming stale and outdated in your practice.
1.3
The focus is children, not content
Educating children today has become increasingly content-focused and assessment-driven. Within new
curricula around the world, we acknowledge the attention that is placed on subject content, formative and
summative assessment, and sound educational outcomes. But for teachers like Rosie, they understand
intuitively that teaching is not an exercise in ‘ticking boxes’. It is far more complex and important.
Teachers educate presidents, doctors, nurses, lawyers, plumbers, builders, teachers – and every other
profession, whether it is a highly-paid, sought-after job, or not. Without teachers, we are left wondering
what type of society and world we would be living in (Hohnbaum 2012). And teaching is still so much
more; in the words of the psychological theorist Carl Jung: “One looks back with appreciation to the
brilliant teachers, but with gratitude to those who touched our human feelings. The curriculum is so much
necessary raw material, but warmth is the vital element for the growing plant and for the soul of the
child.” Read the following stories from teachers and think about what these reflections teach you about
teaching.
“
As an educator my strength lies in being able to work with children and forging a
relationship of respect and trust. I therefore decided to concentrate my efforts on uniting the
learners […]. I learned to love all my learners by talking openly to them, in groups or as
individuals. I make a concerted effort to know their names, to show personal interest in their
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wellbeing and speak to them in their home languages without patronising them. A simple
gesture such as greeting a learner by name goes a long way towards establishing trust (principal
Barry Fuleni 2015).
I have been teaching at [a school] which serves a very poor community; most children live on
the bare necessities. The school also caters for learners from the nearby […] children’s home.
Because of these circumstances I aim to teach my learners about the significance of giving. It’s
not about money, but about things that will give meaning and purpose to their lives. […] For
me, teaching goes far beyond the walls of the classroom. I would like my learners to take with
them in life the feeling of being accepted and appreciated just as who they are, and
experiencing the satisfaction of giving of themselves (teacher Maryke Gird 2015).
I enjoy the dynamic and exciting opportunities that young children bring. They are so
passionate and excited about the world around them. I have learned so much from their
investment in exploration and am committed to supporting and growing with them (teacher
Katie Lynch in Campus Children’s Center 2008).
Five-year-old Adam was physically and emotionally volatile. He had gotten kicked out of
multiple schools before he arrived in my classroom. Adam usually resisted me when
I held him to appropriate behaviour. He accused me of being mean and would lash out. But I
could also see in the way he greeted me in the morning or gravitated toward me that he trusted
and liked me too. Later on I left the school and lost touch with Adam. I then ran into him at a
spring festival. He didn’t have much to say, but the long, strong hug he gave me said it all. His
hug told me that he saw me as a teacher who recognised him, respected him and loved him
(teacher Rebecah Freeling in Ericksen 2014).
„
These reflections and stories from actual teachers show us the importance of recognising that teaching is
about children. It is essential to remind yourself why you are embarking on this career and who you are
ultimately accountable to. Before we argue the need for further teacher education in the next section,
complete the self-reflection activity that follows.
STOP AND REFLECT
As a student teacher, it will not be long before you are collating your curriculum vitae and applying for
teaching positions. In relation to the discussion above, you need to start thinking about how you can
show your potential school principal, education department and school governing body (SGB) that you
are serious about your career and your responsibility to children.
1. Have you considered getting a driver’s licence and a PrDP (professional driving permit)? Why or why
not?
2. Have you considered doing a children’s first aid course? Why or why not?
3. Do you do anything now that shows a commitment to children: do you volunteer your time at a
children’s shelter or orphanage? Do you teach or coach at your local church/mosque/temple, in a
community project, or local sports club? Why or why not?
4. Do you want to continue studying further in education? Why or why not?
Remember that with so many young people studying to be teachers, it is very important that your CV
stands out and has ‘extras’ that makes your application appealing to a school. Some of the aspects above
are the kind of ‘extras’ that schools and principals look for, for good teaching and learning to occur in
their schools. Start planning to address some of these skills, attributes and experiences right away.
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1.4
Beyond the classroom
In order for effective teaching and learning to occur in a classroom, there is a vital need for teachers to
continually develop themselves and their skills sets. Countries that show the highest levels of educational
success have highly-educated, motivated teachers. The ability to conduct research correctly and
confidently in your own classroom is a skill that will set you apart as an outstanding teacher. In the
United Kingdom, Heckett (2008) reports that the government plans to encourage teachers to do a
Master’s in teaching and learning, viewing this as an important step towards improving schools. The
reason for this is based on the knowledge and research that proves better-educated teachers leads to
better-taught learners – and thus to a top class education system. Strong inspiration and support for
teachers with Master’s degrees or higher postgraduate qualifications comes from Finland, a country that
scores highest in international comparisons and international tests (see Chapter 15). Rice (2003) found
that teachers who have earned higher postgraduate degrees have a positive influence on high school
mathematics and science achievement when the degrees earned were in these subjects. Similar research
findings resonate in emphasising the need for teachers to engage in further higher education and lifelong
learning.
Ongoing professional development and further postgraduate studies keep teachers ahead in terms of
the latest technology, how best to assess and support learners, new teaching strategies, new curriculum
support, resources for best practice, and more. The best professional development is ongoing,
experiential, collaborative, and connected to teaching and learning foundations: that is, the learners and
understanding how best to help them learn. (Edutopia 2008).
APPLYING IT TODAY
“I love to learn and my students teach me something new every day” (teacher Jeanie Cisco-Meth in
Ericksen 2014)
As you embark on your teaching career, think about your five-year and 10-year plans. Where do you
want to be and what do you want to achieve in these timeframes? Do some research on the
development and further study options available to you, that interest you most. List three goals
(informed by your research) for your future lifelong learning and reflect on them as you move forward
in your teaching career.
Conclusion
In this section we have covered the importance of teaching as a profession and the meaning of being a
teacher, as we understand it. We have explored the art and science of teaching, the extrinsic and intrinsic
factors linked to teacher motivation, and have investigated the benefits of embracing a lifelong learning
and developmental approach to teaching. Now it’s over to you. As you work through each important
chapter in this book, keep reflecting on how these aspects of teaching shape you as a teacher, your
understanding of teaching and how it invests in your responsibility to the children in your class.
Remember the hints and strategies we have established in this chapter, and keep a list as you work
through each new chapter and build your teacher’s essential toolkit. You have chosen the most rewarding
career and the joy and fulfilment you will discover will be beyond measure.
Activities
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Self-reflection
1. Why are you becoming a teacher? Think carefully and deeply about this question. Create a collage or
mind map to share with others in your class.
2. Why is it important for a teacher never to stop learning?
3. “Great teachers recognise that what they do is simply who they are” (retired teacher Jeaninne Escallier
Kato in Ericksen 2014). If you had to write a sentence that summed up your motivation for teaching,
what would you say?
Analysis and consolidation
4. List the typical extrinsic and intrinsic motivators for why people become teachers. Reflect on your
feelings about each one.
5. Interview an experienced teacher who you know well. Ask them why they became a teacher and what
motivates them to stay in the field. Be sure to jot down any tips and advice that they share, in your
journal.
Practical applications
6. Create your own personal colourful and appealing journal to keep in your lecture bag each day. From
today, start writing down all the handy hints and tips that you discover about teaching and learning
(watch Dr Bill Rogers on YouTube – see http://osiriseducational.co.uk/ bill-rogers.html – for short,
lively and very useful help with classroom practice and issues). Talk to yourself in your journal:
unload your fears, anxieties, insights, triumphs. Share with yourself your hopes and dreams for
teaching.
7. Write your own personal teacher anecdote (story), as in section 1.3, based on any interactions or
experiences you have had with children.
8. “Whatever way you would describe yourself, the ideal is to be [in the words of Jonathan Jansen] a
‘beyond teacher’ (Hayward 2012). Find out who Jonathan Jansen is and what he means by a ‘beyond
teacher’.
9. Build your curriculum vitae from today. What are you going to do from now on to make your CV stand
out and show your commitment to and enthusiasm for teaching?
References
Bandura, A. 1997. Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: Freeman.
Beal, M. 2012. Why I became a teacher: to help children discover their inner talents. The Guardian.
Retrieved 17 April 2016 from: http://www.theguardian.com/teacher-network/teacher-blog/2012/nov
/18/teacher-helping-children-discover-inner-talents.
Campus Children’s Centre. 2008. Meet the teachers. Indiana University. Retrieved 17 April 2016 from:
http://www.indiana.edu/~ccc/meet-the-teachers/.
Deci, E.L., Koestner, R. & Ryan, R.M. 2001. Extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation in education:
Reconsidered once again. Review of Educational Research, 71(1): 1–27.
Drake, M. 2013. How the values in new South African policy manifest in a disadvantaged school setting.
Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Auckland, New Zealand.
Edutopia. 2008. Why is Teacher Development Important? Because Students Deserve the Best. Edutopia:
What works in education. Retrieved 16 April 2016 from: http://www.edutopia.org/teacher
-development-introduction.
Ericksen, K. 2014. Why Become a Teacher? Educators Share What They Love About Their Work.
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Rasmussen College. Retrieved 15 April 2016 from: http://www.rasmussen.edu/degrees/education/blog
/why-become-a-teacher/.
Fuleni, B. 2015. Meeting the challenge. The Teacher. Retrieved 6 May 2016 from: http://mg.co.za/
article/2015-09-01-00-meeting-the-challenge.
Gates, M. 2013. Reclaiming the “Art and Science” of Teaching. Retrieved 13 April 2016 from: http:/
/www.impatientoptimists.org/Posts/2013/02/Reclaiming-the-Art-and-Science-of-Teaching.
Geijsel, F.P., Sleegers, P.J.C., Stoel, R.D. & Krüger, M.L. 2009. The effect of teacher psychological and
school organizational and leadership factors on teachers’ professional learning in Dutch schools.
Elementary School Journal, 109: 406–427.
Gird, M. 2015. Giving of yourself. The Teacher. Retrieved 11 May 2016 from: http://mg.co.za/
article/2015-09-01-00-giving-of-yourself.
Hayward, R. 2012. Good teachers are all around us. Mail&Guardian. Retrieved 6 May 2016 from: http:/
/mg.co.za/article/2012-12-06-good-teachers-are-all-around-us.
Heckett, G. 2008. Do teachers need to take Masters? The Independent. Retrieved 10 April 2016 from:
http://www.independent.co.uk/student/postgraduate/postgraduate-study/do-teachers-need-to-take
-masters-863540.html.
Hohnbaum, B. 2012. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation of teachers. Slideshare. Retrieved 11 April 2016
from: http://www.slideshare.net/breeellen22/intrinsic-and-extrinsic-motivation-of-teachers.
Jessop, T. & Penny, A. 1998. A study of teacher voice and vision in the narratives of rural South African
and Gambian primary school teachers. International Journal of Educational Development, 18(5): 393–
403. Retrieved 10 July 2011 from: http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.auckland.ac.nz/science
/article/pii/S073805939800039X.
Marzano, R.J. 2009. The art and science of teaching: Six steps to better vocabulary instruction.
Educational Leadership: Teaching for the 21st Century, 67(1): 83–84.
Ofoegbu, F. 2004. Teacher motivation: A factor for classroom effectiveness and school improvement in
Nigeria. College Student Journal, 38(5): 81–89.
Rice, J. 2003. Teacher Quality: Understanding the Effectiveness of Teacher Attributes. Economic Policy
Institute. Retrieved 16 April 2016 from: http://www.epi.org/publication/books_teacher_quality
_execsum_intro/.
Ryan, R.M. & Deci, E.L. 2000. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new
directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1): 54–67.
Ryan, R.M. & Stiller, J. 1991. The social contexts of internalization: Parent and teacher influences on
autonomy, motivation and learning. In: Pintrich, P.R. & Maehr, M.L. (eds) Advances in motivation
and achievement, Vol. 7: 115–149. Greenwich, CT: JAI.
Thomas, R. 2015. Five ways to help student motivate themselves. ASCD–Edge: A Professional
Networking Community for Educators. Retrieved 31 March 2016 from: http://edge.ascd.org/
blogpost/5-ways-to-help-students-motivate-themselves.
Thoonen, E.E., Sleegers, P.J., Oort, F.J., Peetsma, T.T. & Geijsel, F.P. 2011. How to improve teaching
practices the role of teacher motivation, organizational factors, and leadership practices. Educational
Administration Quarterly, 47(3): 496–536.
Weisman, D.L. 2012. An essay on the art and science of teaching. The American Economist, 57(1):
111–125. Retrieved 13 April 13 2016 from: https://www.k-state.edu/economics/researchspotlight
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/research/WeismanAnEssayOnTheArtAndScienceOfTeaching_TAE_Published.pdf.
Further reading
Darling-Hammond, L. & Baratz-Snowden, J. 2007. A good teacher in every classroom: Preparing the
highly qualified teachers our children deserve. Educational Horizons, 85(2): 111–132.
Korthagen, F.A. 2004. In search of the essence of a good teacher: Towards a more holistic approach in
teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20(1): 77–97.
Thoonen, E.E., Sleegers, P.J., Oort, F.J., Peetsma, T.T. & Geijsel, F.P. 2011. How to improve teaching
practices the role of teacher motivation, organizational factors, and leadership practices. Educational
Administration Quarterly, 47(3): 496–536.
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2
Teacher professionalism and identity
Irene Roy, Clemens Wieser, Joyce Dhlamini and Raju Thomas
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
• Explain how professionalism is understood from a policy view at the societal level; and from a practice
theory view at the practical level.
• Identify the role of knowledge and experience in forming a professional teaching identity.
• Critically reflect on your own competencies and teaching experience.
• List essential skills that a teacher in the twenty-first century should have.
• Make an argument for why following this list alone will not make you a professional teacher.
• Recognise how the South African Council for Educators promotes teacher professionalism.
Key concepts
Teacher professionalism: a combination of training, knowledge, experience, attitudes and moral
behaviour that define the role of a teacher
De-professionalisation: when rigid regulations and policy requirements overtake the teacher’s role and
professional identity
Novice vs expert: moving from a position of inexperience to one of experience through cycles of practice
and reflection
Professional identity: a teacher’s sense of self and responsibility as a participant in education
Reflecting purposefully: the ability to engage critically with one’s own practice, behaviour and attitudes,
towards some form of change
Experience as resource: learning from reflective practice
Teaching as community service: when the teacher’s role and professionalism are seen as part of a
greater community enterprise
CASE STUDY: IS THIS PROFESSIONALISM IN TEACHING?
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31
2
Teacher professionalism and identity
Irene Roy, Clemens Wieser, Joyce Dhlamini and Raju Thomas
Copyright 2016. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
• Explain how professionalism is understood from a policy view at the societal level; and from a practice
theory view at the practical level.
• Identify the role of knowledge and experience in forming a professional teaching identity.
• Critically reflect on your own competencies and teaching experience.
• List essential skills that a teacher in the twenty-first century should have.
• Make an argument for why following this list alone will not make you a professional teacher.
• Recognise how the South African Council for Educators promotes teacher professionalism.
Key concepts
Teacher professionalism: a combination of training, knowledge, experience, attitudes and moral
behaviour that define the role of a teacher
De-professionalisation: when rigid regulations and policy requirements overtake the teacher’s role and
professional identity
Novice vs expert: moving from a position of inexperience to one of experience through cycles of practice
and reflection
Professional identity: a teacher’s sense of self and responsibility as a participant in education
Reflecting purposefully: the ability to engage critically with one’s own practice, behaviour and attitudes,
towards some form of change
Experience as resource: learning from reflective practice
Teaching as community service: when the teacher’s role and professionalism are seen as part of a
greater community enterprise
CASE STUDY: IS THIS PROFESSIONALISM IN TEACHING?
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AN: 1477673 ; C. Okeke, J. Abongdia, E. Olusola Adu, M. van Wyk, C. Wolhuter.; Learn to Teach : A Handbook for Teaching Practice
Account: s6311349.main.eds
31
As professionals, teachers commit to using sound content, educational knowledge and to following
moral and ethical principles in their behaviour and actions. Teachers should also have a professional
attitude to and understanding of how their own teaching practice influences the learning experience of
their learners (De Clercq 2013). Let us look at an example:
A video recently went viral: it shows a teacher in a South African high school meting out corporal
punishment to schoolgirls in what looks like the school’s staffroom. More than a dozen Grade 11
learners are hit on their hands by a female teacher using a length of rubber hosepipe, while other
teachers can be heard in the background, cheering her on. The teacher appears to be punishing these
learners for failing to clean the classroom to the standard of other classrooms.
As the girls beg not to be hit, they each receive about six lashes on their hands. Some start crying.
“Now get back to your classroom so I can sit down and have my tea,” the teacher says finally.
Afterwards, a number of learners, who spoke on condition of anonymity, said corporal punishment
was regularly used at the school. The learners said that this teacher was the worst punisher, as she
often used excessive force to discipline and punish learners.
Still later, the school’s principal refused to comment on the incident, saying she was busy
invigilating exams and would not be available until the end of November. She said she would
investigate the claims and track down who recorded the video.
STOP AND REFLECT
What happened in this case? Take some time to answer these questions:
1. What is the issue that the teacher is acting on? Why are the girls being punished?
2. What alternative actions are available besides corporal punishment?
3. If teacher professionalism means that a teacher acts on moral principles, what principles does this
teacher personally identify with? In other words, what kind of moral principles do you think this
teacher follows?
4. Are the teacher’s actions condoned or upheld by the school’s principal and other teachers? What
makes you say so?
5. Moral principles reflect in ideas such as Ubuntu, as summarised by Michael Onyebuchi Eze (2010:
11): “A person is a person through other people.” What sort of person is this teacher enabling (or
not) her learners to become?
6. Share your ideas and answers with a fellow student.
Introduction
Teacher professionalism depends on the knowledge and skills acquired in formal teacher training.
Knowledge and skills acquired in formal education are the essential foundation that provides the
orientation for teaching and enables interpretation of events in the classroom. Professionalism develops
further through continuous teaching practice and reflection on it, as teachers refine their knowledge of
teaching. This knowledge or ‘know-how’ of teaching provides the orientation for every teacher.
Orientation becomes a part of the identity of a teacher, which marks the personal context in which a
teacher develops her knowledge, skills and experiences. Teacher professionalism is also underpinned by
practice theory. Practice theory contains a philosophy of social science developed by Pierre Bourdieu
(1977), and is used in education to provide perspectives to analyse the social structures of classroom
interactions, the conditions of teaching, and the relationships between social structure and the teacher
(Biesta 2010; Wieser 2015). Practice theory creates a teacher-centred point of view that can be
complemented with views about educational reform (Cain 2015; Supovitz & Spillane 2015).
Educational reform itself also reflects the philosophy that underpins it. In South African education, the
current focus of educational reform is on teacher professionalism, the context in which teachers work, and
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the goal of social justice. Promoting the professionalism of all teachers in South Africa is the vision of
South African Council for Educators (SACE), a statutory council which monitors professional conduct of
teachers and manages continuous professional teacher development (CPTD) in South Africa.
Teachers are supposed to act professionally in the school context, and unprofessional behaviour is
always unacceptable at schools, as in other fields of work. However, it is often difficult to decide whether
single actions can be qualified as professional or unprofessional because professionalism always depends
on the context in which it takes place. Think about the opening case study: what issues of professionalism
were raised?
Strategies for success
Professional practice does not stop with how you act – it is about appearance too. When you dress
smartly, e.g. by wearing a shirt and tie or a formal jacket, you express that you take your role as a teacher
seriously. How you dress can have an influence on classroom interactions, but your performance relies on
more than that. Setting up rules for the classroom that learners can understand and recognise as
meaningful can help you create an engaging environment for teaching and learning.
In a practice theory view, a teacher cannot take in and make sense of all aspects of the classroom context
at the same time, and this is why educational research and school authorities increasingly point out that
teaching comes with ambiguous decision-making. Making decisions in the classroom while teaching
depends mainly on intuitive judgment, a way of thinking that is fundamentally different from evidence
and scientific knowledge (Shulman 2004; Biesta 2008, 2010; Cain 2015). Researchers increasingly
highlight that professionalism depends on such judgements, and policymakers equally highlight that
national performance in education needs to put trust into these teacher judgments (Sahlgren 2015). Such
judgements cannot rely on lists of professional competencies alone, simply because they rely on a
comprehension of the contexts of a class. If a teacher ignores these contexts – for example, the current
situation of learners outside of a lesson, school rules, or a curricular context of lessons – her actions
would not qualify as professional from an educational perspective. These contexts make it difficult to
identify individual competencies that lead to professionalism. This is why the maintenance of
professional teaching in class has consequently become the focus of educational research. In research,
public discussion, and in everyday life, the term ‘professional’ may refer to an extensive range of
meanings. In this chapter, we examine professionalism from a practice theory view, as well as from an
educational reform view.
2.1
Teacher professionalism and identity – between policy
demands and everyday work
What makes a professional? The opening case study provides you with some ideas of the issues and
attributes. Professional behaviour and actions rely on moral principles, and these moral principles are
helpful in providing the orientation for your own teaching. How moral principles connect to professional
practice has been a part of the discussion on professionalism in teaching since it first emerged in the
field of sociology in the 1950s and 1960s. Traditional models of professionalism developed from within
occupations with academic backgrounds, for example, medicine, law, and engineering. Models from
American sociology referred to the traditional “free professions” such as doctors, lawyers, or architects
(Abbott 1988). Shortly after this, models of professionalism emerged for other fields, and education was
one of them. These models of professionalism explain how one’s actions as a teacher should be carried
out. Models of professionalism derive from thinking about what makes a profession. Professions can be
looked at from two perspectives:
professionalism in teaching: the kind of teaching that attends to moral and ethical principles
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contained in educational research and policies, and relies on personal knowledge and judgement
•
•
From a societal perspective, profession points to a process that promotes the status of any occupation. At
the end of this process, the term ‘profession’ replaces that of occupation. Such a profession is usually
associated with the requirements and standards that are to be met by a person who takes on such a
professional job. A classic example of a compilation of requirements and standards is the Hippocratic
Oath, in which new medical doctors swear to uphold specific ethical standards in their practice. The
societal perspective on profession reflects strongly in the policy view, where a standard is outlined
that aims to support professionalism.
From an individual perspective, profession means to grow into a role and to develop skills through
exercising a practice and reflecting upon it. This growth takes place by systematic reflection, for
example, in supervision, mentoring or coaching meetings. Systematic reflection supports personal
development, which starts at novice level and continues until you reach expert level (Dreyfus &
Dreyfus 2005). The individual perspective on profession reflects strongly in the practice theory view,
where practices and their meaning are analysed to identify patterns of professionalism.
Traditional models of professionalism have faced wide criticism because institutions – such as school
boards and central education authorities – used them to introduce rigorous quality assessments and
accountability requirements. These developments have been regarded a process that led to a colonisation
of the culture of learning, which means that the originally independent area of learning is increasingly
regulated by policy. Regulation of schooling, such as attempts to control learning outputs, or instructions
on how to teach, result in de-professionalisation: “The effect of all this is to return teaching to an amateur,
de-professionalised, almost pre-modern craft, where existing skills and knowledge are passed on
practically from expert to novice, but where practice can at best only be reproduced, not improved”
(Hargreaves 2005: 168).
De-professionalisation takes place when teachers cannot independently develop a strategy that
facilitates learning, and face increasing external control. Attempts to increase regulation are criticised
strongly by educational researchers simply because the conception of what an educational worker is
seems to shift away from the teacher as relatively autonomous critical professional, and towards the
teacher who is supposed to act like a ‘branded technician’ and where relative autonomy and trust is
replaced by institutional control (Bottery 2009: 683).
STOP AND REFLECT
Reflect on whether and in what ways the shift from the outcomes-based approach (OBE) to the current
strongly regulated and prescriptive Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) might be
turning teachers into ‘branded technicians’.
The next two sections will focus on two types of models of the professional teacher: Section 2.2.1 will
show you how educational policy models a professional. Section 2.2.2 will look at models of the
professional in practice. Reading both sections will allow you to find out what current models of the
professional teacher look like and how these models enable and support professional teaching.
2.1.1
The professional in society – the policy view
The word ‘identity’ has been used over time in order to identify the teacher as a professional person (Day
2002). The psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud (1961) believed that identity is the image that each person has
of her- or himself. His fellow psychologist Erik Erickson (1968) outlines that identity is not something
that one has at any one time, but something that one develops during one’s whole life. This includes
identity as a focus on a single object, for example, a person, property, events; or identity as a focus on
morals, politics or another social category, for example, sexuality, ethnic nation and occupation.
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Theoretically, identity presents structured, integrated concepts encompassing all fields of knowledge that
emphasise the relationship of the personality to his/ her social environment (Kroger 2007). Teachers’
professional identity formation is constructed by the ways in which teachers build their practical
knowledge from experiences in practice. Teachers’ professional identity is a process of practical
knowledge-building characterised by an ongoing integration of what is individually and collectively seen
as relevant to teaching. This could be described in terms of the teacher as a specialist in the subject that
he/she teaches to the learners, as well as the teacher as an expert in employing the teaching methods that
will be understood by the learners and effective.
Teachers take on different roles and responsibilities throughout their school day. The most demanding
tasks they are faced with are to teach, to maintain a safe environment, and to manage their classes.
Throughout the day, teachers work to state positively the expectations of collaborative learning
environments and to teach explicitly the procedures that are to be used in their classrooms (Marzano
2007). The physical space in the classroom becomes important as it helps to maximise the ability of
teachers to teach and, at the same time, motivates learners to learn effectively in a well-managed
environment. In modelling professionalism, teachers strive to employ a variety of specific strategies, such
as learner-centred lessons that actively engage learners in the teaching and learning process.
2.1.2
The professional in practice – the practice theory view
School governing bodies, local and national education authorities continuously determine professional
demands, and teachers are subjected to these demands. However, some researchers argue that demands
made by school governing bodies do not support teacher professionalism in practice (Biesta 2010;
Bottery 2009; Terhart 2011). This is why these researchers try to model professionalism in practice. This
practice theory view is interested in how teachers draw on their knowledge, skills and experiences to
maintain their professional teaching: for example, how they start a lesson and get the attention of learners
by creating a public sphere in which joint communication on a subject takes place; how they deal with
interruptions and keep learners’ attention on the subject; and how they evaluate learner performance, give
feedback, and make this evaluation reflect in assessment. One key understanding in the practice theory
view is that professional teaching largely relies on situated knowledge to maintain leadership and
classroom management (Neuweg & Fothe 2011; Cain 2015).
situated knowledge: knowledge that is active in a specific social context, such as a classroom, and
remains largely tacit and unreflective
Models of professionalism in practice are often pragmatic. Pragmatic here means that the models focus
on straightforward guidelines that aim to help a person deal with ambiguity and uncertainty:
Professions are essentially the knowledge-based category of occupations, which usually follow
a period of tertiary education and vocational training and experience. A different way of
categorising these occupations is to see professions as the structural, occupational and
institutional arrangements for dealing with work and associated with the uncertainties of
modern lives in risk societies. Professionals are extensively engaged in dealing with risk, with
risk assessment and, through the use of expert knowledge, enabling customers and clients to
deal with uncertainty (Evetts 2003: 397).
Pragmatic models of professionalism emphasise the personal knowledge teachers develop while working
as a teacher, and it is “through continuous engagement with the activities and practices in the teaching
occupation that one stops being a novice teacher and reaches a level of expertise in teaching” (Dreyfus &
Dreyfus 2005: 782). The stages from novice to expert developed by Dreyfus and Dreyfus allow for
differentiating between several levels of professionalism. Novice teachers sometimes struggle to find the
right reaction to a classroom event, and this is normal and to be expected when you start teaching. After
some time, you will gain more experience and confidence and become more adept. After a longer range
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of continuous teaching, you will eventually reach a stage of expertise. This is why biographical research
approaches in education (Dausien, Hanses, Inowlocki & Riemann 2008) highlight that professionalism
develops habitually and emerges as an “amalgam of personal biography, culture, social influence and
institutional values” (Day 2002: 689). Expert teachers are able to manage classroom events through
implicit knowledge: knowledge that has developed through experience and is not made explicit in a
personal theory of teaching. The expert teacher is someone who draws on a vast range of experience, and
previous experiences enable her to see goals and salient aspects of classroom events. This allows the
expert teacher to see what needs to be done and to decide how to do it, thanks to a vast repertoire of
understanding a situation and finding a suitable reaction. This is why many pragmatic models of
professionalism step away from summative assessment and accountability studies, and shift the focus of
studies towards the personal educational know-how of teachers that is “essential if reform and
improvement efforts are to be more successful” (Hargreaves 2005: 981).
expertise: a level of professional practice where special skills and knowledge have been internalised
and are used intuitively
Teacher professionalism relies on personal knowledge that is hard to distinguish from everyday life
competencies, since decisions in specific situations are based on judgement, intuition and previous
experiences. Especially for primary school teaching, the existence of an explicit professional body of
knowledge for teaching has been questioned (Ballet, Kelchtermand & Loughran 2006). However,
teachers are often not aware of their extensive knowledge on teaching, the reason for which is the tacit
nature of personal educational knowledge.
tacit: usually means silent or unexpressed; in this context, it refers to something internalised and
therefore not brought out for examination or communication
This means that teachers have knowledge that they are not aware of and therefore cannot talk about. This
tacit knowledge is often contextual and connected to particular learners, events, and classes. Personal
knowledge also incorporates ideas on how to teach: however, these ideas often remain tacit as well
(Shulman 2004). Educational research attempts to make this tacit knowledge explicit and find names for
domains of professional practice. Domains of professionalism vary in focus (Terhart 2011), but
educational researchers and policymakers agree that certain domains are essential to teaching. These
domains translate into competencies for teaching:
• Competence to reflect on and communicate knowledge Professional teachers know what things to do
because they have elaborated routines for teaching. At the same time, even experts struggle when
communicating this knowledge (De Clercq 2013). The competence to observe yourself and your
professional work environment, to develop self-criticism, to involve yourself in a discussion and
shape this discussion with educational arguments, are all characteristics of professional practice. The
basis for reflection and communication of knowledge is the use of educational terms and concepts
shared within the community in which this communication takes place.
• Competence to work with professional frames in class and in the professional community To work
with professional frames means to have a personal understanding of what it means to function as a
teacher, and to know how this is different to functioning as an accountant or a dentist, for example
(De Clercq 2013). These professional frames allow teachers to comprehend what aspects of a specific
situation are important to attend to, and what aspects of a situation in class they can leave out of their
personal field of attention.
• Competence to use cooperation productively A teacher is always part of a team of teachers at a
school. This team works together and acts as a professional community (Wenger-Trayner, Fenton
O’Creevy, Hutchison, Kubiak & Wenger-Trayner 2014). The community is there to discuss questions
and talk about uncertainties, and to learn from one another (Stoll & Seashore 2007). The teacher
community discusses urgent issues together and develops solutions jointly in the team.
• Competence to handle diversity in class Classes might not be homogeneous in terms of gender,
language, race, or ability. Diversity and difference allow learners to learn from one another, to
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develop understandings of a matter together, but also to set limits. Much of this happens without a
teacher, in breaks between classes, in the school grounds or playing fields, or on the way to school.
Some things need moderation by a teacher, or even intervention, especially when working together
during classes is affected.
If you want to know more about each competency domains, you should go to your library and check if
some of the references mentioned above are available there.
APPLYING IT TODAY
1. What are the challenges in your work as a teacher within the four domains outlined here?
2. Where do you identify your strengths and weaknesses within these competencies? Describe your
skills in each competence domain, and write down strategies that will help you to improve your
skills in these competency domains.
3. How do the competencies outlined here reflect in teaching? To answer this question, ask a teacher
that you know if it is possible to join him or her for one school day. When the teacher agrees,
spend the day observing how she teaches and interacts with learners and colleagues. Take notes
about what you think will help to answer the question. Use your notes to write a short report about
how competency domains reflect in teaching.
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STOP AND REFLECT
Reflect on what the following means in terms of your own competencies as a student teacher:
(Source:Adapted from Humphreys 1993: 133–134)
2.2
Developing a professional identity
A professional identity is vital to carrying out teaching and lecturing in any educational setting. Without
developing a professional identity, one would not feel confident and comfortable to engage in the
delivery of the subject content efficiently. Experienced teachers act as role models for student teachers, as
they have already developed their professional identity in a number of areas that student teachers also
need to look at. Each of the following sections is devoted to one of these areas, and you can develop your
own professional identity by thinking about each of these areas.
2.2.1
Teaching theories as the building blocks to professional identity
development
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An important purpose of discussing teaching theories is to assist the teacher to have a wide range of
approaches for creating a proper interactive learning environment in the class. Knowing about these
theories enables the teacher to be aware of the different approaches, and then enables her to deal with the
needs of learners.
Teaching theories assist teachers to identify various aspects of an instructional system and also to
explain various principles that can be followed in the selection, modification and presentation of subject
content to get the best responses from the learners.
Teaching theories also help in guiding the teacher to select appropriate teaching techniques, strategies
and methods for the effective utilisation of teaching situations and resources towards realising the
teaching objectives.
2.2.2
Professional value for knowledge and experience through
reflection
The knowledge and awareness that teachers help learners to gain through their teaching should enable
those learners to become subjects of the world, rather than objects. The teacher does this by teaching
learners to think democratically and to continually question and derive meaning from the content that
they are learning. Constantly challenging learners to reflect on how their decisions and actions are
impacting on the world, places the acquired knowledge in a wider context. An example of this would be
teaching about global issues such as human rights, or the sustainable use of energy resources.
Theoretical knowledge on teaching is acquired by you as a student while undertaking a lengthy period
of study. It is important that you continually examine your own views of education as this impacts your
professional identity: how you teach in your classes and how you relate to your learners. Your view of
education is affected by your unique past experiences as someone growing up in your environment
(Gholami & Husu 2010). Every teacher has to examine and be aware of his or her own practice in relation
to what he or she believes about teaching and learning, and this examination takes place through
reflection.
The art of reflection is much more than simply describing an event or telling about it. Reflecting
purposefully is a skill where one tries to understand the experience by examining every aspect of it, while
all the time evaluating one’s own part in it by asking difficult (sometimes painful) questions and seeking
answers. The ultimate aim of reflection is to improve one’s own practice.
APPLYING IT TODAY
There are three sets of questions (called ‘what, why and how’) which you can use to guide your
reflections so that they are more than mere descriptions of difficult situations:
1. What is happening? What am I doing? How am I doing it? (descriptive)
2. Why is this happening? Why am I doing what I am doing? (making connections between theory and
practice)
3. Are my assumptions about what is happening and what I am doing in line with those of other people
(theorists, colleagues, education authorities)?
2.2.3
Making professional knowledge a resource for teaching
A teacher’s professional knowledge is the result of being exposed to educational theory and having tried
out the theory for her- or himself in the context of the classroom. In the process of developing
professional knowledge in their fields, teachers draw from personal, practical and professional sources.
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All teachers need a sound theoretical understanding of what underpins their practice and choices in the
classroom.
Fenstermacher (1994) distinguishes between knowledge for teachers, and knowledge of teachers. On a
daily basis, every teacher applies some theoretical knowledge in carrying out their work. The knowledge
that is referred to here – theoretical knowledge – is typically acquired through the training process prior to
becoming a teacher and could be regarded as knowledge for teachers. This type of knowledge is essential
in the development of professionalism that reflects in teaching activities (Jerlinder, Danemark & Gill
2010).
Teachers also acquire knowledge through their own interaction with a variety of systems. They learn
from academic and professional discourse. Their knowledge may come about as a result of an education
department’s efforts at curriculum re-structuring, or could be the response to global forces impacting on
their work. They learn as they go about their daily task of teaching. This kind of knowledge is the second
kind that Fenstermacher (1994) refers to – knowledge of teachers. This type of knowing is typically
practical, which manifests itself in everyday behaviour (perception, judgement, anticipation, thinking,
decision-making) of teachers (Neuweg & Fothe 2011; Geerinck, Masschelein & Simons 2010). This type
of practical knowledge is what is known as experience.
2.2.4
Making professional experience a resource for teaching
Knowledge of teachers is the context-based, practical reasoning that teachers use in their daily
decision-making processes (Carr 2004). It is a multi-faceted concept which includes all the experiential
knowledge teachers develop in the course of being a teacher. The origin of the teacher’s practical
knowledge is located in personal, social, theoretical and actual experiences.
A teacher develops practical knowledge because she or he has a need for it and will use this
knowledge in the teaching context. Practical knowledge includes the teacher’s own beliefs, insights and
habits which helps her or him to function successfully in the school environment.
Practical knowledge has a number of characteristics:
• It is time bound – the knowledge was acquired at a specific moment and is useful in that moment. It may
never be needed again in the future.
• It is situation specific – the acquired knowledge provided a suitable approach to a specific event (i.e.
situation).
• It depends on the individual teacher’s personality.
• It provides a solution to a problematic situation.
• It guides the teacher’s actions.
Teachers who do not yet possess practical knowledge are considered ‘inexperienced’. If they fail to
develop practical knowledge in response to problematic situations, they tend to become frustrated to the
point where working as a teacher becomes unbearable.
Deciding what to do in a given situation is often about how teachers ‘read’ a situation; or about
acceptable principles of practice; and ultimately depends on a personal set of beliefs. This intuitive
reaction to a situation is what Timostsuk & Ugaste (2010) call ‘reflection-in-action’. Goodson (2003) and
Hargreaves (2005) further suggest that teacher experience becomes the starting point of scientific enquiry
and results in classroom-based research.
STOP AND REFLECT
Go back to the case study at the beginning of this chapter and read it again. Consider whether this
teacher bases her decisions about how to deal with the situation on acceptable principles of practice, or
on a personal set of beliefs, or both.
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APPLYING IT TODAY
1. Apply the ‘what, why and how’ questions to the actions of the teacher in the case study at the
beginning of this chapter.
2. Is what is taking place in this incident in line with educational policies and expected practices in
South Africa?
3. What are the assumptions on which this teacher bases her actions?
This section made you aware that becoming a professional teacher is an ongoing process, extending well
beyond your initial training period. You will find the observation checklist (Appendix 2.1) at the end of
this book a useful instrument to adapt and use to reflect on your own professional practice and that of
others, and to learn from. In the next section, we consider how you can enhance teaching and learning
through the use of available resources. Making use of teaching resources during lesson presentations
engages your learners actively and makes the new knowledge come alive.
2.3
Becoming a professional teacher
Becoming a professional teacher really begins when you are still undergoing the period of initial teacher
training. During this period, you develop a deeper understanding of what it means to be a teacher. Flores
and Day (2006) call this the ‘pre-teaching identity’. On a daily basis, teachers have to deal with situations
that include ethical dilemmas. As you consider the following scenario, think of other situations in which
ethical behaviour may be both required and challenged.
A question of ethics
You receive a love letter from a learner to whom you give a lot of attention during class time because
he/she is struggling academically. How do you address the matter?
Professional teachers should be able to address and deal with ethical dilemmas, since there is a high level
of accountability expected from them as professionals. The world of work requires students who have
come from 12 years of schooling and several years of tertiary study and graduates who have undergone
further training, to have the relevant knowledge and competencies in their new workplace. Consequently,
all incoming professionals should bear in mind that their role is critical in making a better world, where
learners can follow their model with trust and belief, by building networks of support, and by bringing
success to their lives.
All teachers in the professional community need to be increasingly conscious of existing and new
challenges on a daily basis – within the teaching field, both national and global – and to take initiatives to
deal with them. To become a true professional, one needs to be reflective in one’s everyday practices and
to commit to making the necessary changes towards progress and one’s own professional development.
2.3.1
Developing your professional attitude for teaching
The concept attitude has been defined as a tendency to react in a certain way towards a designed class of
stimuli (De Clercq 2013). According to the Council on Higher Education (CHE) (2007), teacher
professionalism refers to the context in which teachers work and to the goal of social justice. Therefore,
teachers need to play a crucial role in developing learners who will be the valuable and productive
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citizens of tomorrow. Teaching is a committed, dedicated and caring practice and all stakeholders –
teachers in particular – need to embrace the new changes with increased passion, commitment and
dedication (Jerlinder et al. 2010). The Gauteng Department of Basic Education (2010) emphasises that
changed behaviour for all in schools is essential to see successful teaching and learning now and in the
future. Jerlinder et al. (2010) maintain that the role of the teacher is essential in creating and managing an
inclusive environment in schools, whose aim is to accommodate all learners in the schools.
2.3.2
Teaching as a professional service to the community
Teaching has been facing a process of transformation in the past two decades in South Africa. Many
policies and programmes have been introduced since 1994, including the Integrated Quality Management
System, National Teaching Awards, Action Plan to 2014: Towards the Realisation of Schooling 2025
(2010), and Action Plan to 2019: Towards the Realisation of Schooling 2030 (2015), and Public School
Policy Guide on Rights and Responsibilities of Parents, Learners and Public Schools (DoE 1996). All
these policies and programmes of the Department of Basic Education emphasise the need to improve the
quality of education in the country.
The term ‘service oriented’ implies that teaching is more of a social service as stated by the CHE
(2007), which requires increased commitment and dedication to performing duties in a responsible way.
Jerlinder et al. (2010) suggest that teaching must attempt to bring about social justice, which does not
focus only on individual benefit, but is a service to the entire community.
According to Bullough and Pinnegar (2009), the role of the teacher has to be transformed to achieve an
outcome of personal commitment and character. In the view of Eilam and Poyas (2009), there are many
virtues a professional teacher should embody, including patience, prudence, justice and love of teaching;
and above all, the teacher has to be someone who contributes to the happiness of others. Teachers’ roles
(see Chapter 4), behaviour and their professional interactions have been closely observed in South Africa
in the last decade. This is mainly because of the many challenges experienced by the South African
education system in its endeavour to improve the quality of education. Lack of basic pedagogic and
content knowledge competencies is just one of the strongest challenges, among many others (Dirks
2013), but it is the re-professionalising of our teachers that may be the saving of education.
Conclusion
Professionalism is associated with the competencies necessary to work as a teacher in the contemporary
classroom and school. Defining these competencies in terms of knowledge domains has become a major
enterprise in educational policy: many policy perspectives endorse this codification that allows one to
judge whether the practice of a teacher is professional or not. This competency approach in education
looks at professionalism from a societal perspective and asks that the requirements teachers need to meet
are those of similar professionals. The two main requirements teachers need to meet are: subject matter
knowledge and pedagogical knowledge of teaching. Novice teachers go through academic training to
acquire knowledge and concepts in these two areas before they start to teach. However, subject
knowledge and pedagogical knowledge by themselves do not automatically lead to successful teaching or
the making of a truly professional teacher. In the twenty-first century, teachers need to address the
context of teaching and learning, as well as other educational and social issues that may surface in
classrooms and schools. As it becomes necessary to attend to issues besides facilitating learning, teachers
have to make situated judgements: to evaluate the issue that needs attention and to address it in their
interactions with learners. The importance of such judgements reflects in South African educational
policy, which highlights the development of situated knowledge. Situated knowledge is key to current
professional practice, both inside and outside the immediate classroom environment. Without it, we get
incidents and actions like those illustrated in the case study at the start of this chapter.
Situated knowledge develops when teaching experiences are used as a starting point for reflection.
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Development requires a teacher to recall events that happen in class, to interpret these events and actions,
and to identify a plausible meaning or explanation for these events and actions. Becoming a professional
teacher also means that you discuss classroom events and actions with colleagues, and reflect on these
events and learner actions together. This will also help you to develop appropriate teaching strategies and
your role as a teacher. Both will help you to develop pride in your teaching and bring you closer to the
aim most central to teaching: to facilitate learning and foster a collaborative and supportive school
community.
Activities
Self-reflection
1. Recall a classroom situation with one of your teachers that was important for you as a learner. Make
some notes to create a short outline of this situation. After creating this outline, try to think about the
competencies your teacher used in this situation: How did s/he communicate in this situation? What
professional frame did the teacher use in this situation? How did s/he handle diversity and reconcile
different interests in the class?
Practical applications
2. Reread the case study at the beginning of the chapter. Imagine you are a colleague of this teacher and
are asked to approach her to discuss what happened. What resources for professional teaching would
you consult before talking to your colleague? Find one or two helpful resources in your library and
identify a constructive way to approach her.
Analysis and consolidation
3. Start both activities on your own and then get together with a fellow student to discuss your answers:
How do your answers to Activity 1 compare? For Activity 2, do you agree on your answers? What
would your fellow student do differently from you, and why?
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3
Change theory – the teacher as reflective and change
agent
Copyright 2016. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
Symphorosa Rembe, Jenny Shumba, Cosmas Maphosa and Ellen Musesengwe
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• Identify the basic tenets of change theories.
• Explain why the twenty-first century teacher needs to be reflective.
• Describe strategies that teachers can employ as change agents in their schools.
• Explain the complexities of teaching and learning in the twenty-first century.
• Suggest strategies to deal with complexities in twenty-first century teaching and learning.
Key concepts
Change theory: a social theory or model with steps or stages to enable a change of attitude, behaviour or
practice in an individual, group or organisation
Reflective practice: thinking critically about what you do in order to improve future practice Action
research: a process of planning, acting, observing, reflecting then re-planning, further action, further
observation and further reflection, in reflective practice
CASE STUDY 1: CHANGING IDEAS IN PRACTICE
Tom is doing his teaching practice at Nkosi Secondary School in the Eastern Cape. During school
experience, he is expected to carry out a project that will assist him to bring about change in some
practices in the community or the school environment, such as improvement of parental involvement
in their children’s homework. He has to base his project on a particular change theory. His first
reaction is: What? Tom then reflects and interrogates himself further: What is change theory? What are
the examples of change theories in the literature? Which change theories should I adopt? What change
do I want to achieve, or help to achieve? How can I bring about successful change in the community
and my school? He decides to search for answers in the library and on the internet, before drafting his
proposal and going into the field.
Research is always a good place to start!
STOP AND REFLECT
1. What is your understanding of change theory?
2. What actions might Tom take in preparation for his project?
3. If you were in Tom’s position, how would you go about carrying out the project?
Introduction
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This chapter interrogates change theory in teacher education. We show that teaching and learning in the
twenty-first century should be based on the reflective and reflexive teacher. The present-day teacher
needs to embrace the main tenets of change theory in order to understand the micro- and macro
conditions surrounding the complex teaching and learning environment. This chapter engages you in
practical activities, showing you how the teacher can be reflective and can manage the complexities of
teaching and learning. We argue that the teacher education curriculum should be responsive in producing
a reflective teacher who can operate in the globalised, multicultural and technologically-driven
environment.
3.1
Change theory and its theoretical underpinnings
Change is a naturally-occurring process that goes with living and being human, but it can be encouraged
and facilitated towards progress and improvement. In an effort to answer how successful change occurs,
one needs some grounding in change theories and models. While there are a number of change theories,
we discuss two of the earliest and most important ones: Kurt Lewin’s three-step change theory or model;
and Ronald Lippitt’s phases of change theory, in the following sections.
3.1.1
Lewin’s three-step change theory
Lewin’s three-step change theory is premised on the gestalt assumption that the “key to change is to
enable individuals to understand and restructure their perceptions of the world around them” (Edward &
Montessori 2011: 2). Change involves an alteration in behaviour. Behaviour can be seen as a balance of
forces working in opposite directions. Driving forces facilitate change as they push towards a desired
direction or goal, whereas restraining forces curtail change as they pull in the opposite direction (Lewin
1951, in Samara 2008: 22).
gestalt: a term from psychology which describes an organised whole that is perceived as more than
the sum of its parts
The first step in Lewin’s three-step change theory entails unfreezing (Kent 2011: 1–2) the existing
situation (or status quo, or equilibrium state). Unfreezing helps to overcome any individual resistance to
change and enhances group conformity. To unfreeze or change the status quo, three methods can be
employed. Change can be obtained through:
• increasing the driving forces that direct away from the existing situation.
• decreasing the restraining forces that negatively affect the movement from the existing equilibrium.
• using a combination of the two methods above.
Unfreezing can be enhanced by motivating participants, preparing for change, building their trust and
fostering in them an awareness of the need for change. In other words, it means making participants ready
for change.
Lewin’s second step in the change theory/model involves movement or change (Kent 2011: 1–2) of the
target system to a new level of equilibrium. The actions that can assist in this movement or change are:
persuading the targeted people to reach an agreement that the current situation is not of benefit to them,
encouraging them to view the problem from a different perspective, and to work together to source
relevant information that enhances change.
The third step of the model is refreezing (Kent 2011: 1–2). This process takes place after change has
been implemented in order for it to be sustained. If this step is not done, the change situation might revert
to the old equilibrium or status quo. Refreezing can be sustained through reinforcing the new ideas that
are formed, and institutionalising them through formal and informal means that include policies and
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processes (Robbins 2005: 564–565). One can institute change by reinforcing the new ideas gained at the
change or movement stage.
In summary, Lewin’s three-step theory can be represented diagrammatically in! Figure 3.1 as:
Figure 3.1:Steps in Lewin’s three-step change model
Let us look at another theory of change, Lippitt’s phases of change theory, to get a fuller idea of how
change theory works.
3.1.2
Lippitt’s phases of change theory
Lippitt’s phases of change theory extends Lewin’s three-step change theory (Lippitt, Watson & Westley
1958). The authors created a seven-step theory with the following steps:
1. Identify the problem.
2. Assess the drive and capability for change.
3. Assess the resources and motivation of the change agent, which include the change agent’s commitment
to change, power and stamina.
4. Choose progressive change objects. In this step, change agents develop action plans and establish
strategies to enhance the change process.
5. The role of the change agent should be to select and clearly explain the change in order to clarify it. For
example, they can act as facilitators and experts in disseminating information that leads to change.
6. Maintain the change. Communication, feedback and group coordination are essential elements in this
step of the change process.
7. Increasingly withdraw from the helping relationship. The change agent should gradually withdraw from
their role of assisting in the change process. This will occur when the change becomes part of the
organisation’s culture (adapted from Lippitt, Watson & Westley 1958: 58–59).
Lippitt et al. (1958) assert that changes are stable if they are spread to similar systems and sub-systems.
Hence, as a teacher, you need to collaborate with other stakeholders, such as colleagues, parents, district
education officials and non-governmental organisations, and you need to reflect on every step taken, so
that there is long-lasting change. Now that you have a better understanding of change theory, in the next
section we look at the importance of reflection for the twenty-first century teacher.
3.2
The twenty-first century teacher as reflective practitioner
The twenty-first century teacher needs to be reflective in order to embrace the ever-changing knowledge
economy of the modern world, and to contribute to the quality and effectiveness of the educational
experience and wider personal development of young people. Teachers have therefore to be prepared and
equipped to deal with the increasing diversity of learners who operate within a global and digital
landscape. There is need for the twenty-first century teacher to ensure that they take a leading role in this
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scenario by continually developing their skills in line with the changes taking place around them, by
taking on collaborative roles and collaborating in learning in school systems. This is only possible if the
teacher is reflective, and the following section now focuses on what it takes for the teacher to develop
reflective skills.
knowledge economy: economy used to be defined as the forces which control the means of
production, but as we have moved into the digital age, the modern economy is now defined as one in
which growth is dependent on the quantity, quality and accessibility of the information available,
rather than the means of production
3.2.1
Becoming a reflective teacher
CASE STUDY 2: REFLECTING FOR A CHANGE
Thabiso is an English literature teacher at a school in East London in the Eastern Cape. She is
currently teaching the novel Scarlet Song by Senegalese writer Mariama Ba (1929–1981). She has set
her learners a group task: to do a presentation on one of the themes of the story. The group presenting
in this example is looking at the treatment of women.
The group members start with a short dramatisation. The drama portrays a woman who is
subjugated by both her husband and mother-in-law for being a foreigner. After the drama, the group
members pose questions such as, “How would you feel if you were in the position of this woman?”
“What do you think is the cause for the subjugation of the woman?” “Why would the mother-in-law,
as a woman herself, maltreat her daughter-in-law?”
After posing these questions the group members try to answer them, making reference to the text of
Scarlet Song. Finally, they engage the rest of the class in a discussion on how women are treated in
patriarchal societies and they round up the presentation with a short summary that provides their own
judgement.
After the lesson, Thabiso reflects on what the group has done. She is pleased that they have picked
up on one of the important themes in the text and how they have brought it to life. She decides to use
this approach regularly as she observes that it gives the learners room to be open-minded and reflective
in their study of literature.
STOP AND REFLECT
1. What do you think is going on in Thabiso’s mind as the learners are doing the presentation?
2. What elements of the presentation does she consider work well to open up discussion and create
critical thinking skills in the class?
Thabiso’s experience in the case study raises questions about the challenges that the twenty-first century
teacher faces because of globalisation and migration, such as xenophobia, women’s rights, and cultural
and economic differences and divides. As a teacher going into the classroom this decade, you are
expected to cope with and respond positively to the demands of globalisation. In addition, you face
challenges related to ever-changing technologies. The acceleration of technological advances in the last
two decades means the twenty-first century is seen as the age of science and technology, and technology
itself is one of the most important change agents in education (Fullan 2007) It is therefore crucial that you
keep up-to-date with changes and developments in technology in our current knowledge economy.
xenophobia: an unwarranted fear or dislike of foreign things or people, i.e. people from other
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countries
One way of keeping up is to engage in reflective practice through critical thinking, through
recollecting experiences, and in evaluation of them. When you do this, you became a teacher who is
self-monitoring. This means that you “need to go beyond the traditional role of being [only] an
information-giver and become a positive role model to the learners, [one]who continually reflects on
his/her own practices” (Teo 1998, in Ng, Lan & Thye 2004: 201). You will be involved in sharing good
ideas with other teachers and you will seek out best practices. You will also take pride in challenging
yourself to find better ways of solving problems in your teaching (Ng, Lan & Thye 2004: 201).
So it is imperative that you, as a twenty-first century teacher, become a reflective practitioner. The
idea of reflective practitioner is not new; in fact, it started with John Dewey (1859–1952), the American
philosopher and educational reformer. Dewey (1910) developed an approach to teaching which is based
on the teacher becoming an active decision-maker. This idea was further developed by Donald Schon
(1983) who observed that important decisions are made during the act of teaching, and that most often
these decisions are primarily based on experience in a spontaneous, intuitive manner. Schon (1983)
places emphasis on reflection in action and reflection on action takes place when you as a teacher become
self-aware of the knowledge and skill and you use them to solve problems that arise as you are teaching.
Reflection on action happens as a post-mortem, i.e. reflection after teaching.
intuitive: describes the use of one’s feeling about something to be true, even without conscious
reasoning
Reflective practice, therefore, entails dialoguing with yourself (Mann & Walsh 2013). It also entails
dialoguing with other teachers. Reflective practice means that you become involved in thinking critically
about the knowledge and experience of your own teaching. This will result in greater awareness of
teaching. You can then re-examine your practice with the aim of improving it.
APPLYING IT TODAY
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Thabiso decides to have a reflective talk with the History teacher Thandazani, about her literature
lesson and how it could be linked to some aspects of the History curriculum, as a way of integrating
the two subjects.
In your own subject(s) where can you see opportunities for collaboration with another subject teacher?
Develop two or three examples, based on this dialogue, or any other scenario you can think of.
Now that we have seen what being a reflective teacher means, let us go further and see what is involved
in reflective practice.
3.2.2
Reflective practice as action research
Reflective practice involves studying your own teaching. This means that you have to be observant, to
reason logically, be analytical, and synthesise and evaluate your own teaching (Zwozdiak-Myers 2011).
It requires you to evaluate systematically your own teaching through classroom research procedures.
This is called action research, and it is defined by Carr and Kemmis (1986: 162) as a:
Self-reflective spiral of levels of planning, acting, observing, reflecting then re-planning, further
action, further observation and further reflection.
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This is illustrated in the following diagram in Figure 3.1. The diagram shows that action research is a
process: it is also collaborative and reflective in nature.
Figure 3.2:Cycles of reflecting, planning and acting that drive action research
(Source:Adapted from Mertler 2012: 20)
Through action research, you get involved in formative evaluation. This will result in you being able to
modify, adjust, redirect and redefine your practice (Cohen, Manion & Morrison 2007). Through carrying
out action research you will be able to link theory with your own practice. This will enable you to
develop thoughtful reflection allowing you to strengthen your professional judgement (Stenhouse 1983).
Action research improves your decision-making and increases your effectiveness. It will also help you
make practical decisions about your teaching and improve your teaching strategies. You also get direction
about the processes of change which you are in constant need of, in the twenty-first century.
Action research improves education by:
• Incorporating change
• Enabling educators to work together to improve their own practices.
• Being persuasive and authoritative as it is done by the teacher on the ground.
• Developing critical reflection about your own teaching.
• Being planned and systematic in the understanding of the learning process (Mertler 2012).
When you as a twenty-first century teacher engage in action research, you become more reflective and
you gain insight, because action research enables you to improve your classroom practice. This is the
result of being in a position to examine and be critical of your own practice. You are collecting
information about what you do and observe on daily basis, and then using it as a means of facilitating
informed and practical decision-making. The collaborative nature of action research will also benefit you
as it brings together different ideas and experiences from other teachers and educators. Engaging in action
research makes you an empowered practitioner who grows through the process of research and being able
to make decisions about your classroom practice. In the process of decision-making you are enabled to
bring into your classroom your expertise, talent and creativity (Mertler 2012).
Finally, carrying out action research as a part of being reflective adds to your professional growth.
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This is because action research gives you room to improve your problem-solving skills and your attitudes
towards professional development and school change. It also increases your confidence and professional
self-esteem (Mertler 2012).
Now let us focus on how you become a reflective teacher in your practice.
3.2.3
The reflective process
Reflection is not an end in itself: it is a process and as such, you need to be organised. You become your
own observer and to do this, you should keep a reflective journal. This is a record of your observations,
experiences and feelings about your classroom practice. The information that you enter into your
reflective journal gives you the opportunity to dialogue with yourself. In so doing you identify areas of
weakness and strength in your practice and log any recurring themes which you will use to improve your
practice. You also enter new strategies that you try out as a way of improving your practice after which
you can comment on their effect in your journal.
The reflective journal gives you the opportunity of:
• Providing a record of the noteworthy learning experiences that have taken place.
• Helping you to engage continuously in the self-development process.
• Being able to express yourself as an individual and direct your own self-development process.
• Creating interaction between yourself and the self-development process you are engaged in, and between
yourself and other practitioners (Richards 1990)
Keeping a record of your work in the reflective journal as a way of checking on yourself and your
practice; is your own choice, but is clearly important if you are serious about your teaching.
3.2.4
Why the twenty-first century teacher needs to be reflective
Finally, let us look at why you as a twenty-first century teacher need to be reflective.
• Reflective practice encourages you to understand your learners in terms of their needs and abilities.
Theories in psychology of education suggest that every individual learner is different. It follows that
they will respond differently to what you as their teacher present to them and what you do in your
classroom practice. It is your responsibility as their teacher to know as much as you can about each
learner in your class.
• With the vast amount and speed of changes in educational systems in the twenty-first century, you have,
increasingly, to engage your learners in active learning which is always learner centred. You only act
as a guide or coach as your learners work on projects, do research on the internet, manage their
studies, and so forth. This kind of active learning requires you to be reflective. When you yourself
become reflective, you are likely to develop learners who are also reflective. You will be in a position
to encourage your learners to reflect on, analyse, evaluate and improve their own learning, and
become independent, self-managed learners.
• Reflective practice helps you to encourage your learners to learn in relevant, real-world, twenty-first
century contexts, e.g. through projects; new technology, like exploring the internet, using computer
software programs, e-learning, etc. By so doing you create lifelong learners who will become
productive members of their societies, which they will probably shape for themselves.
• Reflective practice is now a professional requirement as it brings educators in the lifelong learning
sector in line with other professionals. You as a teacher do not operate in a vacuum; hence the need to
collaborate with other professionals in the ever-changing global village.
Get into the habit of using reflective tools, like the evaluation formats in Appendix 3.1 at the end of this
book. Adapt and vary the formats to get the best of them and to learn and grow from your insights. We
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offer this discussion to you in the belief that you will become a teacher who is reflective, and one with a
crucial part to play in bringing change to the teaching profession that moves with the changing times. As
a reflective teacher, you are the future.
STOP AND REFLECT
1. Take some time to consider the benefits of becoming a reflective, twenty-first century teacher who
inquires into your own practice. List the benefits as you personally understand them and get input
from your peers.
2. Why do you think it important to keep a reflective journal on your classroom practice?
3. Develop a short example of how the process of action research in reflective practice might work.
Share this with a peer and get feedback.
We have now looked at the teacher as a reflective practitioner. In the next section we move on to the role
of the teacher as a change agent.
3.3
The twenty-first century teacher as a change agent
As a teacher, you need to understand your role as a change agent as this is part of the teacher’s multiple
duties. Case study 3 introduces us to the role of a change agent.
CASE STUDY 3: TOM GOES ALL OUT FOR A CHANGE
Tom (from Case study I) completes his university degree and is employed in a remote rural school. He
finds that the school has no sports fields, despite there being large tracts of land that have been part of
the school grounds for years. The school also does not have a library or a computer resource centre for
learners’ research. Tom does not know how a school can function without these resources in this
twenty-first century. He decides to change the status quo and to find a way to make available these
resources. Equipped with the theory on how to effect and manage change, Tom tries to bring about
changes in his rural school: he is a change agent. But can the changes he wants to bring about really be
in line with the twenty-first century demands? Given his context, can Tom still change it? Will he
manage to change the age-old status quo?
A change agent is an individual who organises, coordinates and manages the overall change process. As
such, a change agent recognises the need for change, and creates a vision of the proposed change process
before that vision is institutionalised (Northouse 2004). The vision should be communicated to the target
people. Change agents are by nature leaders as they see the need for change and are willing to champion
the cause and motivate people to see the benefits of change (Samara 2008). They are individuals who act
as catalysts in the process of change and are responsible for managing change activities (Margolis &
Nagel 2006). Change agents are viewed as “risk takers and look outward and into the future. Change
agents need to know how change affects people and understand the stages or processes people go through
in change” (Samara 2008: 23). Hence, for teachers to become change agents in their schools, they need to
have the ability to start and manage change in their work (Snoek 2006: 37). A change agent should
understand the change processes involved within an organisation and the way in which change occurs
(Lengkeek 2004). This competence is not natural or innate, and so needs to be developed in teachers. If
schools are to remain relevant, change is always imminent (Queensland Government 2014).
Change in the education context can have varied meanings to different people: this inevitably impacts
on its implementation (Fullan 2012). As such, two models of how teachers can institute change in their
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schools are suggested (Lukacs & Galluzo 2013). First, teachers can be recipients and implementers of the
change initiatives of others. They can implement national policy efforts passed on to them from the
department of education’s head offices. Second, teachers can be leaders of prescribed reform efforts. For
example, they can institute school-based change.
A change agent may be involved in the following processes: initiating change; planning change;
carrying out the change; measuring and confirming the change; and celebrating success and preparing for
the next change. Some of the roles for a change agent are: “planning, organising and coordinating the
activities associated with the change” (Queensland Government 2014: 2). The role of a change agent then
includes ensuring that the process of managing change takes into account the stakeholder and
infrastructure changes; and monitors the implementation progress and risks that can be encountered in the
change process. The change agent also coordinates communication relating to the change to ensure that
the people involved in the change process are well informed of what is happening and are kept on board.
People involved in the change process should always be made to feel that they are part of the change
process that they have consented to.
As a teacher, you will probably face many challenges as you try to make changes in your school or
community. For instance, a change agent is affected by power dynamics in the school (Munduate &
Gravenhorst 2003). As an insider trying to change an existing system or the status quo, you as the teacher,
may be seen to be challenging the authority of long-time power holders. As the change agent, you may
meet resistance from the various stakeholders (Bradshaw & Boonstra 2013). Some examples of those
who might resist change, the change agent, the change itself, or the change strategy are: fellow teachers,
parents, school authorities, district officials, local community and the learners themselves.
APPLYING IT TODAY
1. What situation or situations may need to be changed in your school? (If you are not in a school yet,
think of one where you have done your teaching practice, or back to the school you attended.
Alternatively, you can use Tom’s situation in Case study 3.)
2. As a change agent, what strategies can you use to change the situation/s you have identified? Make a
brief but sufficiently detailed outline.
By now you will have good grasp the role of the teacher as a change agent, in theory, if not yet in
practice. In the next section, we look at the complexities of teaching and learning in the twenty-first
century, to more fully develop your understanding of your role as a teacher.
3.4
Complexities of teaching and learning in the twenty-first
century
Read the following case about Mr Emmanuel’s class, which serves to show diversity in the classroom and
how the twenty-first century teacher should be prepared to deal with diversity.
CASE STUDY 4: A WORLD IN ONE CLASS
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Mr Emmanuel is a newly-trained primary school teacher who is starting his first teaching job at a
school in Overport, Durban, in South Africa. In his new class he finds that he is teaching learners
whose home language is English and others whose home language is isiZulu or isiXhosa. And there
are still many other learners with different home languages. There are black, white, brown and Indian
learners from South Africa, as well as learners from other countries. Some of the learners are
Christian, some are Muslim, some Hindu, while a number follow their traditional African religion. Mr
Emmanuel has boys and girls in his class who all seem to come from different socio-economic
backgrounds. While he wonders how he will deal with this wide range of diversity, he may be
interested to know that his class is typical not only in South Africa, but in many countries in the world
today, where the effects of globalisation and international migration are being felt. Still, Mr Emmanuel
finds himself searching his training for help with the situation he now faces.
STOP AND REFLECT
1. Identify the different forms of diversity in Mr Emmanuel’s class.
2. What challenges is Mr Emmanuel likely to face as a new teacher?
3. What measures can he take to cater for diversity in his teaching?
3.4.1
Learner diversity
Diversity in learners refers to the fact that each classroom typically contains learners from different races,
ethnic, cultural, and linguistic groups and communities with different economic and social backgrounds.
In showing the importance of diversity, Gipps (1999: 370) observes that:
We are social beings who construe the world according to our values and perceptions; thus, our
biographies are central to what we see and how we interpret it.
The point is that in any classroom, learners cannot be simply taken as a homogenous group, where one
size (or teaching approach) fits all. The present-day teacher should be able to analyse the demographic
composition of his or her class and understand how to deal with and manage diversity. Learners also
bring different cognitive, social, cultural and linguistic diversity into learning and this too has to be
understood by teachers (Moss, Pullin, Gee, Haertel & Young 2008). In taking into account learner
diversity, teachers should be able to adapt the curriculum appropriately to suit learners of different needs,
interests, abilities, experiences and learning styles.
The Department of Education (2002) holds the view that in response to the multiplicity of learner
needs in the classroom, it is the responsibility of teachers to employ diverse methods to cater for all of
them. The contemporary teacher needs to be armed with knowledge and skills to engage in curriculum
differentiation in order to reach out to all learners, despite their differences. Curriculum differentiation
should take the form of using different teaching approaches, group-specific or individualised instruction,
varied methods of presenting content, simplifying content and use of varied assessment techniques. All
this is possible and do-able for a properly equipped teacher.
Figure 3.2 shows some of the curriculum differentiation techniques that can be employed by teachers.
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Figure 3.3:Curriculum differentiation involves multiple techniques to cater for diversity in learning styles.
The techniques in the diagram suggest that the teacher should be armed with requisite skills to deal with
learner diversity in teaching and assessment. These skills include the teacher’s ability to attend to learners
as individuals and as groups, taking into account their unique needs. The teacher should find appropriate
ways to adapt content so that even the weakest learners have ways to understand what is taught. This
entails using different teaching and learning approaches. The teacher should also be aware that learners
have different interests and content should be presented in different ways to cater for these diverse
interests. Similarly, different assessment techniques should be employed to cater for different learners.
STOP AND REFLECT
What measures would you take to address language differences in your class?
3.4.2
Use of technology in teaching and learning
Teaching and learning in the twenty-first century is complex owing to a multiplicity of factors and this
impacts on the quality of teachers necessary for the contemporary classroom. (The use of technology in
teaching and learning is further discussed in Chapter 17.) The twenty-first century teacher has to be able
to incorporate technology into her teaching and learning. Today’s children are so-called ‘digital natives’,
having been born into this technology, and hence they make extensive and easy use of technological
gadgets and devices in their everyday lives. Teachers can assist in developing and nurturing learners’
natural technological expertise by embracing technology in their own teaching and learning. If teachers
fail to adapt instruction to learners’ technological needs and use, they will be doing an injustice to the
learners. There is currently a ‘digital divide’ between learners who are comfortable in the use of
technological devices and teachers who have encountered digital technologies later in life – and who are
consequently labelled ‘digital immigrants’ (Waycott, Bennett, Kennedy, Dalgarno & Gray 2010; Prensky
2001: 2). Learners enjoy learning and may even learn better through the use of technological devices,
hence the need for teachers to adjust their pedagogical practices to accommodate learners’ new learning
preferences (Bitter & Pierson 2005). The contemporary teacher has to understand and embrace these new
learning preferences of her learners. Amongst other things, for example, the learner in the digital age
prefers to learn through active participation rather than receptive reading or listening; she has a need to
figure things out rather than wait to be taught; and she is able to mix work with play (Prensky 2001).
Consequently, it is essential for the twenty-first century teacher to be on the look-out for and find ways to
incorporate technology in teaching and learning.
technology: a collection of techniques, skills, methods and processes used in the production of goods
or services.
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3.4.3
Teaching for multiple literacies
In the concept of multiple literacies, there is no single formula and single type of literacy, but many
‘literacies’ which have a number of dimensions and modes (Nelson, Hull & Young 2013). While teaching
in the twenty-first century is made even more complex by teachers having to ensure the teaching of
multiple literacies, it also becomes more interesting. Owing to technology innovation and social change,
literacy has become very dynamic (Bruce 2003). Literacy is no longer based only on print material and
teachers now require a deep understanding of multiple literacies that can to be taught to learners.
Multi-literacies have wielded influence on teaching practices in many different countries and such
multi-literacies are enabled by information and communication technologies (ICTs) (Everett 2006).
Figure 3.4:Multiple literacies offer teaching practice many new avenues and approached to explore.
The diagram in Figure 3.4 shows the varied and complex nature of multiple literacies, which are still
being developed and understood. However, such literacies should be wholly grasped by teachers in order
for them to help learners to properly develop them.
STOP AND REFLECT
How would you teach any two of the listed literacies at any level and in any subject?
3.4.4
Children’s rights
Teaching in the twenty-first century should take cognisance of children’s rights and how they are
protected. The contemporary teacher in South Africa should be aware of international treaties that call for
the promotion and preservation of children’s rights. These are treaties such as the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights (UDHR) (1948); the International Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial
Discrimination (ICERD) (1969); the United Nations (UN) Convention on the Elimination of
Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) (1979); the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the
Child (UNCRC) (1989); the Convention of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) (2006); as
well as the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (ACRWC) (1989). The Constitution of
the Republic of South Africa (1996) also informs the teacher about the issue of children’s rights. In
essence, international treaties on children’s rights as well as the South African Constitution inform the
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teacher that education is a basic right for all children and that children have other rights that should be
respected and promoted by the teachers. Freedom of expression, non-discrimination, freedom of thought
and religion, and freedom of association are some of the fundamental rights and freedoms that impact
strongly on teaching and learning in classrooms. According to international treaties governing children’s
rights, no one is allowed to punish children in a cruel or harmful way. The practice of corporal
punishment is now outlawed in South Africa and this requires that the twenty-first century teacher has to
develop other ways of dealing with disciplinary issues in classrooms (as discussed in Chapter 14).
A question of ethics
You become aware that parents in the community of the school where you have just started teaching are
in favour of corporal punishment. In fact, many of them consider it the only way to discipline children
and ask why the school does not use it. What would you do to respond to parents’ call?
Conclusion
This chapter covered a range of issues that have deep implications for teacher education. Teachers in
training should be aware of the multiplicity of roles they need to engage in before and after attaining their
teaching qualifications. They need a good theoretical grounding in the theories of change, of reflective
practice and change agency. Teachers also need to be ready for the complexities of teaching and learning
in the twenty-first century. Being a teacher in this age is not an easy role as there are numerous issues that
make the task complex and demanding. However, the teachers who are adequately prepared with
reflective practices and open minds to deal with the complexities of teaching and learning in this new
century, have one of the most interesting and exciting times ahead of them with their learners.
Activities
Self-reflection
1. How ready are you to apply change theory in and outside the classroom? Think about how you would
approach a particular situation.
2. Explain some of the measures or steps that you would undertake in becoming a reflective teacher.
Practical applications
3. What strategies would you as a teacher use to institute change in your school or community?
4. How would you incorporate information and communication technologies in teaching and learning?
Think of any technological application that you are familiar with, and explain how you might apply it
in a particular subject or lesson.
Analysis and consolidation
5. Re-read Case studies 2 and 4. Imagine you are a teacher who is faced with similar classroom diversity
to Mr Emmanuel, but you would also like to implement some of Thabiso’s ideas. How would you
ensure inclusivity in co-curricular activities?
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4
The teacher and teacher personality
Melanie Drake, Mary-Jane Jackson and Namhla Sotuku
Copyright 2016. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
Learning outcomes:
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Distinguish the different aspects of teacher personality.
• Identify essential characteristics, skills and knowledge of an effective teacher.
• Examine what teachers do and how this impacts on the teaching and learning environment.
• Describe what the role of the teacher is, and what this means for you as a student teacher.
• Interpret ways in which to be a good teacher in the South African and African context.
• Evaluate the appropriateness of behaviours in relation to teacher personality and teaching practice.
• Critically reflect on your strengths and weaknesses and how this impacts on your role as a future teacher.
Key concepts
Teacher personality: the combination of traits, characteristics, applied competence and ideas that define
a teacher – to others and to herself
Essential characteristics, skills, knowledge: the basic features that are present in a teacher’s personality
Applied competence: when a skill becomes internalised as part of a teacher’s practice
Policy on role of teacher: laws and legal requirements of teachers in their professional standing
Challenges to teachers: current problems and difficulties that teachers face in doing their job, and need
to work towards resolving
CASE STUDY: THE TEACHER YOU DON’T WANT TO BE
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Thembisa is a third-year BEd student. Her teaching practice experience has been in a Grade 5
classroom. Read Thembisa’s journal entry after she had been at the school for one week:
This morning, after the school bell rang, I went to observe a Life Orientation lesson in class 5A. As
I walked down the corridor, I realised there was a terrific noise coming from the classroom. I arrived to
find the children shouting and pushing each other around. One little girl was crying because she had
been hit in the face during the commotion. Two boys were getting very aggressive – their playing had
turned into a fight. I couldn’t get anyone’s attention.
I thought I should go and find Ms Lerato, the class teacher. I left the class unattended and went to the
staffroom. She was not there. I checked the bathroom, the office and the library, but I couldn’t find
her. Eventually I went to ask the principal where she might be, and he said that he had not seen her;
she had not signed the register and she was not answering her cellphone. The principal asked me to go
back to the class until Ms Lerato returned.
When I got back to the classroom, the Grade 5s were out of control. I eventually got their attention
by offering to return their LO projects that the teacher had assessed. The learners were excited to get
these back. However, as I started handing them out I realised that the projects had not been marked.
The learners were very disappointed as Ms Lerato had promised that they would returned marked
today. I also noticed that none of the Maths homework from two days before had been marked. Ms
Lerato’s desk was very untidy and I could not find the attendance register. I think I want to be a
different kind of teacher when I have my own class one day. The learners have been badly affected by
these things.
STOP AND REFLECT
Think about each of the following questions for a few minutes. Then, get together with a friend to
discuss your thoughts and opinions.
1. What do you think of Thembisa’s host teacher? Why?
2. Would you like to be a learner in this 5A class? Why?
3. What would you have done to get control of the class?
4. If you were the principal of the school, how would you have handled this situation?
5. What can we learn about being teachers from this journal reflection?
Introduction
In South Africa, the number of teachers graduating is appropriate to meet the needs of the education
system, but the quality of these teachers is questionable (Nkosi 2015). There are many negative reports
(similar to Thembisa’s experience in the case study) in newspapers, social media and on television, which
force us to question the quality of our teachers (see Chapter 2).
Education research has consistently demonstrated high levels of correlation between teacher quality
and learner achievement. Teacher quality is in fact, the most important factor in explaining differences in
learner performance (Rushton, Morgan & Richard 2007. Given this concern with teacher quality in South
Africa and globally, it is important to explore and describe what it is that makes an effective or quality
teacher. Some teacher attributes, such as level of education and years of experience are easy to measure,
but it is the less tangible attributes that have the greatest influence on learner performance (Goldhaber
2002). In this chapter, we will explore teacher and teacher personality so that you have a deeper
understanding of what it means to be a good teacher; and so that you know what you can do to start
preparing yourself to be a great teacher. This chapter is divided into three sections. In the first we explore
the theory of teacher personality: the characteristics, skills and thoughts of good teachers. Next, we
address the policy requirements for teachers, discovering the responsibilities we have as soon-to-be
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teachers. Finally, we learn what is currently happening in schools and we challenge you to think deeply
about what a good teacher is.
4.1
Teacher personality
There is a vast amount of literature focused on the characteristics, skills and knowledge of effective
teachers. Notwithstanding the fact that many of the studies have been conducted in different contexts and
with varying aims and research designs, it is possible to identify across studies – from those focused on
preschool teachers to those focused on university lecturers – salient qualities of good teachers. However,
before studying the summary of these key qualities, let us first reflect on our own beliefs about which
personality characteristics make teachers great.
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STOP AND REFLECT
With reference to the conversation:
1. List the personality traits of a good teacher.
2. Rank these qualities from most important to least important (in your view).
3. Compare your list with your partner’s: What are the commonalities and the differences?
4. What about you – who was your favourite teacher and why? Which traits and qualities did s/he have
that made him/her special to you?
Now read on, taking note of any similarities and differences with your list of personality traits.
Figure 4.1 illustrates the ‘teaching personality’ of the ideal teacher as a combination of personal or
character traits; teaching traits displayed in the classroom; and intellectual traits that demonstrate
knowledge and awareness. All the attributes are related both to one another and to learner success.
Figure 4.1:The elements of teacher personality
(Source:http://www.gulllakecs.org/cms/lib7/MI01001276/Centricity/Domain/65/Microsoft_Word_-_Ten_Traits_of_Highly
_Effective_Teachers.pdf.)
teacher personality: a combination of characteristics, skills and knowledge that make up who a
particular teacher is
characteristics: a teacher’s personal qualities that enable him or her to effect successful learning
4.1.1
What a teacher is – characteristics
The personal attributes of an effective teacher are summarised below. She or he is someone who is:
effective or quality teachers: are those who have a positive impact on learner achievement
•
Enthusiastic
Effective teachers feel a passion to help others learn. They are driven by the sense that they can make
a difference in spite of the challenges faced: they have optimistic attitudes about teaching and about
learners. Enthusiastic teachers are energetic and active in the classroom and demonstrate their
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•
enthusiasm with facial expression, voice inflection and gesture (see ‘Communicates clearly’ below).
Passionate teachers make learning fun and in so doing, serve as motivation for their learners to learn,
to understand new ideas and to explore new interests (Glenn 2001; Thompson, Greer & Greer 2004;
Polk 2006; Walker 2008).
