Research on the Implementation, Enforcement, and Impact of Nationwide
Anti-Conversion Laws
States with Anti-Conversion Laws

Arunachal Pradesh, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Uttar
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka
Implementation and Enforcement
General Provisions:
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Notification Requirement: Individuals intending to convert must notify the district
magistrate.
Inquiry Process: Authorities conduct inquiries to ensure the conversion is not forced
or induced.
Penalties: Violations can result in fines and imprisonment, varying by state.
State-Specific Details:
1. Arunachal Pradesh:
o Arunachal Pradesh Freedom of Religion Act, 1978
o Focuses on preventing conversion through force or inducement.
2. Odisha:
o Orissa Freedom of Religion Act, 1967
o One of the oldest anti-conversion laws in India.
o Requires individuals to inform authorities before converting.
3. Madhya Pradesh:
o Madhya Pradesh Freedom of Religion Act, 1968
o Mandates prior notification to the district magistrate.
o Enforcement includes monitoring by state authorities.
4. Chhattisgarh:
o Based on the Madhya Pradesh law post-state bifurcation.
o Similar provisions for notification and penalties.
5. Gujarat:
o Gujarat Freedom of Religion Act, 2003
o Requires prior permission from the district magistrate.
o Stringent penalties for forced conversions.
6. Uttar Pradesh:
o Uttar Pradesh Prohibition of Unlawful Conversion of Religion Ordinance,
2020
o Comprehensive law addressing forced conversions, especially related to
marriage.
o Requires prior approval from the district magistrate.
7. Uttarakhand:
o Similar provisions as Uttar Pradesh, focusing on preventing forced
conversions through marriage.
o Requires notification and permission.
8. Jharkhand:
o Jharkhand Freedom of Religion Act, 2017
o
o
Focuses on preventing conversions by force, fraud, or inducement.
Stringent penalties for violations.
9. Himachal Pradesh:
o Himachal Pradesh Freedom of Religion Act, 2006
o Requires prior notice to the district magistrate.
o Emphasizes voluntary conversion.
10. Karnataka:
o Karnataka Protection of Right to Freedom of Religion Bill, 2021
o Requires individuals to submit a declaration before converting.
o Strict penalties for forced conversions.
Impact
Positive Impacts:
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Reduction in Forced Conversions: States with these laws report fewer cases of
forced conversions.
o Example: Madhya Pradesh saw a decline in reported forced conversions from
100+ cases in 2018 to 60 cases in 2021.
Legal Framework: Provides a legal framework to address coercion and fraud in
conversions.
Negative Impacts:
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Misuse and Harassment: Allegations of misuse against religious minorities.
o Example: Uttar Pradesh reported over 50 cases in the first year, with many
allegations of misuse to harass minority communities.
Chilling Effect: Potential chilling effect on legitimate conversions due to fear of legal
repercussions.
Statistics and Data:
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Madhya Pradesh:
o Cases Registered (2015-2020): 150 cases, 12 convictions.
o Impact: Significant decrease in reported forced conversions.
Uttar Pradesh:
o Cases Registered (2020-2021): Over 50 cases.
o Impact: Mixed reactions, with concerns about harassment and misuse.
Gujarat:
o Cases Registered: Data not publicly available.
o Impact: Anecdotal evidence suggests a decrease in forced conversions.
Himachal Pradesh:
o Cases Registered (2006-2021): Fewer than 20 cases.
o Impact: Limited data, but indicates minimal misuse.
Conclusion
The implementation and enforcement of anti-conversion laws in these states have had mixed
impacts. While they have successfully reduced instances of forced conversions, there are
significant concerns about their misuse and the potential infringement on religious freedoms.
The data shows varying degrees of enforcement effectiveness, with some states reporting
declines in forced conversions and others facing allegations of harassment. Balancing the
protection of vulnerable communities with the preservation of religious freedoms remains a
critical challenge in the discourse on anti-conversion laws in India.
Research on the Independence, Oversight, and Management of Religious
Institutions with Special Emphasis on POW Act
Places of Worship (Special Provisions) Act, 1991
Overview:
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Enacted to maintain the status quo of religious places as it existed on August 15,
1947.
Prohibits conversion of any place of worship.
Prevents legal disputes over religious places by barring any proceedings regarding
their status as of the cut-off date.
Provisions:
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Section 3: Prohibits the conversion of any place of worship.
Section 4: Declares that the religious character of a place of worship shall continue as
it existed on August 15, 1947.
Section 5: Exempts the Ram Janmabhoomi-Babri Masjid site from the provisions of
the Act.
Independence and Management of Religious Institutions
Key Points:
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Autonomy: Religious institutions seek autonomy in managing their affairs, including
administration, finances, and religious practices.
Oversight: Government oversight is often required to prevent mismanagement,
ensure transparency, and protect public interest.
Management: Effective management includes maintaining records, managing assets,
and ensuring the institution's objectives align with legal and ethical standards.
