Capitulum I - Imperium Romanum Nouns ! Latin nouns will decline (change their endings) to indicate their grammatical function in the sentence. They decline through 6 cases, as follows: Nominative! Genitive! ! Dative! ! Accusative! ! Ablative! ! Vocative! ! Subject or predicate Possession, characteristic Indirect object Direct object Object of a preposition (and multiple other uses) Direct address ! In addition nouns have a specific gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter) and number (singular or plural). All nouns will thus show number, case, and gender. ! The forms of the case endings vary between nouns and are called Declensions. There are 5 such patterns. Chapter One introduces the first two declensions, with the following endings in the Nominative and Ablative Cases: ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 1st Declension! ! ! Second Declension ! Singular! Plural! ! ! Singular! Plural ! ! Nom:! ! -a! -ae! ! ! -us! ! -um! ! -ī! -a! ! Abl.! ! -ō ! -ā! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (Masculine) (Neuter) Adjectives: ! Adjectives agree with the nouns they modify in number, case, and gender. Adjectives show three declensions patterns: 1st and 2nd Declension and 3rd Declension. The adjectives in Chapter One are 1st and 2nd Declension showing the same cases endings as 1st and 2nd Declension nouns. We will not meet 3rd Declension adjectives until later in the book. Verbs ! Latin verbs will show number (singular and plural) and person. The nouns in Chapter One are all 3rd person (he, she it; they). ! ! ! est = is! ! sunt = are Prepositions ! Latin prepositions are used as in English. The object of a preposition will be either in the accusative or ablative case. The preposition introduced in Chapter One (in) governs the ablative case. Numbers ! Cardinal numbers (one, two, three, etc.) and Ordinal numbers (first, second, third, etc.) are introduced in Chapter One. The cardinal and ordinal numbers are adjectives and have the following forms: ! ! ! Cardinal! ! % % % % ūnus, -a, -um% duo, duae, duo% trēs, trēs, tria% sex%% % mīlle! ! ! ! ! one% % % two! % % three! % % six! ! one thousand ! Ordinal prīmus, -a -um% secundus, -a, -um% tertius, -a, -um% first second third Vocabulary ! num? = asks a question (to which a negative answer is expected) % -ne = asks a question ! quoque, also ! Capitulum II - Familia Romana Gender of Nouns ! Latin nouns have gender, either masculine, feminine, or neuter. The gender may be natural or grammatical. The noun puer (boy) is masculine, puella (girl) is feminine, oppidum (town) is neuter. ! The nouns of the first declension are mostly feminine, but some masculine nouns are found (mostly of natural gender such as pirata, poeta, agricola and others). ! The nouns of the second declension ending in -us in the nominative singular are mostly masculine, but some feminine and neuter nouns are found. The nouns of the second declension ending in -um in the nominative singular are neuter. ! Nouns (with rare exception) do not have more than one gender. That is, puer is always masculine, puella is always feminine, and oppidum is always neuter. The Genitive Case ! The genitive case is used to express a very close relationship between two nouns. In English this is usually accomplished by the preposition of. The relationship expressed, however, may have different meanings. Often, it is simply one of possession: This is the house of John. Sometimes, the relationship is one of characteristic: She is a woman of virtue. Sometimes the relationship is objective (i.e., expresses an understood direct object): The Gaulsʻ fear of the Romans cost them the battle. ! Because these relationships are identical to the English use of the genitive with of, there should be little difficulty in understanding the genitive case in Latin. The endings of the genitive case the 1st and 2nd Declension nouns are as follow: ! ! ! 1st Declension! ! ! ! ! ! Gen:! ! ! ! Second Declension Singular! Plural! ! ! Singular! Plural -ae! ! -ārum!! -ī! ! -ōrum ! Possessive Adjectives ! This chapter introduces the possessive adjectives of the first and second person (my, your): meus, -a, -um and tuus, -a, -um. As adjectives, they will agree in number, case and gender with the noun they modify: servus meus (my slave), ancilla tua (your maidservant), meum oppidum (my town). They decline on the 1st and 2nd second pattern. Interrogative Adjective/Pronoun ! The interrogative adjective/pronoun (who? or what?) have a full declension in Latin, differing somewhat from the 1st and 2nd declension pattern. The nominative and genitive are introduced in this chapter: ! ! ! ! ! ! Singular! ! Nom. quis, quae% % Gen:! ! cuius% % ! Plural quī, quae quōrum, quārum, quōrum These interrogatives operate as they do in English: Quis est Mārcus? Who is Marcus? Quae est mater Mārcī? Who is the mother of Marcus? Cuius servus est Dāvus? Whose slave is Davus? Vocabulary ! vir m man ! quot? how many? ! liberī m pl children ! -que, = and (before the word it is attached to) ! ! Capitulum III - Puer Improbus Personal Endings of Verbs ! Verbs show number (singular or plural) and person (1st person, 2nd person, 3rd person). The English equivalents are: ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 1st Person! 2nd Person! 3rd Person! ! ! ! ! Singular! ! ! Plural I! ! you! ! he, she it! ! ! ! ! ! ! we you they ! Chapters I & II introduced the verb “to be” in its 3rd person forms: est, sunt. This chapter introduces new verbs, also in the 3rd person. The person and number of Latin verbs are revealed by their endings. Verbs in the 3rd person singular end in -t. Verbs in the 3rd person plural end in -nt. Because the endings show person and number, the personal pronouns (I, you, etc.) are not required to show the subject (the nominative) of the verb in Latin and are used mainly for emphasis. The Accusative Case ! The accusative case is used for the direct object of nouns. The accusative case indicates that which is most directly affected by the action of the verb. The accusative singular for masculine and feminine nouns ends in -m in all declensions. The endings of the accusative case the 1st and 2nd Declension nouns are as follow: ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Acc:! 