Caring and compassionate
Human relationships are at the heart of schooling. Outstanding educators show genuine care, concern
and respect for their learners – academically and socially. Effective teachers support learners in
multiple ways and help to meet their need for belonging and success. Good teachers know how to
make learners feel emotionally safe: for example, by employing strategies to create a sense of unity in
the classroom and by protecting them from hurtful behaviours like teasing and bullying. In terms of
learner success, good teachers believe in the success of their learners and in their own ability to help
them succeed. They build opportunities for learners to be successful into their lessons and then praise
learners’ efforts in order to build their self-efficacy. Good teachers are able to demonstrate respect for
learners quite naturally. Respect is at work when, for example, teachers keep learners’ scores on tests
confidential and when they speak to them privately following misbehaviour rather than reprimanding
them in public. By all accounts, teachers who treat their learners with sensitivity are rewarded with
reciprocal respect (Thompson et al. 2004; Colker 2008; Gao & Liu 2013).
self-efficacy: a sense of competence and accomplishment
•
•
Sense of humour
Learning should be fun – nothing conveys this more than spontaneous laughter in the classroom. A
quick wit is a valuable personality asset for any teacher. Good teachers can use humour to keep
attention in the classroom, to reduce anxiety and to establish a classroom climate conducive to
optimal learning. Effective teachers do not use humour at the expense of any individual, but are
prepared to laugh at their own minor mistakes. This may in turn provide a model to learners for how
to deal appropriately with embarrassing situations in their own lives (Thompson et al. 2004; Colker
2008; Gao & Liu 2013).
Creative
The most effective teachers are resourceful and inventive in how they teach their classes. Creativity
manifests in various ways: from the style in which teachers decorate their classrooms, to the
innovative activity ideas they incorporate in their teaching, and the novel methods they have of
motivating their learners (Thompson et al. 2004; Walker 2008).
Now that we have considered the inherent characteristics of teacher personality, we will consider the
important teacher behaviours which can be learned and improved on with practice.
4.1.2
What a teacher does – skills
The skills of an effective teacher are summarised under four headings, as follows:
skills: those behavioural habits of a teacher in the classroom
•
•
Plans and prepares
The most effective teachers come to class ready to teach. They put a great deal of thinking into how
each lesson will unfold and how the learners will benefit. They also ensure that all the materials
needed for the lesson have been prepared and gathered together. Good teachers add ‘spice’ to their
lessons by varying the teaching activities and methods – this to maintain learners’ interest. Thorough
planning and preparation ensures that instructional time is not wasted, that learners are actively
engaged in their learning, and that behaviour problems are less prevalent (Thompson et al. 2004).
Manages and organises the classroom
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•
•
Learners learn more in orderly classrooms where teachers establish clear structures and routines
(Harris 1998). Effective teachers are able to maintain discipline and enforce established rules
consistently and fairly. In classrooms where teachers are well organised and have established routines,
time-on-task opportunities are maximised. In other words, teachers who have systems for collecting
learners’ work, handing out materials, submitting assignments, and so on, have more time for
teaching and engaging learners. They are more effective teachers.
Communicates clearly
Communication is at the heart of quality teaching (see Chapter 7). Effective communication refers to
clarity of expression, both orally and in writing and both verbally and non-verbally. When good
teachers present new information for learning, they give accurate instructions; they demonstrate using
gestures or visual aids; they explain while maintaining eye contact and variation in voice pitch and
intonation; and they use effective questioning to encourage productive thinking. Good teachers ask a
variety of lower order and higher order questions (see Chapter 6); they direct questions to individuals
as well as the whole class; they allow an appropriate wait time for learners to respond to questions;
and they use learners’ responses to inform further exposition or questioning (Brosh 1996; Glenn
2001; Polk 2006).
Mediates learning
Researchers have found that effective teachers use a range of instructional styles or strategies
including direct instruction, individualised instruction and discovery learning (Harris 1998; Stronge,
Ward & Grant 2011). Effective teachers are able to accommodate learners of varying learning styles,
personalities, and rates of learning using a variety of techniques. Good teachers are effective in the
use of instructional time and maintain an optimum pace of learning.
We have discussed both the personal attributes and the skills of a quality teacher. We now examine the
third component of teacher personality as captured in Figure 4.1.
4.1.3
What and how a teacher thinks – knowledge and awareness
The knowledge and ways of thinking necessary for a teacher to affect quality learning are summarised
under four headings as follows:
• Knowledge
Good teachers have adequate knowledge of the subject or the content to be taught; the pedagogical
strategies for teaching the content; and the diverse instructional needs of the learners to be taught.
Having adequate knowledge of the subject is essential for designing the content in a sequence of
activities that will enhance learning. Effective teachers also have a repertoire of teaching strategies
that respond to learners’ different learning styles, abilities and interests. Knowledgeable teachers are
lifelong learners who keep up with developments in their areas of expertise (Porter & Brophy 1988;
Glenn 2001).
knowledge: information and understanding that underpins skills
•
•
Flexibility
Classrooms are dynamic spaces and teachers therefore need to be adaptable. Good teachers are able to
accommodate schedule changes at short notice; capitalise on a teaching moment even when it requires
deviating from the lesson plan; and they can be sensitive to learners’ needs, varying routines and rules
as necessary in order to promote engagement and critical thinking. Teachers develop adaptability
through experience (Glenn 2001; Polk 2006; Colker 2008; Gao & Liu 2013).
High expectations
The best teachers are often described as those who have the highest standards and who consistently
challenge learners to do their best. Teachers who set realistic goals for their learners and provide the
support necessary for them to achieve these goals, are effective. Generally, the learners of teachers
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•
with high expectations learn more than learners for whom expectations are low or non-existent (Glenn
2001; Thompson et al. 2004; Gao & Liu 2013).
Reflection
Outstanding teachers commit themselves to being lifelong learners. They learn as their learners do.
They reflect on the effectiveness of their own teaching in order to improve the learning outcomes for
all learners in their care. Critical reflection enhances teachers’ professional knowledge and affects
their future instructional planning. Good teachers keep learning and refining their teaching practices
(Porter & Brophy 1988).
We have so far discussed teacher personality as the combination of characteristics and skills necessary for
a teacher to develop and maintain in order to be a quality teacher. Next, we explore the different policies
and documents that support and mandate these elements of teacher personality for effective teaching and
learning.
STOP AND REFLECT
Awareness of the personality traits that contribute to good teaching can help teachers strive to develop
the qualities that are associated with positive learner achievement.
1. Which of the attributes described in this last section form part of your teacher personality?
2. Which qualities do you need to develop?
4.2
What does policy state about the role of the teacher?
In South Africa, there is a desperate need for competent teachers. Teachers need to be confident in their
professional role and secure in the knowledge of what, why, and how to do what they do well (Adendorff,
Mason, Modiba, Faragher & Kunene 2001). This section briefly examines South Africa’s policy
legislation that frames competent teachers and their professional behaviours, to deepen your
understanding of what teachers should do and how they should behave. Chapter 15 gives an in-depth
analysis of these policies.
4.2.1
What does policy say about being a professional and competent
teacher?
The process of establishing a regulatory framework for teacher education programmes began in 1995. It
was gazetted as the Norms and Standards for Educators in 2000 (NSE 2000). In 2010, the NSE was
revised and resulted in the publication of the research-based Minimum Requirements for Teacher
Education Qualifications (MRTEQ) (DHET 2011; 2015). Amongst other things, these polices created a
framework and procedure for the approval of teacher education programmes. They also provided an
outline of the knowledge, skills and values of a professional and competent teacher. The cornerstone of
these policies is the identification of the roles of teachers. These roles detail the everyday functions of all
teachers at a school. They are:
• specialist in a phase, subject discipline or practice,
• learning mediator,
• interpreter and designer of learning programmes and materials,
• leader, administrator and manager,
• scholar, researcher and lifelong learner,
• assessor, and
• community, citizenship and pastoral role (DHET 2011: 51; 2015: 58).
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The following table presents and describes each of the seven roles of a teacher:
Table 4.2:The seven roles of a teacher (according to MRTEQ)
Role of a
teacher
What each role entails
Specialist in
a phase,
subject,
discipline or
practice
The teacher will be well grounded in the knowledge, skills, values, principles, teaching
and learning approaches, methods and procedures relevant to the phase, subject,
discipline or practice and how these may be used in different ways.
Learning
mediator
The teacher will mediate learning in a manner that is sensitive to the diverse needs of
learners, including those with barriers to learning; construct learning environments that
are appropriately contextualised and inspirational; communicate effectively, showing
recognition of and respect for differences of others; and demonstrate sound knowledge
of subject content and various principles, strategies and resources appropriate to teaching
in a South African context.
Interpreter
and designer
of learning
programmes
and
materials
The teacher will understand and interpret learning programmes, design learning
programmes, identify requirements of a specific context of learning. The teacher will
also select, sequence and pace the learning in a manner that is sensitive to the needs of
the subject and learners.
Leader,
The teacher will make decisions appropriate to the level, manage learning in the
administrator classroom, carry out classroom administrative duties efficiently and participate in school
and manager decision-making structures.
Scholar,
researcher
and lifelong
learner
The teacher will achieve ongoing personal, academic, occupational and professional
growth through pursuing reflective study and research in their field, in broader
professional and educational matters, and in other related fields.
Assessor
The teacher will understand that assessment is an essential feature of the teaching and
learning process, and know how to integrate it into the process. The teacher will have an
understanding of the purposes, methods and effects of assessment, and be able to provide
helpful feedback to learners and keep detailed records.
Community,
citizenship
and pastoral
role
Within the school, the teacher will demonstrate an ability to develop a supportive and
empowering environment for the learner and respond to the educational and other needs
of learners and fellow teachers. Furthermore, the teacher will develop supportive
relations with parents, the school community and other stakeholders in education.
(Source:Adapted from Brunton et al. 2003)
For the purposes of effective implementation, each role is broken down into competencies which aim at
removing the dichotomy between theory and practice. The NSE (2000: A46–A52) proposed the notion of
‘applied competence’ which is seen as an overarching term for three interconnected kinds of
competencies which are: practical, foundational and reflective (NSE 2000: A46-A52) competencies. Let
us explore these concepts further.
Practical competence is defined as the ability to consider a range of possibilities for action, make
considered decisions about which possibility to follow, and to perform the chosen action. Foundational
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competence is where the teacher demonstrates an understanding of the knowledge and thinking which
underpins the action taken. Reflexive competence refers to the ability to integrate or connect performance
and decision-making with understanding, and with the ability to change and explain the reasons behind
these actions. Applied competence is thus demonstrated when a teacher is able to integrate the three
competencies when executing the seven roles at a school. This implies that, for a teacher to demonstrate
applied competence, all three competencies should be considered and applied in the execution of each of
the seven roles of a teacher. The practical implementation of each role (practical competence) should be
grounded in foundational competence (modes of argument on the field, current thinking informing how
the role could be effectively executed) and then be integrated through reflexive competence (taking a
critical stance so that one accounts for and justifies decisions and choices).
APPLYING IT TODAY
Let us try and understand these concepts clearly. The following example shows how a teacher could
demonstrate applied competence in executing the role of being an assessor. Can you think of other
examples? Draw up your own table and add them.
Reflexive
Foundational competence
competence
Practical competence
Making use
of different
assessment
practices
Justify assessment design
decisions and choices
about assessment tasks
and approaches
Understanding the assumptions that underlie a range of
assessment approaches and their particular strengths and
weaknesses in relation to the age of the learner and content
or skills being assessed
The seven roles of a teacher discussed in Table 4.2 are intended to develop professional competence and
excellence. While it is very important that teachers’ competencies are developed, Morrow (as cited in
Ministry of Education 2001) cautions that competence is meaningless if there is no commitment
alongside it. In a speech at the SAAMTREK Conference in 2001, he made the following assertion:
It is fashionable to think of education in terms of the development of competencies, but there
are limitations to this view. Nazi leaders were not in general lacking in competence […] High
degrees of competence are compatible with moral degeneracy. Most teacher education
programmes focus too sharply on the development of competence and not enough on
professional commitment. (Ministry of Education 2001: 27)
Morrow’s assertion has the following implications:
• A competent teacher is not always or necessarily an effective one. Competence is not enough.
• Teachers have to guarantee that their professional competencies translate into quality service and
professional commitment so that learners receive the best education and that their constitutional rights
are not breached.
Hammond (2004) suggests that there needs to be a mechanism for finding out if teachers are ‘delivering’
and not breaching the constitutional rights of the learners. She argues for the principle of accountability in
South African Education. Teachers should account for their professional practice. Teachers’ practice
should thus reflect that competence and accountability enjoy a special relationship, each one reinforcing
the other. Let us now investigate the accountability framework that is in place.
4.2.2
South African Council for Educators (SACE) and teacher
accountability
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SACE is a public body established in terms of the South African Council for Educators Act (Act No. 31,
2000). It is mandated to do three things (SACE, Act No. 31 of 2000: E3):
• Maintain a register of all teachers in South Africa (every teacher must, by law, be registered with SACE)
• Develop and train educators
• Develop, promote and uphold ethical practice by educators.
For the purpose of this chapter we will focus exclusively on the third mandate – the SACE duty to ensure
good ethical behaviour by educators. Teachers have to account for their unethical behaviours. SACE is
required to ‘compile, maintain and from time to time review a code of professional ethics for educators
who are registered or provisionally registered with the council’. The code of professional ethics covers a
range of ethical standards that (2000: E17–E18):
ethical standards: the set of moral standards by which people are normally guided in their private and
professional lives
•
•
•
•
•
Acknowledge the noble calling of their profession to educate and train learners of our country.
Acknowledge that the attitude, dedication, self-discipline, ideals, training and conduct of the teaching
profession determine the quality of education in South Africa.
Acknowledge, uphold and promote basic human rights, as embodied in the Constitution of South Africa.
Commit themselves therefore to do all within their power, in the exercising of their professional duties,
in accordance with the ideals of their profession, as expressed in the code, and
Act in a proper and becoming way such that their behaviour does not bring the teaching profession into
disrepute.
The code also regulates various relationships: teacher–learner; educators and their profession; educators
and parents; the educators and their community; educators and their colleagues. For example, concerning
the relationship between the educators and the learners, the code of professional ethics requires that an
educator refrains from having any form of sexual relationship with learners. In the relationship between
educators and their profession, the code states that an educator must ‘keep abreast of educational trends
and developments’ and ‘behave in a way that enhances the dignity and status of the teaching profession
and does not bring the profession into disrepute’.
APPLYING IT TODAY
Take a moment and reflect on the following newspaper headlines. What does this make you think
about teachers’ behaviour?
a. Teachers spend less than four hours a day at school
b. School racism claims to be probed
c. 45 teachers permanently struck off the teachers’ register for using corporal punishment
d. 19 pregnant girls, teachers responsible
e. Headmaster charged with raping learner
f. Learner loses the use of her arm after corporal punishment by her teacher
A question of ethics
Now let us examine the ethical standards set for teachers in the code of professional ethics, also referred
to in Chapter 2. What do they suggest should be the accepted professional behaviours for teachers? Use
the following table to guide your response:
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Ethical standard
Professional
behaviours
Acknowledge the noble calling of their profession to educate and train learners of our
country
Acknowledge that the attitude, dedication, self-discipline, ideals, training and conduct of
the teaching profession determine the quality of education in South Africa.
Acknowledge, uphold and promote basic human rights, as embodied in the Constitution
of South Africa
Act in a proper and becoming way such that their behaviour does not bring the teaching
profession into disrepute. disrepute: negatively reflecting someone or something,
bringing disgrace, disrespect
What teachers do, and how they go about doing it, has proven to be an integral part of quality education.
With an understanding of the importance of ethical behaviour, let us now turn to contextual and real-life
issues, where we will challenge you to break the mould and become the outstanding teachers your
country needs.
disrepute: negatively reflecting someone or something, bringing disgrace, disrespect
4.3
Teachers in context – what are the ground-level
challenges?
We have discovered how important the role of the teacher is for effective teaching and learning in
classrooms and schools. Responsibility for change and transformation in the education sphere lies
primarily with the teacher. Jansen (2001: 242) describes powerful images of teachers, including the
teacher as ‘liberator’, ‘facilitator’, and ‘performer’. Together with these images, education policy reform
that encourages more active, reflective and participant classrooms places much emphasis on the role of
the teacher in South Africa. In this section, we explore the challenges that face teachers in the current
context and ask you to reflect on how these issues shape your ideas about being good teachers.
4.3.1
Training and support
During the apartheid era, educators were described as obedient servants of the government with
well-defined instructional tasks that were managed by an official syllabus and moderated examinations
(Jansen 2001: 243). The subsequent new policies, curricula and expectations that govern post-1994
education do not match the previous experience and training of teachers (Bantwini 2010). Teachers used
to be regarded as ‘managers’ of learning, who viewed children as vessels needing to be filled with the
knowledge that the teachers had. New methodologies and pedagogies have manifested in new policy
policies, but the implementation of these policies has only been partially successful in schools. Issues like
traditional, teacher-dominated classrooms, authoritarian head teachers, the use of corporal punishment
and continued evidence of sexual harassment (Mncube & Harber 2010) continually prevent progress.
Bantwini (2010) has documented the feelings of teachers in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Teachers
explained their problems:
• Curriculum reform overloaded them with paperwork. New curricula are a burden and these create
stressful teaching and learning environments for teachers
• Large numbers of learners in their classes – sometimes one teacher to 80 learners, even when policy has
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•
•
•
•
•
•
recommended no more than 40 learners in a class.
In rural schools, a shortage of teachers was stressed. Rural schools struggled to attract teachers because
of the unfavourable conditions which are experienced by those already working there.
Teachers were expected to change from their past teaching practice to new approaches and methods (see
Chapter 8) that they were not familiar with.
Teachers still used traditional methods and many new teachers in the field simply resorted to the “ways
things are done” at the school, or the “way we were taught” (Bantwini 2010: 86).
Teachers felt that the lack of parental support left them having to deal with the basics that they felt
parents should be teaching their children.
Teachers also related the issue of salaries to the question of work overload. Teachers articulated that
their remuneration was not in line with the expected and required changes. They also compared their
remuneration with other fields of work and felt unfairly remunerated.
They also felt exasperated by the lack of ongoing professional development that would ensure they
understood what is required of them.
Teachers believed that it was the department’s responsibility to help explain the new policy documents,
but this did not always occur. Teachers perceived that they are being excluded from decision and
management processes (Swanepoel 2009).
Commenting on teachers’ competencies and roles in South African education, Harley, Brasa, Bertram,
Mattson and Pillay (2000: 288) emphasise how the demands on teachers’ skills and professionalism are
considerable, especially for teachers working in impoverished schools. An aspect that dramatically
affected the demands on teachers’ skills and professionalism was educational change. Radical change has
affected all aspects of South African life, and will probably continue to do so for years to come. Teachers
are continually faced with the task of facilitating and implementing education reform that was designed
without involving them (Swanepoel 2008: 39). Reform is more than merely an implementation of policy
issues. It relies on basic pedagogical skills, understanding and knowledge that, for many teachers, is not
being developed, facilitated and supported.
STOP AND REFLECT
Is there something you can do to rectify these training and support difficulties? As a newly-trained
teacher, how can you help fellow teachers with the challenges of training and support? Discuss your
ideas with your fellow student teachers.
4.3.2
Classroom climate and motivation
The teacher is the one who translates educational philosophy and objectives into knowledge and skills,
and transfers them to learners in the classroom. Classroom climate is important in teacher motivation. If a
teacher experiences the classroom as a safe, healthy and happy place with supportive resources and
facilities for teaching and optimal learning, he/she tends to participate more than expected in the process
of management, administration, and the overall improvement of the school (Ofoegbu 2004). Jessop and
Penny (1998) discuss the nature of teaching, job satisfaction, motivation and morale in the African
context. You will remember (from Chapter 1) that they identify two groups of educators in their sample.
One group attributes instrumental reasons for teaching, like salary, status, the desire to urbanise, and the
attainment of qualifications. The other group views teaching as an avenue of service, a ‘noble profession’
to which one is ‘called’. One third of their sample group fell into the latter group. These findings correlate
with other research findings. Educators from the minority group in Drake’s (2013) study spoke fondly of
their intentions (personal motivators) in becoming educators with statements such as “wanting to make a
difference”, “changing the lives of children” and “working with children”. These teachers modelled
behaviour that was committed and motivated. In contrast, the other group’s behaviours seemed to be
driven by external rewards, such as salary, status or holidays (none of which were adequate in their
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opinion) (Drake 2013: 186). Educators seem to have distinctively different motivators when it comes to
educating children, and these influence their commitment to the job.
STOP AND REFLECT
Take a moment to really think about why you are becoming a teacher. In this section, we have revealed
many challenges that demotivate and frustrate teachers daily in their work. Being aware of these now:
what plans can you make to keep yourself passionate about teaching? Look at the previous sections in
this chapter that dealt with traits, characteristics, knowledge and attitudes, and ask yourself the difficult
questions: Am I committed enough? Is this my ‘calling’? Will I fall into the ‘committed’ teacher
category, or am I just doing this for a salary at the end of the month? These are very important questions
to be thinking about as you embark on your studies to become a teacher.
Strategies for success
Based on what we have covered in this chapter, we thought we would provide some handy hints for you
as a student teacher:
Hit the paperwork Paperwork is a big part of what teachers do. This is by far one of the main complaints
that we as lecturers receive from our students in the field. If you are an organised person, it will be
something that you will be able to handle, but if you aren’t, we suggest you start working on improving
these skills now!
Sign up Always sign up for opportunities for further professional and self-development. If there is a
course available to you, go to it. Never turn down an opportunity to learn more.
Get parents on your side Extend a warm welcome to the parent community. It is best to try and get them
on your side from the beginning. Invite them to your classroom for information evenings and assessment
feedback. If there is a problem, call the parents in. Don’t wait or leave it for later. Education extends to
the parents of learners as well, and it is your responsibility to provide an open platform for
communication and discussion.
Speak to policy When there is an opportunity to respond to school policies or national policies, do so.
Your voice is important, but for it to be heard, you must make the effort. Ensure you always keep
up-to-date with policy amendments and curricula changes and, wherever possible, learn more and share
your opinions in a way that can only improve the desire for effective teaching and learning.
Be the climate change you want to see Classroom climate is very important, and step one in achieving a
healthy climate is to make sure it is a space where learners feel comfortable and eager to learn. Start
producing, creating and storing resources now. When you have assignments that can be used in the
classroom, make sure you do them as well as you possibly can. Then keep them for your classroom. Be
enthusiastic about what your classroom ‘feels’ like. Learners will respond positively to this.
Get involved in your school. If staff are needed to volunteer or assist in different ways, then put your
hand up. Be a committed team member at all times. This will help you learn about effective teaching and
also learn about ineffective teaching. The culture of a school can be difficult to understand, but if you
continue to remain committed and enthusiastic, you will model good teacher characteristics and traits and
possibly motivate others to do the same.
APPLYING IT TODAY
What other hints and strategies can you think of? Discuss this with a fellow student first and then
develop at least one strategy based on ideas you have had from your school practice experience.
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Conclusion
In this chapter, we have explored the role of the teacher and teacher personality. Through exploring what
a teacher is, what a teacher does, and what and how a teacher thinks, you have been exposed to the true
essence of a good teacher. We have also investigated policy and how you are accountable for living up to
the very high standards that are set through SACE and the MRTEQ. Finally, we looked at the real-world
context. You are now aware of some of the challenges and difficulties that teachers face, and with this
information, you can now manage and plan ways to overcome some of the feelings and challenges you
will face in your chosen field.
Activities
Self-reflection
1. What personal experiences, good and bad, have shaped me and my personality? What potential issues
am I bringing into the classroom and the lives of the learners?
2. What strategies and techniques can I employ to help me overcome my weaknesses and become the very
best teacher I can possibly be?
Practical applications
3. Next time you are on school practice experience, observe your host teacher in light of this chapter.
Observe critically what the teacher is, what the teacher does, and what and how the teacher thinks.
Completely confidentially and keeping your reflections to yourself, reflect on these observations on
your own and think about how they can help you become a better teacher.
4. Have a colleague or peer video record you teaching a lesson. Watch yourself critically. Does what you
say, what you do, and your body language reflect the traits and characteristics of a good teacher as
discussed in this chapter? Show your video to a non-teacher friend. Ask them for constructive
criticism. Would they want to be in your class? Why or why not?
Analysis and consolidation
5. With a peer, create a poster that encourages school-leaving learners to become teachers. What sorts of
things will an appealing poster have and say that would encourage young people to choose teaching
as a profession?
6. Write up your curriculum vitae. Look at it critically. Would you hire yourself if you were the principal
of a school? Start working on improving yourself and your skills today!
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.ac.nz/doi/pdf/10.1080/0305764980280301.
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Part 2
Teaching pedagogy – Study of teaching
methods
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82
5
Theories, principles and perspectives of teaching
Rose Mugweni, Martin Musengi and Emily Ganga
Copyright 2016. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Identify the core principles of any psychosocial, behaviourist, cognitive or ecological theory.
• Demonstrate an understanding of each theory and its eclectic use.
• Examine teachers’ practices in light of specific theories.
• Critically analyse the application of each theory in specific situations.
• Synthesise various theories for the inclusive education of diverse learners.
Key concepts
Behaviour: the way in which a child acts or conducts him- or herself
Eclecticism: getting ideas from a broad and diverse range of sources
Ecological systems: understanding children’s development in relation to their environment
Learning: the acquisition of information and skills through study
Psychosocial: involving both psychological and social factors of life
Teaching: the performance or work of a teacher based on principles or precepts
Theory: a system of ideas intended to explain something
CASE STUDY: EUNICE DISCOVERS HOW LEARNERS LEARN
Eunice, an untrained relief teacher, has replaced a teacher who is on leave this term. In the first week
of the term, Eunice experiences serious problems with her class and not much learning seems to take
place. She has noticed that Esther, a recent graduate from a teacher’s college who is teaching the same
grade level at the school, appears to have a disciplined class that is focused on learning. Eunice
approaches Esther and tells her about her problem. She explains that during lessons, the class is either
rowdy and fool around, or is bored and passive most of the time. She doubts that the class is learning
anything from her. “What is your secret?” she asks Esther. Esther replies “No secret; but I do find that
knowing about the theories that explain how different children learn is very helpful.”
STOP AND REFLECT
1.
2.
3.
4.
How would you explain the challenge facing Eunice?
If you were Esther, what specific advice would you give Eunice? Why?
What should Eunice do in order to better control her class and facilitate learning? Why?
What sort of knowledge does Esther have that Eunice does not?
Introduction
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As suggested by the case study, this chapter starts with outlining various theories that contribute
important principles and perspectives in teaching and learning. We go on to argue that it is important for
teachers to become aware of the strengths and limitations of specific theories that inform their practice.
Teachers’ introspection on practice leads to confidence and greater innovation in teaching, which results
in increased acceptance and participation of diverse learners in accessing knowledge. This is likely to be
Esther’s ‘secret’ in the opening case study. To this end, the chapter discusses psychosocial development
theory, behaviourist theories, social learning theory, cognitive theories and ecological systems theory
with a view to promoting introspective, eclectic teaching approaches which facilitate the accessing of
knowledge by all learners.
5.1
The concept of a theory of teaching
A ‘teaching theory’ can be understood simply as an explanation of the pattern or model one uses to
enable others to learn. Such explanations are important as they can be used to tell beforehand how
learners’ existing ideas and practices can be connected usefully to enable learning. A teaching theory is
then a set of interrelated constructs, definitions and propositions which present a systematic view of
teaching. This is done by specifying relationships among variables with the purpose of explaining and
predicting pedagogical issues (Peter 2011: 1). The variables that are explained and predicted are learners’
behaviours during the teaching and learning experience. This chapter focuses on five theories of teaching,
their principles and perspectives, including their applicability and implications for classroom practice.
A theory allows us to organise a wide range of ideas in a way that is easy to understand. The theory of
teaching is understood as the explanation of methodology of teaching. A teaching theory applies to all
teachers, learners and situations in which teaching takes place. It explains, predicts, and controls the ways
in which teachers’ performance affects the learners’ education (Wilson & Peterson 2006). For efficient
learning to occur, a theory of learning must answer the three basic questions depicted in Figure 5.1
opposite. These issues are depicted as interconnected cogs to show how they ‘drive’ one another.
Strategies for success
How we think – both as teachers and as learners – is central to understanding how to teach. Further
reading on teachers’ and learners’ thinking styles can be obtained from the following web link: http://blog
.oxford.co.za/learning-styles-strategies-for-effective-learning/.
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Figure 5.1:Three basic issues in the theory of teaching
Now that we have introduced you to the concept of the theory of teaching, in the sections that follow we
look at several key theories in more detail. Each of the theories we present in this chapter tries to address
the following two core questions:
1. What is the rationale of an appropriate teaching and learning theory?
2. How is a theory of teaching helpful for the practice of teaching?
We begin with Erik Erikson’s (1902–1994) psychosocial development theory, which focuses on human
personality development.
5.2
Psychosocial development theory
Erikson, cited in Mangal (2005: 106), theorises that the development of an individual is the result of her
interaction with the social environment. Starting at birth, a child’s social development puts her under
specific pressures or conflicts, referred to as crises.
5.2.1
What is psychosocial development?
Psychosocial development involves the growth and development of an individual as a result of interaction
with the social environment. According to Erikson, the individual develops across the lifespan in a series
of stages with a ‘conflict’ or ‘crisis’ that has to be resolved at each stage, for healthy development to
occur. One of the main elements of Erikson’s stage theory is the development of ego identity – the
conscious sense of self that people acquire through socialisation (Duschl & Hamilton 2011). In Erikson’s
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view, a child’s ego identity continually changes with acquiring new experiences and information in daily
interactions with others. The sense of competence that children develop also motivates learners’
behaviours (Cherry 2005). Psychosocial development theory suggests that at each stage of development, a
person faces a new crisis that needs to be resolved (Mangal 2005: 106). While development spans the
lifetime, the child’s stages end at stage four – industry versus inferiority. If the stage is handled well, the
child develops a sense of mastery referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed
poorly, a person develops a sense of inadequacy. Hence all the encounters that humans experience result
in the potential for success or failure in a child’s growth.
socialisation: the process of learning how to be human and to interact with others
5.2.2
Psychosocial stages
Erikson’s psychosocial development theory has eight stages of development, as shown in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2:Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial theory
Stage 1: Trust versus mistrust (birth to 18 months)
From birth to about 18 months, an infant is confronted with the crisis termed trust versus mistrust. During
this stage, the baby completely depends on its mother or caregiver to satisfy its needs. The way the baby
is taken care of, handled, nourished and protected, develops in the baby a sense of security or insecurity.
Such experience results in the baby developing a feeling of trust or mistrust. A baby who successfully
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develops trust, will feel safe and secure in the environment. The child will also develop hope and a drive
to learn. Subsequently, the child develops trust in self, parents, caregivers and its surroundings (Erikson
1950). Caregivers who are inconsistent and unloving cause feelings of mistrust in infants. A child’s
failure to develop trust will result in a belief that the world is inconsistent, unpredictable and unsafe.
A teacher should understand that an infant whose needs are met and whose discomforts are promptly
removed, who is cuddled, played with and talked to, develops a sense of the world as a safe place with
helpful and dependable people. However, when the infant’s caregiver is inconsistent, inadequate and
rejecting, an attitude of fear and suspicion develops (Mangal 2005). The experience often impacts on later
stages of development. If a child enters school with mistrust, he or she may later develop trust in relation
to a teacher or caregiver who is dependable. By so doing, the child can overcome his or her early
mistrust.
Stage 2: Autonomy versus shame and doubt (2 to 3 years)
The second stage focuses on the young child’s newly-developed motor skills, language and mental
abilities to develop either autonomy, or shame and doubt. She now engages in exploring her environment.
With increased mobility, the child decides whether to assert her will or not. The child takes risks and
develops pleasure in new activities such as walking, climbing, opening and closing, dropping, pushing
and pulling, holding and letting go. In her exploration, she wants to accomplish all for herself. In
addition, Erikson views toilet training as vital in enabling the child to experiment with her strengths and
limitations in order to achieve a sense of autonomy and independence. A child who positively completes
this phase feels safe and self-assured. She develops self-control without loss of self-esteem. However,
children who do not develop a sense of independence from over-protective, harsh or restrictive parents
begin to doubt their ability and feel ashamed.
During this second stage, if the teacher or caregiver is not patient enough to allow the child to take the
risk of doing minor tasks, the child develops shame and doubt. Caregivers and teachers should therefore
help children to strike a balance between the conflicting needs of their social environment, to acquire a
sense of autonomy (Mangal 2005).
Stage 3: Initiative versus guilt (3 to 5 years)
Throughout the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through
play and wider social relations. They become curious and manipulate objects. The child develops
language and engages in fantasy play. These interactions create either initiative or guilt. Children who are
successful in carrying out physical and mental explorations feel capable and able to lead others. They
learn direction and purpose in activities. A child who is not encouraged to take initiative by parents and
teachers, or who is heavily criticised, punished or rebuked for minor failures develops a sense of guilt and
hesitation. Children who experience the freedom and opportunity to initiate motor play such as running,
jumping, bicycle riding and climbing, acquire initiative. Parents and caregivers should answer children’s
questions and encourage fantasy play. Inappropriate child care practices such as corporal punishment lead
to the development of remorse or guilt.
Stage 4: Industry versus inferiority (5 to 13 years)
At school, children learn various new skills. Teachers and the school environment generate pressure on
the children to work hard in order to achieve. Children who are positively rewarded by parents and
teachers develop a feeling of competence and self-efficacy (Doyle 2011). They are curious about how
things are made and how they work. They also develop a sense of mastery and competence. Those who
receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their ability to be
successful.
At this stage a child starts to develop rational thinking, and engage in games with rules. She becomes
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fascinated with how things are made. If teachers praise children’s accomplishments it results in the sense
of industry being enhanced. Viewing learner’s efforts as ‘mischief’ or a ‘mess’ fosters a sense of
inferiority in children.
Stage 5: Identity versus role confusion (adolescence: from about 13+ years)
During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self. They begin to
search for self-identity. Adolescents develop sudden changes in body and mental functioning. They
explore and ask questions such as ‘Who am I?’ ’What are my values?’ ‘What is my identity?’ ‘What have
I become?’ ‘Am I the same person I used to be?’(Mangal 2005: 109). Those who receive proper
encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong
sense of self and a feeling of freedom and control (Caplin & Leahy 2001).
The adolescent’s understood identity gives the ability to exercise choice. Identity versus role confusion
is the last stage related to school education. A young person who reaches adolescence with a vital sense
of trust, autonomy, initiative and industry has a high chance of arriving at a meaningful sense of ego
identity (Doyle 2011). No young person should go into adolescence with mistrust, shame, doubt, guilt and
a sense of inferiority, since these are negative personality attributes. Teachers and parents can play a
constructive role in helping adolescents through the identity versus confusion crisis. Adolescents who are
craving identity should be acknowledged by respecting their views and achievements.
Stage 6: Intimacy versus isolation (early adulthood)
This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships. Erikson
believes it is vital that young adults develop close, committed relationships with other people (Erikson
1996). People who successfully go through this stage develop secure relationships. They reach out and
connect with others positively. During this stage, people also develop a sense of intimacy or commitment
to a close relationship with another person. The opposite of intimacy is isolation. If a person fails to form
a sound relationship, isolation emerges (Doyle 2011). Mangal (2005) and Doyle (2011) show that people
with a poor sense of self have difficulty committing to relationships and are more likely to suffer
emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression. The implication is that teachers should assist learners to
develop intimacy at the right time.
Stage 7: Generativity versus stagnation (middle adulthood)
During this stage of psychosocial development an individual’s life is dominated with trying to establish a
professional career. She aims to satisfy her needs for generativity – a concern to establish and guide the
next generation. The individual engages in guiding and directing other people and engaging in creative
and productive work (Mangal 2005). By so doing the person shows an extension of one’s self and one’s
connectedness with others in society. People who do not successfully solve the generativity versus
stagnation crisis during this phase tend to become egoistic and selfish. They may feel unproductive and
detached in society. This implies that adult learners should be facilitated to deal with negative feelings
and develop a sense of generativity to reduce stagnation.
egoistic: self-centred and concerned with only one’s own existence
Stage 8: Integrity versus despair (late adulthood and beyond)
As they get older, people are confronted with a crisis associated with old age, which Erikson called
ego-integrity versus despair. Individuals reflect on their past life. When one is satisfied with one’s life
journey, a sense of fulfilment and satisfaction is realised. The person is at peace with the life he has lived,
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with no regrets. Such individuals attain wisdom and transcendence, and are able to accept the eventuality
of their death. On the other hand, people who have not been successful in resolving crises look back on
their lives with despair as they see their lives as having been wasted. They feel regret and are bitter. Many
who live beyond the age of 80 years feel unable to care for themselves in a failing body.
transcendence: a feeling of being beyond the everyday; uplifted
In summary, as people grow, mature and get older, they need to be assisted to develop a sense of
fulfilment and satisfaction about their life history. The following are some contemporary issues within
psychosocial development theory for the classroom.
APPLYING IT TODAY
In their interactions with children in schools, teachers in the twenty-first century should be aware that
children may think what happens to them is pre-determined and unchangeable. Teachers need to guide
learners to realise a sense of purpose for themselves. To do this, teachers need to be aware of the
following three issues:
• Anticipation: A child experiences anticipation before the resolution of uncertainty. The anticipatory
emotions in resolving crises include hopefulness, anxiety and suspense (Caplin & Leahy 2001).
• Determination: In resolving psychosocial development crises, children may believe that the outcomes
of their behaviours are caused by what happens before the behaviours.
• Purpose: Erikson views life as a sequence of experiences and challenges which foster personality
development. Through each of the eight developmental stages described in his psychosocial
development theory, physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional growth of specific virtues takes
place, and there is an opportunity for individuals to develop a sense of purpose.
How do you see these three issues applying in a classroom? Think of an example for each one.
Having considered psychosocial development theory, the next set of theories will help you to reflect on
behaviourism and its main principles in teaching and learning.
5.3
Learning theory – behaviourism
Behaviourism is the broad view that all behaviour is learned, and so can be unlearned. There are several
theories that contribute to what we understand as behaviourism.
5.3.1
Background to behavioural theories
Behaviourism holds that human behaviour is acquired through the process of learning from one’s
environment. J.B. Watson (1878–1958), who established the psychological school of behaviourism with
E.L. Thorndike (1874–1949), viewed behaviour as responses initiated by stimuli. Behaviourists view
learning as observable, relatively permanent changes in behaviour or performance potential that follow
from experience within one’s external environment. Behaviourism is widely regarded as the key learning
approach in the study of psychological theories. It is made up of three theoretical components, as
illustrated in Figure 5.3.
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Figure 5.3:Theories underpinning behaviourism
What are the main theories that inform behaviourism?
•
•
•
Classical conditioning/respondent conditioning is based on the work of Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)
and his experiments with dogs. It involves teaching an organism, such as a dog or a person, to react
in a particular way to a stimulus to which it previously either did not react, or reacted in another
way. Teaching is by repeatedly presenting the new stimulus, together with a stimulus that already
evokes a particular response, so that the new stimulus eventually gets that same response when
presented on its own.
Operant conditioning is based on the work of B.F. Skinner (1904–1990) and his experiments with
pigeons and rats. Skinner proposed that as organisms go about their daily activities, they get
rewarded by the environment for certain activities, but not for others. This makes them likely to
engage more often in those activities for which they are rewarded than those for which they are not
rewarded.
Social-cognitive learning theory is based on the work of Albert Bandura (1925– ) and integrates
classical and operant conditioning as learning theories, but emphasises the influence of significant
people who model behaviour that can be emulated by others.
emulate: to copy someone or their behaviour because you admire and respect them
Let us now look at each of these theories in more detail.
Classical conditioning theory of learning
Classical conditioning theory was developed by Ivan Pavlov, whose interest was in psychological reflex
actions. Pavlov used dogs which he fed in order to measure their salivation response. While studying
salivation in dogs, he noticed that hungry dogs would salivate not only at the sight and smell of food, but
at any sound at the same time the food was offered. At first, the dogs did not salivate until the food was
presented. Pavlov then began to deliberately pair the food offer and the sound. The dogs then learned to
associate the sound with the presentation of food, so that later they would salivate even when there was
the sound only and no food.
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In classical conditioning, an automatic response, such as salivation, becomes associated with a neutral
stimulus, such as the sound of a bell that does not normally result in such a response. Classical
conditioning is a type of learning where a stimulus (S) acquires capacity to evoke a reflexive response
(R).
Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning highlights that organisms are inherently active in the environments in which they
operate, to get results. Most behaviour would therefore tend to be of this type rather than elicited reflexes
which Pavlov described in classical conditioning. B.F. Skinner contributed greatly to understanding and
shaping behaviour through operant conditioning and schedules of reinforcement. In operant conditioning,
naturally occurring behaviour is strengthened through reinforcement, or is weakened if it is punished,
ignored or does not get desired results.
A person continues to behave in ways that are reinforced, in order for learning to keep occurring.
According to operant conditioning, people have a greater control in their preferences because of
experiences in reinforcement or punishment. Use of punishment and reinforcement helps to shape
behaviour. Reinforcement is more effective than punishment, hence the latter should be used sparingly by
teachers.
Shaping as an operant conditioning technique
Operant conditioning relies on shaping to generate new behaviour. The person is rewarded for each small
advance in the desired behaviour, forming chains of behaviour. Chaining is a behaviourist term meaning
the building up of desired behaviours in an individual through reinforcement.
Principles of reinforcement
Positive reinforcement involves a pleasant reward delivered to the participant. Negative reinforcement
involves something unpleasant being removed from the participant following a desirable response. The
removal of the unpleasantness is meant to strengthen the desirable response. Both forms of reinforcement
increase the frequency of desired behaviour or the probability of desired behaviour. Negative
reinforcement is not punishment.
Punishment
Punishment is based on the idea that delivery of an unpleasant stimulus will decrease the frequency of the
behaviour being repeated. However, Skinner found that punishment was not as powerful as reinforcement
in bringing about behaviour change. This suggests that teachers who want to change learners’ behaviour
should rely on reinforcement rather than punishment (see Chapter 14).
Social–cognitive learning theory
Albert Bandura maintained that people can learn through imitation and observation of others. Bandura’s
social learning theory posits that a great deal of learning occurs as children interact with adults or with
peers.
According to Bandura, learning occurs through observation or modelling. Bandura argues that there is
much more that humans can learn without necessarily following the stimulus-response and reinforcement
paradigm, as pure behaviourists postulated. Bandura also challenged the traditional perception that all
learning results in behaviour change. Observational learning is a key aspect of social–cognitive theory.
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Observational learning and modelling
In one of Bandura’s commonly cited experiments, an adult model treated a large Bobo doll aggressively,
both verbally and physically. In another experiment, an adult sat quietly and paid no attention to the Bobo
doll. The subjects of the experiment were three groups of children. One group was exposed to the
behaviour of the aggressive model; the second group watched the model who ignored the doll; and the
third group consisted of children who did not see either of the two models. At the end of experiment, each
of the children was left alone in a room with a Bobo doll. Interestingly, the behaviour of the first two
groups was similar to that of the model they had been exposed to. Those who observed the aggressive
model acted in a similar manner towards the doll; those who saw the passive model ignored the doll; and
those who were not exposed to either of the models were neither aggressive nor passive towards the doll.
From this, Bandura deduced that people learn by observing models and later (1986) proposed that
learning is a product of a process he called modelling.
Bobo doll: an inflatable toy about 1.5 m tall usually made of a soft vinyl or plastic, and often painted
to look like a clown
Reciprocal determinism
Bandura regards behaviour as the outcome of interaction between personal and environmental factors.
Reciprocal determinism recognises that the person, the environment and behaviour, all influence one
another, taking in the influence of the individual on the environment and the influence of the environment
on the individual.
Self-efficacy
The concept of self-efficacy is about one’s judgement of one’s ability to effectively deal with tasks that
need to be performed, e.g. a learner’s ability to deal with a difficult situation or unknown task. Bandura
says children get information on their self-efficacy from such things as the outcome of their performance
and vicarious experience. Successfully performing a specific task increases a child’s sense of
self-efficacy. Teachers should give learners achievable tasks so that they have opportunities to do well.
Learners also judge the successful performance of peers in class and compare themselves with a role
model. They infer their own competence based on such comparisons in what Bandura calls vicarious
experience. Other factors facilitating social learning are depicted in Figure 5.4.
vicarious: feeling from the experience of others rather than directly experiencing something yourself
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Figure 5.4:Factors facilitating social–cognitive learning
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Factors facilitating social learning
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Attention Bandura says that paying attention to a model is important for social learning. The
emphasis is on deliberate and focused attention which will lead to maximum learning. Individuals
cannot learn much by observation unless they perceive and attend to significant features of the
modelled behaviour. In the classroom situation, attention is an important factor. Learners have to
pay attention to what the teacher says and does in order to understand what is being taught.
Memory What is being observed must be processed into short-term and long-term memory (Bandura,
in Santrock 2009). Once it is stored in memory, learners will have no problem retrieving such skills
or information whenever they need to use them. Unless the observer can remember what he or she
has observed, it will not be possible to reproduce the observed behaviour.
Motor reproduction Bandura (1986) proposes that an action can be applied after being observed if
the learner is able to practise it. For an observed behaviour to be reproduced perfectly, practice is
imperative.
Reinforcement plays an important role in observational learning. Bandura (1986) noted that learners
need to be motivated to reproduce the modelled behaviour. The motive can be either intrinsic (from
within the individual) or extrinsic (from outside influences). Bandura observed the importance of
direct, self- and vicarious reinforcement (the feeling of wanting to do something well because one
has seen it rewarding another individual) in observational learning. Observational learning is not
restricted to physical models, but can also occur through reading, watching television, etc. When
learners display socially or academically desirable behaviour, it should be followed by
reinforcement.
Identification is the process by which a person identifies with another person’s behaviour, attitudes,
values and beliefs. Such a person may be a parent, authority figure, or a peer. It is important for the
child to identify with the parent of the same sex, so that he or she can develop values, attitudes,
traits and behaviour which are socially acceptable. Identifying with learners who do well in class
encourages those who want to do well to work harder, so that they also do well.
Self-regulation Bandura (1986) says that humans are able to control their behaviour through
self-regulation or self-control. The process involves self-observation, judgement and self-response.
Status of a model Another factor which facilitates observational learning is the status of the model.
Bandura (1986) claims that certain people in society can serve as good models to a child. Most of
these role models are capable of rewarding good behaviour and sometimes punishing bad
behaviour. During the child’s schooling, his teacher can reward him with approval, good marks,
certain privileges and compliments. On the other hand, teachers can also punish learners by
withdrawing privileges. Bandura further claims that the behaviour of a model who is perceived to
be warm, friendly, considerate and caring is more likely to be modelled than that of a model who is
uncaring, cold and indifferent. This is partly because some qualities are valued by society and, as a
way of conforming; children would like to develop similar values.
For behaviourists like Bandura, self-observation is understood as the human ability to look at yourself
and track of your actions. Judgement involves humans comparing these observations with standards.
These standards can be rules set by society, or standards that individuals set for themselves. If, after
judging themselves against set standards, people may give themselves a rewarding self-response. If
people do poorly against the standards, however, they then administer a punishing self-response towards
themselves.
STOP AND REFLECT
1. How can teachers encourage observational learning among learners in and outside class?
2. Why would teachers choose negative reinforcement in place of punishment in schools?
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5.4
Cognitive theories
Cognitive theorists do not necessarily disagree with behavioural explanations of learning, but see them as
incomplete as they leave out the human element of thinking. This section highlights this missing element
by exploring the usefulness of cognitive theories for explaining teaching and learning.
APPLYING IT TODAY
1. Do you agree or disagree with these teachers? Explain your position.
2. Do you think children’s thinking processes and learning ability have changed over the years? Read
through the teacher discussion again and make up your own mind.
5.4.1
The human mind
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Cognitive theories deal with how our thinking abilities change with maturation and learning. The focus is
not on a person’s store of knowledge in the same sense we would talk of an aeroplane’s ‘black box’ that
stores information, but rather on how a person receives, organises and changes information through
manipulating and using it. Cognitive theories try to explain this unobservable, opaque but active and
constant reorganisation of information at different stages in our lives.
opaque: not able to be seen through or into
5.4.2
Basic principles of cognitive theories
There are certain principles underlying most explanations of the human mind. Firstly, they assume that
the meaning that learners give to problems contributes to how much will be learned. This relates closely
to the second principle, which is that learning is culturally relative. Children will learn better if what is
being learnt can easily be connected to accepted values, beliefs and available materials. Teachers
therefore need to organise knowledge in ways that facilitate easy connections. The next section discusses
specific cognitive theories.
5.4.3
Key cognitive theories of teaching
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
In order to find out how the mind moves from a state of not knowing to knowing, Jean Piaget
(1896–1980) watched his own children at play and concluded that acquiring higher knowledge is
facilitated by changes in a person’s interaction with the environment. Piaget called mental structures
‘schemes’ and explained them as generalised ways of acting on the environment. As a person’s
experience in an environment changes, their schemes also change. Since children and adults have
different experiences, their thinking is qualitatively different, with different ways of thinking dominating
at different ages. These different ways of thinking correspond to more adequate ways of organising
knowledge and adapting to one’s environment as we grow. Piaget created a model with four stages,
reflecting ways of acting on the environment that dominate at particular ages. Let us look briefly at these
stages.
Stage 1: Sensorimotor (approximately birth to two years)
Cognitive development starts with reflexive actions such as grasping and sucking. In this process, basic
sensory inputs and motor capabilities are coordinated to form sensorimotor schemes. Infants physically
process information from the environment, for example by using the sense of touch to grasp and the sense
of taste to suck objects. Early in this stage, when an object is out of sight for the infant it does not exist.
As infants mature in this stage they realise that objects continue to exist even though they cannot see,
taste or touch them – object permanence. Another milestone in the sensorimotor stage is the ability to
imitate. Attaining object permanence and complicated imitation capabilities prepares children for
symbolic thinking.
Stage 2: Preoperations (approximately 2–7 years)
The preoperational stage is divided into the preconceptual sub-stage (two to four years) and the intuitive
sub-stage (five to seven years). The preconceptual sub-stage involves symbolic representation in which
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children create their own symbols and learn to use existing symbols to represent and operate on the
environment. The use of symbols allows the child to think about things that are not only in the child’s
environment. Children at this stage may think that all objects that move, for example clouds, are alive (
animism). They may also expect inanimate things to obey them because they have a self-centred view of
the world (egocentricity). Teachers should be careful not to believe that since children at this age create
and use symbols they have become real thinkers. It is important to remember that these children’s
thinking is not yet logical.
Stage 3: Concrete operations stage (approximately 7–11 years)
This involves reasoning about the environment, or logical thinking. Children can best use these
operations when dealing with problems that are concrete. They are able to consider more than one aspect
of an object or event at one time (decentration). Decentration and reversibility together allow the children
to recognise that properties do not change because form changes, for example, the water in a tall glass is
the same as the water in a shallow dish – a principle called conservation. Decentration and reversibility
also allow the children at this stage to engage in multiple classifications, so that they can organise objects
according to more than one characteristic. Concrete operational children understand seriation problems.
The ability to theorise about the world is restricted to concrete objects that they see and is further
developed in the next stage, formal operations.
seriation: arranged or occurring in a series or sequence
Stage 4: Formal operations (approximately 12 years and older)
This stage involves increased abstract thinking and the ability to think about their own thinking (
metacognition). Learners at this stage are able to think logically about things that are not concrete and
deal with possibilities that are beyond the here and now. They can think in terms of a hypothesis, such as
if X, then Y. Adolescents and adults at this stage are able to think ahead and plan. Piaget (1952)
concluded that there are three key characteristics of hypothetical-deductive formal operational thought –
the ability to combine all variables and find solutions to problems; the ability to speculate about the effect
one variable may have on another; and the ability to combine and separate variables in a logically
formulaic manner.
APPLYING IT TODAY
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To apply Piaget’s theory, teachers in the twenty-first century should consider the following:
• Use concrete props and visual aids whenever possible.
• Make instructions relatively short, using actions as well as words.
• Do not expect the learners to consistently see the world from someone else’s point of view.
• Be sensitive to the possibility that learners may have different meanings for the same word or
different words for the same meaning. Learners may also expect everyone to understand words
they have invented.
• Give learners a great deal of hands-on practice with the skills that serve as building blocks for more
complex skills like reading comprehension.
• Provide a wide range of experiences in order to build a foundation for concept learning and language
acquisition.
Think of examples in your subject of how a teacher could implement the last two approaches informed
by Piaget’s cognitive development theory.
Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory
Lev Vygotsky’s (1896–1934) theory was influenced by his Marxist background which led him to believe
that interacting with others is essential for cognitive development. He was inspired by Friedrich Engels’
explanation of man’s use of physical tools to master the environment. He extended this to explain how we
‘master’ our behaviour and thoughts using symbolic psychological tools he called signs. These
psychological tools are important as they allow us to interact and trade ideas with others in higher
cognitive functioning. They include writing, number systems and language.
Language is the most important tool that provides us with the means to reflect on and regulate our own
thinking. This is evident when, for example, preschool children talk to themselves. Even though this habit
diminishes as we grow older, Vygotsky believed it is evidence of internalised language that guides our
thinking and actions. When internalised, language forms the basis for higher cognitive skills, such as
memory and problem-solving (see Chapter 6).
In much the same way that the acquisition of language enables us to think about the past, present and
future, writing and number systems also enable us to record and quantify. Vygotsky (1956) argued that
the use of such tools allows us to use our mental abilities more adaptively, and that it is impossible to
understand human thinking without them. He explains that any higher mental function we have has
necessarily been internalised as it is initially social.
In order to better understand how cognition develops, Vygotsky distinguished between actual and
potential development. Actual development involves those things that the child can do without assistance.
Potential development is that which the child can do with the assistance of others, such as teachers or
more capable peers. This potential development is what Vygotsky (1956) called the ‘zone of proximal
development’ (ZPD). For learning to take place more effectively in the ZPD, the more advanced partner
changes the amount or kind of support provided as the less skilled partner becomes more proficient, in
what Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976) call scaffolding. In addition, the more skilled partner adjusts his
perspective to that of the learner and then tries to draw the learner into a more advanced approach to the
problem (Rogoff 1990).
Vygotsky’s theory hinges on the idea that learning will vary, depending on the learner’s material and
non-material culture. This suggests that teachers should organise knowledge and problems in ways which
will be meaningful for learners within specific cultures. The next cognitive theory complements this idea
by exploring what learning is.
Gagné’s conditions of learning theory
Robert Gagné’s (1916–2002) theory tries to explain what learning is. In doing so, Gagné describes the
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conditions under which learning takes place. Gagné (1977) argues that proof of learning is seen in the
difference in performance before and after one participates in learning. He describes the internal
(capabilities already existing in a learner before any new learning starts) and external conditions (stimuli
outside the learner, for example, the teacher and the environment) needed for learning to take place.
The implication of this is that each learning situation starts from a different point, depending on a
learner’s prior learning and this is a key consideration for teaching. Good teaching involves adjusting the
external conditions to suit all learners. Using internal and external conditions of learning, Gagné
harnesses behaviourist prototypes (first form or model, from which other forms are developed) like
classical conditioning, operant conditioning and chaining, and links these prototypes to four types of
learning outcomes: verbal information, cognitive strategies, motor skills, and attitudes. He argues that
these learning outcomes should be related to external events of instruction in order to clarify what support
would be appropriate to enhance learning. Gagné sequentially orders the external events of instruction to
achieve each of the four outcomes. Table 5.1 uses Gagné’s model to describe the teaching events and
internal processes, and gives examples of classroom activities.
According to Gagné’s theory, learning takes place when stimuli outside the learner relate to already
existing capabilities to result in attitude, cognitive or motor skill changes in the learner. Although learning
is an internal and therefore unseen process, it becomes visible as learners perform certain motor activities,
use cognitive strategies to solve problems, or change their attitudes. In Table 5.1, for example, a teaching
event would be getting the learner to understand something in the environment such as a gender role. A
teacher may try to draw the class’s attention to gender stereotyping by reversing the usual roles that boys
and girls perform in class. The novelty, uncertainty and surprise that come with such role reversal are
likely to gain the learners’ attention and make them receptive to new learning.
Table 5.1:Using Gagné’s nine teaching events model in the classroom
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Teaching event
What is
going on
(internal
process)
Classroom activity
1. Gaining
attention
Initiating
Use surprise of sudden stimulus change to get attention, e.g. by
gesturing, asking a challenging question, showing a picture, or
getting learners to pose their own question
2. Inform learners Creating
of
t h e expectancy
objectives or
outcomes
Tell learners what they will be able to do after learning: ‘After
this lesson you will be able to …’; add information about
criteria, or standards, of the expected performance
Retrieving to
3. Stimulating
recall of prior working
learning or memory
experience
Ask learners to remember what they know about something, to
recall a related experience, or to demonstrate an already learned
skill
4. Presenting the Selective
new material perception
Present meaningfully organised content, e.g. in shorter, related
sections, supported by examples
5. Providing
learning
guidance
Semantic
encoding
Make the content as meaningful as possible, e.g. with
explanations, practical demonstrations, or by modelling
6. Eliciting the Responding
performance
Ask learners to show understanding by answering a question,
solving a problem, or practising the new skill
Reinforcing
After observing, give constructive feedback; also ask other
learners to participate in feedback, depending on age of group
7. Providing
feedback
8. Assessing the Retrieving
performance and
reinforcing
To reinforce learning, ask learners to perform another related
task (e.g. solve problem; practise skill) after feedback, and again
provide further feedback
Retrieving
9. Enhancing
retention and and
transfer
to generalising
other
situations
To ensure long-term retention, allow learners to practise same
skill, or apply knowledge, in a different but related context, with
further feedback
The next theory tries to explain in greater detail the opaque internal processes described here by Gagné.
Information processing theory
Neither Vygotsky nor Gagné had much to say about how teaching or learning occurs in the brain.
Information processing theory complements Gagné’s nine instructional events shown in Table 5.1 by
tackling what actually happens in the brain. Information processing theory describes how learners operate
on different kinds of information. The theory does not derive from the work of one individual but from a
school of thought drawing parallels between human minds and computers in the way they receive,
process and store information from the environment. The diagram in Figure 5.5 illustrates this process.
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Figure 5.5:Information processing model
(Source:Adapted from Atkinson & Shiffrin 1968)
The main ideas of the information processing model are that in order for learning to happen, the learner
must act mentally on information coming from the environment. Acting on information may be in the
form of attending to it, giving it meaning, rehearsing it, or recalling it. Good teaching is about helping
learners to learn how to act on information. Teaching involves making environmental stimuli attractive
enough for learners to attend to them. Once they attend to them, good teaching should help them give
meaning to the stimuli and devise strategies to rehearse it so that they can recall it whenever they need to
use it. Teachers should also be aware that learners can only act on limited amounts of information at a
time and so information should be ‘chunked’ for easier processing. The information processing approach
has been criticised as technical in that it pays little attention to social and cultural factors that are also
important in teaching and learning situations. The next theory is a necessary corrective to this as it
highlights the socio-political environment from which the information that learners process comes.
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory
Ecological systems theory proposes that human development and behaviour cannot be understood
independently of the social context in which it occurs. In order to understand teaching and learning, it is
not sufficient to focus only on the individuals involved in these activities. Focus should be on both the
individuals and the social environments in which they operate. This is because individuals affect their
environments just as much as they are affected by those environments. Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005)
(1977; 1979) developed a model illustrating how several levels of the social environment influence
behaviours such as teaching and learning. The model has a time dimension and four levels of influence on
individuals, as illustrated in Figure 5.6.
A learner’s family constitutes a microsystem, with the learner, parents and siblings reciprocally
influencing one another. This implies that each of the members of the family positively or negatively
influences and is influenced by other family members. At this level, the chronosystem dimension of the
model can be illustrated by exploring such aspects as disabilities in teaching and learning situations.
Hornby (1994) suggests that when disabilities are identified early in the learner’s life, they are generally
easier to come to terms with than those that are identified later. He also says that whether the learner is
the first born, last born or a middle child, as well as the ages of siblings may have a significant influence
on family functioning. The family’s acceptance of the learner and her participation in family activities
signifies inclusion at family or microsystem level.
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Figure 5.6:Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model
The family microsystem is influenced by the mesosystem in which it is nested. The mesosystem
comprises the settings in which the learner and his family actively participate. Such settings include the
extended family, other parents, neighbours, friends, co-workers, educators, health and social workers.
Chronosystem influences on the mesosystem could be that families who have been together for a longer
time are more likely to have settings in which they can actively participate. By implication, the learner
can be expected to have increased influences from these various settings. In addition, the older the
individual learner becomes, the wider his or her horizons and therefore the more friends and community.
The development of thinking ability can therefore be expected to improve with this extension of horizons.
The mesosystem is influenced by the exosystem. The exosystem consists of social settings which
indirectly affect the family and the learner, such as the education system, the mass media and voluntary
agencies. For example, whether or not there is a sustained period of compulsory free education will affect
the family and learner. Another example is the economic burden of having brothers and sisters whose
education must also be paid for from limited family resources.
The exosystem is influenced by the macrosystem, which refers to the beliefs, values, attitudes and
ideologies in the social institutions of society. A particular culture in which the learner lives will have
major effects on her. Similarly the legal, political and economic environment will affect behaviour and
learning.
Eclecticism
Eclecticism is an approach that does not hold rigidly to a single assumption or theory, but draws on
multiple theories, styles, or ideas to gain insights into a subject (Hall et al. 2010). Eclecticism assumes
that there exist a number of psychological theories that can help to provide a framework in which to
understand teaching and learning. No one viewpoint can offer a complete account of how children should
be taught and how they learn.
APPLYING IT TODAY
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Eclecticism is evident when constructivist approaches such as those of theorists like Vygotsky, Gagné
and Bronfenbrenner are used together with the behaviourist approaches of Pavlov, Skinner and
Bandura. This is a desirable, coherent and pluralist approach to teaching and learning in the
twenty-first century classroom. Figure 5.7 illustrates some ways in which theories are merged in
eclecticism to better comprehend issues in teaching and learning.
Figure: 5.7:Components of eclecticism
Teachers can only benefit from using the strengths of particular theories to offset the weaknesses or
gaps in other theories; in an eclectic approach, they apply chosen theories to their particular context,
rather than subscribing to one view of teaching and learning that is made to fit all.
A question of ethics
In compiling this chapter, the authors took cognisance of ethical considerations in research and writing.
Among the ethical considerations are issues of autonomy, justice, beneficence, non-maleficence and
anti-plagiarism. Do you think that any of these considerations applies to you and your studies? Why or
why not?
non-maleficence: a principle of not doing any harm
Conclusion
To conclude this chapter, we reiterate that no one theory explains teaching and learning adequately on its
own. We argue instead for an eclectic approach in education. The theories, principles and perspectives
presented show how much the quality of teaching depends on the theories that teachers subscribe to and
that this has varying effects on their learners. Importantly, it is teachers’ deep and comprehensive
engagement with how their learners learn that makes the difference in the whole teaching and learning
experience.
Activities
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Self-reflection
1. Is it possible and necessary to know how learners think before teaching them? Give reasons for your
answer.
2. Write down the aspects of learner thinking that may be accessible to teachers, and comment on how
these can be utilised in teaching.
3. Why is it necessary for a teacher to understand his or her own teaching style before teaching learners?
Analysis and consolidation
4. What are the distinct features of Erikson’s psychosocial development theory?
5. Outline the strengths and weaknesses of psychosocial development theory, as you see them, for
teaching and learning.
6. Discuss how the three main behaviourists differ and record your comments in a table with appropriate
headings.
7. Give examples of what you identify as vicarious reinforcement in teaching and learning.
Practical applications
8. Think of any classroom examples that seem to utilise the principle of classical conditioning in and
outside class time. Discuss with a peer what makes them such examples.
9. Give some examples of ‘phobias’ or fears in the field of education. How can classroom practitioners
deal with a fear of e.g. mathematics, sports, group work, etc.?
References
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6
Bloom’s taxonomy and implications for teacher
preparation
Copyright 2016. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
Mncedisi Maphalala
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Plan and deliver appropriate teaching for the developmental level of the learners.
• Integrate assessment into the teaching and learning process.
• Design valid and reliable assessment tools and activities.
• Ensure that the teaching and learning process and assessment are aligned with the objectives/ outcomes.
• Describe the degree to which your learners can use concepts to demonstrate particular skills, knowledge
and values.
Key concepts
Taxonomy: a set of classification principles or ideas
Educational objectives: statements that indicate what the learners are expected to have learned at the end
of the learning process
Domains of learning: the three key pillars identified by Bloom as necessary to develop a learner
holistically: cognitive, affective and psychomotor; within each domain are sub-categories focusing on
levels of learning development, which increase in difficulty
Assessment: a process of getting information about a learner’s performance using clearly-defined
assessment criteria to determine what the learner knows and can do
Teaching strategies: approaches that teachers use in various classroom contexts to help learners attain
the learning objectives/outcomes
CASE STUDY: DEVELOPING CRITICAL LEARNERS
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Phumelela Langa is a new teacher at Thutong Primary School. She is thinking about the teaching
strategies she can use to engage her learners in meaningful learning. She remembers her own learning
at school at this age, where the teacher stood in the front of the class and started a statement that
learners were supposed to finish by chorusing the response. She also remembers tests which required
learners to write answers they had learned by rote. Phumelela knows that this kind of learning has a
place, but she wants to develop learners who are also critical thinkers and problem solvers. At
university, she was exposed to a variety of strategies and models to choose between, for promoting
effective teaching and learning.
She now wants to use Bloom’s taxonomy because it gives a useful structure that provides for learners
with varied needs and abilities in the classroom. By using Bloom’s taxonomy in her lessons, she is
confident that she will be able ask appropriate questions and develop suitable activities that will
accommodate learners’ diverse abilities, while enabling all the learners to participate equally in
lessons.
She knows that classrooms are heterogeneous in nature: learners come to school with different sets
of developed abilities and preferred learning styles – and many learning styles can be found in one
classroom. Phumelela realises that it is going to be a challenge to accommodate all styles of learning in
every lesson in her classroom by only adopting one methodology of teaching. She realises too that
while Bloom’s taxonomy is a valuable strategy for teaching and assessing learners, she will have to
combine it with other strategies in order to achieve meaningful learning in her class throughout the
year. Teachers have a large repertoire of approaches at their disposal to facilitate and enhance the
teaching and learning process, including both traditional and modern approaches. Modern approaches
emphasise the active role of the learner during the teaching and learning process, while traditional
approaches tend to be mostly teacher-centred in nature. Phumelela plans to integrate a range of
approaches in her teaching for the benefit of her diverse class. The one thing Phumelela does not want
to be is a one-dimensional teacher, who limits her teaching to one mode or approach for all learners.
STOP AND REFLECT
1. Which teaching strategies or approaches do you think you benefited from as a learner at school, and
how?
2. What is your opinion of Phumelela’s teaching approach/philosophy? What is your own teaching
philosophy?
3. Do you think teachers should be exposed to a variety of teaching strategies during their training? Why
or why not?
4. In your own teaching, would you go for traditional or modern approaches, or both? Why?
Introduction
Benjamin Bloom (1913—1999) was an educational psychologist at the University of Chicago in the
1940s when he conceived the taxonomy which was later named after him (Ramakishnan & Ramadoss
2009). The US government-supported committee he formed with his educator colleagues in 1948, after
World War II, was intended to respond to the huge influx of a new kind of student – many, ex-soldiers –
to the university and college system in the United States. The committee’s purpose was to create a set of
guidelines and principles for curriculum design and testing at universities and colleges. Bloom then
edited the first volume of the text titled Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, published in 1956, and
based on the work of the committee. The taxonomy was developed to classify educational goals for
evaluating student performance. What has become known as Bloom’s taxonomy has been revised over
the years and is still widely used in education today.
A taxonomy is really just a form of classification. In this case, it deals with the varied aspects of
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human learning and is arranged hierarchically, proceeding from the simplest cognitive functions to those
that are more complex. According to Bloom’s taxonomy, human learning can be classified into three
types known as domains – cognitive (knowing and perceiving), affective (feelings, emotions and
attitudes), and psychomotor (doing, movement related to mental processes). In each learning domain
there is a series of levels that should be considered when planning, delivering and assessing learning.
hierarchically: arranged in levels according to order or rank, e.g. simplest to most complex; least
important to most important
Bloom’s taxonomy brought about a paradigm shift in the way teachers have been teaching and
assessing learners. It provides a structure which guides teachers in terms what can be taught for each
domain of learning, and identifies various levels at which these can be taught. This chapter seeks to
introduce both pre-service and in-service teachers to Bloom’s taxonomy to help them with the alignment
of curriculum, lesson planning, assessments and teaching activities in their own practice, to ensure
meaningful learning for learners.
paradigm shift: a fundamental change in one’s basic concepts and practices in a particular discipline
Important to know
In 2001, Anderson & Krathwohl revised Bloom’s original taxonomy to make it more relevant to newer
educational theories, but these revisions were confined to the cognitive domain of the taxonomy. We
use and refer to this revised version throughout this chapter.
6.1
Domains in Bloom’s revised taxonomy
The model developed and revised by Bloom and others proposes that learning can be categorised into
three different types called domains. Within each domain are sub-categories which focus on levels of
learning development, which also increase in difficulty. According to Bloom’s taxonomy, each category
(or ‘level’) must be mastered before progressing to the next.
The cognitive domain has six levels, while the affective domain and psychomotor domain each have
five levels. The taxonomy uses descriptive words to summarise each level and indicates the behaviour
that should be demonstrated, and the ways in which learning can be measured at each of those levels, as
learning progresses.
The most important principle in the taxonomy/model is the hierarchy of levels within each domain.
This gives teachers the opportunity to design teaching and learning activities by structuring them in such
a way that basic and relevant knowledge for a particular theme or topic should be learned first, before
progressing to more complex knowledge and cognitive processes. Essentially, this model proceeds from
the idea that learning is built progressively: learning should start with the simplest and move to more
complex concepts, addressing each of the levels step by step. These levels were developed to help
teachers scaffold their lessons towards enabling learners to become critical thinkers. Let’s examine what
is involved in each of these levels within each domain, in the next section.
Bloom’s taxonomy adopts a holistic approach to the teaching and learning process. This is important
as it signifies that all three domains of learning (cognitive, affective and psychomotor,) should be
developed in every learner (see Figure 6.1).
Bloom’s domains of learning
(higher order thinking skills are at the top)
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Figure 6.1:Domains of learning in Bloom’s taxonomy
(Source:Adapted from Bloom 1984; Krathwohl, Bloom & Masia 1990)
6.1.1
The cognitive domain
Bloom et al. developed (and later revised) the classification of educational goals to assist teachers to
consider various levels of questions to ask when assessing learners. He proposed a shift from assessment
practices that simply require learners to recall facts and so arranged his six-level taxonomy in hierarchical
order, from the lowest level to the highest level of thinking or cognition.
The cognitive domain (also known as thinking domain) deals with knowing, perceiving, and thinking,
as well as intellectual ability. In the classroom context, the cognitive domain has to do with learning
which is about transferring knowledge and dealing in increasingly complex ways with knowledge. The
hierarchy of six thinking levels in the cognitive domain is: remembering, understanding, applying,
analysing, evaluating, and creating (see Figure 6.2) (Anderson & Krathwohl 2001). The cognitive
domain is founded on how knowledge is demonstrated at various levels or stages in the development of
knowledge. This domain reflects the content the teacher wants the learners to know and at what degree of
expertise. Let’s look at the key abilities or levels of cognitive domain:
• Remembering is about recalling of facts, retrieving information or remembering previously learned
information to draw out factual answers. To teach this skill, the teacher could use recorded material,
the lecture method, models, events, media, diagrams and books. Learners demonstrate mastery of
knowledge by matching, listing items, and repeating facts. To assess their learning, teachers will use
words and phrases such as: how many, when, where, list, define, tell, describe and identify in order to
draw out factual answers, testing learners’ recall and recognition.
• Understanding is about comprehending the meaning of information and knowing what is being
communicated. In order to teach this skill, the teacher would use tables, cartoons, graphs, and learners
would demonstrate learning through creating charts, their ability to associate, contrast, interpret and
compare things. In assessing learners, teachers would use words such as: describe, explain, estimate,
predict, identify and differentiate, to encourage learners to translate, interpret and extrapolate.
• Applying is about using previously learned information in different contexts, and learners’ use of
abstraction in particular, as well as concrete situations. The teacher could use collections, diaries,
maps, photographs and other illustrations. To demonstrate application, learners would list, construct,
teach, paint, manipulate, report, and use previously learned knowledge in new and unfamiliar
situations. In assessing learners, teachers use words such as: demonstrate, apply, illustrate, show,
solve, examine, classify and experiment to encourage them to apply knowledge to new situations.
• Analysing is about the breaking down of information into parts and examining it, to try and understand
its components. To teach analytical skills, the teacher could use graphs, surveys, diagrams, charts,
questionnaires and reports. To demonstrate analysis, learners can be required to classify, categorise,
dissect, advertise and survey. In assessing learners teachers would use words and phrases such as:
what are the differences, analyse, explain, compare, separate, classify and arrange to get learners to
break down information and make sense of it.
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•
Evaluating is about making judgements about the value of material and methods for given purposes. To
teach evaluation, the teacher would use letters, groups in the form of discussion panels, court trials,
surveys, self-evaluation, values and allusions. To demonstrate evaluation skills, learners could be
required to judge, debate, evaluate and recommend. In assessing learners, teachers would use words
such as: assess, decide, measure, select, explain, conclude, compare and summarise to get learners to
make judgements according to a set of criteria.
allusion: an indirect reference to something; an implied connection
•
Creating is about building, constructing or developing a new product, or point of view, or new
knowledge or skill. The learner would have mastered the skill if he or she can assemble, construct,
create, design, develop, formulate and write up something on his or her own. In assessing learners,
teachers would use words such as: produce, create, construct; design and hypothesise.
Figure 6.2:Hierarchy of thinking skills showing the original and revised levels in the cognitive domain
(Source:Pohl 2000)
According to the original Bloom’s taxonomy, knowledge represented the lowest order (or tier) of thinking
and evaluation represented the highest order of thinking. These tiers are used as building blocks to help
teachers scaffold their lessons and build learners’ skills to the top tier of thinking. Later, Anderson and
Krathwohl’s (2001) revised version of Bloom’s taxonomy changed the names of the levels from nouns to
active verbs, and reversed the order of the highest two levels (see Figure 6.2), emphasising forms of
thinking as active and dynamic processes rather than fixed states. By redefining some categories –
knowledge becomes remembering; comprehension becomes understanding; and synthesis becomes
creating – the nature of the thinking described by each category is better reflected (see again Figure 6.2).
Bloom believed education should concern itself with the ‘mastery’ of subject matter through higher
forms of thinking, rather than the traditional approach of simply teaching facts to learners. He encouraged
teachers to engage learners in thinking at higher levels, beyond simple recall, by asking various relevant
and carefully formulated questions, to stimulate their thought processes. He challenged teaching methods
that turned learners into parrots, repeating facts that required little but recall, so that they did not have to
apply their minds to their knowledge or understanding. Bloom termed this the lowest level of thinking
which did not bring true, meaningful, personal and intellectual development to the learner.
Bloom therefore distinguished between a higher order thinking (HOT) approach to teaching and
learning, as opposed to lower order thinking (LOT) approach. Higher order thinking skills include the
critical, logical, reflective, metacognitive and creative thinking necessary to find solutions to complex
situations. Teaching higher order thinking provides learners with the ability to solve complex, real-life
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problems using the knowledge and skills acquired through lower order thinking. Lower order thinking
refers to the foundational skills that learners have to acquire first before they can move into higher order
thinking. A learner who has already mastered lower order thinking (recalling information and
understanding it) can move on to application, analysis, evaluation and creation.
Higher order thinking encourages a participative approach to learning in which the learner plays a
central role in the teaching and learning process. This is done through applying various teaching
strategies such as cooperative, problem-based and discovery learning. However, to develop a learner
holistically, teachers should take into consideration all the levels when designing their lessons or
assessments so as to allow learners to apply critical thinking in whatever task they are doing.
STOP AND REFLECT
Remember that Bloom’s taxonomy is structured hierarchically, starting from the lowest level where
learners are required to memorise, list or repeat information; and building in complexity to the higher
level where learners are expected to create, critique, judge, assess and develop something. Design a table
of various action words that can be used to involve learners in thinking differently at each level of the
cognitive domain.
6.1.2
The affective domain
Bloom’s affective domain concerns itself with feelings, attitudes, emotions and behaviour. In the
classroom context, the affective domain deals with learning that is about developing attitudes and values.
The affective domain is based on emotional awareness which focuses on feelings and what the teacher
wants the learners to care about. The affective domain is classified into five hierarchical levels of
emotional commitment as shown in Figure 6.3, which are:
• Receiving is about the learner’s sensitivity to stimuli – awareness, willingness to receive, or selective
attention. Receiving is the lowest level the affective domain, emphasising being aware, passively
open to experience, and willing to pay attention. This foundational level is a prerequisite for
meaningful learning to take place.
emotional commitment: in this context, the feelings that someone would identify with, or with
having
•
•
•
•
Responding is about the learner’s active attention to stimuli and his/ her motivation to learn, which
includes willing responses, or feelings of satisfaction. There has to be active participation on the part
of learners. Responding is the next level up in the affective domain and deals with learners’ reacting
in some way, their active participation in the learning process, showing some form of commitment
and behaviour change.
Valuing is about the learner’s beliefs and attitudes of worth – acceptance, preference, or commitment.
This relates to the worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behaviour.
This ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is the third
level of the affective domain, which concerns itself with showing some definite commitment to
certain ideas, attaching values and supporting them.
Organising is about the learner’s internalisation of values and beliefs, involving the conceptualisation of
values, and the organisation of a value system. As values or beliefs become internalised, the learner
organises them according to priority. Learners organise values into priorities by contrasting different
values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating a unique value system. The emphasis is on
comparing, relating and synthesising values. Organising is the fourth level of the affective domain
that incorporates new values into one’s personal value system, ranking and prioritising the values.
Characterising is again about the internalisation of values. At this level, the learner can reflect on a
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generalised set of values and their philosophy about life. Learners are capable of practising and acting
on their values or beliefs. They have a coherent value system that organises their behaviour. The
behaviour is pervasive, consistent, predictable and, most importantly, characteristic of the learner.
Characterising is the fifth and the last level of the affective domain in which learners consistently
demonstrate behaviours in accordance with new internalised values, embracing a belief system to
such a degree that the new values become ‘characteristic’ of them.
Figure 6.3:Hierarchy of affective objectives in the affective domain
STOP AND REFLECT
Do you think the affective domain should be given more priority in the school curriculum? Why or why
not?
The affective domain is important for learning yet is often overlooked by teachers. The domain deals with
attitudes, motivation, willingness to participate, valuing what is being learned, and ultimately
incorporating the values of a discipline into a way of life. In teaching, we should not only expose learners
to knowledge, but should also nurture their values and attitudes. Mills (2014) identifies self-awareness,
bias, ethics, self-esteem, enthusiasm, and emotional intelligence as affective qualities that should form an
integral part of learning. Education should also help learners to believe in themselves, valuing life,
learning to live with others, responding to what they learn, valuing what they learn, respecting other
people’s opinions, forming a positive identity of themselves, and respecting their environment. Teachers
need to understand that effective teaching and learning is also dependent on mastering some aspects of
the affective domain. For learners to learn, they need to be able to work with one another, be recognised
and valued by the teacher as individuals with different capabilities, be motivated to learn. If these aspects
are not emphasised in the classroom, learners may not be eager to participate meaningfully in the teaching
and learning process. In most formal classroom teaching, teachers tend to focus mainly on the cognitive
aspects of learning at the expense of the other two crucial domains (affective and psychomotor). Learners
may experience affective barriers to learning if attention is not paid to this important domain of learning
development. Learning in the affective domain must also be nurtured on a long-term basis through the
profession’s socialisation process. This type of learning facilitates the development of professional
identity, judgement, and critical thinking which, in turn, promotes high standards of performance.