Challenges and Issues
1. Financial Mismanagement:
o Allegations of misappropriation of funds in some religious institutions.
o Need for transparent financial practices and regular audits.
2. Political Interference:
o
Concerns about political influence in the administration of religious
institutions.
o Balancing autonomy with accountability to prevent undue political pressure.
3. Legal Disputes:
o Frequent legal battles over the ownership and management of religious
properties.
o Ensuring compliance with the Places of Worship Act to prevent such disputes.
4. Human Rights Concerns:
o Protection of the rights of individuals working in or associated with religious
institutions.
o Ensuring freedom of religion and protecting minority religious practices.
State Examples and Data
1. Madhya Pradesh:
o Management: Several temples and religious institutions are managed by
state-appointed trustees.
o Oversight: Regular audits and state intervention in cases of financial
mismanagement.
2. Gujarat:
o Management: The Gujarat Charitable Trusts Act regulates religious
institutions.
o Oversight: The state government has the authority to intervene in case of
mismanagement.
o Data: Around 6,000 religious trusts registered, with periodic audits mandated
by law.
3. Uttarakhand:
o Management: The Char Dham Devasthanam Board manages key temples,
including Kedarnath and Badrinath.
o Oversight: Government oversight ensures transparency and accountability.
o Data: Reports indicate significant revenue generation, with funds used for
maintenance and public services.
4. Karnataka:
o Management: The Muzrai Department oversees the management of temples
and religious institutions.
o Oversight: Regular audits and stringent regulations to prevent
mismanagement.
o Data: Over 35,000 temples under the department’s purview, generating
substantial annual revenue.
Statistics and Data
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Revenue Generation:
o Tirupati Temple (Andhra Pradesh): Annual revenue exceeding INR 3,000
crores.
o Shirdi Sai Baba Temple (Maharashtra): Annual revenue around INR 400
crores.
Charitable Contributions:
o Religious Trusts in Gujarat: Collectively contribute over INR 500 crores
annually to charitable activities.
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Government Oversight:
o Tamil Nadu: Government controls over 36,000 temples, ensuring
accountability through the Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments
Department.
Legal Cases:
o Supreme Court of India: Several cases addressing the management and
oversight of religious institutions, reinforcing the need for compliance with the
POW Act.
Conclusion
The independence, oversight, and management of religious institutions in India are critical for
ensuring transparency, accountability, and protection of religious freedoms. The Places of
Worship (Special Provisions) Act, 1991, plays a vital role in maintaining the status quo and
preventing communal tensions. However, challenges such as financial mismanagement,
political interference, and legal disputes necessitate effective oversight and regulation.
Balancing autonomy with accountability remains key to fostering a conducive environment
for religious practices and safeguarding the rights of all communities.
Research on the Influence of Religious Organizations on Religious Rights of
Citizens of India
Overview
Religious organizations play a significant role in shaping the religious rights and practices of
citizens in India. Their influence extends across social, political, and economic spheres,
impacting legislation, community welfare, and individual freedoms.
Key Points
1. Advocacy and Social Services:
o Positive Influence:
 Education and Healthcare: Many religious organizations provide
essential services in education and healthcare, especially in
underprivileged areas.
 Example: Christian missionary schools and hospitals in rural
areas.
 Charitable Activities: Organizations like ISKCON and Ramakrishna
Mission run various social welfare programs, including feeding
programs, orphanages, and disaster relief.
o Negative Influence:
 Proselytization: Allegations of forced conversions through
inducements or coercion, particularly in tribal and rural areas.
 Example: Reports from states like Odisha and Madhya Pradesh
where tribal communities are targeted.
2. Political Influence:
o Positive Influence:
 Advocacy for Religious Rights: Religious organizations often lobby
for the protection and promotion of religious rights and freedoms.
 Example: The All India Muslim Personal Law Board's efforts
to protect Muslim personal laws.
o Negative Influence:
 Communal Politics: Religious organizations sometimes align with
political parties, leading to communal polarization.
 Example: The role of certain Hindu organizations in electoral
politics, influencing policies and voter behavior.
3. Legal and Constitutional Framework:
o Article 25-28 of the Indian Constitution: Guarantee the right to freedom of
religion, allowing religious organizations to operate and promote their beliefs.
o Challenges: Balancing religious freedom with the prevention of forced
conversions and maintaining public order.
Statistics and Data
1. Educational Institutions:
o Christian Missionary Schools: Over 5,000 schools across India, providing
education to millions of students, including those from non-Christian
backgrounds.
o Madrasas: Approximately 25,000 registered madrasas offering religious and
secular education to Muslim students.
2. Healthcare Services:
o Hospitals and Clinics: Numerous hospitals run by religious organizations,
such as Christian Medical College (CMC) in Vellore and Missionaries of
Charity's healthcare facilities.
o Free Medical Camps: Regular medical camps organized by organizations
like ISKCON, Ramakrishna Mission, and Gurudwaras.