1st Declension! ! ! 2nd Declension ! Singular! Singular! ! ! -am! ! ! ! -um! ! Thus: ! Mārcus puellam pulsat " Aemilia puerum verberat. " Personal Pronouns ! The personal pronouns in English are I, you, he, she, it; we, you (pl), they. In Latin they are not often used in the nominative case, but are common in the other cases. This chapter introduces the personal pronouns in the singular accusative case for the 1st, 2nd and 3rd persons: ! " ! ! " ! 1st person! mē (me, all genders) 2nd person! tē (you, all genders) 3rd person! eum (him)" eam (her) Thus: ! Quis mē vocat? ! Iūlia tē vocat. ! Mārcus eam pulsat. " Iūlius eum audit. Relative Pronouns ! Relative pronouns (who, which) create subordinate clauses. In English, the forms are: ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Nom.! Gen.! Dat.! Acc.! Abl.! who! ! ! whose!/ of whom! to whom! ! whom!! ! with whom! ! which of which to which which with whom A subordinate clause attaches to the main clause and is often, but not always, found in the middle of it: ! ! The farmer, who was a hard worker, lived a long and fulfilling life. That woman whom you saw last night was my wife! The relative pronoun in Latin will show number, case, and gender. The relative pronoun will agree with its antecedent (i.e., the word it relates back to in the main clause) in number and gender; but the case is governed by the usage of the personal pronoun within the subordinate clause. ! In this chapter are introduced the relative pronoun in the nominative and accusative singular, masculine and feminine. ! ! ! Masculine! ! ! Feminine ! ! ! Singular! ! ! Singular! ! ! ! ! quī"" quem! " ! " ! quae quam! Nom.! Acc:! ! Thus: ! Puer quī rīdet est Mārcus. " Puella quae plōrat est Iūlia. " Puella quam Mārcus pulsat est Iūlia. " Iūlius, quem Quīntus vocat, pater līberōrum est. " The Vocative Case ! The vocative case is used for direct address: “Son, come here!”. In Latin the vocative case endings are identical to the nominative, with the exception of second declension nouns ending in -us, which show -e (as in Et tu, Brute?). ! ! Capitulum IV - Dominus et Servi The Vocative Case ! This chapters reinforces the vocative case. Recall that the vocative case is used for direct address: “Son, come here!”. In Latin the vocative case endings are identical to the nominative, with the exception of second declension nouns ending in -us, which show -e (as in Et tu, Brute?). Characteristic Vowel of Verb ! You may have noticed that the vowel which precedes the personal ending of verbs varies from verb to verb (e.g., plōrat, videt, sūmit, venit). Latin verbs are divided into four Conjugations depending upon their characteristic vowel: ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 1st conjugation:! 2nd conjugation:! 3rd conjugation:! 4th conjugation:! -a-ē-i- and -e-ī- Imperative Mood of Verbs ! In addition to number and person, verbs also show mood. Latin verbs have three moods: indicative (used to make statements and ask questions); imperative (used to issue commands); and subjunctive (used principally in subordinate constructions). This chapter introduces the imperative mood. The imperative mood is often conjoined with a noun in the vocative case. ! The imperative mood has both a singular form (when addressing one person) and a plural form (when addressing more than one person). The singular imperative of a Latin verb ends with the characteristic vowel of the verb: ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 1st conjugation:! 2nd conjugation:! 3rd conjugation:! 4th conjugation:! ! ! ! ! vocā! ! tacē! ! discēde!! audī! ! call! be silent! leave! listen! Possessive Adjectives and Possessive Pronoun ! The possessive adjectives for the 1st and 2nd person were introduced in Chapter II (meus, -a, -um; tuus, -a, -um). For the third person, Latin has two ways to express the English possessives “his, her, its, their”. Which is used depends on whether the possessor is the subject (i.e., nominative) of the sentence or clause. ! If the possessor is not the subject of the sentence or clause, the genitive singular of the personal pronoun (eius - used for all genders) is used: In sacculō eius est pecūnia. The subject of the sentence (pecūnia) is obviously not the possessor of the money bag. ! ! If the possessor is the subject of the sentence of clause, Latin uses the reflexive possessive adjective suus, sua, suum (which like meus and tuus declines on a 1st and 2nd declension pattern): Iūlius servum suum Mēdum videt. The subject of the sentence is the possessor of the slave Medus. ! Note that the use of these two forms allows Latin to be more precise than English: ! ! ! ! Iūlius filium suum videt. & Iūlius filium eius videt.& Julius sees his son (i.e., his own son). Julius sees his son (i.e., someone elseʻs son). Numbers ! Cardinal numbers (one, two, three, etc.), introduced in Chapter One, are expanded in this chapter: ! ! ! Cardinal! ! & & ! & & ūnus, -a, -um& & duo, duae, duo&& trēs, trēs, tria& & ! ! ! one& & two! & three & ! & ! Only the cardinal numbers unus, duo and trēs have declined forms. The remainder are indeclinable. ! ! ! & ! ! ! & ! ! ! ! & ! ! ! quattuor& quīnque& sex&& septem& octō& novem& decem& & & & & & & & four five six seven eight nine ten& & Capitulum V - Villa et Hortus Accusative Plural of 1st and 2nd Declension Nouns ! The singular accusative of 1st and 2nd declension nouns was introduced earlier. This chapter introduces the plural: ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! # ! # # Thus: ! Villa multās fenestrās habet. # Pater et mater liberōs suōs amant. # Vīlla multa cubicula habet. ! ! ! ! 1st Declension! ! Acc: ! ! 