APPLYING IT TODAY
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1. According to Roeper (1995), “when affective issues are addressed and social emotional needs met,
students face their challenges with emotional balance and appropriate coping mechanisms that
promote success in reaching personal potential”. What is your analysis of this statement in the
context of contemporary classrooms?
2. What are the chances of success for a learner who is constantly subjected to emotional and physical
abuse? Think of examples to substantiate your answer.
3. What could be the negative impact of not attending to the learners’ affective needs in the classroom?
Draw on examples from your own experience as a school learner, or from your school practice
experience.
6.1.3
The psychomotor domain
The psychomotor domain has to do with physical or manual skills, movement and the ability to do
something (Reigeluth 1999). In a classroom context, the psychomotor domain deals with learning that is
about generating a physical skill that is related to a mental activity. The psychomotor domain includes
physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas (see Figure 6.4). Development of these
skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques
in execution. The psychomotor domain is based on the demonstration of physical skills and/or mechanical
knowledge. This domain reflects actions that the teacher wants the learners to accomplish. As the
psychomotor domain focuses on the development of learners’ physical abilities and skills, their learning
therefore may include performance, skills in a sport, drawing, measuring or typing skills, and
demonstration.
The different levels are:
• Mastering
• Producing
• Conforming
• Simulating
• Perceiving.
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Figure 6.4:The psychomotor domain objectives
The psychomotor domain focuses on performing sequences of motor activities to a specified level of
accuracy, smoothness, rapidity, coordination or force. Underlying this motor activity is cognitive
understanding. Learners should be allowed to progress at their own pace in perfecting their psychomotor
skills. They should be allowed to master individual skills first before placing them in the context of a
scenario or simulation, and they should be given enough time to practise a skill before being tested.
APPLYING IT TODAY
1. During your school years, how did your teachers teach you complex psychomotor skills? Identify at
least one example of how they did this and explain how you did.
2. Think of a complex physical skill in your chosen subject that you want learners to master; explain
strategies that you would use to help learners perform that skill with accuracy and precision.
3. How would you deal with a learner who struggles to master simple psychomotor skills in your
classroom?
6.2
Bloom’s taxonomy and the purpose of assessment
In assessing learners using Bloom’s revised taxonomy, teachers should consider three key types of
assessment processes: assessment for learning; assessment as learning; and assessment of learning.
Assessment in all three assessment processes should be conducted at different levels of cognition as
indicated in Bloom’s taxonomy.
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6.2.1
Assessment for learning
Assessment is a continuous process of gathering and interpreting evidence about learners’ learning for the
purpose of determining learners’ progress to inform the teaching and learning process (Maphalala 2016).
It forms an integral part of the teaching and learning process to help learners monitor their progress
towards achieving their learning objectives. It provides clear and timely feedback that helps learners in
their learning progression. It seeks to enhance the learners’ progress towards achieving their learning
goals. Assessment for learning may be conducted through teacher observation and teacher-learner
conversations during the lesson to determine how learning is progressing, taking into consideration the
development of lower-order thinking skills through to higher-order thinking skills. When teachers assess
higher-order thinking, learners should be asked unfamiliar questions or given tasks to perform which will
require them to use prior knowledge so as to enable them to reason in order to achieve higher-order
thinking skills.
This helps to provide feedback to the learners and teachers, close the gaps in learners’ knowledge and
skills, and improve teaching. Assessment for learning builds towards the assessment of learning and
should take into consideration both formal and informal assessments.
6.2.2
Assessment of learning
Assessment relies on gathering evidence by the teacher to make overall judgements of the learners’
achievement against criteria of the learning goals (Maphalala 2016). It is usually formal and occurs at or
near the end of a learning cycle, where it sums up learners’ performance at a particular point in time. It
has a summative element, which shows how learners are progressing against the identified objectives or
goals. The formative element of assessment provides evidence that informs long-term planning. The
information gathered may be used to communicate learners’ achievement to learners themselves, parents,
other teachers, schools and tertiary institutions, government and bursary sponsors. Teachers must ensure
that the assessment criteria are very clear to learners before the assessment process. This involves
explaining to learners which knowledge and skills are being assessed and the required level of cognition
or performance. Feedback should be provided to the learners after assessment and could take the form of
whole-class discussion or teacher–learner interactions.
summative: describes something that gives the sum total or overall result
formative: describes something that serves to form or influence development
Rubrics are useful teaching tools for defining criteria and assessing achievement: several examples are
offered in Appendix 6.1, that can be adapted and developed to various purposes.
6.2.3
Assessment as learning
In assessment as learning, learners reflect on and monitor their own progress to inform their future
learning goals. Assessment as learning is a form of formative assessment in which learners are
encouraged to conduct self-assessment so that they understand why they are learning and comprehend
what they need to do to achieve their learning goals. This process helps the learners to understand
themselves as learners and become aware of how they learn – to become metacognitive (knowledge about
one’s own thought processes, or ‘thinking about one’s thinking’) (Hacker, Dunlosky & Graesser 1998).
Learners learn to continuously reflect on their work through self- and peer assessment and to determine
with the assistance of the teacher what their next learning will be. So that learners are able to assess
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themselves effectively, they come to understand that they have to cover the whole range of skills from
lower order thinking to higher order thinking. Teachers can assist learners to grasp the concept of
cognitive levels in a simplified manner by using action words to help guide learners to perform at
appropriate cognitive levels of Bloom’s taxonomy. Assessment as learning helps learners to take greater
responsibility for their own learning and to monitor their future directions. In practising assessment as
learning, learners can do their own written reflections (journals, diaries), conduct self- and peer
assessments, set their own learning goals and compare previous to new learning. They can then identify
what future learning should entail.
Strategies for success
Teaching learners directly about Bloom’s taxonomy is not the same as actively using the levels and ideas
in your own teaching with learners. In other words, the domains and levels are for teachers to know and
use integratively. Can you see the difference?
6.3
Bloom’s taxonomy and inclusive education
Inclusive education seeks to ensure a differentiated curriculum to cater for the wide range of learner
differences in any classroom. A differentiated curriculum acknowledges that learners possess diverse
strengths and provides flexibility in terms of content, processes and products, to provide for learners’
individual learning needs. Bloom’s taxonomy offers six levels, allowing the teacher to plan questions and
activities that give the opportunity to differentiate the curriculum for all learners according their interests,
abilities, learning styles and specific learning needs. Applying Bloom’s taxonomy can therefore
accommodate learners with diverse educational needs in the classroom. Teachers choosing to use the
taxonomy in this way may structure learning experiences so that all learners work at the knowledge and
comprehension levels, but learners then move to other higher levels depending on their pace of learning.
The implication is that teachers should structure their teaching and learning activities in such a way that
all the cognitive domain levels are engaged.
STOP AND REFLECT
Draw up a list of some common learning barriers that learners may have in a typical classroom. With
Bloom’s taxonomy in mind, think of appropriate support and intervention strategies for each learning
barrier to help learners achieve success in their school work.
6.4
Teaching using Bloom’s taxonomy
The following are some teaching strategies that can be used by teachers in the classroom setting to
develop different learner domains, as described in Bloom’s taxonomy.
6.4.1
Role plays
Role play is a teaching method that promotes enquiry-based learning: in role play, learners are presented
with a situation or a problem to which they have to respond by assuming particular role and, in the
process they are able to create their own construct of knowledge through exploration and problem
solving. Role play appeals to both the affective and cognitive domains in the learner. Learners have the
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opportunity to express and display certain values, attitudes and emotions. To think critically about the
situation, they have to take on a role and share ideas with fellow learners to make it real and meaningful.
This also helps them to develop communication skills, as well as interpersonal skills.
Role play is an excellent strategy for encouraging active learner participation in the teaching and
learning process. Learners are allowed to assimilate content through interactions with both the teacher
and their peers as they complete the task assigned to them in their specific roles. Learners are fully
engaged as they try to respond to the material from the perspective of their character. The role play allows
the learners to apply content immediately in a real situation or context which is beyond the confines of
the classroom setting. Divergent thinking is encouraged as learners try to make sense of their roles and
this assists them with decision-making skills. Learners also receive immediate feedback on their
understanding of the content, from their peers and teacher.
divergent: moving away from the usual thinking or common assumptions about something
6.4.2
Case studies
Using case studies as a teaching method takes various formats, from analysing and solving a simple
situation to writing about or even creating a more complex one. It also depends on the developmental
level of the learners, their grade or the aims of the subject/lesson. Case studies basically require learners
to come up with solutions to a particular problem or scenario. The teacher may give learners the scenarios
with open-ended questions to answer, or require them to develop multiple solutions to the case. Solutions
to the case can either be discussed in class or submitted as part of the written task or activity and
commented on by the teacher.
The case study is a learner-centred teaching approach which seeks to equip learners with critical
thinking (cognitive domain), communication and interpersonal skills (affective domain) as learners are
often required to work through challenging, complex, real-world problems and scenarios. In order to
solve the case, learners usually have to conduct some research and consult multiple sources for
information. This helps them to learn independently without relying only on the teacher for information
and knowledge.
6.4.3
Demonstrations
Demonstrations appeal to both the psychomotor and cognitive domains in the learner. In using
demonstration as a teaching method, the teachers demonstrate the skill or activity they want learners to
acquire or develop, and then give them an opportunity to try it out for themselves. The teacher may need
to demonstrate the activity several times until the skill is mastered by learners. So that they learn the
procedure or activity easily it should be accompanied by teacher explanation. Demonstrations can be
done for individual learners or a group of learners. Demonstration as a method lends itself well to Visual
Arts (dance) to teach certain physical movements and coordination. Learners learn through observing
how the teacher performs a particular skill and once they have been shown how to do it, they try it until
they have perfected it. The teacher does not necessarily have to do the demonstrations themselves; these
could be video recorded or someone else with the necessary skills could be asked to do the
demonstrations. These skills can be broken down into simple units or tasks and demonstrated step-by-step
for learners to easily follow and master them. According to Watson (1980), demonstrations improve
technique, confidence and understanding of successful performance. Gould and Roberts (1982) suggest
that demonstrations enhance psychomotor skills acquisition and that the higher the status of the person
presenting the demonstration, the greater the influence of the demonstration on the learners’ skills
acquisition.
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6.4.4
Simulations
Simulation is a form of experiential learning strategy. The term ‘simulation’ is sometimes used
interchangeably with role play. The key difference between the two is that simulation is a form of role
play which involves realistic situations in which an individual plays a role. For example, learners who
take Business Studies as a subject may be required to run a tuck shop at a school to develop their
marketing skills or to understand how to interpret profit margins in a business. They can also volunteer at
a local shop to learn about stocktaking through participation. For the simulation teaching method to be
effective the atmosphere, conditions and pressures of the real situation should be recreated as closely as
possible.
In the traditional classroom setting, learners tend to interpret concepts in isolation without relating
them to real-world context in which they happen. Interpreting concepts in relation to the real-world
context therefore helps learners to develop their cognitive domains. Simulation as a teaching method
seeks to ensure that learners experience real-life situations that have a positive impact on their motivation
and learning (and so engages the cognitive and affective domains). This method helps to bridge the divide
between classroom and real-world experiences. Learners don’t only learn about concepts abstractly, but
have a chance to put the concept into practice and gain first-hand experience rather than being told about
it. When learners are involved in a situation that is authentic they tend to enjoy the activity and there is
greater engagement and interaction amongst them, which leads to meaningful learning.
6.4.5
Discussion
Discussion as a teaching method appeals to both the affective and cognitive domains in the learner as it
encourages active learner participation and reinforces learning through interaction and sharing of ideas.
Discussion amongst learners creates an opportunity for them to practise various skills, such as
communication, articulating one’s ideas and defending them, interpersonal skills and respecting different
points of view.
For discussions to be productive, they must be purpose-driven; the teacher should consider the
rationale behind each discussion and how it fits the broader aims of the subject being taught. When
learners participate in a discussion, and their interest is sufficiently aroused, they all want to make a
meaningful contribution to the topic under discussion. The teacher is there to provide feedback and guide
the conversation so that it achieves its purpose, and to allow everyone an equal opportunity to contribute
to the discussion.
6.4.6
Projects
Projects are another teaching method that promote enquiry-based learning in which learners develop
in-depth thinking (cognitive domain). The project method is a teaching approach which engages learners
in solving a practical or real-life problem (cognitive domain) over a number of days, to reach a
conclusion. This method involves learner-oriented teaching and requires active participation. A project is
a problem, issue or subject that is taken from real life; it is then investigated in detail and in all possible
ways. A project presents learners with an opportunity to be creative, demonstrate their skills and interests,
and also to have their products or ideas evaluated by their peers, teachers, as well parents and other
family members. Project activities promote an in-depth understanding of the topic or issue under
consideration as learners consult various sources to complete their projects. Projects can either be carried
out as a group or by individuals. If a project is conducted by individual learners, it promotes self-reliance
and independence; on the other hand, if it is conducted as a group, it encourages interdependence,
engagement, cooperation and receptivity to other people’s ideas (affective domain).
As learners work towards completing their projects, they engage in collecting, analysing and
evaluating information to arrive at the findings for reporting purposes;, in the process, they are exposed to
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research procedures and skills that are useful as they progress with their studies.
STOP AND REFLECT
Can you think of further examples of the use of the strategies discussed here? Which domains do you
think your examples appeal to in Bloom’s taxonomy?
Conclusion
Bloom’s taxonomy offers a useful classification of educational objectives to be used for developing
higher level thinking skills in learners. It allows teachers to present ideas and concepts at many different
levels to meet the needs of a range of learners in the process of learning. This encourages learners to be
actively engaged in classroom activities: solving problems or resolving case studies, role playing and
discussing issues, researching and developing projects, in order to stimulate higher cognitive thinking and
evaluate their learning progress.
Teacher training institutions should be exposing student teachers to various teaching approaches
including Blooms’ taxonomy. This gives teachers the opportunity of switching between these approaches
to ensure the most effective learning in their classrooms. The use of various teaching approaches in the
classroom caters to the needs of diverse learners. Approaches can be adapted to suit learners’
developmental levels, right from early childhood up to higher education. A classroom is typically a
heterogeneous environment with learners from many different backgrounds possessing different abilities,
styles and interests. Teachers have the responsibility to embrace diversity in their classrooms by using
various teaching strategies, resources and learning activities that contribute to effective teaching and
learning. Using Bloom’s taxonomy is one of the most useful and necessary resources for teachers to meet
this challenge and responsibility.
Activities
Self-reflection
1. After the opening case study, you characterised Phumelela’s teaching philosophy, and your own. Now
that you have finished the chapter, would you want to change the description of your philosophy at
all? Explain why or why not.
Analysis and consolidation
2. ‘The head will not follow where the heart does not first go.’ Analyse this statement in terms of the
relevance of the affective domain in teaching and learning.
3. List other teaching strategies that have not been mentioned in this chapter and explain how each one of
them could be used to achieve Bloom’s educational objectives within the cognitive domain.
Practical application
4. Design assessment activities in your chosen subject for each of the six levels identified by Bloom in the
cognitive domain (remembering, comprehending, applying, analysing, evaluating and creating) and
develop a memorandum for marking each one of these tasks.
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5kURNcaROE0&list=PLLQbdjDYeuRL5pVKrd3dRugfmfou_ZvLa
&index=1.
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7
Communication skills in teaching
Colleen Moodley, Trevor Moodley and Stanley Adendorff
Copyright 2016. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Define instructional communication and understand its role in classroom instruction.
• List and discuss the various communication elements and categories.
• Distinguish between the elements and categories of communication.
• Discuss the various barriers to instructional communication.
• Apply communication principles in your class according to your personal teaching style.
• Understand and apply instructional communication techniques to improve teaching and learning in the
classroom, such as teacher immediacy, teacher credibility, conveying content, teacher clarity and
listening.
• Be aware of how new technologies influence the communication process inside and outside the
classroom.
Key concepts
Instructional communication: the medium and ways in which information is exchanged and meaning is
made, in an educational setting
Barriers to communication: those factors that interfere with the communication process, creating noise
that distorts the message and disrupts communication
Communication styles: preferred or characteristic ways in which teachers and others communicate,
involving verbal cues and non-verbal behaviours
Teacher immediacy: the quality of being ‘present’ in a communication situation; not only physically
present, but intellectually and psychologically available to learners and the whole teaching and learning
context
Teacher credibility: the quality of believability and reliability that the teacher conveys through her
subject knowledge, teaching and communication skills
CASE STUDY: IT’S THE WAY YOU SAY IT
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During the school lunch break, Sharmla, an English teacher, and David, a Maths teacher, are
discussing a class they both teach.
Sharmla (shyly):
I have real problems trying to get the class to engage
with the content I teach and I don’t know why. I feel so
bad when I hear learners say that they hate English
since I teach the subject – and it means they actually
find my lessons boring and uninspiring.
David (surprised):
That’s odd; I teach the same learners and I don’t have
that kind of response from them. Look at some notes I
get from learners in that class (he shows her notes in a
file).
Sharmla (reading out a note):
“Dear Sir, you are so cool. Just to say that I enjoy your
teaching style and I never knew that Maths could be so
fun and interesting …”
David (continues flipping through more notes See, these learners are great: they’re always actively
):
participating and willing to openly discuss areas of
concern.
Sharmla (thoughtfully):
I suppose I need to get some advice from you David
about my communication and teaching style. I really
want to involve my learners more and convey the
content more effectively, like you do. Do you think you
could listen in on one of my classes some time and tell
me what I’m doing wrong?
David (smiles and nods enthusiastically):
Yes, I’d like to help. It’s so important that we get the
teaching and learning process right, as the success of
our learners depends so much on it.
STOP AND REFLECT
What is Sharmla’s problem? What do you think David is doing right that Sharmla is getting wrong?
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Introduction
The case study shows the significant role that communication plays in the teaching and learning
environment. As a student teacher, it is important that you learn how to use communication effectively in
delivering your lessons. Instructional communication refers to communication in the classroom. It deals
with all kinds of communication in the teaching-learning process, spanning all the fields of education and
training. Being able to communicate effectively as a teacher is as important as being qualified to teach.
Teaching and learning is enhanced when the instructional communication process in the class is effective;
and (as you saw in the case study) is negatively affected when it is not. Instructional communication also
includes the manner in which the elements of communication influence the learning process. The
theoretical foundations of instructional communication are drawn from communication theory, and not
from education.
However, instructional communication is key to the process of education and training. To be an effective
teacher or trainer, you should be competent in the following three areas:
• the subject matter you are teaching (what you are teaching)
• pedagogy (how you are teaching)
• instructional communication (the medium and ways in which you conduct your teaching).
Just as the opening case study indicates, Sharmla realises that all three of these areas are critical to the
teaching and learning process and, while considered independent, disciplines are still inter-related within
the teaching and learning process (McCroskey, Richmond & McCroskey 2002).
7.1
Defining instructional communication
Although there are various definitions of instructional communication, in this chapter instructional
communication means the study of communication in the classroom while teachers are teaching. Sprague
(1992: 1) defines instructional communication as “the investigation of the role of communication in the
teaching of all subjects at all levels”. This entails teacher characteristics (e.g. clarity and immediacy),
learner characteristics (e.g. learning styles), instructional methods, the pedagogy of communication in
general, and learner-teacher relationships. It is an applied context because it may be studied from an
interpersonal communication perspective or from a mass communication perspective (these concepts will
be explained later in this chapter).
Instructional communication is further defined as the formal study of communication between teachers
and learners. It is the process in which both the teacher and the learners promote the making of meaning
by using verbal and non-verbal messages. This definition applies to traditional education settings such as
primary, secondary, and higher education, as well as non-traditional education settings, such as
community education programmes and corporate training (McCroskey 1968; Beebe, Mottet & Roach
2004).
7.2
Instructional communication foundations
Instructional communication has been interpreted and implemented in teacher training programmes in
various ways. Instructional communication has its basis in interpersonal communication theories and
models. To look at instructional communication from the perspective of the various categories of research
studied in this area, would be beneficial. In this chapter, however, we have chosen to focus on the
interpretation of categories in instructional communication (see section 7.6) by McCroskey (1998), and
Scott and Wheeless (1977). McCroskey’s areas of focus are: teacher immediacy, teacher clarity,
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conveying content, and teacher credibility (see sections 7.10–7.11). Scott and Wheeless (1977) classify
instructional communication as comprising six research domains:
1. Teachers as sources and receivers
2. Learners as sources and receivers
3. Message variables
4. Learning strategies
5. Media
6. Feedback and reinforcement.
7.3
Basic communication cycle
The general definition of communication is that it is a process of conveying information and mutual
understanding from one person to another. Therefore communication is a two-way process involving
verbal and non-verbal messages to produce meaning (Keyton 2011). Figure 7.1 depicts the basic
communication cycle:
Figure 7.1:The basic communication cycle
Figure 7.1 shows the communication process starting with the sender who formulates (encodes) and sends
the message to the receiver who interprets or decodes the message and responds to the sender (feedback),
completing the communication loop. These elements and their function in the communication process are
explained in section 7.5
7.4
Purposes of communication
Why do teachers communicate? The obvious answer is in order to teach, but let us go deeper into the
need to communicate:
• To provide information: for example, a teacher providing information about the subject content to a
class.
• To receive information: for example, a teacher receiving feedback from her class in the form of verbal
responses or test answers and written assignments.
• To influence or persuade: for example, a teacher convincing his learners that they are able to do well in
an upcoming examination by means of verbal encouragement, by reading the provided study notes
and attending extra classes.
• To encourage goodwill: for example, a teacher enquires about her learners and telephones or emails
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them when they are absent from classes; or a teacher writes positive comments on learners’ scripts to
motivate them (Keyton 2011).
7.5
Elements of communication
Communication always takes place in a context, the setting or situation in which the communication
process develops, and involves a message. The sender or encoder is the source of a message. He or she
produces the message in the form of a code. A code is a set of symbols that conveys meaning when
combined in a certain way (e.g. speaking a language, or using sign language).
The coded message is sent via a channel or medium (e.g. spoken, written). The receiver or audience is the
person(s) for whom the message is intended. The receiver or audience then decodes (interprets) the
symbols (language, signs), and provides feedback. The process can be repeated as the sender and receiver
roles are reversed several times. The communication process is only considered successful if there is
completion of the communication loop. Barriers to the communication process, known as intervening
elements occur when something interrupts or distorts the message between the sender and receiver. In the
following activity you will explore examples of communication in a classroom setting.
APPLYING IT TODAY
The following is an example of communication in a class setting:
The teacher uses the code, that is, language, to teach a lesson using her voice as a channel or medium
to convey her message to a class of learners, who are the receivers or audience. The audience needs to
understand or encode the teacher’s message and then provide feedback through either nodding, or
responding verbally by answering the questions posed. Similarly, in an examination, the teacher is the
sender providing communication of her subject via an examination paper. The code used is language,
the channel an examination paper (verbal written format). The feedback is the learner’s completed
examination paper. In both instances, the communication process is successful. This is so even if the
learners in the first case do not respond to the teacher because the teacher then would assume that they
did not understand her message. Similarly, if the learner handed in a blank answer sheet, the teacher
would assume the same thing.
What do you think the teacher would do next in either of these last two situations? Explain what you
would do.
7.6
Categories of communication
Categories of communication is about the type of communication and the number of people involved in
the communication process. Some communication types are:
• Interpersonal communication is communication between two people or individuals in a group: for
example, a teacher speaking to a learner about how she can improve her marks.
• Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself. These are personal thoughts or reflections,
i.e. thinking or talking to yourself (obviously, not out loud): for example a learner looking at question
paper thinks ‘This looks difficult’, then says to himself: ‘I can do this.’
• Extrapersonal communication is communication between an individual and a non-human or inanimate
object, such as a car: for example, the teacher talks to her computer screen while demonstrating an
operation.
• Small group communication is face-to-face communication between 3–12 individuals to accomplish a
mutual goal. Group work in a class where learners work on a specific task is an example of small
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•
•
•
group communication.
Public communication usually takes the form of a one-way formal process involving speaking in public.
The principal addressing a school assembly is an example of public communication; or a speaker
presenting a lecture at a conference, is another.
Organisational communication refers to the formal communication processes in an organisation. There
are usually four channels of communication in an organisation that depend on the direction of the
communication flow in the organisation. They include the following:
– Vertical downward, for example, a notice sent from the principal to the teachers.
– Vertical upward, for example, an email communication from the teacher explaining her absence
from school to the principal.
– Diagonal communication goes across levels, up or downwards, and across departments: for
example; where a teacher from one department sends examination scripts for moderation to the
head of another department, etc.
– Horizontal communication is communication between two people on the same level in the
organisation: for example, two, level-one teachers collaborating in compiling an assignment for
their classes.
Mass communication is communication between one sender and large numbers of receivers who are
unknown to one another: for example, the school posts an advertisement for an upcoming concert on
its website, or places an advertisement in the local newspaper, or puts up posters in the community.
STOP AND REFLECT
Which of these types of communication are you most likely to use in your class? Can you think of ways
to improve your communication?
7.7
Intercultural communication
To understand intercultural communication, the concept of culture has to be firstly defined: culture is the
way of life of a specific group of people who share common values, rules, customs, artefacts, and
symbolic codes, like language. This commonality binds these individuals together and provides a sense of
belonging to the group or community.
Intercultural communication is therefore communication between people who belong to different
cultures, in other words possessing different values, behaviours, ways of communicating and beliefs.
7.7.1
Intercultural communication in the classroom
Currently, South African classrooms comprise a mix of cultures, reflecting the totality of South African
society. The effective teacher has to be able to provide information that can be understood by all learners
in his or her class, regardless of their different cultural backgrounds. To do so, there has to be an
awareness of communication barriers that could negatively impact the communication process. One of
these might be personal space which is usually determined by one’s culture. This factor needs to be
considered when learners have to work in close proximity to one another. Culturally appropriate
non-verbal behaviour in teacher-learner interactions, such as eye contact, physical touch, gestures, has to
form part of effective intercultural understanding. For example, in some cultures a child lowering his or
her gaze is a sign of respect for the adult; in others, maintaining eye contact is essential for
communication. In some cultures, touching of any sort is considered inappropriate, especially, between
opposite sexes.
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7.8
Communication barriers
Barriers in communication refers to factors that may disturb or disrupt the communication process.
Barriers can create ‘noise’ which leads to misinterpretations and may result in communication
breakdown. Effective teachers should know how to minimise barriers in instructional education so as to
enhance teaching and learning.
Figure 7.2: Communication barriers in the classroom
Figure 7.2 depicts the communication process in the classroom and how interferences/barriers alter the
communication process which could result in distorted feedback and miscommunication.
The following are categories of barriers to communication:
7.8.1
Physical barriers
Factors such as noise and poor lighting are physical barriers to communication. For example, the teacher
(sender) is teaching a lesson (message) and Pula is unable to hear (cannot decode the message) the
content presented because the class is noisy. Poor lighting in the classroom affects the ability of learners
to read from the chalkboard, especially if they are sitting further back, and could be considered another
physical barrier.
7.8.2
Psychological barriers
Psychological barriers are those caused by any emotional or psychological states, or experience. Some
examples are: anxiety, fear, anger, hostility, boredom, depression, happiness, and love. In a classroom
setting, the learners (receivers) may become bored because the content being presented by the teacher is
not interesting to them, or is being presented in a dull way. This causes a barrier because the learners no
longer pay attention to what the teacher is saying and cannot provide feedback if asked a question,
resulting in communication breakdown.
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7.8.3
Physiological barriers
Physiological barriers refer to anything relating to the physiology of the individual that could disrupt the
communication process (e.g. pain, headache, illness, hunger, thirst, fever, faintness, etc.). For example,
Leila (receiver) is unable to concentrate on the lesson the teacher (sender) is presenting as she is
experiencing severe stomach cramps. Her focus is diverted to her pain and discomfort, so the information
(message) provided by the teacher is not interpreted (decoded) and therefore the communication process
is distorted.
7.8.4
Perceptual barriers
Perceptual barriers are determined by the individual’s frame of reference. Frame of reference is what
makes us unique and is constituted by our family backgrounds, beliefs, values, attitudes, culture, gender,
age and educational background. An individual’s frame of reference is not fixed and can change during
one’s lifespan. At whatever age, however, our frame of reference clearly affects how we perceive things.
7.8.5
Values
Values are the regard that we hold for something: the importance, worth, or usefulness of that thing, to
the individual. Values are also about actions or behaviour that we consider ethically or morally right or
wrong, and generally apply to everything in which individuals believe. Barriers to communication could
occur if the personal values of individuals differ. For example, Allan is always stealing other learners’
things: books, stationery, lunch, resulting in conflict between him, the teacher and his classmates, since
no one accepts theft as normal behaviour and as part of their value system.
7.8.6
Gender bias
Gender attitudes could influence the manner in which individuals approach situations. For instance, Mr
Burns is a strict and conservative teacher whose main concern is for learners to behave appropriately. He
expects the girls in his class to act in a manner ‘befitting their gender’ as he sees it, by being quiet and
passive during his lessons. Ms Jonas, on the other hand, regards boys as unruly, noisy and rough, and
makes them sit at the back of the class when she is demonstrating a science procedure. For both these sets
of learners, the teaching and learning process is adversely affected since they are discouraged from
participating in the communication process and remain either passive receptors, or sidelined from the
learning process. Teachers must identify and eradicate gender bias, as it inhibits learners’ motivation and
achievement (Sanders 2003).
7.8.7
Background
Individuals from different social, economic and cultural backgrounds perceive things differently. These
perceptions could cause perceptual barriers. For example, the teacher (sender) presents a picture of a meal
on a plate (message) to the class and asks Jason (receiver), a Grade 1 learner, to name what is on the
plate. Jason is only able to name rice and beans (feedback) since those are the only foods he has seen
before, coming from his socio-economic background. The other children are surprised that Jason cannot
identify the chicken, mushrooms, butternut and peas on the plate and think that Jason is stupid
(perceptions).
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7.8.8
Religion/beliefs
People from different religious or faith backgrounds have different values, beliefs and customs that
impact on how they communicate. For example, learner Maria is a practising Catholic. In a Life
Orientation lesson, her teacher promotes the use of condoms. Maria is upset by the topic and refuses to
participate in the discussion. The teacher considers Maria’s outburst rude and her failure to participate as
being stubborn. But it is Maria’s values and the belief in her religion’s teachings that have influenced her
response to the message she is receiving from her teacher.
7.8.9
Semantic barriers
These are barriers relating to misinterpretation or misunderstanding of words in a particular
communication context. In the South African context, with its wide cultural and linguistic diversity,
teachers should be particularly vigilant that this barrier does not hamper teaching and learning in the
classroom. Using slang (informal language), jargon (specialist words used in subject field) or particular
accents are the key areas that could result in misinterpreting information (Keyton 2011). It is also
important that teachers emphasise the difference in meaning of terms that are spelt the same (homonyms)
but have different meanings in different subjects. For example, the term ‘mode’ in mathematics refers to a
measure of central tendency (the score most frequently appearing). However, in geography, discussion of
a ‘mode’ of transport refers to a type of transport (e.g. motor vehicle, bus, donkey-cart, etc.).
7.8.10 Choice of medium
As teachers, you should be aware of the medium you choose to convey the content of your lesson. The
incorrect choice of a medium could hamper communication or cause a communication breakdown. For
example, a Natural Sciences teacher may use experiments to practically demonstrate a principle or
illustrate a theory in his class. He does this to promote learners’ understanding after realising that
teaching only the theory is causing confusion amongst the learners. Or a language teacher may choose to
use the medium of drama or role play to better convey information, instead of having learners read a
passage from the textbook which may be hard to understand.
7.8.11 Medium of instruction
South African schools are diverse in the many different home languages (mother-tongue or first
language) that their learners speak. In fact, although there are already eleven official languages
recognised in South Africa, many immigrant learners have foreign first languages. All South African
teachers face the challenge of using a medium of instruction that may well not be the home language of
some or many learners in their classrooms. The situation is further complicated by a number of teachers
having to teach in a language that is not their home or first language. It is therefore important for teachers
firstly to ensure that they become proficient in the medium of instruction. Secondly, they need to develop
the knowledge and skills in delivering lessons in language-diverse classrooms which may mean the use of
different strategies such as code-switching (switching between languages), translation and explanation.
7.8.12 How to overcome communication barriers
Barriers to instructional communication in your classroom could be minimised by applying some of the
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following: To overcome physical barriers: Use a classroom that is well lit, quiet, with good seating
arrangements and ventilation to enhance communication. As the sender of the message, you should speak
audibly, slowly and use simple, clear, and concise language. This also helps prevent semantic barriers.
You should ensure consistent feedback from your learners (receivers) confirming that they understand the
content of the message conveyed. This would prevent perceptual barriers. Non-verbal communication (or
body language) should be aligned with the spoken word (verbal). For example, when a teacher with a sad
or cross expression on her face says to her class after a long holiday “A warm welcome back to you all!”
her own facial expression is not aligned with the words she is saying, and the welcome seems far from
warm.
You should also take a keen interest in who your learners are, and try to understand their background
and needs. For example, special needs learners, those who suffer from illness or disability, learners who
have been abused, who are experiencing hardship, who are new to the area or country, etc., are all a
concern of the responsive and responsible teacher. Your awareness could assist in overcoming
physiological and psychological barriers that these learners may experience.
STOP AND REFLECT
1. Choose two of the barriers described in this section, and develop examples to show how you would
adapt your instructional communication to address or overcome them.
2. Share your examples with those of a fellow student, each commenting on the other’s examples. Even
if you have not chosen the same barriers, you will be able to learn from one another’s way of
handling them.
7.9
Teacher communication styles
Think of a time when you had sat in a class and could not wait to leave because the teacher or lecturer
and the content was so boring. Then think of a time when you could listen to a particular teacher or
lecturer present even the most uninteresting topic. This second teacher or lecturer displayed a
communication style that was able to capture the attention of the class and promote interest and learning.
Communication styles influence the communication process, and especially how others perceive and
react to the communicator. Teachers use various communication styles depending on different factors,
such as lesson context, the feedback they receive from learners, and their knowledge of what is required
at a certain point in lesson delivery. Being dramatic, contentious, humorous or precise are some of the
different communication styles that can be used interchangeably by the same teacher, during the same
lesson. The teacher’s choice of communication style(s) influences the extent to which learners will
respond negatively or positively to the teacher and the subject matter presented. Further, the teacher’s
communication style at any point in the lesson, may negatively affect the learning process if it causes a
barrier to learners’ understanding. For example, an impatient teacher may have a negative impact on the
teacher-learner relationship and the learning process (Norton 1978). Similarly, positive outcomes are
possible if teachers use their communication styles to convey information effectively. For example, a
Maths teacher who uses an animated style in presenting a Maths lesson helps learners enjoy the lesson
and perhaps more easily learn the difficult concepts. Teachers who employ well-considered teacher
communicator styles usually enjoy positive teacher-learner relationships and promote regular, open and
honest feedback. These teachers experience fewer discipline problems and their learners have healthy self
-concepts and enjoy learning.
self-concept: one’s idea about one’s self, in relation to what others think about one
It is important to note that everyone – teachers and learners – has a characteristic communication style
that is used more often than other communication styles. Teachers need to recognise their preferred
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communication style and consciously consider its effectiveness in a given pedagogical situation. Teachers
with generally good communication styles are able to influence their learners at both a cognitive and an
affective level (Norton 1983). Table 7.1 lists ten primary types of communicator style which teachers
could (and probably do) use interchangeably in different pedagogical situations in the classroom.
Table 7.1:Types of teacher communication styles
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(Source:Adapted from Norton 1983)
APPLYING IT TODAY
1. Look at Table 7.1 and decide what your preferred or characteristic communication style is (you may
have more than one). Then discuss in small groups how and when each individual’s preferred
style(s) could enhance learning, and when it would not be as effective in the classroom.
2. Next, discuss when and how the remaining communication styles in Table 7.1 could be used to
enhance teaching and learning.
3. Decide on your own how you would want to improve your teaching style to become a more effective
teacher in the classroom. Write your ideas in a journal.
7.10
Learner affective learning
You will remember from Chapter 6 that the learning process involves acquiring affective, cognitive and
behavioural results (Bloom 1956; 1964). Affective learning is concerned with the learner’s emotions and
attitudes toward the content or subject, the methodology and the teacher. Cognitive learning refers to
understanding, retaining, and working with knowledge and information. Thus, it refers to the ability to
recall, analyse and apply information and knowledge acquired. Traditionally, affective and cognitive
learning were perceived as similar learning outcomes (Christophel 1990). However, recently cognitive
learning is perceived as the ultimate outcome and affective learning is perceived as a means to attaining
that outcome (Rodriguez, Plax & Kearney 1996). Teacher immediacy, credibility and clarity have all
been found to have a more direct effect on affective learning than on cognitive learning (Zhang 2009).
For example, teacher immediacy, credibility and clarity predict the learner’s successful affective learning.
However, while it is still unclear which of these factors have higher levels of effect on learning (Zhang
2009), teachers who use communication behaviours such as immediacy, relevance, clarity and
compliance-gaining, successfully are more likely to meet learners’ relational and academic needs
(Mottet & Beebe 2006: 269). We discuss some of these concepts in the following section.
compliance-gaining: what a teacher does or says that promotes and gets the cooperation of learners
7.10.1 Teacher immediacy
Rocca (2007) and Meyers (2009) define teacher or instructor immediacy as behaviour that reduces the
perceived relational distance between the learner and the teacher/instructor, and improves the levels of
closeness between the two parties. Richmond, Lane and McCroskey (2006) found a positive link between
learner achievement and teacher immediacy. Learners experienced a better quality of learning when their
teachers applied immediacy. Some researchers found non-verbal communication had a more significant
effect on learning than verbal communication (Christensen & Menzel 1998). Teachers who convey verbal
and non-verbal immediacy behaviours are considered more proficient communicators and receive higher
course and teacher evaluations (Richmond et al. 2006).
7.10.1.1 Verbal immediacy
Some examples of teacher verbal immediacy behaviours are the following:
• Being able to take the time to know the learners in the class and address them by name.
• Encouraging learners’ views and suggestions, drawing out feedback, using a positive, encouraging and
enthusiastic tone of voice (Chory & McCroskey 1999).
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•
•
•
Using methods such as humour to improve teacher immediacy. The teacher should, however, use this
method with caution and be aware of the following: overusing humour may result in learners’
dismissal of important information conveyed by the teacher. Humour could also result in the
teacher-learner relationship becoming too familiar and overstepping the boundaries of formality and
professionalism. When using humour, the teacher should also be aware of whether the humour is age,
culture, religious and socially acceptable and if it would add to the learning environment and not
hinder it (Richmond, Lane & McCroskey 2006).
Disclosure is another form of verbal immediacy. A teacher can reveal certain appropriate personal
information to the class to show that he or she is human, thereby creating trust, rapport and building
immediacy. For example:
Teacher: Good morning, class. How was your holiday?
(Learners in the class respond.)
Teacher (continues to address the class): Glad that we’re all safely back from the holidays. Mine was
really busy but I managed to go for an amazing hike in the Cederberg mountains and I thoroughly
enjoyed it. Did anyone else go somewhere interesting?
Storytelling can create immediacy. The teacher tells a story, either personal or fictitious, to allow
learners to see how a relevant issue or concept can relate more widely. For example, in explaining a
new term such as xenophobia to the class, the teacher could relate to stories in the press, television
news, actual personal experience, or the experiences of someone she knows.
7.10.1.2 Non-verbal immediacy
The following are examples of non-verbal teacher immediacy behaviours:
• Maintaining direct eye contact. The importance of maintaining eye contact with learners is that it allows
them to pay attention, feel comfortable and a part of the class. The teacher is also able to display a
level of confidence and gauge if her learners understand the content they are being taught.
Maintaining eye contact is important as it promotes motivation in learners and in turn promotes
immediacy (Zekia 2009). However, some learners are not accustomed to continuous eye contact. It is
perceived as disrespectful in some cultures and it may create the impression that the teacher is staring
at them, producing an effect that is contrary to what is expected and resulting in the learner becoming
insecure rather than engaged in the classroom learning. Similarly, inexperienced teachers may also be
uncomfortable having to maintain eye contact with their learners. Generally, however, research on the
effects of sustained eye contact indicates its usefulness for both learner and teacher, who are able to
remember the discussion and what they have seen far better than if there were no eye contact (Mason,
Hood & Macrae 2004).
• The use of appropriate facial expressions instead of an expressionless, stern or angry demeanour; for
example, smiling instead of scowling, promotes non-verbal immediacy.
• Using gestures, hand or arm movements, nodding, etc. Overuse (i.e. gesticulating wildly) is, however,
cautioned against. Research indicates that learners interpret a combination of eye contact, prompting
and gestures as a source of encouragement, interest, concentration, and a tool for sustaining attention.
Teachers display their mood through the use of prompts and gestures, and are able to emphasise
important information through gestures (Zekia 2009).
STOP AND REFLECT
Think about your own immediacy as a teacher in your interactions with your learners in the classroom
(or a classroom you have recently experienced). How would you improve in this area?
7.10.2 Teacher credibility
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Teacher credibility is defined as the attitude the learner has towards a teacher particularly in the area of
the teacher’s perceived believability, which has three dimensions: caring, competence and trustworthiness
(McCroskey & Teven 1999). Teacher credibility in the instructional process is crucial and relates to
teacher immediacy. It is also applicable across cultures (Zhang 2009). Competence relates to the teacher’s
perceived proficiency or knowledge of a particular subject area; trustworthiness relates to the teachers
perceived integrity; and caring relates to the perceived goodwill of the teacher (e.g. empathy and concern)
(Teven 2007). Teacher credibility influences the teacher-learner relationship in terms of teaching
evaluation, learners’ motivation and learning (Beebe, Beebe & Redmond 2009). Learners are more
inclined to be encouraged to learn affectively and cognitively from teachers who are perceived as
credible.
STOP AND REFLECT
How believable do you think you are as a teacher? Think of the manner in which you convey teacher
credibility. How well do you know the subject matter you teach? Do you think your learners perceive
you as trustworthy, reliable and caring? Consider your shortcomings: are there areas where you could
improve?
7.10.3 Teacher clarity
Clarity adds immensely to effective teaching and learning. Teacher clarity consists of numerous teacher
behaviours that go to the reliability of instructional messages the teacher is delivering (Chesebro &
Wanzer 2006: 95). Teachers who are clear avoid ambiguity, but are realistic about what they know of the
content, they are focused and provide learners with sufficient examples in their explanations. Clear
teachers use appropriate verbal and non-verbal communication messages to stimulate the learner’s mind
so that they are able to decipher the meaning of processes, subject or course content (Chesebro &
McCroskey 2001: 62). Teacher clarity has been found to increase learner affective and cognitive learning
and, importantly, learner motivation. It also has a positive effect on instructional outcomes, and reduces
learner apprehension. It has been associated with other teacher prosocial communication behaviours,
credibility and immediacy (Schrodt et al. 2009) in making teaching successful.
prosocial: describes something intended to benefit others; for the good of others
In a classroom with multiple stimuli, a teacher with a firm, clear and strong voice can still command
attention. Teaching lessons that are clear and contain information that portrays events, practices and
objects vividly will easily hold learners’ attention. The teacher’s way of speaking should be able to
demonstrate a variety in pitch, tone, pace and volume. The non-verbal aspects of lesson delivery, such as
body movements and gestures, must also be aligned with what the teacher is saying in order to convey the
information clearly and accurately, and to emphasise meaning.
STOP AND REFLECT
How clearly do you think you come across as a teacher? Consider how you promote teacher clarity in
your classroom and whether you present clear messages to your class. Identify any shortcomings and
state how you are going to address them in improving you own teacher clarity.
7.11
Conveying content
As a teacher, you always need to be aware of the manner in which you communicate your subject
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content. Affective instructional communication involves encoding (formulating a message) to connect
with learners (Chesebro & Wanzer 2006). Affective learning concerns the attitudes, beliefs, and values of
learners regarding the subject matter, content and the teaching and learning experience. Affect includes
selective attention, emotional response, behavioural commitment and assimilation of ideas (Krathwohl,
Bloom & Masia 1964) by, for example, relating the content of what is being taught to learners’ daily lives
and offering them opportunities to share their thoughts and feelings about what is being learned.
Content relevance is defined as discerning whether the subject content is able to meet the personal
needs and goals of the learners. Some examples of subject content relevance are using real-life examples
to make the subject content relevant, clearly indicating the relationship of the content/material to the
learner’s career goals or daily life. In addition, getting learners to relate the content to their interests; and
applying learners’ experiences to illustrate or introduce a concept, will increase its relevance for them.
There are six strategies available to teachers to increase their learners’ ability to recognise the personal
significance of instructional messages (Keller 1987). These strategies are as follows:
• Experience: where the teacher creates learner awareness of how the instruction adds to their current
skills.
• Present worth: where the teacher provides examples of how and why the content is significant and
meaningful by allowing learners to refer to subject concepts that relate to personal contexts.
• Future usefulness: where the teacher provides clear indications of how the content relates to future
subjects, courses and activities. Learners can be asked to relate the learning to their personal future
goals.
• Need matching: where the teacher aligns the content to the specific needs of the learner.
• Modelling: where the teacher invites tutors, guest speakers, past learners to speak about the significance
of subject content.
• Choice: where the teacher provides alternative assignments, allowing learners to plan and choose their
learning for themselves (Keller 1987).
STOP AND REFLECT
How do you present your subject content? Are you continuously improving yourself in the content area,
and especially in the latest developments of knowledge in your subject area? How do you incorporate
this in your teaching to facilitate the communication of knowledge?
7.12
Listening
Listening has many benefits and should not be taken for granted. Note that a distinction exists between
hearing and listening. Hearing is a passive process, forming part of the listening process. Hearing refers to
the physical process of having access to acoustic information after sound waves stimulate receptors in the
ear. However, listening is an active process that involves attention and intention. Listening also involves
hearing, in the sense of comprehension. So listening involves much more than only hearing sounds: it
includes applying contextual information to understand what is needed for successful communication
(Kneen 2011). The different types of listening are:
• Attentive listening where the listener establishes the main goal and purpose of the speaker and is able to
filter out distractions.
• Critical listening involves the ability to assess and critique the speaker’s message throughout the
conversation. The listener establishes the speaker’s intention, identifies tone and poses questions or
requests to rephrase the question. This is done, to re-evaluate and gain a better understanding, or to
get more information.
• Appreciative listening involves showing the speaker that one is interested in the message by using verbal
and non-verbal feedback (e.g. maintaining eye contact, moving in closer, etc.).
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7.12.1 Benefits of listening in the teaching and learning environment
Listening has clear benefits for both the teacher and learner. Learners are able to improve their
performance as listening provides them with cues to establish which key concepts or areas of learning the
teacher is emphasising in class. This later helps the learner in writing examinations or summarising key
concepts. Listening enables the teacher to establish whether the teaching and learning process was
successful by asking learners to confirm their understanding, and so on. As a teacher, you also need to
apply good listening skills to improve teaching and learning in your classroom.
7.13
The instructional strategy
You already know that learners enjoy learning in varied ways. There are three major learning styles:
visual, auditory and kinaesthetic. Some learners prefer visual learning, through pictures, video recordings,
film, reading texts, etc. Auditory learners prefer learning through listening, using audio recordings,
speaking, etc. Kinaesthetic learners learn by practical application, working with their hands, dancing,
movement, etc. You should consider all these styles as learners welcome variation in the instructional
strategies they are exposed. Instructional strategy here refers to the methods used by teachers to plan their
communication via their teaching objectives. You should use strategies to convey information which
balance and attain the various levels of learning. Alternative strategies include: drama, role play, oral
presentations, and selecting and using appropriate technology for improving communication for teaching
and learning in your classroom.
7.13.1 Communication and technology in the classroom
Currently, new methods to promote teaching and learning are encouraged. Hence, various forms of
technology are used in and outside the classroom. Twitter, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google
groups, blogs, email, electronic whiteboards (in the institution), etc., are all media forms used
successfully by teachers globally and across all educational levels. While the essential principles of
communication remain the same, these new technologies are influencing and changing the way we
communicate in the classroom. To promote good communication habits, learners should be taught
communication etiquette and ethical behaviour when using new media. This relates to how to
communicate with individuals, particularly their superiors or teacher/instructor (Ritz 2009). People
disagree about the use of technology in the classroom. For some, technology is a general distraction in
and outside the classroom, and is seen as discouraging face-to-face contact between learners, peers and
teachers. Further, it gives learners a false expectation of having immediate teacher/instructor attention and
response, irrespective of time (Allitt 2005). For others, it is an exciting time to explore and use new
communication media for an enhanced teaching and learning experience for everyone. What is clear is
that all factors (positive and negative) should be considered when selecting the appropriate technology for
the classroom to facilitate communication (see Chapter 17).
7.14
Types of questions used in the classroom
As a teacher, you need to ensure that your learners have correctly grasped concepts taught to them. We
ask questions for many reasons: as a means of establishing if learners understand, for gaining learner
opinions on the teaching and learning that is taking place, to promote higher order thinking. Research
shows that teaching involving layered questioning is more effective than that without questioning.
Although frequent questioning links positively to learning facts, simply posing more questions in
teaching a lesson does not necessarily add to the learning process (Marzano, Pickering & Pollock 2001).
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7.14.1 Why teachers ask questions
Teachers ask learners questions in class for various reasons:
• To involve learners in the learning process
• To stimulate learners’ interest and motivation
• To assess learners’ preparation
• To monitor whether learners have completed a task
• To improve learners’ critical thinking skills
• To review previous learning
• To nurture insights
• To assess achievement or mastery of goals and objectives
• To stimulate independent learning.
Teachers may have a variety of purposes for posing questions during a lesson, or one question could
serve multiple purposes (Marzano et al. 2001).
7.14.2 Types of questions
The use of a hierarchy to rate questions from simple to more complex was developed by Benjamin Bloom
et al. (1956, 1964). Bloom’s taxonomy (see also Chapter 6) includes six categories of questions in the
cognitive domain, ranging from simple to complex:
• Remembering – recalling data or information
• Understanding – comprehending meaning
• Applying – using a concept in a new situation
• Analysing – separating concepts into parts; distinguishing between facts and inferences
• Evaluating – making judgments about the value of ideas or products
• Creating – combining parts to form new meanings or products
Probing questions are used to clarify, or develop critical thinking skills and used for prompting learners
who appear to be stuck, for example, ‘You say you think the death penalty should be reinstated. Explain
how this will reduce the crime rate in our country.’
Factual questions assist in gauging learners understanding of concepts, for example, ‘Can you name
the steps in the decision-making process?’
Questions that deal with reflection focus on the learners’ feelings about what has been learned, for
example, ‘After completing your project on the importance of recycling, how do you feel about the
experience of volunteering at a recycling depot?’
Evaluative questions assess what learners have been taught relating to higher order thinking skills, for
example, learners are asked to compare nuclear energy with alternative energy sources and decide which
option is best for a developing country (Marzano et al. 2001).
STOP AND REFLECT
What kinds of questions do you typically use with learners? Do they tend to be of one type, or in a
limited range?
What can you do to expand your range of question types?
The following activity highlights the key focus of this chapter, and looks at the factors to consider when
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evaluating your classroom environment and learner rapport in relation to instructional communication.
APPLYING IT TODAY
Ask yourself the following questions to determine whether you have created the appropriate climate
for effective communication to enhance teaching and learning in your classroom (Rogers 1990: 158):
• Do I speak too fast, too slowly, calmly and clearly? Do I scold or am I sarcastic?
• How would my learners describe my communication style most of the time?
• Do I convey clear rules, guidelines and procedures to my learners and how is this reinforced?
• Do I know what my learners are doing? Do I move around the class to create immediacy?
• Do I provide encouragement to my learners, listen to them, notice and compliment their cooperative,
positive behaviours, as well as notice and comment on their disruptive behaviours?
• Do I consider learners with mixed abilities and vary my teaching and communication approach?
• Do I use small groups or cooperative learning to enhance communication in my class?
• How positive is my discipline? Do I proactively plan for disruptions and facilitate a class that allows
for the flow of positive, structured communication?
• Do I respect learners even if I don’t always like them? How do I address them? What does my
non-verbal/body language convey when I interact with them?
• Am I consistent in my discipline? Do I treat all learners fairly?
Now get a peer to answer the same questions about your communication style.
Creating a positive classroom environment and positive rapport with your learners requires collaboration,
evaluation and modification of both learner and teacher behaviour. It is best to commit to it at the start of
the school year for successful practice (Rogers 1990: 158). You may also find the checklist for good
interpersonal communication (Appendix 7.1) at the end of this book useful.
Conclusion
This chapter highlights how, as a teacher, you need to create an environment conducive to effective
teaching and learning, where centrally, communication is enhanced between you and your learners. To
this end, this chapter discussed the definition of instructional communication, its role in classroom
instruction, and the various communication elements and categories, with examples. The chapter also
examined the various barriers to instructional communication and suggested examples of how to
overcome these. We provided information on different teaching styles, their application, and, importantly,
many opportunities to evaluate your personal teaching style. We hope this chapter has created an
awareness of intercultural communication, the application of instructional communication principles and
techniques in your classroom, such as teacher immediacy, teacher credibility, conveying content, teacher
clarity and listening, to improve teaching and learning. We have tried to create an awareness of using
questions appropriately, as well as the influence of new technologies in the communication process inside
and outside the classroom
As a teacher, you have the great responsibility of enhancing knowledge transfer in the teaching and
learning environment. This is what McCroskey (1998) refers to as the difference between knowing and
applying. Having the knowledge and being able to apply the various elements of instructional
communication discussed in this chapter are key to becoming a better teacher and developing better
learners.
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Activities
Self-reflection
1. Are you asking questions in your classroom that are clear and which ensure that learners can fully
understand what you are asking? Are the questions that you pose used in the correct context; and are
they the correct type of questions that will elicit appropriate responses? How will you know?
Analysis and consolidation
2. In your experience (in your own school years, or during your school experience), are there additional
barriers to communication besides those discussed in this chapter? Describe one with examples.
Suggest a communication strategy that you think may help to overcome the barrier.
3. Analyse a barrier to communication (from among those in this chapter) that you feel is important to
address. Explain how you will go about it in any of your chosen subjects.
Practical applications
4. Think of how you will now present your subject content in light of what you have learned in this
chapter. How will your teaching reflect the latest thinking in your subject area and facilitate the
communication of knowledge? Using information from this chapter, develop a detailed lesson plan in
your subject area, with the relevant communication strategies for the content you want to teach.
Consider too whether there are appropriate communication technologies you can use.
References
Allitt, P. 2005. Professors, stop your microchips. Chronicle of Higher Education, 51(42): 38.
Beebe, S.A., Beebe, S.J. & Redmond, M.A. 2008. Interpersonal communication: Relating to others.
Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Beebe, S.A., Mottet, T.P. & Roach, K.D. 2004. Training and Development: Enhancing Leadership and
Training Skills. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Bloom, B.S. 1956. Taxonomy of educational objectives. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, Pearson
Education.
Chesebro, J.L. & McCroskey, J.C. 2001. The relationship of teacher clarity and immediacy with student
state receiver apprehension, affect, and cognitive learning. Communication Education, 50: 59–68.
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& McCroskey, J.C. (eds). Handbook of instructional communication: 89–116. Boston: Pearson.
Chory, R.M. & McCroskey, J.C. 1999. The relationship between teacher management communication
style and affective learning. Communication Quarterly, 47: 1–11.
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learning. Communication Education, 47: 82–90.
Christophel, D.M. 1990. The relationships among teacher immediacy behaviors, student motivation and
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Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
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Keller, J.M. 1987. Development and use of the ARCs model of instructional design. Journal of
Instructional Development, 10(3): 2–10.
Kneen, J. 2011. Essential skills: Essential speaking and listening skills. New York, NY: Oxford
University Press.
Krathwohl, D.R., Bloom, B.S. & Masia, B.B. 1964. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Book 2:
Affective Domain. New York: David McKay.
Marzano, R., Pickering, D. & Pollock, J. 2001. Classroom instruction that works: Research-based
strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.
Mason, M., Hood, B. & Macrae, C. 2004. Look into my eyes: Gaze direction and person memory.
Memory, 12(5): 637–643.
McCroskey, J.C. 1998. An introduction to communication in the classroom. Acton, MA: Tapestry Press.
McCroskey, J.C. & Teven, J.J. 1999. Goodwill: A re-examination of the construct and its measurement.
Communication Monographs, 66: 90–103.
McCroskey, L., Richmond, V. & McCroskey, J. 2002. The scholarship of teaching and learning:
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Meyers, S.A. 2009. Do your students care whether you care about them? College Teaching, 57(4):
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Further reading
Rocca, K.A. 2010. Student Participation in the College Classroom: An Extended Multidisciplinary
Literature Review. Communication Education, 59(2): 185–213.
Vangelisti, A., Daly, J.A. & Friedrich, G. (eds). 1998. Teaching communication: Theory, research and
methods. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum (2nd edition; first edition, 1992).
Online resources
Good websites for teaching and learning: http://www.ala.org/aasl/standards-guidelines/best-websites
/2014
User-friendly sites that can help you create your own communication blog:
http://www.weebly.com
http://edublogs.org/
http://wordpress.com/
http://googleblog.blogspot.ca/
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8
Constructivism and teacher education
Joanne Hardman
Copyright 2016. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
Learning outcomes
By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
• Reflect on your own practice.
• Utilise theory to inform your practice.
• Explain the notion of ‘active’ learning.
• Analyse why assessing learners’ progress formatively as well as summatively is important.
• Evaluate the elements of mediated learning engagements.
Key concepts
Active cognising agent: when a child actively engages with the world, bringing their prior knowledge to
bear on new problems or experiences; in a constructivist paradigm the child is seen as actively
constructing knowledge, rather than passively receiving information
Mediation: a central theoretical concept from cultural historical theory developed by Vygotsky, which
indicates that learning can lead development provided that the child is actively guided by a culturally
more competent other, in this case, the teacher
Zone of proximal development (ZPD): that space ‘opened up’ socially between the child and the
teacher where the teacher mediates between what the child can perform on their own and what they can
achieve with assistance
Constructivism: a very broad paradigm used in teaching and learning that takes as its basis the fact that
children need to be actively involved in the learning and teaching ‘space’ in order to develop; the
understanding here is that children actively construct knowledge, rather than passively receiving it.
CASE STUDY 1: TEACHING EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS – OR NOT?
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Ms Todd is teaching equivalent fractions to Grade 6 mathematics learners.
STOP AND REFLECT
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What is happening in the case study?
Can you see what pedagogical strategies the teacher is using? Discuss these with a peer.
Do you think this is effective pedagogy? Why, or why not?
How do you think children learn?
What is your theory of teaching?
Introduction
This chapter introduces you to the current most pervasive theory underpinning pedagogical practices in
schools: constructivism. Constructivism is a broad basket of theories that have in common the
understanding that the child actively constructs knowledge, rather than passively receiving it from the
teacher. This does not mean that the teacher becomes a ‘guide on the side’; far from it. The teacher, in the
constructivist theories we will cover, is absolutely central to the developmental trajectory of the child. If
we look at the opening case study, we can see that Ms Todd defines what is being learned; she explicates
the content and provides examples of it on the chalkboard. In this chapter, we begin with a brief
introduction to two metaphors of learning before turning to the cognitive constructivism of Piaget and the
cultural historical work of Vygotsky. The chapter goes on to explicate how one can use Vygotsky’s
hugely influential work in an actual classroom setting, by drawing on the work of Wood, Bruner and
Ross; Gallimore and Tharp; and finally, Feuerstein. This chapter is about preparing you to teach from a
constructivist perspective; however, teaching and learning are dialectically entailed – one cannot teach
in the absence of learning. In this chapter, we focus very specifically on constructivist views of teaching,
as they are currently the most popular theories in the field. From the West, we will draw on the work of
Shulman, and Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976); from Eastern Europe we draw on Vygotsky’s work and its
Western elaboration in the work of Feuerstein (1981), and of Gallimore and Tharp (1993). Situating this
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chapter in the broad paradigm of constructivism means we assume certain things: 1) children are active
cognising agents. That is, children bring their current individual knowledge and experience to bear on
new situations in order to make these situations meaningful; 2) teaching is absolutely necessary to
develop the child cognitively. A useful place to begin to understand pedagogy is to define it. For our
purposes, in a constructivist paradigm, we define pedagogy as:
trajectory: a path or direction in which something is headed
dialectically entailed: the one implies the other; in other words, one thing does not exist without
another thing
[…] a structured process whereby a culturally more experienced peer or teacher uses cultural
tools to mediate or guide a novice into established, relatively stable ways of knowing and being
within a particular, institutional context, in such a way that the knowledge and skills the novice
acquires lead to relatively lasting changes in the novice’s behaviour; that is, learning (Hardman
2007: 5).
Throughout this chapter we will return to this definition to flesh it out with examples and theoretical
principles. We begin this chapter by outlining the kind of knowledge one would expect a teacher to have,
before developing a theoretical view of pedagogical practices.
Strategies for success
Teaching is a difficult task: you are faced with a large group of youngsters who may or may not be keen
to learn or ready for learning. Here are a few tips to help you along:
• Be aware of managing your classroom. This can be done effectively through good pacing. If the pace is
too slack or slow, the learners will get bored and this will show in their behaviour – talking, becoming
restless or simply switching off; if the pace is too fast, learners will get frustrated, lose interest or just
give up. Make sure you know your learners well enough to teach at the right pace for them (see
Chapter 13).
• Be confident. One way of being confident is to really know the subject you are teaching and the best way
to teach it. This requires that you have a sound lesson plan that you stick to (see Chapter 9).
• Welcome learner questions. Classrooms are quite scary places for young people, full of other people
they don’t really know. Make the space open and welcoming so that they feel safe to explore their
ideas with others (see Chapter 6).
8.1
Pedagogical content knowledge
It goes without saying that before being able to teach a teacher must have both knowledge of instructional
methodologies (pedagogical knowledge), as well as content knowledge of his or her subject. Shulman
(1986) has suggested a further dimension of knowledge that teachers need to possess: pedagogical
content knowledge. A synthesis of pedagogical and content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge
(PCK):
[…] embodies the aspects of content most germane to its teachability. Within the category of
pedagogical content knowledge I include, for the most regularly taught topics in one’s subject
area, the most useful forms of representation of those ideas, the most powerful analogies,
illustrations, examples, explanations, and demonstrations – in a word, the ways of representing
and formulating the subject that make it comprehensible to others […] [It] also includes an
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understanding of what makes the learning of specific concepts easy or difficult: the conceptions
and preconceptions that learners of different ages and backgrounds bring with them to the
learning (Shulman 1986: 9).
Essentially, pedagogical content knowledge is what differentiates say, a mathematician, from a
mathematics teacher. While both may have the same qualifications and content knowledge, the teacher
differs from the mathematician in that she has to make the work accessible to those she is teaching. The
mathematics teacher, as part of PCK, has a sense of what her learners bring to the learning space; what
their cultural differences are; what their performance may be like; and how this performance may differ
among children. The more experienced the teacher becomes, the more his or her PCK develops. We may
now ask, though, how does a teacher teach effectively? In order to answer this question, we turn to the
theories that underpin a constructivist view of pedagogy.
8.1.1
Development leads learning – Piaget’s cognitive constructivism
I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand (Walkerdine 1984: 155).
This quote adequately captures the epistemology that underpins the body of knowledge commonly
referred to as cognitive constructivism, and based in the work of the famous genetic epistemologist, Jean
Piaget (whom you were introduced to in Chapter 5). For Piaget, children develop through specific stages,
from infancy to adulthood. These stages are interesting and useful for teaching, as they outline what and
how a teacher should teach at any given developmental stage. Note that the ages for stages (see again
Chapter 5) are approximate – a child might pass through a stage more quickly or more slowly, at a
slightly earlier age, or a bit later. What is crucial to note, however, is that one cannot skip a stage, and
every child is capable of going through the stages in the process of development.
epistemology: the theory of knowledge
•
•
•
•
The first stage, the sensorimotor stage is characterised by learning through one’s senses and motor
actions. Object permanence begins to appear at about 9 months of age, meaning that the child
recognises that something continues to exist, even when it is not in sight, or the child cannot see it.
The second stage, the pre-operational stage, is characterised by egocentrism, which refers to the child’s
inability yet to see the world from another’s perspective. This comes about because of centration, that
process which makes the child focus on only one aspect of a situation at any given time.
At the third, or concrete operational stage, the child has now officially entered school. This child is less
egocentric and is able to see a situation from more than one perspective. This leads to the child being
able to conserve. Conservation refers to the child’s ability to recognise that something remains the
same, even if it changes its appearance.
In the final stage, formal operational thinking, the teenager is able to hypothesise and think abstractly.
Knowing about these stages helps with your teaching: knowing that a concrete operational child, for
example, requires concrete props in order to think, should alert you to the fact that they cannot be taught
algebra, which is entirely abstract.
Piaget’s (1959; 1970; 1977, 1995a; 1998) work has influenced teaching in schools for over half a
century. His theory holds that children learn actively through a process of assimilation, in which they
understand new knowledge in terms of existing cognitive structures; accommodation, in which structures
change in order to accommodate for knowledge that clashes with existing cognitive structures; and
equilibration, the active balancing between these processes. A central concept mobilised by
neo-Piagetian researchers in schools in the notion of cognitive conflict, which involves providing a
learner with work that challenges their existing knowledge and leads them to actively seek out resources
to help overcome the resultant cognitive dissonance they feel (Flavell 1963). Peers, teachers and books,
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for example, might serve as resources to assist the learner overcome the conflict he/she feels in the
presence of new knowledge. Epistemologically, this approach theorises learning as requiring cognitive
readiness on the child’s behalf; an understanding that children learn through actively interacting with the
environment and, as children learn through assimilation, accommodation and equilibration, they must
have access to richly-resourced environments in order to learn. Pedagogically, this requires that
instruction is structured so that children can work from the familiar to the unfamiliar. This involves the
teacher developing an understanding of what learners already know so that she or he can build on this
knowledge, working from the concrete to the abstract; a commitment to letting children explore through
activities or computer simulations; and the active introduction of cognitive conflict (disequilibrium) to
provide the impetus for learning.
assimilation: application of existing cognitive structures to understand new knowledge
accommodation: change in existing cognitive structures because new knowledge clashes or conflicts
with current structures
equilibration: a balance between assimilation and accommodation
cognitive dissonance: the disjuncture or mismatch between beliefs or thoughts
Much has been made of the fact that Piaget’s work focuses on stages of development and many
critiques of his work point to his stage theory as problematic (see, for example, Brown & Desforges
1979) whose critique is, for the most part, a well structured one). Further, he has been criticised because
the kind of knowledge he focused on as a developmental end point, as it were, is directly related to school
learning; if one never goes to school, one doesn’t learn to think in logico-mathematical ways. The first
critique against Piaget, that the stages he proposes are not universal and in fact rely on the participant
being at least somewhat familiar with the content of the task, has been proven by Cole’s work with the
Kpelle (Cole & Scribner 1975). This critique is only relevant here in that it highlights the importance of
culture in cognitive development. The latter critique regarding logico-mathematical thinking has also
been addressed in Cole’s work (1975). Anecdotal evidence from ‘experiments’ that I have carried out
with my postgraduate students indicates that even these well-educated, intelligent, certainly well-schooled
young people do not use logico-mathematical thinking as a matter of course. This does seem to be a form
of thinking that is very rigidly tied to high school learning and which does not necessarily transfer to
other environments. This critique is interesting because it highlights the very specific kind of knowledge
acquired in school; that is, it indicates that the objective of schooling is the acquisition of what Piaget
calls ‘logico-mathematical’ thought. Table 8.1 summarises the strengths and weaknesses of cognitive
constructivism.
Table 8.1:Summary of strengths and weaknesses of cognitive constructivism
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8.1.2
Learning leads development – Vygotsky and socio-cultural theory
In the West, Vygotsky’s (1979, 1981) cultural historical work has been taken up by researchers who
adopt a socio-cultural approach to teaching and learning. Vygotsky’s approach can best be understood
with reference to his ‘general genetic law’, which states that:
Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and
later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological), and then inside the
child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and
to the formulation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relations between
human individuals (Vygotsky 1978: 57).
Essentially what this quote refers to is the fact that individual cognitive functions begin as actual relations
between people, between a novice (new ‘learner’) and an expert (experienced ‘knower’). The
socio-cultural approach, drawing heavily on Vygotsky’s work, appreciates the primacy of semiotic
mediation in pedagogy and views school-based learning as the acquisition of scientific concepts through
mediation. This is the structured guidance by a culturally more competent other, within the zone of
proximal development (ZPD) – that ‘space’ in which a child benefits from assistance. This approach
understands that the child is active and that the child accomplishes more with assistance than on her own.
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Finally, the approach accepts that learning happens through communicative interaction (Hedegaard 1998;
Daniels 2001). Scientific concepts are concepts that need to be taught: they cannot be learned outside of
mediated teaching. It is useful to think of them as school-based concepts. Pedagogically, this results in a
picture of instruction leading development and requires that in pedagogical settings partners should
ideally be at different developmental levels; in this setting, teachers work from general, abstract
principles (scientific concepts) to empirical everyday concepts, not vice versa (Daniels 2001, 2006). The
teacher, in this approach, is central. However, this does not suggest an asymmetrical power relationship
between teachers and those being taught; rather, the theory advocates a focus on the learners because it
appreciates the importance of working within the child’s ZPD. This requires the teacher to adjust pace,
sequencing and selection of content in a lesson to take cognisance of different developmental levels and
to respond accordingly. The teacher’s role here is to guide and structure learner’s engagement with the
abstraction that forms the basis of school-based knowledge. The central focus on semiotic mediation finds
articulation in a focus on how teachers use symbolic tools and communicative interaction to mediate
scientific concepts. Group work is often seen as a useful tool here in assisting children to reach their
potential.
semiotic mediation: structured guidance by means of signs or symbols; mainly used to refer to
language as the primary means of mediation
empirical: describes what can be verified by experience or observation rather than through pure logic
asymmetrical power: uneven or unequal power relations
Assessment
Working with learners in the ZPD has implications for assessment as well as teaching and learning. In
fact, we cannot speak of teaching and learning without addressing assessment. If we conceive of teaching
and learning as two sides of a triangle, assessment is the third side, making a coherent whole. What we
know about the ZPD is that it is the difference between actual development, which can be ascertained
through independent problem solving, and potential development, which can only be ascertained through
guided assistance. So, if we want to know what a learner is capable of, we have to assess in a formative
way, rather than simply in a summative way. Summative assessments test what learners already know –
that is, they determine the learners’ actual developmental level. Formative assessments, on the other
hand, which are geared towards scaffolding learner engagement with the problem, are capable of testing
learners’ potential. It should be noted that schooling requires both types of assessment: we need
summative assessment to tell us what it is that the learner knows, and what they do not know – that is, to
establish their ZPD; we need formative assessment to develop learners’ potential.
APPLYING IT TODAY
If we return to our definition of pedagogy, can you see how much it relies on a Vygotskyan
framework? Our definition refers to a more experienced other, guiding a novice using mediational
tools.
1. On your own, design a task that aims to teach in the learners’ ZPD.
2. How will you ‘open’ the ZPD?
3. Describe what assistance you will offer and how.
4. Describe how you will assess the learners’ work or performance.
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STOP AND REFLECT
1. Piaget identifies two functions of intelligence by means of which we engage with the world; what are
these two functions? Explain in your own words how these functions operate. Provide an example to
illustrate your answer.
2. What does Vygotsky mean when he states that “the path from object to child and from child to object
passes through another person”(Vygotsky 1978: 30)?
8.2
Scaffolding as mediation – socio-cultural theory in the
West
The powerful notion of teaching as mediation was not further developed by Vygotsky as he died young at
the age of only 37 years. In the West, Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976) developed the notion of scaffolding,
which resonates extremely well with Vygotsky’s notion of mediation. Scaffolding is a pedagogical
technique where a novice is guided in a structured manner in their problem solving endeavours. Much
like the scaffolding used while constructing a building that is removed once the structure is up, as the
child develops their understanding of the task so the teacher gradually reduces the amount of input they
give until the child is able to solve the problem unaided. Wood et al. (1976) suggest the following
strategies for scaffolding:
• Recruitment: As the name suggests, in the recruitment phase, you are ‘pulling in’ or enlisting learners for
the lesson: you need first to gain the learners’ attention and interest. Let’s say, for example, that you
are teaching rhyming in poetry to Grade 8s: what would be effective way to grab their attention? A
good way to get them interested might be to play a song by Justin Bieber or Rihanna, showing how
these singers use rhyme in their work. Songs, after all, are poems set to words and, of course, some of
the most epic poems, such as Homer’s Iliad, were originally set to music.
• Reduction in degrees of freedom: This requires simplifying a complex task into smaller tasks. If the
challenge is to teach the addition of 4-digit numbers, one might simplify this by breaking the large
numbers up into thousands, hundreds, tens and units. So, 4 650 + 2 345 becomes (4 000+2 000) +
(600+300) + (50+40) + (5) = ?
• Direction maintenance: Here you might use language as a prod and a prompt to keep learners’ focus on
the task or its outcome.
• Marking critical features: This requires that you pick out critical issues and interpret discrepancies. One
way of highlighting what is important, for example, is to underline it or repeat it.
• Frustration control: Learners are not merely cognitive beings: they are also feeling beings. As a teacher,
you need to be sensitive to your learners’ emotional needs. Setting them a task that they struggle to
complete without giving them assistance will lead to frustration, which impacts on motivation to
learn, leaving the learners despondent. Hence frustration control is aimed towards limiting learners’
sense that they can’t do or face a task by providing just enough help to enable them to accomplish it.
• Demonstration: One of the most effective pedagogical strategies is to demonstrate what it is you are
teaching. So, if you are, for example, teaching about matter, it would be useful to demonstrate the
different states of matter (solid, liquid, gas) to the learners. Similarly, when doing calculations, first
model for the learners how to arrive at an effective solution.
APPLYING IT TODAY
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This is an extract from an interview with a Grade 6 teacher about teaching mathematics using
computers. Read the extract and then engage with the questions.
M r With computers they have a wider field. The computer software is designed so that for the little
Abel guy who is very weak, there is also a program. So if he can’t do the Grade 6 work then I go back
:
to Grade 5. This makes allowance for most levels of competence. Steps can be re-explained. It
also helps with hand/eye coordination. Computers stimulate things like memory, creativity,
endurance and achievement. But, on the other hand, they don’t allow much social interaction.
Physical activities are reduced. For me, I think, uh, computers are not as flexible as a book that
can be read, uhm, and used at any time or in any place.
1. What kind of computer software would you use in a constructivist classroom?
2. Do you think computers are tools that can aid learning and teaching? If so, in what ways?
Gallimore and Tharp (1993) have drawn on various theoretical resources, including behaviourist notions
of teaching and learning, to develop strategies for teaching in the ZPD. Many of these strategies mirror
those suggested by Wood et al. (1976).
• Modelling: This refers to demonstrating the solution to a problem or providing a model of how to
achieve a successful answer.
• Contingency management: Deriving from behaviourism, this requires that you praise steps in problem
solving, for example, by rewarding good work in primary school with stars.
• Feedback: Feedback is essential in carrying out tasks. Feedback should be elaborated, illustrating why
the answer is right or why it is wrong. When a child answers a question correctly, it is not enough to
simply say ‘right’; rather go a little further and ask, ‘Why is that the right answer?’ or ‘How did you
get to that answer?’ When the answer is incorrect, don’t merely say that it is wrong, but illustrate why
it is wrong and how it could be corrected.
• Instruction: This refers to teaching. For teaching to be effective in a Vygotskyan framework, it must be
elaborated and explicit. It must aim to open up a learner’s ZPD and work within that ZPD to extend
the child. So when introducing say, verbs, you should define what this is, illustrate with an example,
describe it, and link it to other work covered.
• Cognitive structuring: This requires that you provide the cognitive structure that helps the learner to
solve the problem. Let’s say you are dealing with living and non-living things in Natural Sciences: the
ability to accomplish this task requires the structures of characteristics and categorisation. So you may
well put these structures in place for learners by alerting them to the need to use these structures.
Note, this is not about giving the answer, but rather, about helping them to arrive at the answer.
• Questioning: This is a very effective mechanism for assessing what it is that learners know and what
they need to know; that is, questioning can provide access to the learners’ ZPD (remember what you
learned about questioning in Chapter 6).
CASE STUDY 2: SCAFFOLDING FRACTIONS FOR GRADE 6
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Mrs Bophela:
Ivon:
Mrs Bophela:
Riette:
Mrs Bophela:
Nolwazi:
Mrs Bophela:
Nolwazi:
Mrs Bophela:
Nolwazi:
Mrs Bophela:
We’ve done multiplication of two fractions. I want you to go a step further:
multiplication of two mixed numbers (writes
= on chalkboard). Ok,
now I need some help. What do I do now? Anyone who can help me? Ivon?
1 × 1, miss.
1 × 1? The counting numbers? Just make use of what you know. Nobody?
Times whole numbers?
Times the whole numbers first?
Miss, miss, change the whole numbers to fractions, miss.
Change the whole numbers to fractions (smiling and widening her eyes to show
approval). So what am I doing if I change that whole number to a fraction?
You’re changing a mixed number to a fraction.
Yes, to a what? What kind of fraction?
An improper fraction, miss.
An improper fraction. Good girl. Change your mixed numbers to an improper
fraction. Let’s do it. Watch, now (she goes on to show how to solve the problem
step by step).
STOP AND REFLECT
1. What scaffolding strategies do you notice here?
2. Trace and describe step by step how the teacher mediates in the extract.
8.3
From mediation to mediated learning experiences –
Feuerstein
The final theorist who adds further dimension to Vygotsky’s (1978) notion of mediation is Reuven
Feuerstein (1921–2014). Working with children from deprived backgrounds, Feuerstein developed a body
of knowledge to use with learners who had not experienced appropriate mediation during their formative
years.
8.3.1
Mediated learning experiences (MLE) in the classroom
The following are essential features of mediated learning experiences:
• Intentionality and reciprocity: Intentionality refers to your desire to teach and is closely linked to
reciprocity which refers to learners’ receptiveness to what you are teaching. Much like Wood et al.
(1976), you need to grab the learners’ attention by presenting them with something that is exciting
and makes them eager to learn what you are about to teach. Essentially, this is about asking how you
can teach in a manner that interests and motivates learners. This can be done through asking
questions; being well prepared and organised and taking time to plan some exciting tasks. Moreover,
when something is not understood, don’t merely repeat what you have already said: think of a
different way to explain the same content and pay particular attention to learners who are slower or
more passive than their peers.
• Meaning: Learners often complain that what they are taught in school is not very useful to their
everyday life; this is because teachers have failed to make the content meaningful for the learners.
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•
•
Make sure that you can link what you are teaching to learners’ interests. For example, let’s say you
are teaching calculus to Grade 11 learners. How can you make this meaningful and exciting? Why not
show them a YouTube clip of base jumping – that challenging extreme sport where people jump off
mountains or high buildings wearing a parachute or wingsuit? Show how you cannot base jump and
survive without knowing calculus (and some physics)!
Transcendence: This requires bridging ideas to the broader context, asking where else does this happen.
At a very basic level, if you are teaching shapes, you could ask learners where else they can see a
rectangle in the classroom or their houses.
Competence: Emotion is intricately linked to learning. It is crucial to develop learners’ sense of
competence in relation to the work they are learning, inculcating a positive belief in the learner’s
ability to succeed.
CASE STUDY 3: CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT WITH A STICK
Mr Daniels is a primary school teacher in a very disadvantaged area of Cape Town. He is being
interviewed about his classroom management style. This is an excerpt from the interview:
Mr Daniels:
Interviewer:
Mr Daniels:
Interviewer:
Mr Daniels:
I can say, ja, you have to use discipline. They got no discipline. And I see this
that you can shout, but they don’t care.
What do you do then to manage bad behaviour?
And, uh, you must know, these children even though they are only Grade 6,
Grade 7, they’re in the gangs. Ja, (inaudible) … sometimes, uh, I have a stick.
They understand that, you know. That’s what they understand.
The stick?
Mmm (nods).
A question of ethics
With your peers, discuss classroom management from a constructivist perspective. Do you think that in
the constructive approach, there is a place for corporal punishment, or the threat of corporal punishment?
The following table illustrates the strengths and some weaknesses of socio-cultural theory as a theoretical
basis for understanding pedagogy, as developed in this chapter.
Table 8.2:Strengths and weaknesses of socio-cultural approach.
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CASE STUDY 4: MEDIATION OF MULTIPLICATION
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In a Grade 6 maths class, Ashwill is working on the problem
Ashwill:
.
So miss, we got 2 × 9 = 18 over 3 (points to the piece of cardboard that has the
sum worked out on it; this card is stuck to the chalkboard so that the whole class
Ms de Wet:
Ashwill:
Ms de Wet:
can see it). Times one equals miss. That is six, miss.
Ok, Ashwill, just wait (she turns towards the class and addresses them). The first
times two times nine. Why did you do that? (turns back to Ashwill)
Miss, you times numerators and then denominators, miss. Numerators with
numerators and denominators with denominators.
Ok. Could we simplify before we multiplied the numerator and denominator? (
poses this question to the whole class)
STOP AND REFLECT
1. Identify and list any instances of mediation in this case study, as you understand it.
2. What can you say about Ms de Wet’s assessment strategies?
8.4
Practice approaches
In schools the practice-based approach to learning and teaching is best articulated in the cognitive
apprenticeship model, which differs explicitly from a traditional apprenticeship model in its focus on
learning in schools. In the teaching of reading, this approach is identified with Palincsar’s reciprocal
teaching approach (1986); and in writing, the approach is exemplified by the work of Bereiter and
Scardamalia (1982). In mathematics teaching, the approach is exemplified in Schoenfeld’s (1985) method
for teaching problem solving. These approaches all share certain fundamental principles: mainly, they
share a focus on methods for carrying out a task in a specific domain, where an expert coaches novices.
This has been elaborated as modelling, coaching and fading. Coaching is accomplished through
scaffolding, which takes the form of reminders and active assistance at points in the task where the
apprentice needs this help. Modelling requires that the child observe the expert while he or she develops a
conceptual model of the target task. Finally, once the apprentice evidences the ability to perform on his or
her own, the teacher removes scaffolds, thereby fading out the level of assistance provided. Schoenfeld’s
work in mathematics classrooms provides a good example of cognitive apprenticeship models. In
mathematics, experts use heuristic methods, generally tacitly acquired through years of experience, in
order to solve problems. Schoenfeld’s work involves getting teachers to explicate these often tacit
methods that they rely on, as experts, to solve problems. One technique he suggests teachers use to
illustrate how experts solve real problems is to get learners to present the teacher with problems at the
beginning of the lesson. Some of the problems given may prove difficult for the teacher, so she or he will
then externalise the working out of the problem, illustrating how an expert’s strategies potentially fail and
how one overcomes this failure. Schoenfeld’s (1985) investigation of children’s problem solving
indicates further that, as well as heuristic strategies, two critical strategies impacted on their skill: control
strategies and belief systems. Control strategies are metacognitive in that they require that a learner is
able to reflect on his or her own problem solving actions, to select the relevant heuristic strategies for
solving the problem, to evaluate these strategies, and change them if necessary. Belief strategies refer to
learners’ beliefs about their mathematical competency (‘I am no good at maths’); their beliefs about what
mathematics is (for example, something that requires innate skill, versus something that can be learned:
i.e. ‘I don’t have a “maths brain”’); as well as their beliefs about the world (material phenomena have
physical rather than metaphysical causes). Schoenfeld’s teaching involves the use of modelling, coaching,
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scaffolding and fading mentioned earlier. During the teaching process, Schoenfeld takes on the role of
moderator or “consultant” (1985: 473), eliciting heuristics and evaluations from the learners, while also
modelling appropriate strategies for the learners. Mathematical rules underlying heuristic strategies are
explicated and teacher’s control over pace, sequence and selection of content takes account of learners’
progress, with pace slowing down to allow for modelling and scaffolding when learners struggle with a
concept. Various concrete tools (such as group work) and abstract tools (such as the heuristic strategies)
are used to accomplish the objectives of this kind of lesson – the development of expert mathematicians.
In Table 8.3, you can see an overview of the strengths and weaknesses of the theory.
heuristic: describes a way of enabling a person to discover or learn something for themselves
metacognitive: describes the ability to reflect on one’s cognition; awareness of one’s own thinking
Table 8.3:Practice-based approaches (predominantly cognitive apprenticeship approaches)
APPLYING IT TODAY
Suppose you are faced with the task of teaching maths to a culturally diverse group of Grade 2 learners
(about 8 years old) at an urban primary school. Discuss what you think Piaget and Vygotsky would
each suggest about what to teach and how to teach it. (Don’t be concerned about the specific content to
be taught, just the nature of the learning tasks, and how they might be determined and organised.)
8.5
Teaching and learning in the constructivist classroom
Now that we have covered the theories based on the understanding that children actively construct
knowledge rather than passively receive it, we can ask: What does a teacher do in this classroom? What
does a learner do? Let’s remind ourselves about our definition of pedagogy and unpack it here:
A structured process whereby a culturally more experienced peer or teacher uses cultural tools
to mediate or guide a novice into established, relatively stable ways of knowing and being
within a particular, institutional context, in such a way that the knowledge and skills the novice
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acquires lead to relatively lasting changes in the novice’s behaviour; that is, learning (Hardman
2007: 5)
First, we notice that pedagogy is a structured process and, as we said earlier, this is not simply a ‘guide
on the side’: this is a mediator who is well prepared, who is able to spark reciprocity in his or her
learners, and who has pedagogical content knowledge. Second, we notice the use of cultural tools (such as
language) to mediate, or guide the learner. Language in the classroom is really the primary tool used by
teachers. Here, teachers must ask questions, explore learners’ understanding, develop discussions and
listen to learners’ questions (and note that language does not necessarily mean only one language:
remember what you read about communication in Chapter 7). If we draw from Piaget’s work, we note too
that a teacher must be able to create cognitive conflict; that is, the teacher must provide work or tasks that
force learners into disequilibrium so that they seek new knowledge. Third, teaching happens in a
particular kind of place: in our case, an institution called a school. Finally, learning refers to the fact that
the engagement between the teacher and those taught leads to lasting changes in the learners’ behaviour.
A learner here, then, must be able to question, to explore, to work at a pace that suits them, and to feel
confident enough to fail given their understanding that the teacher will be there to support them to
succeed in future.
Conclusion
In this chapter, we looked at teaching from a constructivist perspective. This is the most current and
popular theory underpinning teaching and learning today. The chapter began by introducing you to
Shulman’s PCK, underlining the importance of teachers’ experience and knowledge that they bring to the
classroom. We then turned to the work of the cognitive constructivist Piaget, illustrating how children
learn through a process of assimilation, accommodation and equilibration. Most importantly, Piaget’s
theory was the first psychological theory in the West to suggest that children learn actively, rather than
passively receiving information from teachers. In Eastern Europe, the work of Vygotsky also illustrated
the importance of the active construction of knowledge in learning. Vygotsky’s early death meant that he
did not specify exactly how to mediate in the ZPD. For this, we turned to the work of Gallimore & Tharp,
Wood, Bruner & Ross, and Feuerstein. We ended the chapter by unpacking a definition of pedagogy that
situates pedagogy in a constructivist framework.
Activities
Self-reflection
1. How do you understand Vygotsky’s notion of mediation? Can you say how you would use it to teach?
2. Reflect on practice-based approaches to teaching/learning. Can you give an example of something you
have learned through apprenticing yourself to someone? Discuss this.
Analysis and consolidation
3. In this chapter, Hardman (2008: 7) defines pedagogy as:
a structured process whereby a culturally more experienced peer or teacher uses cultural tools to
mediate or guide a novice into established, relatively stable ways of knowing and being within a
particular, institutional context, in such a way that the knowledge and skills the novice acquires lead
to relatively lasting changes in the novice’s behaviour; that is, learning.
Drawing on Vygotsky’s understanding of learning as preceding development, critically discuss this
quote.
4. Read the following case study and respond to the question that follows:
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CASE STUDY 5: ‘EVERYONE MUST KNOW’
Portia Daniso teaches maths to a Grade 4 class in an urban area in Port Elizabeth. There are 42 learners
in her multicultural class. Today, she is teaching the basic principles of working with common
fractions to solve a range of practical, everyday problems. Her method of going about this is to present
them with a range of different tasks that they are required to actively engage with. She opens the lesson
by asking revision questions about common fractions. She also uses some fairly difficult questions
involving unequal numbers, and discussion follows on how to solve such problems. She then breaks
the class into groups of four learners and gives each group string and a pair of scissors. They are then
given a set of problems to solve and told that they should talk about the process of problem solving
amongst themselves. They are also told: “Everyone in the group must know, not just one person. Ok?”
While the groups are working on their problems, Ms Daniso walks around, stopping at each group,
checking what they are doing and offering suggestions and guidance about how to solve the problem.
When the learners have finished working on their problems, she gets each group to give feedback to
the class as a whole. Sizwe’s group is the first to give their solution. Once they have written it on the
board and explained it to the class, Ms Daniso asks the class two questions: 1) is their answer correct?
and 2) has any group solved the problem using a different method? Jade’s group indicates that they
have solved the problem using a different method. Ms Daniso gets them to stand up and explain how
they solved the problem. The lesson is drawing to a close. Ms Daniso gets the class to open their maths
books and write down two important things they have learned about fractions during the lesson. The
lesson ends.
Using the theories covered in this chapter, critically discuss Ms Daniso’s pedagogical approach. In your
discussion, explain how the string and scissors might be used. Comment on Ms Daniso’s approach to
correction.
Practical applications
5. Design a task for your grade level that incorporates cognitive conflict.
6. Develop a lesson plan using three elements of Feuersteinian MLE.
7. Design a lesson for your subject, which models Vygotskyan principles of learning and development.
References
Bereiter, C. & Scardamalia, M. 1982. From conversation to composition: The role of instruction in a
developmental process. In: Glazer, R. (ed.) Advances in Instructional Psychology: 1–64. Hillsdale, NJ:
LawrenceErlbaum Associates.
Bernstein, B. 1996. Pedagogy symbolic control and identity. London: Taylor and Francis.
Brown, G. & Desforges, C. 1979. Piaget’s theory: a psychological critique. London: Routledge.
Cole, M. & Scribner, S. 1975. Theorizing about socialization of cognition. Ethos, 3: 250–268.
Daniels, H. 2001. Vygotsky and pedagogy. New York: Routledge.
Daniels, H. 2006. The “social” in post-Vygotskyan theory. Theory and Psychology, 16(1): 37–49.
Flavell, J.H. 1963. The Developmental Psychology of Jean Piaget. The university series in psychology:
15–40. Princeton, NJ: D Van Nostrand.
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Gallimore, R. & Tharp, R. 1993. Teaching mind in society: Teaching, schooling and literate discourse. In:
Moll, L. (ed.) Vygotsky and education: Instructional implications and applications of sociohistorical
psychology: 175–205. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hardman, J. 2007. Towards a methodology for using Activity Theory to explicate the pedagogical object
in a primary school mathematics classroom. Outlines, (1): 53–69.
Hedegaard, M. 1998. Situated learning and cognition: Theoretical learning and cognition. Mind, Culture
and Activity, 5(2): 114–126.
Lave, J. & Wenger, E. 1991. Situated learning: legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Palincsar, A.S. 1986. Reciprocal teaching. In: Teaching reading as thinking. Oak Brook, IL: North
Central Regional Educational Laboratory.
Piaget, J. 1959. The language and thought of the child. (M. Gabain & R. Routledge, trans.). London:
Kegan Paul.
Piaget, J. 1970. Science of education and the psychology of the child. London: Longman.
Piaget, J. 1976. To understand is to invent. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Piaget, J. 1977. The development of thought. Oxford: Blackwell.
Piaget, J. 1995a. Sociological studies. London: Routledge.
Schoenfeld, A. 1985. Mathematical Problem Solving. New York: Academic Press.
Shulman, L.S. 1986. Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher,
(15): 4–14.
Sfard, A. 1998. On two metaphors of learning and the dangers of choosing just one. Educational
Researcher, 27(2): 4–13.
Walkerdine, V. 1984. Developmental psychology and the child-centred pedagogy: the insertion of Piaget
into early education. In: Henriques, J., Hollway, W., Urwin, C., Venn, C. & Walkerdine, V. (eds).
Changing the Subject. London: Routledge.
Wertsch, J.V. 1991. Voices of the mind: A sociocultural approach to mediated action. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Wood, D., Bruner, J.S. & Ross, G. 1976. The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child
Psychology and Psychiatry, (17): 89–100.
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9
Lesson planning within a learning-centred context
Melanie Drake and Mary-Jane Jackson
Copyright 2016. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Discuss why lesson planning is an important part of teachers’ work.
• Identify and analyse the different sections of a basic lesson plan.
• Devise meaningful lesson aims that generate learning of skills, knowledge and attitudes.
• Utilise twenty-first century teaching strategies in the different components of a lesson plan.
• Explain the use of learner-centred approaches in your lesson plan.
• Debate the importance of reflection after each lesson taught.
• Critically evaluate a lesson plan and describe what you would improve on.
• Use the guidelines in the chapter to improve on aspects of your own lesson planning.
Key concepts
Lesson planning: the activity of developing a set of guiding directions for a lesson (where do you want
the lesson to go?)
Lesson aims: deciding on a focus of a lesson, and what you want it to achieve, as well as working out the
means for achieving the aims (what do you want the lesson to achieve?) Lesson introduction: the ‘way
in’ to a lesson that captures learners’ attention and keeps them engaged (how will you begin?)
Lesson development: the substance or content that needs to be taught – as presented by the teacher and
practised by the learners
Lesson conclusion: the way in which a lesson is closed or ended so that it is meaningful and memorable
to learners
Differentiated teaching: varying the components and process of a lesson so there is always ‘something
for everyone’
Assessment: building into your planning the means of finding out whether what you aimed to teach has
been learned
CASE STUDY: VIWE NEEDS A PLAN
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Viwe is a newly-qualified teacher. She has just landed her dream job at a primary school and is very
excited to start teaching. She spends the holiday preparing teaching resources and posters to decorate
her classroom. Her plan is to arrange the desks in groups, just like her university lecturers told her to
and she does research into classroom management strategies. Viwe feels ready to go …
But, within her first week of teaching, Viwe starts to realise that she is not adequately prepared for
the teaching and learning component of her job. She begins to feel overwhelmed by each half-hour
lesson that faces her. She can’t keep up. In many of her lessons, all she manages to do is to keep the
learners busy with textbook-based tasks, but they’re getting restless. Viwe realises that the learners are
bored because there is no variety in her lessons. Most of her lessons are dull and monotonous. She
feels helpless as she doesn’t know how she can plan more efficiently so that all her lessons, in each
school day, are engaging and meaningful.
Viwe decides to ask for help. She approaches a more senior, experienced teacher. Mrs Soldaat tells
Viwe that her university lecturers don’t know the first thing about teaching in the real world! Firstly,
she advises Viwe to seat the children in rows as this ensures that the class is less disruptive. Mrs
Soldaat then tells Viwe to stop wasting her energy on making resources for groupwork activities which
are, after all, a waste of valuable lesson time – time that should be used for individual classwork. She
insists that the chalkboard remains the only necessary resource in the classroom. Mrs Soldaat also
recommends a different series of textbooks to Viwe.
Viwe is so confused. She has learned, as part of her teacher training, to group learners for
cooperative learning. She knows that learners learn effectively if they experience learning, rather than
being ‘taught’. She also realises that a very important part of teaching and learning is actual lesson
planning, focusing on new knowledge and skills, and ensuring that a variety of learning methods
maintain learners’ interest. She needs to figure out a way to plan lessons that suit how she wants to
teach. She decides a new approach is necessary. Can you help her work this out?
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STOP AND REFLECT
How do you think Viwe should handle the following issues?
1. Do you think Viwe should listen to Mrs Soldaat and rearrange her learners’ desks in rows? Why or
why not?
2. Do you think Viwe should resort to ‘chalk and talk’ as her main teaching method?
3. How do you think Viwe can deal with her lesson planning dilemma?
4. Make a list of the things you would do, if you were Viwe, in order to feel less overwhelmed.
Introduction
Many teachers admit that their first year of teaching is the toughest. They find all the components of
teachers’ work demanding, but the most common concern is lesson preparation. While on school-work
integrated learning practice at university, student teachers are normally required to compile only a
handful of lesson plans in a week, under the guidance of their mentor teachers. However, when they find
themselves in their own classrooms, they face up to 12 lessons in a row, per day that need to be
adequately prepared for. This is one of the main issues that makes Viwe feel like she is not coping with
her new class, and teaching in general.
First-year teachers also battle with adapting and applying the ‘theory’ – the things they learned in
lecture theatres – to the day-to-day school realities. The approaches and methodologies spoken about at
university are often difficult to implement in the classroom. Understanding how to best support learning
and how to create active learning spaces feels very different in the lecture theatre when compared to a
classroom of over 40 eager young learners.
Preparation is the key to not letting these feelings overwhelm you. Mbunyuza-de Heer Menlah (2015)
describes the lesson plan as the guide for the presentation of the lesson, without which the teacher may go
astray. It is the map, the directions, which allows you to prepare and navigate your way through the
teaching and learning experience. Every lesson that is prepared should be an experience (Du Toit 2010)
and part of a bigger picture that the teacher can use to create an environment for effective learning. One
of the biggest challenges in classrooms today, is that learning should be experienced – not just ‘taught’, as
many of us would recall, thinking back to our own experiences of school.
If you were to ask any experienced teacher or educator how they go about preparing a lesson, you
would get a vast variety of responses. There is no one, clear-cut way to plan a lesson. However, in this
chapter we will cover one idea – the basics – that will make you confident about planning lessons in a
way that responds to your strengths and weaknesses.
In this chapter, we also address lesson planning within a learner-centred context. We will unpack each
component of a basic lesson plan and during each section, provide you with an exemplar that shows
actual, usable examples. You will find a variety of learner-centred activities throughout the chapter, to
experiment with in the classroom. Let us begin with the first core component – lesson aims.
A question of ethics
As a new teacher in your first school placement, you are given advice by a senior and experienced teacher
whom everyone seems to respect – very much like Mrs Soldaat in the opening case study. Although
well-meant, you find that this advice is not what you believe teaching is about, and not the way you want
to go. However, it is made clear that you are expected to follow this advice even though it conflicts with
your own ideas because it is the ‘way this school does things’. What do you do?
9.1
Aims of a lesson – why are aims important?
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Lesson aims are often neglected in lesson planning. This is because student teachers get so caught up in
creating fun lessons and producing great resources, that the learning purpose of the lesson may be lost.
Lessons then run the risk of becoming ‘time fillers’ rather than productive learning experiences. In this
section we use the term ‘lesson aims’ synonymously with the many terms used by other authors and
teachers: like lesson purposes, lesson objectives, lesson outcomes, goals, and so on.
We believe that lesson aims should be clear and concise statements that describe the learning the
teacher hopes learners will attain or develop. Statements of intent, expressed in a broad and generalised
way (Petty 2004), are important, but pinning down the focus of exactly what you want to achieve is what
we want you to understand in this section. In content-driven curricula, such as the South African
Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS), it is usually the teacher who must decide on the
aims of each lesson so that learners are able to attain the stated knowledge, skills and attitudes.
Lesson aims are typically:
• Written in the future tense
• Written using a verb
• Achievable in a specific timeframe – i.e. the length of the lesson
• Able to be assessed – teachers should easily be able to measure whether an aim has been met or not
• Written in language that learners (and other teachers) can easily understand (London Deanery 2012).
Now let’s look at the lesson exemplars that follow to give you some ideas of how to phrase lesson aims.
Lesson exemplars
As we discuss each component in the basic lesson plan, we will refer you to actual examples in two
lessons. By the end of the chapter, you will have two complete lesson plans to use as guides and to
critique. We hope that as you work through these, you will find ways to make them your own.
Lesson One: The English First Additional Language (EFAL) lesson is based on a well-known fable,
The Ant and the Grasshopper. (Although credit for the fable belongs to Aesop, versions of the text are
freely available on several websites and we have used an adaptation by Rob John, available at: http:/
/www.bbc.co.uk/learning/schoolradio/subjects/english/aesops_fables.) Fables are stories with a moral
message; in this story, the message is about the virtues of hard work and being prepared for the future.
Lesson Two: The Life Skills lesson also draws on the moral message introduced in the EFAL lesson.
The point is to demonstrate how it is possible, through careful planning, to integrate and reinforce
learning across subjects in the curriculum. This would be one strategy Viwe (in the opening case study)
could adopt, to help her plan lessons meaningfully – and save time!
The duration of each lesson is envisaged to be 45 minutes. These lessons are also consistent with the
CAPS for South African classrooms.
Lesson aims
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Lesson One: EFAL
Lesson Two: LIFE SKILLS
Grade 4/5
Grade 4/5
Content: Reading and Viewing (Fluency)
Content: Personal and Social Wellbeing
Topic: The Ant and the Grasshopper (first lesson Topic: Rights and responsibilities: Constitution of
in two-week cycle)
South Africa (first lesson of two)
Aims: Learners will…
•
•
•
Aims: Learners will…
be able to identify dialogue and how it is used •
in a text (e.g. the use of quotation marks and •
commas in direct speech)
demonstrate understanding of the value of
dialogue in stories
•
practise reading aloud, accurately and with the
appropriate tempo and expression, paying
attention to the dialogue
explore their rights as South African children
give examples to illustrate that with each right
comes a personal and important responsibility as
a South African child
make the link between a right to education and
working hard at school – by being prepared and
giving of your best at all times
STOP AND REFLECT
Discuss with a partner, your understanding of ‘lesson aims’. Listen to your partner’s explanation and
comments.
Make sure that by the end of your discussion, you have a clear and simple way to understand lesson
aims. Practise by devising a few aims together.
In this section, we have explored lesson aims. We have learned how important it is to plan specific,
achievable aims that are written with learning in mind. Following the aims, a lesson plan is generally
made up of three components. The first is the introduction where the main ideas or concepts of the lesson
are defined. The second is the body of the lesson where the teaching (teacher-focus) and learning (learner
activities) are described in detail. Finally, the learning is consolidated and evaluated (assessed) in a
conclusion. The teacher checks on learners’ progress (Mbunyuza-de Heer Menlah 2015) and, most
importantly, determines the extent to which the main aims of the lesson have been achieved. In the next
section, we explore lesson introductions.
9.2
Lesson introductions – creating a hook
In order for effective teaching and learning to occur in a classroom, it is vital that the teacher introduce
the subject or purpose of the lesson in a way that opens the door for interest. Think back to a movie that
you started watching on TV, but after few minutes found that you were not enjoying it; there is a high
chance that you switched the channel to find another movie, or that you simply switched off the TV. The
same idea applies to the lesson introduction. When teachers put no effort into attracting learners to the
new learning by making it fun and exciting, learners often switch off. This, in turn, makes it difficult for
the teacher to regain the excitement and interest for learning later in the lesson. Introductions are
important because they pull learners in and point learners towards an understanding of the lesson aims,
creating an organising framework for the ideas or information that follows. When the teacher introduces a
lesson, learners see that the teacher has a sense of where the lesson is headed; if you invest time and effort
in effectively planning your lesson introduction, learners will be less likely to ask, ‘Why do we have to do
this?’
Not every lesson introduction will be new and exciting, as lessons often build on one another in
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sequence. However, this does not mean that lesson introductions for these cyclical or follow-on lessons
are less important. In fact, they give the teacher the opportunity to assess the previous learning and to
determine whether there are any knowledge ‘gaps’ that need to be addressed; they allow you to make
connections between concepts from earlier classes and the upcoming lesson; and they can also been seen
as checkpoints or reminders for yourself and your learners – ‘This is where we’ve been and this is where
we’re going’. The introductions for follow-on lessons thus also require careful planning.
Cajkler and Addelman (2000) remind us of what makes learning interesting and enjoyable for learners
and this gives us some ideas on what types of activities or interactions to plan for lesson introductions.
They list ideas such as games, competitions where anyone can win, competitions where the ‘best’ learner
wins, solving interesting problems, the learners making things themselves, moving out of the classroom
or moving around inside the classroom, and enticing rewards for doing something brave (like sharing
feelings with the class) (Fraser 2006). During this chapter we will share with you a variety of
learner-centred teaching ideas that can be used to introduce your lesson.
Lesson exemplars
Lesson introduction
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Lesson One: EFAL
Lesson Two: LIFE SKILLS
Settle the class and focus the learners’ attention.
Get class attention by clapping out a
short rhythm and getting the learners to
repeat it back to you. When there is
silence, begin…
Explain: in today’s lesson, we’re going to be reading a story. Ask learners to reflect: I want you to
The main characters in the story are insects.
think back to the Social Science test we
Write the words ‘characters’ and ‘insect’ on the chalkboard. wrote last week. On the piece of paper I
Ask a selection of learners: What is an insect? What are the have given you, I want you to write
features of insects? How many insect names do you know? down honestly what you did to prepare
Allow learners to use their home language to engage if for the test. I will not see this piece of
necessary, but ensure that the English equivalents are paper.
captured on the chalkboard.
Ask the learners to raise their hands with
their eyes closed (less likely to be
influenced by others):
• How many of you did at least three
things to prepare for the test?
(acknowledge show of hands)
• How many of you wish you had
prepared more adequately for the
lesson? (acknowledge show of hands)
• How many of you felt you could have
improved your mark if you had
prepared better?
The teacher counts and records on the
chalkboard the numbers of learners for
this reflection exercise.
Instruct: We’re now going to play a game to figure out who
the insect characters in our story today are. I’m going to
think about one insect at a time. You need to ask me
questions until you are able to work out what the insect is. I
will only answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’, so you need to plan your
questions – in English – carefully. I will give you a few
minutes to plan and write down three good questions.
Everyone will be given a turn to ask one question until
someone is able to guess the insect. Listen carefully to the
questions others ask. I wonder who will be the first to figure
out which insects I am thinking about …
Instruct: I would like three learners to
volunteer to come to the front of the
class. These learners are going to go
outside for a few minutes and prepare a
lovely drama for
us. Learner A: Narrator
Learner B: The grasshopper
Learner C: The ant
The teacher has prepared a short script
based on the fable in which a narrator
and the two story characters (the ant and
the grasshopper) interact. The script
details the use of the props which
learners will set up. Encourage learners
to be relatively flexible with the script if
they want to.
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Allow learners a few minutes to plan their questions. Then,
with first the ‘ant’ and then the ‘grasshopper’ in mind, allow
the learners to ask their questions in an orderly way so that
as many learners as possible have the opportunity to
interact. As learners guess each insect, stick a large
caricature picture of each insect up on the board.
Allow the three learners to prepare
briefly outside. While the learners are
preparing, ask another group of learners
to set up a ‘field set’ at the front of the
class. Have the following home-made
props available:
Mealie cobs
Winter jacket
Sun (a picture, or a lamp)
Some greenery (leaves/twigs/sticks)
Explain: the title of the story we’re going to read is: The Ant
and the Grasshopper. It is a particular kind of story called a
‘fable’ where animals take on human qualities (like
speaking). Fables also have a moral message or a lesson for
us to learn.
Write the title above the pictures on the board; and the word
‘fable’.
The purpose of today’s lesson is for you to enjoy a story
while at the same time practising reading aloud smoothly, at
a good pace and with expression (varying your voice pitch,
tone and intonation as the text tells you). We know that
when we are able to read fluently, it is easier to understand
what we are reading. This is why it is important to practise
reading aloud.
Role play: The learners will come
forward and present their short role play
to the class.
Role play is a learner-centred strategy
since it involves learners engaging in
acting and experiencing a situation or
theme. It is a dramatisation of a problem
usually, which allows learners to
scrutinise feelings, attitudes and values.
It allows for intense problem-solving and
to feel empathy towards others. A great
technique to improve communication and
vocabulary skills as well as to get
learners moving (Monyai 2006).
Learners will clap for the volunteers who
performed the role play.
STOP AND REFLECT
Study the lesson introductions of our two exemplars for EFAL and Life Skills lessons. What
activities are used? Can you think of alternative, engaging ways to introduce these lessons?
Now that we have learned about introductions and considered the importance of the lesson introduction in
the overall lesson plan, work with a peer on the following activity.
APPLYING IT TODAY
Discuss ways to introduce the following new topics in exciting, creative ways to a class of FET
(Grades 10–12) learners (these topics come directly from the CAPS curriculum, so it will help to have
a copy of the statement for each subject, downloadable from: http://www.education.gov.za/Curriculum
/NCSGradesR12/CAPSFET/tabid/570/Default.aspx):
1. History: The coming of democracy in South Africa, and coming to terms with the past (Grade 12)
2. Life Orientation: Careers and career choices
3. Hospitality Studies: Kitchen and restaurant operations
4. Design Studies: Design in a socio-cultural/environmental and sustainable context
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We have shown you the importance of the lesson introduction. Next, we get to the substance of the lesson
by investigating the development of the lesson which we simplify into two components: teacher
presentation and learner practice.
9.3
Lesson development – the major component of teaching
and learning
Remember that it is the curriculum – such as the CAPS – which indicates the new learning to be
developed in a particular grade; and the lesson aims in turn dictate what new knowledge, concepts, skills
or values are to be developed in a particular lesson. The lesson development or body of the lesson is
where the bulk of the scheduled lesson time ought to be focused. The teacher should plan this part of the
lesson carefully, so that there is a balance between the presentation of the key ideas, and opportunities for
learners to work with the information they receive.
9.3.1
Teacher presentation
Knowledge (including concepts, skills and values) must be presented in a well-ordered and clear way in
order to support learners’ retention and interpretation of the information. This requires careful planning.
Teachers who do not plan run the risk of digressing from the content focus and lesson aims, resulting in
failed lessons and confused learners.
Presentation strategies may broadly be categorised as either deductive or inductive. Deductive (or
direct instruction) methods involve the teacher directly explaining the new knowledge. Explanations are
appropriate when the information to be shared is well-defined, such as a set of grammar rules, or a set of
facts about the elephant, and so on. Successful explanations involve the teacher using unambiguous,
simple language, and include the use of visual aids, resources or demonstrations to support the
communication (for more about strategies for effective communication refer to Chapter 7).
unambiguous: having only one meaning; cannot be interpreted in more than one way (the opposite of
ambiguous)
Direct instruction methods may be teacher-focused, but teachers ought to continually check that
learners understand the information as it is presented. They need to ask questions as they go – questions
that go beyond the levels of recall to those that probe for higher levels of understanding (see Bloom’s or
Barrett’s taxonomies of question types). Good probing questions need to be planned. It is difficult for
new teachers to think of higher order questions in the moment and unless they include these types of
questions in their lesson plans, they will revert to asking questions such as ‘Do you understand?’
While deductive lesson presentation structures are probably the most familiar, inductive methods are
also worth considering. With inductive techniques, the teacher guides learners towards ‘discovering’ the
new information for themselves (as opposed to being told directly). An example of an inductive
presentation is the jigsaw activity, based on a simple but compelling principle: everyone has some piece
of the information, but no one has all of it, until they work cooperatively to piece the whole together.
Consider the following jigsaw activity (Teacher Vision 2015), which supposes that the topic of a Natural
Sciences lesson is the ‘Life cycle of the frog’. The teacher prepares appropriate reading texts on the
different stages of metamorphosis: the spawn, the egg, the tadpole, the tadpole with legs, the froglet, and
the frog. ln the classroom, the teacher divides the learners into home groups, and expert groups
comprising at least one learner from each of the home groups. Each learner in the expert groups is
required to study one of the ‘metamorphosis’ texts by answering a series of questions. Then, with this
task complete, learners return to their home groups. Each of the experts in the home group must present
to their peers the new information they learned about the particular stage of the frog’s metamorphosis.
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The jigsaw is a learner-centred activity with many potential benefits (like full learner engagement,
cooperation and empowerment) but if poorly executed, these learning benefits will not be realised. It
requires extensive planning by the teacher for this inductive teaching method to be successful.
metamorphosis: progressive changes in physical form that occur during growth to adulthood
The presentation strategy (or combination of techniques) you choose to include in your lesson plan
will depend on the learning aims of your lesson. In our EFAL and Life Skills lesson plan exemplars
(below) you will notice that a variety of deductive and inductive presentation strategies have been
employed. Modelling is one of the strategies used in the EFAL lesson and could just as easily be used in a
Mathematics lesson. For example, the teacher might present a mathematical problem to the class and then
explain his/her thinking through every step of solving the problem. The idea is that learners would be able
to reproduce this thinking when faced with similar problems.
Once you are satisfied that you have adequately planned for how you will present the new knowledge
to learners, you should move on to thinking about the activities you will use in order to for learners to
practice and apply the new information.
9.3.2
Learner practice
The practice stage of the lesson provides for reinforcement practice of the content or skills learned in the
presentation stage. The practice activities also afford teachers opportunities to assess learners and
evaluate the extent to which they have understood the new knowledge presented or indeed attained the
aims of the lesson. It is thus important that teachers plan their lesson time carefully, allowing sufficient
time for learner practice.
A distinction can be made between guided practice and independent practice activities. Guided
practice activities allow learners to demonstrate the application of the new learning under the supervision
of the teacher. Independent practice activities, on the other hand, provide for learners to use the new
concepts or skills in relevant, but new contexts – to ensure that the learning is retained. Independent
practice activities may be assigned as homework or for the purposes of ‘recycling’ and consolidation in
later lessons. The presentation of new knowledge in the lesson development is most usefully followed
first, by one or more guided practice activities and then, by one or more independent practice activities,
depending on the subject and the aims of the lesson.
Both guided and independent practice activities may take the shape of individual, pair or group work,
and may involve either or a combination of modes: reading; writing and drawing; speaking and listening.
It is in the learner practice stage of the lesson that the teacher’s creativity ought to come to the fore, but
unless activities are carefully planned, we are likely to see fairly boring lessons dominated by long ‘chalk
and talk’ presentations, followed by ‘classwork’ which so often amounts to ‘fill in the blank’ worksheets.
There are many different twenty-first century, learner-centred activities from which to choose. We
encourage you to include more and more of these activities in your teaching practice over time. Here are a
few of our favourites:
• Reading – reading in pairs or groups; reading for specific information (scanning); reading each other’s
work
• Writing and drawing – dictation, factual or imaginative writing, answering questions, summarising,
drawing diagrams, concept mapping, writing journals
• Speaking and listening – role play, games, discussions, debates, oral presentations, dramas
In the EFAL lesson exemplar, the learner practice includes text marking and guided group reading, while
in the Life Skills lesson the activities for learner practice are focused around ‘reporting back’ as the
expert.
Lesson exemplars
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Lesson development
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Lesson One: EFAL
Lesson Two: LIFE SKILLS
Instruct: I am going to read you two
different versions of ‘The Ant and the
Grasshopper’ (the same story as before
but written differently). Listen carefully.
When I have finished reading I am going
to ask you which version of the story you
liked best and why? Write on board:
Which version of ‘The Ant or
Grasshopper’ did you like the best?
Why?
Questioning (setting up for new knowledge):
1) ‘Learner A’, would you like to be friends with the
Grasshopper? Why?
2) Who of you agrees or disagrees with ‘Learner A’? Explain
why? (allow one learner to explain in detail)
3) ‘Learner B’, would you like to be friends with the Ant?
Why?
4) Who of you agrees or disagrees with ‘Learner B’? Why?
(allow one learner to explain in detail)
Read aloud – using actions and
appropriate pace and expression – first
the version with extensive dialogue; then
follow with the briefer version.
In reflecting on the posted questions,
support learners (with further questions
if necessary) to reach the conclusion that
the use of dialogue (and how it is read)
makes stories interesting. Write the word
‘dialogue’ on the board and draw
attention to the spelling.
Presentation of new knowledge:
The teacher informs the class that there is a special visitor
coming to their class. She needs to leave the class to go and
collect him from the office.
The teacher leaves the classroom briefly and gets changed
into a ‘school drop-out’ costume. She walks back into the
classroom ‘in-role’ (see information on teacher-in-role
below).
Project ‘The Ant and Grasshopper’ text Teacher-in-role (TiR) is an invaluable technique for guiding
(longer version) so that the font is large learning in an exciting way. Simply put, the teacher assumes
enough for learners to follow in shared
a role in relation to the pupils. This may be as a leader, a
reading.
peer, an expert or a supporting role – whatever is useful for
Instruct: I am going to read the story
the stage in the lesson plan. The teacher may ask questions
again. You need to do two things while I of the students, perhaps putting them into role as members
read:
of a specific group and encouraging them to address her in
1. Listen carefully to how I use that role (Farmer 2016).
expression to show the feelings of the
different characters in the dialogue. The school drop-out presents the story of his life. He
This is important because in a little describes his aim in coming to visit the class is to tell them
while I am going to ask you to about his life, and how it could have all been different if he
practise reading in the same way.
had worked harder at school and prepared better for his
2. Follow the story. Think about how it is future. He refers to himself as a ‘grasshopper’. This is where
that I know when to change my voice the new knowledge is presented. Key content that the details
for the different characters? How about the drop-out should include:
does the text give me clues?
• Constitutional rights of South Africa & the Bill of Rights
are for every South African to enjoy
Write the question on the chalkboard:
How does the written story give me clues • But with rights come responsibilities
to change my expression (voice) for the • Give the learners examples of rights together with the
different characters?
associated responsibility. These can be found at: http:/
/www.cycnet.org/cyc-online/cycol-0101-rights.html
• Emphasise that you cannot enjoy a right unless you
understand the responsibility that accompanies the right
• Right to education – linked to responsibility to work hard at
school, do your homework, study for tests, prepare well
for exams
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The school drop-out will ask the following questions to
Read the story. Ask learners to respond
specific learners:
to the questions (above) on the
• Can you think of another right we have in South Africa?
chalkboard and the following:
Please show me (invite learners to point • Can you think of a responsibility that will go together with
that right?
out particular parts of the text):
• A part of the story where the
grasshopper is speaking? How do
you know?
• Another part of the story where the ant
is speaking? How do you know?
• Where in the fable the ant felt angry?
How do you know?
• Where in the fable the grasshopper felt
sad? How do you know?
Conclude/summarise the presentation as
follows: We know when different
characters are talking because the
quotation marks in the text tell us. Write
‘[quotation marks]’ on the board.
We know when it’s the ant and when it’s
the grasshopper talking because the
narrator tells us with phrases like “Ant
said”.
When a character is angry, the reader
uses a loud voice; when a character is
sad, the reader speaks softly; when a
character is happy the reader uses a high
or ‘sing-song’ voice.
While learners are thinking about rights and responsibilities
and responding to the questions, the school drop-out will
write all the learners’ answers on the chalkboard in a table
that links each right with a responsibility.
Hand out a photocopy of ‘The Ant and
the Grasshopper’ to each learner
Divide the learners into groups of three.
Instruct: In your groups, read the story
together. Highlight the grasshopper’s
words in yellow; highlight the ant’s
words in pink, and highlight the words
which are not part of the dialogue (the
narrator’s words) in green.
The school drop-out will tell the class that he needs to leave
the school and be on his way; he thanks the class for
listening to him and helping him write up rights with
responsibilities. He encourages them to be ‘ants’, not
‘grasshoppers’ like himself. The drop-out will leave the
classroom where the teacher will quickly remove the
costume and return to the class as the teacher.
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Once the activity is complete instruct
again as follows:
In your groups, you will now practise
reading the story. Each of you will be a
different character: the grasshopper, the
ant, and the narrator. Read only your
part. Remember to read accurately, at a
good pace and with the expression you
heard me use for the different characters
and for the different feelings.
Read the story over and over until your
group is satisfied that you sound fluent.
You will be asked to read (readers’
theatre) in front of the whole class
tomorrow.
Learner practice:
Back as the teacher, she will ask the class what the visitor
taught them. She will ask learners one-at-a-time to be the
‘expert’, and to report back in their own words what the
responsibility to each right is. The teacher will ask for
examples relevant to the learners’ lives.
Each learner will explain what they have learned, while the
teacher facilitates the learning and draws the class in by
asking ‘can anyone help ‘Learner C’ with the responsibility
for this right?’
APPLYING IT TODAY
Decide what the new knowledge would be, based on the FET topics you worked with earlier. Discuss
how the learners could practise this knowledge.
Topic
New knowledge
presentation
Learner
practice
History: The coming of democracy in South Africa, and
coming to terms with the past
Life Orientation: Careers and career choices
Hospitality Studies: Kitchen and restaurant operations
Design Studies: Design in a socio-cultural/environmental
and sustainable context
After this important two-part phase in your lesson development comes the consolidation and conclusion
part of the lesson. We explore this next.
9.4
Consolidating and concluding
Concluding or closing a lesson is a critical part of the learning process. By reminding learners what it is
they have learned (or should have learned), you are making the learning experience coherent and ensuring
the new learning becomes part of the learners’ expanded network of meaning in later engagement with
new ideas. Closing is also an opportunity for formative assessment and allows the teacher to decide
whether s/he can move on to new learning or whether additional practice is needed in the knowledge
introduced in the lesson. When learners reflect on their learning, teachers are able to use the information
provided to answer for themselves the question: ‘Did I teach what I aimed to teach and have the learners
learned what I intended them to learn?’
Many teachers struggle with how to make the lesson ending meaningful and so often the lesson will
just stop when the school bell rings! We think that planning for the conclusion is the first step towards
ensuring that your lessons are adequately closed. There are a number of ways to conclude the learning.
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Here are a few suggestions:
• Whip around – selected learners (based on the teachers’ understanding of their abilities) verbally state
one thing they learned.
• Three Ws – learners state what they learned; why they learned it (relevance); and what they are going to
do with the new information.
• Think-pair-share – learners share with the person next to them what they have learned and then these
reflections are shared in plenary (WETA 2015).
• Journal entry – learners write down, in point form, two things they learned.
• Summary paragraph – learners write a paragraph explaining what they learned and the relevance of it.
plenary: discussion open to everyone, in this case, shared with the whole class
Now have a look at our lesson exemplars to see how we concluded the EFAL and Life Skills lessons.
Lesson exemplars
Lesson conclusion
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Lesson One: EFAL
Lesson Two: LIFE SKILLS
In the final 5–7 minutes of the lesson: interrupt the For the last 15 minutes of the lesson, the teacher
repeated reading activity. Focus the class’s
will read the short fable once again.
attention.
Instruct learners:
The learners will then consolidate their learning of
For your homework, you will need to practise
rights and responsibilities by participating in a still
reading your stories with expression.
image frame:
Now let’s think about what we have learned today.
Write down two things on your mini-whiteboards Still images (Farmer 2006) are a learner-centred
(or paper, chalkboard, iPad).
teaching tool. Still images require individuals or
Allow 2 minutes.
groups to invent body-shapes or postures, based
Hold up your boards.
on a story or situation. Groups can be asked to tell
Summarise from the learners’ boards, asking
a story through a series of prepared still images.
further questions if necessary.
This can be an effective method for learners who
We learned that:
are less inclined to improvise dialogue. The still
• Fables are a particular kind of story with a moral images can also be brought to life through
improvisation (Berk & Trieber 2009).
message; and animals speak
• Dialogue makes stories interesting
• Reading fluently means to read accurately, at a In pairs, learners will be asked to tell the story of
the ant and the grasshopper through a series of
good speed and with expression
• The text gives us clues about when and how to three prepared still images.
In silence, and on the count of three from the
change our expression – e.g. quotation marks
teacher, the pairs will display their still images.
Ask selected learners:
Ask learners to share with their friend (write these
• Why did we do this lesson? What was the purposequestions on the chalkboard):
of it?
1) Does the grasshopper understand rights and
responsibilities? Why?
Consolidate:
2)
Does the ant understand rights with
• To help us improve our reading skills, because
responsibilities? Why?
fluent reading is important for comprehension.
3) Can you think of people in your life who behave
like the ant, and people who behave like the
grasshopper?
Explain:
In tomorrow’s lesson we’ll have a few groups
perform their readers’ theatre activities in the front
of the classroom with the rest of us as audience.
We will then go on to discuss our understandings
of the fable, ‘The Ant and the Grasshopper’. I’ll
want you to think of a different ending for the
story too.
Explain:
In tomorrow’s lesson, we will explore people who
display similar characteristics to the grasshopper,
and people who display similar characteristics to
the ant. We will improvise scenarios showing how
these people contribute to society. I want you to
spend the evening thinking about these types of
people.
Beyond the three basic components of introduction, development and conclusion, teachers are also
required to show that they have thought about all the learners in their class. We call this differentiating
your teaching and unpack this process in the section that follows.
9.5
Differentiating your teaching – inclusive teaching and
learning
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In every classroom across the world, you will find learners with one or more obstacles to learning. These
obstacles will range from behavioural issues or socio-economic issues to health issues and physical
challenges. You may also find in your classroom that you have a learner who shows characteristics of
giftedness. Teaching in this case would require a consideration of enrichment and acceleration. As part of
your lesson planning, you need to ensure that you address these matters by planning for them in your
inclusive classroom (Hugo 2006):
• Ensure that instructions are always clear and simple: This will allow learners to concentrate on the task
at hand. Do not give too many directions at once. Ask one question at a time. Keep things as simple
and direct as you can.
• Develop alternative activities that address the obstacles or barriers in your classroom: This requires
more work on the part of the teacher, but the payoff will be great. When devising assessment tools
like worksheets, always try to create extra ones that address the same content but in different ways.
The use of alternative assignments and activities is essential for differentiated teaching.
• Give frequent short breaks or break it up a bit: Sitting at a desk for hours on end is not what young
people’s bodies are designed for, particularly learners who struggle with concentration or who have
learning problems. Be sure to vary activities as much as you can and get the learners to move beyond
their desks as much as possible. Activities that require learners to stand up and move around is a good
differentiated teaching technique.
• Use ‘turn to your partner and explain’: This is a great technique because if you can explain something,
you will understand it. Allowing learners to pair up and explain the points that have been taught in the
lesson will help learners who need to hear the content of the lesson in a different way.
You will find that your skills at addressing differentiated teaching in your classroom will improve with
experience. You will learn to adapt the scope, the time, the level of support, the level of difficulty, and
your materials, as you work with learners who need extra support in your classroom (Deschenes, Ebeling
& Sprauge 1994). Next, we will focus on planning assessment while designing your lesson plan.
9.6
Assessment – a critical component
The mere fact of having lesson aims implies that some form of assessment must occur to measure
whether or not the learning objectives have been met.
The most common mistake in lesson assessment is that it is often disconnected from the stated lesson
aims. Teachers should, however, not think of assessment as an additional task to complete in the lesson
plan. Formative assessment is an integral part of planning and must be planned alongside the lesson
development. As the teacher plans each step of the lesson development, s/ he should be asking the
question ‘How will I know that learners have understood this?’ On the lesson plan, the teacher should
indicate when, during the lesson, s/he will be assessing learners; what she will use to measure the
performance; and the standard of performance s/he considers acceptable in terms of meeting the aims of
the lesson.
Dreyer (2015) cautions teachers to ensure that learners know beforehand what knowledge and skills
will be assessed and what the criteria for assessment will be. Formal assessments are not only exams and
tests, but also projects, oral presentations, performances, practical demonstrations, models, rubrics,
reviews, and so on. Formal assessments should be recorded in a teacher file and available for monitoring
and moderation. For more on assessment, see Chapters 6 and 16. We now move along to the phase of the
lesson plan where we look back and analyse how successful our teaching and learning experience has
been.
9.7
Critical reflection
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Reflecting on each lesson is the characteristic of a good teacher. Taole (2015) reminds us that being
reflective helps us to develop appropriate and effective teaching strategies and develops our overall
teaching practice. Lesson reflection will also help you when planning future lesson plans. We recommend
saving a space at the end of each lesson plans where you can jot down brief notes on the following:
• What went well? Which activities or discussions would you like to use again next time you teach this
lesson?
• What did not work? How might you change a discussion or an activity to make it more effective next
time you teach this lesson?
• Did you get through all of the material for the lesson? If not, how might you combine this material with
the activities and goals for the next cyclical lesson?
• What are learners beginning to understand and what are they still struggling with? How might you
reinforce the more challenging components in the next lesson?
Conclusion
In this chapter, we have explored the basic lesson plan. We have unpacked each stage and component in
detail and analysed its function in relation to promoting effective teaching and learning in your
classroom. You have been given two basic lesson plans that you can use as is, or you can adapt and
modify to make your own. As Killen (2012) explains, the work and planning of the teacher is important
as it enables learners to participate in activities that will help them learn. Yet, the teacher cannot learn for
the learners. The best the teacher can do is to provide guidance and assistance that makes it easier for the
learners to learn. Lesson planning is one of the most effective ways to guide and assist your learners to
truly learn and be successful in class.
This chapter has also provided you with many learner-centred activities to try out when in your own
classroom. Remember that as with everything new, practice can only help you to master the skills needed
to have truly learner-centred classroom. Celebrate the failures as much as the successes as you learn how
to manage classrooms where learners are actively engaged. These activities are not always easy to
manage, but it is most important that you work to master the management skills necessary for
learner-centred teaching and learning. An engaged learner is a happy learner and we hope you will take
these suggestions and ideas forward as you become creative, enthusiastic teachers.
Activities
Self-reflection
1. Do you think lesson planning is an important part of teachers’ work? Why or why not?
2. What do you think the essential components of a lesson plan are, and why do you think they are so
important?
Analysis and consolidation
3. Write a letter to Viwe (from the opening case study) advising her on how to deal with the challenges
she is facing. In addition to encouraging her determination to plan lessons that follow the way she
wants to teach, suggest practical ways in which she can do this.
4. Why is it important to reflect on each lesson plan you devise and each lesson you teach? Think of at
least three points with supporting reasons and/or examples.
Practical applications
5. Based on the EFAL and Life Skills lessons you were presented with in this chapter, what activities or
components would you improve on?
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6. Now go ahead and design differentiated learning activities for these two lessons, as well as the plan for
the assessment component of these two lessons.
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Theoharis, G. & Causton-Theoharis, J. 2011. Preparing pre-service teachers for inclusive classrooms:
Revising lesson-planning expectations. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 15(7): 743–761.
Retrieve from: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13603110903350321
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Part 3
Microteaching and work-integrated
teaching practice
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10
The theory and practice of microteaching – scaling
down to scale up
Copyright 2016. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
M. Noor Davids, Vincent Bosman and Nazeem Edwards
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Describe and demonstrate microteaching as a simulation framework in initial teacher education (ITE) to
develop excellence in professional practice.
• Explain the pedagogy of microteaching: its educational objectives and method.
• Appreciate the epistemological basis of microteaching: its theoretical and philosophical underpinnings.
• Critically assess the benefits and limitations of microteaching as pedagogical technique in ITE.
• Develop capacity to design, implement and assess a basic microteaching programme
Key concepts
Self-reflexivity: when one reflects and identifies reasons and explanations for one’s thinking
Participation: when one collaborates with others to achieve a common goal
Main focus and frame: when the student or learner is the major focus of the activity
Performance: carrying out actions, usually without deep personal thinking
Co-construction: the process of coming to an understanding to create a fresh or new formulation, with
fellow stakeholders
Cognitivism: an approach in which the student’s or learner’s focus is on understanding first before
performance
Constructivism: an approach in which the learner achieves new learning insights based on prior
knowledge and reflection
CASE STUDY: IT’S COMPLICATED
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Maropeng went to a rural high school, while Thabo attended an urban high school. They have both
decided to register for a teaching degree and are in the same first-year class. They become aware of the
high expectations and challenges of being an ‘excellent teacher’ during the university orientation
programme. As newly-registered student teachers, they each express some nervousness about what it
takes to become excellent teachers.
Thabo:
Hey Maropeng, you know I really want to be a teacher, but I don’t think I have the
personality. There’s so much to know and it’s all so complicated. Did you know there are
over a hundred skills we have to learn?
Maropeng What? I’m more worried about the size of the classes we will be teaching, and all those
:
children with different needs. I was at one of those schools.
Thabo:
But that should be useful experience then? I don’t know where to begin with teaching and
I’m anxious about standing before a class of learners who have high expectations. That’s
what my school was like.
Maropeng You know, I think there may be some help: I see universities are now using something
:
called microteaching and technology as part of the education curriculum. I heard some
senior students talking about it. Come, let’s google it and see how microteaching can help
develop us as students.
Thabo:
Now that’s something I can do!
STOP AND REFLECT
1. What are your concerns about what it takes to be a teacher?
2. What do you think some of the competencies and skills are that a microteaching programme has to
address to allay a student teacher’s fears?
Introduction
This introduction provides a chapter overview and presents the case for microteaching as a viable vehicle
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to develop professional practice and assist student teachers during their initial teacher education and
training. Taking into account the resources and financial constraints on students and higher education
institutions, we are offering a practical guide to incorporate microteaching as part of ITE in an effective,
student-friendly way. The chapter is divided into four separate but integrated sections: the history and
background of microteaching (10.1); models of microteaching which incorporate its methodology (10.2);
a theoretical framework (10.3) to provide a scholarly approach for further research; and two practical
exemplars (10.4) as guidance on planning a practical microteaching session. We recommend that you
approach each section in an active, practical way: learning to teach as you go.
10.1
History, background and nature of microteaching
This section covers important information about the history of microteaching in the modern era. It also
discusses some models of microteaching: frameworks which specify components, elements and the
methodology of microteaching. But before discussing the history of microteaching, let us consider some
definitions for the purpose of conceptual clarity.
10.1.1 Definition of microteaching – scaling down to scale up
The term ‘micro’ suggests that something is a small version of the whole, in this case, a ‘slice’ of a
lesson. Space is created in which to practise a specific skill or skills set in order to develop and improve
professional practice and gain experience with lesson planning and presentation. Microteaching provides
the pedagogical space to put into practice the theory (ideas and underpinning principles) that you have
been taught in various modules of professional development and didactics. In this way, you address the
concern that there is a gap between theory and practice: which often happens when lecturers merely
present theories and ideas to you as part of their lectures and tutorials, then expecting you to exemplify
them as an excellent teacher. Microteaching is then a technique that is used in your professional
development through which you, the student, can practise and apply the theory you have learned in class
to a practical context, albeit micro or small.
The practical context of microteaching is micro as you teach a small group of learners or peers under
simulated conditions: virtual and artificial, not real but certainly very similar to life. It is also micro in
that it represents not so much a part of a lesson as one with all the elements of the full lesson, but not the
full content. Although the use of technology such as video recording may be possible and beneficial,
microteaching can be conducted under ordinary teaching conditions involving observation and
notetaking. The play-back function of video recording during the feedback session is obviously more
effective than just referencing from memory or field notes. In essence, you will be aware that while the
lesson is scaled down but the learning is scaled up. This is because you get the opportunity to focus
intensely and to concentrate only on that specific skill (or skills set) that you want to develop and
improve. Towards the end of this section, Table 10.1 illustrates how, by scaling down the lesson, you
scale up the development of the specific skill or skills set that has been selected for the microteaching
session. Let’s look briefly at the historical origins of microteaching in education to get an idea of how and
when it developed, before we introduce the essential components of a microteaching model.
Strategies for success
Remember, these days the use of a smartphone to record is just as functional as using video recording
equipment. However, you need to remember that the function of recording is to have a visual record for
the purposes of reflection and professional critique, and not for sharing on social media.
10.1.2 A short history of microteaching
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Microteaching is a tried and tested technique and it has a long history in teacher education. The following
section will trace the origins, understanding, applications and value of micro-teaching for the
development of skills for student teachers.
The first question you might ask is, ‘Where does micro-teaching come from?’ The microteaching
model was developed in the early 1960s when Stanford University in the US introduced microteaching in
a teacher education programme to prepare students for classroom practice (Iswail 2011). However, for a
long time, various forms of microteaching had been part of training in medicine, chemistry and other
fields of professional practice. Microteaching should not be confused with the ‘apprenticeship model’
often applied during professional training (the difference is discussed in Chapter 11). Microteaching in
the education context addresses identified or specific skills and aspects of professional practice in need of
improvement. An ancient example of the apprenticeship model was in the training of medical doctors
who were introduced to surgery by an experienced specialist, by observing him work in a theatre (today,
we still use this name for modern operating theatres). An example of microteaching in the education
context may be an intervention aimed at improving a student’s communication skills during a lesson. The
process is student-centred but subject to reflections and feedback after the exercise, by participants,
observers and the student him- or herself.
Young and Young (1968) show how the microteaching model developed and spread beyond Stanford
University, to a wide variety of institutions around the world. By 2010, Kilic points out that
microteaching has transcended different disciplines as its popularity has increased. These include
disciplines like education, medicine and anthropology. Both in-service and pre-service programmes now
employ microteaching approaches (Kilic 2010) as standard.
Kallenbach & Gall (1969) assert that microteaching is so adaptable and flexible because it has an
‘open methodology’. For example, microteaching can be combined with other techniques or integrated
with different types of technology. In the current drive towards e-learning, an open methodology can
easily be adopted and adapted to the latest technology employed in teacher training and education:
lessons can be telecast (for tele-tuition purposes), put on e-learning platforms, made available in
cd-format, and accessed through a variety of social media that students use on a daily basis. This wide
accessibility creates availability at the student’s convenience. It can also be brought into the classroom
electronically and students can send in comments prior to the formal class situation as part of preparation
for the training session.
Another characteristic of micro-lessons is that they create a relatively ‘stress free’ context in which
learning and development can take place (Ismail 2011). The student only has to focus on a small section
of the lesson content, teach a small group and practise a predetermined skill or skills set. The feedback
also takes place in a safe and constructive context with peers and the lecturer/tutor.
After this brief exposition of the history of microteaching and some of its characteristics, we will now
explore some microteaching models which incorporate the ‘how’ (methodology) of microteaching: how
can it actually be done? We present a description of microteaching along two development trajectories: a
development of its conceptual underpinnings; as well as some models that have emerged from this
conceptual understanding.
10.1.3 Why is microteaching popular in pre-service teacher education?
Many South African teacher education institutions offer microteaching as an integral part of their ITE
programme. Changing social and political conditions in ITE during the post-apartheid period have
contributed to the increasing popularity of the use of microteaching. We will briefly discuss some of the
relevant factors that have made microteaching a suitable feature in ITE: greater access by previously
excluded sections of the population resulting in large class sizes; diverse contexts in contrast to the
previously relatively homogeneous and racially exclusive organisation of apartheid education; and,
importantly, the increasing use of technology in education.
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Large class sizes due to increased learner enrolment
Post-apartheid South Africa introduced compulsory and equal education for all, irrespective of race, class
or creed. To this end, more qualified teachers are now required to teach the large numbers of new learners
who were previously excluded from the educational system. So the larger class sizes at institutions of
higher education demand that quality assurance mechanisms be in place to ensure that graduates meet the
exit requirements for the BEd qualification and are prepared for the current teaching and learning
environment. Microteaching provides an opportunity to review the baseline competencies and skills of
student teachers. Once students’ strengths and challenges have been identified, available time and other
resources can be directed to address their special needs. Microteaching is an appropriate strategy to
maximise the use of limited resources, thus allowing the institution to ‘scale down’ (resources) in order to
‘scale up’ (learning). Teacher education institutions may now be able to invest in a suitable microteaching
model that will make a meaningful contribution to the quality of the intended programme outcomes.
Incorporating microteaching as a feature of a teacher education curriculum also has the advantage of
enhancing the status and confidence of both the service provider and the teaching qualification.
Preparing you as a professional to teach in diverse contexts
Educational systems are increasingly converging in terms of expected practice and outcomes at a national
level. Your future workplace as a professional teacher may be unknown to you, but you will be expected
to perform within the framework of existing policies which are now nationally applicable. Teacher
education programmes are aware of these realities and aim to provide training to equip you to teach in
diverse contexts: not only locally, but nationally and even internationally. Notwithstanding all the
resources invested in initial teacher education programmes, the Council on Higher Education Monitor
(2010) noted that many students tend to replicate their own set of schooling experiences in their
work-based learning. Such replication indicates that teacher education programmes need to focus far
more on developing reflective and critical students. Self-reflection and critical awareness are therefore
essential characteristics to develop during teacher education and training. Microteaching provides
opportunities for students to avoid the master-apprenticeship model of teacher development which
emphasises the development of teaching competencies through re-modelling the practices of expert
teachers (Robinson 2014: 117). Needless to say, as student teachers, you need personally to develop the
self-reflective and critical thinking skills that are essential to enable you to make ‘in the moment’,
context-based decisions, informed by your knowledge and experience. Microteaching is an appropriate
strategy to build capacity and inculcate self-reflexivity, and to empower students to perform as
professionals who can be expected to work confidently in diverse educational contexts.
Technology and teaching becoming inseparable
The increasing use of technology in education seems to foster a closer link between microteaching and
technology than ever before. While microteaching can be implemented without technology (especially in
some rural conditions where there is no electricity or internet connection), the benefit of being able to
play back and view a microteaching session provided by technology brings an invaluable dimension to
training. In the past, especially during the early history of microteaching, technology (video recording)
substantially enhanced microteaching since students could view their own performance critically. Given
the pervasiveness of technology in education as a twenty-first century phenomenon, microteaching has
the potential to play a pivotal role in transforming present models of training in teacher education. In its
student-centred approach, microteaching offers many practical options to address the specific needs and
requirements of student teachers as well as being a baseline assessment of professional and personal
competencies and behaviour. Technology provides an ideal ‘mirror image’ to the student to assist in
self-reflective activities that may enhance future personal growth and development. The use of
technology in teacher education and particularly microteaching encourages students to take responsibility
for their personal development, instead of falling into the pattern of reproducing meaningless practices
which they have been exposed to, without sound reasoning.
Now that you have some ideas of the potential of microteaching, we will begin with some basic ideas
of how microteaching can implemented. What follows next is a brief exposition of microteaching models
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to explicate the methodology of microteaching.
10.2
Models of microteaching – how does microteaching work?
In this section a popular microteaching model is presented. In this model, the role of ‘reflection and
feedback’ is emphasised.
10.2.1 Cyclical model – basic steps
Traditionally, microteaching was used in the context of pre-service teacher training and development in
order to help students to master very specific teaching skills (Amobi 2005). Two critical elements of this
process were a) video recording; and b) feedback (Amobi 2005). We have borrowed ideas from
Kallenbach and Gall (1969) to develop our model of microteaching (see Figure 10.1). This model
presents the basic components of a microteaching approach.
Figure 10.1:Basic steps of microteaching (Source:Adapted from Kallenbach & Gall 1969)
The first step is for you as a student teacher to identify the skills to be applied in the microteaching
situation and prepares part of a lesson to incorporate this skill(s). Although microteaching addresses one
aspect of the student’s practice and involves a small slice of content, the whole lesson plan needs to be
kept in mind. In the second step, you now present the micro-lesson to four or more learners or student
peers. This session is video recorded. In the third step, the video is then played by the lecturer and s/he
gives feedback to the student. Ideally, peers are also involved in providing feedback. (These two steps
could also be called the observe and re-observe stage: can you see why?) You have the opportunity to
‘see’ yourself actively teaching and reflect on your actions in the light of the feedback. In the fourth and
final step, the lesson can then be re-planned, improved, and re-taught to another group to build on the
recommendations from the feedback. In this way, you develop and hone your skills and knowledge – in
other words, you can scale up your skills.
APPLYING IT TODAY 1
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At this point, look at a lesson you have taught (or plan to teach) and select a section from it; decide on
a skill or skills set you would like to practise (see 10.2.3 for specific skills) and teach it to a small
group of peers in which you apply the above model.
10.2.2 Reflection and feedback model
Figure 10.2:The reflection and feedback model involves cycles of reflecting and feedback
The element of reflection, which follows the ‘observe + re-observe’ phases, is also present in the second
of our microteaching models. In this model, this reflective practice is developed by watching and
analysing the recording of the micro-lesson and discussing it. Microteaching also creates the opportunity
for the student to redo the lesson if the skill was not mastered in the initial session. The immediate
feedback is a critical component in this regard, as it feeds into the re-planning and re-teaching until the
student’s target pedagogical skills are mastered. Microteaching creates the practice of having students in
educational methods courses ‘teach’ a lesson to their peers, or small groups of learners, in order to gain
experience in presenting the lesson before actually delivering it in a classroom situation.
Feedback helps student teachers who find it difficult to master certain teaching skills or to make sense
of certain experiences. Through feedback, students can identify these skills, analyse why and what they
found difficult, and then develop ways to improve their skills. In this way, feedback on microteaching can
be regarded as a form of intervention or mediation. There is not only a reciprocal relationship between
reflection and feedback, but also a crucial link between the feedback advice and the student teacher’s
response. The student teacher has to make sense of the feedback, build it into the re-planned
micro-lesson, and use it to re-teach the new lesson in the follow-up microteaching session. This
sense-making process is an essential part of the student teacher’s reflection on the microteaching session.
It should be clear to you as a student teacher that you have a critical role to play in the microteaching
process. A cautionary note: Feedback should always be developmental and never judgemental.
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STOP AND REFLECT
With her or his permission, review a lecture recently presented by one of your lecturers. Provide him or
her with feedback on the lecture’s content, structure and pedagogy. In a constructive way, suggest at
least three points for improvement or change under each heading. The purpose of this exercise is to
improve your understanding rather than the lecturer’s practice!
10.2.3 Microteaching skills
There are a number of skills or teacher practices that you as a student can choose from to demonstrate in
your microteaching session. Kilic (2010) and Young & Young (1968) suggest the following skills:
Microteaching skills involve: asking questions, explaining, demonstrating, contextualising, showing
relationships and conceptual links, reinforcing, motivating, evaluating, facilitating, time management;
(you can probably add many other skills as suggested by your lecturer in class).
These skills can be content driven, about relationship management, they can be product driven,
process orientated, discipline management, and so forth. Amobi (2005) reminds us that microteaching
was traditionally utilised to assist pre-service teachers to master a specific skill or skills sets.
APPLYING IT TODAY 2
Look at your micro-lesson again and think about the specific skill you would like to practise and how
to build it into the lesson. Whatever skill you have selected for the microteaching session, that skill
will have a direct impact on the nature of the micro-lesson as well as the nature of the feedback and
reflection.
To help you select and develop a skill: Draw two columns on a sheet of paper. In column 1, list four
oral skills (communicative, questioning, etc.); and in column 2, list four conceptual or practical skills
(relating to learners’ understanding, building confidence, etc.) which you would incorporate in a
microteaching design for yourself (i.e. a skill you want to develop).
10.2.4 Assessing a microteaching lesson
Any form of pedagogical intervention needs to be subject to some form of assessment and evaluation to
ensure that the learning objectives have been fully or partly achieved. The assessment criteria will
provide guidelines to improve future practice. Once again, we reiterate the golden rule that applies to
feedback and evaluation: be constructively developmental and not judgemental. The following
information provides some basic questions to assess a microteaching lesson.
You will notice that as you engage with these questions, the reflective process will become part of
your personal culture and work ethic. There will be the additional advantage of greater objectivity and
predictive ability; in other words, the more you use self-reflective questions, the less you will have to use
them, as you incorporate them into your practice. This will not only increase the effectiveness of your
microteaching but will also assist you to become more future-directed or developmental in your practice.
You will constantly be asking yourself how you can become a better teacher in the future and working
towards this goal.
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Self-reflective questions for a microteaching lesson
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
What did I do in the micro-lesson?
How did I do it?
In what order did I do it?
What worked in the micro-lesson?
What did not work in the micro-lesson?
What was the outcome of the micro-lesson?
Did I attain my intended objective?
What was the feedback from others (lecturer, mentor teacher, peers, or learners) about the
micro-lesson?
9. What, from this feedback, can I use to improve my micro-lesson?
10. How will I reconstruct my lesson?
11. How will I do things differently in the future?
STOP AND REFLECT
After the feedback sessions in a microteaching experience, you should feel positive and have a sense of
accomplishment. But what if you don’t? Can you think and explain what might be happening or going
wrong in feedback?
10.2.5 Scaling down to scale up – learning ‘in’ and ‘from’
microteaching.
In section 10.1.1, we explained the idea of scaling down to scale up and indicated that we would revisit
that concept again. In this section, before we consider some practical examples, we explore these two
concepts by means of a comparison between them. The idea of scaling down will be applied to you, the
student teacher, the teacher educator, the micro-lesson and other contextual factors. The idea of scaling
up refers to scaling up your skills, reflective capacity and understanding of the ‘it is a small (micro) but
representative version of the whole lesson.’ Let us consider the comparison in Table 10.1.
When you look at the scaling down column on the left, you will notice that there is very little
information. This is because you have generally selected one important aspect to concentrate on in your
micro-lesson. It is precisely because you have made these choices that you can concentrate on each of
them in detail. You have a narrow focus and concentrate on these aspects in depth. You can thus scale up
your particular skill related to the choices you have made, as opposed to attempting to pay attention to all
the aspects of teaching and not mastering any of these because you have spread your attention too widely.
Scaling down what you focus on gives you the opportunity to develop the selected skill more precisely.
Look at the column on the right, scaling up, and see the extent to which you can grow and learn if you
keep your focus sharp. Work through this table until you have developed a keen understanding of it; read
it in conjunction with the models of microteaching in this chapter as well as with the framework for
micro-lesson analysis. You will enhance your understanding of teaching as well as developing reflective
skills from which you will learn to monitor your own development. Give it a try and see how you grow.
Table 10.1:Scaling down to scale up: a comparison
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Scaling down
Scaling up
Student teacher
•
•
Only one aspect of the•
content
•
Reflection
•
•
A single aspect can be dealt with in greater depth.
Only one aspect to be reflected on: Simplifies the complexity of teaching.
Reflection is guided and done in a systematic way.
Reflection is directly related to both theoretical and practical dimensions of
teaching.
Teacher educator
•
Feedback
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Focuses sharply on a specific skill.
It is personal, but developmental.
It is immediate and can be implemented to improve micro-lessons.
It is done in a less stressful or safe context.
It is meaningful and constructive.
It creates sharing practices.
Peer feedback helps to develop a sense of community among learners.
It promotes diversity of opinions and respect for different ideas.
Allows for acknowledgement of assumptions, attitudes and values in one’s
teaching and for dealing with it (Ostrosky et al. 2013)
Sensitises student teachers to their own practice and content knowledge.
Helps them engage more intentionally with feedback.
Micro-lesson
Content
• Content carefully
selected and
limited
Outcomes
• Only one or two
outcomes selected
•
•
•
•
•
•
Smaller sections can be dealt with in greater detail and depth.
Different approaches to teaching can be explored.
Can be linked to or integrated with other content/concepts.
Outcome can be sequentially integrated into the lesson with more control.
Helps develop greater awareness of pursuing the outcomes as the
micro-lesson progresses.
Closer link between content–theory and outcomes–practice can be developed
and monitored.
Other factors
Time
•
• Shorter period of time•
•
Number of learners
• Fewer learners
•
selected
•
•
Work in a more focused way.
Plan in greater detail.
More conscious of optimal utilisation of time.
Can interact with learners more intensively.
Respond to learners more effectively.
Can focus on the teaching without having to worry about discipline.
We have now considered various aspects of microteaching: its history and background, some models, the
role of reflection and feedback and its nature and benefits. The following section will explore some
theoretical and philosophical underpinnings that inform our approach to microteaching as a viable
educational vehicle in ITE.
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10.3
A theoretical framework for a microteaching programme
Microteaching has been used in education for a long time. Educationists have developed many theories
that are reflected in microteaching projects. These theories emphasise different focuses and are
underpinned by the theorists’ philosophy and worldview. As mentioned in section 10.2.2, microteaching
provides a relatively ‘stress free’ and safe environment for students to be inducted into professional
training as a teacher. The pedagogical context in a microteaching project provides opportunities for
personal development, self-reflexivity and learning from others. In the next section (10.4), examples are
presented as applications of microteaching models. In theoretical terms, a model is underpinned by
certain assumptions. An effective microteaching approach is based on the conscious participation of the
student. The student engages in various activities and learns ‘in’ and ‘from’ practice certain skills,
knowledge and competencies. Microteaching is therefore avowedly self-reflexive. Although you have
been introduced to the concepts ‘reflection’ and ‘feedback’ earlier in 10.2.2, in this section, self
-reflexivity is understood as an essential theoretical component of a microteaching approach, so it is
worth really understanding what it means.
self-reflexivity: the individual’s reference to ‘self’ in relation to how it is manifested in others. A
heightened sense of self-reflexivity induces a deeper understanding of ‘self’; while a lower level of
self-reflexivity implies a relatively superficial understanding of ‘self’.
10.3.1 Two useful theorists – towards constructivist learning
To enable us to establish a theoretical framework for microteaching, based on self-reflexivity, we have
selected useful concepts from two important theorists: Paulo Freire (1921—1997) and Erving Goffman
(1922—1982). We deal with some key concepts of each of them in the next section.
10.3.1.1 Paolo Freire and ‘critical self-reflexivity’
It makes no sense for anyone to be involved in the process of education and still find him/herself learning
very little or learning nothing new. The philosopher and educationist Paulo Freire uses the ‘banking’
metaphor to explain the nature of an uncritical educational experience. By using banking as a metaphor,
he refers to the ‘depositing’ of ‘knowledge’ into the heads of the learners as if they are ‘empty vessels’.
As in the case of depositing money into a banking account, the money is expected to grow without the
depositor really knowing how it will grow. The depositor is only concerned with the outcome: interest
earned. However, when knowledge is deposited without understanding the processes of learning and
knowledge acquisition during teaching and training, the exercise becomes futile. Freire criticises the
banking model of education for being about the transfer of knowledge or information without
understanding its content or meaning to the people involved. Importantly, Freire recognises that education
is not value-free. Authentic education only takes place when the learner participates actively through
dialogue that makes the learner the centre of the educational endeavour. Meaningful knowledge needs to
be reflected on and the power relations between the author, content and users should be understood. In
other words, the power relations between the learner and the teacher, the learner and the knowledge
(content) should never be vague or assumed. The learners relate to the educational process in a concrete
and meaningful way. Essentially, learners should not be regarded as ‘empty vessels’ ready to be filled
with, to them meaningless, knowledge. The Freirian concepts relevant to microteaching are: participation
, self-reflexivity, learning through experience, dialogue and emancipation. Using Freirian concepts in a
microteaching approach implies the full and conscious participation of the learner.
dialogue: in the sense in which Freire uses it, is not an educational technique so much as a human
process: in order to know ourselves, we need to know others, so we affirm our identity only through
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other people, i.e. through dialogue. One has to constantly question what one knows and to realise that
through dialogue our existing ideas will change and new knowledge will be created.
10.3.1.2 Erving Goffman and ‘the student as main focus and frame’
The objective of microteaching is to provide you, the student teacher, with learning opportunities to attain
the necessary skills and competencies in a safe and effective environment. Based on past experiences of
students’ teaching practice evaluations, evaluators (also referred to as supervisors and assessors), have
often tended to impose their own beliefs, practices and values on the student, without taking the student’s
personal needs or background into consideration (Davids 2015). During the evaluation of the
microteaching session, evaluators should be mindful not to shift attention away from the student teacher.
Goffman’s (1959) ‘frame theory’ provides good guidelines to ensure that the student remains the ‘main
frame’ of attention during the microteaching sessions.
Goffman considers how teaching is viewed as a‘performance’ and not always as ‘teaching’.
Performance, in the context of microteaching, can be understood as superficial involvement without
inserting ‘self’: a repetition of a series of (meaningless) actions for the sake of the performance. (Think
again about Freire’s ‘banking’ concept. Do you see any similarities?) In the context of microteaching, the
focus is on how various participants draw value from their involvement. Goffman uses the notion of
‘frames’, which are the participants’ culturally-determined definitions of an interaction that help to guide
and shape behaviour (Bell 2007: 26). Simply put, if a student teacher matriculates in a village or rural
area and then attends a university in another town, she or he comes to the new learning situation with all
her or his experiences and knowledge gained in that earlier environment. Urban culture and the city
environment will have different meanings for the learner from a rural background; and likewise, the
learner from an urban background will carry along with him or her the cultural knowledge and experience
related to that environment (think of Maropeng and Thabo in the opening case study). For microteaching
to become an effective strategy in a student’s professional development, the background knowledge of
the student becomes a necessary factor for meaningful development.
Applying the concept of ‘frame analysis’ to microteaching, Goffman recognises the instability and
multiplicity of frames and the way in which they are transformed into action. His question: ‘What is it
that’s going on here?’ (when microteaching actually takes place) assumes that frames are co-constructed
through interaction, emerging locally and shifting from moment to moment (Bell 2007: 26). Any attempt
to describe them should, necessarily, be recognised as partial. In a microteaching context, learning takes
place through constructivism: learning through interaction between the individual and the socially
significant others (peer students and supervisors), and cognitivism: the application of the intellect to
increase knowledge and understanding capacities through discovery, reflection and scaffolding. Student
learning takes place constructively and cognitively. In other words, learning takes place when the
student’s action is informed by understanding which is the consequence of self-reflective action.
Before embarking on a microteaching programme, supervisors and students should be informed about
the theories, objectives and intended outcomes. Having a common theoretical and methodological
understanding of the intended programme will allow possibilities of assessment and evaluation for the
purpose of future planning and improvement. Before turning to the next section, 10.4, for examples of a
practical microteaching model, let us review some of the key concepts we have covered, which inform
the microteaching model.
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Nine key concepts that constitute a microteaching conceptual framework
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Self-reflexivity – you, the student teacher, reflect and identify reasons for your thinking
Participation – you collaborate with others to achieve a common goal
Experiences – the learner views his/her personal experiences as valuable
Emancipation – the learner experiences new insights and recognises the barriers or obstacles to
learning
Main focus and frame – the learner is the major focus of the activity
Performance – action and activity without deep thinking
Co-construction – the process of coming to an understanding to create a fresh or new formulation
with fellow stakeholders
Cognitivism – the learner’s focus is on understanding before performance
Constructivism – the learner achieves new learning insights based on prior knowledge and reflection
10.4
Microteaching examples – Social Sciences (History) and
Natural Sciences (Physics)
The following section brings together the theory and practice of microteaching. In section 10.2, models of
microteaching were presented and you should now have a good understanding of the origin, objectives,
components and processes involved in microteaching. Section 10.3 provided the key theoretical concepts
that underpin the microteaching approach that we have proposed in this chapter. But you are also required
to have a practical understanding of aspects of models and theories and not just to learn about them.
In this section, you will engage with two examples that are linked to the senior phase CAPS, for Social
Sciences and Natural Sciences, respectively. These case studies are designed as scale down to scale up
examples. This means that in the context of a microteaching lesson, we focus on key concepts that are
part of a bigger idea. For example, the concept of weight in physics is part of the bigger idea of forces
between bodies. Before looking at the examples, a useful format to prepare a microteaching lesson is the
following:
Prepare a 20-minute lesson plan that includes the following five key elements:
Bridge-in: Explains the value of the lesson to the learner and provides motivation and a focus.
Objective: What will the learner know and be able to do? Under what conditions and how will this be
accomplished?
Pre-assessment: Identifies learner’s prior knowledge and whether or not the learner is ready to
accomplish the objective.
Participatory learning: The learner is actively involved in the learning process as soon and as much as
possible.