2nd Declension ! Plural! Plural! ! ! ! -ās! ! ! ! ! ! Masculine! Neuter ! -ōs# -a! ! # Note that the nominative and accusative of neuter nouns are always alike, and in the plural they end in -a. Ablative Plural of 1st and 2nd Declension Nouns ! The singular ablative of 1st and 2nd declension nouns was introduced in the first chapter, as objects of prepositions. This chapter introduces the plural, also as objects of preposition: ! ! ! 1st Declension! ! ! 2nd Declension ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Abl: Plural! ! ! ! -īs! ! ! ! ! ! Plural! ! Masculine! Neuter ! -īs# -īs! ! # Thus: ! ! Aemilia in vīllā habitat cum līberīs, servīs, et ancillīs. # Third Person Plural of Verbs ! We have earlier seen the third person singular of verbs ending in -t. In this chapter we see the third person plural, ending in -nt. ! ! Note also the vowels for the four conjugations: ! habitant# rīdent# # discēdunt# dormiunt The Third Person Personal Pronoun (is, ea, id) ! The third person personal pronoun (he, she, it; they; that, those) is generally not required in the nominative, since the verb endings show person. It is seen on occasion, though, frequently for emphasis or clarity. It is used very often in the oblique cases (i.e., the cases other than nominative). The accusatives (eum, eam) have been introduced earlier, as well as the genitive singular used as a possessive (eius). The genitive plural and ablative are introduced in this chapter. ! Here are the full forms of the third person pronoun: ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Masculine ! Feminine! Singular! is# eius# eī# eum# eō# Nom. ! ! Gen.! Dat. ! Acc. ! Abl.! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Plural Neuter !! ! Masculine ! Feminine! Neuter id# # eius## eī# # id# # eō# # # # # # # iī# # eōrum# iīs# # eōs## iīs# # eae# # eārum# iīs# # eās# # iīs# # ea eōrum iīs ea iīs ea# # eius## eī# # eam# # eā# # N.B. Unlike English, in Latin the personal pronouns are interchangeable with the demonstrative pronouns. is, ea, id means both “he, she, it, they” and “this, that, those”. Prepositions with the Ablative ! Prepositions in Latin will take their object either in the ablative or accusative case (a very few prepositions will take objects in both cases). This chapter introduces four common preposition which govern the ablative case: ! # ! # ! # cum, with!! sine, without! ! ! ! ! ā or ab, from; by ē or ex, out of Imperative Mood - Plural ! We met the singular imperative in this last chapter. In this chapter we see the plural forms. Here is the complete paradigm: ! ! ! Singular ! -a# # Plural# # -āte# ! # Thus:! # # ! 1st Conj.!! 2nd Conj.! ! 3rd Conj.! ! 4th Conj. # -ē# # # -e# # # -ī # -ēte# # # -ite# # # -īte vocā# # vocāte# # tacē# # tacēte# # # # sume## sumite## # # venī venīte 1st and 2nd Declension Adjectives Ending in -er ! Certain adjectives of the first and second declension end in -er in the masculine nominative ending. Some will drop the -e-, other will retain it. In this chapter we have the adjective pulcher, which drops the -e-. Here is the full declension: ! ! ! Masc.! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Fem.! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Singular Abl.# # # # # pulcher# # pulchrī# # pulchrō# # pulchrum# # pulchrō# # # # # # # pulchra# pulchrae# pulchrae# pulchram# pulchrā# # # # # # Plural pulchrī# # pulchrōrum# pulchrīs# # pulchrōs# # pulchrīs# # # # # # # pulchrae# pulchrārum# pulchrīs# pulchrās# pulchrīs# Nom. ! ! Gen.# Dat. # Acc. # # Nom. # # Gen.# Dat. # Acc. # Abl.# # # # # ! Neuter # # # # # pulchrum pulchrī pulchrō pulchrum pulchrō # # # # # pulchra pulchrōrum pulchrīs pulchra pulchrīs Note that when the -e- drops, it appears only in the masculine singular nominative form. Capitulum VI - Via Latina The Passive Voice ! Latin verbs have two voices: active and passive. The use of voice in Latin is identical to English. ! The Active Voice is used to indicate that the subject of the sentence is doing something (or simply is something): ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Marcus puellam pulsat. Marcus hits the girl. Marcus improbus est. Marcus is bad. ! The Passive Voice is used to indicate that someone or something is doing something to the subject of the sentence: ! ! ! Puella pulsātur ā Marcō. The girl is hit by Marcus. # This chapter introduces the passive voice, but only in the 3rd Person. Here are the personal endings: ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! # Thus:! ! # # # ! ! Singular! -tur# # portātur# portantur# ! Plural # -ntur timētur# timentur# vehitur## vehuntur# audītur audiuntur Ablative of Personal Agent ! The ablative is used with the preposition ā or ab to express the agent in a passive construction (i.e., the person doing the action of the verb). ! # # ! # # ! # # Iūlius ab Ursō et Dāvō portātur. Julius is carried by Ursus and Davus. Saccī ā Syrō et Lēandrō portantur. The sacks are carried by Syrus and Leander. Verba Mēdī ā Lydiā audiuntur. The words of Medus are heard by Lydia. Ablative of Means (Instrument) ! The ablative is used the express the means or instrument by which the action of the verb is effected. The ablative of means can appear in both active and passive sentences. ! # ! # ! # Dominus servōs malōs bacculō verberat. The master beats the slaves with a staff. Lydia verbīs Mēdī dēlectātur. Lydia is pleased by the words of Medus. # Although the ablative of means is translated with a preposition in English (by or with), in Latin it is formed by the ablative alone and never with a preposition. Ablative of Place from Which ! The ablative is used from express motion from. ! ! Venit ab oppidō. He comes from town. ! If a city, town, or small island is named, the ablative by itself (with no preposition) is used. ! ! Tūsculō venit. He comes from Tusculum. # Accusative of Place to Which ! The accusative is used to express motion towards. ! ! Ad oppidum it. He goes to the town. ! If a city, town, or small island is named, the accusative by itself (with no preposition) is used. ! ! Rōmam it. He is going to Rome.! Ablative of Route ! The ablative is used to express the route by which one travels. It is never accompanied by a preposition in Latin. The English use of “via” or “by way of” echoes Latinʻs