Post-assessment: Determines if the learner has indeed learned what the lesson set out to teach.
The purpose of these two examples is to provide you (the student teacher) with a mini-lesson with a
limited set of objectives. It is important to first determine your specific learning objective which should
be assessed by an assessment activity, e.g. a written task with questions to be answered by the learner; or
for the learner to plot a graph (weight and mass) with given data. Remember that the learning that takes
place is determined by what you want to achieve in a specific lesson.
10.4.1 Example 1: A History microteaching lesson
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Curriculum link: Grade 9 Social Sciences
Term 4: History
Topic: Turning points in South African history – 1960, 1976 and 1990
Lesson title: South African history – the significance of the Soweto uprising in
1976
Time
(20
minutes)
Bridge-in
• Why is the Soweto uprising of 1976 so significant in South Africa?
1 minute
2
Learning objectives – by the end of this lesson, learners will be able to:
minutes
• Explain the causes and outcome of the Soweto uprising of 1976.
• Consider the connection between this event and the first democratic elections of 1994 in
South Africa.
2
Pre-assessment
• What events led to the release of political prisoners and the unbanning of liberation minutes
movements in South Africa in 1990?
10
Learner engagement and participation
minutes
Learners should read the following excerpt and answer questions based on it: Soweto 16
June 1976 – when the youth rose
• Can you explain the importance of the Soweto uprising, and how and why it is
commemorated today?
Post-assessment
Learners should understand the significance of this watershed moment in South Africa’s
history. The resistance to oppressive apartheid laws continued in the 1980s but this event
was used as a rallying point to mobilise the masses. Effectively, it was the starting point for
the internal mass action that finally ended apartheid rule.
Summary/closure
A number of significant events took place in South Africa’s history before the first
democratic elections in 1994. Youth Day is now commemorated on 16 June which was
previously known as Soweto Day.
3
minutes
2
minutes
Supporting materials/resources
Readings and notes
SOURCE MATERIAL
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Soweto 16 June 1976 – when the youth rose
June 2016
Forty years ago, on 16 June 1976, thousands of schoolchildren in Soweto, braved the winter to protest
the government’s decision that they be taught in the medium of Afrikaans. As they marched peacefully
to Orlando Stadium, carrying placards, the students were confronted by the police. Teargas was used,
then the shooting started. Thirteen-year-old Hector Pietersen was the first victim; a photograph by Sam
Nzima famously depicts his body being carried by another student, while his distraught sister runs
alongside. A total of 23 people were killed on the first day, but this is the picture that the world saw.
The protest action then spread to other townships in all parts of the country. Everywhere, the ‘class
of 1976’ took to the streets, overturning the idea that only adults could challenge the apartheid regime.
But it was the actions of the police, following government orders, that made the difference to what
may have been a short-lived protest: in 1976, police actions embodied everything that was violent,
repressive and unjust in the state’s attitude towards black citizens, when they fired on, beat and
arrested unarmed young people.
By the end of the year, 574 people had died, although the real total is probably far greater. Many
young people had gone into hiding or fled the country to join the armed resistance in neighbouring
states. But the ripples set in motion by the youth of ’76 had, by the mid-1980s, crippled the economy,
led to states of emergency and a security crackdown, mass public mobilisation in resistance
movements, and international sanctions against South Africa. The apartheid system was shaken up
forever.
The uprising marked a turning point in the struggle for democracy. Youth Day takes its name from
the fearlessness and spirit of those young people who took up resistance to apartheid themselves, on a
national and international scale.
This microteaching lesson is part of the broader Grade 9 History curriculum in Social Sciences, which
includes events such as the Sharpeville massacre in 1960. When presenting the lesson to your peers or
learners you should bear this in mind and try to stick to the time allocation. Remember that in a typical
classroom situation the teacher has more time to teach the topic. Your task is to significantly scale down
the lesson by focusing on the key concepts.
10.4.2 Example 2: Framing a Physics lesson
Curriculum link: Grade 9 Natural Sciences
Term 3: Energy and change
Topic: Gravitational force – investigating mass and weight
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Lesson title: The relationship between mass and weight
Time 20
minutes
Bridge-in
• What are you measuring when you stand on a bathroom scale?
• Would you weigh more or less at the equator? What about on the Moon? Why?
1 minute
Learning objectives – by the end of this lesson, learners will be able to:
• Differentiate between mass and weight.
• Draw a graph of the relationship between mass and weight.
• Interpret the graphical relationship between mass and weight.
2
minutes
Pre-assessment
Show an unmarked 1 kg bag of rice and ask learners to estimate what its mass is. Ask
learners what the difference between mass and weight is.
2
minutes
Learner engagement and participation
• Learners must plot a graph of weight against mass from data provided.
• Learners then determine the gradient of the graph.
• The gradient must be interpreted: what does it show?
10
minutes
3
Post-assessment
The graph shows a directly proportional relationship between mass and weight. The gradient minutes
gives the gravitational acceleration or the Earth’s gravitational force on an object.
Summary/closure
Our mass stays constant anywhere in the universe, while our weight differs due to the
gravitational force. We weigh about one-sixth on the Moon than we do on Earth.
2
minutes
Supporting materials/resources
Graph paper
The data show different masses of a metal and its corresponding weight, as recorded from a Newton
scale.
1. Plot a graph of weight against mass on the graph paper provided.
2. Determine the gradient/slope of the graph.
3. Interpret what the gradient means.
Mass (kg)
Weight (N)
0.0
0.0
0.5
5.0
1.0
10.0
1.5
15.0
2.0
20.0
2.5
25.0
3.0
30.0
Remember that the teacher can do the practical investigation to obtain the data with a class if he/ she has
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the necessary equipment. In the context of a microteaching lesson, it is better to provide the data and to
focus on plotting the graph. It is easy to find the mathematical relationship between mass and weight
from the gradient of the graph.
Conclusion
This chapter prepares you to design and implement a practical microteaching programme. As a student
teacher, you will invariably find yourself teaching in front of classroom-based mentor teachers and
university-based supervisors. We have presented you with the necessary texts and guidance to support
you, whether you identify the need for general personal development and growth, or if you simply want
to know more about microteaching. The four sections that constitute this chapter provide a theoretical and
practical guide to understanding the history, various models and methods, and a conceptual framework of
microteaching. The last section (10.4) provides two examples, based on the current Curriculum and
Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) and offers general guidance to structuring a microteaching lesson
plan. We have seen these working in practice and are confident that they will useful to you. The more you
engage with microteaching, the more you will learn and grow. We leave you with a summary of the
essential elements of microteaching to use and adapt to your own teaching approach and philosophy. We
wish you an exciting and fruitful time during your microteaching sessions.
Microteaching
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Is descriptive and reflective rather than evaluative
Is specific, rather than general
Although individual, it focuses on behaviour, not the person or personal
The focus on behaviour is so that the receiver can modify and change, i.e. develop
Emphasises communication and sharing information, not evaluating and criticising
Can be practised in manageable amounts and repeated as many times as necessary
Clear communication is always ensured by reflection and feedback cycle in a safe environment.
Activities
Self-reflection
1. What is your own background? How do you think it is important in terms of Freire’s banking metaphor
of teaching and learning? How does it relate to Goffman’s main focus and frame concept?
Analysis and consolidation
2. Debating issue: Divide into groups and debate the following statement:
‘Microteaching really has nothing special to offer. There are many other pedagogical models that can
be employed to address students’ professional development needs.’
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of microteaching in a higher education institution. Refer to
alternative models of professional development.
Practical applications
3. Work towards the presentation of a practical microteaching lesson to be recorded:
a. Prepare your microteaching lesson either by using one of the examples in section 10.4 and adjusting
it to your own subject; or by developing a new lesson on your subject.
b. Be prepared for follow-up sessions: it will only improve your professional practice. By listening to
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the feedback and honestly redrafting and re-teaching your lesson, you can only get better.
4. Poster design: Form groups. Each group has to design a poster with the following title: ‘A theoretical
framework for a microteaching programme’, using the concepts in Figures 10.1 and 10.2 to help.
Posters can be displayed in the faculty and the poster judged the best can perhaps be submitted for a
conference exhibition.
References
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11
Teaching practice – its purpose and implementation
Ndileleni Mudzielwana, Ina Joubert and Nkidi Phatudi
Copyright 2016. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• Understand what teaching practice (TP) means and entails (including the art of teaching).
• Grasp the purpose and importance of TP.
• Identify the importance of different models of TP.
• Identify the elements and components necessary for the implementation of TP, such as the roles and
responsibilities of mentors and others.
Key concepts
Student teacher: a student who has enrolled at a university or other institution to become a teacher and
will be in various schools for teaching practice
Mentor teacher: an experienced teacher or a lecturer who has been assigned to work closely with the
student teacher to support him/her during teaching practice
Assessor: anyone assigned by the university to assess student teachers during teaching practice, who may
be any of the following: an experienced teacher, a mentor, or a lecturer who has been assigned by the
institution
Work-integrated learning (WIL): an approach that aligns academic and workplace practices for the
mutual benefit of students and their intended workplaces
CASE STUDY: TEACHING PRACTICE TROUBLES
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Account: s6311349.main.eds
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Mpho has registered for a four-year Bachelor of Education in Foundation Phase (BEd FP) degree. One
of the major components of the programme is Teaching Practice (TP). Mpho had to teach at different
schools for a couple of weeks during her second year of study. She is given a letter from her university
in which she is asked to identify the school of her choice where she is due to do her first session of TP.
Mpho is talking to a her friend Felicia about her concerns:
Mpho: I feel so lost – I’ve received a letter from the university asking me to identify which school I
will be doing my teaching practice at.
Felicia What are you unsure of?
:
Mpho: I don’t know how I’m going to manage all those young learners in the Grade 1 class. They are
all going to have such diverse backgrounds, and heaven knows how many different home
languages I’m going to have to deal with.
Felicia Shoo! I’m kind of glad I’m not doing a BEd FP when I hear that!
:
Mpho: Tell me about it! Listen to this:
‘The university expects the student teacher to:
• Plan lessons for Grade 1 learners: a lesson per day.
• Observe the teacher teaching the Grade 1 learners.
• Observe the teacher executing rules and procedures in the classroom and become very
familiar with them.
• Move around the classroom helping learners with the teacher’s mentorship time or any other
time directed by the mentor teacher.
• Be engaged in all the mentor teacher’s duties and responsibilities.
• Teach all subjects as given in the Grade 1 curriculum for a complete day.
• Develop own theory practice.’
Felicia Listen, I’m sure you will be great Mpho. At least you will have some clear guidelines from
:
your lecturers and mentor teacher before you go out to schools.
Here are some of the questions Mpho is asking herself:
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Fortunately, she remembers that during her first-year orientation her lecturers told her that she would
receive support from the school and the teachers, and that they (the lecturers) would also be visiting
her. She also remembers being told about the information she will receive before going on TP. This
gives her some hope and she starts to feel more reassured.
STOP AND REFLECT
How do you approach problems like the one Mpho is facing? Ask yourself the following questions to
find out:
• How can I approach this problem in a flexible manner?
• Is there another way of looking at the situation? What other ways and means can I use to deal with the
situation?
• What do I need to simplify this problem?
• What type of knowledge do I bring to the situation? What questions do I need to ask?
• What am I aware of in terms of my own beliefs, values and goals with this problem?
• What feelings might I have that would make it difficult for me to solve the challenges I am about to
face?
• How can I tap into others’ experiences to come up with a better plan for the situation?
(Source:Adapted from Department of Education and Early Childhood Development, 2010: 25)
These questions are not uncommon for student teachers when faced with an unfamiliar situation such as
TP. Within these questions, strategies are embedded as coping mechanisms. This chapter draws on the
questions to focus on information or knowledge about TP which will inform your implementation and it
is hoped, make the TP experience an enjoyable and fulfilling one for you.
Introduction
Teaching is a complex activity and a profession that requires dedication, knowledge and skills on the part
of the teacher. These requirements are seen as the cornerstone for the process of teacher training at any
level, for any school phase and for diverse contexts (Mudzielwana & Maphosa 2014: 393). Teaching is
also demanding, as extensive preparation is necessary before the teacher even goes into the classroom. In
addition, a theory foundational to teaching and successful classroom management, is essential for
effective instruction.
Teaching practice (TP) provides an opportunity for your lecturers and mentor teachers to assess their
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own classroom teaching and delivery of content and to gather information about you as student teachers
and your personal capabilities to teach; and ultimately, for you to assess your own beliefs, in practice.
As a student teacher, your teaching practice experience can shape the way you perceive and
understand teaching and learning as well as assessment. To this end, this chapter introduces the concept
of TP as an important aspect of initial teacher education (ITE) by exploring its purpose and
implementation. It is equally important to emphasise the essential role that mentors have to play in
guiding student teachers during the implementation of TP sessions since they also act as assessors. For a
mentoring programme to succeed, there should be an alignment between the purpose and the
implementation of TP. These two aspects need to complement each other. Cooperation should include
transparency of purpose and the implementation should be based on an understanding of the various roles
and responsibilities of all role players involved, and their collaboration. The different role players, such as
student teachers, mentor lecturers and mentor teachers, are all crucial for the effective implementation of
TP in the school context.
The aim of this chapter is then to explore the concept, purpose and implementation of TP.
Implementation includes your preparation through coursework, and the documentation from the higher
education institution (HEI) about the different role players at the HEI and at the school. This chapter links
with core aspects of teaching as a profession such as the art and science of teaching, teaching pedagogy,
the theory and practice of microteaching and the influence of cross-cultural contexts on TP, as developed
in other parts of this book. Although you study theories of teaching and learning, you may well find
yourself confused when you are confronted with the realities and complexities of the teaching task in the
classroom during TP (Mudzielwana & Maphosa 2014: 393). This chapter is designed to address some of
these anxieties, so that you feel better prepared for your practical experience.
STOP AND REFLECT
Reflect on the following questions:
1. What is your understanding of TP as a concept?
2. Write down what you think Mpho’s biggest fears are.
3. Is there a discrepancy between the university’s expectations, and Mpho’s situation?
4. How did you experience the announcement of your first TP?
5. When and how were you informed about the purpose of TP and its implementation?
6. What support and guidance does your university provide to you and the other role players?
11.1
Teaching practice as a vital component of teacher
education
In teaching, there is a strong emphasis on integrated and applied competence, namely foundational,
practical and reflexive competence, in an area of specialisation (see Chapter 4). This means that you need
to learn the content, that is, the foundational knowledge which enables you, by using it in the classroom,
to develop practical competence. The purpose of teaching practice is to encourage you to integrate what
you have learned in your programme of study into your regular classroom TP experience, and to develop
the habit of being reflexive in your teaching. TP plays an important part in the teacher training
programme. In general, TP refers to the preparation of student teachers for the reality of the classroom
(Nwanekezi, Okoli & Mezieobi 2011). The teaching practice model for the BEd (FP) programme
suggests that “Practical learning involves learning in and from practice”. This means that
work-integrated learning (WIL) takes place in the different academic and school contexts and is spread
out across an academic programme (Department of Higher Education and Training 2011: 8).
Therefore, students like Mpho are expected to develop the necessary skills in order to mediate learning
of their subject(s) in accordance with learners’ needs and style of learning. They are expected to plan,
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manage and to design activities that will respond to the learners’ pace and rate of learning. This implies
that during planning, teachers must take into consideration the diversity of the classroom and
appropriately assess learners so as to improve on their teaching and the learning experience of their
learners. The process is developmental and so needs proper supervision by lecturers and mentors (see
Chapter 12 for more details on related terminology).
In the National Qualifications Framework Act 67 of 2008 (Department of Higher Education and
Training 2011: 8), practical learning is identified as one of the types of learning associated with the
acquisition, integration and application of knowledge for teaching purposes. Practical learning can be
done during TP, hence the applicability of this book.
What is practical learning?
Practical learning involves learning in and from practice. Learning from practice includes the study of
the practical aspects of teaching. These practical aspects include the analysis of practices across
different contexts, such as in video recordings, lesson observations and case studies. Through analysis,
theories related to practice can be studied, which will form the basis for learning in the school context.
Learning in practice involves teaching in authentic or real-classroom environments. This learning takes
place through preparing lessons, teaching, reflecting on lessons taught and observing lessons taught by
others. Learning in practice also involves teaching in simulated classroom environments, which
typically takes place when students engage in micro-lessons (Department of Higher Education and
Training 2011: 8). WIL is an umbrella term that involves a different kind of learning about curricular,
pedagogic and assessment practices, across a range of academic disciplines that integrate formal
learning and workplace concerns (CHE 2011: 4). WIL is also about learning at work, while doing a
job, and involves the integration of knowledge and competence.
During TP sessions, you are expected to put into practice teaching approaches, methods, strategies,
principles and techniques that you have learned in your classes. Through applying the theory of the
practices learned, you become part of the scholarship of WIL. This is done by engaging in
research-based activities during your TP. For example, as part of TP, you may conduct self-evaluation
using checklists for various observations and for analysing your experiences.
The objectives of teaching practice are to provide you, as a student teacher, with:
• The opportunity to have your potential as a teacher and suitability for the teaching profession evaluated;
• Management skills and experience in diverse school contexts to overcome problems of discipline;
• An opportunity to put theories into practice in constructing a personal practice theory. This involves the
development of a deeper understanding of educational principles and their implications for learning;
• The skills to effectively plan and prepare lessons;
• Skills in the use of fundamental procedures, techniques and methods of teaching;
• The opportunity to develop desirable professional interest attitudes and ideas related to the teaching
profession;
• The chance to develop desirable characteristics/traits of a teacher and values, in order to display
appropriate professional behaviour;
• The opportunity to have your teaching evaluated and to gain from constructive criticism;
• Understanding of reliable and valid assessment practices in order to become an assessor of young
learners; and
• An opportunity for self-evaluation and to discover your strengths and weaknesses through reflection
(Akbas 2002, cited in Nwanekezi, Okoli & Mezieobi 2011: 42).
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STOP AND REFLECT
•
•
•
What do you think you personally need to help you make a success of TP?
Do you regard TP as an activity to obtain high marks or to gain experience for lifelong learning as a
teacher who wants to master the art of teaching?
What are the characteristics of a good mentor and good mentee (person being mentored)?
In the following sections, aspects of teaching practice such as the art of teaching, models of teaching
practice and the role of mentors will be addressed to illustrate the purpose of TP and its implementation.
11.2
The art of teaching as experienced during teaching
practice
In the your professional growth, you will find that the focus of your concerns change – from concerns
about yourself to concerns about the task and situation ahead, and then to concerns about the learners you
will be teaching and the impact your teaching will have on them (Conway & Clark, cited in Rice 2004:
8). This is an indication that the initial stages of managing a class are marked by students’ feelings of
whether or not they will do well; hence the need for mentors to adequately prepare students for this
experience. Only when you develop into becoming more concerned about the impact of your teaching
will you grow positively in professional terms. Similarly, Berry and Loughran (2002) observe that, in the
early stages of professional growth, student teachers may be more concerned with the actual content of
what they will teach and not with pedagogy (how they will teach). The purpose of nurturing professional
growth is to ensure that student teachers grow into making decisions about pedagogical approaches, are
able to critique their own approaches, and improve the facilitation of learning. Programmes that include
WIL equip students with opportunities to prepare for and learn from the workplace, and to transfer
discipline-based theory and a wide variety of skills learned in their formal education to a real situation.
Boikhutso (2010) further observes that, in terms of TP, trainee teachers often face the dilemma of putting
theory into practice. Most of the courses you followed at university deal with theory, which you need to
turn into practice when confronted by real classroom situations. It is for this reason that more
demonstration lessons and micro-lessons should happen before students embark on TP.
In order to expose you to various learning opportunities, while you are in a school, you will be
observed by mentors, experienced teachers and university lecturers. This will give you an opportunity to
learn from various sources. However, you may be apprehensive, as you are also required to have planned
the lesson and to be able to manage and assess the learners all within the space and timeframe of your TP
experience. This calls, critically, for you to have some idea of the various models of TP during your
training, which we will look at in the next section.
11.3
Models of teaching practice
There are many models of TP that may be used, but we have chosen those that are most relevant to the
kind of TP experience espoused by this book. One model of TP, for example, might be based on
behaviours modelled and supported by a competent and experienced adult; another model might be based
on a more participatory process, involving cycles of reflection and feedback.
In Figure 11.1, we present a conceptual framework and relevant theories that inform and direct this
chapter. It is also a visual representation of the most important arguments based on the concepts and
theories, and their relationship with various stakeholders in TP. In the sections that follow, we describe
the concepts in-depth with reference to related theories.
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Figure 11.1:Integration of teaching practice models
11.3.1 Overview of the framework
From the literature, it becomes clear that to implement TP effectively, principals, heads of department
and teachers need to be actively involved in the process. The mentor teacher as well as the student teacher
need both theoretical knowledge and skills in strategic planning, so that an atmosphere conducive for
learning is created. Mentor teachers should be able to motivate learners to participate actively in the
teaching and learning process. Mentor teachers need to have the skills, knowledge and self-regulatory
strategies to support student teachers until the student teachers can work with learners independently. It is
vital that mentor teachers (and student teachers) be aware that by practising research-based models and
strategies in the classroom, they are assisting student teachers to become competent. Activities must be
planned accordingly, with strong emphasis on self-monitoring activities coupled with constructive
feedback. The first to be discussed is apprenticeship model.
11.3.2 Apprenticeship model
The model depicted in Figure 11.1 is cyclical and is adapted from various theories. In apprenticeship
learning, students learn by watching and imitating, or by learning by demonstration (Abbeel & Ng 2004).
TP for student teachers draws from the apprenticeship model of learning, as student teachers learn from
mentors while on the job. You will be given guidance by experienced teachers who act as role models.
Figure 11.1 shows a student teacher observing the mentor teacher in action so that the student teacher
may imitate the mentor teacher’s behaviours and apply knowledge in his or her classroom context. In
modelling, the expert sets the example. Figure 11.1 also indicates some of the responsibilities of the
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mentor teacher. In a TP context, you will be attached to a more experienced professional who has the
responsibility for nurturing and developing you professionally in the mastery of teaching skills.
Apprenticeship is one way to conceptualise learning so that it is integrated with the production of
knowledge and can be applied in varied contexts, as in Figure 11.1.
You should therefore understand and learn to use various teaching and learning, and assessment
strategies, in such a way that you can apply them in various classroom contexts. This is a form of a
continuous cycle as in Figure 11.1. You should be able to involve learners in planned activities, plan and
give instructions, that support learners’ pace and rate of learning; create a classroom atmosphere that is
conducive to learning; and demonstrate knowledge of subject matter and skill in organising the
curriculum and instruction to support learners’ understanding of the subject. TP also involves your
interactions with your mentor teacher and develops your cognitive capacity as a student teacher towards
becoming a competent teacher.
In order to promote the role of teachers as lifelong learners, apprenticeship learning gives you the
opportunity to use your reasoning with unique models and cases, to act on authentic situations and resolve
complex, ill-defined problems in different classroom contexts. This implies that you will become more
knowledgeable and confident in your practice; this is why it is desirable that you perfect the art of
teaching before joining a school as a qualified teacher.
11.3.3 Cognitive apprenticeship model
Cognitive apprenticeship is a process by which you as student teachers learn from a more experienced
person by way of mastering the skills of teaching effectively in a class (as shown in Figure 11.1) while
the mentor teacher models appropriate teaching practices. Ghefaili (2003) asserts that cognitive
apprenticeship is a theory of a process where a master (mentor teacher) of a skill teaches that skill to an
apprentice, in this case, a student teacher. Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory proposes that
modelling supports cognitive apprenticeship and says that in order for modelling to be successful, you
have to be attentive; to have access to and retain the information presented; to be motivated to learn; and
able to accurately reproduce the desired skill. According to Bandura’s (1977) theory, learners imitate
what they see other people do, be it their parents or their teachers, when they identify positively with
them. During TP, mentor taechers are expected to be good models, as they are required to have positive
and nurturing relationships with student teachers. They should therefore display positive teaching
behaviours so that student teachers can imitate and internalise these.
The emphasis on the cyclical model in Figure 11.1 is thus on the acquisition of new behaviours via the
imitation of actions modelled by another. The same applies to teaching knowledge: it comes about when
the mentor as an individual is able to influence another (the student teacher) to behave in a certain way.
Usually in the classroom, it is the mentor, having contact with you, as the student teacher, who will have
this kind of influence over your developing teaching competence. Social learning theory emphasises that
learning occurs as a result of reinforcement of particular behaviours by the learner’s social and
environmental influences. Teaching is regarded as conditioned behaviour that does not occur in a
vacuum. You will not be able to acquire teaching skills in isolation; you need to be taught, and this
requires a committed mentor who is aware of his or her responsibilities (the model in Figure 11.1 clarifies
these roles and responsibilities). The mentor, an experienced teacher or a lecturer, can also act as your
role model providing rich and varied teaching experiences, using different strategies to address the needs
of different learners, displaying skills that you want to acquire.
Interaction with a mentors is based on observing their behaviour through which you develop a sense of
their norms, values and beliefs within the context of a particular society; one is most likely to imitate a
mentor with whom one has an emotional or nurturing bond, which Bandura calls ‘nurturant models’.
Remember that Bandura’s (1977) concept of ‘modelling’ means that student teachers learn positive (or
negative) behaviour patterns from observing the behaviour (of the mentor). In a real classroom, when you
interact with a mentor, you are being socialised and as a result, you adopt what you have seen from the
mentor and teach accordingly. Another concept in Bandura’s theory is that experience gives student
teachers a sense of self-efficacy, which refers to students’ beliefs about their own abilities and talents.
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In the course of the BEd FP programme, you have to demonstrate that you have implemented
learning-centred changes in your teaching using a variety of effective teaching strategies. Following a
model in a classroom situation is the point of TP learning: you are expected to pay sufficient attention to
what the mentor says and does so that you can understand what is being taught and to reproduce the
teaching behaviour. What you observe must be processed into short-term and long-term memory, so that
it can be retrieved when such information is needed. Observation is an important element because it
allows the behaviours displayed by the model to be reproduced. For an observed behaviour to be
reproduced perfectly, practice is essential. Reinforcement also plays an important role and if modelled
behaviour is rewarded, the chances of this behaviour being repeated are high (Engler 1985: 391–401;
Hjelle & Ziegler 1981: 246–249). As a student teacher, mentoring becomes critical as it provides the
opportunity for you to learn, process, and then to reproduce what you see other people doing, including
other teachers in the school, in your own behaviour. Mentor teachers are regarded as good models, since
they are chosen because of their ability to have positive and nurturing relationships with their student
teachers. In displaying positive teaching strategies, students will want to imitate them and will internalise
these strategies. To enable you to become an independent and competent teacher who can master your
own TP, it is advisable that you are actively involved in increasingly complex tasks during the TP
session. The arrows in Figure 11.1 represent the necessary cooperation between the mentor teacher and
student teacher. The circular shape of the framework indicates that TP is a process with relationships and
processes within it. The mentor teacher has a critical role in the process of driving the TP experience to a
successful outcome. The student teacher should internalise the theoretical knowledge and practical skills
so as to facilitate her own teaching.
STOP AND REFLECT
1. Mpho needs to use ideas from models or theories to develop her own practice theory (what she
believes is working in her teaching). Which one of the two models discussed here will best assist
Mpho? Explain how and why.
2. How does the theory embedded in each model as depicted in Figure 11.1 relate to the mentors (teacher
and lecturer)?
11.4
The role of mentoring
Mentoring is a process through which an opportunity is created for a student teacher to learn by regular
engagement and support from and with an experienced teacher who has theoretical and practical
understanding of the teaching profession. This process is not only beneficial to the student teacher, but to
the mentor teacher as well. The goal of student practice teaching is to provide the student teacher with the
opportunity to apply his or her teaching practices under the guidance and leadership of an experienced
and qualified mentor teacher. In order to make this support as meaningful as possible, it is crucial that it is
properly and carefully planned.
Mentoring is critical in developing student teachers who will, in turn, grow in the knowledge, skills
and values needed in the teaching profession. Mentoring also assists students like Mpho to develop
strategies to enable her not just to cope with TP throughout the course of her degree, but to do well and
make the most of the experience. This will have an enormous influence on her understanding of teaching
as a profession and will enhance her thinking about how children learn.
Fundamental to mentoring is the institution’s strategic plan for TP at different year levels, its
programme, and the guidelines provided to students at each level. As part of orientation, guidelines are
given to students and mentors (lecturers and teachers) in terms of the logistics of the TP, the format of the
lessons, the development of a TP portfolio, reflection and the assessment of the TP. At many HEIs,
students and mentors are lectured on these guidelines and they have the opportunity to ask questions
about the TP guidelines, processes and assessment. (See Appendix 11.1 and 11.2 at the end of the book
for an example of a lesson plan format and a TP programme overview at an HEI.)
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During the TP experience, mentoring is used as a nurturing process, in which a more experienced
person, serving as a role model, provides professional assistance to the student teacher. It is a strategy of
induction, which includes encouraging the students and empowering them so that they become more
competent in their practice. A mentor is usually someone with more experience and knowledge in an area
so that he or she can assist another with less experience and knowledge.
A mentor has a crucial, multifaceted role, and it is important for you to have a good relationship with
your mentor teacher. Both you and your mentor should understand that the objective of your relationship
is to promote your professional readiness. The relationship is concerned with ethical principles such as
respect for each other, acknowledging each other’s personal space, and trust. Trust is fundamental to the
growth of this relationship. Your mentor should therefore provide a climate that allows you to meet the
proficiencies required for student teaching, by supporting multiple approaches and creative efforts;
encouraging many varied opportunities for learning and relevant experiences, including observation
small-group and whole-group teaching; and assisting you with selecting topics that are developmentally
appropriate for the age and grade of the learners in addition to the curriculum.
A question of ethics
You are about to start your TP at a school and find out that the mentor teacher you have been assigned to
work with is someone with whom you have a history. How do you deal with the situation? Who do you
speak to?
Your mentor is expected to supervise you in your teaching role. Your mentor should also put questions to
you, as this will support your learning and enable you to reflect for the purpose of improving and refining
your practice theory. To make this happen, you should be engaged and have a sense of constructive
self-awareness. The relationship between you and your mentor is time-defined. Your mentor will not be
available at all times. When your mentor is not in the class, you should take notes during feedback
meetings and write questions for later clarification.
The characteristics of ideal mentors include: being enthusiastic, accessible and approachable,
inspirational, understanding, supportive, empathetic and patient, experienced, knowledgeable and
competent in subject skills and practices, as well as being a creative thinker, problem solver, effective
communicator with good interpersonal and partner skills and an effective listener. (Note that we did say
‘include’, since it would be rare indeed to embody all these characteristics.) Most importantly, he or she
should be someone who gives honest feedback, is able to resolve or defuse conflict, is an effective time
manager, and prioritises and sets targets.
11.4.1 What is the role of a mentor?
Mentors have a critical role in fostering and developing student teachers. Constant communication
between you and your mentor to ensure that you understand the requirements and can put them into
practice, is of great importance here. The mentor–student relationship should result in a critically
reflective student teacher. Such student teachers challenge issues and always seek to improve their own
practice, and TP in general. In the following section the role of peer mentoring is examined.
Peer mentoring
Literature exists on mentoring, especially on the mentor as an experienced person and the mentee as an
apprentice. However, there is another dimension to mentoring that is often overlooked, but it is just as
important as the relationship between the experienced mentor and the apprentice, namely that of peer
mentoring. During peer assessment, the peer acts as an additional assessor. This is also a possible model
for TP in the absence of mentors.
In peer mentoring, two students learn from each other and power relations are not an issue as in the
relationship between a more experienced person and a novice. (For further information about peer
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assessment, see the example of the TP programme in Appendix 11.2 at the end of this book.)
In order for TP to be transparent, the roles of the mentor and the student have to be clarified. A lack of
defined roles sometimes leads to resistance by students to the help offered by mentors. Peer mentoring
can be successful if mentors view mentoring as an opportunity for their own continued growth. They
should clearly understand the current curriculum and the purpose and content of work involved in TP.
It is also important for you to know and understand the different roles of some of the education
stakeholders, such as the principal and school management team, as briefly discussed in the following
section.
School principal
The principal, as the leader and manager of the school, is responsible for the mentorship programme.
Even though this responsibility can be delegated to an HOD or deputy-principal, the principal is still
responsible to the overall running of the programme. Therefore it is the duty of the principal to ensure
that there is a clear policy on how mentorship should unfold. The roles and expectations of each one of
the participants has to be clearly explained. The principal should monitor and evaluate the programme
over time, to give regular feedback to the mentorship coordinator, mentor teacher, the student teacher and
the universities these students come from. (Department of Education and Early Childhood Development
2010; DOE 2008).
As a role model to all teachers in the school, principals are expected to share their extensive
professional knowledge with them, influencing them positively in relationships with others. She or he
should be able to influence the attitude of teachers positively towards student teachers. The responsibility
of allocating teachers as mentors to student teachers rests with the principal (or the person the principal
delegates to run the programme). Amongst other duties, the principal is expected to:
• Encourage the student teacher to participate and contribute in the activities of the school;
• Serve as a link between the student teacher, the school, and the university;
• Liaise with the TP coordinator in the selection of mentor teachers;
• Evaluate the work of both the student teacher and the mentor teacher for improvement in order to
strengthen the programme where necessary;
• Discuss models of teaching and other instruments used for TP with the student teacher;
• Promote a culture of learning in learners and of teaching in teachers, towards having a positive effect and
influence on the student teacher’s practice;
• Ensure that the student teacher’s experience at the school is worthwhile;
• Review evaluation documents and TP guidelines and discuss them with the student teacher, as well as
the university TP coordinator;
• Attend and participate in the orientation of student teachers and mentor teachers at the university;
• Stimulate and provide support to student teachers;
• Be committed to facilitate the professional growth of the student teacher.
An effective principal is a good listener, promotes positive relationships amongst staff and student
teachers, encourages effective teaching at all times, and is willing to set time aside for consultations and
gives honest feedback when he or she does so.
APPLYING IT TODAY
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Now that you have worked through the chapter, reflect on and respond to the following questions:
1. Will you be able to explain the concept of TP (what it means and what it entails) to a student like
Mpho? Write out your explanation.
2. Do you think that if Mpho could read this chapter her biggest fears will be addressed? Give reasons
for your answer.
3. Do you have a better idea about TP? Do you have strategies in place to deal or cope with TP?
Describe them.
4. Will you be able to construct or develop your individual practice theory and explain that to another
student? Try doing this now.
5. Do you understand the roles and responsibilities of the mentors and their possible contribution to
your TP experience? List them in a table.
Conclusion
Teaching is a challenging profession. Teaching practice is the key component of teacher training. It is
therefore critical that student teachers should understand what TP entails, that it is not everyone who can
teach, and that anyone who wants to teach has to learn the art of teaching. It is during TP sessions that
you work with a mentor teacher who will give you ‘insider’ guidance on managing your classroom.
Mentors represent the opportunity to offer formative assessment to you to develop and improve your
classroom practice. It is for this reason that a well-planned mentorship programme is necessary so that
you find your TP an enriching experience and one that will guide you to become a teacher who is
committed to lifelong learning. Through TP, you will be able to start constructing a personal practice
which integrates theory and teaching effectively, in a challenging, rapidly changing environment which is
becoming ever more diverse. You will, effectively, be equipping yourself for twenty-first century
teaching.
Activities
Self-reflection
1. What do you think the demands of the teaching profession are today?
2. Having read the chapter, what do you think your role/s as a student teacher during TP will be?
Analysis and consolidation
3. Make a concept map (on one page) of all the important concepts related to TP that you have read about
in this chapter.
4. What competencies do you think you will be evaluated on during TP session? Write down the most
important reasons for each.
5. What aspects of TP do you think could be helpful to you personally as a student teacher during the TP
session?
6. What do you consider to be a good relationship between you and the mentor teacher? Explain how you
can maintain a trusting relationship between you and your mentor.
Practical application
7. In a table, summarise your own, your mentor teacher’s, and your university lecturer’s roles. (Consult
Appendix 11.1 and 11.2 at the end of this book to help you, but try to make your own summary in
your own words.)
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practice in the University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria. Journal of Emerging Trends in
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12
The teaching practice approach and models used in
South Africa
Copyright 2016. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
Ntombozuko Stunky Duku, Nomafa Vivienne Mdaka and Mantsose Sethusha
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• Identify key role players in teaching practice (TP).
• Analyse the TP approaches currently used in South Africa.
• Explore the different TP components and their implementation.
• Examine student teachers’ classroom experiences during TP.
• Describe the role of assessment in TP.
Key concepts
HEI-led or university-managed approach: a model in which decision-making powers about teaching
practice matters are vested in the higher education institution; sometimes referred to as traditional model
Collaborative approach/model: a model in which the decision-making powers about the teaching
practice matters are shared between the schools and the higher education institutions
Teaching school: often referred to as a ‘teacher training school’ or ‘practice school’, it is a primary or
secondary school adopted by a university or teacher education institution; and used as a ‘training’ school
to give student teachers the opportunity to observe best teaching practices and develop their teaching
skills by participating in microteaching lessons
Teaching practice/practicum/school-based learning/school experience: all refer to the experience that
student teachers participate in at schools, during which they are based for different lengths of time in
schools, where they are expected to participate in the life of the school, to teach, and to be assessed as
aspirant teachers
Models: the set of different specific practices used in the implementation of TP components; ‘approach’
and ‘model’ are used interchangeably in the chapter
Crit lesson: one of the assessment strategies in TP, in which a student teacher’s lesson is assessed by a
school-based supervisor and/or a university-based supervisor
Host school: the school that accommodates student teachers for their work-integrated learning experience
Functioning school: a school that possesses the basic teaching and learning resources, where there is a
reasonable level of teaching and learning taking place
Host teacher/mentor teacher: terms used interchangeably in this chapter, to refer to the experienced
teacher to whom a student teacher is assigned for support and development during TP
CASE STUDY 1: SPEAKING OF THE TP EXPERIENCE…
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It is the annual student conference for university education faculties, which focuses this year on
teaching practice (TP). The main speakers at this conference are mentor teachers, PGCE and BEd
third- and fourth-year students. Also in attendance are other mentor teachers and the university
lecturers. The theme of the conference is ‘Teaching experience: Transition to learning to teach’.
Student teachers from diverse teaching practice models share their school-based learning experiences.
The first speaker to present is a student from the teaching school model. She expresses appreciation
for the system that exposes students to real-life experiences during the microteaching sessions. She
reports that during microteaching, students were transported to a teaching school, in order to
experience a real teaching and learning context. As a result she was not “too shocked” when they later
went into schools for teaching practice. However, she expresses some regret that the mentor
teacher–student teacher relationship was not really what the university had prepared them for. She says
they were treated like “substitute teachers, photocopying interns, tea makers, and the like”. She sums
up her experience by reporting: “I somehow had an experience but missed the learning”. She feels that
even though a pre-TP workshop was held, there was a need for discussion by all the TP role players.
Another student speaker who was only exposed to a real classroom situation during TP is grateful to
the mentor whom she describes as “my mother”; “my guardian angel”; “more than a mentor”, and so
forth. As a result of the support she received, even the dauntingly large class size and challenges with
learner discipline that she faced seemed “manageable”. She is, however, troubled by the variation she
found between the university lesson plan and the teachers’ lesson plan. One PGCE student speaker
criticises the university assessment tools. He feels that PGCE students should be assessed differently
from BEd fourth-year students, as the PGCEs only have less than a year’s experience in education
when they do their school experience. There is also a sense that the ten weeks is “not enough” for a
quality experience and true learning. Besides the “unfriendly” university lesson plan form, the mentor
teachers in turn share their frustration with how the student teachers do not always meet their
expectations, coupled with the often unrealistic expectations of their assigned student teachers.
STOP AND REFLECT
1. With a partner, take five minutes and reflect on your recent TP experience. Are there any issues
referred in the case study that you can identify with?
2. What do you think is frustrating for the mentor teachers? Support your claims.
3. What do you think is frustrating for the student teachers? Again, support your answer.
4. After reading the case study, imagine what you, as a university lecturer, would find to be your main
concern in the execution of TP?
5. If you were at the conference referred to in the case study, what would you advise the TP coordinator
of the university to do? Make three suggestions.
Introduction
In South Africa, the teaching practice approach used is an HEI-led or university-managed approach.
This approach is usually referred to as a traditional model, in which the decision-making powers about
teaching practice matters are mainly vested on the higher education institution. In contrast with this
approach, this chapter explores a ‘new’ dimension, which some see as a pilot, or the teaching school
approach. This is when the university makes use of a real school for microteaching purposes. Such a
school may, for instance, be situated within an accessible distance from the university.
This chapter will also unpack different components of teaching practice and the various models that
are implemented in different institutions in South Africa. These components include the placement of
students in schools, duration of TP, the assessment strategies, and mentoring process. It is through quality
TP that student teachers are able to effectively link theory and practice in a real classroom setting. This
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chapter problematises such a partnership which, as the chapter will indicate, can become messy if the
stakeholders do not share the same vision and expectations of this process. Consequently, this chapter
notes that for an effective partnership to take place, universities and schools should develop partnerships,
such that universities and the host schools are able to train students for real South African classrooms.
The next section describes the concept of teaching practice.
12.1
The concept of teaching practice
Teaching practice (TP) is regarded as the foundation of teacher education. It is the central and most
significant experience in the professional preparation of teachers, being an extension of university-based
preparation into the classroom-based learning and teaching that all teachers fundamentally require. TP is
a process by which the trainee teacher (student teacher) is exposed to real everyday teaching experience
in a school. Teacher pre-service training may not be enriching or indeed, possible, without this important
aspect.
Another important aspect of TP is the opportunity it affords students to observe experienced teachers
engaged in teaching. This is a critical component of becoming a teacher, since it involves student teachers
learning to teach through observing experienced teachers and learning to teach in a real-life situation;
reflection upon such experience; and participating in all the school-based activities that teachers regularly
get involved with. It is therefore a kind of balancing act between the theory that student teachers are
exposed to at the university and the professional knowledge in practice (refer to the opening case study:
think how the first speaker recounts her experience). Besides classroom teaching, TP also exposes student
teachers to participation in extra-curricular activities, such as sports, school nutrition, school
administration, learner transport, resource room and library duties, and many others. Students also have
an opportunity to participate in school-related administrative responsibilities that enhance their learning
and understanding of their profession (see again the opening case study).
As indicated earlier, TP is an invaluable component in the preparation of teachers because it affords
student teachers experiences in the actual teaching and learning environment. Without quality TP, it is not
possible to produce quality teachers. The keyword here is quality. In South Africa currently, criticism has
been levelled at university pre-service teacher preparation in that “teacher educators overemphasise
theory and focus less on practice” (Major & Tiro 2012: 63). Similarly, there are debates and uncertainties
in South Africa about whether universities do in fact possess the capacity to train teachers to meet the
growing needs of our society (DBE & DHET 2011). At the same time, there is acknowledgement that
teaching practice is the crux of student teacher development for the teaching profession as it provides for
the real interface between studenthood and membership of the profession. Consequently, teaching
practice creates a mixture of anticipation, anxiety, excitement and apprehension in student teachers when
they start their teaching practice (see the opening case study).
Teaching practice is also regarded as a defining element of a holistic educational strategy known as
cooperative education, which advocates the formal integration of structured real-life experiences into the
overall programme curriculum. It offers students the opportunity to work with various staff members in
the workplace to provide the student access to a breadth and depth of experiences, although only one
experienced staff member should be designated as the supervisor. TP should formally state that it
requires integration of knowledge, as an explicit learning objective. It should therefore be a structured
programme that guarantees proper supervision, suitable school placement, learning and formal
assessment. To this end, the following questions should guide the TP programme:
• Programme and course learning outcomes – what does the course require of the students? What do they
need to learn and be able to do?
• Teachers – what do they expect the students to do and to know?
• Student expectations – what are they expected to do and to learn?
• All role players (university lecturers, mentor teachers and student teachers) – do all role players share a
common understanding of the ‘what, why, where and how’ of the TP programme and activities?
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The implications of these questions is that TP is a carefully structured programme and should be a well
thought out series of practice opportunities and comprise activities aimed to benefit the host school
(including learners), the student teacher and the university. A further assumption about the relationship
between the host schools and the university is that the host schools understand what the university offers
the student teachers, and the university takes into account what the school needs are.
Teaching practice is also referred to as school experience, student teaching, field studies, in-field
experience, teacher practicum, school-based experience or teaching internship (Du Plessis, Marais & Van
Schalkwyk 2011). The implications that these concepts have in all the learning experiences of student
teachers in schools include 1) the student teacher receiving mentoring from the mentor teacher, thereby
gaining teaching skills; 2) the lived experiences of student teachers during teaching practice periods in
schools; and 3) the application of theory gained at university in the classroom (Montonen & Eriksson
2013). TP therefore involves student teachers spending sufficient time (a consecutive block of
weeks/months/semester) in a school where they are guaranteed supervision by a mentor teacher, a
suitable school placement, and experience of different assessment strategies. Teaching practice or
school-based experience are therefore structured programmes that assist in the professional growth and
learning of a student teacher.
12.2
Exploring the South African teaching practice approach
In South Africa, teaching practice is done in accordance with the Minimum Requirements for Teacher
Education Qualifications (MRTEQ) as set out by the Department of Higher Education and Training
(DHET 2014). The MRTEQ outlines how teaching education and subsequently teaching practice should
unfold in fulfilment of their related degree programmes.
Teaching practice in South Africa is also structured in accordance with a series of steps of the module
design process as outlined by Donnelly & Fitzmaurice (2005). These steps include delineating: the
mission and vision; theoretical framework; rationale, aims and learning outcomes; content; learning and
teaching strategies; assessment and evaluation; and learner support. This is set out to facilitate the design
process of the envisaged framework for the teaching practice component (for a more detailed discussion,
see Chapter 15).
Guided by MRTEQ as noted earlier, the South African TP approach is mostly a collaboration between
universities and the host schools, otherwise known as HE-led TP. This approach is, however, regarded by
some as restrictive to schools, as schools often do not feel ownership in the process (William 2007). In
some instances, schools do not really know what to expect of the student teachers, and the student
teachers do not understand the school and the classroom context. Students come from universities that
equip them with theories of teaching based on written literature, and perhaps video recordings. When
these student teachers go to their host schools for their practicum, they sometimes experience a gap
between what the university has taught them and what is really happening in schools. For instance, when
students get to the schools for TP, they receive a great deal of ‘traditional’ advice from experienced
teachers that may not match or link with the theory they have been studying. There is also a barrier
between teachers, universities and schools, which happens worldwide and is not unique to South Africa.
(You may be interested to compare and contrast local practice with teaching practice approaches outside
South Africa: check Chapter 15 for more detail.) This barrier occurs for all sorts of reasons: teachers are
the ‘on the ground’ practitioners, facing up to teaching on a daily basis; universities have developed
programmes based on the ideals of teaching and learning and on wide research that may or may not
reflect the reality of education in schools; and schools themselves follow a national curriculum and
policies that are set by government (i.e. education departments).
STOP AND REFLECT
How do you think your Faculty of Education can strengthen relationships with the schools that host you
during TP?
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Besides the HEI-led approach, there is another model in South Africa, the teaching school approach. The
next section briefly desribes this model.
12.2.1 Teaching school model in South Africa
A teaching school, also referred to as a ‘teacher training school’ or ‘practice school’ in Finland and ‘lab
school’ in the United States, is a fully functioning school that is adopted by a university or teacher
education institution. While it carries out its normal school routines, it is used as a training school to
afford student teachers the opportunity to observe the best teaching practices and to enhance their
teaching skills by participating in microteaching lessons. In South Africa, this type of school is typically
located on or very near the university campus, so it is accessible to be utilised for microteaching lessons.
However, communication between the university lecturers and the school still needs to play a pivotal role.
Role identification especially, needs to be spelt out. Such schools therefore can also be used as centres for
educational research aimed at improving teacher education (Sahlberg 2012; Darling-Hammond 2006;
Department of Basic Education and Department of Higher Education and Training 2011). Let us look
further at the rationale for using the teaching school (TS) model in South Africa.
Rationale for using a TS model in South Africa
The rationale for the establishment of teaching schools is that they act as training spaces for teacher
education students and also serve as research centres to strengthen teacher education. Furthermore, they
can be used as hosting venues for community engagement projects related to teacher education. This
model can also afford student teachers an immediate and authentic opportunity to participate in classroom
activities in the school, and acquire teaching skills through observing, practising and serving as assistants.
It is all about enhancing collaboration between universities and teaching schools as it allows the school
staff to assume the responsibility of being teacher educators and, to some extent, to work hand in hand
with the university lecturers. This all means that the overall rationale of using a teaching school model is
to establish a strong teacher education programme that bridges the ‘theory-practice divide’. But how does
one assess the benefits of using this model? We look at this next.
Benefits of using teaching schools
Generally, the one major benefit of using a teaching school model, as we have said, is that it bridges the
divide between theory and practice that continues to be a daunting challenge for South African teacher
training institutions which place their student teachers in public schools only. Following the teaching
school practice allows for a synergy between what is taught by the teacher education institutions, and
what happens in schools. One South African university’s Bachelor of Education Foundation Phase (FP)
programme, whose theoretical underpinnings emphasise the knowledge of how children learn and
develop, is enhanced by student teachers’ involvement with the same children over four years in a
teaching school, reflecting the centrality of child study. (Gravett et al. 2014). This institution is able to
fully realise this objective through the use of the teaching school model. Here, the placement of student
teachers is aligned continuously with the child’s developmental level from Grade R through to Grade 3.
In the first academic year of the FP programme, student teachers are placed in Grade R classrooms to
observe and assist in Grade R classes. During the second and third years of their academic programme,
student teachers are encouraged to teach some lessons to Grades 1 and 2 respectively. In the fourth year,
they combine the various facets of their studies for a Grade 3 class. This continuous alignment of the
placement of student teachers with the successive FP grades affords student teachers invaluable
opportunities for studying children’s development. This model is also believed to allow the school-based
teachers to learn from their university counterparts and, in this way, their professional development is
enhanced.
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APPLYING IT TODAY
1. Imagine your Faculty of Education has decided to adopt a teaching school model: what challenges to
you as a student teacher would you envisage? Outline some of these.
2. How would you advise the university to minimise the challenges you have identified? Make at least
three positive suggestions with examples.
Even in cases where teaching schools are not being used, teaching practice must still play a crucial role in
exposing students to a sustained period of time in an actual school.
The next section outlines the four main components of teaching practice and their characteristics as
implemented by different universities in South Africa.
12.3
Four main components of teaching practice in South
Africa
12.3.1 Identifying a school for teaching practice
At the heart of TP is the identification of the host school. This section outlines the process of school
identification for TP.
Different institutions use different mechanisms to identify TP host schools for their student teachers.
Universities espouse the principle that beginning teachers need to be equipped to deal with the contexts of
change, as well as with the challenges of a society which is culturally and linguistically diverse, and with
schools in very different contexts. This should enable the student teachers to cope in the real world of
teaching after graduation. In some contexts, the university identifies a number of schools which they
regard as ‘functioning schools’. Generally, a functioning school is a school that is perceived to have
most of the school processes and resources in place. This includes: teaching and learning taking place
within the lesson periods; availability of teachers to serve as host teachers or mentor teachers to student
teachers; and the availability of the basic teaching and learning resources. In some cases, student teachers
identify their schools of choice. The following factors may influence student choices:
• Home school: student teachers go back to the schools where they themselves studied as school learners.
This strategy, amongst others, is believed affect the quality of learning, as the host teachers might be
more sympathetic to their former learners. Linking the home and school thus becomes convenient for
both the student and the school. The students may also choose schools based on the distance between
their homes and the host school as this often has financial implications.
• Curriculum needs: some students choose certain schools as they consider these would satisfy and fulfil
their learning needs and career aspirations. For example, a student teacher who specialises in
Foundation Phase automatically chooses a school with a foundation phase. The same applies to a
Further Education and Training (FET) student whose specialisations are Mathematics and Science: he
or she chooses a secondary school offering these subjects.
• School culture: Students might choose certain schools based on good practices, for example, discipline,
high teacher commitment, sporting activities and other extra-curricular activities.
• Safe environment: there are schools that some students may perceive as unsafe and risky, given their
location. For instance, some parents may not be in favour of their children doing their TP in a school
in a poor neighbourhood or in a deep rural school.
• Functional or stable school: schools that are regarded as dysfunctional (poor culture of teaching and
learning), unsupportive of student teachers, with many learner disciplinary challenges, may often not
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•
be selected by student teachers.
Language of teaching and learning: some students may prefer to practise in schools where their home
language is the language of learning and teaching at the school, while others may embrace the
challenge of a school with a new but desirable language of learning and teaching.
Although the listed characteristics are generally taken into consideration when choosing schools for TP,
over the four years of the degree, students are encouraged to gain a variety of experience of teaching in
South African schools by being placed in different schools each year.
STOP AND REFLECT
From the factors outlined in this section, what strategy or strategies do you think appeal to you in your
choice of a TP school, and why?
12.3.2 Placement period during TP
In South Africa, the MRTEQ provides universities with some guidelines on the placement of student
teachers for teaching practice, as well as with the minimum and maximum duration period for the
different programmes in Teacher Education. For instance, for a full-time Bachelor of Education
programme, the MRTEQ prescribes a maximum of 32 weeks, and no less than 20 weeks. For PGCE
programme, a maximum of 12 weeks, and a minimum of eight weeks is prescribed. (For a detailed
discussion of the MRTEQ, refer to Chapter 15.)
Different universities use different placement strategies, which include the following:
• Whole semester perspective: student teachers, especially those at BEd IV level, spend the whole
semester in a school, being supervised by an experienced mentor teacher. In such institutions, the
students only get to undertake TP during their final year of study.
• Once a week, for the semester, and a block session during the second semester.
• During the TP periods, students observe lessons, plan and teach lessons, complete workbooks and
portfolios of evidence, and are assessed by mentors and supervisors. Owing to large enrolments in
Teacher Education programmes in some institutions, not all students are assessed by university-based
supervisors. In one institution, for instance, BEd II students are only assessed by the mentor teachers;
while the BEd III are assessed once by the university lecturers, BEd IV and PGCE are assessed twice
by university lecturers. This is in addition to assessment done by the mentor teachers. External
supervisors are also contracted in some institutions to assist and to ensure that all students receive the
support they need.
STOP AND REFLECT
1. What do you think the advantages of undertaking TP are, for the first time, for a whole semester, and
only in the final year of study?
2. What do you think the disadvantages of undertaking TP are, for the first time, for a whole semester,
and only in the final year of study? Lay out your ideas in a table for comparison.
12.3.3 Assessment during TP
TP is regarded as the students’ internship and induction into the teaching profession. It provides
‘hands-on’ experience and a ‘real-life’ opportunity to apply theoretical knowledge in practice, under the
experienced and empathetic eye of the professional class (host) teacher. The main opportunity given to
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students through TP is an opportunity of becoming well-equipped, reflective educators who are able to
make a positive contribution to the current state of education in South Africa.
When student teachers are engaged in TP in schools, they observe lessons taught by the mentor
teacher, plan and teach lessons themselves, complete workbooks and portfolios of evidence, and are
assessed by mentors and supervisors. As already indicated, in some institutions, owing to large
enrolments, not all students are assessed by university-based supervisors. However, there is a general
anxiety experienced by student teachers when their lessons are assessed, especially by their university
lecturers.
Generally, student teachers are assessed on the following activities that help with their learning to
teach:
• Lesson observation – observing their mentor teachers teach
• Planning and teaching – a certain number of formal and informal lessons, depending on the year level
• Service learning – involvement in non-academic activities such as resource room or library duties,
school nutrition programme, sports, etc.
• Portfolio of evidence – this is the record of all their experience during the TP period. It includes: a
history and background of the school, class timetable, profile of the class that student is responsible
for teaching, lesson plans, crit lessons by both the mentor teachers and university lecturers, student
participation in extra-curricular activities.
As noted already, part of student teacher assessment is the lesson ‘crit’ (critique or assessment) by both
the school-based mentor and the university-based mentor. Assessment by the university mentor is often
seen as a major source of anxiety for student teachers. This is despite student familiarity with the
assessment tools. To get some insight to why assessment induces anxiety, take some time to read and
think about the case study that follows.
CASE STUDY 2: ASSESSMENT ANXIETY
Sylvia, a third-year Foundation Phase student, is due to be visited by her university-based mentor for
her assessment. This is the day before the visit. She sits and shares her frustrations and anxieties with
her classmates. Amongst her concerns are:
• The lecturer coming to assess her is an Intermediate Phase lecturer, who may not be familiar with
some Foundation Phase methodologies. Besides, she does not even know this lecturer as he does
not teach FP modules.
• Two students who have been visited and assessed by this lecturer have both received ‘weak passes’.
• Ever since she arrived at the school, she has been using the lesson plan format of the TP school, and
not the university-designed one. Her mentor teacher gave her the preferred school lesson format
which does not even seem to follow the CAPS format.
• Sylvia is well aware that the lecturers expect students to plan their lessons following the university
lesson plan, as has been shown and practised during microteaching lessons.
STOP AND REFLECT
1. What are the issues of concern raised by Sylvia?
2. With regard to the inconsistency between the school- and the university-based lesson plan, what would
you advise Sylvia to do, and why?
3. What do you see as the underlying issue raised by the case study? Explain with details.
12.3.4 Mentors during teaching practice
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There are many names by which the teachers who guide student teachers during school
experience/teaching practice (SE/TP), are known. Various literature refers to such an educator as a
teaching practice supervisor, a mentor teacher, a clinical supervisor, a host teacher, and many others. For
the sake of clarity in this chapter, such an educator will be referred to as a host teacher or mentor teacher.
Host teachers are the core of the student teacher’s development and growth during SE/TP. There are
certain basic expectations that host teachers have about what the student teacher brings into the SE. These
include professional expectations; content knowledge expectations; classroom management skills; and
that generally, the student teacher should know how to behave and conduct himself/herself during SE/TP.
This mentor/host teacher helps the student teacher grow into the teaching profession. She or he fosters
the student teacher’s ability to reflect on experience and apply principles and concepts to
self-improvement efforts. The support provided by the mentor teacher is in a particular mode of training
namely, face-to face interaction between a supervisor and a student teacher, or group of teachers: when
some classroom teaching has previously been observed, the aim of the interaction is to discuss and
analyse the student’s teaching with a view to professional development of the student teacher concerned.
A host teacher is expected to assist the student teacher develop “both administrative and
classroom-based activities” (Pracana & Silva 2013). The knowledge, time, and involvement that is
required to make this experience a valuable one for student teachers and mentors is much appreciated in
the university collaboration (Maphalala 2014).
On arrival at a school, a student teacher or student teachers are assigned to a mentor teacher/ host
teacher. The meeting between the MT and the STs on the first day is usually an orientation to the school
context (or an induction about the school context). This is a critical meeting with the MT since the aim is
to make the ST feel welcome at school, and also to introduce him/her to the rest of the staff. The mentor
teacher shows the student teacher the staffroom, where s/ he can sit, use a laptop, and so on. She
orientates the student to the social and intellectual spaces, which include the tearoom (if there is one),
toilets, the library, computer laboratory, classrooms, playgrounds, sports fields, etc. It is also expected
that the mentor teacher introduces the student teacher to the policies that guide the school. These may
include the dress code, the use of cellphones and laptops, and the use of school resources including the
photocopier and computer lab. Also, the mentor teacher establishes with the student teacher the subject
and the lessons that the ST will be teaching during the SE. She or he also talks generally to the student
about what it means to be a teacher in that particular school. Importantly, this first meeting also unpacks
the roles of the mentor teacher and that of the student teacher, as well as explaining the philosophy of the
mentor–mentee relationship. However, this should not be seen as a once-off activity and the ST may now
and then seek clarification on some of these issues.
STOP AND REFLECT
Pause for a few minutes and think about your relationship with your host teacher. Do you feel it was a
relationship between two adults? Explain your answer. Were you treated like an adult, a student teacher
who was at this school to learn how to teach? Or do you feel you were treated like a junior, perhaps even
someone at the level of a learner? Can you explain why this was?
12.3.5 Mentoring process during TP
Mentoring involves a relationship either between two people, or between one person on the one hand and
a group of people on the other, with an intention of transferring knowledge and skills, encouraging
growth and the necessary risk-taking. Essentially, mentoring is about facilitating change by providing a
stable source of support through the process.
School-based mentors are enormously important during teaching practice. They introduce the student
teacher to the real school context from the perspective of a practising teacher, and guide their teaching
and learning. They also become their role models in the profession. These mentors must be carefully
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selected and trained in order to engage effectively with students. Mentors need to orientate students
towards school policy, extra-curricular activities, curriculum matters, as well as effective teaching
methodologies. They need to organise lesson observations, support lesson planning and assist the student
during the reflection process of a lesson.
Some of the characteristics of effective mentors include being approachable, open minded,
accommodating of diversity, being able to articulate a personal philosophy, and possessing a high level of
emotional intelligence.
emotional intelligence: the ability of a person to recognise their own, and other people’s feelings, to
distinguish between different feelings and identify them appropriately, and to use emotional
information to guide their thinking and behaviour, especially towards others
APPLYING IT TODAY
Consider the following scenario:
You are a fourth-year student teacher. Jasmine Motima is a first-year student teacher at the same
school. She asks you to observe her while she is teaching a Grade 7 Economics and Management
Sciences lesson. You notice that while she seems calm and in control, she reads directly from the
textbook, does not ask the learners any questions, and at some point battles to explain a concept to
learners. One learner asks her to provide an example of what she has just struggled to explain and she
abruptly gives all the learners an activity (from the textbook) to do on their own. Ms Motima then sits
at the teacher’s desk, apparently studying the textbook and her notes with some concentration, until the
end of the lesson.
1. What do you think the challenges are that Ms Motima is facing? How is she handling them?
2. How would you assist her? Indicate a few practical suggestions for overcoming her challenges.
Describe how you would make these suggestions to her.
Conclusion
This chapter has highlighted, in line with the MRTEQ, that there is one main TP approach used in South
Africa. This is what is usually referred to as the traditional approach, in which the HEI is responsible for
the curriculum and administration of the TP. In such an approach, the HEI holds the centre and dominates
decision-making between the university and the schools where practical learning takes place. When so
much power is based in the HEIs, the model is known as an HEI-led model, but within this model, there
are newer models being piloted sometimes referred to as integrative models. The teaching school
approach is one such new model. Here a fully functioning school on or close to the campus is used for
ongoing student practice, microteaching experience and also research studies.
Pre-service teacher education and teaching practice specifically are described as the heartbeat of
teacher development. As the discussions in this chapter indicate, in most contexts, TP is characterised by
challenges that emanate from ineffective partnerships between the universities, schools and school-based
staff, and the student teachers. Hence there is a call for all these stakeholders to work in collaboration,
with universities being the custodian and playing a leading role in classroom-based theory. This will
ensure that the theory, to a large extent, links with the practical school and classroom realities. These
theories should be such that they guide the practice that is happening in schools during TP. Such
partnership and teamwork between HEIs and schools (and their relevant role players) will ensure the
central objective of training as the provision of a quality experience and best practices for student
teachers.
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Activities
Self-reflection
1. As a quality teaching and learning experience is how TP is intended and described in this chapter.
Reflect on your own ideas of quality and what you think your role in a quality experience might be.
Analysis and consolidation
2. Lewis (2010: 45) characterises the relationship between the key role players in teaching practice as a
“three-way contract”. Identify the role players and explain the nature of the relationship in terms of a
contract.
3. What is the mentoring relationship all about?
a. Who is/are your mentor/s?
b. Can you have more than one mentor? Discuss.
c. What skills should mentors possess?
d. What is the difference between mentoring and coaching?
e. Is mentoring formal or informal? What makes you say so?
4. Analyse and discuss the TP approach used in SA in accordance with the MRTEQ.
Practical applications
5. What are the different TP components and how are they their implemented? Imagine you have just
started your TP at a school:
a. As a journal entry, describe your first day in detail.
b. As a student teacher, describe your classroom experiences during your second day of TP.
c. What will happen in terms of assessment towards the end of your TP? Identify the main elements.
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13
Leadership and management of teaching practice –
teachers’ and student teachers’ roles
Copyright 2016. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
Mariaan van der Walt, Andre van der Bijl, Megan Alexander and Therza Palm-Forster
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Describe the nature and elements of the management process.
• Discuss a selection of leadership theories and apply them to a teaching and learning situation.
• Identify the various stakeholders involved in teaching practice and their overlapping relationships.
• Recognise the factors that inform teaching practice structures.
• Explain why planning is required prior to teaching practice.
• Anticipate what you can expect from a lecturer’s feedback during teaching practice.
• Understand the importance of selecting the most appropriate school for your needs as a student teacher.
• Be aware of how placement in schools can shape your professional development.
• Link reflection to developing your teaching and learning practice.
• Develop awareness of some of the available technologies that could be used to manage teaching practice,
lead teaching practice and be used in schools.
Key concepts
Management in teaching practice: the process of balancing all stakeholder needs and activities toward
the achievement of an intended outcome
Leadership theory and styles: the preferred set of beliefs, behaviours and practices that inform and
direct the management process
Reflective practice: a cyclical and continuous process of analysing one’s understanding and activities to
inform one’s future practice for the better
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT): current systems, computer programs and
devices that make sharing information and communication possible and that can be used to improve
teaching and learning
CASE STUDY 1: CHANGE WITHOUT COMMUNICATION
A university always plans to place its student teachers in schools in the second semester of the year.
This year, the university suddenly decides to move the teaching practice to the first semester, without
informing the host schools. Students arrive at the schools for their teaching practice in the first
semester. Most schools understandably refuse to accommodate these students because of the lack of
communication between the schools and the university. Some mentor teachers feel sorry for the
students, and allow them to go ahead with the six weeks of teaching practice in their classes, as they
understand how important the experience is. However, many student teachers find themselves in the
position of having no classes to attend, and indeed, no host school willing to accomodate them for that
year.
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STOP AND REFLECT
1. What kind of management style did this university adopt?
2. Discuss the impact of the university’s management of the teaching practice on the stakeholders, such
as lecturers, student teachers, host schools and mentor teachers.
Introduction
Stakeholders, such as universities and schools, form the backbone of teaching practice for student
teachers. The quality of leadership and management of such stakeholders is what makes teaching practice
a success or a failure. The aim of this chapter is to help student teachers understand the importance of
leadership and management of institutions, schools, mentor teachers and student teachers in the process
of teaching practice. As you read in the opening case study, mentor teachers and students teachers need to
work together to make a success of the teaching practice (TP) experience for both. The elements that
make a teaching practice experience successful, such as the selection of schools, communication between
mentor teachers and student teachers, or the importance of knowledge of the curriculum, etc., are
identified and contextualised. A discussion of leadership and management styles and practice forms a
considerable section of the chapter, together with the design of learning and evidence of learning, and the
policy requirements for teachers teaching in South Africa. This is followed by a section on planning and
organisation at stakeholder level; placement of student teachers; guiding student teachers; reflection by
stakeholders; and the role of assessment. The chapter ends with a section on the use of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) by stakeholders.
13.1
Management and leadership within the context of
education
Before we begin this section, it is useful to establish your own expectations and those of others in this
important part of your education to be a teacher.
STOP AND REFLECT
1. As a student teacher, what do you expect from the university that is sending you on teaching practice,
and the school that hosts you?
2. What do you think the university, school and learners expect from you?
Shulman (2004) reflects that after thirty years of studying teaching, it is clear that teaching is the most
complex and challenging activity. South Africa, in particular, faces several challenges as a developing
country which needs teachers who can manage and facilitate transformation, innovation and
empowerment in an ever-evolving society. This means we constantly need to analyse and reflect on
education in South Africa. The teaching practice experience is the most important factor that affects or
changes our beliefs as pre-service teachers about teaching (Yilmaz & Çava 2007). All stakeholders (the
university, students, lecturers, schools/colleges, education departments, external evaluators) are therefore
considered important agents in creating best practice. Lecturing staff need to ensure alignment between
the curriculum and teaching practice. Feedback from mentors and evaluators at schools serves as
invaluable insight into issues needing to be considered at schools. Students are provided with
opportunities to be part of the placement process, have input into lesson plans, comment on the
development of portfolios and evaluation forms, and provide feedback of their teaching practice sessions.
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Plourde (2002) states that this experience allows students to apply what they have learned and creates the
opportunity to develop a personal teaching philosophy.
STOP AND REFLECT
1. Do you recognise any of the experiences in the dialogue?
2. Reflect on how teaching practice prepares/does not prepare you for certain challenges faced in the
classroom.
Shulman (2004) points to the complex and challenging nature of teaching, which is why we have chosen
to turn to the management and leadership of the practice of teaching and to look at it as a broad process
involving many different stakeholders.
management: a process of planning, organising, leading, coordinating, controlling and staffing
13.1.1 Management
The current understanding of leadership and management in education has evolved over a number of
decades. One generally accepted principle of management and leadership is the application of Stoner’s
(1978) argument that management is a broad process and leadership is a key element of that process.
Stoner’s model has been adapted and applied by many business management, educational management
and leadership publications. The management process designed by Stoner for business managers has been
applied to managing educational institutions and aspects within educational institutions that require
management. Teaching practice is one such element that requires careful management and leadership.
The management process is currently accepted as consisting of four interrelated phases. The phases are
planning, organising, leading and controlling.
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•
•
•
•
Planning involves an analysis of the situation in which the organisation functions, as well as its
intentions. Planning involves determining internal strengths, and weaknesses, as well as external
trends, opportunities and threats. It also involves stating aims, goals and objectives.
Organising involves a focus on structures within which plans can be implemented. Decisions that are
commonly made during the organising phase of management are the determination of organisational
structures, as well as the lines of relations and associated power within the identified structures.
Leadership, also called directing, is the implementation of plans within the organisational structures that
have been determined. Leadership is commonly described as involving communication and
motivation, which reflects what leaders do – leaders implement plans within organisations by
communicating with staff involved and ensuring that everyone is motivated to take part in the plan
implementation.
Controlling is commonly described as the phase in the management process in which the measurement
of the extent to which plans have been implemented and objectives have been reached, and decisions
on corrective action are taken. Corrective action, if required, feeds into the next cycle of planning.
Figure 13.1:The management process is seen as a cycle, with each phase feeding into the next phase.
Although the management process appears structured, and leadership is an element of a broader
management process, in reality, leading guides the whole management process. A teaching practice
coordinator is likely to develop plans and arrange timetables, which are management tasks but briefing
staff, students and the school mentors who are involved, requires leadership.
Management and good leadership, from a management perspective, are more desirable than a lack of
management or haphazard management. Sound management and good leadership result in a balance
within the environment being managed. On one hand, this is in external balance, such as that between the
different departments and organisations involved in teaching practice. On the other hand, this is in
internal balance because good management will result in a clear and fair division of labour. From a
management perspective, therefore, effective teaching practice is the result of an organised and well led
plan that includes effective control.
From planning, organising, leading and control, we now move to leadership as a concept and the role
it plays in effective teaching practice.
STOP AND REFLECT
1. What management tools do you think a university and a school should use to facilitate the smooth
running of a teaching practice exercise?
2. What tools or strategies could you use to ensure that your own performance is up to standard? Make a
list of your personal self-management strategies, with examples.
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13.1.2 Leadership
The key executive element of management is leadership or directing. While planning, organising and
control are important, without direction and leadership, plans cannot be executed in organisations.
Without leadership there would also be little or nothing to control. Within the context of teaching
practice, leading includes all activities on the part of staff from both university and school and student
leaders which contribute towards the achievement of teaching practice goals.
leadership: the process of influencing employees so that they work willingly towards the achievement
of organisational objectives
Situations, objectives, tasks required and competency levels differ for different teaching practice
exercises. Less is required of a first-year student than a graduate student; and a teaching situation in a
science laboratory differs from that of a history class. As can be expected, different subject teachers,
student leaders and academic staff will behave differently towards different types of students and
different teaching practice situations.
There are four main leadership styles, which you are probably already familiar with: an autocratic or
authoritarian leadership style; a democratic, participative or consultative leadership style; an easygoing or
laissez-faire leadership style (Kruger & Van Schalkwyk 1997: 22-24); and an altruistic or
‘non’-leadership style. The conceptualisation of each of the four styles is based on both the behaviour and
the situational approach to leadership. Leadership style reflects the extent to which a leader combines a
focus on people and a focus on production or outcome. An altruistic leader has a low focus on both
production and people. An autocratic leader is one who has a strong product focus but a low focus on
people, and can be contrasted with a laissez-faire leader whose care for people outweighs a focus on
completion of the work. A democratic or participative leader aims to maximise a focus on both people
and completion of work.
leadership style: the various patterns of behaviour favoured by leaders
STOP AND REFLECT
Prepare a letter of intent for yourself, describing in as much detail as you can, how you will approach a
teaching practice exercise and the leadership style/s you are likely to adopt.
While management and leadership publications tend to suggest that a participative leadership style is the
best one to use, the most appropriate leadership style is the one that best suits the situation and the people
being managed. First-year students may benefit from a teaching practice coordinator whose leadership
style is autocratic, while graduates may benefit from a coordinator whose leadership style is laissez-faire.
School mentors, who are experienced in teaching practice placements, may prefer a participative
approach.
As stated earlier, the leadership style of a leader will have a focus on people and production in varying
degrees. In order for student teachers to engage with the teaching and learning of learners, learning
structure and evidence of learning need to be designed purposefully.
13.2
Designing the learning structure and evidence of learning
Over the years, we have seen a move away from the student teacher as an apprentice (mere imitating of
experienced teachers) towards the student as a reflective practitioner, one who has and can use
twenty-first century skills. It is therefore imperative that the planning of teaching practice, the
organisation of the practical elements, the leadership of the process, and control of the entire
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implementation of the practice are informed by reflective practice. Overall, a democratic or participative
approach is favoured so that all stakeholders are empowered. This participative approach leads to
consultative relationships between stakeholders (see Figure 13.2).
Figure 13.2:The different stakeholders in the teaching practice exercise can be brought together by a participative
approach.
The basic learning structure of teaching practice and evidence of learning are informed by a host of
factors, such as the following:
13.2.1 Policy documents
The National Qualifications Framework Act 67 of 2008 (DHET 2011a: 53) requires that newly-qualified
teachers should be able to demonstrate the following competencies:
• Demonstrate sound subject knowledge
• Demonstrate ability to teach their elected subjects
• Demonstrate knowledge of who their learners are, how they learn, and their learners’ individual needs
• Communicate effectively in general, as well as in relation to their subject(s)
• Demonstrate highly-developed literacy, numeracy and Information Technology (IT) skills
• Demonstrate a sound knowledge about the school curriculum, and ability to use available resources
appropriately
• Teach in a manner that includes all learners, based on a sound understanding of diversity in the South
African context
• Demonstrate ability to identify learning or social problems and work in partnership with professional
service providers to address these
• Manage classrooms effectively across diverse contexts
• Assess learners in reliable and varied ways, as well as being able to use the results of assessment to
improve teaching and learning
• Demonstrate a positive work ethic, display appropriate values and conduct themselves in a manner that
befits, enhances and develops the teaching profession
• Reflect critically, in theoretically informed ways and in conjunction with their professional community
of colleagues, on their own practice in order to constantly improve and adapt it to evolving
circumstances.
These roles and competencies have informed the more recent policy on Minimum Requirements for
Teacher Education Qualifications (MRTEQ) 2015. However, it is foregrounded by “knowledge which
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underpins teaching practice” and therefore enables these roles and competencies (DHET 2015: 62).
These teaching competencies (DHET 2011) inform the assessment criteria for teaching practice. A
student evaluation form (see Appendix 13.1 at the end of this book), for example, will include these
criteria. Student teachers and mentors can use these criteria as guidelines to teaching, as well as being
assessed. Through these competencies, they demonstrate their compliance with the relevant policy as
prescribed by government.
13.2.2 Knowledge of the school curriculum
Changes in the school curriculum (as evidenced in South Africa with the progression from
outcomes-based education, to the more recent Curriculum Assessment Policy Statements CAPS) also
affect the basic learning structure of teaching practice. A sound knowledge of the current practice of the
curriculum gives the student teacher the structure to fill in with applicable content and activities. A
practical implementation of the curriculum also determines the optimal use of resources by the student
teacher in line with the outcomes, content and assessment activities required by the curriculum. This
knowledge gives the student the opportunity to prepare and equip their learners with twenty-first century
skills and knowledge.
13.2.3 Qualifications required to teach in a South African school
In order to be considered for employment in a South African school, a prospective teacher needs to have
completed the equivalent of four years of training, that is, a Bachelor of Education (BEd), or a first degree
plus Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) offered by a registered institution in a programme
accredited by the Council on Higher Education/Higher Education Quality Committee and registered on
the National Qualifications Framework by the South African Qualifications Authority (www.education
.gov.za). This means the evidence of learning will be informed by the particular qualification a student
teacher is registered for in a particular year, as well as the specific year level of the student teacher. The
competencies expected from first-year students (introductory school practice, mainly observation
activities) will differ considerably in difficulty from the competencies prescribed at fourth-year level
(competent, engaged and reflective teaching).
13.2.4 The influence of personal attributes on the learning-to-teach
environment
Shulman (2004) claims that the vision someone has about his or her future teaching influences his or her
teaching practices. The literature also emphasises that student teachers’ personal characteristics affect
teaching and learning (Dean 1996; Flores 2007; John 1991).
Despite an array of approaches and complexities to the study of the process of becoming a teacher,
teaching practice should ensure alignment of policy and practice. Curriculum outcomes, student
portfolios, lesson plans and lesson evaluation forms (see Appendix 13.1) should contain the outcomes
intended in the teaching practice training programme and the policy documents, but should also
encourage reflective practice for possible change. The reflective practice component personalises the
process of becoming a teacher. The student teacher focuses on strengths, personal weaknesses,
opportunities for change and improvement and challenges in the teaching and learning process. By going
through the process of reflective practice, student teachers analyse the very essence of their own ‘teacher’
identity, and the influence of their own personal attributes on their teaching practice.
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STOP AND REFLECT
1. Do you think teaching practice prepares you adequately for your assessment (lesson evaluations,
portfolios, observations of lessons)? Why or why not?
2. How would you change the student evaluation form (either the one used in your institution or the one
offered as an example in Appendix 13.1)?
13.3
Planning
Planning is the key to the student’s teaching experience. Planning for classroom lessons and activities
includes a wide-ranging number of tasks that can appear at first to be discouraging to the student teacher,
including finding resources, estimating how long an activity will take, figuring out how difficult a
concept will seem to learners, and calculating how to engage learners’ curiosity and enthusiasm. Planning
is, however, critical and essential to good teaching (Brandeis University 2009).
The stakeholders involved in a teaching practice planning meeting are faculty management, lecturing
and administration staff, students and schools. Faculty management, lecturers and administration staff are
responsible for budgeting, such as finances for transport and resources during teaching practice, planning
of school visits, and allocation of lecturing staff and students to schools.
A question of ethics
“Ethical standards: […]The supervisor liaises with the liaison student to arrange times when students
will teach lessons to be observed [by the visiting lecturer]. It is important that s/he arrives in good time to
get to the classroom before the first lesson commences.” (UCT Student Teaching Handbook 2014).
Why do you think punctuality is so important during teaching practice that it is listed under ethical
standards in one university’s student handbook?
You notice that while you arrive in good time for classes, your mentor teacher is frequently late. What
do you do about this?
STOP AND REFLECT
What kind of feedback do you expect from a visiting lecturer?
13.3.1 Schools
Host teachers/school mentors assist in setting broad goals for the student teacher to try to attain during the
school experience. They also assist student teachers with teaching skills such as questioning, helping
learners understand, and locating information, while increasingly allowing the student teacher to accept
complete responsibility for the classroom (UCT 2014). Organising teaching practice involves many
different aspects, such as selection of schools, and placement of students at schools.
Selection of schools
Like most people, all students have a ‘comfort zone’, meaning they would invariably prefer to teach
where they feel comfortable. If schools are selected for students outside their comfort zone, there may be
some resistance on the part of students.
For some students, this means a preference for teaching learners in their home language in small
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classes and in schools with all the necessary resources. Other students relish the challenge of being placed
in schools they might want to join as permanent staff members in future, even if the school currently
lacks the necessary support structures for the student. The school might also be resource poor but appeal
to the student because it is closer to their background and own school experience, or because it represents
a real teaching and learning challenge (Robinson 2014).
STOP AND REFLECT
1. What is your understanding of the concept of ‘feeling comfortable’ in a placement school?
2. Some preferences are described in school selection. What would be your preference? Why?
Benefits of selecting suitable schools
The main aim of selecting suitable schools is that of maximising student teacher learning. In order to
achieve this aim, student teachers need to be prepared during their stay at schools to teach a culturally and
linguistically diverse learner body. Student teachers need to gain knowledge, disposition and skills. In
selecting suitable schools, students are exposed to challenging social and educational contexts which will
help them to cope with diverse learners (Darling-Hammond & Lieberman 2012). At this stage, teacher
education moves out of institutions and into schools (Robinson 2014).
disposition: usually means a person’s quality of mind or character; here it means the right or
appropriate attitude
APPLYING IT TODAY
1. Like many countries in the world, South Africa is experiencing high levels of human migration.
What influence does migration have on school profiles? How will this impact on the day-to-day
teaching and learning of the school?
2. What does it mean for teacher education if we shift the focus of and responsibility for teacher
education from institutions to schools?
migration: the movement of people, usually away or far from their home place, town or country, to
live in another place or country
Criteria for the selection of schools
In contemporary social culture, language and context are the driving forces behind the identity of a
school. As a student teacher, one needs to learn how to deal with diverse cultures, languages and contexts.
The first criterion for the selection of schools is to ascertain if the school represents diverse cultures,
different languages, as well as the different social contexts that learners come from. The second criterion
in selecting schools for individual students is whether the school offers the student teacher’s subject or
phase specialisation. The last criterion speaks to the relationship between the institution and the school:
the way in which student teachers are received at the school, as well as the relationship with the principal
of the school, and availability of mentor teachers, also determines suitability.
Discussion point
The support and guidance given by schools to student teachers is not part of their day-to-day teaching
load. Teachers are very busy and are burdened with extra work in the form of supervision and support.
Since this support and supervision are voluntary, the enthusiasm of principals and teachers, on the one
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hand from the perspective of the institution, and on the other hand, the ‘help’ students can render to
schools from the perspective of the school, ensure a win-win situation for all stakeholders. Now, as a
student teacher, describe what your thoughts are on the following:
1. Should support and supervision of student teachers be part of teachers’ compulsory workload at school?
2. How would you deal with a hostile ‘welcome’ at a school?
3. What ‘help’ will be valuable to the school from the school’s perspective?
4. What is the value of the ‘help’ you render to the school, from your perspective as a student teacher?
13.3.2 Placement of students
At the onset of teaching practice, student teachers are placed in schools where they will spend the entire
teaching practice period. Students come from different backgrounds, and are matched with schools
situated in different locations.
Teaching practice placements in schools intend for student teachers to be placed in schools to develop
knowledge, skills, competencies and a professional disposition, in order to shape their individual
professional identities (Teaching Council 2013).
STOP AND REFLECT
1. Who should be responsible for school placements of students?
2. What benefits can be gained from placement of student teachers in schools by institutions? In your
response, think broadly about the purpose of teaching practice and the criteria for the selection of
schools.
Characteristics of effective placement
Effective school placement is dependent on the whole school being focused on appropriate and varied
learning. This will afford the student teacher an opportunity to translate theory into practice.
Relationships are built through placements at suitable schools. These relationships are based on mutual
respect, trust and inclusion of all stakeholders in the decision-making processes around the placement of
student teachers. Partnerships are forged through the continuous respectful, trusting and inclusive
interaction between schools and higher education institutions. Since teaching is a self-regulating
profession, school placement becomes part of teacher education in partnership with higher education
institutions. The partnership includes the responsibility of student teachers to maximise every learning
opportunity offered by his/ her placement school. The relational aspect of placements is also supported by
communication between all role players, including parents of learners. Parents need to be informed by the
school of the presence of student teachers in classes, the purpose and the commitment of the school to
host these students (Teaching Council 2013).
STOP AND REFLECT
There are several role players in the placement of student teachers at schools. What role does each role
player fulfil? Are certain role/s more important than others? Why do you think so?
Leading and guiding student teachers
Student teachers should be guided and led on how to establish and maintain good relationships and
communication with visiting lecturers and host or mentor teachers. The focus is on interactions with
people, while care should be taken that instructions are received and interpreted correctly (Van der
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Westhuizen 2008).
School mentors
The mentor and host teacher should provide guidance into the uncharted territory (for student teachers) of
the classroom. The mentor teacher should act as a leader, since merely sympathising with the student
teacher and being kind to him or her, could actually hinder the transition for the student teacher from
student to teacher (Weasmer & Woods 2003)
Ideally, school mentors should begin with joint preparation of the first lesson, and continue with
regular observation, while formative feedback to improve student teaching is given at frequent meetings.
Student teachers’ are also guided in understanding and developing the skills of reflective practice (UCT
2014; Weasmer & Woods 2003).
STOP AND REFLECT
“Having meeting times with the student teacher, which should include opportunities to talk about what
the student teacher is doing, why the student teacher is doing it, and how things are going. Regular
meetings to help the student teacher evaluate his/her own progress and to help build self-confidence and
self-reliance in the student teacher” (UCT 2014).
In your experience, what is the value of a meeting between a student teacher and the mentor teacher
during teaching practice?
Leading and guiding lecturing staff
During school visits, lecturing staff liaise with the school principal and host teacher to facilitate the
teaching practice visits of students. As representatives of the institution, lecturing staff support the school
as well as mentor teachers, in providing information to the school on what is expected of the school as a
host facility, as well as what is expected of the mentor teacher as the person who will be guiding the
student teacher in the classroom. Assessment of the student teacher’s lessons will be done by the lecturing
staff member as planned by the institution. The student teacher will then get verbal and written feedback.
This feedback will include support for the student teacher on how to deal with learners in class. As part of
the visit by the lecturing staff member, a formal discussion on the growth and development of the student
teacher will be conducted with the mentor teacher. This will enable the lecturing staff member to assist
the student as well as the mentor teacher.
13.4
Assessment, reflection and evaluation
Assessment of student teachers has the main purpose (among others) of promoting reflective practice and
the development of the student teacher. Let us look at what is involved.
13.4.1 Assessment of student teachers
Assessment of student teachers means the performance of student teachers will be judged against the
criteria prescribed for teaching practice by the institution. It is the activity of determining if student
teachers have moved from a concern with self, to developing competence in teaching and learning, which
in turn, will lead to reflection of classroom practice (Winterbottom, Taber, Brindley, Fisher, Finney &
Riga 2008)
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STOP AND REFLECT
1. What does assessment of teaching practice mean to you as a student teacher?
2. What do you perceive to be the positives and the negatives of the assessment of teaching practice?
During teaching practice, lecturers will visit the school. These visits are planned by the institution in
collaboration with the host school and communicated to student teachers. During the visit, student
teachers receive oral and written feedback from the lecturer. Lecturers focus on how to improve the
student teacher’s teaching and learning practice (rather than what he or she is doing wrong), with
supportive suggestions on how to effect improvements. The lecturer will also consult the host teacher to
ascertain the learning development of the student teacher, teaching and learning skills displayed, as well
as reflective practices applied.
13.4.2 Reflections of students, lecturing staff and school mentors
Stakeholders, such as student teachers, lecturing staff and school mentors are all involved in teaching
practice and need to reflect on their experiences during this time. School mentors or host teachers can
take on many roles for a student teacher, for example, role model, mentor, leader, partner, critical friend,
and trusted colleague. A school mentor thus assumes an important role in helping a student become a
confident and creative teacher (Brandeis University 2009).
The reflections of stakeholders are usually an indication of the quality of the teaching practice as an
action involving students, lecturing staff and school mentors. As such, they form an important body of
information to be acted on.
Students
Reflections here focus on the professional development of student teachers and how they apply their
teaching and learning skills in a classroom. The following activity will help to understand that the
reflective process for students entails.
APPLYING IT TODAY
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Before completing the table, ask yourself:
• What have I learned about myself?
• Where do I need to do to improve?
• What challenges/obstacles did I encounter and how did I cope with them?
• What have I learned during my school experience?
Now complete the table. The first column asks a question. The second column needs to be completed
with your reflective answer (comment) to the question, and the third column needs your view on how
you can improve your skills.
Question
Reflective
comment
What do I need to
do to improve?
What have I learned in terms of knowledge, skills and my
personal abilities, as a student teacher?
What have I learned about my own strengths?
What have I learned about my own weaknesses?
What have I learned about what I need to improve in my
teaching practice?
How have I grown as a student teacher?
How did my own prejudices or assumptions as an individual
impact on my teaching practice?
Lecturing staff
Lecturing staff reflect on the structure, stakeholders, and quality of the teaching practice, to include the
organisation of the teaching practice exercise, the reception of students and lecturing staff at schools,
supporting infrastructure, possible learning development opportunities for the student, mentor support,
and the student as a future teacher.
School mentors
School mentors reflect on the experience of having a student teacher in class, in terms of the organisation
of the teaching practice from the school’s perspective, teaching and learning opportunities given to the
student, student’s ability to move from theory to practice, student’s growth towards professionalism, and
the general interaction between the school and student.
13.4.3 Evaluation of experience, schools and partnerships
The evaluation of the teaching experience is based on the relationship between schools and institutions.
Student teachers need to learn for practice, in practice and from practice. Based on the different contexts
and socio-economic circumstances of schools, some students seem to learn in spite of practice. The
relationship between schools and institutions needs to be strong enough to withstand unfavourable
conditions on both sides of the relationship. Evaluation of the relationship depends on the interaction
between the school and institution, including communication, and the student teachers’ ability to move
from theory to practice.
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STOP AND REFLECT
1. Explain what it means to learn for practice, in practice and from practice.
2. How can one learn in spite of practice?
13.5
The use of ICT
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) covers all the technologies that make information
accessible through telecommunications. This includes the internet, wireless networks, mobile
technology (cellphones), and other communication media (TechTerms 2010).
South African national and institutional policy documents such as the National Plan for Higher
Education (2001), the National Research and Development Strategy (2002) and the White Paper on
e-Education (2003) highlight the role of Information and Communication Technologies in education.
Using Information and Communication Technologies will enhance teaching and learning, encourage
innovation and contribute to transformation (Czerniewicz & Brown 2005).
13.5.1 How can ICT contribute to the management of teaching
practice?
Organisations that use technologies to communicate and collaborate with clients and remain abreast of
developments are likely to create better relationships (Cleary 2014). These relationships can constitute all
role players in teaching practice – lecturers, teachers and learners and student teachers. Table 13.1
(opposite) provides a summary of some of the technologies that could be used by the different role
players for various purposes.
Table 13.1:A few technologies to consider using
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(Source:Adapted from Cleary 2014; Cohen, Manion & Morrison 2004)
STOP AND REFLECT
“If the teacher is sufficiently expert or well prepared, if the teacher has a negative attitude to the use of
ICT, if the teacher does not change his/her behaviour, or if the teacher does not enable learning styles
and learner behaviour to change, then the best promises of ICT will not be realised – the computer will
simply be another presentational device to reinforce traditional teaching with a bit of light entertainment
added in to make life a little less tedious.” (Cohen, Manion & Morrison 2004: 60)
1. Which technologies were you exposed to during teaching practice – both at university and at schools?
2. Which of these technologies enhanced your teaching and learning?
3. What areas of ICT and teaching do you need to improve?
Conclusion
Leadership and management in teaching practice cannot be underestimated. The quality of such
management and leadership determines the success of teaching practice for all stakeholders, such as
lecturers, mentor teachers and particularly student teachers. The experience can be an enjoyable and
fruitful learning experience, or a traumatic and overwhelming one for students teachers (as you read in
the opening case study). To ensure the quality of the experience, the selection of schools, placement of
students, knowledge of the curriculum and compliance with policy requirements for teachers have all to
be kept in mind and addressed. A teaching practice experience based on reflective practice principles is
the cornerstone of a soundly managed and well led teaching practice experience for all stakeholders.
Activities
Self-reflection
1. As a student teacher, you are put in an unfamiliar and uncomfortable situation while on teaching
practice. How can you keep an open, objective mind, having overheard your host teacher pass
negative comments about your level of content knowledge? Look at this from your own point of view
as student teacher, and from the position of the host teacher.
2. You are a student from a relatively poor background. Your host school is in a very affluent
neighbourhood. The learners are used to the latest technological resources and the latest twenty-first
century teaching and learning applications. It is clear to you the learners are much more advanced
than you are in their teaching and learning applications and especially their expectations of the
teacher’s delivery of content. How do you move past your own insecurities to fit in with the school
environment?
Practical applications
3. As a student, you are well-versed in the current curriculum being implemented by schools. You are
placed in a host school still implementing the previous curriculum. How do you deal with the tension
between what you know, and what the school requires you to implement?
4. Assessment forms a big part of teaching practice. Develop an assessment rubric for your teaching
practice experience, using criteria you think should be incorporated in the rubric. You should develop
a three-part rubric:
a. Self-assessment by student
b. Assessment by mentor/host teacher
c. Assessment by lecturer
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Analysis and consolidation
5. Currently, the teaching practice model in South Africa covers a period of six to ten weeks of practical
experience at schools for student teachers. However, the general consensus from stakeholders is that
students need much more exposure to actual classroom teaching. What is your solution to the
inadequate practical experience students are currently getting? Keep in mind the two main
components of a teaching qualification, theory and practice. How can the right balance be achieved?
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14
Basic classroom management
Micheal van Wyk, Greta Galloway and Chinedu Okeke
Copyright 2016. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Briefly discuss the concepts of classroom discipline and control.
• Explore the management of learners with challenging behaviours.
• Explain the meaning of behaviour and diversity in the classroom.
• Identify strategies for maintaining classroom discipline and control.
• Discuss teacher training in classroom management and control.
Key concepts
Basic discipline skills: those skills that a classroom teacher uses to perform day-to-day teaching in a
facilitating way so as to motivate learners to learn and interact, while having respect for one another
Challenging behaviours: those behaviours that a particular learner or group of learners present that
appear to threaten the achieving of a conducive atmosphere necessary for successful teaching and
learning
Classroom management and control: entails the teacher’s ability to use certain skills effectively to
provide the right kind of atmosphere conducive to effective teaching and learning in the classroom
Learner diversity: the teacher’s skills in acknowledging that differences exist among learners, in ways
that enable the teacher to use specific approaches to facilitate teaching and learning from a humanising
and human rights perspective. Such approaches recognise the individual, as well as the strength of
individual differences
Punishment: any treatment intended to inflict physical or emotional discomfort or humiliation on a
learner for the purpose of demonstrating the wrongness or unacceptability of particular behaviour
CASE STUDY 1: CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT MATTERS
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It’s almost time for the Grade 7 maths class to begin: the teacher, Mr P, has not yet arrived, and will
not until the class is absolutely quiet. Finally, Mr P walks in and slams the door. The entire class stands
silently. Without pausing to greet them, Mr P raps out: “Last night’s homework – I want it on my desk
now!” He continues: “Anyone who doesn’t hand in completed work, can leave the class right now and
may not come back until they have seen the principal.”
Shimon and Abigail, who were both performing averagely in Grade 6, have struggled with the
homework, a difficult and long exercise. With no one at home to help them, they have not finished the
work. Slowly, they walk out of the classroom. If they were asked, they would say that they aren’t
making any progress and really hate maths. The last thing they would – or could – ever think of, is to
speak to Mr P about their difficulties. He’s just not that kind of teacher.
Back in the maths class, Mr P continues with the lesson. He has organised the learners so that
poorly performing or ‘problematic’ learners are seated in the front row. Mr P openly calls this the
‘stupid end’, and generally ignores these learners. He mainly addresses the middle rows, but only those
called on by him can answer. He calls on learners by the names he has given them; for example,
Dolores, who wears a wig following a burning accident as a child in which she lost all her hair, he
addresses as ‘wighead’; Jason, who is athletically gifted and rather well built, he calls ‘musclehead’. In
the back row is a learner who uses a wheelchair. Mr P has assigned her to this position so that she
doesn’t ‘get in the way.’
Suddenly, Mr P notices Pulela chewing discreetly. She has a sore throat and has just taken a
lozenge. “Are you eating in my class? You will do detention this afternoon. Meanwhile, get rid of it
outside – and stay out!”
And so Mr P’s maths class finally ends. After he leaves, the learners jump up and noisily move
around talking and reorganising themselves for the next lesson. There is huge relief that maths is over
for the day and they can get back to normal.
STOP AND REFLECT
1. How would you characterise Mr P’s classroom management style and practice?
2. Mr P is known for having an orderly, quiet classroom where everyone gets through a lot of work. Is
this the most desirable outcome, or is it at the expense of something else?
Introduction
Anyone who has ever been in a school classroom – as a teacher or a learner – will know that basic
classroom management is a very important aspect of every successful teaching and learning situation. An
effective teaching and learning experience is dependent on the teachers’ understanding and ability to
implement basic classroom management skills in discipline, and on his or her daily ability to control a
class. As you embark on the task of teaching, which involves motivating learners for a lifelong change,
you will discover that there are times when you perhaps feel unprepared, at a loss, or even overwhelmed.
These moments may also bring you a sense of frustration as you find yourself struggling to understand
the behaviour of this particular learner or that group of learners. You know that classrooms where both
the learners and their teachers are familiar with various positive classroom management and sound
discipline practices are more likely experience teaching and learning differently from those that do not,
but you wonder how all this is achieved.
If we look back at our own experiences as learners, we might conclude that some of the teachers we
encountered were not well trained in the basic skills of classroom management, discipline and control. If
we think back, we remember that some of them struggled to maintain good order in the classroom. As
learners, we may also remember times of defiance, but also fear of punishment and humiliation, not
unlike Mr P’s class in the opening case study. Currently, experiences within contemporary classrooms
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may not be much better. We hear of cases where parents have confronted their child’s teachers after harsh
disciplinary action has been taken to keep the learner under control. Today, incidents of teachers’ severe
and unfair punishment of learners, or abuses of power such as those of Mr P in the case study, are often
reported in the media. Without doubt, discipline and control were and still are issues that continue to
challenge teachers.
In this chapter, we try to show you another approach to classroom management, one that comes from
having a personal philosophy, which will change the way you see managing your own class competently.
But first, let us establish some basic concepts in classroom management and classroom discipline.
14.1
Perspectives on classroom management
In this section, we have collected various perspectives on classroom management. By exploring these, we
hope you appreciate the usefulness of the discussion around classroom management issues, which will
likely be at the core of your own experience as a teacher. These perspectives will be discussed in the
sections that follow.
14.1.1 Teaching philosophy for successful classroom management
Before we start our discussion of classroom management, we need to look closely at why (and later, how)
the most successful teachers manage to maintain good classroom discipline. The literature indicates that
classroom management can only be maintained through the specific teaching philosophy of the teacher in
creating and maintaining effective learning environments (Jones 2010; Schonwetter, Sokal, Friesen &
Taylor 2002). This highlights the central importance of teaching philosophies for a successful classroom
management style. Your personal philosophy of teaching is your own ideological position, which forms
the basis of all other elements of your teaching practice. Research studies confirm that deeply-held
personal beliefs inform and influence teachers’ practice (Jones 2010; Stough 2006; Brophy 1999).
Schonwetter et al. (2002) show that the criteria for developing a teaching philosophy may include your
assumptions and beliefs about how teaching should be conducted and how learners learn best in the
classroom. This, together with your evaluation and assessment of teaching and learning, as well as the
perceived relationship between the teaching methods and your philosophy, are what shapes your holistic
view of good classroom management based on principles of democracy and human rights. (Think back
and make a link with similar ideas in Chapter 5 Theories, principles and perspectives of teaching; Chapter
2 Teacher professionalism and identity; and Chapter 3 Change theory – the teacher as reflective and
change agent.)
STOP AND REFLECT
You have already characterised Mr P’s (opening case study) management style and practice: what do
you think his personal philosophy of teaching is?
14.1.2 Defining classroom management
The literature conceptualises classroom management as managing classroom discipline and learner
behaviour (including misbehaviour) in an effective manner within the class environment for optimal
learning. Let’s unpack this definition. Evertson and Harris (1999: 60) take the view that classroom
management is “how teachers use their actions in managing, maintaining and being helpful in creating a
learning environment daily”. Brophy (1999: 44) further suggests that “the most successful teachers
approach management as a process of establishing and maintaining effective learning environments”.
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Additionally, Stoughton (2007: vi) argues that “classroom management is a critical ingredient in the
three-way mix of effective teaching strategies, which includes meaningful content, powerful teaching
strategies, and an organisational structure to support productive learning”. Borko and Putnam (1995: 41)
believe that teachers who are effective classroom managers employ strategies “for establishing rules and
procedures, organising groups, monitoring and pacing classroom events, and reacting to misbehaviour”.
In view of all these ideas, it is not so easy to define the term ‘classroom management’ because it is always
a difficult and challenging phenomenon for teachers, and especially student teachers. The issue is further
complicated by the fact that the literature also shows that a complete misinterpretation of the concept of
classroom management often exists: this is the inaccurate view that the term mainly focuses on ‘discipline
and control.’ What is clear, however, is that teachers, in particular student teachers, need specific sets of
classroom management skills that include much more than being able to influence and control student
behaviour, which is in fact a very narrow and autocratic approach to classroom management.
14.1.3 Basic classroom management skills
In the context of this chapter, we want to show student teachers how to be empowered with classroom
management skills to be effective instructional leaders in managing and discipline in their classes. These
skills include planning, implementing and monitoring of classroom rules, class discipline, and control
(Stoughton 2007). To be an effective classroom manager (in terms of discipline and control), you should
possess those skills as a classroom teacher that enable you to perform your day-to-day teaching and
learning responsibilities in a way that motivates your learners to learn. Such skills are fundamental and
critical for effective teaching and learning. It follows that the absence of such basic skills in any teacher
would mean that your classroom experiences may be closer to that of Mr P’s maths class in the opening
case study. You should note that the word ‘basic’ is used in this context because it connotes the essential
skills you must obtain through training, for effective teaching and learning. Without these, the teaching
experiences as well as classroom management (including discipline and control), may become an
unpleasant and unproductive experience for both you and your learners.
STOP AND REFLECT
Having read the definitions and thought about a personal philosophy, what would you say the three most
important basic skills of classroom management are to you?
Let us now look at the concept of classroom management and control.
14.1.4 Classroom management and control
In Handbook of classroom management (2006), Stough refers to a number of studies indicating that both
recent teacher education graduates and experienced teachers feel that their preparation in the area of
classroom management was inadequate or not sufficiently practical. You have read that classroom
management and control entails certain skills, and your ability to put such skills into effective use,
enabling you to create the right kind of atmosphere for effective teaching and learning in your classroom.
Let us look at this from another perspective: have you ever thought that your feelings are no different
from those of your learners in the classroom? Most learners are there because they want to enjoy their
learning in a calm, positive and undisrupted classroom process. Your ability to provide such an
atmosphere is the difference you can make in your relationship with your learners. Again, think back to
Mr P’s teaching and classroom skills: are there further lessons you think you can learn from the kind of
classroom atmosphere that Mr P created for his learners? While you may understand that your ability to
manage and control your class effectively could be the key to your successful delivery of your lessons, as
well as the means to achieving the objectives of your lessons, the question remains, how to do it. Try the
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following activity, which requires you to be creative through music and song, and exercises your
communication skills.
APPLYING IT TODAY
1. Compose a song (or rap) of about two minutes that expresses good social and moral behaviour. You
could also adapt an existing well known tune with new words that express your message.
2. Post the song/rap lyrics with suggestions for movement that expresses your message on social media.
Invite people to perform it, record their performance and repost this on social media (think Pharrell
Williams’ Happy or Katy Perry’s Roar).
3. Design a PowerPoint presentation (5 to 8 slides) that captures the importance of good behaviour in a
classroom: think about this from the learners’ and the teacher’s viewpoint. Make your presentation
to a group of peers and ask them for comment. Now adapt your presentation to a future classroom
activity.
4. Plan an activity: you want to hold a panel discussion on class rules for good discipline. Four learners
will be selected as speakers to represent the views of the class, and must be equally divided
between those for and those against good social and moral behaviour. Write instructions for the
learner speakers on how to collect opinions from the class, and form arguments for their point of
view (see Chapter 9 for further help with framing this activity).
STOP AND REFLECT
Did you notice that all these activities involve learners in thinking about classroom behaviour and
discipline?
What message are you getting to add to your understanding of the basic skills of classroom
management?
We turn now to the elements of classroom management and control.
Behaviour
Behaviour is determined by the rules, routines and acceptable social and moral actions set by the teacher
and the learners in terms of the school code of conduct and of good citizenship. Behaviour is defined as
socially and morally acceptable (or unacceptable) attitudes and actions, according to society. Learners’
behaviour in class can show positive or negative attitudes. Negative attitudes could be displayed by both
verbal and physical defiance, or rebellious, uncooperative and disruptive actions in and outside the
classroom. To understand what appropriate behaviour is, ask yourself what you, a student teacher, would
consider acceptable or ‘good’ behaviour, as opposed to unacceptable or ‘bad’ behaviour, in a class? You
already understand that the role modelling of the teacher’s attitude and behaviour is important in
achieving positive behaviour among the learners themselves. Learners look up to their teachers as people
who set an example they want to emulate, who show integrity and display respect towards the learners in
a mutual and reciprocal way. As a change agent, you are expected by both your learners and society at
large, to display the kind of positive behaviour that you expect in your classroom.
emulate: to want to be like, by copying someone’s positive behaviour in one’s own actions
Embracing diversity in the classroom
Embracing diversity in the context of classroom-based teaching and learning means that every learner
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ought to be respected for their abilities, their race, culture, gender and religious beliefs, in other words,
themselves. This entails being empathetic to each learner in your class, and sensitive in the way that you
embrace the diverse views and opinions of learners from a human rights perspective. As a new teacher,
you may find yourself in a situation where you are trying to develop classroom rules but one learner feels
that the rules are in conflict with his or her cultural or religious beliefs. Since all learners ought to have
equal input and say in developing the classroom rules – and in so doing, a more democratic approach to
classroom discipline would take the form of a ‘buy-in’ by all learners in the class – this learner will have
his or her equal voice, among the others in the class. The following ideas are some practical guidelines
that you as a student teacher can use to develop classroom rules embracing diversity.
• You may try displaying the rules, for example, with a poster reflecting democratic values for good
citizenship. Refer to the poster as often as is relevant to the lesson you are teaching.
• Include in your everyday vocabulary terms such as: caring, quality of human rights, social justice,
respect for others, compassion, non-violence, positive attitude, helping and supporting others; and
accompany them with smiling.
• Compose a teaching rhyme or lyric which can be used as a motivating song to remind us about good
citizenship. Or use existing music and song in the classroom to build good relationships, such as the
classic, Ebony and Ivory by Paul McCartney and Stevie Wonder.
Discipline
Discipline is the practice of care and respect for others and self. Discipline should not be employed as an
authoritarian ‘clamping down’ on unacceptable or disruptive behaviour, but rather as entering into a
mutual relationship whereby the moral actions of respect, caring, guiding and supporting learners, take
preference. Discipline should be corrective and nurturing so that developing acceptable norms and
standards in a democratic environment and atmosphere is prevalent (Skiba & Peterson 2003). In so doing,
the teacher–learner and peer-peer relationship takes on a kind of mutual respect acceptable to society. For
example, an authoritarian approach would be to say to a learner in a reprimanding tone: “Sipho, why are
you doing your maths in this way?” Simply in the way the teacher addresses learners shows a more
nurturing approach and ultimately respect. “I’m interested with the way you planned your maths activity,
Sipho; please explain it to us.” Another nurturing approach could be as follows: “Thank you, Sasha, for
helping Lezola with the reading activity; I can see that both of you have benefited from talking about the
activity.”
14.1.5 Types of classroom discipline problems
Teachers are often uncertain about how to relate to learners and maintain discipline in the classroom. If
asked, many teachers would say they lack adequate training, skills and knowledge about alternatives to
strict and authoritarian discipline. The authoritarian use of power by teachers to discipline learners creates
discipline problems of its own in the classroom as it denounces the human right of the child to express his
or her feelings or point of view. In such a scenario, a poor, traditional and negative teacher–learner
relationship structure exists in the classroom (Mokhele 2006). Within such classrooms, the teacher
remains the one and only central authority.
14.1.6 Effective and positive classroom discipline practices
Maintaining good, positive teacher–learner (interpersonal) relationships is essential: this happens when
the teacher sets collectively agreed upon ground rules and routines with the class at the beginning of each
school term. In so doing, learners can then take ownership of the collective rules and routines set by them.
In this way, good citizenship skills are taught, emulated, embraced and applied in a participatory and
democratic way. This constitutes and galvanises the human right of learners to develop self-respect,
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self-discipline, self-restraint and to show dignity towards other learners and teachers alike. This, in turn,
would foster good peer relationships because respect towards each other and teachers is constantly
demonstrated.
The effectiveness of such a positive approach to classroom discipline would extend in and outside the
classroom. Reinforcing positive discipline as an acceptable school practice has the effect of making
learners feel emotionally comfortable and physically safe both in and outside the classroom. The role of
the teacher is to guide learners towards an attitude of caring and respect for one another as good,
responsible citizens of society. In addition, good citizenship could be strengthened when parents,
guardians and caregivers are involved in supporting both the teacher and the learner in this positive
approach to discipline practices.
STOP AND REFLECT
How would you describe an effective and positive learner–teacher relationship? Suggest three essential
characteristics that you think personally it should have.
The next section deals with the issue we are sure you have been thinking about since the beginning of this
chapter – punishment.
14.2
The concept of punishment
In his 1975 book, Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison (1995[1975]: 138), radical philosopher
Michel Foucault argues that the traditional education system is one of monitoring and policing (for
example, in the classroom) that has the effect of exercising power and control over individuals such that
they are disciplined or moulded into “docile bodies” which serve only the economic interests of the state.
Foucault further argues that punishment entails any treatment that hurts the physical and emotional
feelings of the learner. Punishment, he says, is designed to undermine dignity and the human rights of
learners. Punishment is demeaning, degrading and harmful to the self-esteem of learners, violating their
human rights to equality and respect. Physical and psychological (emotional) punishment has no place in
a democratic classroom. The notion of punishment in itself is negative, demeaning and violates learner’s
rights of protection, safety and security.
STOP AND REFLECT
What is your attitude towards punishment? (Think of your own experience, as well as any later
understanding you may have come to.) What does it achieve?
14.2.1 Relationship between discipline and punishment
Discipline by means of punishment is a very traditionalist way of controlling a class as it focuses both on
the negativity of discipline, and accepts the rightfulness of the practice of punishment. It is very important
to note that an inexperienced and unprepared teacher may often resort to punishment as the only approach
to deal with learners whose outward behaviours are perceived as unacceptable to her or him. Punishment
then becomes the demeaning outcome of the teacher’s inability to develop appropriate disciplinary
mechanisms. Both concepts (discipline and punishment) have a negative impact on learners as they place
the weight of authority firmly with the teacher. Learners are thus treated as subordinates – inferior in
terms of power relations – and placed in a deficit position of inequality with regard to acceptable
behaviour or even punishment.
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Let us now look at some teachers’ punishment practices, in the section that follows.
14.2.2 Punishment practices among teachers
The following are specific punishment practices used by teachers in their classes to maintain daily
discipline. These practices can be categorised, ranging from tolerant and remedial (soft punishment) to
serious enforcement actions (hard punitive measures).
• Punishment actions: Writing lines, involving a repetitive sentence such as “I must behave myself in
class” or “I must pay attention in class”; using inappropriate language, or belittling a learner in the
presence of other learners; speaking in an angry tone to a learner (e.g. “Jonah, when are you going to
stop behaving like a monkey?”); or reflecting displeasure or dissatisfaction with the class (e.g. “I’m
very disappointed in all of you; when will you grow up?”)
• Remedial (corrective) actions: Making learners stay in during break time as a form of punishment.
Preventing learners from attending certain classes such as art and design, performing arts, going on an
outing or participating in sports activities, as a form of denied privilege, may all be deemed
punishment. Another form of punishment is making learners sit in silence for the duration of the
period, doing nothing, believed by some to be corrective.
• Serious enforcement (punitive) actions: Humiliating learners by making them sit at the teacher’s table in
the front of the class, or go to a seat separate from the rest of the class, or even sending them to stand
outside the classroom for the duration of the period, are all punitive actions. Sometimes teachers use
force by hitting learners with their hands or an available object, like a ruler or book. This type of
punishment is still used in some South African classrooms although it has been outlawed since 1996
in terms of the National Education Policy Act, often because teachers do not see it as corporal
punishment, or do not have alternative forms of discipline. Giving learners a large amount of
additional homework, or preventing learners from participating in an extra-mural sporting or cultural
activity, are also forms of punishment. Using the authoritarian (power) structure by reporting the
learner to the head of department, deputy-principal or principal, where punitive measures are
enforced, e.g. detention, learners’ names read out at the weekly school assembly, suspension from
certain classes, are all examples of serious enforcement.
A question of ethics
You know that another teacher at your school regularly hits learners. In fact, you also learn that certain
parents have urged the teacher to use this kind of discipline as they say they experienced it growing up
and it ‘did them no harm.’ What do you do?
14.2.3 Ineffective classrooms traditions among teachers
A school tradition that is still used by teachers is the merit/demerit system. This form of discipline works
on a positive/negative system in which ‘positive’ learners will be rewarded with merits (perks and
privileges), whereas ‘negative’ learners are punished by demerits (removing learner privileges). However,
this system is mainly ineffective as a form of discipline because at the heart of classroom management is
the teacher’s own inability to organise and manage the class effectively. A teacher’s negative attitude
towards teaching which is reflected in an uninspiring classroom where no teaching and learning resources
or creative wall displays are evident, does nothing to promote discipline. A traditional, uninspiring
textbook-based teaching approach where the teacher applies archaic methods of teaching and learning is
another recipe for ineffectiveness. Teachers need to be able to use cooperative and supportive disciplinary
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approaches rather than resorting to outdated means of punishment or, even worse, corporal punishment.
In the next section, we look at some alternative strategies for maintaining classroom discipline and
control.
14.3
Strategies for maintaining classroom management
We know what does not work in terms of discipline and control, so now we suggest strategies for
managing and maintaining good classroom discipline. We encourage you to establish a partnership with
your mentor teacher in school experience, and discuss with her or him how to maintain classroom
discipline in and outside the classroom during teaching practice sessions. Resolve to establish a
teacher–student teacher mentorship agreement, formulating specific goals and strategies to achieve
objectives towards effective classroom discipline. We also advocate that experienced teachers act as
mentors to student teachers, initiating them in how to maintain classroom discipline. These mentor
teachers, through their years of experience and classroom ‘know-how’, will have a wealth of tips, tricks
and deep understandings to share with student teachers in planning and implementing workable strategies
for the class. In addition, school mentor teachers can support student teachers in a collaborative
environment where they learn how to maintain classroom discipline and best practices on the job through
constant feedback by their mentors and peers (Clunies-Ross, Little & Kienhuis 2008; Stoughton 2007).
Now let us examine a case study with some very real social issues.
CASE STUDY 2: TEBOGO’S TRANSFORMATION FROM ZERO TO
HERO
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Tebogo, a 15-year-old boy, lives with his two brothers and mother, a single parent, in a two-bedroom
township house. In his community, he often sees street fighting, gang activity, house-breaking, and the
abuse of women and children. From his earliest years, he has also been exposed to violence, drug
abuse and crime. He was regularly beaten up by bullies at his first school. He believes it is right to beat
up and bully others to achieve your goals. Growing up without a father as a role model, he has learned
from his environment that only the strongest survive. When he moves to secondary school, his new
class teacher, Mr Dlamini, is warned by his former teacher that Tebogo is a violent and troubled boy
that no amount of punishment or discipline seems to have reformed. His history of carrying knives is
made known to his new class teacher, as is his beating and bullying of others at his previous school.
He was twice suspended from this school for disrupting the class, ignoring class rules and fighting. Mr
Dlamini believes that no teacher should let a person’s past set up a boy like Tebogo for failure, before
you get to know him. He decides to give Tebogo a fair chance to start on a clean slate.
Mr Dlamini takes a big gamble because he knows a clean slate doesn’t necessarily mean that
Tebogo’s bad behaviour won’t continue. But he believes that deep down, Tebogo has, like everyone, a
seed of huge potential despite his poor start in life. He takes on Tebogo because he sees in him a boy
who is intelligent and who has the ability to become a good leader if only given a chance to prove
himself, especially to those who don’t believe he can change his ways. Over a few weeks, Mr Dlamini
develops a good relationship with Tebogo, engaging him in short conversations about topics that seem
to interest him and reinforcing any good work he accomplishes. He gives Tebogo tasks to complete
and even makes him class captain for the second quarter. He builds trust and motivates Tebogo to
continue his good behaviour and the improvement in his school work.
Mr Dlamini sees the changes in Tebogo’s behaviour daily, and how he is starting to enjoy being
successful in his school work. Tebogo now shows confidence in his studies and begins to excel at
academic and sporting activities. For the remainder of the year, Tebogo progresses well and his mother
is very proud of his performance at school. He is selected to serve on the students’ representative
council (SRC) and represents his province in athletics. Tebogo becomes a shining star in the class, as
well as to his family and school.
STOP AND REFLECT
1. Explain the following terms in your own words:
• bullying
• violence
• crime
• abuse of women and children
• drug abuse
2. What impact has Tebogo’s early childhood had on his later behaviour as a teenager at the schools he
attends?
3. Mr Dlamini believes he should give Tebogo a ‘second chance’ to prove himself in his new school.
Why? Explain your answer.
4. What strategy does Mr Dlamini employ that changes Tebogo’s bad behaviour in class? Does it work?
Why?
APPLYING IT TODAY
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Case study 2 shows us an average teenage boy who grows up in a community exposed to the kind of
daily violence that often leads to becoming a criminal. It seems to Tebogo that all people are violent by
nature and crime is a way of life. Sadly, this is not an unusual situation for many youth in this country.
In Tebogo’s case, it takes one teacher to finally believe in him and help him turn his life around. But is
this just a story with a happy ending? Is there more to think about to help our youth in schools and
outside them? Read the following quote and then comment on it, suggesting your own ideas about
what you think ‘intensive support’ involves:
“It takes a strong caring school community with a commitment to inclusion to promote and
reinforce school-wide expectations and to provide more intensive support to some children and youth
with more substantial needs” (Bloom 2013: 3).
Now let us move to the next section on the establishment of rules for classroom discipline and control.
In this section, we deal with teacher-led strategies for ensuring and maintaining discipline and control in
the classroom and among learners. We refer to those activities or the teacher’s plan of action, designed to
enable her or him to achieve the desired classroom atmosphere for effective teaching and learning, around
which these strategies can be deployed. (See Chapter 5 Theories, principles and perspectives of teaching,
and Chapter 9 Lesson planning within a learning-centred context.)
Establish a basic set of rules for managing classroom discipline and control
With this particular strategy, it is helpful to bear in mind that, as a student teacher, you may be posted to a
school that already has some of these rules in place. In all probability, the school will have a school
disciplinary policy embracing a code of conduct. In such a situation, your first task would be to establish
what are already deemed acceptable norms and standards for school behaviour so that you can build on
them to strengthen your ability to manage your class effectively. However, before you start teaching, set
specific rules and regulations for your class. Do not simply come up with your own rules; instead, let the
class decide and agree collectively (Mosher 2008). Since it is the class that determines the rules and
regulations that should direct them daily, they establish procedures and expectations for acceptable
behaviour. In doing it this way, you are democratising and developing space for good citizenship
practices with the learners. Your class rules must be supplementary to overall school disciplinary policy
as well the code of conduct for learners regarding general rules, behaviour and regulations. You and the
class, for example, set and establish the rules for timely attendance and the consequences of missing or
late submission of assignments and class projects. These rules must be implemented consistently: for
example, when a teacher, parent, visitor or principal enters the classroom, all learners stand up and greet
them, waiting for the teacher greet them in return and instruct the class to sit down again, showing respect
for everyone; Or, when a teacher has to leave the class, learners respect the chosen class representative or
class captain as the leader in the class during the teacher’s absence.
Set clear expectations for class behaviour
At the beginning of the school year, you set specific expectations for your class as to what you expect
from the class. These expectations should also be the first order of business on the first day of your
teaching practice. Give your class time to submit their inputs or ideas and then draw up a class rules and
expectations pledge, signed by each learner.
Reflect on and review from time to time class management style, rules and
expectations
If you discover that certain rules are not working because of unexpected behaviour or an unusual
situation, immediately set aside time for your class to reflect on and review some of the rules and
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expectations. Your role as a classroom manager is to explain how these rules supplement or complement
your class rules as a teacher, and why you see fit to change some of the rules, by informing your class,
principal, school management team and parents. Make sure that your rules and expectations do not
conflict with the general rules of the school disciplinary policy.
Provide the principal and parents with a copy of the class rules, regulations and
expectations
After you and the class have agreed on the rules, regulations and expectations by signing them
(contractual agreement), provide the principal, school management team (SMT), school governing body
(SGB) and parents with a copy of the rules. Again, make sure that your class rules and expectations do
not conflict with the general rules of the school disciplinary policy. You can from time to time invite
parents and the SMT to meet with you to discuss your class rules and expectations.
Remind your class about rules and expectations from time to time
It is a good practice from time to time to remind your class about the rules and expectations. This will
create a habit and instil a sense of adherence and compliance. Learners should treat each other and their
teacher with respect. Take time to remind learners of your expectations and the applicable rules on a
regular basis. Do not wait for a disciplinary situation to arise; rather head it off with appropriate (but not
overdone) reminders.
Enforce the classroom rules and expectations in a firm, fair and consistent manner
It is your responsibility to conduct yourself in a professional manner. Learners will feel secure and
comfortable if they know what to expect and how they should behave because they know what is
expected of them. If you cannot enforce a rule, or if your expectations are unrealistic, learners may use
the inconsistencies or omissions as an excuse for ignoring the rules. Be consistent in applying rules and
expectations in your class.
Discuss uncooperative and disruptive learners with the school principal
Some learners will always push the boundaries. As student teacher, during your teaching practice you
may find that some learners don’t feel they have to adhere to your rules because they have already made
rules with their class teacher. Always carry a notebook to record class incidents of disruptive behaviour
by learners who take chances because you are a student teacher. Remind them about the rules and
expectations. Record and immediately report all uncooperative and disruptive behaviours to your mentor.
Conclusion
In this chapter, we have outlined some basic skills in classroom management, discipline and control
which are an essential aspect of effective teaching and learning. You have now realised that the teacher
plays a crucial role in developing a conducive atmosphere where democratic rights, acceptable to the
class and designed by the learners, will empower those learners to adhere to the standards, norms and
expectations for good behaviour. This particular chapter shows you how to apply good management,
discipline and control practice for effective teaching. It also points out the realities of unacceptable,
unruly behaviour. We hope it empowers and guides you to conceptualise terms such as basic management
skills, behaviour, discipline and punishment in a new light. In addition you should feel able to explore
ways of managing challenging behaviours during your classroom-based teaching practice. This chapter
also addresses how you can develop skills to manage conflicts that you might feel, or shows of hostility
between learners. Strategies designed to help you maintain classroom discipline and control were
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discussed; pointers to teacher training and mentoring were given; and the important role that establishing
mutual respect plays was highlighted – all towards developing good interpersonal relationships and
setting out steps to assist you to become a competent teacher who is able to organise, manage and control
learners in a collaborative and democratic way, as responsible citizens and members of society.
Activities
Self-reflection
1. Write a journal entry in which you recall an incident or period when you were a school learner, in
which you were punished. How did it make you feel then? How does the punishment you received
make you feel now?
2. Write a short essay (about 300 words) using McGinnis and Goldstein’s (1997) prosocial skills cycle for
teaching socially acceptable skills. Explain how you personally would go about enabling disruptive
learners with social skills to change their behaviour in your classroom.
Analysis and consolidation
3. The National Education Policy Act of 1996 (Republic of South Africa, 1996a: A-47) states that “no
person shall administer corporal punishment or subject a student to psychological or physical abuse at
any educational institution”. List examples of psychological and physical abuse of learners by
teachers. Prepare a short talk for your fellow teachers in which you share your analysis and suggest
how as teachers you should all be dealing with the discipline situation in schools. (Consult Maphosa
& Shumba’s (2010) paper on educators’ disciplinary capabilities, for further information and ideas.)
4. After studying the case of Tebogo’s transition from an angry, violent boy to a well-adjusted high
achiever, what strategies would you use in your class to change some of your learners who exhibit
bad behaviour?
Practical application
5. Explain, with applicable examples, the types of positive discipline actions that teachers can employ in
their class daily.
References
Bailey, B. 2008. Conscious discipline. Durham: The Little School Development Group. Retrieved 10
January 2015 from: http://www.thelittleschool.net/duke/.
Bloom, L.A. 2013. Providing Positive Behavioral Support for All Students. Journal of Curriculum and
Instruction (JoCI), 7 (1): 1–5. Retrieved 3 March 2016 from: http://www.joci.ecu.edu doi:10.3776/
joci.2013.v7n1p1-5.
Borko, H. & Putnam, R.T. 1995. Expanding a teacher’s knowledge base: A cognitive psychological
perspective on professional development. In: Guskey, T.R. & Huberman, M. (eds). Professional
development in education: New paradigms & practices: 35–65. New York: Teachers College Press.
Brophy, J. 1999. Perspectives of classroom management: Yesterday, today, and tomorrow. In: Freiberg,
H.J. (ed.) Beyond behaviorism: Changing the classroom management paradigm: 43–56. Needham
Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Clarke, A. 2007. The Handbook of School Management. Pretoria: Kate McCallum.
Clunies-Ross, P., Little, E. & Kienhuis, M. 2008. Self-reported and actual use of proactive and reactive
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classroom management strategies and their relationship with teacher stress and student behaviour.
Educational Psychology, 28(6): 693–710.
Durrant, J.E. 2010. Positive discipline in everyday teaching. Thailand: Save the Children. Retrieved 10
January 2015 from: http://seap.savethechildren.se.
Evertson, C.M. & Harris, A.H. 1999. Support for managing learning-centered classrooms: The classroom
organization and management program. In: Freiberg, H.J. (ed.) Beyond behaviorism: Changing the
classroom management paradigm: 59–74. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Foucault, M. 1995. Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison. New York: Vintage. (Original work
published 1977).
Good, T.L. & Brophy, J.E. 2000. Looking into classrooms 8th edition. New York: Longman.
Jones, E. 2010. Personal theory and reflection in a professional practice portfolio. Assessment &
Evaluation in Higher Education, 35(6): 699–710.
Jones, V. 2006. How do teachers learn to be effective classroom managers? In: Evertson, C.M. &
Weinstein, C.S. (eds). Handbook of classroom management: Research, practice, and contemporary
issues: 887–907. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Little, E., Hudson, A. & Wilks, R. 2002. The efficacy of written teacher advice (tip sheets) for managing
classroom behaviour problems. Educational Psychology, 22: 251–266.
Maphosa, C. & Shumba, A. 2010. Educators’ disciplinary capabilities after the banning of corporal
punishment in South African schools. South African Journal of Education 30: 387–399. Retrieved 3
March 2016 from: http://sajournalofeducation.co.za/index.php/saje/article/viewFile/361/213.
McGinnis, E. & Goldstein, A. 1997. Skillstreaming the Adolescent: New Strategies and Perspectives for
Teaching Prosocial Skills. Champaign, IL: Research Press.
Mokhele, P.R. 2006. The teacher-learner relationship in the management of discipline in public high
schools. Africa Education Review, 3 (1 + 2): 148–159. Pretoria: Unisa Press.
Nelsen, J., Lott, L. & Glenn, H.S. 2005. Positive discipline in the classroom. In: Charles, C.M. & Senter,
G.W. (eds). Building classroom discipline: 111–127. Boston, USA: Pearson.
Okeke, C.I.O., Van Wyk, M. & Phasha, N. (eds). 2014. Schooling, society and inclusive education: An
Afrocentric perspective. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
Schonwetter, D.T., Sokal, L., Friesen, M. & Taylor, K.L. 2002. Teaching philosophies reconsidered: A
conceptual model for the development of teaching philosophy statements. The International Journal
for Academic Development, 7(1): 83–97.
Skiba, R. & Peterson, R. 2003. Teaching the social curriculum: School discipline as instruction.
Preventing School Failure, 47(2): 66–73.
Stough, L.M. 2006. The place of classroom management and standards in teacher education. In: Evertson,
C.M. & Weinstein, C.S. (eds). Handbook of classroom management: Research, practice and
contemporary issues: 909–923. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Stoughton, E.H. 2007. “How will I get them to behave?” Preservice teachers reflect on classroom
management. Teacher and Teacher Education, 23: 1024–1037.
UNESCO. 2006. Positive discipline in inclusive learning-friendly classroom: A guide for teachers and
teacher educators. Bangkok, Thailand: UNESCO.
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Wheldall, K. 1991. Managing troublesome classroom behaviour in regular schools: A positive teaching
perspective. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 38: 99–116.
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15
Policy implications for teaching practice in South
Africa
Copyright 2016. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
Jane-Francis Abongdia, Johannes Pylman, Adele Moodly and Nomafa Vivienne Mdaka
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
• Identify how national education policies guide teaching practice.
• Explain the integration of theoretical and practical knowledge.
• Describe the Finnish education policy and its implementation in Finland.
• Analyse the collaborative school experience model in the education policy of the United States of
America.
• Compare and contrast South African teaching practice policy with that in the USA, Finland and West
Africa.
Key concepts
Collaborative model: a model in which decision-making powers about teaching practice matters are
shared between schools and higher education institutions (HEIs)
Conceptual framework: a guiding idea that underpins or holds together the elements of a particular
design, in this context, an initial teacher education (ITE) programme
Legislation: the laws enacted by a legislative power
Mentoring: the process of being guided by a trusted teacher, coach or advisor
Policy: a guiding document, course or plan of action, especially of administrative action
Practice: applying in action or actual use, experience or activity
Separatist model: a model in which both institutions, in this context, schools and HEIs have separate and
complementary responsibilities, and there is no particular effort to integrate the operations of the
institutions
Supervision: the authority to direct or guide, in this context, the student teachers on teaching practice
Traditional model: a model in which decision-making powers about teaching practice matters are vested
in the higher education institution
Vocational Education and Training: in the Finnish context, Vocational Education and Training (TVET)
is aimed at providing the necessary knowledge, skills and competence to function in the workplace; it is
also a form of lifelong learning and self-development
Work-integrated learning (WIL): in this context, the official term for the planning and teaching in real
school classrooms that student teachers carry out in teaching practice
Work-incorporated knowledge (WIK): the ability to reflect on one’s teaching practice in such a way as
to integrate one’s workplace learning with one’s theoretical studies
CASE STUDY: IT’S ALL IN THE POLICY
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Two university lecturers, Thumeka, an experienced lecturer, and Howard, who was recently appointed
a junior lecturer in the Faculty of Education, are talking about a school experience staff meeting they
have just attended.
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STOP AND REFLECT
1. What do you understand about the disjunction between theory and practice that Howard identifies?
2. Can a policy really address all the needs that Howard talks about? Explain your response.
Introduction
This chapter focuses on South African policies that regulate teaching practice in South Africa. In 2000,
South Africa produced a visionary policy known as ‘Norms and Standards for Educators’ of 2000, which
was later replaced by the ‘Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications’, published in
2011. The Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications which provided a foundation for
a new approach to teacher training in South Africa was then revised and published as the ‘Revised Policy
on the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications’ in 2015, repealing the earlier
policy of 2011 (see Chapter 4). These policy documents aim to improve teacher education programmes,
the quality of teaching practice at higher education institutions (HEIs), and to assist student teachers in
their exciting journey of professional development (see also Chapter 11). In keeping with the changing
South African landscape and international trends in teacher education, and teaching practice in particular,
developed and developing countries offer important perspectives on practices in these countries. These
examples are used to evoke comparisons and provide theoretical frameworks that contribute towards
improving the design and implementation of learning programmes for teaching practice in South Africa.
15.1
Policy implications in relation to teaching practice in
South Africa
In response to the quest for quality education, the big challenge for South Africa is to ensure that teachers
meet the requirements of the twenty-first century learner. Because of substantial variations in the initial
training of teachers by various institutions in South Africa and other countries, initial teacher training
seeks to enhance the professional competence of student teachers (see US policy later in this chapter).
Teaching practice (practicum) plays a major role in bridging the ‘theory and practice divide’ and enabling
student teachers to develop their personal teaching competence.
Sayed (2004) asserts that despite the many significant changes to teacher training in South Africa, the
fundamental and most central issue of specific content and pedagogics of initial teacher education have
not been sufficiently discussed and problematised. It is therefore imperative that teaching institutions of
higher learning responsible for teacher preparation must continually find ways to respond to these
challenges. Amongst other innovations is the introduction of policy and regulatory frameworks aimed at
strengthening teacher education and practical learning in particular. We take a closer look at these
policies in the following sections.
15.1.1 Norms and Standards for Educators, 2000
The basic principles underlying this policy are not only to systematise and interpret initial teacher
education, but to explain initial teacher training in relation to the seven teacher roles (learning mediator;
leader, administrator and manager; scholar, researcher and lifelong learner; community, citizenship and
pastoral role; assessor; learning area/subject/discipline/phase specialist) and their associated
competencies. Based on these roles, teachers are generally required to possess good pedagogical skills; be
specialist subject or phase teachers; good assessors; and good designers and interpreters of learning
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programmes. This policy further emphasises the teacher’s overall responsibility in terms of curriculum
development; leader and administrator; scholar and researcher; and commitment to and involvement in
community activities.
The policy is underpinned by the belief that teachers are the essential drivers of a quality education
system. However, the teacher who fully embodies all seven roles introduced by the NSE 2000 is still an
ideal today, as many of these outcomes have yet to be realised in all teachers. It cannot then be assumed
that all beginner teachers are capable of being, for example, curriculum developers, researchers, managers
and providers of pastoral care (DHET 2010). This recognition led to the publication of the Minimum
Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications in 2011, later revised and published as the Revised
Policy on the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications in 2015. This policy now
replaces both the Norms and Standards for Educators of 2000 and the Minimum Requirements for
Teacher Education Qualifications published of 2011 in their entirety. Let us look at the main changes to
the updated policy in the next section.
15.1.2 Revised Policy on the Minimum Requirements for Teacher
Education Qualifications
This policy suggests that the seven roles which formed the cornerstone and basis for teacher education in
the Norms and Standards for Educators of 2000 should no longer be taken to represent the curriculum for
teacher training. In sharp contrast with the 2000 policy, MRTEQ aims to address all needs associated
with practical learning, such as supervision, mentoring and an environment that is responsive to these
needs. Along with these amendments comes a new perspective which involves learning in-and-from
practice. The MRTEQ (2015: 18) refers to this component as work-integrated learning (WIL), which
involves the planning of lessons and teaching in authentic and simulated classrooms, and the observation
of lessons taught.
Another key focus of the MRTEQ is to provide guidelines on the time spent on school-based
work-integrated learning (WIL) for the Bachelor of Education degree (BEd) and the Postgraduate
Certificate in Education (PGCE), respectively. The MRTEQ summarises these guidelines as follows:
Work-integrated learning (WIL) for the Bachelor of Education degree should preferably be
undertaken in short periods that will enable full-time student teachers to spend not less than 20
weeks and not more than 32 weeks in school-based settings, in which they will be formally
assessed and supervised over the four-year duration of the degree. Thus, a maximum of 12 such
weeks could be spent in a school in any given year, provided that at least three weeks of this
school-based experience are consecutive. However, part-time or distance mode students may be
physically in schools for extended periods (MRTEQ 2015: 23).
Full-time PGCE students should spend not less than eight weeks and not more than 12 weeks in
schools-based settings, in which they will be formally supervised and assessed during the one
year of study. A minimum of four weeks should be consecutive. Part-time students or
correspondence students who are employed as unqualified or under-qualified teachers may be
in schools for extended periods, however, the same period for supervised and assessed
school-based practice is required (MRTEQ 2015: 29).
The MRTEQ also requires that students should also be exposed to various contrasting contexts of
schooling within the South African system. In order to highlight the implications and importance of the
different policies on teaching practice, we turn to policies within an international context.
15.2
Policy on teaching practice – international perspectives
In this section, we broadly analyse, the education policies of the USA, Finland and West Africa. The brief
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study of these policies is used to evoke comparisons to give you theoretical frameworks to ensure a
minimum level of understanding of the design and implementation of learning programmes for teaching
practice in South Africa. The USA has been chosen because its policy represents that of a large,
economically developed country. It is therefore assumed that it can provide some insight into best
practices in teacher education policy development strategies that we can learn from in South Africa. In
the case of Finland, the choice was motivated by its recurring ranking position amongst the
top-performing countries in education in the world. It is noteworthy that Finland has been ranked four
times during this century’s first decade, “as the world’s most competitive economy by the World
Economic Forum” (Sahlberg 2007: 148), which makes its education policy well worth examining.
Finally, given that some West African countries practise the British system of education and have a
comparable colonial history to South Africa, it is relevant to look at some of their teaching practice
policies. The different teaching practice policies of the USA, Finland and West Africa (Cameroon and
Nigeria) are compared to that of South Africa to suggest a framework for possible best practice in teacher
education.
15.2.1 United States of America
The US policy (NCATE 2008) promotes the development of a teacher education programme whose
teaching practice component is characterised by the following values: transformation, excellence,
flexibility, innovation, collaboration and inclusivity. In this policy, these values are expressed in areas
such as the desired goal; the conceptual framework; the process of the design, delivery and evaluation;
and the desired outcome of the policy. These values are articulated in the first chapter, which includes the
mission and scope of the policy (NCATE 2008). The policy is also aimed at facilitating transformation,
which means that it sets out to change from a traditional model to a collaborative model (these two
models will be explained later). It is worth noting that the US policy seeks to engender inclusivity since it
requires that all teachers be capacitated to help all students to learn. The policy stipulations on a
conceptual framework allow for flexibility and innovation in designing different programmes for
different institutions. This is reflected in the definition of the conceptual framework which is delineated
as an intellectual philosophy that underpins the teacher education programmes of a particular institution,
differentiating them from those of other institutions, thus making them unique and distinct from others. In
this way, flexibility and innovation in designing different programmes for different institutions is
provided for.
The two models – traditional and collaborative – that appear in the US policy are part of the three
models that recur in the literature on teaching practice approaches. The determining feature that is used in
differentiating these models is the centre of power that dominates decision-making between the higher
education institutions and the schools. These models are:
• HEI-led or traditional model: when the power of decision-making about teaching matters is based on the
HEIs.
• A collaborative or partnership model: when the powers of decision-making are shared between the
schools and the HEIs.
• A separatist model: when the centres of decision-making powers are kept separate. Both the schools and
HEIs have separate and complementary responsibilities, and there is no concerted effort to synergise
the operations of these two institutions (Furlong et al. 1996; Zeichner 2010; Mtika 2011).
synergise: to work together to create something new or better
Although this chapter explains these models as separate entities, there is a great deal of overlapping so
that at times they are more accurately referred to as mixed models. Of the three models of teaching
practice described earlier, the provisions of the US policy advocates for it being a collaborative model.
The US policy provides clear guidance on how this collaboration should be achieved, by giving a rubric
composed of three categories, as follows: the unacceptable; the acceptable; and the target. These three
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categories are also used to give guidance on how to design, implement and evaluate the teaching practice
component. In the unacceptable category, the policy advises against locating all the decision-making
powers on matters related to teaching practice to higher education institutions, which is the dominant
feature of a traditional model. These teaching practice matters include the placement of candidates; the
content to be taught in the teaching practice component; the duration of teaching practice blocks; and the
assessment of students. For the acceptable and the target categories, the dominant feature is
collaboration. Here, the difference between the acceptable and target category is the intensity and
extensiveness of collaboration. For instance, in the acceptable category, the decision-making powers for
designing, delivering and evaluating the teaching practice are vested in the faculty and the school
partners; whereas in the target category, the involvement of both partners begins from the initial process
of deciding on the faculty’s theoretical framework that will undergird the entire teaching practice
component. It is evident, then, that the US policy tries to break away from the traditional model and
embrace a collaborative, equal partnership-type approach in the design and development of a teaching
practice component. Let us now see how the Finnish policy on teaching practice compares, in the next
section.
STOP AND REFLECT
In terms of the different types of model, which would you say South Africa follows? Explain why you
think so.
15.2.2 Finland
Finland is amongst the top-performing countries in education in the world. It was ranked four times in the
first decade of this century by the World Economic Forum as the “most competitive economy” (Sahlberg
2007: 148). Finnish education policy has not been influenced by any “particular reforms or innovations”
(Sahlberg 2007: 149). However, it has been guided by the principle of “leadership’ that is “sustainable”
with a shared vision and values (Sahlberg 2007: 150). This is as a result of the country transforming from
a mainly agrarian economy (i.e. one that relies on farming) to a knowledge society. Equity and equitable
distribution of resources are values driving all Finnish policy, including its education policy. A key
objective of Finland’s teacher education, and its teaching practice model, is the development of ‘teaching
professionals’. These professionals formulate their own work, and contribute to their working
environment. With teaching being a highly-regarded profession, there is a high demand for teacher
training (Ministry of Education 2003). As a result, the teaching profession becomes a highly competitive
field. The standard requires that a Master’s qualification be attained, and this is provided for by a number
of universities across the country (Malinen et al. 2012: 567).
Finland has a complex and diverse education programme, even compared to other international
programmes. There is a balance between theory and practice, and new teachers are introduced to a range
of techniques, including effective teaching and learning (Sahlberg 2007: 154). Teaching practice forms
part of pedagogical studies and can take various forms. Subject teachers may complete pedagogical
studies during their degree or afterwards. For vocational teacher education and training, pedagogical
studies can only be undertaken when the educational qualification has been completed and work
experience has been acquired.
As part of pedagogical studies, teaching practice can be done at university-run teacher training
schools, as well as at ‘affiliated schools’. Teaching practice also forms part of the technical vocational
and training (TVET) curricula. In the case of TVET, teaching practice is undertaken at affiliated
educational institutions and in different working-life assignments, and may constitute the development of
the student’s own area of specialisation or interest. Research is central to teacher education programmes,
and spans the areas of the pre-service programme, namely, subject didactics, educational theory, and
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teaching practice. In developing the teacher as a professional, there is a strong belief that “there should be
a research base for practice” (Westbury, Hansen, Kansanen & Bjorkvist 2005, as cited in Sahlberg 2007).
Research at the equivalent of work done at a Master’s level is completed after pedagogical studies.
In 2001, the Finnish Ministry of Education published a development programme supporting initial and
continuing teacher education and training development. This included recommendations on teaching
practice, as part of pedagogical studies, designed to assist teachers to work with different-aged learners,
and it encouraged diversity in teaching practice for achieving this aim. It emphasises sufficient time for
teaching practice, without any particular stipulation of the timeframe. Becoming a teacher is viewed as a
long-term process, and recognising this is recommended in the development of teaching practice.
Personal support and guidance forms part of the process. This is ensured in various ways and stages, from
selecting candidates dedicated to and reflecting aptitude for teaching, to offering educational guidance
and appreciating teachers’ work (Ministry of Education 2003: 45, 68–69). After these two examples from
the Western world and culture, we now look at teaching practice in West Africa, with specific focus on
Cameroon and Nigeria, in the next section.
15.2.3 West African context
It is important to note at the outset that many West African countries, including Cameroon, Nigeria,
Ghana, Ivory Coast and Sierra Leone share a history of being colonised by Britain and, in the case of
Cameroon and Ivory Coast, France. This explains the colonial legacy of these countries in the education
systems of the now independent West African countries. Teaching practice is an essential exercise in the
teacher curriculum in these West African countries. Given that some West African countries have
adopted the British system of education, it is useful to look at their teaching practice policies. In West
Africa, student teachers are taught to witness, think about the lesson and evaluate it. In this way, they are
guided through micro-lesson simulations to copy or recreate the real classroom situation (Tameh 2011).
Before the beginning of the teaching practice, the educational trainer sets a target for the student teachers.
In the context of West Africa, teaching practice then immerses the student teachers in the classroom
realities taking the mini-lesson and simulations far further (Tameh 2011: 341).
Gaining entry to a teacher training course in Cameroon is through a competitive examination with the
prerequisite of an advanced level for primary and secondary teachers, while a first degree is required for
high school teachers. However, in the case of primary school teachers, after completing the three-year
training course, successful teachers are allowed to teach for a year before qualifying to do the two-year
higher elementary training course (Endeley 2014). In Nigeria, the condition to enter a teachers’ college is
a senior secondary school-leaving certificate (NCE) for teaching in primary schools up to junior
secondary level. It is a three-year course with a six-week teaching practice in both the second- and third
years. Since 2010, only teachers with an NCE are considered qualified to teach in primary schools
(Soneye & Agbonluare 2013), given that 2006 was the deadline to upgrade to NCE or acquire the
certificate.
In contrast to the three state universities in Cameroon that have three block periods set aside for
teaching practice, done only once in the whole programme, the University of Buea observes a unique
model. Here, student teachers go for practice in the second and third year. These student teachers will
have completed 24 weeks (six months) of practice on graduation (Endeley 2014). The process is divided
into observation, discussion, teaching and evaluation. The observation is done for at least a week and is
followed by discussion where the characteristics of the observed lesson are discussed in an atmosphere of
fairness, openness and respect, looking at both strengths and weaknesses. In the first stage of the teaching
part of the process, the student teachers are allowed to take over the lesson. After the lesson is taught,
student teachers evaluate the lesson and meet with the host teacher for a discussion on the lesson. All
student teachers are expected to have a TP book to write comments after each lesson, to assist them with
future planning. At the evaluation phase, both the student teacher and the trainer examine the entire
lesson exercise. The host teacher then writes a comprehensive account of the entire pedagogical
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undertaking at the end of the TP for the pedagogic inspectorate. Endeley sees teaching practice as being
soundly embedded in these educational initiatives for the excellent and specialised teacher training that
needs to be seen as the focal point of teacher training (Endeley 2014: 155).
APPLYING IT TODAY
1. What would you say is the defining feature of US education policy? What do you understand about
this feature?
2. How is the Finnish education policy different from that of the other countries discussed? List at least
three differences.
3. Draw a flow chart of how teaching practice works in Finland. (Hint: remember that it may differ
between subject teachers and vocational teachers). Identify in the flow chart what you think may be
useful for South Africa to learn more about from Finnish policy.
Although the different countries discussed in this section have different teaching practice policies, it is
important to note that there are many similarities across them. This is examined in the following section.
15.3
Comparing the policies of South Africa and other
countries
We now look at South African policy on teaching practice alongside those of Western countries like
United States and Finland, as well as West African countries like Cameroon and Nigeria. The comparison
is useful to synthesise and develop an understanding of what we call ‘best practice’, in other words, the
best aspect of each of the policies.
15.3.1 South African and US policy
A comparison between South African and US policies shows that the US policy excels in articulating the
conceptual framework and in explicating the model that underpins its teaching practice component. The
US policy expresses the various sections of the conceptual framework, so that various aspects such as
values, desired goals, the conceptual framework, the process of design, delivery and evaluation, and the
teaching practice model favoured, are easy to identify. Both the South African and US policies articulate
values such as excellence, inclusivity and transformation. In US policy, the values are stated in the
mission and vision; and in the South African policy they are reflected in the background to the policy.
However, the values in the US policy permeate almost all the various sections of the policy. Although
both policies articulate the desired goal, which is the type of teacher each country envisages, the United
States reiterates the desired goal even in its teaching practice unit standard. The South African policy is
generally silent about the conceptual framework as a cornerstone and guiding idea in the design of a
teacher education programme, while the US policy explicitly emphasises this role. It could be argued that
the US policy is strongly advocating a collaborative model, while the South African policy is not
model-specific. The SA policy stipulations are only specific in areas such as placement of students,
duration of teaching practice, content and assessment.
This comparison shows that as far as the expressive style, articulation of the conceptual framework
and explication of the model that underpins the teaching practice component that characterise the US
policy, South Africa can learn valuable lessons from the US policy framework.
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15.3.2 South African and Finnish policy
In Finland, sustainable leadership by government is the key driver of policy change, with the
underpinning values of equity and equitable distribution of resources. Teaching practice aims at
developing teaching professionals who formulate their own work, and develop communities of practice.
South Africa requires a minimum of four years to achieve a teacher qualification (with some variation),
while the minimum of a Master’s degree is mainly the Finnish norm. Both South African and Finnish
teacher education feature exposure to theory and practice, although, in Finland, the nature of the practical
component may not necessarily form part of the completion of a degree. Teaching practice forms part of
pedagogical studies, which may also be undertaken after the completion of a degree, and work experience
has been gained. Within the South African context, teaching practice encourages a diversity of school
experiences because of our diverse society. The Finnish experience advocates research as central to the
teacher training programmes. This base forms a core component of developing the teacher as a
professional. Working with learners of varied ages, and diversity in teaching practice, is also emphasised
in Finland. There are no stipulated timeframes, as in the South African policy, but becoming a teacher is
rather seen as a long-term process. Both Finland and South Africa view teaching practice as the central
focus of the development of the teacher. The long-term focus of Finnish teaching practice could be
considered by South Africa as part of ongoing self-development, with the research component
strengthening such development.
15.3.3 South Africa and Cameroon and Nigeria
School-based work-integrated learning (WIL) constitutes an essential part of teaching practice in South
Africa, with a strong focus on learning in-and-from practice. Within the South African context, teaching
practice is also regarded as a crucial opportunity for the improvement of implicit information that is seen
to be a significant factor in a teaching career. Applied and work-incorporated knowledge (WIK) is spread
out across the academic programme for initial teacher training and occurs in blocks during the teacher
training course, as is the case in West Africa. The procedure offers clear guidelines about applied and
combined work-learning organisations, direction and guidance. However, the difference between SA and
the West African countries lies in the specific duration of the practice and at what point in the academic
course it is scheduled. While student teachers in South Africa are expected to put in at least 20 weeks, and
at most 32, in officially-managed, monitored and evaluated school-based practices within a four-year
degree period, in Cameroon, student teachers complete 24 weeks over the second and third years
(Endeley 2014), and in Nigeria, they complete three months within the second and third year (Soneye &
Agbonluare 2013). Like South Africa, these happen in a formally-supervised and assessed school-based
environment within the stipulated time.
STOP AND REFLECT
1. Compare the teaching practice policy in West Africa with that of South Africa, indicating the strengths
of each of the policies.
2. What ‘best practice’ would you take from all the policies discussed, and why?
The education policies of the various countries all appear to be well-structured and designed to meet the
needs of the particular education system. While this is a necessary condition, we have yet to understand if
these positive aspects are sufficient to constitute and promote best practice. First, let’s take a closer look
at best practice and why it is a consideration.
15.3.4 Best practice and rationale
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Best practice includes a policy based on leadership that is sustainable, with a shared vision and
collaborative values. With this in mind, the different contexts in our study can be examined. Two ideas of
best practice can be drawn from the US policy, namely, emphasis on a conceptual framework, and the
model underpinning its teaching practice component. The conceptual framework should provide a
guiding idea in the development of the teacher education programme and teaching practice. The
collaborative model which this policy advocates draws upon the different forms of professional
knowledge contributed by staff in higher education and staff in schools. The very manner in which this
policy is presented facilitates the easy implementation of its provisions for the teaching practice
component in that it clearly identifies what is unacceptable, acceptable, and its target.
As far as Finland is concerned, teachers are regarded as professionals, with minimum qualifications at
Master’s level, and teaching practice is part of pedagogical studies. Research, as a base for practice, at the
equivalent of work done at Master’s level, is central to teacher education programmes. In other words,
Finnish policy sets high standards for best practice, but also appears to hold its teaching profession in
high value.
In Nigeria, the minimum qualification for primary school teachers is a senior secondary school-leaving
certificate (NCE) that all teachers must obtain. The situation is not very different in Cameroon but for the
fact that in Cameroon, longer periods of training and teaching practice are observed (3–4 years of
university training with three to six months of teaching practice). Again, the requirement that candidate
student teachers have to write an entrance examination makes it possible for strong and qualified students
to be selected and trained as future teachers. Finally, the policy guiding teaching practice in Cameroon is
very clear about assisting both the host teacher and student teachers in the entire process of teaching
practice; from the observation phase, teaching, and post-conferencing stages, through to the evaluation
phase.
This section has discussed the best practices of the policies from the selected countries to draw lessons
that can be used to improve the South African policy framework so that it can more adequately guide the
design and development of the teaching practice component in higher education institutions in South
Africa.
STOP AND REFLECT
Do you think the discussion of best practice, and comparison with other countries in the world, helps to
answer any of Howard’s concerns in the opening case study? Identify what you personally have found
relevant and useful.
Conclusion
While various countries operate different teaching practice systems, they all share the same purpose: to
provide prospective teachers with a practical and reflective experience, which enables them to integrate
theoretical, practical and experiential knowledge into their understanding and resolution of professional
issues.
Policy changes in the South African teacher education context in the past decade are a response to the
challenges of twenty-first century global factors. These changes are directed towards meeting the
educational requirements of the twenty-first century learner, and South African policy recognises the
need to situate its framework in the contemporary globalised world economy, as much as meeting local
needs. Student teachers spend time in lecture rooms (universities), as well as in the future workplace
(schools), with teaching practice being recommended over short periods spanning 20 to 32 weeks in total.
These are further divided into yearly times with full supervision and assessment of the teaching practice
that takes place.
The discussion of the US policy hinged upon: values, desired goals, conceptual framework, process of
design, delivery and evaluation and desired outcome of the policy. Its comparison with SA policy yielded
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the following lessons: the style of expression, conceptual framework and articulation of model are critical
in teacher education programme design.
The Finnish policy, with its emphasis on sustainable leadership, aims to develop teachers who are able
to carry out their own work ethic and build communities. The setting of standards at a Master’s
qualification level, with teaching practice a critical focus, sets the basis of the continuous professional
development of the teacher. Within the West African context, teaching practice is also formalised and
assessed over a specific period, as in the South African context, but for the fact that in Cameroon there
are guided rules to assist both the student teachers and host teachers during the teaching practice.
Common to all countries, formal qualifications include a teaching practice component, and policy
which dictates a minimum period, and what the curriculum should entail. In every country we presented
there is a valuing of the role of teaching practice as part of teacher training, emphasising that teachers
need to be trained in the practice of teaching as well as the theory and have real experience of it, before
they can be regarded as professionals.
Activities
Self-reflection
1. Do you think legislation and policy play an important role in teacher education? Why? Name the most
recent South African policy on teacher education and briefly describe what you think its relevance to
school experience is.
Analysis and consolidation
2. Critically compare the differences and similarities in teaching practice as policy in South Africa and the
USA.
3. Create a table of the differences and similarities in teaching practice as practised in South Africa and
Finland.
4. Critically analyse what constitutes best practice in South Africa and West Africa, stating what could be
made more effective, and why.
Practical application
5. How can student teachers in South Africa benefit from the implementation of the most recent policy?
Point out any shortcomings of the policy with reference to teaching.
References
Council on Higher Education (CHE). 2010. Work-Integrated Learning: Good Practice Guide. HE
Monitor No. 12. Pretoria: CHE.
Department of Education. 2000. Norms and Standards for Educators (2000). Pretoria: Government
Printers.
Department of Higher Education and Training. 2010. Draft Policy on the Minimum Requirements for
Teacher Education Qualifications selected from the Education Qualifications Framework (HEQF).
Pretoria: Government Printers.
Department of Higher Education and Training. 2011. Policy on the Minimum Requirements for Teacher
Education Qualifications. Pretoria: Government Printers.
Department of Higher Education and Training. 2015. Revised Policy on the Minimum Requirements for
Teacher Education Qualifications. Pretoria: Government Printers.
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Endeley, M.N. 2014. Teaching Practice in Cameroon: The Effectiveness of the University of Buea model
and implications for quality Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 39(11): 146–160.
Furlong, J., Whitty, G., Whiting, C., Miles, S., Barton, L. & Barrett, E. 1996. Re-defining Partnership:
revolution or reform in initial teacher education? Journal of Education for Teaching, 22(1): 39–55.
Malinen, O-P., Väisänen, P. & Savolainen, H. 2012. Teacher education in Finland: A review of a national
effort for preparing teachers for the future, Curriculum Journal, 23(4): 567–584.
Ministry of Education (Finland). 2003. Attracting, developing and retaining effective teachers. Country
background report for Finland. Finland: Finland Ministry of Education.
Mtika, P. 2011. Trainee Teachers’ Experiences of Teaching Practicum: Issues, challenges and new
possibilities. Africa Education Review, 8(3): 551–567.
NCATE. 2008. Professional Standards for the Accreditation of Teacher Preparation Institutions.
Sahlberg, P. 2007. Education policies for raising student learning: The Finnish approach. Journal of
Education Policy, 22(2): 147–171.
Sayed, Y. 2004. The case of teacher education in post-apartheid South Africa: Politics and priorities. In:
Chisholm, L. (ed.) Changing class: Education and social change in post-apartheid South Africa:
247–265. Cape Town: HSRC Press.
Soneye, B. & Agbonluare, R. 2013. The Effective Implementation of the New Senior Secondary School
Curriculum in the Realisation of Educational Objectives. Retrieved 5 April 2015 from: http://www
.slideshare.net/bayosoneye1/bayorose-2013.
Tameh, V. 2011. Teaching Practice Evaluation in Cameroon. In: Bame, A.N. & Tchombe, T.M.S. (eds)
Handbook of African Educational Theories and Practices. A Generative Teacher Education
Curriculum. Bamenda, Cameroon: Presses Universitaires.
Westbury, I., Hansen, S.E., Kansanen, P. & Björkvist, O. 2005. Teacher education for research-based
practice in expanded roles: Finland’s experience. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research,
49(5): 475–485.
Zeichner, K. 2010. Rethinking the connections between campus courses and field experiences in collegeand university-based teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 61(1–2): 89–99.
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16
Portfolios in teaching practice – paper-based versus
e-based portfolios
Copyright 2016. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
Micheal van Wyk and Gamuchirai Ndamba
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Define, describe and contextualise a teaching portfolio.
• Identify different categories of portfolios.
• Define and describe both paper- and e-based portfolios.
• Critically reflect on the advantages and disadvantages of both paper- and e-based portfolios.
Key concepts
Personal philosophy of teaching: one’s own ideas and ideological standpoint about teaching and
learning, and how it should be done
Action research: a self-reflective investigation meant to improve one’s own practice
Cooperative learning: a teaching method which involves interaction of mixed ability where each
member actively contributes towards the achievement of a common goal
Paper-based or electronic portfolio: a collection of authentic materials which you will collect, select
and organise carefully to portray your professional practice on your chosen goals as a student teacher
eportfolio: an electronic teaching portfolio, a structured online collection of evidence of a student
teacher’s artefacts, work-integrated learning (teaching lessons), assessment tasks, and assignments
collected over time and framed by critical thinking, constructive feedback and reflective writing for
overall assessment purposes
Learning management system: an online system with existing designed software that allows the input
of data towards compiling an eportfolio.