usage of the ablative of route: “I went via (by way of) New York”. ! ! Mēdus viā Latīnā Tusculō Rōmam ambulat. Medus walks from Tusculum to Rome by way of the Latin Road. ! ! Is quī viā Latīnā venit per portam Capēnam Rōmam intrat. He who comes by way of the the Latin Road enters Rome through the Capena Gate. The Locative Case ! The locative case (expressing location) is restricted to cities, towns, and small islands, and four other words. It is normally the same form as the genitive singular (or, if the noun is plural, the dative plural). ! ! Mēdus Tūsculī nōn est; neque Rōmae est Mēdus. Medus is not in Tusculum; nor is he in Rome.! ! Quō, Unde, Ubī ! English uses “where” to express three distinct concepts: motion toward, motion from, and location. Latin has separate words for these: ! ! quō = where to?! ! Quō it Mēdus? Where is Medus going? ! ! unde = from where! ! Unde venit Mēdus? Where is Medus coming from? ! ! ubī = where (location)! Ubī habitat Mēdus? Where does Medus live? Prepositions with the Accusative ! Prepositions in Latin will take their object either in the ablative or accusative case (a very few prepositions will take objects in both cases). This chapter introduces eight common preposition which govern the accusative case: ! ! ! ! # ! # ! # ! # ! # ! # ad, to, towards! ! ! ! ante, before, in front of! ! ! post, behind, after! ! ! inter, between, among during! ! Vocabulary ! ! ! ! tam . . . quam, as . . . as it, (he, she, it) goes eunt, (they) go quam, how prope, near, close to circum, around apud, at, near, by, with, in the presence of per, through; during; by Capitulum VII - Via Latina The Dative Case ! The Dative Case is used to express what is only indirectly affected by the action of the verb. It is the case for the indirect object and is translated in English with the prepositions “to” or “for”. ! ! The dative for First Declension nouns are as follows: ! ! ! Singular! ! Plural ! ! ! -ae! ! ! -īs The dative for Second Declension nouns are as follows: ! ! ! Singular! ! Plural ! ! ! -ō! ! -īs ! ! The Dative Case completes the case system for 1st and 2nd Declension Nouns. Here are the full declension patterns: ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Singular! ! Plural puella! ! Gen.! puellae!! Dat. ! puellae!! Acc. ! puellam! Abl.! puellā! ! ! ! ! ! ! puellae!! puellārum! puellīs!! puellas!! puellīs Nom. ! Dat. ! Acc. ! Abl.! ! ! ! Second Declension! Masc.! ! ! ! ! Neuter Singular! Plural! ! ! Singular! Plural Nom. ! servus!! Gen.! First Declension servī! ! servō! ! servum! servō! ! servī! servōrum! servīs! ! servōs! ! servīs! ! Nom.! Gen.! Dat.! Acc.! Abl.! oppidum! oppidī! ! oppidō!! oppidum! oppidō!! oppida! oppidōrum! oppidīs! oppida! oppidīs ! Note the following regularities (these apply to all five declension patterns): 1. The Dative and Ablative are always alike in the plural. In the First and Second Declensions they end in -īs. 2. The Accusative singular of all masculine and feminine nouns always ends in -m and the plural in -s. 3. In Neuters of all declensions, the Nominative and Accusative are always alike, and in the plural end in -a. 4. The Genitive plural of all declensions always ends in -um. 5. The Nominative and Vocative are alike in all declensions, except for the singular of Second Declension nouns and adjectives ending in -us, which show -e in the Vocative: Et tu Brute? The Dative of the Personal Pronoun ! The personal pronoun is, ea, id (he, she, it; they) was fully introduced in the notes to Chapter 5. In this chapter we see the dative: the singular eī (to him, to her, to it) and the plural iīs (to them). The Dative of the Relative Pronoun ! In Chapter 3 we met the relative pronoun (who, which) in the nominative and accusative singular. Here we meet it in dative: cuī (to whom). The Demonstrative/Adjective hic, haec, hoc ! This chapter introduces the demonstrative pronoun/adjective hic, haec, hoc (this, that; he, she it). It appears in the nominative case. Recall the important point that the personal pronoun (is, ea, id) and the demonstrative pronoun (hic, haec, hoc) are interchangeable in Latin (but not in English). Be careful not to confuse the demonstrative pronoun hic with the adverb hīc (here, in this place). The Reflexive Pronoun (sē) ! The reflexive pronoun indicates that the action of the verb is operating, or reflecting back on, the subject of the sentence: ! ! ! ! He sees himself in the mirror. ! ! She asks herself why her nose is so ugly. This chapter introduces the reflexive pronoun in the accusative case: sē (all genders). Vocabulary ! ! ! ! ! ! ! mālum, -ī n apple (do not confuse with the adjective malus, -a, -um) immō interj nay!, on the contrary! nōnne? interrog. asks a question to what an affirmative answer is expected et . . . et, both . . . and neque . . . neque, neither . . . nor Capitulum VIII - Taberna Romana The Demonstrative Pronoun/Adjective hic, haec, hoc ! This chapter introduces the full forms of the demonstrative pronoun/adjective hic, haec, hoc (this, that; them; he, she it; they). ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Masculine ! Feminine! hic! huius! huic! hunc! hōc! Nom. ! ! Gen.! Dat. ! Acc. ! Abl.! Singular! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Plural Neuter !! ! Masculine ! Feminine! Neuter ! ! ! ! ! hī! ! hōrum! hīs! ! hōs! ! hīs! ! hae! ! hārum! hīs! ! hās! ! hīs! ! haec hōrum hīs haec hīs haec!! huius! huic! ! hanc! hāc! ! hoc! ! huius! huic!! hoc! ! hōc! ! The Demonstrative Pronoun/Adjective ille, illa, illud ! This chapter introduces the full forms of another demonstrative pronoun/ adjective ille, illa, illud (that, this; them; he, she it; they). ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Masculine ! Feminine! ille! illīus! illī! illum! illō! Nom. ! ! Gen.! Dat. ! Acc. ! Abl.! Singular! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Plural Neuter !! ! Masculine ! Feminine illud! illīus! illī! ! illud! illō! ! ! ! ! ! ! illī! ! illōrum! illīs! ! illōs!! illīs! ! illae! illārum illīs! illās! illīs! illa! ! illīus! illī! ! illam! illā! ! Neuter illa illōrum illīs illa illīs The Relative Pronoun quī, quae, quod ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Masculine ! Feminine! Nom. ! ! Gen.! Dat. ! Acc. ! Abl.! ! ! ! ! Singular! quī! cuius! cuī! quem! quō! quae! cuius! cuī! ! quam! quā!! ! ! ! ! Plural Neuter !! ! Masculine Feminine! Neuter quī! quōrum quibus! quōs! quibus! quae! quārum quibus! quās! quibus! quae quōrum quibus quae quibus quod!! cuius!! cuī! ! quod!! quō! ! ! ! ! ! ! Note that these pronoun/adjectives follow a modified 1st and 2nd declension pattern. All pronouns will show -īus in the genitive singular and normally an -ī in the dative singular (but note huic). Note also the unusual neuter in the nominative plurals haec and quae. Ablative of Price ! The price of an object is in the ablative case without preposition: ! ! Tanta gemma sōla octōgintā sēstertiīs constat. Such a gem alone costs 80 sesterces. Suppression of Antecedent with quī, quae, quod ! The antecedent of the relative pronoun quī, quae quod can (and regularly is) suppressed in Latin. This is unlike English usage, which requires an explicit antecedent to the relative pronoun who, which. ! ! Quī tabernam habet tabernius est. He who has a shop is a shopkeeper. Vocabulary ! ! ! ! ! ! ! aliī . . . aliī, some . . . others tantus, -a, -um, such a, so great a tantum . . . quantum, as big (great) . . . as tantum adv only, merely Capitulum IX - Pastor et Oves Third Declension Nouns ! This chapter introduces third declension nouns. The nominative singular has no regular ending. The genitive singular will always end in -is. ! ! ! ! pastor (masc)! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Singular! ! Plural! ! ! ! ! Singular! Plural pāstōrēs! pāstōrum! pāstōribus ! pāstōrēs ! pāstōribus! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ovis! ! ovis! ! ovī! ! ovem!! ove! ! ovēs ovium ovibus ovēs ovibus Nom. ! ! pāstōr! Gen.! ! pāstōris ! Dat. ! ! pāstōrī! Acc. ! ! pāstōrem! Abl.! ! pāstōre! !! ovis (fem) Third declension nouns form the plurality of nouns in Latin. The third declension pattern is also used for other forms (participles and adjectives). It is therefore essential that the third declension patterns be mastered thoroughly. Third declension nouns may form directly from the stem (such as pāstōr and ovis) or may undergo a stem change (such as mōns, montis and dēns, dentis). This makes it essential to memorize the nominative and genitive singular together. Here are the Third Declension nouns presented in Chapters 9: pāstōr, -ōris m shepherd! canis, -is m/f dog! ! mōns, -ntis m mountain! collis, -is m hill! ! sōl, -is m sun! ! ! timor, -ōris m fear! ! clāmor, -ōris m shout ! ! ! ! ! ! ovis, -is f sheep pānis, -is m bread vallis, -is f valley arbor, -ōris f tree nūbēs, -is f cloud dēns, -ntis m tooth Irregular Imperatives with dūcō, dīcō, ferō, and faciō ! Four Latin verbs have irregular singular imperatives. One of these is irregular also in the plural: ! & & & ! & & & dūc, dūcite - lead! dīc, dīcite - speak! say! fer, ferte - bring! carry! fac, facite - do! make! The Emphatic Pronoun ipse, ipsa, ipsum ! This chapter introduces the emphatic pronoun ipse, ipsa, ipsum (himself, herself, itself, themselves). Do not confuse this with the reflexive pronoun sē introduced in Chapter 7. The emphatic and reflexive pronouns share the same form in English, but their grammatical usage is quite different. ! ! The reflexive pronoun reflects back to the subject of the sentence: ! Puella sē in speculō videt - The girl see herself in the mirror. ! ! ! The emphatic pronoun is used for emphasis: ! Ubi est lupus ipse? - Where is the wolf himself? ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Masculine ! Feminine! Nom. ! ! Gen.! Dat. ! Acc. ! Abl.! ! ! ! ! Singular! ipse& ipsīus& ipsī& ipsum& ipsō& ipsa&& ipsīus& ipsī& & ipsam& ipsā&& ! ! ! ! Plural Neuter !! ! Masculine ! Feminine ipsum& & ipsīus& & ipsī& & ipsum& & ipsō& & & & & & ipsī& & ipsōrum ipsīs& & ipsōs& & ipsīs& & ipsae& ipsārum ipsīs& ipsās& ipsīs& Vocabulary ! " ! ! ! ēst, edunt, he, she, it eats; they eat. Do not confuse this verb with est. petō, -ere, -īvī, -ītum, to seek, ask; attack; head for iaceo, -ēre, -uī, to lie (down) Neuter ipsa ipsōrum ipsīs ipsa ipsīs Capitulum X - Bestiae et Homines Passive Infinitives ! The infinitive form of verbs may be active or passive. The active forms of the four conjugation patterns in the present tense are as follows: ! ! amāre - to love! vidēre - to see!! ponere - to place! audīre - to hear ! The passive infinitive in the present tense is formed by changing the e at the end of the verb to an ī . For the 3rd Conjugation, the entire infinitive ending is dropped before adding the ī. ! ! amārī - to be loved! vidērī - to be seen! ponī - to be placed! audīrī - to be heard Types of Infinitives ! Infinitives are used in three distinct ways in Latin: as a complementary infinitive, as a gerund, and as an infinitive in indirect speech (ōrātiō oblīqua). ! 1) A complementary infinitive completes the meaning of a verb and it used in the same fashion as in English, both in the active and passive voice. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Hominēs ambulāre possunt. Men are able to walk. Piscēs in aquā natāre possunt. Fish are able to swim in water. Piscēs numerārī nōn possunt. Fish are not able to be counted. Nēmō sine cibō vīvere potest. No one can live without food. ! 2) A gerund (a verbal noun) is used in Latin in the same fashion as in English. The gerund in Latin is a 2nd Declension neuter noun. The nominative form is the infinitive. ! ! ! ! ! ! Spīrāre necesse est hominī. To breathe is necessary for a man. Ēsse quoque hominī necesse est. To eat also is necessary for a man. Ērrāre humānum est. To err is human. 