CASE STUDY: CHIPO’S STORY OF CHANGE
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Chipo Moyo is a student teacher whose personal teaching philosophy is based on a belief that
competition rather than cooperation among learners is better for learning. This is because, during her
own education, there was always strong emphasis on competition – among learners, from teachers, as
part of school ethos, and so forth – and as a result, she has come to accept it as the norm. But she also
believes that the teacher should ‘protect’ withdrawn, introverted learners from being sidelined by
other, more extroverted learners. After reading about the benefits of cooperative learning, Chipo
decides to develop an action research project to explore this (for her) new philosophy. She chooses
action research since she knows this is an implementable approach and an effective way of addressing
a student teacher’s concerns during teaching practice. She also develops a portfolio to record and
present her findings.
Chipo is transformed in her philosophy when, after using a reflective journal and opening her
personal philosophy to scrutiny during the action research cycles she has captured in the portfolio, she
learns from her findings that cooperation actually works for the good of all learners. By undertaking an
action research project with her learners, with the help of her colleagues, and keeping a portfolio of
evidence, Chipo improves her own practice through a changed personal philosophy, while her learners
can now enjoy the benefits of cooperative learning.
STOP AND REFLECT
What kinds of things (evidence) do you think Chipo includes in her portfolio as data from her action
research project?
Introduction
For the purposes of teaching practice, whether you compile a paper-based or an electronic portfolio, it
portrays the story of you as a student teacher becoming a professional. It also reveals who you are
personally and professionally. Paper-based portfolios and electronic portfolios (eportfolios) are currently
used in most teacher education programmes as part of a professional development strategy to empower
and support student teachers to record and display their learning experiences.
In this chapter, we want to show you how to use eportfolios in contrast to paper-based portfolios, as
student teacher-empowering tools for personal growth and professional development. The twenty-first
century comes with many possibilities and opportunities for initial teacher education, and especially for
planning, compiling and assessing paper-based and eportfolios as a possible alternative assessment tool in
teacher education programmes. In this chapter, we present a type of teaching portfolio which provides for
both paper-based and electronic evidence. Currently, there is a shift towards using eportfolios as an
alternative assessment strategy at higher education institutions. Garrett (2011) has conducted extensive
research studies on both paper-based and electronic portfolios, and shows that in compiling both
paper-based portfolios and eportfolios, students now include specific evidence such as curriculum vitaes,
lesson plans, artefacts, work-integrated learning experiences such as teaching practice sessions, research
projects, and written assignments, to submit for assessment. It is evident that both paper-based and
eportfolios are increasingly used to enhance teaching and learning practices, particularly in teacher
education during teaching practice courses for student teachers. The literature indicates that extensive
research studies on paper-based portfolios and eportfolios as a teacher training strategy have been done.
This chapter will introduce you to the value of paper-based portfolios, compared with eportfolios; the
nature and relevance of portfolios; the role of reflection; and provide examples of good portfolios.
Furthermore, the benefits for using paper-based and eportfolios in teacher education programmes will be
explored. The steps in planning and compiling a paper-based versus an eportfolio will be described, and
how to assess portfolios for professional growth and development will be explained.
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16.1
Paper-based portfolios in teacher education
16.1.1 The nature of paper-based portfolios for teaching practice
The use of a paper-based portfolio is a concept which originated in occupations such as advertising,
architecture, art, fashion, journalism and photography, where employers sought to hire people with high
levels of creativity, which a portfolio would provide evidence of. A portfolio in the education context,
which resembles the historical idea of ‘best practice’ samples of professional work, goes beyond this
concept because learning to teach is understood as a much more complex enterprise than only creativity.
In the 1980s, various teacher education programmes started to focus on using portfolios for pre-service
teachers, to document their growth and assess their competency through reflection and skill development
(Shepherd & Hannafin 2013). The implication of the ‘best practice’ principle is that as a pre-service
teacher, your portfolio is expected to provide evidence of teaching effectiveness for the purpose of your
own self-evaluation and reflection, as well as for others to judge the quality of your teaching.
Because a teaching practice portfolio is situated in the classroom context, it can provide a model for
you to integrate learning, promote enquiry, inform professional decision-making, foster self-assessment,
and set your own goals for use in the learning and assessment of your learners (Rolheiser & Schwartz
2001). The format of the teaching practice portfolio, which may differ in design and presentation from
one individual to another, generally consists of some common elements you need to consider when
building your own professional portfolio.
The suggested elements of a portfolio include the structure, content and process, depending on the
requirements of a given programme:
• The structure can be open-ended and determined by the individual student teacher, or it can be based on
a highly structured format which may be created by an institution (see Chapter 11 appendices; see
also Appendix 16.1).
• The content can be based on context-specific, self-selected collections particular to an individual student
teacher, or it can depend on standardised sets of performance.
• The process can range from ongoing self-assessment of self-chosen goals, with the assistance of others,
to formal evaluation of the student teacher’s performance (Wolf & Dietz 1998).
16.1.2 Purpose of portfolios
The purpose of the portfolio will determine what it focuses on. When a portfolio is meant for personal use
by the student teacher in order to improve future practice, it is called a formative type of portfolio. The
summative dimension comes in when a student teacher provides evidence of teaching effectiveness for
the purpose of assessment by other people. The formative type of portfolio (also known as the learning
portfolio) can be modified for the purpose of assessing whether the practitioner achieved the intended
objectives or not. In your context as a pre-service teacher, your portfolio can be used as a learning tool for
your own professional growth and, at the same time, it serves the purpose of assessing your competence
as a teacher.
The main purposes of teaching portfolios are that they help to stimulate self-assessment, document
professional development, guide teaching, communicate with parents, and provide information to
administrators and policymakers on instructional practices (Wolf & Dietz 1998). Having looked at the
purposes for which teaching practice portfolios may be created, we now offer the following questions
from Paul (2004: 2) to guide you in identifying the purpose of your own portfolio:
• Why am I developing this portfolio?
• What do I hope to learn from my portfolio?
• Who is the audience for my portfolio?
• Which areas of teaching and learning do I plan to examine?
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•
•
How will I gather, analyse and present portfolio information?
Should I document my development process, or only present my best work?
16.1.3 Portfolio content
After identifying the portfolio purposes, you then gather tangible artefacts that accurately represent the
intended purposes. In terms of materials to be included in the portfolio, those worth considering include
materials from you as the practitioner, those from others (peers, mentor or supervisor), products of
learners’ learning, and other items. Since a portfolio is an evidence-based paper document; specific
artefacts which may be considered for inclusion in the portfolio include lesson plans, learners’ work,
evaluations by classroom and university supervisors, peer reviews, photographs, video or audio
recordings. Thus, as a pre-service teacher, you should gather evidence of your classroom practice, reflect
on the evidence in terms of achievement of goals, draw conclusions, and develop plans to improve future
practice.
A teaching portfolio is context specific; therefore the evidence provided should relate to a specific
situation in a particular classroom with particular learners. Information in the portfolio should be
substantiated by actual samples, as it is difficult to assess the achievement that you may claim, without
examining the evidence which indicates that learning actually took place. A portfolio should clearly
document areas in which improvement was needed, as well as steps taken to enhance teaching
effectiveness. In other words, portfolios provide evidence of your achievement in the form of knowledge
and skills acquired through workshops attended, articles read, and the changes noted as a result of
engaging teaching methods that improve instruction.
STOP AND REFLECT
Go back to the opening case study: from Chipo Moyo’s experience, what is your understanding of a
teaching portfolio?
16.1.4 Teaching philosophy
Your personal philosophy of teaching forms the basis of all other elements of your teaching portfolio.
Research studies have found that deeply held personal beliefs influence teachers’ practice (Jones 2010).
The criteria for developing a teaching philosophy statement may include: your assumptions and beliefs
about how teaching should be conducted and how learners learn best in the classroom; your evaluation
and assessment of teaching and learning; as well as the perceived relationship between the teaching
methods and your philosophy (Schonwetter, Sokal, Friesen & Taylor 2002). Your teaching philosophy is
usually also based on college or university work, readings, as well as the influence of various schools of
thought. The implication is that as you build your own portfolio, the materials which you include should
demonstrate how actual instructional practices and other settings reflect these personal teaching
philosophies. This gives your assessors the context in which to situate your achievements. For example,
in the opening case study, Chipo would have to include in her portfolio the articles that she read about
cooperative learning, the tasks that she gave learners as a way of building team spirit, and samples of
learners’ work before and after the intervention, to prove that learners benefited.
STOP AND REFLECT
Think about your own teaching philosophy. Which school of thought do you subscribe to? What beliefs
do you hold about how teachers ought to teach and how learners learn?
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16.1.5 The role of reflection in portfolio management
Reflection is the most valuable element at all the stages of portfolio development. Without reflection,
your portfolio would be a little more than a folder of collected papers. Research findings indicate that
those pre-service teachers who assemble professional portfolios do better in the areas of improvement and
professionalism (Robichaux & Guarino 2012). As opposed to routine action which is passive, reflective
action engages active involvement in carefully considering any belief or assumption which you might
have (Jones 2010). Reflective statements that guide you include self-evaluation about an event
experienced during the teaching and learning encounter, connections between ideas and practice, as well
as ideas on changes to improve future practice; for example, ‘My learners were struggling with the
concept of matter during the lesson. I think I didn’t explain the concept clearly. What can I do to help
them understand better?’ The teacher can then suggest various ways of improving future practice, such as
the need to look at many different examples of matter both inside and outside the classroom.
Reflection occurs in a cyclical manner during the planning, action and evaluation phases, and helps the
teacher to establish what works and what does not work in a specific teaching incident, and why (Clarke
& Kinuthia 2009; Engin 2013). As a pre-service teacher, you are able to learn from asking ‘why?’ You
can mindfully examine thinking before, during, and after decision-making. Instead of relying on detailed
artefact collection strategies and rationales, teachers may consider portfolios based on research, which
apply validated methods and data-driven decisions (Ndamba 2007; Shepherd & Hannafin 2013). In other
words, you can build a professional portfolio based on action research, aimed at documenting the process
you followed in solving a unique classroom-based problem, which helps you to grow professionally.
16.1.6 Reflective journal as tool in compiling the portfolio
A reflective journal is a tangible document which captures your introspection, feelings and reactions
about your practice. Reflection done as part of journal entries is one of the main ways of recording
activities. Research findings have singled out journal keeping as an effective instructional strategy
capable of promoting reflective thinking, teacher empowerment, teacher learning, as well as influencing
pre-service teachers’ beliefs and attitudes (Jones 2010; Minott 2008). Keeping a reflective journal
therefore encourages you to explore issues of concern which you can discuss with colleagues, mentors
and tutors.
Journal entries include your thoughts and feelings about learning and development, new skills
acquired, as well as critical or puzzling incidents that occur. When you capture the important events of
the day, you go on to analyse the entries and reflections in terms of how they can be adapted in future
teaching experiences. A reflective journal forms part of the artefacts included in a portfolio. You can also
use a blog to make posts in the same manner that you would make entries in a daily journal (see Chapter
17).
Strategies for success
Remember that your journal is for your own reflections and professional development in your teaching
career. While it is personal to you, it is not for recording information about your personal life – keep
another, separate journal for your private thoughts and reflections.
Here is an example of a journal entry:
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15 January 2017
Today, I introduced a unit on ‘Addition with carrying’ to my Grade 2 class. I had enough teaching
media to demonstrate the concept during the whole class activity. However, I took a lot of time
explaining the concept to the whole class without making time for practice, resulting in some learners
failing to understand. If I could teach this lesson again, I would plan for more time to be spent on
group tasks and individual work in order to cater for all ability levels.
STOP AND REFLECT
Think critically about how you want to improve your teaching. Which aspects of teaching and learning
do you want to work on? Make journal entries and reflect on them on your own, and then with
colleagues to establish whether your concerns are genuine or not.
16.1.7 Relevance of portfolio development
What makes a professional portfolio a valuable and relevant document in teacher education? Studies
indicate that the development of portfolios helps pre-service teachers to scrutinise their own practices as
well as those of their colleagues, intensify perceived knowledge of teacher roles, and develop structured
arguments about learner achievements (Shepherd & Hannafin 2013). Therefore, through self-diagnosis of
learning needs, portfolio development allows you to identify concepts that cause concern in your
day-to-day practice, with a view to finding ways of improving on your weaknesses and building on your
strengths. You also get the opportunity to work independently on your chosen learner-centred goals
during the process of portfolio building. Through the process of self-evaluation and portfolio
development, you become more confident and take ownership and responsibility for your own learning as
a prospective teacher.
Portfolio development involves evidence of professional growth through writing reflection on journal
entries and other artefacts. The evidence contained in the portfolio allows other people to observe what
you were thinking during the process of teaching and documenting portfolio contents. The variety of
work that you select during portfolio building provides evidence of your accomplishments towards your
chosen goals. The process in turn empowers you to identify, organise and examine teaching artefacts in
the portfolio, all of which contribute towards improvement of your own practice. Most importantly,
portfolios provide your teacher lecturers and assessors with the necessary evidence of your
accomplishments as a student teacher, for the purpose of assessment.
APPLYING IT TODAY
Much of the literature on building teaching portfolios is from developed countries. Think of your own
African context where some schools may be under-resourced. Which context-specific learner needs
would you need to address and how? Outline your ideas and show how you would implement them.
16.1.8 Collaborative partnerships
Since learning is a social process, interaction with others is desirable during the course of portfolio
development as you set goals, act, document your work, and reflect on your achievements. Successful
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implementation of reflective practice is enhanced by active and ongoing collaboration, which provides
you with the necessary feedback which may be useful in building the portfolio. A study on pre-service
teachers working in collaborative partnerships concluded that collaborative reflective practice goes
beyond simple evaluation, to identifying reasons for the success or failure and seeking ways of improving
future practice (Parsons & Stevenson 2005, cited in Onks 2009). If you engage in collaboration with
others, the frequent discussion and reflection with those others allows you to make sense of uncertain,
unique or conflicting situations of practice in a way you might not be able to do alone. During your
teaching practice, there are many opportunities for collaboration: you can involve your mentor, a critical
friend or fellow student(s), as partners in the process of developing your portfolio. Collaborative partners
should be people you believe you can work comfortably with, so as to bring some form of change for
your own benefit and also for that of the learners.
The advantages of collaborative partnerships have been documented in teacher education programmes
worldwide (Arslan 2014; Ruys, Van Keer & Aelterman 2012). The strength of collaboration lies in the
combined effort in addressing common goals, a situation which transforms the quality of teaching
scholarship into a participative teaching venture, contrary to traditional delivery approaches.
Collaboration also helps you to embrace a feeling of collegial support and a realisation that you are not
alone in the struggle. Consistent and systematic peer evaluations serve a learning forum which may
contribute to your enhanced growth and development as a pre-service teacher.
STOP AND REFLECT
What is your view about cooperative and collaborative learning? In compiling your portfolio, who do
you want to involve as collaborative partners and what are your reasons?
Before you read the dialogue, look at Table 16.1 on page 279, where the differences between the two
types of portfolios are described.
Now that you have a clear understanding of what defines a teacher portfolio, let us get to the purpose
of developing an eportfolio for student teachers.
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16.2
Using electronic portfolios (eportfolios) in teacher
education
The eportfolio is a multi-modal evidence-based strategy currently introduced in most teacher education
programmes at higher education institutions (HEIs). In such HEI faculties of education, eportfolios are
used as an alternative assessment tool for student teacher empowerment, development and promotion.
In the next section, we define the purpose of an eportfolio, discussing the categories, benefits, and
reasons for planning and compiling a successful eportfolio as proof of your personal growth and
professional development.
16.2.1 Defining an eportfolio
Murphy (1994) defines an electronic portfolio (eportfolio) as an online evidence-based compilation tool
for professional development. Murphy also indicates that a student demonstrates knowledge, skills and
attitudes in compiling specific artefacts in the electronic portfolio. Boulton and Hramiak (2012) further
suggest that an eportfolio is the collection and compilation of evidence in electronic format of work
which demonstrates knowledge, skills, attitudes and constructive feedback of submitted work of the
student teacher. The literature generally shows that electronic portfolios are found in all phases of
education, in particular professional development for learning, assessment, promotion and appraisal. An
eportfolio can also be used for assessment for learning (summative), assessment of learning (formative),
and assessment as learning (peer and self-assessment).
An eportfolio then, is an online learning file created through an online learning management system
(see later in this chapter) for the student teacher to gather a collection of authentic evidence. Eportfolios
present and demonstrate evidence of learning experiences, performance, achievements in learning
outcomes, over time. Let us now turn to the purpose of developing an eportfolio.
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16.2.2 Purpose of developing an eportfolio
The purpose of using an eportfolio is to showcase a student teacher’s personal growth and demonstrate
specific knowledge and skills obtained during learning programme. This means that student teachers use
the eportfolio to reflect, engage, collaborate and enhance active authentic learning. Student teachers
develop an eportfolio for the purpose of self-directed learning (formative assessment), assessment
(summative assessment) and employability (career). A recent literature review by Bolton (2014) identifies
learning, professional development, assessment, job applications, and promotion, as key indicators for
using eportfolios. For example, Fisher et al. (2011) investigated the use of digital portfolios at the School
for Teacher Education, University of Hong Kong. Their findings highlight how digital portfolios became
integrated as part of personal growth to achieve objectives such as developing personal growth plans,
improving and acknowledging measurable standards, and creating self-efficacy, in student teachers.
Research clearly shows that eportfolios are used as an empowering and reflective tool in teacher
education programmes. Several writers define an eportfolio as a collection and compilation of evidence of
work which includes a knowledge, skills, attitude and constructive feedback of submitted work (Boulton
& Hramiak 2012; Forster & Masters 1996; Baume 2003). Murphy (1994: 175) further indicates that an
eportfolio “is a compilation of evidence which contains artefacts of curricula in the sense that they
contain objects made by human beings which are characteristic of a particular classroom.” Lyons (2002:
14) says that an eportfolio is a “file of authentic evidence” produced by student teachers: it indicates
what, why and how they learned after compiling the evidence in the eportfolios. In the context of this
chapter, an eportfolio is used for enhancing self-directed learning, professional identity, self-reflection,
collaboration and as an alternative assessment tool, to produce as evidence in support of:
• Daily representations of teaching practice
• Feedback by mentor(s)
• Engagement with key stakeholders such as learners, parents and school community
• Reflective commentary on daily teaching practice (Trevitt, Macduff & Steed 2013).
Researchers argue that developing an evidence-based approach to eportfolios is at the heart of
documenting life learning experiences (Quinlan 2002; Wang 2009). Further, Buzzetto-More (2010)
proposes that eportfolios serve the purpose of supporting student teachers and faculty in evaluating
progress made towards personal growth and academic achievement. Lyons et al. (2002) indicate the
purpose of using eportfolios as alternative assessment tool is to develop student teachers’ pedagogical
content knowledge and reflective practice. Before you continue with the next section on the advantages of
using portfolios in teacher education, remember the dialogue between Sam and Thuli, as you engage with
the following activity.
APPLYING IT TODAY
1. In your own words, how would you define the concept of an eportfolio?
2. What type of authentic evidence will you use to compile your professional eportfolio?
3. Several writers indicate that an eportfolio showcases a person’s personal growth and demonstrates
specific knowledge and skills obtained over time. Do you agree or disagree? Provide reasons for
using eportfolios in teacher education programmes.
4. After reading the dialogue, why do you think that Sam and Thuli support the idea that teachers go the
online eportfolio route? Motivate your answer.
16.2.3 Compiling specific content in paper-based or eportfolios
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throughout teaching practice
Currently, teacher education programmes at institutions of higher learning require student teachers to
compile either a paper-based or eportfolio of evidence as part of the teaching practice qualification. Over
time, student teachers compile specific evidence in their paper-based or eportfolios though their teaching
practice period. Several items are collated or uploaded by student teachers in their paper-based or
eportfolio for feedback or final assessment. It is important s to produce authentic evidence for the
paper-based or eportfolio, in other words, pieces that are originally designed, developed or created by the
student teacher. Examples of evidence uploaded in an eportfolio are: a comprehensive CV, qualifications
(certificates, diplomas, degrees, etc.), awards, specific lesson plans, lesson videos, podcasts, graphics,
PowerPoint lesson presentations, individual or group assignments, research projects, teaching practice
DVDs, photos as part of the lesson, the reflective journal, self-designed educational media, and social
media items (blog, wiki, Twitter, Facebook, etc.) (see Chapter 17).
A question of ethics
Is authenticity always the criterion for inclusion in a portfolio? What if you have some email or social
media items that include personal, disclosing or sensitive information in among the relevant information?
Do you edit it or leave it out? Here, you will have to use your own judgement: will the inclusion
potentially do harm to or bring into disrepute anyone or anything among the key stakeholders? Seek the
advice of your mentor, or lecturer if you are not sure.
In the next section, our focus shifts to the advantages of eportfolios in teacher education, in particularly in
undergraduate teacher education.
16.2.4 Benefits of using eportfolios
Quinlan (2002) conducted a study on evaluating portfolios for promotion in teacher education
programmes. Her findings revealed that as a promotional tool, portfolios provided insightful information
about student teachers’ teaching philosophy, professional development, teaching methods, and career
pathing. The literature further shows that there are several advantages for using eportfolios in teacher
education programmes, including: enhancing lifelong learning and reflective teaching skills, increasing
pedagogical and technical content knowledge, values, beliefs and positive attitudes, amongst others.
Throughout the process of collecting, compiling and reflecting on authentic evidence, student teachers are
taking ownership of their learning process because they want to produce the best possible eportfolio. It is
an ultimate goal of any student teacher to establish personal goals and achievements during the period of
compiling evidence for their eportfolio. In compiling and sharing evidence in the eportfolio, students are
developing their collaborative skills. Since the purpose is to select the kind of work described in the
teacher education module or course, for assessment purposes, student teachers can share and critique
information in the eportfolio collectively by giving constructive feedback on the quality and authenticity
of evidence produced. Another educational value of an eportfolio is that student teachers share
information, collaborate to complete group tasks, reflect critically about their writing and critique one
another’s work in a collegial manner. We now turn to the reasons for using eportfolios in teacher
education.
16.2.5 Reasons to adopt eportfolios
Some reasons for using eportfolios in teacher education are as follows:
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Enhancing professional identity
When you plan and present your lessons on a topic, you are collecting, compiling and reflecting on your
own practice in creating the optimal learning environment to accommodate all learners in your class.
Student teachers set specific objectives to be achieved over time when they develop an eportfolio. The
strongest reason for using an eportfolio in teacher education programmes is to enhance professional
identity: the evidence provided in the eportfolio clearly shows the identity of the student teacher. The
eportfolio demonstrates the student teacher’s knowledge and skills in the evidence of authentic artefacts
compiled over a period of learning. Most student teachers want to demonstrate their learning process and
experiences through their eportfolios. Garrett (2011: 189) indicates that eportfolios can be used to
“enhance a student’s professional identity and personality”. This means you as a student teacher want to
produce evidence that you are proud of, and you ultimately believe that your eportfolio is the best way to
do this.
Enhancing self-directed and transformative learning
Eportfolios can be used as a means of revealing the student’s personal values, intended goals and to
formulate a vision to be achieved. Garrett (2011: 190) views the developing of the eportfolio over time as
a transformative learning process. Compiling the evidence shows that transformative learning is
continuously taking place, which is helped by student teachers sharing evidence with other students,
expressing their ideas for self-enrichment and self-efficacy.
Development of reflective practices
Eportfolios support student teachers in creating learning opportunities that make connections between
theory and practice. When compiling evidence in the eportfolio, student teachers make informed
decisions about they want to include as quality evidence, from reflecting on it. They have opportunities to
reflect in planning as well as compiling the eportfolio. As indicated earlier, the use of a reflective journal
shows how eportfolios develop reflective practices, enabling student teachers to re-think and critically
reflect on their practice in becoming a professional (Zeichner & Wray 2001; Dutt-Donter & Gilman
1998).
Providing opportunities for authentic learning through assessment and feedback
There are three specific reasons why teacher education programmes require student teachers to plan and
compile an eportfolio: these are that eportfolios are used for alternative assessment, for enhancing
authentic, self-directed learning (lifelong learning and life-wide learning) and for promoting student
self-reflection. Proponents of eportfolios believe that peer discussion of eportfolios creates excellent
opportunities for authentic learning as a critical part of assessment (FitzPatrick & Spiller 2010).
Building good relationships through collaboration and social interaction
Researchers maintain that it is critical for student teachers to reflect on their practice with other student
teachers (Quinlan 2002; Wray 2007). Not only does this build good classroom relationships amongst
fellow student teachers, but it can be used as starting point for promoting ongoing dialogical
opportunities, and for furthering collaboration among student teachers (Groom & Maunonen-Eskelinen
2006; Xu 2003). This ultimately creates a community of social interaction and collaboration among
student teachers.
Before you continue with the next section on the steps in planning and compiling eportfolios, do the
following as group activity.
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APPLYING IT TODAY
Read the article ‘Inside the peer review process: How academics review a colleague’s teaching
portfolio’ by Kathleen Quinlan (2002) in the journal, Teaching and Teacher Education (see
References). The author conducted a study on evaluating portfolios for promotion purposes in teacher
education programmes. Make notes on the advantages of using portfolios to evaluate others’ work as
emerges from the study. Work together in groups of four and answer the following questions:
1. As a group, discuss why and how you can use eportfolios in your subject.
2. Plan and make a presentation to the class providing convincing reasons why you would support the
use of eportfolios in teacher education programmes.
Next, we explore the steps for planning and compiling an eportfolio of evidence for assessment.
16.2.6 Steps in planning and compiling an eportfolio
The literature indicates that eportfolios provide a lifelong and life-wide platform for student teachers to
reflect, plan, and identify specific areas for growth and improvement. Eportfolios give opportunities for
self-reflection, self-assessment, and for documenting feedback and assessment.
Figure 16.1 illustrates the planning process you can follow as a student teacher when you decide to
adopt the planning process of planning your eportfolio.
Figure 16.1: Five-step design of an eportfolio
Step 1: Purpose of planning the eportfolio
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Before you start on your eportfolio, decide on the purpose of planning and compiling the type of
eportfolio you have in mind (see 16.3.2). Determine beforehand the aim, objectives, type of evidence,
knowledge and skills requirements. An important part of planning and developing your eportfolio is to
get constructive feedback and assessment.
Step 2: Collection of type of evidence in eportfolio
Before you start collecting evidence, it must clear what, why and how the type of evidence for building
the eportfolio will be compiled. Clear criteria of the type of specific evidence and its classification in the
eportfolio must be provided by you. There should be information on what artefacts are to be included in
your eportfolio. Examples of types of artefacts that could be included in the eportfolio are: a
comprehensive curriculum vitae, personal growth plan, vision and mission statement, teaching
philosophy, qualifications, awards, training records, lesson plans, teaching aids, field notes, class
observation sheets, podcasts, DVDs, videos, emails, collages, subject method policy, curriculum
documents, minutes of meetings during teaching practice period, and photos. To organise such a variety
of possible inclusions, clear guidelines must also be provided by the student teacher on how entries in the
eportfolio are classified.
Step 3: Reflect on evidence in eportfolio
Every time an activity is uploaded, constructive feedback is provided for further refinement. The purpose
of constructive feedback is not to judge your weaknesses but for your own professional development
purposes. The evidence of each activity is a reflection, which is the heart and soul of an eportfolio.
Step 4: Implement and interact on feedback provided
Each time you upload different types of information on the learning management system (see later in the
chapter), it is captured as the type of evidence, with the date and time of the submission. After assessment
of submitted evidence, feedback is provided to student teachers to reflect and respond to comments on
each of the type of evidence submitted (see Appendix 16.1). This is done individually or collectively. In
this step, teacher mentors provide an opportunity for interaction and constructive feedback on the
activities posted in the eportfolio, for further reflection by student teachers.
Step 5: Presentation and compiling final eportfolio
Before student teachers submit their final eportfolios, clear criteria and dates for the presentation of the
eportfolio for assessment must be provided. There should be information about what and how the
artefacts will be evaluated in the eportfolio. Clear assessment guidelines must be provided for the student
to classify entries in the eportfolio. Most teacher education programmes require student teachers to
present and compile the eportfolio to achieve the subject-related objectives and learning programme
outcomes that are part of a qualification.
Strategies for success
You can also use the rubric in Appendix 16.1 at the end of this book to help you compile your portfolio,
in addition to understanding the criteria that are used to assess your portfolio. The rubric applies to both
paper-based and eportfolios.
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STOP AND REFLECT
1. Using your own words, draw a flow chart to explain the steps for planning your eportfolio.
2. Include your rationale for any items that you would want to include that may be over and above the
usual requirements.
16.2.7 Choosing the right software
Currently, there are several software options you can use to create your personal eportfolio. You can use
any of the following website platforms to create your eportfolio: WordPress, Wix.com, or Mahara. We
have chosen one, Mahara, and here you can see an example of its internet homepage.
Figure 16.2:Mahara’s homepage
Source:http://manual.mahara.org/en/1.10/Mahara.pdf
Strategies for success
Log in to http://manual.mahara.org/en/1.10/Mahara.pdf and read the instructions to create your own
eportfolio. This comprehensive manual on all the functions of the eportfolio will give further explanation
of the number references seen on the homepage (see Figure 16.2). Remember, there are other platforms
you can use for your eportfolio. Your institution may have a system already set up, or may help you
choose one.
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16.2.8 Portfolios as a teaching practice tool for professional growth and
development
Having looked at the steps for planning and compiling an eportfolio, we now evaluate the eportfolio in
terms of assessment for and of learning, and related policy on professional growth and development.
Currently, eportfolios are seen as an alternative means to assess student learning as a new development
in teacher education programmes globally. Eportfolios are seen as an integral part of initial teacher and
in-service teacher training courses and learning programmes in teacher education. Student teachers and
in-service teachers compile eportfolios to demonstrate their progress in their learning paths. To this end,
the Department of Basic Education (DBE) has introduced and now requires teachers to implement the
policies contained in the National Protocol on Assessment (DBE 2011) and Annual National Assessment
(ANA) to assess learners’ performance in South African schools annually. Student teachers should
familiarise themselves with the content of these policies. For the purposes of this chapter, eportfolios can
be seen as one of the instruments that faculties of education use for assessment. Stiggins and Duke (2008:
285–291) provide specific principles for assessing student teachers’ eportfolios, namely, that assessment
for learning should:
• be part of effective planning of teaching and learning
• focus on how students learn
• be recognised as central to classroom practice
• be regarded as a key professional skill for teachers
• be sensitive and constructive because any assessment has an emotional impact
• take account of the importance of learner motivation
• promote commitment to learning goals and a shared understanding of the criteria by which they are
assessed;
• develop learners’ capacity for self-assessment so that they become reflective and self-managing
• recognise the full range of achievements of all learners
• learners should receive constructive guidance about how to improve (see also Chapter 9).
Now that you have a sense of the principles of assessment, you will find the following three assessment
strategies useful for professional growth and development. Lorna Earl (2013: 124) explains that by
improving eportfolio assessment practices, teachers need to improve learning for every learner in every
school. She contends that assessment can and should be an integral part of learning processes, as opposed
to simply measuring learning at the end of the learning cycle. Earl differentiates between these three
assessment strategies:
• Assessment of learning is where specific grades and marks are allocated to class tests and examinations.
This type of assessment is summative, with examples such as assignments, tests, and formal
examinations as evidence for assessing eportfolios. Teachers should be able to design quality
assessment tasks that will clearly give authentic results.
• Assessment for learning is where constructive, formative, continuous feedback is provided to
developing learners’ knowledge and skills. In this type of assessment for learning, the assessment
practice moves from summative (grades and marks) to giving constructive feedback in assessing
learners’ tasks, projects and research activities. In assessment for learning, teachers collect a wide
range of data that they can modify the learning work with their learners; in so doing, the
teachers/lecturers should be able to apply Bloom’s taxonomy (see Chapter 5) in their development of
assessment tasks. Evidence is provided in the eportfolio by means of e.g. observation, worksheets for
questioning, in class.
• Assessment as learning is a self-assessment process in which student teachers rethink their instructions
and learn new ways to assess for different purposes (Earl 2003: 25). By monitoring what they have
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learned and using the feedback from monitoring, they can make adjustments to tasks in the eportfolio.
Learners, in turn, are assisted by teachers to monitor and evaluate their work and be able to make
changes where possible.
Strategies for success
All assessment practices and procedures (DBE 2011) in South African schools are guided by two
policies: the National Protocol on Assessment Policy and Annual National Assessment (ANA). They are
available at: www.gov.za/documents/south-african-schools-act-policy-document-national-protocol and
www.education.gov.za/Curriculum/AnnualNationalAssessments(ANA).aspx, respectively.
16.3
Making an informed decision – paper versus eportfolios
in teaching practice
You should now be in a position to make your portfolio choice. Ask yourself the following questions to
help you make an informed decision between paper-based or eportfolios: What is a portfolio for in
teaching practice? Why choose a paper-based portfolio? Why adopt an eportfolio?
In Table 16.1, we have compiled a summary of the differences between paper-based portfolios and
eportfolios. Use it to remind yourself of the purpose, benefits, disadvantages and platforms of the two
types of portfolios: you can then make an informed decision about which type of portfolio will best suit
your purposes.
Table 16.1: Differences between paper-based portfolios and eportfolios
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Criteria
Paper-based portfolio
Electronic portfolio (eportfolio)
Purpose
Stimulates self-assessment and
professional development; Guides
teaching, assessment and communication
with student teacher; Provides
information to lecturer, education
departments and policymakers on
instructional practices, as well as for job
applications and promotion.
Displays a student teacher’s personal growth
and demonstrates specific knowledge and
skills to reflect, engage, collaborate and
enhance active authentic learning and for
self-directed learning (formative assessment),
assessment (summative assessment) and
employability (career).
Evidence
Paper-based information compiled in
hard copy format or in electronic file
(Word or pdf ), e.g. curriculum vitae,
lesson plans, reflective journals,
artefacts, work-integrated learning
experiences, teaching practice sessions
recorded on DVDs and video, research
projects written assignments.
Compiled in an online electronic format with
a learning management system or cloud
storage system, e.g. curriculum vitae, lesson
plans, reflective journals, artefacts,
work-integrated learning experiences,
teaching practice sessions, research projects,
written assignments, podcasts, DVDs,
Facebook, Twitter, wikis, blogs, e-discussion
forums.
Benefits of
compiling
Provides insightful information about
student teachers’ teaching philosophy,
professional development, teaching
methods, and career path. Enhances
lifelong learning, develops reflective
teaching skills, values, beliefs and
positive attitudes. Increases pedagogical
and technical content knowledge,
amongst others.
Provides insightful information about student
teachers’ teaching philosophy, professional
development, teaching methods, and career
path. Enhances lifelong learning, develops
reflective teaching skills, values, beliefs and
positive attitudes. Increases pedagogical and
technical content knowledge, amongst others.
Assessment
Formative assessment (personal growth
and professional development)
Summative assessment (grading or
marking using rubrics)
Assessment for learning (summative in the
form of grades or marks allocated)
Assessment of learning (formative in the
form of constructive feedback by lecturer,
mentor teacher or supervisor of student
teacher)
Assessment as learning (peer and
self-assessment by student teachers), with
rubric as tool to grade or for marking.
Negatives/
drawbacks
It takes time to compile a quality
portfolio. Hard copies can be
cumbersome to handle, with the large
amounts of information needed as
evidence in a portfolio. Over time,
attention and quality feedback to
individual students becomes a challenge.
All users need high speed internet connection
to upload and download big files. It takes
time to compile a quality eportfolio with
attachments. Giving quality feedback to
individual students may become a challenge.
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Any hard copies in file formats (any box,
Platforms
or hard cover or plastic file), or in
to use to
learning management systems such as
compile
paper-based Moodle, Blackboard Learn
portfolios
and
eportfolios
Totally online electronic format through
learning management systems such as Sakai,
Moodle, Blackboard Learn, Mahara,
WordPress, Wix.com
cloud storage system: a service model in which data are maintained, managed and backed up
remotely and made available to users over a network (typically, the internet)
Conclusion
In this chapter we have sought to empower and equip you with knowledge and skills to plan, compile and
include examples of evidence in your paper-based portfolio or your eportfolio. We hope this chapter has
provided you with information to make an informed decision about the educational value of using either a
paper-based portfolio or an eportfolio in teaching education programmes. The nature and benefits to
teaching practice of the portfolio in terms of its structure, content and process were explained in detail.
Personal teaching philosophy and the portfolio purpose were identified as critical elements to be
considered in building a teaching portfolio. We argued the need for reflection in its various forms, and an
understanding that it is aided by a reflective journal and reflective collaborative partnerships. We
introduced you to the new concept of eportfolio and showed why teachers should support this type of
alternative assessment strategy for personal growth and professional identity building. The benefits of
using eportfolios were discussed and you were given the opportunity to evaluate the reasons for choosing
eportfolios as an important educational tool. We took you through the steps in planning and compiling an
eportfolio, together with some options in the relevant supporting software. Finally, we concluded by
comparing the eportfolio in terms of assessment for and of learning for the challenges of the twenty-first
century, and beyond. We wish you success with using this most valuable and necessary tool.
Activities
Self-reflection
1. How has your personal teaching and learning philosophy influenced your teaching strategies,
assessment procedures, classroom management techniques, attitude to parental involvement, and your
goals for your learners? How do you intend to share your personal philosophy in your eportfolio?
Analysis and consolidation
2. What is the difference between an eportfolio and a paper-based portfolio? How will you plan and
compile your eportfolio or paper-based portfolio? Provide fully developed arguments for your choice.
Practical application
3. You have been selected to make a presentation to your fellow students on the use of eportfolios as an
alternative assessment strategy. What will be your main points? What applied benefits would you use
to illustrate your ideas? How would you prepare yourself to answer specific reasons, practical steps
and uncertainties that would inevitably arise? Write up your detailed plan for this presentation.
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17
Electronic learning aids and social media in teaching
Micheal van Wyk and Hennie Steyn
Copyright 2016. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Discuss guidelines for using electronic/technological teaching aids for successful learning.
• Explain the different (non-social media) technologies available to support quality teaching strategies.
• Explore the use of social media as a valuable educational Web 2.0 technology tool in the classroom.
• Explain how to set up and implement blogs, wikis, podcasts, Twitter, Facebook, podcasts and mobile
learning in the classroom.
• Discuss the educational value of using blogs, wikis, Twitter, Facebook, podcasts, WhatsApp, and related
mobile learning devices, to support and create powerful teaching and learning environments in the
classroom.
Key concepts
Technology in education: includes the planned integration of electronic-based technologies to increase
the quality of education.
A teaching strategy: is the planned and selected teaching methods and activities by teachers to support
learners to acquire the agreed-upon competencies (knowledge, skills and attitudes).
Teaching theoretical guidelines: represent the generally accepted characteristics of teaching in order to
support successful learning by the learners.
Teaching support: refers to the totality of the teaching process, from the phase of planning, through the
phase of communication and information provisioning, explanations, to the phase of assessment.
CASE STUDY 1: A TRUE TECH BELIEVER
Gerry Khumalo completed his undergraduate studies four years ago. He is now teaching at a high
school in Polokwane, Limpopo. He teaches Technology to Grades 8 and 9 classes. During his
undergraduate studies, he really enjoyed a course on technologies in twenty-first century education.
There he discovered the educational value of using information and communication technology (ICT),
especially electronic teaching aids and social media, in the classroom. He has always been keen to
integrate technology into his teaching and to use social media such as podcasts, Facebook, blogs, and
Twitter in teaching his subjects. He is now coordinator of ICT at the school. In his Technology classes,
he uses Web 2.0 technologies to empower his learners to become competent ICT users, also showing
them how to use social media effectively in their studies. He understands and believes in the untapped
potential of online technologies for educational purposes. Last week, he uploaded photos of the school
sports day on the school’s website, posted links to current topical articles on efficient power use in
times of loadshedding, for fellow teachers and learners, and, after attending a CAPS in-service training
session with other Technology teachers on new curriculum policy, he starts a blog to get discussion
and comment going. What Gerry really wants to do is to use technology to design engaging and
enabling learning environments in his classrooms, even when there is no consistent internet access. He
wonders how he can take this idea forward.
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STOP AND REFLECT
How would you describe Gerry Khumalo’s teaching philosophy?
Introduction
Currently, using ICT and social media for educational purposes comes with many challenges; but there
are also huge educational opportunities associated with using these e-tools in the classroom. Research
locally and globally has shown that – used well – Web 2.0 technologies and electronic teaching aids can
advance education in schools. Most schools are already adapting by using social media, such as
Facebook, Twitter and blogs, in particular among Web 2.0 technologies to communicate and promote the
school image and information on a webpage. Teachers mainly use and communicate via short message
services (sms), mobile phones, apps such as WhatsApp, chat rooms, iPods, iPads, social networks and
email. More importantly, the new mobile generation who have grown up with technology, are confident
and competent in a technological world. As a result of the increased usage of ICT and Web 2.0
technologies in teacher education programmes, teachers are now also being exposed to different
electronic teaching aids (e.g. electronic whiteboards) and Web 2.0 applications (e.g. Facebook, blogs,
podcasts and social bookmarking). Some schools and teachers, like Gerry Khumalo in the opening case
study, are taking advantage of this exposure by using electronic teaching aids and social media in
planning and delivering their daily lessons. In this chapter, we advocate this message to all student
teachers: by introducing ICT and social media in your classes you will be accommodating a new group of
learners called ‘digital natives’ (indeed, you may be one yourself). These learners, who easily and
naturally use ICT and social media as an everyday means to communicate or share personal information,
are the new face of learning in your classrooms. Teachers’ job is now to use their own pedagogical
competence to work with what these learners already do, to make their learning all the more engaging and
empowering.
In the next section, we take a closer look at how to support the change in teaching effectively, using
electronic/technological teaching aids successfully in the classroom.
17.1
Electronic/technological teaching aids for successful
learning
With technology all around us, and communication technology especially so much part of our daily lives,
one would think it is a short and easy step to incorporate technology into education. In the end it is, but
one has first to address relevant teaching theories, guidelines and rules before simply using technology.
Pedagogical competence always precedes the incorporation and it is never a case of any or all technology
will do: the type of technology to be used needs to be given careful consideration in order to support its
successful use in teaching.
17.1.1 Guiding principles for using technology in multi-mode teaching
strategies
Using technology, as such, will not necessarily improve the quality and success of education. However,
the planned integration of relevant technology will go far in helping to achieve this and will in time
increase the productivity of education. Let us remind ourselves of the ultimate aim of teaching: to enable
learners to become independent learners. Teaching also provides for quality learning, involving acquiring
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new information, modifying and store it in such a way that the learner acquires the agreed-upon
competencies (knowledge, skills and values) and is able to apply these competencies in new or different
situations. Learning can be metaphorically compared to the human brain with the functioning of a
computer. Using a computer allows one to organise the relevant information in a particular manner to
ensure that the data are correctly entered in the appropriate folder and file. This enables the re-activation
and application of this information in different settings. Similarly, technology can be used to enable the
organisation of information in a format that learners can access and store in their memory so that it can be
easily retrieved and used in different settings. Technology and modern ICTs represent the third phase of
the development of communication. The first phase was the era of the spoken word; the second phase was
the era of the written word. Currently, we are in the third phase in which we use all three types of
communication in an integrated manner (but note particularly how the visual element has become the
powerful link). These phases are represented in Figure 17.1.
Figure 17.1:Phases in the development of human communication
17.1.2 Points of departure for technology use
Quality teaching not only requires effective communication but importantly, you need also to consider the
following points of departure:
• The teaching activities should be learner- and learning-oriented, which means that the learner is
supported towards becoming an independent, self-motivated learner.
• Both internal motivation (whereby learners of their own initiative want to learn) and external motivation
(whereby learners are influenced by outside factors to learn) are supported, and this is achieved with
the use of the modern communications strategies.
• Independent learners accept their own responsibility to learn, and using technology can support learners
to become liberated, self-starting individuals who can study whenever and wherever they wish.
• Successful teaching provides for individualisation of learning and learners are able to study (as far as
possible) at their own pace and according to their abilities, aptitudes and interests; this is one of the
central features of the use of technology.
• Successful education should provide for unique concept formation. The constructivist approach implies
that learners are supported towards their own unique understanding of the learning content.
• Successful teaching is supported when and if the relevant information is provided in a visual and
auditory manner. These types of information should also preferably be integrated: the visual and
auditory information should as far as possible be closely interlinked to ensure that it is successfully
acquired by learners.
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•
•
•
•
•
•
The learning styles of learners are recognised in teaching, and particularly in visual and auditory learning
styles.
Repetition is very important in successful education, but it needs to be the right kind of repetition: the
use of technology supports the attainability of effective repetition so that content is grasped.
Quality education implies the enrichment of information and of the learning experience; through the use
of technology, the teaching and provision of information can be uniquely enriched.
Cooperation among learners, such as group work and peer assessment is a powerful tool to ensure
quality in education. Through technology use the cooperation between different learners, and the
opportunity to learn from each other, are strongly supported.
Acquisition of immediately available knowledge is a self-evident feature of using technology in
education.
Decrease in costs: This strategy is probably the only theoretical framework of a strategy of teaching that
is characterised by the guideline of cost decrease. The emphasis is on quality improvement associated
with the simultaneous decrease of cost.
STOP AND REFLECT
We noted that repetition is important in successful education: when is repetition useful and when is it
not? How can using technology help provide the ‘right’ kind of repetition?
17.1.3 Integrating technology in the teaching strategy
When using technology, you need to develop your own new teaching strategy (or at the very least adapt
existing teaching strategies); this means you should select those elements that you are going to use in
order to support your learners to acquire the required competencies. A teachingstrategy that supports
self-managed, interactive learning is an example of such a teaching strategy that can be developed by
teachers – even beginner teachers. It is compiled from different existing strategies according to the
particular context.
The elements of the strategy consist of the following:
• In the strategy, a teaching team instead of the single lecturer/teacher, is used. The (senior)
lecturer/teacher of the team acts as the manager of the team and is primarily responsible for quality
assurance. The assistant/other teacher(s) who may typically be less experienced or less qualified take
responsibility for the implementation aspect of the teaching.
• The use of learning materials is retained as in traditional education, and is integrated in the other
elements of the strategy.
• DBD (digital book disk) or Tapps (teaching apps): DBD/Tapps capture and represent the lecture or
presentation by the lecturer/teacher during the class that is typical of the traditional teaching strategy.
The advantage of the use of the DBD/Tapp is that the teaching of the lecturer/teacher is repeatedly
available.
• Class meetings are no longer primarily the lecturing time for the lecturer/teacher. The class meetings are
active learning opportunities led and supported by the teaching team. These class meetings generally
take a certain format, in which five overarching learning opportunities are realised: 1) a class test; 2) a
brief introduction to the day’s topic; 3) group work; 4) peer assessment; and 5) reflection.
• Group work represents a major element of the strategy. A group of two members (maximum three
members) mainly works during the class meetings, focusing specifically on the application of learned
content. Group work can also be executed by using the different communication modes in technology.
It is important to note that the groups should be small.
• A teaching management system (TMS) is a web-based tool and supports learners electronically in real
time to guide and support them in respect of, especially, information provision. The use of the TMS
requires only a narrow internet band width that is suitable for short use of time, since most users in
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•
•
•
SA are as yet not in the possession of broad band internet. The use of the concept TMS is preferred to
the use of the commonly used LMS, because the educator should only manage the teaching of the
learners and the learners should themselves manage their learning.
Email is used for the distribution of longer messages through individual or group e-mails.
Individual or string sms’s are used for the distribution of short messages to learners.
Assessment is an integral part of teaching and learning and it includes formative and summative
assessment (or evaluation). The teaching strategy should provide the opportunity to use multiple
assessments without incurring the negative pressure of productivity, especially in terms of time spent
by teachers on the assessment.
It is clear from this list that it is possible to develop integrated multi-mode teaching strategies to serve the
unique education needs of the learners, the educators and the learning field and material.
Another important point to remember is that technology should not be used simply to use technology,
or because it is available. Instead, relevant technology should be carefully identified in order to support
particular teaching activities. A general rule is that when one can ‘see’ the technology working, for
example, when learners becomes so intrigued by animations or flashing effects in a PowerPoint
presentation that they lose interest in the teaching content, the technology has overtaken its teaching
purpose. In such cases, the focus of the learner will be distracted from the ‘teaching message’ and the
particular technology will not be fully effective. A guideline is that the educator should choose the most
relevant technology for a particular situation and employ it in such a manner that it fully focuses on
opening up the learning content that should be acquired by the learners.
Another important point to consider is the clear (although not always recognised) difference between
general information and information employed to support learning. In education, information is carefully
planned and organised in order to support the learner to successfully acquire the agreed-upon
competencies (knowledge, skills and attitudes). This may require that a particular portion of information
should be divided and/or reorganised to support the acquisition of particular competencies. It will also
imply that this information be accompanied by relevant techniques to support the storage and
re-application of the information. General information is content that provides the learners with general
knowledge of a particular topic, without their necessarily formally learning from it.
Finally, technology is not only used to support and enrich communication, to provide information and
explanation of the new content, but also to support quality assessment as integral part of the education
sequence. Technology can be used in many ways, for example, as peer assessment of learners’
assignments, or to administer teaching tests in the format of multiple-choice questions, or to use buzzers
in the classroom to determine how many learners understand a particular topic during the class meeting.
Strategies for success
At a loss for something interesting for today’s lesson, assembly or staff meeting? Education World is a
complete online resource that teachers, school principals and school staff can visit every day to find
high-quality and in-depth original content. Use the weblink: http://www.educationworld.com/
In summary, technology should be planned to support and strengthen all the typical aspects of teaching
for successful learning, namely, planning; decisions on and formulation of the teaching and learning aims
and objectives; introduction and setting of the context and providing for the intrinsic and or extrinsic
motivation of learners; choice of learning materials; choice of teaching strategy and teaching methods;
the summary of the teaching activities as well as to be used in the formative and summative assessments.
APPLYING IT TODAY
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1. What teaching strategy can Gerry Khumalo use to teach his Technology Grade 9 class? Assume that
Gerry has already explained the context, and especially the technological context, to his class.
Describe the strategy and explain the chosen elements of the strategy. (Remember what Gerry is
trying to achieve in his class.)
2. Which teaching guidelines will be followed in the strategy and in its elements? Create a lesson plan
that illustrates these guidelines.
17.2
Different technologies (non-social media) available to
support quality teaching strategies
Many different technologies are already available to support the delivery of quality education and new
ones are appearing almost every day. These non-social media have some typical examples:
• The interactive whiteboard: This technology is used in a classroom setting to display hypermedia images
on a specialised board by means of a digital projector. Teachers can manually operate the whiteboard
to organise the different information items to be applied in teaching, which can also be saved for later
use. An interactive whiteboard supports interactive learning engagement amongst learners. The use of
the whiteboard can also enrich the different learning activities of learners. Whiteboards are usually
operated by means of a laptop through which many other applications can be applied. However, quite
often the whiteboards are not properly used to support effective education, and in many cases are
become glorified writing (chalk)boards in class. The interactive whiteboard should be used to provide
explanations of content, to offer a wide variety of new information, and to give a final developed
summary of the lesson which can be accessed again afterwards (BBCActive 2015; Marzano 2009).
• The Microsoft PowerPoint program was developed to assist presenters, and also educators, with using
hypermedia support during any kind of presentation. PowerPoint is used with a data projector linked
to a computer. PowerPoint can help teachers to increase the quality of their teaching and provide
richer visual information to their learners during a typical lesson or lecture by including, for example,
videos, photos and various animations. Because PowerPoint presentations are so easy to construct,
they have become very popular amongst educators. It also enables teachers to focus on the lesson
rather than spending time writing on a board. Usually, PowerPoint can also serve as a very useful
summary of a lecture/lesson. However, teachers should be careful that the information is not
presented in such a distractingly‘technical’ way that learners are defocused from the content that
should be acquired (Investintech 2015).
• The (computer) tablet in education is one of the new cutting-edge mobile digital educational tools to
improve the way an educator teaches and learners learn. Tablets (e.g. iPads) can provide enriched
images, video and audio information directly to learners so that teachers are able, through the use of a
teaching management system (see later), to teach wherever the learners are. Tablets also offer touch
screen technology similar to that of smartphones (see next) which is already familiar to learners. The
use of tablets is increased by cloud-based data storage systems (see Chapter 16) because learners can
work and access information anywhere they happen to be.
• The smartphone is another among the new, cutting-edge mobile digital instruments, which is also highly
sophisticated and powerful computer that can be used by teachers to increase the quality of teaching
in its different aspects. For example, the smartphone can be used to support the different types of
effective communication in education such as – through social media – enriched explanatory support
to learners, and for enhancing the quality of assessment of learners.
• A teaching management system (also known as the teaching learning system) is a computer-based
program specifically developed with elements to technologically support the effective implementation
of a chosen teaching strategy. Elements that are usually included in the TMS are, for example, a
section for the teaching aims and objectives, the inclusion of a study guide, announcements,
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•
•
resources, tests and quizzes, and the grade textbook as an e-book. The TMS supports learners to
successfully manage their progress through the learning programme while also enabling the teacher to
provide in-time support to the learners.
The teaching app (Tapp) is a computer-developed program designed to be used on mobile electronic
communication instruments, such as smartphones and tablets. It is specially developed to provide
teaching material to the learners. A Tapp is, for example, especially suitable to deliver teaching
videos to learners. The teaching videos consist of the planned integration of written text and video
material to supplement teaching classes and lectures. The advantage is that the Tapp is available
whenever the learner wishes to access it.
Videos can also be used with great success in implementing a teaching strategy. Two types of videos can
be used: either videos for information distribution, or videos for teaching support. Videos for
information distribution are any video depicting real-life situations or fictional stories which can, for
example, be used for background or as case studies. Teaching videos differ from information video in
the sense that they specially developed for educational purposes, explicitly including the
characteristics of quality education.
17.2.1 Advantages of using technology in teaching
The following main advantages of using technology in education have been identified:
• Teachers are supported in helping learners to develop themselves as independent and liberated learners.
• The quality of teaching is enriched by the integration of technology in the teaching strategy.
• The inclusion of technology can increase the productivity of education by enhancing the academic
achievement of the learners, and at the same time, decreasing the overall cost of education.
• Technology can improves learners’ attitudes and confidence and is especially beneficial for ‘at risk’
learners because it provides instructional opportunities not otherwise available.
• Using technology enables learners to learn at their own pace, while also helping the teacher to connect
with individual learners more often and effectively.
• It can be used to increases learner collaboration on projects.
• It significantly improves learner problem-solving skills.
• It increases the preparation of learners for most careers and vocations.
• It tends to shift teaching styles from traditional direct instruction to a more learner-oriented approach
(Capper 2003: 60–63).
17.2.2 Challenges in using integrated technology in teaching
The main challenges to the integration of technology in successful education can be summarised as
follows:
• Financial challenges: A primary challenge in education is to keep the cost of the provision of technology
within attainable, sustainable and affordable levels. Inadequate funding makes it difficult to provide
technology infrastructure and tools, sufficient to support teachers and provide professional
development opportunities. However, education departments are increasingly aware of this challenge
and are moving towards allocating resources to developing technology for classrooms.
• Time constraints: Because of their teaching workload and other co-curricular activities, teachers still face
the challenges of effective planning and executing their daily responsibilities, in integrating
technology in the classroom. This is a perennial challenge, and perhaps one that teachers themselves
have to learn to overcome with better time management and ‘smarter’, not harder, work routines (see
Chapter 16).
• Changes in the latest technology: Currently, new teaching tools are constantly being designed, changed
or improved and teachers sometimes struggle to keep up with the new educational tools on the
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•
•
•
•
market, or updates to existing ones. One thing introducing technology certainly requires is keeping
up-to-date with software and anti-virus packages, but fortunately tech and ICT businesses are very
efficient at making information available and updates easy to load.
Motivating teachers to use technology in the classroom: A further challenge is to motivate teachers to
introduce and integrate the relevant technology in innovative ways in their teaching in order to
improve the quality of their education. This chapter is designed to address this particular challenge.
Lack of pedagogical technological content knowledge: Some teachers lack sufficient knowledge or
experience in the application of technologies in the classroom. New teaching technologies are
time-consuming to learn and the variety of technology applications for the classroom is vast. Many
teachers feel that their current teaching works well without technology; some are too inhibited by
their technophobia (fear of technology) to even try.
Monitoring internet and social media use: Some teachers are hesitant about introducing technologies
that allow learners open access to the internet because of the dangers of cyberbullying, accessing
inappropriate material and sexting, and even plagiarism (see next). Of these, cyberbullying has
become a pernicious practice that teachers, parents and authorities are struggling to keep up with. It is
an online form of bullying practised by a person (intimidator) with the purpose of causing the mental
harm, intimidation or humiliation of another person (victim), through prolonged negative comments,
in an online community. Types of cyberbullying range from constant online harassment (by posting
mean or belittling comments, spreading rumours or malicious gossip online, making threats of harm
or intimidation online, posting embarrassing information or personal photos online), to stealing a
person’s identity, or impersonating them online. Just as other forms of bullying are a concern of all
teachers, addressing this new type requires monitoring and appropriate educational interventions (e.g.
a series of activities in a Life Orientation class; or the development, with learners, of a code of good
practice, which they themselves implement and monitor).
Copyrighted technology tools and materials for educational purposes: Teachers (and learners) need to
know about copyright law and what constitutes fair use of copyrighted information in education. The
application of fair use in the integration of technology tools and materials provides for exceptions
when used for educational purposes only. Educate or familiarise yourself and your learners with
copyright restrictions and avoid making a costly mistake. Turn plagiarism into a teaching opportunity
by making it the topic of discussion in class, so that learners understand what it is, how serious it is,
and how to avoid it.
Perhaps a rather more general but overlooked challenge is the awareness (or lack of it) that the focus
should always be to use technology for its usefulness in teaching; and not to use a particular technology
as simply a new example in a traditional manner, such as using PowerPoint presentations or the
interactive whiteboard as a new type of chalkboard.
To successfully integrate technology in teaching, it is important that you develop a suitable teaching
strategy. Using technology implies the use of different techniques and methods, more than in traditional
teaching, or at least differently than in traditional teaching. To this end, you should develop your own
teaching strategy according to your own unique situation, recognising, for example, your learners, your
particular subject, your own school context, and the technology available. You develop such a strategy by
using existing teaching and learning strategies and theories (such as the theory of self-directed learning or
self-regulated learning; or cognitive learning and constructivist guidelines for teaching. These
technology-integrated strategies should also include the choice and use of relevant teaching methods, i.e.
the planned activities of the teacher to support learners for successful learning outcomes. Such methods
include, for example, question-and-answer, lecture/explanatory, self-discovery and self-exploration,
group work, and tutorials. All of these can be effectively enriched by the planned inclusion of technology.
Use the following to guide your use and integration of technology in teaching:
• You should not use technology in teaching only because you want to be a ‘with-it’, modern teacher; you
should use it to improve your teaching.
• Choose the type of technology that contributes to the quality of your teaching; do not choose technology
based on its popularity.
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•
•
•
Technology should be integrated with the other elements of your teaching; this means you should
develop your own unique teaching strategy.
Construct your own teaching strategy to support learners to become self-managed learners; and be
prepared to become a facilitator of learning yourself.
In planning the use of technology, you need to consider the advantages and challenges of technology
integration in teaching; Also ask: What is it for? What can it do for my learners?
STOP AND REFLECT
1. Which advantages will Gerry experience from employing the teaching strategy he has developed?
2. What are the main challenges that he will experience? (Remember his constraints.)
17.3
Social media technologies for learning to teach
The twenty-first century has brought a rapid expansion of social media as a popular social networking
tool for personal and educational purposes. Over the last decade, there has been a huge increase in the use
of technology and social media for classroom learning globally. Web 2.0 as a phenomenon has impacted
and significantly changed how and why teaching is presented in contemporary classrooms. In the early
years, Facebook, blogs, wikis, Twitter, LinkedIn, Google+, were designed as Web 2.0 technologies only
for social or professional networking. People used these social media tools to display and attach personal
information such as photos, events, sports and community activities, etc. or their professional profiles.
Currently, many of you are probably using one of these tools for either personal or professional purposes.
The benefit of using these tools is to create the ability to interact among other users and shape our lives
for better communication.
Following on the advantages of using Web 2.0 tools, this section discusses why teachers should use
social media as an effective teaching aid in classrooms. Literature indicates that social media can support
learning when integrated as a teaching-learning platform for learners in the classroom. Social media as an
online platform supports the constructivist and communities of practice paradigms of teaching and
learning, especially in a distance education context. In a study conducted using a blog to help student
teachers during their placements (Van Wyk 2013), findings revealed that the use of the blog as an online
teaching platform allowed student teachers to explore, create and share knowledge among their peers,
enhancing their teaching practice skills (see Chapter 7 and Chapter 9).
Before you decide to use social media, it is important to plan and purposefully select your specific
social media tool to create the most appropriate instructional environment in your subject: it may be
possible to create such an environment with blogs, wikis, Facebook, Twitter or podcasting. If the purpose
of education is to empower learners by enhancing their problem-solving and collaborative learning skills
to create self-directed learners for the competitive job market, teachers have to have the competence to
empower by designing teaching and learning opportunities to accommodate a diverse learner population.
Social media could be the accelerator and stimulator to creating these powerful and sustainable learning
environments.
CASE STUDY 2: NEO MAKES THE MOVE TO SOCIAL MEDIA
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Neo started his teaching career five years ago at a primary school in Soweto, Gauteng. He teaches
EMS Grades 5, 6 and 7 classes. He understands the importance of using information and
communication technology (ICT), in particular social media, in the classroom. This year, the Gauteng
Department of Basic Education started the Gauteng Online project for eLearning solutions in all
schools in the province. Neo’s school is part of the Gauteng Online project. Neo thinks this is an
excellent project. He decides to explore social media to empower his learners to become competent
users and to further expose them to the effective use of social media as a tool in self-directed learning.
He currently uses Facebook for personal communication to paste, share and display information about
current news events and interesting business topics. Every day, he sees the benefits of using social
media in his classroom. It enhances his learners’ communication skills, their collaborative, cooperative
and problem-solving skills. It also enhances their creative and innovative skills when they work
together on a project. Neo learns that even young learners can be taught to use social media
responsibly and to benefit from its educational opportunities. He wants to share his positive experience
with other teachers who were sceptical at the time of his introduction of social media tools. Read more
about this project at: http://www.itweb.co.za/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id
=135248
STOP AND REFLECT
Imagine you are talking to an experienced teacher: how would you explain the concept of Facebook as a
social media Web 2.0 technology tool?
17.3.1 Using social media tools in the classroom
Social network tools, in particular blogs, Twitter and Facebook have emerged as the main support of
technology use in classrooms. These Web 2.0 technologies have dramatically impacted and transformed
the teaching environment in the last decade. The changes have opened up several opportunities for
teachers and student teachers to develop, put in place and share information using social media.
A question of ethics
Despite Neo’s positive experience, many teachers (and most parents) are still wary of introducing social
media in classrooms (see 17.2.2 Challenges). However, monitoring and educating learners about the risks
and rules, are still the best safeguards. Here are some more tips that Google South Africa put together to
teach learners how to be “vigilant and responsible, to ensure the internet becomes a valuable [classroom]
resource, and not a hazard” (Mohlala 2015).
• Talk: Open the lines of communication with learners about online safety, the rules and expectations
around online use, what sites are appropriate or not, and the consequences if these rules are broken.
Learners need to feel they can come to you when they have questions or are unsure of how to handle a
situation online.
• Participate: The most effective course of action is to get involved. Like parents, you want to know
where your children are and what they’re up to. The internet is no different: you need to use the
technology together, and learn about it together.
• Safe browsing: The internet has a number of protocols that can help you child-proof computers and their
access to less desirable parts of the web. The Google Safety Centre is a good place to start. Set up
secure passwords and remind learners not to give them out to anyone. Ensure they are in the habit of
signing out of personal online accounts if they use them at school or in the library.
• Privacy: Instilling responsible internet behaviour needs to be done from an early age: learners need to
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•
know exactly what kinds of information should never be revealed. Names, addresses, details of family
and friends, are the kind of information that predators feed on. The ‘stranger danger’ approach applies
to the web more than ever. Get to know the privacy settings on sites you and your learners use, and
then decide who can see content before you post it. Talk about what should or shouldn’t be shared on
social media sites; some sites have age restrictions.
Guides: Encourage responsible online communication by teaching your learners that if they wouldn’t
say it to someone’s face, they shouldn’t say it online, over instant messaging, or by texting.
As a student teacher, what further tips would you add to this list to help ensure a safe and positive
experience of using social media in teaching and learning, especially with young learners?
Currently, teachers are recognising the power of social media as tools to transform teaching and learning
environments. Next, we discuss each tool that can be used for educational purposes.
Blogs
A blog is a Web 2.0 technology tool in the form of a webpage whereby people post their information for
sharing. Prospective and current blog users can sign in with any online service provider and become a
‘blogger’. A blogger writes personal entries in the blog on any topic of interest by sharing and make
comments. If a blog is signed into as a group, a blog community is created for the purpose of reflecting,
responding and submitting comments on topics under discussion by the group. Bloggers can also share
individual photos, ideas and comments in the blog. The blog is one of the simplest e-tools to use: most
learners and all teachers can easily learn how. Teachers can then use the blog to update, inform both
learners and parents of special events or activities, or start an online conversation on a lesson topic.
The educational benefits of using blogs in the classroom are:
• Online blog interactions help arouse intellectual curiosity among learners and groups, and offering
learners the chance to express different ideas and views.
• Blogs can support learning for both individuals and groups.
• Blogs enable learners to argue, to question and explain ideas with fellow learners on topics in the
classroom.
• Blogs help with developing critical thinking and reflection on work done.
• Blogs enhance learners’ communicative, collaborative, cooperative, problem-solving, creative and
innovative skills.
Generally, teachers use blogs to communicate by posting subject content and other information in their
blogs. Both subject teachers and class teachers post subject information, make announcements, include
news clips or links to topical articles, general feedback on class research projects, as well upcoming
events such as the field trips. Teachers can use syndication technologies such as podcasts to enable
learners to keep track of new postings in the class blog.
Blog service providers on the internet: There are many service providers on the internet. Start exploring
these sites or ask for permission to use your school’s webpage to start your class blog.
Here are webpages you can use to start your class blog:
• Blogger.com: an easy blog site if you have an existing Google gmail.com account. Start your blog space
for the class.
• WordPress.com: another easy platform to set up the blog. Try it out for yourself.
• Kidblog.com: a WordPress type of blog platform.
• Tumblr.com: an easy blog site to use as a personal journal for your daily postings.
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Strategies for success
Go to https://primaryweb2.wikispaces.com/blog for excellent examples of blogs. Here is a link to a blog
written by a South African Life Orientation teacher: http://dghslife.blogspot.com/.
Also visit the Oxford schools division’s blog: http://blog.oxford.co.za/category/schools/
APPLYING IT TODAY
1. In Case study 2, Neo plans a lesson on an EMS topic for the Grade 7 blog page. He divides his class
into small groups. Each group has to produce a 10-minute presentation to the class. Groups have to
brainstorm the activity. Then they plan to research the topic, conduct interviews, write the script,
edit the blog and decide who will be responsible for presenting the project to the class.
2. Do the following: Help Neo by writing a welcome message on his class blog. Provide information of
the blog project or task to be completed with timeframes and due dates. Add relevant information
of pages to the blog. Explore images, clips or videos suitable for inclusion. Upload information on
the blog for sharing and comment. Provide a comment on each item.
Wikis
A wiki is a simple webpage where people edit postings, change, revise or comment on a topic of interest
The word ‘wiki’ means to respond ‘quickly’ – to a posted item or idea on the wiki page. Originally, wikis
served as a personal journal tool. Wikis are now an e-learning tool which teachers can use to create
sustainable learning spaces for learners. Researchers report that the use of wikis as a social media tool has
been growing in classrooms globally (Moyle 2010; Panda 2010). They note that wikis have always been a
very popular social networking tool but in the last decade, business, travel, sports, and especially
education, are rapidly expanding this e-tool.
Educational value of using wikis: There are several educational benefits to using wikis in the
classroom. After completion of tasks, learners can store information, newspaper articles, and feedback
and comments from the teacher or class. The teacher can adopt wikis as a reflective tool for researching a
topic, addressing cooperation and collaboration. Wiki as a social network tool enables teachers and
learners to discuss ideas and to share experiences, which is characteristic of social constructivist learning
(Van Wyk 2013). Panda (2010) also says that wikis may help stimulate cognitive conflict in learners and
provide them with learning opportunities to express different views on the topic. Wikis can be used for
lesson topics, additional class notes on a lesson topic, developing collaborative writing, content
development, reflective thinking, brainstorming and ideas generating. Be aware that users should always
check that the source of information is reliable and reputable, and not simply rely on what they find.
Setting up a wiki: The steps to setting up a wiki can be accessed at the link in Strategies for success.
Strategies for success
Go to http://wikispaces.com/wikis for examples of excellent wikis and then complete the group activity.
Another link is http://www.teachersfirst.com/content/wiki/
APPLYING IT TODAY
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You are inspired by Neo’s example of introducing social media to his young learners. You want to
explore the use of wikis as a social media tool in the classroom. With a group of student teachers, plan,
design and implement a wiki to teach a topic in EMS, or any other subject that you share as a group.
You need to show how and why your group decided on this particular social media tool as most
applicable to teach the topic.
Differences between blogs and a wikis: Teachers sometimes struggle to decide whether to use a blog or a
wiki, or perhaps Facebook, for their specific classroom activities. Use the table to understand the
differences and help you make a choice.
Table 17.1:What is the difference between blogs and wikis?
Blogs
Wikis
Support and solicit critique and critical
reflection in the blog space
Class collaborate on specific topic to build knowledge
and information
Evaluate ideas and explore diverse views on Suitable for ongoing investigation projects because
the topic
in-depth exploring, providing findings to the rest of the
class, possible
Provide more a variety of rich text in media
design by blog users
Forces wiki users to think about structure of their project,
especially the type of content, other resources such as
DVDs, podcasts or video clips
Enhance higher-order thinking skills on a
research topic
Allows learners to show higher-order thinking skills by
selecting and presenting their final products in project
Class blog is a broad online community and Enhance active participation and provide ownership of
blog posting can be seen by all users
project by the class
Class has space for more expression, which Reinforce online class behaviour through detailed
stimulates ongoing class discussion on topic discussion of findings and agreements on aspects of the
during and after class
project
Blog users can share their specific ideas
with rest of the class community for
feedback.
Easy to use for class projects on specific content, making
task achievable without effort so time is saved
Example: WordPress.com
Example: Educational wikis or Wikispaces
Facebook
Facebook is a webpage where personal information is placed in the form of photos and other information.
Facebook users upload DVDs, podcasts, photos, send messages and other information. Facebook allows
online users to connect, share and design own information for others to respond to or for comments.
Currently, there are also other popular social networks sites such as MySpace (social networking for
people who are socialising daily, but also for educational purposes), LinkedIn (for professional
networking), and Second Life (social networking system).
There are several educational benefits of using Facebook in the classroom. The following are only a
few of those benefits:
• Building strong classroom relationships: Facebook has educational value when there is a strong tie
among classmates.
• Interacting with other users: When classmate relations are strong, peer discussion of educational matters
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•
is ranked fourth out of seven motives for using Facebook, ahead of virtual community,
companionship, and coolness.
Discussing and asking course-related problems and questions with peers: The user of the Facebook page
can share ideas, information and other related materials. Fellow classmates can ask questions on
posted information (Jong 2014).
Twitter
A Twitter message, called a ‘tweet’, is posted online by someone, about a topic or as a comment. Twitter
is quick and simple post comment on a topic, and is also called microblogging. A tweet is a short
message (not more than 140 characters). People use Twitter to share information with other groups, or to
link images of their own tweets with those from others.
Starting a Twitter topic: Twitter is a useful online social network tool for starting a topic discussion in
your classroom. Your Twitter account can be set up for a group of learners to read, or to respond to a
particular posted question to be completed by the class. Learners can respond individually or as a group.
You can place additional reading materials on a topic by providing a link to it. For example, you can
inform learners about new articles, link to due dates for assignments, or to complete questionnaires.
Learners then share their experience on the topic.
Educational value of using Twitter: Twitter is a multipurpose platform to accommodate all learners
because it is flexible and always available to learners in face-to-face or distance learning environments.
The educational value of Twitter is easy to apply, since it offers a flexible multipurpose platform to
accommodate diverse learners, enhancing the free flow of ideas, increasing social presence, and building
social relationships in the learner community.
Limitations of Twitter: Twitter also has some disadvantages, such as the limit of 140 characters per
tweet, making extended communication difficult. Learners sometimes overlook messages or they get lost
amongst other messages. Twitter is really only applicable for sharing information and not for teaching. It
can be addictive to some learners, while other learners are passive Twitter users called ‘lurkers’; these
learners only read tweets but do not post comments on the topic.
Strategies for success
Use Twitter for continuing class discussions outside school hours like this:
• Post or tweet advice and generic feedback for learners
• Share links of material and resources for the topic or course
• Send announcements and reminders
• Learners can tweet their ideas, questions, and observations
• Use Q&A on class topics.
Podcasting
A podcast is a digital audio online tool which can be developed with a digital radio, DVD, or ePod.
Users of podcasts create and upload audiovisuals, images or information to their smartphones,
computers, or DVD players. Podcasts combine visual and audio content on a topic that someone can
listen to and store for later use. Designing your own podcast for your class is easy. There are many
service providers. You can use your school’s webpage to link to the podcast.
Create your own podcast: You can create different types of podcast for your subject, depending on
purpose. There are many excellent examples of websites you can use to create podcasts:
PodcatcherMatrix.org is one that provides some useful tips. More popular sites are iTunes, Podbean.com,
and Juice Receiver which you can download about recent media releases from the internet. We have
included a guide to using PowToon in Appendix 17.1 at the end of this book.
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Educational value of podcasting: Podcasts are excellent social media tools to support your learners in
the classroom. Podcasts are used to record videos of experiential lessons for student teachers’ debriefing
sessions. Podcasts can also be used to provide audio recordings on a specific topic, for example, when
teaching large classes. Further, podcasts can be used to reflect or provide constructive feedback on
presented lessons. A valuable website tool, iTunes, can be used for high-quality images and it offers
several educational videos on topics for teacher training, although there are sometimes small costs
involved. Finally, podcasts can be used to record lessons, provide constructive feedback on lesson
presentations, conduct interviews on a specific topic, update news on your subject, and introduce new
topics.
Developing your own podcast: You need the following information to produce a quality podcast on
any topic for your subject:
• Recording equipment: smartphones, digital voice recorder, laptop or tablet. You need a large recording
capacity (150 MB) to record your podcast.
• Microphones: most iPhones or smartphones and laptops are equipped with built-in microphones, or you
can buy a separate one for all audio recordings.
• Headphones: this is useful for listening to and editing the podcast. You need adequate memory space
(200 MB).
• Editing software: most programs can be found on your computer, such as Adobe Reader.
• Hosting place or platform: you can use your classroom or any suitable place, or your blog, wiki or
Facebook.
• Safeguarding and distribution: use your blog, wiki or Twitter to add to your topic.
APPLYING IT TODAY
1. Think again about Case study 2: Advise Neo on how to plan and develop a podcast for his next
lesson on any topic in his subject. As an example, develop a short podcast on the topic and explain
why you chose this particular social media tool. Design a rubric to assess the podcast.
2. Open these links: http://www.apple.com/itunes/ or http://www.podbean.com/start-podcast?sourceid
=goog_66. Explore Radiowaves.co.uk which hosts several schools’ podcasts. After studying this
UK website, start a podcasting project on any topic in your subject. Next, use the equipment
needed to develop your own class podcast.
WhatsApp
WhatsApp is an online text messenger which uses the internet to send text messages, images, videos, user
location and audio media messages to other users via cellphone numbers to communicate.
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Advantages of using WhatsApp
Disadvantages of WhatsApp
•
The WhatsApp service is usually free but •
needs to be renewed yearly with a small
connecting fee by the service provider
You can only chat to people who have smartphones
supporting this application, and to those who have
WhatsApp accounts
•
All tools provided by WhatsApp are very •
easy to use
You must have access to the internet to send and
receive messages for free; and the messages are
also not sent to the cellphone inbox
•
You can send text messages to any part of the•
world without charge
You (or your service provider) need to pay a yearly
renewal fee for using the WhatsApp platform
•
Online users can send and receive a variety of•
text messages including pictures, videos
and audio media messages
Your profile picture and some information is visible to
anyone who has your contact number and uses
WhatsApp, whether known to you or not
•
Teachers and learners benefit by being able to•
use this form of text messaging on mobile
devices such as smartphones
WhatsApp increases learners’ online social presence,
allowing them to engage easily with other learners
•
WhatsApp’s instant text messaging makes it
easy to share information
•
WhatsApp can be used to support problem
solving and quickly resolve queries related
to the learning process
•
WhatsApp positively impacts learners’
collaborative learning activities through
social networking
Strategies for success
The internet has many assessment tools for teachers to use. Use this web link to explore assessment tools
http://evscicats.com/blog/web-tools-for-teachers-assessment/.
Conclusion
In this chapter, we have explored the possible use of technological teaching aids and social media tools
by teachers for educational purposes in classrooms. Research shows increasingly that social media and
electronic teaching aids can be used to advance quality teaching and learning locally and globally. This
chapter covers specific guidelines for using technology in a multi-mode teaching strategy to teach your
subject effectively, but we hope it also suggests new and inspirational ways to approach your teaching in
general. Different (i.e. non-social media) technologies to support quality teaching strategies were also
discussed. We argued that technological teaching aids and social media are valuable educational
technologies that teachers need to be using in twenty-first century classrooms and beyond, in particular,
blogs, wikis, Twitter, Facebook, WhatsApp, and podcasts, in order to plan and deliver really good lessons
to today’s learners. The uses, basics on how to set up, as well as advantages and disadvantages were
explained and discussed. Our purpose was to provide the spur to teachers to confidently explore these
new possibilities, which have such promise for their teaching and learning.
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Activities
Self-reflection
1. What aspect of electronic teaching aids interests you most? How would you explore this interest and
develop it?
Analysis and consolidation
2. Explain with an applicable example what electronic teaching aids and Web 2.0 technologies are. How
can these technologies support low-performing learners in your subject? Provide arguments for this
challenge.
3. Can electronic teaching aids and social media as technology tools make school pedagogy more effective
and improve the ability of learners in your subject? Compare the similarities and differences between
blogs and wikis as educational tools. Reflect on these issues.
Practical applications
4. In Case study 2, Neo experiences the potential of social media as a teaching and learning tool for the
classroom. Create a short presentation as a student teacher explaining why teachers at your teaching
practice placement school should use social media tools in their classrooms.
5. Design an assessment rubric for your class blog project or wiki project on a topic in your subject: What
criteria will you use to assess the project? How will you assess the appearance of the blog or wiki?
What scale or performance indicators will you be using? As a further guide to developing criteria for
a blog or wiki assessment rubric, you can use criteria such as content, writing and communication,
relevance of rich media, navigability (see Appendix 16.1). Present your rubric to your class group for
comment.
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Websites
http://www.youtube.com/ Possibly needs no description by us.
http://www.apple.com/itunes/ You will find different types of podcasts on this website and also learn how
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to start a podcasting project on any topic in your subject.
http://www.flickr.com/ A website featuring picture galleries available with social networking, chat,
groups, and photo ratings.
http://www.slideshare.net/ This webpage explains how to start a slideshow, with examples of excellent
slides especially for teaching and learning.
http://www.deviantart.com/ A website featuring unusual and interesting digital artworks from
‘undiscovered’ artists and other images, to browse.
http://www.scribd.com/ A digital documents library that allows users to publish, discover and discuss
original writings and documents in various languages.
http://wikispaces.com/wikis/ A webpage with excellent examples of excellent wikis.
http://www.teachersfirst.com/A webpage with excellent examples of wikis.
https://primaryweb2.wikispaces.com/blogs A webpage with examples of excellent wikis
http://www.podbean.com/ A website, with examples of podcasts and more especially on how to start a
podcasting project on any topic.
www.Blogger.com, www.WordPress.com, www.Kidblog.com, and www.Tumblr.com All webpages with
examples of blogs, and more especially information on how to start a blog project on any topic
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Part 4
Teacher education in a cross-cultural
context
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18
Internationalisation as a concept in teacher education
Charl Wolhuter and Kostas Karras
Copyright 2016. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Define the concept of internationalisation in teacher education.
• Understand the need for an international dimension in contemporary teacher education.
• Describe the current state of internationalisation of teacher education programmes in South Africa.
• Devise strategies for building an international dimension in your teaching practice.
Key concepts
Internationalisation: (in the context of higher education) the process or approach of integrating a global
dimension into the functions and delivery post-school education
Knowledge economy: a phenomenon of the late twentieth and twenty-first centuries in which the
production and consumption of knowledge is what now drives economic development and modern
economies
First-, second- and third-generation internationalisation: stages in the distribution and mobility of
individuals throughout the education systems of the world
Multiculturalism: the idea of the existence, acceptance, or promotion of diverse cultural traditions
within a single state or country; usually considered in terms of the culture associated with a particular
group, but can also include customary behaviour, religious affinity, or beliefs and values
CASE STUDY: NOAH’S INTERNATIONAL CHALLENGE
It is the first day of the school year. Noah arrives early at the new school, recently built near the site of
one of the new nuclear power generation plants the South African government plans to erect with
Russian aid. He is a teacher at the school which has been established for the children of workers at the
power plant construction. Noah has been assigned the Grade 10 class. When he enters the classroom,
he encounters 20 learners he has never seen before, all seated and waiting for him. The year before,
these learners had attended, between them, schools in five different countries: South Africa, Russia,
India, South Korea, and the United Kingdom.
In order to connect with these learners and to guide them through their subsequent school careers,
Noah needs to know and understand their educational background (how the education systems in their
countries of origin are organised and work), their cultural and linguistic background, how their
countries of origin have shaped their worldviews, and possible also their religious background.
Essentially, Noah needs to understand something about the international teaching and learning
situation. This is where the internationalisation of teacher education comes into play. Noah wonders
where he will begin with his new learners.
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STOP AND REFLECT
1. Throughout this book (see Chapters 7 and 19), you have read about dealing with diversity amongst
learners in today’s classrooms. How do you think this relates to the situation Noah faces?
2. What do you think internationalisation of teacher education might involve?
Introduction
Education in society is constantly growing in importance. Education is expected to do more and more,
such as supplying the human resources required for economic growth, cultivating a society respectful of
human rights, contributing to peace (peace education), teaching people to care for the environment,
stabilising and sustaining democracy, and so forth. The dawn of a knowledge society and a knowledge
economy (that is, where the production and consumption of new knowledge have become the driving
axes of an economy) has increased the importance of education.
A pivotal part of any education system, is its teacher corps; and the quality of the teacher body, in turn,
is determined chiefly by the type of education and training which the teachers have gone through. The
aim of this chapter is to bring into focus the theme of internationalisation of teacher education, giving
special attention to the internationalisation of teacher education as a factor in equipping the teacher to
fulfil his or her teaching role. The chapter starts with a clarification of the concept of ‘internationalisation
of teacher education‘. Next, the rationale for the internationalisation of teacher education is explored.
This is followed by an investigation of the current state or level of internationalisation of teacher
education, in South Africa in particular.
18.1
Internationalisation of teacher education – conceptual
clarification
Thus far, the internationalisation of teacher education has largely escaped the attention of scholars of
teacher education. Most research on internationalisation in education has been at the level of higher
education, i.e. the internationalisation of universities. Internationalisation of higher education is a
complex concept, with a variety of meanings attached to it (Cross et al. 2011: 76). A distinction can be
made between internationalisation at individual (that is, both student and lecturer), institutional, and
national levels, but all three are important. Another useful distinction is between first-generation,
second-generation and third-generation internationalisation (Knight 2004). First-generation
internationalisation refers to the international mobility of students and people; second-generation
internationalisation to the mobility of programme providers; and third-generation to the formation of
education hubs.
A definition of internationalisation of universities widely accepted and used is that of Jane Knight
(2003: 2):
Internationalisation [of higher education] is the process of integrating an international,
intercultural or global dimension into the purpose, functions or delivery of post-secondary
education.
An analogy of this definition might be that teacher education can therefore be described as ‘integrating an
international, intercultural or global dimension into the purpose, functions and delivery of teacher
education’.
The following five fields of the internationalisation of teacher education can be distinguished:
• Individual mobility of students and staff: To what extent do students and staff have the opportunity to
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•
•
•
•
travel to foreign countries for education and other purposes? How is individual mobility structurally
embedded in teacher education programmes?
Programme and provider mobility: To what extent does teacher education participate in the so-called
‘second generation’ of internationalisation? What kind of twinning or franchise programmes are
offered? Do they offer any joint or double degrees with international partners? If so, which purposes
are followed?
Internationalisation of the objectives and curriculum: How are international, intercultural and global
dimensions represented in the aims and objectives of teacher education study programmes?
Internationalisation of the campus: To what extent are the teacher education institutions internationally
or interculturally diverse? Is the student corps international or does it reflect the respective diversity
of the local national school system? To what extent do the lecturers have international experience?
International cooperation: What kind of international cooperation is institutionally embedded in teacher
education and which aims are followed? (Leutwyler 2013)
twinning: an initiative of pairing an institution in one country with a similar institution in another, for
cooperation, mutual academic support and reciprocity
These fields clarify the question of what internationalisation of teacher education is and what it involves.
The next question is then: why should teacher education be internationalised? This is our focus in the next
section.
18.2
Why is the internationalisation of teacher education
important?
The need for the internationalisation of the teacher can firstly be found in the features of twenty-first
century society. Further to this, political, economic, cultural and academic reasons for the
internationalisation of teacher eduation can be distinguished. Finally, from the perspective of students; as
well as the uneven pattern of global teacher supply and demand, and in view of the rise of international
schools, a case for the internationalisation of teacher education can be made.
18.2.1 Trends in twenty-first century society
Education systems are the outcome of societal forces. These forces, in the contexts in which education
systems are embedded, shape all education systems. Some salient trends in twenty-first century society
include a highly mobile population, the information and communications technology (ICT) revolution,
the rise of multicultural societies, the demise of the once-omnipotent nation state, the rise of the free
market, and, as part of this, the GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services) agreement.
One out of every 33 people in the world today is an international migrant (that is, born in a country
other than the one they are currently living in) (International Organisation for Migration 2012), compared
with one out of every 35, which was the case in the year 2000 (Steyn & Wolhuter 2008: 16). The number
of international migrants in the world has increased from 79 million in 1960, to 175 million in 2000
(Steyn & Wolhuter 2008: 16), to 214 million in 2012 (International Organisation for Migration 2012).
The increase in scientific knowledge and the pace of technological innovations will undoubtedly
significantly affect the future. One outstanding facet of technological progress is the information and
technological (ICT) revolution. An instantaneous, easily accessible, 24-hour global network is taking
shape. Practically every office in the world, and many households, currently have computers with access
to the internet. The revolution in mobile technology has given an even greater number of individuals in
all parts of the world access to global information and communication.
The increasingly mobile global population, in particular, the steady stream of immigrants from
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developing countries to developed countries, and the erosion of the power of the nation state (discussed
below) all contribute to the replacement of the longstanding idea of one officially sanctioned culture
within the borders of the state, and the rise of multiculturalism. This gives positive recognition to the
existence of cultural diversity within the borders of the state (cf. Magsino 1995).
The information and communications revolution, the globalisation of the economy, and cutting down
on the range of activities by the state out of economic necessity, have all contributed to the reduction of
the power of the state. In the vacuum left, the locus of power has shifted in two opposite directions:
upwards towards supranational and international structures; and downwards towards sub-national and
local structures, eventually right down to the individual. Along with these changes, a worldwide process
of democratisation has gathered force in the past quarter of a century.
supranational: describes having power that is outside or beyond the authority of one national
government
Turning to trends in the economy: in 1990 one of the most forceful and sustained economic upturns in
history began. The global economic output rose from US$29.6 trillion in 1995, to US$60.5 trillion in
2008, to US$69.9 trillion in 2011. Simultaneously, a global process played itself out, and although it
began in the West, it has spread to the East and to the global South. As the role of the state in the
economy is diminishing, market forces are given the right of way. A third change is that the world
economy is steadily becoming more integrated. It was in the context of this open, free market and more
globally integrated economy that the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) was signed in
January 1995. The Agreement was set up by the World Trade Organisation (WTO) and signed by its
some 144 member states (virtually the whole of the world, including South Africa). The aim of GATS is
to liberalise cross-national trade in services. Twelve service sectors were identified, of which education is
one. The agreement intends to create freedom of supply/provision, i.e. a provider of a service can,
unhinderedly, supply a service in another country; and a consumer can freely get a service from another
country.
Within the context of the kind of society taking form in the early twenty-first century, as we have
outlined, the practice of teacher education taking place in a country, with the suppliers only from that
country, with teachers educated for teaching only in that particular country, and students all going to
domestic teacher education institutions only, appears more and more outdated. Let’s now look at the
reasons for this.
18.2.2 Political reasons
Political reasons for internationalisation are related to foreign policy, national security, technical
assistance, peace and mutual understanding, and regional identity considerations (Knight 2004: 23). The
international mobility of learners, students and teachers can be seen as a productive way to develop closer
geopolitical ties. Such internationalisation makes the establishment of a global value system much easier,
accomplishing the objective of an international moral and political dispensation based upon respect for
difference, social justice, and mutual respect, within and between people and nations.
18.2.3 Economic reasons
Economic reasons are related to the role of schools and education in the context of the economic and
technological competitiveness of a nation in the globalised economy; the building of human resources
capacity; as well as financial incentives. Teachers need to know about international benchmarks of
education quality, in order to eventually tailor their teaching practices and standards to such benchmarks.
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18.2.4 Cultural reasons
Cultural reasons for the internationalisation of teacher education entail knowledge about several aspects
of global and international cultures; appreciation of cultural, racial, and ethnic diversity; comprehending
the complexities of issues in a global context; and ease in interacting with people from other cultures
(Richardson et al. 2014: 354). These beneficial effects of the internationalisation of teacher education
have been demonstrated by empirical research such as that of Richardson et al. (2014). Knight (2004: 25)
contends that internationalising teacher education does not only promote intercultural understanding, but
that it can also facilitate the understanding of and fostering of a national value system and national
ideology. Soria and Troisi’s (2013) empirical research – which examines undergraduate students’
participation in study abroad and on-campus global/international activities within nine large public
research universities in the United States – shows how these activities enhanced their global, international
and intercultural experience. This is a concept which Soria and Troisi (2013) define as knowledge about
several aspects of global and international cultures; appreciation of cultural, racial, and ethnic diversity;
understanding of the intricacies of issues in a global context; and ease in being with people from other
cultures. These represent significant gains for any teacher, as classrooms worldwide experience
increasingly multicultural learner composition.
18.2.5 Academic reasons
The academic reasons for the internationalisation of higher education apply primarily to capacity building
of teachers, giving teachers a global outlook, and enhancing the quality of teacher education programmes.
STOP AND REFLECT
Of the reasons cited so far for the increased need for internationalisation of teacher education, which one
resonates most (makes most sense) with you? Explain why to a peer and discuss one another’s choices.
18.2.6 Student perspectives
As a student teacher you will, after graduation, become part of the pattern of increasingly mobile, global
demography, described earlier. Many students intend to teach abroad, even if only for a short while, so
as to broaden their experience and education. In a published study of the planned career paths of
final-year student teachers at a South African university, 27.4 percent of respondents indicated that they
intend to teach abroad (Bertram et al. 2006). In published research on the motivation of students in nine
countries for studying comparative education, the main motivation for student teachers in Ireland was to
assist them to get an appointment as a teacher abroad (Wolhuter et al. 2011).
demography: the composition of a particular human population or group
18.2.7 The uneven global pattern of teacher supply and demand
On the building of human resources capacity, narrowing the focus to teacher education, it could be stated
that firstly, on a global aggregate level, there is a significant need to get more trained teachers in the field.
UNESCO’s 2008 Global Education Monitoring Report cites a UNESCO study which found that in 2004,
18 million additional teachers would have to be trained worldwide, in order to meet the Millennium
Development Goal of Universal Primary Education in 2015 (UNESCO 2008: 154–155). Secondly, the
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patterns of teacher shortages and oversupply are highly uneven. Even some high-income countries such
as the United Kingdom (Anon 2015) and Australia (Australian Government, Department of Education
2015) have a shortage of teachers. Seventy-three percent of local education authorities in the United
Kingdom report a shortage of teachers (Anon 2015).
These figures mean that whatever spare capacity for teacher education is available in countries which
may not need all (in view of an adequate national supply) of its teachers, should make available these
teachers for other nations in need of such capacity.
STOP AND REFLECT
Does the idea of teaching in another country appeal to you? Why and what do you think it takes to do
this?
18.2.8 The rise of international schools
In many parts of the world, including South Africa, there is a rise in the number of international schools,
which also creates a need for the internationalisation of teacher education. There are now, for example, 3
500 schools in 140 countries offering the International Baccalaureate (Phillips & Schweisfurth 2014: 57),
an international school-leaving qualification.
This adds up to a compelling argument in favour of the internationalisation of teacher education. If
there is such a need to internationalise teacher education, it would be interesting to know how current
teacher education programmes, especially teacher education programmes in South Africa, answer to this
need. This is the theme of the next section.
18.3
Current levels of internationalisation of teacher education
The following is a survey of current levels of internationalisation of teacher education, with special
reference to South Africa.
18.3.1 Individual mobility of students and staff
In recent years, the number of international students at universities worldwide has grown dramatically. In
the 12-year period 2000 to 2012, the number of international students globally has virtually doubled, from
1 788 133 to 3 509 709 (UNESCO 2015). This growth has been facilitated by programmes such as
Fulbright (USA) and, within the European Union, Erasmus (European Region Action Scheme for the
Mobility of Students) and Erasmus plus; Grundtvig; Explore, the new EU programme; Horizon 2020;
and, in the case of South Africa, the Mandela Rhodes Scholarships for African citizens to study in South
Africa. While data are scarce, it appears that, apart from the European Union-sponsored programmes,
international students are mainly Master’s and doctoral students. However, even among the
undergraduate cohorts, education students are not well represented within the cohort of international
students, although there has also been a small rise in international education students. In Switzerland, the
universities of teacher education promote such activities: the number of students participating in an
international exchange increased an incredible 57 percent in only three years between the academic years
2008/09 and 2011/12, but remains still far below the share of traditional universities (Popov et al. 2016).
Whereas 8.3 percent of the Swiss teacher education students hold a foreign passport, the foreigners in
traditional universities amount to 27.2 per cent (Ibid.).
Since the academic boycott of South Africa during the apartheid years has been lifted, a number of
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education faculties have started projects of sending some student teachers for practice teaching abroad,
i.e. to schools in countries in Europe, North America, and elsewhere in Africa. However, these projects
are very small: only a tiny number of students can participate, and in any case, they are only for spells of
three weeks at a time. The post-1990 internationalisation of the student body of South African
universities has not been impressive. In 2012, only 72 859, or 8.3 percent, of the 880 514 students at
South African universities were international students (IEASA 2014: 18). Moreover, 87 percent of these
international students were from other African countries (Ibid: 20). Hence, it was more a case of students
from the north of South Africa flocking to South Africa (with its by far better developed higher education
system in the sub-Saharan African region), than internationalisation in the truly global sense of the word.
As far as staff mobility is concerned, there has been in recent decades a commensurate rise in the
mobility of academic staff, although figures on the mobility of academic staff attached to
faculties/departments/schools of education specifically are not abundant. Two international surveys of the
academic profession, the Carnegie International Investigation of the Academic Profession (see Altbach
1996) in 1989/1990; and the CAP (Changing Academic Profession) of 2008 (see Wolhuter et al. 2008b)
allow a glimpse of the international profile of the academic profession in the participating countries. To
the question ‘Have you spent part of your time during the current academic year teaching in a foreign
country?’, the following percentages of respondents in the academic profession in the various
CAP-participating countries answered yes: Canada 7 percent, United States 6 percent, Finland 11 percent,
Germany 8 percent, Italy 7 percent, Netherlands 11 percent, Norway 10 percent, Portugal 3 percent,
United Kingdom 11 percent, Australia 14 percent, Japan 2 percent, South Korea 5 percent, Argentina 9
percent, Brazil 3 percent, Mexico 5 percent, South Africa 5 percent, China 1 percent, and Malaysia 5
percent (CAP 2014).
Turning to South Africa: applying the questionnaire of the Carnegie International Investigation of the
Academic Profession (the first international survey of the academic profession – see Altbach 1996) to a
sample of South African academic professions during 2001–2002, Wolhuter and Higgs (2004) found that
whereas the international academic boycott still had a visibly negative effect on the 10-year period before
2001–2002, when considering the three-year period up to 2001, the negative effect had been wiped out by
2001. In fact by 2002, the South African academic profession had become even more internationalised
than the international norm. However, the CAP International Survey (the second international survey of
the academic profession) during 2007/2008, revealed that in the period between 2001 and 2007 the South
African academic profession’s performance had again fallen to slightly below the international norm
(Wolhuter et al. 2008a) (this is also evident in the series of statistics appearing in the previous paragraph).
18.3.2 Programme and provider mobility
Programme and provider mobility in higher education in general is still at an early stage; programme and
provider mobility in teacher education even more so.
As far as South Africa is concerned, demand exceeds supply in South African higher education by far
(in 2011, 377 000 students in South Africa passed the terminal secondary school examination with grades
high enough to qualify for university admission, yet universities could only take in 128 000 students
(Cloete & Butler-Adams 2012: 32). Further, although the South African gross higher education enrolment
ratio of 17 per cent is extremely low for an upper-middle income country (in other upper-middle income
countries, such as Brazil, Mexico and Malaysia, this figure is typically around 40 per cent) the private and
off-shore campus sector is extremely poorly developed in South Africa. Less than 20 000 students attend
private universities (Wolhuter 2011), and offshore campuses on South African soil are limited to two
Australia-based universities (Bond and Monash), both fairly small, with limited programme offerings
(mainly in the economic and management sciences), in which education is not included. Although the
Higher Education Act makes possible the establishment of private universities and off-shore campuses,
the experience with a few ‘fly-by-night’ scams has resulted in government becoming hostile and setting
up the kind of bureaucratic restrictions that make it very difficult for foreign and private suppliers of
universities to open operations in South Africa.
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18.3.3 Internationalisation of the objectives and curriculum
While in terms of objectives, teacher education programmes were always – at least since the inception of
national education systems from the nineteenth century – limited to the national education project, in
terms of curricula, an international dimension is very much older. Since the beginning of formal teacher
education, pedagogical ideas, methods and experiments of pioneers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Jean
Piaget, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel, Lev Vygotsky, Andrew Bell and
Joseph Lancaster have strongly influenced teacher education practices throughout Europe and North
America. And during the nineteenth century, curricula of French normal schools, German pedagogical
seminars, or US normal schools (later on re-formed as teacher colleges) were largely borrowed by
educators from all continents (see Phillips & Schweisfurth 2014). In the first half of the twentieth century,
international influences increased with the establishment of respected international institutes, such as
Zentralinstitut für Erziehung und Unterricht in Berlin (1915), the International Institute at Teachers
College, Columbia University in New York (1923), the Institut International de Coopération Intellectuelle
in Paris (1925), the International Bureau of Education in Geneva (1925), and the Institute of Education at
London University (1932). In large parts of the global South, for example sub-Saharan Africa, teacher
education institutions were established and supplied by personnel straight from the colonial ‘mother’
countries. Curricula, similarly, were taken over wholesale from the northern metropolitan countries.
Nowadays, regional blocs (such as the European Union with its recent Bologna Reform of Higher
Education and thus of teacher education) as well as supranational actors (such as the World Bank,
UNESCO, or the OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development) exert a strong
influence on national teacher education systems (Sieber & Mantel 2012: 9). This influence varies
throughout the whole “spectrum of educational transfer” (Phillips & Ochs 2003), from introducing ideas
through the general influence of the educational discourse as the ‘softer’ form, to imposing authoritarian
rules as the opposite ‘hard’ extreme. These increasing international influences on national teacher
education systems nourish the contested discourse on convergence versus divergence of educational
systems (Steiner-Khamsi 2004).
STOP AND REFLECT
What do you know about the ‘convergence vs divergence of educational systems’ debate? Find out and
comment on its value in teacher education discourse.
The formation of the European Union, the European Higher Education Area in particular, has also given
impetus to the internationalisation of teacher education in that area (now including 47 countries, many
outside Europe, as far as Kazakhstan). All Bachelor, Master’s and PhD programmes (both their curricula
and discipline syllabuses), including all teacher education programmes, are accredited by the National
Assessment and Accreditation Agency every three, four or five years. One of the important criteria is how
the given programme corresponds to the relevant programmes in other European Union universities. This
accreditation process permanently requires internationalisation of curricula and syllabuses. Student
mobility, curriculum equalisation, and mutual degree recognition are supported by the European Credit
Transfer System (ECTS). This system was introduced in 1999 by the Bologna Declaration, and was later
extended to the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System with no change to is abbreviated
name, ECTS (Popov et al. 2016).
The subject called comparative and international education has long given teacher education
programmes a strong international curricular dimension, introducing students to the educational
experience of other countries, and to the global education project. Unfortunately, since its first appearance
at universities – James Russell taught the first comparative and international education course in 1900 at
the teachers college, Columbia University – comparative and international education has had a very
chequered history (see Wolhuter et al. 2009). Currently, it has a very uneven pattern in teacher education
programmes at universities the world over: in countries such as the United Kingdom or Brazil, it is not so
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strong as a generation or two ago; in other countries such as Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Spain or
Mainland China, it is a compulsory part of teacher education programmes; in Japan, its profile is rising; in
the universities of Africa and Greece it is very visible in teacher education programmes; while at several
universities in Canada and some in the United States, it figures explicitly in teacher education
programmes (see Wolhuter et al. 2013). But even where comparative and international education – sadly
– does not figure (any longer) explicitly as a stand-alone course in teacher education, it is subsumed
under themes and in courses such as education and development, education and democracy, education
and human rights, and the like; comparative-international perspectives are also drawn upon intermittently
in courses on, for example, sociology of education, educational leadership, or educational management.
The other rising curricular area where an international dimension is increasingly relevant is in
intercultural education, which deals with teaching how to live together in a multicultural, globalised
world.
In the pre-1994 era, South African teacher education programmes at universities followed the
(European) continental model, consisting of subjects of the basic part-disciplines of education, such as
philosophy of education, history of education, sociology of education, comparative education, and the
like. These hooked onto the international corpus of knowledge in each of the fields, although, owing to
the academic boycott, curricula did not reflect much of post-1960 developments in each sub-discipline.
After 1994, at the direction of the Ministry of Education, teacher education programmes were redesigned,
to develop teachers for the following seven specified roles of teachers: learning facilitator; interpreter and
designer of learning programmes and materials; leader, administrator and manager; community, civil and
pastoral role; learner and lifelong researcher; assessor; learning area/subject/phase specialist. These have
little international currency, and certainly there are no edifices of scholarly knowledge for any of these
roles with which any teacher programme abroad are associated. Hence this reform has strengthened the
parochial (local) nature of teacher education in South Africa. The Ministry of Higher Education and
Training issued a new directive for teacher education programmes at the beginning of 2015. This once
again calls for a return of the basic disciplines of education, such as philosophy of education, history of
education and sociology of education. These disciplines must now form 40 percent of the credits in a
teacher education programme (Republic of South Africa 2015: 22). This has paved the way for a
strengthening of an international dimension in the curriculum, especially since the subject, comparative
and international education, can now form part of teacher education programmes. Sadly, the
internationalisation of teacher education, in either objectives or curriculum, still appears nowhere in the
new policy document.
18.3.4 Internationalisation of campuses
It is difficult to assess the internationalisation and diversification of faculty and students in education
faculties per se as such data are not very abundant. Available data, however, do not support a belief that
education students and faculty are internationalised and diversified as much as those of other faculties,
and certainly do not surpass them. In Europe, for example, the Swiss teacher education system is said to
suffer from a monolingual and monocultural habitus (Sieber & Bischoff 2007). Some publications
report that minorities within countries are poorly represented among the student corps in teacher
education programmes (e.g. Popov et al. 2016).
monocultural habitus: a system with a single homogeneous culture
In South Africa, the internationalisation of campuses is constrained by the very factors that already
constrain the international mobility of staff and students, as outlined earlier. As far as the intercultural
diversity of campuses is concerned, pre-1994, most universities in South Africa were characterised by
segregation, i.e. there were separate universities for students of different racial groups. While
desegregation has been one of the cornerstones of post-1994 education policy, desegregation of
universities (as with desegregation at all levels) was very much a case of attracting more affluent and
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academically stronger black students to the campuses of the historically white universities, which now
became integrated; the historically black universities still have a largely (90 percent plus) black student
corps.
18.3.5 International cooperation
While extensive data is once again absent, it seems that international cooperation, in the form of, for
example, joint development and offering of programmes, is less prevalent in teacher education
programmes than in academic programmes in general. In the developed countries, an increasing number
of funding schemes for scientific cooperation with partners in developing or transitional countries has
emerged (Popov et al. 2016). One of these is available only for universities of teacher education and
focuses on global learning and development education, specifically in teacher education (SBE 2012). In
this framework, nine Swiss universities of teacher education have institutionalised so-called North-South
partnerships with universities in developing countries. Activities include the chance to tackle issues and
train in skills related to globalisation, but also the risk of reproducing asymmetrical relationships, feeding
unrealistic and non-productive ambitions on the part of the participants, and nourishing post-colonial
dynamics (Popov et al. 2016).
In the case of South Africa, when the doors to the international community reopened in 1994, and the
outside world and the international academic community took a renewed interest in the South African
project, many memoranda of understanding (MOUs) were signed between South African universities and
foreign universities. Unfortunately, many remained pieces of paper and did not result in many instances
of practical cooperation.
Conclusion
It appears that there exists today a yawning gap between the need to internationalise teacher education
and the persistently narrow, national circumscribed practices of teacher education. This is detrimental to
students of education, learners, and also to education systems. It is particularly scholars of comparative
and international education who are perhaps best placed to address this deficit, by placing the
internationalisation of teacher education on their research agendas: that is, the societal and educational
imperatives of internationalisation of teacher education, an evaluation and comparison of existing
initiatives in all parts of the world, and – from this – proposals and guidance to policymakers and the
academic community on how to pursue this worthwhile ideal. For the practising teacher, the apparent lack
of internationalisation of teacher education presents an opportunity and a challenge. When you as a
teacher embark on postgraduate studies, on in-service education and training, and on career development,
you should be aware of the need and benefits of internationalisation of teacher education. You need not
only continuously to enrich your international experience and outlook, but also to use opportunities at the
intersection of in-service education and training and postgraduate studies (where you will always be
required to conduct research). Further, you need to subject your own practice to research, and to publish
and disseminate the results of such research as widely as possible, so as to build the body of knowledge
informing and internationalising teacher education in South Africa.
Activities
Self-reflection
1. Having read about the possibilities and challenges of internationalisation, do you think it has any impact
on your own chosen teaching path? If so, what? If not, why?
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Analysis and consolidation
2. In your own subject and/or the learning phase in which you intend to teach once qualified, what benefits
can the internationalisation of teacher education bring to your preparation for your role? Draw up a
table listing the benefits to you; in a further column, suggest what further action you would consider
taking, in pursuit of each of these benefits.
Practical application
3. Supposing you want to take your interest in the internationalisation of teacher education forward: in
what practical way would you change your classroom practice? For example, to return to the case
study at the beginning of the chapter, if you are in such a situation as Noah, you could turn research
about the education and cultural background of the learners into a classroom activity. Outline a plan
to do this.
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19
Overcoming cross-cultural barriers in teacher
education and practice
Copyright 2016. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
John W. Foncha, Manthekeleng A. Kganedi and Gregory Alexander
Learning outcomes
By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
• Identify the concepts: personal values, stereotype, prejudice, ethnocentrism, xenophobia, cultural
relativism and culture shock, in an educational context.
• Discuss the identified concepts and how they relate to teaching and learning.
• Develop strategies and skills for promoting intercultural communication in the classroom.
Key concepts
Personal value: a core belief and philosophy that an individual holds about life, its purpose, and his or
her own purpose in living
Stereotypes: rigid, overgeneralised descriptions or categories attached to a person, racial, cultural or
national group
Prejudice: a judgement or opinion against, or in favour of, a person or thing, formed beforehand and
without any basis in truth or actuality
Ethnocentrism: using only one’s own worldview to understand the culture of others
Xenophobia: the unnecessary or unwarranted fear and dislike of anything that is strange or foreign,
especially people from another country or region
Cultural relativism: the notion of understanding of the self in relation to the other
Culture shock: the experience of exposure to an unfamiliar environment, with both its disabling effects
(such as cultural disorientation) and enriching potential (such as interactions which suggest a possible
means of adaptation)
CASE STUDY 1: DON’T SPEAK TO ME LIKE THAT!
A woman is running to catch a train but as she arrives on the station platform, the doors of the train
close and the train leaves without her. She is very upset; as she moves towards the nearest seat to take
a rest while waiting for the next train, she expresses her exasperation with a sound like “ bvii…”. A
male security guard who is standing nearby, turns on her, rebuking her for being so rude. She is taken
aback and strongly denies that she meant any insult.
For the woman, the sound she makes is consistent with a dismaying situation; however, in the
culture of the security guard, the same sound is used to chase away a dog and is perceived as rude and
dismissive, and certainly as treating someone with contempt if used with people.
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Account: s6311349.main.eds
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STOP AND REFLECT
1. What do you think is the reason for the disagreement between the individuals on the station platform?
In your explanation, see if you can use the terms culture shock, cultural values, and ethnocentrism,
showing that you understand what they mean.
2. Do you think that the conflict in this case could have been averted? How?
Introduction
Intercultural communicative competence (the ability to interact with a different ‘other’) is an
indispensable and unavoidable concept for the twenty-first century. In the globalised, migratory and
transitional world, it is inescapable; in our own local communities and country, it is essential. This
concept highlights the need for understanding diversity and calls for the kind of skills to be able to
negotiate and renegotiate with others for meaning, recognition and acknowledgement. To this end, there
is a need for everyone to become interculturally competent in order to avoid the conflict that
misunderstanding and miscommunication in our social interactions causes. Each culture should be
embraced and valued not just because it makes for better and easier social relations, but because it
provides real opportunities among different people to learn and grow. In South Africa, this cultural and
linguistic diversity is reflected nowhere more vividly than in our schools, colleges, and universities.
Policy formulation and legislation on diversity issues is not the only answer, and anyway, where does
one begin? The government’s attempts to elevate and promote pride in all its languages and cultures
equally, as stated in the Constitution, seems to pose more problems than find solutions. For example,
legislation making all South Africa’s 11 languages, official languages has complicated rather than
succeeded in promoting the intended multilingualism. Without multilingualism, in cross-cultural contact,
people experience barriers to communication, and are unable to become competent interculturally. This
lack of competence can result in negative attitudes and conflicts among, for example, students who are
studying together since they may individually feel that their culture or language is not given the same
importance as that of the others. Often, the lack of communicative competence easily transitions into a
cycle of misunderstanding and miscommunication. With communication at the core of teaching and
learning, pre-service teachers need a set of skills and abilities to handle barriers to cross-cultural teacher
practice, which can be described as integrated intercultural communicative competence.
The purpose of the chapter is to introduce student teachers to the necessary awareness and skills to
interact interculturally. It is envisaged that with such skills, student teachers will be able to handle
diversity in their classrooms. In addition, student teachers can then use these skills as a means to negotiate
and renegotiate with others in their classrooms, school community, and in any other social interactions.
To open this awareness, read the following conversation which points out some of the dimensions of
intercultural communication that student teachers need to grapple with.
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STOP AND REFLECT
What is your experience of intercultural communication? Why do you personally think it is part of
teacher education?
19.1
Understanding diversity
The word ‘diversity’ originates from the Latin term diversus, which means more than one, of a different
kind, varied. Diversity encapsulates any kind of variety in humankind, such as personality, aptitude,
appearance, sexual orientation, disability, learning preference, nationality, educational level, age, marital
status, parental status, and so forth, as is the nature of all mono- and multicultural contexts (Lemmer,
Meier & Van Wyk 2006). In educational terms, the term, ‘multicultural’ is sometimes used inaccurately
to describe the diverse nature of society; this often leads to misunderstanding since culture is just one
aspect in diversity. To many individuals, diversity is limited to cultural, racial and ethnic diversity, but
this a restricted view, at the expense of recognising all other types of diversity (linguistic, gender, sexual
orientation, people living with HIV and AIDS, ability difference, learners with special needs, and so on
(Alexander 2005).
19.1.2 Personal values
We all have a set of value, according to which we behave, make choices and live our lives. For example,
you may think it is important for the sustainability of the planet to recycle, whereas your neighbour may
think this is a waste of time and effort with no justification. It is important to note that values are relative,
and depend on an individual’s attempts to develop routines and skills that they believe in and want in
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their lives. In view of this, ideas about ‘good’ or ‘bad’ depend on one’s personal values, not on some
other absolute given. It is also worth noting that personal values may often clash with professional ethics;
for example, some people may believe that girls and boys learn better separately, but the education
system requires complete gender equality. Dogmatism – the unquestioning, rigid and unchanging belief in
something as though it is fact – has a very uneasy place in a consideration of values, or the way people
see things, if it has a place at all. A typical example of dogmatism is the area of health and medicine:
people persist in provenly unhygienic, unsafe and possibly also medically unnecessary procedures
because that is what they have always done. In this regard, dogmatism should always be challenged. In
the classroom setting, it is clear that education requires having an open mind: a willingness to examine
and possibly to change one’s worldview. This change of worldview comes about by juxtaposing one’s
thoughts and ideas with those of others. So, when teachers and learners interact with one another, they
have to take into account some of the things they often overlook in life because of their personal values.
In the end, personal values are relative, and contingent on the ideas and beliefs of the person concerned,
but people, being thinking reflective beings, can also change their values.
19.1.3 Stereotype and prejudice
We can think of a stereotype as that which a system (person, group of people, community) believes about
someone, and how this system determines these beliefs (Kay 2006). For example, when we are told where
someone comes from, we already have a set of beliefs about the person based on their origins, even if the
individual has no actual affiliation to the culture or traditions of their birthplace besides nationality. “In
most cases, we use this concept [stereotype] to refer to a negative or positive judgment based on any
observable or believed group membership. Prejudice is the irrational hatred or suspicion of a particular
group, race, religion, or sex” (Jandt 2004: 76).
It is possible to observe patterns of stereotype and prejudice in the intercultural communication that
takes place during interactions among participants. For example, it is a common and widely held view
that the United States is the most powerful nation economically, politically and socially in the world (not
least by Americans themselves). It is also a common belief that Africa as a continent is poor, backward
and possibly uncivilised. But these are both social constructions, common stereotypes that we get from
the media, other people, our upbringing or education, and generally our exposure to ‘popular culture’.
However, these stereotypes tend to determine the manner through which people see and read the world
around them (Foncha 2009). Stereotypes can either be positive or negative. Negative stereotypes and
prejudice can be very destructive as they can lead either to rivalry or to defeatist attitudes. Stereotypes
and prejudice lock all people into frames that are difficult to shift or break down: what is clear, however,
is that it is limiting and divisive to judge someone simply based on their country of origin, appearance,
accent, gender, or any other feature.
A question of ethics
During your teaching practice experience you notice that in a science practical lesson, all the boys and a
few girls are at the front, handling the equipment and engaging with the task. Most of the girls sit quietly
at the back of the class, working from textbooks. You ask the teacher about this and he responds: “It’s not
ideal, but we just don’t have enough equipment. And, look, we know girls are not going to go far in
science, anyway, so why waste their time and your own effort?” Do you think stereotype or prejudice is
operating here? What is your response to this situation?
19.1.4 Ethnocentrism and xenophobia
Ethnocentrism can be defined as the view of things from the perspective and understanding of one’s own
cultural standpoint. It is the use of an individual’s cultural view as the lens through which to judge other
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cultures. Cashden (2001: 273) argues that ethnocentrism is the negativity of judging all other cultures
based by the standards of one’s culture. With such a negative attitude towards other cultures, an
individual may tend to miss out on the knowledge and understanding of the world around him or her, as
well as hindering one’s ability to communicate competently. Cohen (1978) points out that we need to
recognise that there is no one-to-one relation between our behaviour and culture, and that of other people
from different cultures. When, for example, citizens of USA refer to themselves as ‘Americans’, they are
forgetting that there are two Americas (North and South). Erasmus-Kritzinger, Bowler and Goliath (2005)
claim that African cultures place emphasis on Ubuntu, a philosophy which means that “a person is a
person because of the other people”. Further, they indicate that value is attached to the good of
community, social wellbeing and concern for one’s fellow ‘brother’ or ‘sister’. But this deep and binding
ethic of ‘oneness’ also has an ironically negative aspect, when the whole continent of Africa is reduced in
the eyes of the world, simplistically, as all one country, undifferentiated, where, in a common stereotype,
‘everyone knows everyone else’.
Ethnocentrism, as defined earlier, is about judging other peoples’ culture by the standards of one’s
own culture. One of the most extreme examples is that of apartheid South Africa: descriptive ethnicity
was constructed, almost invented, by the state as a means to classify and organise people, but the
underlying motivation to ‘self-determination’ as it was known, was always purely ethnocentric. In
ethnocentrism, one’s own culture has a central place in one’s way of thinking, and it is taken to be the
norm for everything. One thinks of one’s culture as normal, right and superior, while different cultures
are perceived as abnormal, wrong and inferior (Cashden 2001). Cultural philosopher and academic
Edward Said (1935–2003) makes the point even more strongly:
To build a conceptual framework around a notion of Us-versus-Them is, in effect, to pretend
that the principal consideration is epistemological and natural – our civilization is known and
accepted, theirs is different and strange – whereas, in fact, the framework separating us from
them is belligerent, constructed, and situational (Said in Gregory 2004: 202)
There is of course a difference between respecting your own culture and feeling superior to everyone
else’s. Neuliep (2000) asserts that there are three different kinds of ethnocentrism:
• Low ethnocentrism where an individual is not even aware of the way that they behave towards other
people. When interacting with other cultures, such individuals treat other people as simply as
strangers (otherness); for instance, they may talk more slowly and loudly than normal and may
unconsciously also use pejorative expressions for other groups (e.g. ‘you people …’).
pejorative: expressing contempt or disdain for something or someone
•
•
In moderate ethnocentrism, a person usually makes an attempt to avoid interactions with people that they
do not know and favours only those from their own cultural background.
The third kind of ethnocentrism, and the most extreme case, is that which neglects or dismisses others
altogether, also known as ‘cultural near-sightedness’ (Jandt 2004). This form of extreme
ethnocentrism treat strangers (others) with contempt and shows no respect whatever for other
cultures. Extremely ethnocentric behaviour is insensitive to the use of language (offensive
name-calling), shows explicit hatred (hate speech), and may even use violence. Ethnocentrism may
come from stereotyping and prejudice, but leads to more prejudice, poor social relations and
eventually, to its most extreme form, xenophobia.
Xenophobia is therefore the hatred of anything foreign or anything that is not in line with one’s own
culture. It is often accompanied by violence and physical abuse. Cultural differences are highlighted and
provoke many kinds of responses from different segments of the population, as was witnessed in South
Africa during the outbreak of xenophobic attacks in 2008 and 2015 (Bernardo 2015). Obviously, the
hatred for other cultures can be a significant stumbling block for intercultural communicative
competence.
Whatever the policies of governments, immigration and migration have led to strong reactions from
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various sectors of local populations (Mbeki 2001). One of the most prevalent problems for governments
has been how to integrate foreigners into a host country (Lynn & Lea 2003). This is largely due to the fact
that immigrants and migrants are seen worldwide as a threat to the existing lifestyle, living standards and
job prospects of local nationals, and competition for limited resources. South Africa has been no
exception in this view. In a country that is known to have one of the most progressive constitutions in the
world, xenophobia is now recognised as a major threat to the democratic principles of respect for one
another and tolerance.
Xenophobic attacks range from name-calling, physical attacks on the homes and businesses of
foreigners, to hate speech and even violent attacks on the people themselves, resulting in injury and
sometimes the death of foreigners. As already mentioned, xenophobia stands in jarring contrast to the
democratic principles that the new South Africa stands for and to the construction of a post-apartheid
‘rainbow nation’ (Sinclair 1998: 339). The attacks are completely counter to former South African
president Thabo Mbeki’s vision of Africa as a unified continent on a quest to eradicate poverty, human
rights abuses and promote sustainable growth and development through regional and continental
cooperation and integration (Mbeki 2001). It is also worth noting that in xenophobic attacks, people often
act out their anger at any number of perceived injustices or grievances, on the wrong, or simply the most
vulnerable, or just ‘different’, people.
19.1.5 Cultural relativism
Cultural relativism favours the notions of autonomy and self-determination in individuals. Donnelly
(1984) argues that moral judgement, just like human rights, appears to be universally accepted, based on
the way that we understand our world. Cultural relativism from this standpoint therefore views culture as
the only source of validity for moral rights. Based on this perspective, a radical view of cultural relativism
could be an ideal type to mark the end point of a continuum which goes from weak to strong (Donnelly
1984). According to this continuum, we put ourselves in the place of others before we act, to a small
degree, through to a greater degree.
The strong form of cultural relativism perceives culture as the key to moral righteousness and validity,
suggesting that morality, righteousness, beliefs, rules, are all determined by culture. In view of this,
strong cultural relativism seems to accept a few basic rights with universal application, but at the same
time, with a wide range of variation and some slight overlap. On the other hand, weak cultural relativism
views culture as the origin of right and wrong (Donnelly 1984). In this regard, universality is not deemed
necessary as human and communal rights act as checks on possible excesses of values and beliefs. Thus,
weak cultural relativism recognises “a comprehensive set of prima facie rights [that allow] relatively rare
and limited variations and exceptions” (Donnelly 1984: 401). It should be noted that, across cultural
relativism, there are different levels of relativity. In other words, cultural relativism sets out to
conscientise people that there are similarities and differences between cultures. The differences should
not be seen as barriers but rather as a resource where students and learners can learn from the others.
conscientise: to make a person or group) aware of social and political conditions, especially as a first
step in challenging inequalities of treatment or opportunity; first used in South America by radical
educationist Paolo Freire
To this end, when we talk of human rights, we are focusing on preserving human dignity and respect.
It is difficult, however, to assume universality in what may be right or wrong. This means that the rights,
values, beliefs and culture of a given society might be unique to that society – that is, their worldview
(customs). In some Far Eastern cultures, for example, an individual nods when someone in a position of
authority and power is talking, not because this individual understands but to denote that they are paying
attention, which is the exact opposite to Western contexts, where nodding is a sign of understanding or
agreement. Human rights then can best be understood in a given context as morality being conceived and
understood differently by different cultures, and can therefore never be seen as universal. In fact,
Donnelly (1984: 417) argues that it is unusual to get an agreement on or argument in favour of
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universality in terms of human rights. We need therefore to understand why an individual may behave in
a particular way before drawing conclusions.
19.1.6 Culture shock
Culture shock is an exposure to an unfamiliar environment with its disabling as well as enriching effects –
from cultural disorientation to interactions which can suggest a possible means of adaptation to new
cultures. Culture shock can be understood as an individual’s anxiety or confusion when they find
themselves faced with unfamiliar signs and symbols (Oberg 1960: 177). The signs and cues referred to in
this definition relate to our worldview, or to the ways in which we attempt to become interculturally
competent through tolerance. If, for example, a South African goes to a West African country and
addresses people by their names, this will be seen as a form of disrespect, since individuals expect to be
addressed by their titles. In this case, both experience culture shock.
Cues can be in the form of verbal or non-verbal communication which is acquired as we grow up and
formed by our language, culture and beliefs. So, when we find ourselves in a foreign culture, almost all
the familiar cues would be removed, leading to the experience of anxiety, confusion and frustration. This
anxiety and frustration can lead to our rejection or avoidance of any given environment that causes any
form of discomfort to us. This is mainly due to the fact that we tend to hold dear and cling to anything
that comes from our own cultural cues and signs almost irrationally, as for example, when a person goes
on holiday to another country and seeks out the same food that is found at home, rather than trying new
things.
In order to overcome culture shock, we need to know the value of a culture and its relationship with
the people concerned. In this regard, Oberg (1960: 180) points out that when we are born, we possess the
ability to learn and make use of any available culture; we are not born with it. So it would be an unfair to
conclude that an individual might go against a given culture simply out of disrespect or disdain for it. We
should be mindful not to base our understanding of a person on our norms, social practices, values and
beliefs. When we say that people or their culture have no interest for us, we have not bothered to find out
what within their own worldview resonates with ours.
19.2
Developing a culturally responsive pedagogy
Learning can only take place among culturally diverse learners when there is an intrinsic motivation for
communication. This kind of motivation provides a holistic and culturally responsive way to create, plan
and refine teaching (Wlodkowski & Ginsberg 1995) and as such, makes culture central to learning.
Culture plays not only a communication and information reception role, but it also shapes thinking in
groups and individuals. The culturally responsive approach then, is a pedagogy that acknowledges,
responds to, and celebrates the fundamental idea that culture offers to education, for students and learners
from all cultures. It recognises the importance of including students’ and learners’ cultural references in
all aspects of learning (Ladson-Billings 1994).
Consequently, teachers are impelled to understand diversity because any teaching that ignores learner
norms of behaviour and communication can provoke learner resistance, in contrast to a culturally
responsive approach to teaching (Olneck 1995) which, in its openness to difference, draws learners in.
“There is growing evidence that strong, continual engagement among diverse students requires a holistic
approach – that is, an approach where the how, what, and why of teaching are unified and meaningful”
(Wlodkowski & Ginsberg 1995: 17).
Some positive qualities of culturally responsive teaching according to Gay (2002) include:
• Positive perspective on parents and families
• Communication of high expectations
• Learning within the context of culture
• Learner-centred instructions
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•
•
•
Culturally mediated instructions
Reshaping the curriculum to accommodate cultural difference
Teacher as facilitator, rather than instructor.
STOP AND REFLECT
1. What is your understanding of personal values and stereotype?
2. Have you experienced culture shock? Describe the experience and how you interpret it.
With an understanding of the concepts we have discussed, one can be said to attain intercultural
communicative competence in the sense of being tolerant of other cultures that one comes in contact with.
For an even deeper understanding, it is necessary to get an understanding of the dynamics of
misunderstanding and miscommunication.
19.2.1 Sources of intercultural miscommunication and
misunderstanding
The policy of apartheid in South Africa contributed to a mindset that was counter-productive to any idea
of an all-inclusive society. Widespread cultural misunderstanding, miscommunication and an increase in
the prevalence of conflict and other forms of dehumanising behaviour was the result of the intolerant
society engendered by apartheid.
mindset: a typical or habitual way of thinking
From this, it seems that cultural misunderstanding may have also found its way into the multicultural
classroom. Every classroom is made up of learners and teachers from different backgrounds, each with its
own norms. When people don’t understand one another’s culture, this causes misunderstanding.
Communication based on traditional African courtesy, such as talking loudly, avoiding eye contact as a
sign of respect, and not observing personal space during conversations, can lead to misunderstanding
among people from Western traditions. The misunderstandings may not even be perceived or understood
by teachers from different backgrounds and may result in the consequent breakdown in teacher–learner
relations (Kivedo 2006).
There are two aspects of cultural difference that educators can use to identify the sources of
misunderstanding in multicultural classrooms: verbal communication, and non-verbal communication.
These are discussed in more detail next.
19.2.1.1 Verbal communication
About verbal communication, Bennett (2007) suggests that all learners should be expected to acquire
proficiency in the standard language of instruction of the school. Therefore it is critical to ascertain the
level of cultural conflict learners experience in schools, which has the potential to ignore, dismiss or
repress learners’ home language if it is different from the medium of instruction. Areas of potential
conflict related to verbal communication are dialect differences, especially grammar, semantics and
expression, as well as discussion modes. Research studies tell us that learners who speak any
non-standard dialect are often perceived as less intelligent or less educated.
19.2.1.2 Non-verbal communication
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Non-verbal communication, on the other hand, finds expression in messages sent by individuals through
unconscious body movements such as facial expressions, gestures (kinesics), the unconscious use of
personal space (proxemics) and unconscious physical touching (haptic).
APPLYING IT TODAY
Read about some of the sources of ineffective intercultural communication (adapted from Mpisi 2010:
130). In each example, identify the form of communication (verbal or non-verbal communication)
between the teacher and learner/s and explain how you as an educator would interpret the encounter
and what advice you would offer in the situation.
Example 1
English-speaking educators tend to use passive and indirect language forms, which may be based on
their view of politeness and showing respect. This includes speaking in soft tones, offering choices,
and using questions rather giving instructions. For example, they may say “Thumi, don’t you want to
sit down?” or “Pieter, what did I ask you to do?”, rather than telling the learners to behave or get to
work.
Example 2
Eye averting is another potential source of inter-cultural misunderstanding. In Western culture, direct
eye contact signifies that one is listening to the speaker, is honest, and is open to communication. In
contrast, within some African communities, eye averting (looking down or away rather than directly at
another person) is a sign of deference and respect for another. People from African cultures are also
comfortable with less personal space and do more touching. Teachers may find themselves saying such
things as: “Thandi, why don’t you look at me when I’m talking to you?” or “Innocent, you’re standing
too close to me again.”
From this activity, intercultural competence emerges as the ability to interpret intentional communication
(language, signs, gestures), some unconscious cues (such as body language), and customs in cultural
styles that are different from one’s own. The focus is on awareness, sensitivity, empathy and above all,
meaningful communication. The overall aim is to develop a self-awareness of the internalised cultural
assumptions people of different cultural backgrounds make about each other’s’ behaviours, understanding
and cognition.
As a means of promoting healthy intercultural communicative competencies, it is therefore essential
for teachers to acquire the knowledge and abilities that are needed to effectively participate in various
communication activities with the learners in their classrooms. For example, teachers teaching from a
Eurocentric orientation, both in content and perspective, may not think of incorporating the history,
stories, views, lived experiences, and accomplishments of people of other cultures (African, Asian) in
their learning activities and curricular content. But covering and including such issues may go a long way
to reducing misunderstanding and miscommunication between these learners and their teacher, which
may in turn, lead to a healthy, conducive and interactive class atmosphere.
Lynch (2012) and Loras (2010) propose various in- and out-of-class activities (see later) that can help
learners to recognise the value of difference so as to be able to embrace diversity in multicultural
classrooms with tolerance. Such opportunities in the classroom include allowing learners to share stories
of their home life, such as family holiday customs or traditional celebrations, which provide fellow
learners a view into their peer’s cultural traditions. Teachers can also ask learners to bring home
photographs/images of people from different ethnicities to class, and to talk about them. In addition, this
activity might give other learners the chance to see people that look different from themselves and their
family, actually engaging in similar household activities. Having individuals from diverse backgrounds
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invited as guest speakers to class or school assemblies, or those who have made a positive contribution in
a certain field, community building or societal development, can dispel preconceived notions that learners
have about the competence and value of people from different cultures.
Other out-of-class activities that promote multiculturalism may include:
• Organising cultural evenings/open days, where parents, learners and teachers bring traditional food
products/dishes from their country or region of origin for others to try, or come dressed in local dress
if possible;
• Sharing travel experiences of other countries, where learners returning from overseas or local trips, can
share some of their experiences. As an assessment activity, learners can be asked to design a poster,
show photographs, souvenirs, artefacts, and to write about their experiences
• Planning trips to museums, art galleries or exhibitions with artifacts or exhibits from other countries or
cultures, where learners can come into contact with the history, art, culture and social life of other
countries and culture, and through this, learn about the wide world of people.
19.3
The value of competence in intercultural communication
Competence in intercultural communication includes the specific skills and abilities in communicating
with people from different cultures gathered from interactions with ‘others’ (Foncha 2013). Myer-Scotton
(2006) suggests three factors that account for a need for intercultural communicative competence. These
include globalisation, continuous change, and technology. Since the world economy is gradually
becoming one, we are realising our interdependence. This calls for an expansion in networking in terms
of socio-political and technological connections between individuals, cultures and nations. In other
words, no one lives as an island and we have to depend on one another for our daily survival, as well as
for our future sustainability. In most classrooms, the ‘team’ comprises people who come from different
backgrounds who are obliged to live, interact and function together for the common goal of acquiring
knowledge. Our increasingly globalised world has resulted in the demand for a thorough understanding of
competence in intercultural communication, as well as skills in handling issues of multiculturalism, which
are at the forefront of team building (Matveev 2002). This is also reflected in most South African
universities and workplaces where academics and other skilled workers constitute increasingly culturally
diverse communities. This continuing change will further urge the need for cultural sensitivity and
intercultural communicative competence. Cultural sensitivity may be experienced in new communication
forms like in emails and the use of social media, where one might never meet the person one
communicates with on daily basis. In such communications, one might not be aware of the cultural norms
and values of the person one is communicating with. So cultural competence in a language rather than
simple proficiency, appears to be the most essential tool in any intercultural communication interaction.
In view of such changes, this chapter suggests that cultural imperialism (the creating and sustaining of
unequal power relations between a more powerful entity and a less powerful one, in favour of those with
more power) seems to be the mistake that most people make in thinking that everyone should think alike.
In this they lose the dimension of an understanding of cultural awareness and sensitivity (Foncha 2009).
This means the various norms of the different participants in the classroom trigger perceptions, influence
interactions and affect intercultural communicative competence negatively.
Hall (2000) argues that to gain a good understanding of intercultural communication, individuals need
to learn and develop certain abilities. These abilities may include knowledge of the target language, most
especially when it is not a shared code between the people interacting, to ascertain that communication is
not hampered. Even in the situation where it is a shared code, the individuals still need to take cognisance
of certain aspects of culture like perception, norms, rules, beliefs, superstition, and culture in general. In
addition, these role players may also require particular skills to be able to engage in encounters that they
are not familiar with. In view of this, negotiation of personal, social and national identities might need to
be compromised in order to tolerate the ‘other’. To this end, perseverance, tolerance and patience should
be at the fore each time we meet a diverse other in the classroom or at the workplace.
A number of models have been developed that determine what it means to be interculturally
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communicatively competent. These models require certain skills and abilities from individuals, which
include the following:
• The intercultural adjustment model of Cui and Awa (1992) is based on three behaviours: non-verbal
behaviour, verbal behaviour, and management behaviour. These behaviours require one to show
interest, friendliness, politeness, to make the other person feel comfortable, and to act naturally.
Behaviours identified as important to intercultural communicative competence towards others
include: ‘do as you would be done by’, show interest, honesty and politeness.
• The socio-cultural and ideological models of Coupland, Wieman and Giles (1991), and of Abe and
Wiseman (1983) require five sets of abilities which include: the ability to interact personally; the
ability to adjust to different cultures; the ability to adjust to different social systems; the ability to
establish interpersonal relations; and the ability to understand others. If a teacher has this set of
abilities, there is every possibility for such a teacher to be able to deal with diversity.
• Matveev’s (2002) intercultural communicative competence model conceptualises intercultural
competence as a multidimensional construct which includes culture-specific understanding of others,
culture-general understanding, and a positive regard for others.
• Foncha’s (2013) integrated intercultural communicative competence model which emphasises that to
cope with psychological stress in a foreign land, one needs to be able to deal with frustration,
interpersonal conflict, pressure to conform, financial difficulties, social alienation, different political
systems, different curriculum, and general uncertainty and anxiety.
In the modern world and this country in particular, you will know how important it is for teachers to try to
eliminate all elements and occurrences of racism, discrimination, stereotypes, prejudice and sexism
among learners who represent various diversities in their classrooms. As a means of instilling basic
human values in all human endeavours aimed at enhancing intercultural communicative competence,
greater focus should be directed to eradicating inappropriate and disrespectful forms of behaviour towards
all school attendees across the racial, cultural and social realm. This means that everyone has to learn to
treat one another with humanity, dignity and respect. The following activity gives you some practical
ideas and assistance towards this aim.
APPLYING IT TODAY
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Study the classroom strategies presented here to enhance intercultural communicative competence.
1. Pair with a colleague and suggest different ways that you can adjust or adapt each of the activities
below for your own classroom.
2. Identify other issues, currently relevant to the South African context, and to society at large. These
can be topical issues, events or anything currently in the news or under discussion at your
institution.
3. How can your training as a prospective teacher and your understanding and knowledge of
intercultural communicative competence help you to eradicate any racism and xenophobic violence
in your future classrooms?
Classroom strategies to enhance intercultural communication competence
The following four activities are designed to enhance intercultural communicative competence
between teachers and learners and amongst learners in class (Mpisi 2010; Alexander 2005; Moore
2005). The activities are practical, and can be tailored to suit specific classroom settings.
1 Supermarket stress. This classroom simulation is geared to teaching learners to empathise with and be
sensitive to fellow learners (perhaps those of another nationality or race), by demonstrating certain
language barriers. Learners should develop an awareness of their peers’ anxieties, frustrations,
difficulties, and feelings of helplessness when they themselves are exposed to scenarios which can
be regarded as the ‘everyday experiences’ of their peers. Learners bring food containers to class.
These should then be covered in coloured paper and labelled in a language that is foreign to them.
A list of supermarket items is provided to learners and each learner is asked to search for a specific
item on the list. During the activity, it will be observed that learners find it difficult to complete the
activity or are unsuccessful in locating the listed item. Towards the end of the session, the teacher
debriefs the class and learners are allowed to share their reflections and experiences about the
activity.
2 Gathering different worldviews and life experiences. The current and past conflicts in war-ridden
countries such as Syria, Rwanda, Sudan, Israel, Iraq and Ukraine; the world-wide association of
terrorist attacks with certain extremist groups and affiliations; and the increase in genocide, crimes
against humanity and various forms of social injustice, have altered peoples’ perceptions about
cultural diversity on a global scale. This role play activity has the power to create meaning and
understanding among learners of controversial global issues, displaced societies, and dysfunctional
social interactions, especially those with a racial, ethnic or ethical dimension to them. Teaching
controversial issues via a role play in a multicultural classroom has the benefit of providing
learners with an opportunity to form individual opinions about a certain political, social, economic,
ethical and moral issue. Role play also allows learners to act out certain roles and to become aware
of current debates that can help them to connect with real-life situations. This also helps to
‘unpack’ and interpret a range of confusing, frightening messages and media portrayals that they
might have observed, experienced or been exposed to inside and outside the classroom and the
school setting.
During these activities, the teacher should act as a facilitator. The teacher has to create an engaging but
‘safe’ classroom atmosphere for discussing sensitive and controversial issues. Learners should be
guided and conscientised about the issues and specific roles they will be performing. The teacher
should facilitate a debriefing session at the end of the role-play activity and should give equal
importance and ‘airtime’ to opposing or unpopular views and opinions. Further, the teacher must be
mindful that some debriefing discussions may have a negative effect on those affected by the issue
raised. It is also critical that the teacher guards against learners who are prone to promoting their own
views, especially those with racial undertones and stereotyping behaviour.
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3
4
Show and tell. Instilling a sense of cultural pride, self-respect and cross-cultural understanding
regardless of a learner’s ethnicity or cultural origin is promoted through the presentation of this
activity. Show and tell may help to dispel stereotypes about learners’ lived cultural traditions or
forms of expression that may seem weird and/or offensive to learners of another cultural or racial
orientation. Teachers can arrange the activity in which learners are requested to bring something
from their (or their parents/grandparents’) place of origin (a souvenir, costumes or traditional dress,
music, even a food sample), or perform a cultural or musical item in class. Then learners are given
an opportunity to reflect on how people of diverse backgrounds are at times marginalised, isolated
or differently by others, based on their place of origin, heritage, dress code and customs. The
objective of this activity is to get learners interested in other cultures in a way they perhaps have
not been before, and to teach them to accept and embrace the values, artefacts and conventions of
their classmates’ cultures.
Cultural awareness. Media fulfils a crucial role in educating individuals and creating awareness
among learners and teachers about issues around diversity. Presentations and motivational talks by
guest speakers and prominent or newsworthy people in the community may assist in expanding
learners’ formative school years, academic experiences and worldview perspectives – especially
those which relate diversity and intercultural communicative competence. Learners with
internalised life experiences and set worldview orientations broaden their understanding of other
cultural groupings and people of different nationalities once they are given opportunities to observe
and learn of the ‘other’ in authentic multicultural learning environments.
Conclusion
To understand competence in intercultural encounters, the context of the participants appears to be the
key. With all the advantages flowing from an understanding of intercultural communicative competence,
together with the ability to integrate intercultural communicative competence in one’s own practice, one
gains essential knowledge and skills in a multicultural and multilingual setting. In line with the ongoing
debate, these researchers believe that being able to gain competence in intercultural communication is
critical when one finds oneself in a culturally and linguistically diverse group such as the classroom or the
school of today. The importance of understanding communication differences extends beyond the simple
desire for a healthy pedagogical relationship because all relationships are built through effective
communication and continuous negotiation and renegotiation of identities between the people involved.
Ultimately, learning and being able to function in a group situation like a classroom means being
tolerant of a diverse other. Every teacher and learner needs to search for possible ways to improve
communication. The integrated intercultural communicative competence model appears to be an ideal
way of handling diversity and multiculturalism. Training programmes in schools might be required to
make use of this model since communication is the key to the success of any organisation to avoid
miscommunication and misunderstanding. Therefore, classrooms and schools should be bringing together
a range of interactive approaches to facilitate better interactions among teachers and learners. These
approaches should be applied to specific intercultural contexts by all educators so as to enable their
learners to understand specific intercultural situations, to recognise cultural and communicative
differences of others, and to utilise these differences to both their professional and personal advantage.
Activities
Self-reflection
1. What to you is the importance of a good understanding of cultural relativity?
2. How do you understand ‘otherness’?
3. Would you agree with the view that stereotypes and prejudice turn humans into caricatures of
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themselves? Explain your response.
Analysis and consolidation
4. Conduct a survey amongst students (other than those from the education faculty) at your institution.
Show each respondent cards, with each of the following terms on a single card: personal values,
stereotype, prejudice, ethnocentrism, xenophobia, cultural relativism, culture shock. Record all
responses. In your analysis of the responses, organise your findings according to any model or
framework you have read about in this chapter. Write up your findings as an article for your
institution’s student newspaper under the title: ‘Intercultural communication: what students really
make of it’ (or any other engaging and provocative title you come up with).
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20
The theory and practice of vocational teaching
Andre van der Bijl and Mark Lawrence
Copyright 2016. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
• Differentiate between vocational and academic education.
• Trace the origins of vocational education in South Africa through its development in the twentieth
century, and into the twenty-first century.
• Understand the underlying nature of vocational pedagogy.
• Identify various forms of vocational curricula in South Africa.
• Identify common methods and media used in vocational education.
• Identify key elements of assessment processes in South African vocational education.
• Recognise the nature and forms of work-integrated learning (WIL).
Key concepts
Vocational education: a form of education and training that typically and directly prepares students for
the world of work
Academic education: a form of education that more generally prepares students for a range of career
options
CASE STUDY: A DIFFERENT TYPE OF TEACHING?
John and Cynthia both work as lecturers at a TVET college. Cynthia worked as a mathematics teacher
for almost 20 years at a high school and John spent a similar amount of time working as plumber. John
took up his post at the college after a back injury made it difficult for him to do the physical work
required of a plumber. Cynthia joined the college after she got tired of doing extra-mural activities at
the school where she worked. They both teach subjects on the NATED N1 to N3 plumbing programme
at the college, Cynthia teaches maths and John teaches a range of subjects related to the theory and
practice of plumbing. They have become good friends and often share their classroom issues with each
other.
Cynthia seems to have had a challenging morning. “If they would only do the exercises I give them,
they would do so much better in maths”, starts Cynthia, over a cup of tea in the staffroom. But then she
changes the conversation’s direction: “You are so lucky that you just have to show them what to do.”
“Plumbing is not only doing,” responds John, “it requires careful planning and, often, the application
of complex mathematics.” He shows Cynthia an exercise he did with his class, which involved the
plumbing layout for a small house. Students were required to calculate water pressure and relate their
answers to pipe size. They had to calculate heat and pressure, and then relate answers to pipe
composition. Then they needed to calculate the lengths of each type of pipe required, which involved
the synthesis of their knowledge of water pressure, the effects of heat on the types of pipe available,
and the application of knowledge about complex angles. Finally, students had to produce a cost list of
what was required and an engineering drawing of their plan.
“Maybe I should change my curriculum,” Cynthia mumbles quietly.
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STOP AND REFLECT
What does this case tell you about the similarities and differences between the two lecturers’ content
knowledge and their pedagogic knowledge?
Introduction
In 2013 the Minister of Higher Education and Training promulgated a policy framework for
qualifications for lecturers at technical and vocational education and training (TVET) colleges (South
Africa 2013). The aim of the policy framework is to develop a series of qualifications for TVET college
lecturers within the higher education qualifications sub-framework of the national qualifications
framework. This is intended to replace all existing professional qualifications approved for employment
in TVET colleges with professional teacher qualifications specifically designed for those employed at
colleges.
vocational education: an enlightening experience that is ‘directed at a particular occupation or its
skills’ (OCED 2009: 369, 1315).
The promulgated policy framework has a number of implications for qualified school teachers and
teacher education in South Africa. The policy framework allies the country’s teacher education
framework to the notion that academic and vocational education are different, and that school teachers
and vocational education and training lecturers need to be trained and certified differently. The
implications for teacher education in the country is that the existing practice of preparing and certifying
subject specialists for the further education and training (FET) band will be replaced by a dual one. In the
dual system, potential teachers who wish to pursue a career in schools are prepared differently, and
receive different qualifications, from those who wish to pursue careers in vocational education.
The separation between qualifications for school teachers and for college lecturers is a relatively recent
phenomenon. However, the movement of vocational education between departments is not new. Since
1994, vocational education has been moved twice: from the Department of National Education to
provincial education departments in 1997, and then to the Department of Higher Education and Training
in 2010. Prior to 1994, vocational education moved between departments on numerous occasions, ranging
from being part of higher education, to a function on its own (Van der Bijl 2015: 3), perhaps suggesting
some of the difficulty around defining the nature of vocational education. Vocational education staff have
ranged between unqualified artisans to qualified school teachers. If the trend continues, vocational
education is likely to move from its current status of being somewhat separate from, to being more
closely associated with mainstream education. As a result, people currently developing themselves for a
career in mainstream academic education may find themselves moving to public or private vocational
education as they progress through their careers. You will have noticed from the case study that one
lecturer was a mathematics teacher while the other was a practitioner. Both had to adjust their content
knowledge to a particular new pedagogic environment. Both lecturers could possibly benefit from doing a
TVET qualification.
academic education: an enlightening experience that is ‘scholarly, rather than technical or practical’
(OCED 2009: 369, 5).
This chapter provides a brief introduction to the nature and practice of teaching within TVET.
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STOP AND REFLECT
As a teacher, you will be qualified to teach a particular subject, or a few related subjects, that prepare
learners for post-school education. Reflect on the nature of your area of specialisation and identify what
the employment value your field of speciality is.
20.1
Vocational vs academic education
The distinction is not clear between academic and vocational education when focusing on the type of
institution alone. Theory is not exclusive to academic education, and vocational education is not limited
to learning how to do things. The Joint Education Trust (JET) (JET Education Services 2010: 3) used the
term ‘soft’ boundaries to describe the difference between private and public higher education. The term
accurately describes the differences and similarities between schools, colleges and universities. All offer
subjects that have a theoretical nature and subjects that require workshops and laboratories. All, in some
or other way, prepare learners and students for the world of work.
Many of the distinctions between vocational and academic education that are now generally accepted
evolved during the twentieth century. Like academic education, vocational education can be traced to the
developing needs of capitalist economies. Unlike academic education, which has its origins in
middle-class schooling, based largely on ‘great works’ (Jacobs in Jacobs, Vakalisa & Gawe 2011: 35),
vocational education in South Africa has its origins in training and after-hours work-related schooling.
“Vocational education in South Africa dates back to the 1880s to what was then known as the province of
Natal, and to the 1890s in the Cape Colony and the Republics later integrated into the Union of South
Africa in 1910” (Pittendrigh 1988: 108–109).
The difference between vocational and mainstream academic education is not a simple one which can
be summarised by differentiating between subjects. Both vocational and mainstream academic
educational institutions include vocational and academic subjects within their programmes. The
difference between vocational and academic education is best described as a difference in philosophy and
the type of institution that tends to offer it. Probably the most important of the distinctions is the
difference in the way the two forms of education are perceived. Mainstream academic education is
commonly perceived as an end in itself, or as a route into higher education. Vocational education, in
contrast, is perceived to be linked to the development of employable skills.
20.1.1 Philosophy and origins of vocational education in South Africa
In a chapter on the nature of curriculum, Jacobs (in Jacobs et al. 2011: 34–43) differentiates between five
theoretical philosophies; one of these is liberal philosophy and another is experiential philosophy. At a
broad philosophical level, it could be argued that vocational education differs from academic education in
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that academic education has its origins in liberal philosophy, while vocational education has its origins in
experientialism. While the argument may be sound in identifying the philosophical origins of the two
forms of education, both have relied heavily on behavioural and constructivist approaches in curriculum
design during the twentieth century.
Liberal philosophy is an educational philosophy associated with studying great ideals and issues of life.
Mainstream academic subjects owe much of their existence to liberal philosophy: think of the
theoretical study of literature, history, psychology, economics.
Experiential philosophy is an educational philosophy associated with the idea that learning occurs
through real-life personal experiences: in this case, practical involvement is necessary for skills
development.
Vocational subjects and programmes, even in the early days, were not limited to ones aimed at skills, as
subjects included mathematics and programmes included pharmacy and bookkeeping (Pittendrigh 1988:
110–111). Similarly, mainstream academic schools offer a range of vocational subjects ranging from
practical subjects such as mechanical technology to more theoretical vocational subjects like tourism.
20.1.2 Type of institution
The distinction between vocational and academic education evolved during the latter half of the last
century. The first organised institutions offering vocational education and training were established as
schools for the mines and railways (Pittendrigh 1988: 108–109). A number of dedicated institutes and
colleges were established in the first two decades of the twentieth century: classes were offered by
schools and institutions such as the South African College, later to be renamed the University of Cape
Town. In 1925 (Pittendrigh 1988: 119), the state classified the forms of vocational education offered in
the country as follows:
• Technological faculties of universities
• Technical colleges
• Technical institutes
• Departmental trade and industries schools
• Children’s Act schools
• Trade and industrial schools.
This classification system, with some name and other subtle changes, remains essentially applicable
today.
Vocational education at universities
Most universities, then as now, have faculties that prepare graduates for professional certification.
Universities commonly prepare students for certification as engineers, architects, accountants or doctors.
University graduates often find employment in non-certified management forms of work. Academic
universities therefore offer a range of both academic and vocational education.
Technical colleges and technical institutes
Technical colleges and technical institutes, some of which evolved from universities, however, developed
into dominant providers of vocational education. Within South Africa, colleges and institutes tend to offer
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similar programmes, but colleges are state-owned, whereas institutes are state-aided (HSRC 1981: 18) or
privately owned. Technical college and institute graduates are typically prepared for forms of work under
the management or supervision of university graduates.
Both technical colleges and technical institutes initially provided school-level qualifications. During
the last quarter of the twentieth century both moved into higher education. During the 1980s, business
institutes such as the Institute of Administration and Commerce, founded in 1927, the Institute of
Marketing Management (IMM) and others, became widely recognised and often the preferred
certification bodies for private colleges.
Technical colleges, following a pattern similar to institutes, evolved into higher education institutions:
first, when technical colleges were given the option to reconstruct themselves into colleges of advanced
technical education (CATE) from 1967 (Pittendrigh 1988: 167–169), to technikons in 1979; and later, to
universities of technology in 2004. The same year that technikons were introduced, 1981, the Technical
Colleges Act increased administrative autonomy to technical colleges that had not been upgraded to
CATE status (Anon n.d.), paving the way for its growth as a separate sector of education and training. In
2007, technical colleges were merged and renamed as further education and training (FET) colleges, a
name change that coincided with the development of a new national curriculum and the merging of more
than 150 colleges into a little over 50 multi-campus institutions. In 2015, FET colleges were renamed
technical and vocation education and training (TVET) colleges.
technical education: an enlightening experience that is ‘relating to a particular subject, art or craft, or
its techniques’ (OCED 2009: 369, 1203).
STOP AND REFLECT
Identify the difference between a school, a TVET college, a university of technology, and an academic
university.
Vocational education for the poor and indigent
While forms of vocational education offered by the first three types of institutions included in the 1925
classification promoted the value and status of vocational education, the existence of the last three types
hampered it. In South Africa, as in many other countries, schools associated with vocational education are
“historically linked to education for the poor, or indigent, and ‘less able’” (Gamble 2003: 9). Such
schools were established in the 1890s to provide schooling in trade work for poor white boys and to
prepare girls for domestic work. Such schools were the place to which “indigent and delinquent coloured
boys” (Gamble 2003: 10) were sent. As colonial and apartheid education evolved during the twentieth
century, vocational schools served as convenient ‘dumping’ sites for young people that society (teachers,
parents, law enforcement agencies, etc.) found difficult to control.
Vocational education for the disabled
In the early 1970s, the state established vocational schooling as a route for those with learning
disabilities. The state limited the extent to which mainstream schools could offer vocational subjects. The
state introduced vocational schooling as an option for those with learning disabilities by creating a stream
of special education for what at the time were called “ dom normale leerlinge (stupid but normal
learners)” (Haasbroek & Venter 1971: 15–18). For youth who struggled to succeed at academic schools,
special schools were established. These schools were later renamed ELSEN schools and schools of skill.
Access to schooling that offered the acquisition of employable skills was restricted by colonial and
apartheid polices until the early 1980s.
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ELSEN: an acronym for schools that provide education for learners with special educational needs.
A question of ethics
Sizeka: How do you think colonial and apartheid policies restricted people from gaining employable
skills?
Popi: Well, access to work, education and training was determined by race. Africans were excluded
from most skilled jobs and also the kind of education that would prepare them for such jobs.
Sizeka: How did this change?
Popi: Many things – local strikes, student uprisings and community actions, as well as international
trade sanctions and cultural boycotts – all forced the state to change its policies, culminating in
the 1994 democratic general elections.
Sizeka: Yes, but do you think people’s attitudes about vocational education have changed at all?
How would you respond to Sizeka’s last question?
Vocational education and apartheid policies
One of the elements of the removal of systematic labour discrimination involved the potential expansion
or extension of what at the time was called ‘career education’ (HSRC 1981) to Africans. The extension
did not happen initially, as Hartshorne (1985: 150) has noted, because there were “serious reservations in
black communities about the [apartheid state’s] intentions.”
The image and perceived value of vocational education has been spoiled from its earliest days by
being regarded as a subordinate form of education compared to academic education. Vocational
education, through vocational schooling, was first regarded as a learning route for rural ‘poor whites’ and,
later, as a route for learners with disabilities and still later as a solution to apartheid’s black labour
problem. Since the 1970s, vocational schooling developed as a route for socially, economically and
medically disabled learners and a tool of apartheid construction.
Post-apartheid intentions for vocational education
Over the past decade, both internationally and in South Africa, vocational education is perceived to be a
solution to the growing skills shortage and a post-school option for youth who do not go to university.
The White Paper on post-school education and training (South Africa 2014: xii) notes that: “The DHET’s
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highest priority is to strengthen and expand public TVET colleges and turn them into attractive
institutions of choice for school leavers.” A decade earlier, the Minister of Education at the time, Naledi
Pandor, described the state’s attitude towards vocational education as follows: “There will be a massive
campaign to reform further education and training programmes to reinforce the institutional reform
project started in our public further education and training colleges […] The recapitalisation of FET
colleges remains a priority to ensure the best articulation of our national skills strategy with the
programmes provided by colleges” (Pandor in Bialobrzeska & Allais 2005: 10). The 2013 White Paper
for post-school education and training noted that the “DHET’s highest priority is to strengthen and
expand the public TVET colleges and turn them into attractive institutions of choice for school leavers”
(South Africa 2013b: xii).
recapitalisation: a type of institutional reorganisation involving substantial change in the way the
institution is set up to finance and run itself – its capital structure
Vocational education is therefore a term currently used to describe education aimed at the world of
work. Vocational education has had a number of different names, including industrial education,
technical education, career education and further education and training. As noted earlier in the chapter,
vocational education has a different point of origin to academic education. Vocational education has
evolved differently as has its characteristic pedagogy, methods and forms of assessment.
industrial education: an enlightening experience that is ‘used in or characterised by an industry’
(OCED: 369, 5)
APPLYING IT TODAY
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Read the article and respond to the questions that follow:
WHY SHOULD WE CARE ABOUT VOCATIONAL
EDUCATION?
by Mark Phillips
29 May 2012
We live in a society that places a high value on the professions and white-collar jobs, and that still
considers blue-collar work lower status. It’s no surprise that parents want their children to pursue
careers that will maintain or increase their status. This is even more evident in high socio-economic
communities. And for most teachers, if the student is academically successful, this [blue-collar
work] will be seen as a ‘waste of talent’.
The same dilemma often exists for students who are working to overcome the achievement gap.
Most schools that are effectively helping kids to overcome this gap and achieve academically also
place a premium on college admissions, often the mark of success for these schools. And kids who
are the first in their families to graduate [from] high school appear foolish to ‘throw this all away’
by choosing some alternative to college and a blue-collar career.
This bias against vocational education is dysfunctional. First, it is destructive to our children.
They should have the opportunity to be trained in whatever skills their natural gifts and preferences
lead them to, rather than more or less condemning them to jobs they’ll find meaningless. If a young
person has an affinity for hair design or one of the trades, to keep him or her from developing the
skills to pursue this calling is destructive.
Second, it is destructive to our society. Many of the skills most needed to compete in the global
market of the 21st century are technical skills that fall into the technical/vocational area. The
absence of excellence in many technical and vocational fields is also costing us economically as a
nation.
In the early sixties, John Gardner, in his classic book Excellence, talked about the importance of
vocational education and of developing excellence across all occupations for the social and
economic health of our society. Unfortunately, we’ve made little progress in the intervening years.
Students who don’t excel in traditional academic areas, or who have little interest in them, should
not meet with disappointment or disapproval from parents and teachers. As another Gardner,
Howard Gardner, has repeatedly pointed out, there are varied types of intelligence, and they are of
equal value. As one example, bodily-kinesthetic and spatial intelligence are frequently high in those
who are successful in varied technical trades. And there is absolutely no contradiction between
recognizing and developing these intelligences and developing basic verbal and mathematical
literacy for all students.
(Source:Excerpted from: http://www.edutopia.org/blog/vocational-education-benefits-mark