3) Indirect Speech. See the following section. Indirect Speech (Ōrātiō oblīqua) ! Any direct statement in English can be turned into an indirect statement by use of an introducing verb and the subordinate conjunction that: & ! ! & The girl is singing. → I hear that the girl is singing. ! The boy calls. → Julius hears that the boy calls. ! The boy runs to his father. → Julius sees that the boy runs to him. ! Classical Latin does not use this method of creating a subordinate clause. Instead, it forms indirect speech statements with 1) an main verb (of mental action), 2) a subject accusative, and 3) an infinitive: ! & & & & ! & & ! & & & & ! & Puerī puellas canere audiunt. The boys hear that the girls are singing. Canis avem suprā se volāre videt. The dog sees that the bird is flying above him. Mārcus Quintum ad terram cadere videt. Marcus sees that Marcus falls to the ground. Mārcus eum spirāre not videt. Marcus does not see that he is breathing. Iūlius puerum vocāre audit. Julius hears that the boy is calling. Iūlius eum oculōs aperīre videt. Julius sees that he opens his eyes. Aemilia fīlium suum ā Iūliō portārī videt. Aemilia sees that her soon is being carried by Julius. & Aemilia Quīntum ā Iūliō in lectō ponī aspicit. Aemilia sees that Quintus is being put on the bed by Julius. Note that the “introducing” verb of mental action very often comes after the indirect speech clause. Ablative of Manner ! ! The ablative of manner is used to express the manner in which the action of a verb is done. It generally is used in the case of emotions and other intangibles and is often accompanied by an adjective. The ablative of manner can be used with or without the preposition cum, but when cum is used with an ablative of manner accompanied by an adjective, the cum regularly is placed between them: summā cum laude. ! & ! & Mārcus perterritus ad vīllam currit et magnā voce clāmat. Marcus, terrified, runs to & the villa and shouts in a loud voice. Third Declension Nouns ! Here are the Third Declension Nouns presented in Chapter 10: ! ! ! ! ! ! leō, -ōnis m lion! ! ! ! mercātor, -ōris m merchant! ! ! ! homō, -inis m person, man! ! mare, maris n sea ! ! ! avis, avis f bird! ! ! ! flūmen, -inis n river ! ! ! piscis, piscis m fish! ! ! pulmō, -ōnis m lung ! ! ! āēr, āēris m the air! ! ! animal, -ālis n animal ! ! ! pēs, pedis m foot!! ! ! vōx, vocis f voice & Vocabulary ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! cum conj when quod conj because possum, posse, to be able vult, volunt, he wants; they want nēmō, no one enim conj for, indeed, in fact ergō adv therefore Capitulum XI - Corpus Humanum Neuter Nouns - Third Declension ! The Third Declension contains many neuter nouns. They all follow the Great Neuter Rule (i.e., the nominative and accusative will be the same and in the plural end in -a). ! Neuters of the Third Declension show varied endings in the nominative singular ending, which must be learned by observation. Here are four common patterns: ! ! ! Nom. ! ! Acc. ! ! Abl.! ! ! ! ! ! Nom. ! Gen.! Dat. ! Gen.! Dat. ! Acc. ! Abl.! corpus! corporis! corporī ! corpus! corpore! corpora! corporum! corporibus! corpora! corporibus! ! ! ! ! ! flūmen! flūminis! flūminī ! flūmen! flūmine! ! ! ! ! ! flūmina flūminum flūminibus flūmina flūminibus mare! ! maris! ! marī ! ! mare! ! marī ! ! maria! ! marium! maribus! maria! ! maribus! ! ! ! ! ! animal! animalis! animalī ! animal! animalī ! ! ! ! ! ! animalia animalium animalibus animalia animalibus Here are the Neuters of the Third Declension introduced in this chapter: ! ! corpus, -oris n body!! ! crūs, crūris n leg ! ! caput, -itis n head! ! ! ōs, oris n mouth; face ! ! pectus, -oris n chest, breast!! cor, cordis n heart ! ! iecur, -oris n liver! ! ! viscera, -um npl entrails ! ! Ablative of Respect ! The ablative is used to denote in what respect something is true. This ablative appears in two sentences in this chapter. ! Nec modo pede, sed etiam capite aeger est. He is sick with respect to not only his foot, but also his head. ! Iam filius noster nōn modo pede, sed etiam bracchiō aeger est. Now our son is sick not only with respect to his foot, but also with respect to his arm. ! The ablative of respect has wide usage in different contexts. Here are some examples: ! ! ! ! Mercatōrēs sunt paucī numerō. The merchants are few in number. Rex nomine est. He is king in name (only). Mārcus fratem suum virtūte superat. Marcus surpasses his brother in valor. Aemilia pulchra est formā. Aemilia is beautiful in shape (has a beautiful shape). Indirect Speech (Ōrātiō oblīqua) ! Indirect Speech is reinforced in this chapter with many examples. Here are a few of them: ! ! Dīcit linguam eius rubram esse. He says that his tongue his red. ! ! Syra eum mortuum esse putat. Syra thinks that he is dead. ! ! Māter filium vīvum esse videt. The mother sees that her son is alive. ! ! Iūlius et Aemilia eum stultum esse putant. Julius and Aemilia think that he is stupid. & & Third Declension Nouns ! Here are the Third Declension Nouns presented in Chapter 11: ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! corpus, -oris n body!! ! caput, -itis n head! ! ! pectus, -oris n chest, breast!! iecur, -oris n liver! ! ! auris, auris f ear! ! ! sanguis, -inis m blood! ! venter, -tris m stomach crūs, crūris n leg ōs, oris n mouth; face cor, cordis n heart viscera, -um npl entrails frōns, -ntis f forehead color, -ōris m color Vocabulary ! ! manus, -ūs f hand (a fourth declension noun) ! culter, -trī m knife ! ruber, -ra, -rum, red ! aeger, -ra, -rum, sick ! noster, -ra, -rum, our, ours ! bene adv well ! male adv badly, poorly & modo adv only ! nec = neque Capitulum XII - Miles Romanus Dative of Possession ! The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote Possession. ! ! Mārcō ūna soror est. Marcus has a sister. ! ! Iūliae duo frātrēs sunt. Julia has two brothers. ! ! Mātrī Aemilia nōmen est. Aemilia is the motherʻs name. ! ! Third Declension Adjectives ! We have seen adjectives that have 1st and 2nd declensions endings (e.g., magnus, -a , -um). This chapters introduces adjectives with third declension endings. It is important to note that all Third Declension Adjectives are i-stems (they show -ī in the ablative singular and -ium in the genitive plural, and, for neuters, -īa in the nominative and accusative plural). ! ! ! Singular! ! ! ! Plural ! ! ! ! Nom. ! ! Acc. ! ! Abl.! Gen.! Dat. ! ! Masc/Fem! Neuter! ! ! Masc/Fem! Neuter tristis& & tristis& & tristī& & tristem&& tristī& & triste& & tristis& & tristī& & triste& & tristī& & & & & & & tristēs& & tristium& tristibus& tristēs& & tristibus& tristia tristium tristibus tristia tristibus Here are the adjectives of the Third Declension introduced in this chapter: ! ! tristis, -e, sad! ! ! ! brevis, -e, short, brief ! ! gravis, -e, heavy, serious! ! levis, -e, light ! ! fortis, -e, strong, brave ! ! Comparative Adjectives ! Adjectives has three degrees of comparison: positive, comparative, and superlative. The comparative degree of adjectives (the -er form in English), has the following forms for all Latin adjectives: ! ! ! Singular! ! ! Masc/Fem! Neuter! ! ! ! ! Plural Masc/Fem! Neuter ! ! ! Nom. ! ! Acc. ! ! Abl.! -ior! ! -iōris! ! -iōrī! ! -iōrem!! -iōre! ! ! ! ! ! ! -iōres! ! -iōrum! -iōribus! -iōres! ! -iōribus! ! Gen.! Dat. ! -ius! ! -iōris! ! -iōrī! ! -ius! ! -iōre! ! -iōra -iōrum -iōribus -iōra -iōribus! All adjectives in Latin show these third declension endings in the comparative degree. It is also important to note that the comparative degree is not an i-stem pattern. Here is a Third Declension Adjective (gravis, -e) declined in the comparative degree: ! ! ! Singular! ! ! ! Plural ! ! ! ! Nom. ! ! Acc. ! ! Abl.! Gen.! Dat. ! ! Masc/Fem! Neuter! ! ! Masc/Fem! Neuter gravior&& graviōris& graviōrī& graviōrem& graviōre& gravius& graviōris& graviōrī& gravius& graviōre& & & & & & graviōres& graviōrum& graviōribus& graviōres& graviōribus& graviōra graviōrum graviōribus graviōra graviōribus! Here is a First and Second Declension adjective (longus, -a, -um) declined in the comparative degree: ! ! ! Singular! ! ! Masc/Fem! Neuter! ! ! ! ! Plural Masc/Fem! Neuter ! ! ! Nom. ! ! Acc. ! ! Abl.! longior&& longiōris& longiōrī& longiōrem& longiōre& & & & & & longiōres& longiōrum& longiōribus& longiōres& longiōribus& ! Gen.! Dat. ! longius& longiōris& longiōrī& longius& longiōre& longiōra longiōrum longiōribus longiōra longiōribus! 4th Declension Nouns ! This chapter introduces Fourth Declension nouns. This declension contains masculine, feminine, and neuter nouns, but the vast majority are masculine. The forms are: ! ! Singular! ! Plural ! ! ! Nom. ! ! Acc.! ! Abl.! -us! ! -ūs! ! -uī! ! -um!! -ū! ! ! ! ! ! ! -ūs -uum -ibus -ūs -ibus Gen.! Dat.! & & Here is the declension of metus, -ūs, fear: ! ! Singular! ! Plural ! ! ! Nom. ! ! Acc.! ! Abl.! metus! metūs! metuī! metum! metū! ! ! ! ! ! metūs metuum metibus metūs metibus Gen.! Dat.! Third Declension Nouns ! Here are the Third Declension Nouns presented in Chapter 12: ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! frāter, -tris m brother! ! soror, -ōris f sister! ! ! nōmen, -inis n name; clan name! praenōmen, -inis n first name! cognōmen, -inis n family name! mīles, -itis m soldier!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! pedes, -itis m foot-soldier eques, -itis m cavalry soldier pars, partis f part finis, finis f end, limit hostis, hostis m enemy dux, ducis m leader Mīlle and Mīlia ! Latin distinguishes between the adjective “one thousand” (mīlle) and the noun “thousands” (mīlia) in a way English does not. The adjective mīlle will simply modify a noun, as in English: ! ! mīlle passūs = a thousand paces But the noun mīlia will govern a genitive: ! ! sex mīlia mīlitum = six thousands of soldiers Vocabulary ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! quam, than (used to express comparison) arma, -ōrum npl arms, weapons castra, -ōrum npl camp arcus, -ūs m bow exercitus, -ūs m army passus, -ūs m step, pace equitātus, -ūs m cavalry impetus, -ūs m attack metus, -ūs m fear Capitulum XIII - Annus et Menses Ablative of Time When ! The Ablative is used without a preposition to indicate the time when something occurs. Many examples are used in this chapter: ! ! ! ! ! Nam tempore antīquō Mārtius mēnsis prīmus erat. In ancient times, March was the first month. Diē septimō vel octāvō post lūnam novam . . . On the 7th or 8th day after the new moon . . . Aestāte diēs longī sunt. In the summer the days are long. Autumnō folia dē arboribus cadunt. In the autumn leaves fall from trees. Eō tempore multī Romānī urbem relinquunt. At that time many Romans leave the city. ! ! Superlative Degree of Adjectives ! Adjectives have three degrees of comparison: positive (high), comparative (higher), superlative (highest). English uses the suffix -est (highest) or the modifier most (most beautiful) to express the superlative degree. Latin uses the endings -issimus, -issima, -issimum, which decline on the 1st and 2nd Declension pattern: ! ! ! Nom. ! Gen.! Dat. ! Acc. ! Abl.! ! Masc! Singular! Fem ! Neuter! ! ! altissimus& altissima& altissimum && altissimī& altissimae& altissimī & & altissimō& altissimae altissimō& & altissimum altissimam altissimum& & altissimō& altissimā& altissimō&& & ! Masc! Plural Fem! Neuter altissimī& altissimae& altissima altissimōrum& altissimārum& altissimōrum altissimīs& & altissimīs& & altissimīs altissimōs& & altissimās& & altissima altissimīs& & altissimīs& & altissimīs These 1st and 2nd Declension endings are used with all adjectives in the superlative degree, including those of the Third Declension: ! ! ! Singular! ! Masc! Fem Nom. brevissimus ! ! Neuter! ! ! Plural Masc! Fem! Neuter brevissima brevissimum brevissimī brevissimae& brevissima Gen. brevissimī& brevissima brevissimī brevissimōrum brevissimārum& brevissimōrum Dat. brevissimō& brevissimae brevissimō& brevissimīs brevissimīs brevissimīs Acc. brevissimum brevissimam brevissimum brevissimōs& brevissimās& brevissima Abl. brevissimō& brevissimā brevissimō& brevissimīs& brevissimīs& brevissimīs ! ! 5th Declension Nouns ! This chapter introduces Fifth Declension nouns. All nouns of the Fifth Declension are feminine, except diēs and merīdiēs which are masculine. The forms are: ! ! Singular! ! Plural ! ! ! Nom. ! ! Acc.! ! Abl.! -ēs! ! -ēī ! ! -ēī ! ! -em!! -ē! ! ! ! ! ! ! -ēs -ērum -ēbus -ēs -ēbus Gen.! Dat.! & & Here is the declension of diēs, -ēī, day: ! ! Singular! ! Plural ! ! ! Nom. ! ! Acc.! ! Abl.! diēs& ! diēī! ! diēī! ! diem!! diē! ! ! ! ! ! ! diēs diērum diēbus diēs diēbus Gen.! Dat.! Only diēs and rēs are fully declined. Other Fifth Declension nouns lack plural forms other than an occasional nominative and accusative plural. ! Third Declension Nouns ! Here are the Third Declension Nouns presented in Chapter 13: ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! mēnsis, is m month! ! nox, noctis f night! ! aestās, -ātis f summer! vēr, vēris n spring! ! nix, nivis f snow! ! ! ! tempus, -oris n time lūx, lucis f light hiems, hiemis f winter imber, -bris m rain urbs, -bis f city Capitulum XIV - Novus Dies Present Active Participle ! Participles are adjectives formed from verbs. They are very common in Latin and show tense and voice. This chapter introduces the Present Active Participle. In English, the Present Active Participle is formed by adding -ing to the verb. As adjectives, participles modify nouns: ! ! Let sleeping dogs lie. As verbs, participles may also govern nouns: ! ! I saw him chopping the wood. Participles in English are invariable. In Latin they have number, case, and gender and follow a Third Declension pattern: ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Nom. ! ! Gen.! Dat. ! Acc. ! Abl.! ! ! ! ! ! Masc! -ns!! ! -ntis! ! -ntī! ! -ntem! ! -ntī (-e)! Singular! Fem -ns! ! -ntis! ! -ntī! ! -ntem! ! -ntī (-e)! ! ! Neuter! ! -ns! ! ! -ntis ! ! -ntī! ! ! -ns! ! ! -ntī (-e)! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Plural ! ! ! ! ! Masc! Fem! Neuter -ntēs! ! -ntium!! -ntibus!! -ntēs! ! -ntibus!! -ntēs! ! -ntium!! -ntibus!! -ntēs! ! -ntibus!! -ntia -ntium!! -ntibus -ntia! -ntibus The Present Active Participle is used throughout this chapter. Here are a few examples: ! ! ! ! Gallus canēns novum diem salūtat. The crowing rooster greets the new day. Dāvus cubiculum intrāns interrogat . . . Davus, entering the bedroom, asks . . . Servus puerum bibentem aspicit. The slave watches the boy drinking. In aurem puerī dormientis clāmat. He shouts in the ear of the sleeping boy. Note that Latin uses participles where English uses a simple adjective: ! ! ! ! caput valens: a healthy head membra valentia: healthy limbs filium aegrōtantem: a sick son ! ! ! Ablative Absolute ! Latin uses an ablative phrase (usually a noun or pronoun modified by a participle) to express the time or circumstance of an action. The construction is called the Ablative Absolute. The following examples appear in this chapter: ! ! ! Mārcus fenestrā apertā dormit. Marcus sleeps with his window open. Quīntus oculīs apertīs iacet. Quintus lies with his eyes open. Mārcus pedibus nūdīs ante lectum stat. Marcus stands with bare feet in front of the bed. Although the Ablative Absolute is semantically related to the sentence (i.e., it adds meaning) it is not grammatically dependent on any word in the sentence. Hence its name absolute (from absōlūtus, free or unconnected). It is sometimes referred to in older grammars as the Ablative of Attendant Circumstance (i.e., describing the circumstances surrounding the action of the main verb). Pronouns ! This chapter introduces a number of new pronouns: ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! uterque, utraque, utrumque, each (of two) neuter, neutra, neutrum, neither alter, altera, alterum, the other, another ūter, ūtra, ūtrum? which? A number of personal pronouns attach themselves to the preposition cum: ! ! ! ! ! ! mēcum - with me tēcum - with you sēcum - with himself, herself, itself, themselves This chapter also introduces the dative forms of the personal pronoun: ! ! ! ! mihi - to me tibi - to you Vocabulary ! ! omnis, -e, all; each! ! inquit, he, she says! ! quōmodo adv how! ! adhūc adv still, yet! ! ! ! ! solēo, -ēre, to be accustomed nihil indecl nothing hodiē adv today an conj or; whether Capitulum XV - Magister et Discipuli Present Tense of Verbs - Full Forms Latin verbs are divided into four groups (conjugations) with characteristic vowels ā, ē, e, and ī. Here are the forms for the four conjugations in the present tense, active voice: 1st Conj. clāmō clāmās clāmat clāmāmus clāmātis clāmant 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj. rideō ridēmus ridēs ridētis ridet rident dīcō dīcimus dīcis dīcitis dīcit dīcunt audiō audīmus audīs audītis audit audiunt Note that the personal endings are stable throughout to indicate person and number: -ō (I) -s (you sing) -t (he, she, it) -mus (we) -tis (you pl) -nt (they) Present Tense of sum, possum and eō. The verbs sum, esse (to be), possum, posse (to be able) and eō, īre (to go) are irregular in Latin. Here are the present tense forms: sum, esse sum sumus es estis est sunt eō, īre eō īmus īs ītis it eunt possum, posse possum possumus potes potestis potest possunt Personal Pronouns The full forms of the personal pronouns in Latin are: ego tū is, ea, id I you he, she, it nōs we vōs you eī, eae, ea they Personal pronouns as not required in Latin but may be used for clarity or emphasis. The third person personal pronouns often are used as demonstratives (is vir, this man). Sē in Indirect Speech The reflexive pronoun is used to indicate that the subject in Indirect Speech is the same as the subject of the main verb. Note the difference between these statement: Quīntus dīcit sē aegrum esse. Quintus says that he (Quintus) is sick. Quīntus dīcit eum aegrum esse. Quintus says that he (someone else) is sick. The Impersonal Verb licet. Some verbs in Latin have no forms other than the third person singular. These are called “impersonals” and can be translated with the corresponding impersonal form in English. This chapters introduces the impersonal verb licet, it is permitted, it is allowed. It regularly governs a complementary infinitive. In lectulō dormīre licet, hīc in lūdō nōn licet dormīre. It is allowed to sleep in your bed, it is not allowed to sleep here in school. Vocabulary nōndum adv not yet statim adv immediately tum adv then, at that time domī: at home (a locative) at conj but, however sī conj if nisi conj if not, unless, except