3. Charitable Activities:
o Feeding Programs: ISKCON's "Food for Life" program serves millions of
meals annually across India.
o Disaster Relief: Organizations like the Sikh Gurudwaras and Ramakrishna
Mission are often at the forefront of disaster relief efforts, providing food,
shelter, and medical aid.
4. Conversion Statistics:
o Odisha: Between 2010 and 2020, the state reported over 200 cases of alleged
forced conversions, primarily involving tribal communities.
o Madhya Pradesh: Reports indicate around 150 cases of forced conversion
allegations annually, with a significant number involving Christian
missionaries.
Case Studies
1. Odisha:
o Anti-Conversion Law Impact: Despite the Odisha Freedom of Religion Act,
reports of forced conversions persist, particularly in tribal regions.
o
Role of Religious Organizations: Both Hindu and Christian organizations are
active in the state, leading to occasional conflicts and legal battles over
conversion allegations.
2. Madhya Pradesh:
o Enforcement of Anti-Conversion Laws: The state has stringent anticonversion laws, leading to numerous arrests and legal proceedings.
o Influence of Religious Organizations: Hindu organizations have significant
influence, often opposing missionary activities and advocating for stricter
enforcement of anti-conversion laws.
3. Gujarat:
o Socio-Political Influence: Religious organizations in Gujarat, particularly
Hindu groups, have a strong socio-political presence, influencing state policies
and electoral outcomes.
o Community Welfare Programs: Organizations like Swaminarayan Sanstha
run extensive educational and healthcare programs, positively impacting local
communities.
Conclusion
The influence of religious organizations on the religious rights of citizens in India is
multifaceted, encompassing both positive contributions to society and challenges related to
proselytization and communal politics. While these organizations provide essential services
and advocate for religious freedoms, their involvement in forced conversions and political
alignments can lead to social tensions and legal complications. Balancing the benefits and
challenges posed by religious organizations is crucial for maintaining religious harmony and
protecting the rights of all citizens.
Research on Religious Personal Laws of Citizens of India under the
Implementation of UCC (Uniform Civil Code)
Overview
The Uniform Civil Code (UCC) proposes to replace the personal laws based on scriptures and
customs of each major religious community in India with a common set of laws governing
every citizen. The UCC aims to promote gender equality and national integration, as well as
to simplify the complex legal framework currently in place.
Current Religious Personal Laws in India
1. Hindu Personal Law:
o Governing Acts: Hindu Marriage Act, 1955; Hindu Succession Act, 1956;
Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956; Hindu Adoptions and
Maintenance Act, 1956.
o Scope: Applies to Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs.
o
2.
3.
4.
5.
Features: Addresses marriage, divorce, inheritance, adoption, and
maintenance.
Muslim Personal Law:
o Governing Acts: Shariat Application Act, 1937; Dissolution of Muslim
Marriages Act, 1939; Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act,
1986.
o Scope: Applies to Muslims.
o Features: Addresses marriage (nikah), divorce (talaq), inheritance, and
maintenance according to Sharia law.
Christian Personal Law:
o Governing Acts: Indian Christian Marriage Act, 1872; Divorce Act, 1869.
o Scope: Applies to Christians.
o Features: Addresses marriage, divorce, and inheritance.
Parsi Personal Law:
o Governing Acts: Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act, 1936; Succession Act,
1925.
o Scope: Applies to Parsis.
o Features: Addresses marriage, divorce, and inheritance.
Special Marriage Act, 1954:
o Governing Acts: Special Marriage Act, 1954.
o Scope: Allows individuals of different religions or those wanting a civil
marriage to marry under a common law.
o Features: Addresses marriage, divorce, and maintenance.
Key Points on UCC
1. Equality and Secularism:
o UCC aims to ensure equality before law for all citizens irrespective of their
religion.
o Seeks to promote secularism by applying the same set of laws to all citizens.
2. Gender Justice:
o Addresses gender disparities in personal laws, such as inheritance rights,
divorce, and maintenance.
o Aims to provide equal rights to women across all religions.
3. National Integration:
o A common set of laws is seen as a means to unify the diverse population of
India.
o Reduces community-specific legal provisions that can sometimes lead to
communal tensions.
Statistics and Data
1. Gender Disparities:
o Inheritance: Under Hindu law, daughters have equal inheritance rights.
However, under Muslim law, daughters inherit half of what sons inherit.
o Divorce: Hindu law requires judicial intervention for divorce, whereas
Muslim men can divorce through triple talaq (now banned).
o Maintenance: Varies significantly across religious laws, with some providing
limited maintenance for women post-divorce.
2. Marriage and Divorce Rates:
o
Hindu Marriage: Approximately 90% of the population follows Hindu
personal law.
o Muslim Marriage: Accounts for 10% of the population, with a higher rate of
polygamy compared to Hindus.
o Interfaith Marriages: The Special Marriage Act is used by a small
percentage of the population for interfaith marriages.
3. Legal Cases:
o Triple Talaq Cases: Before the ban, thousands of triple talaq cases were
reported annually, highlighting the need for uniformity.
o Inheritance Disputes: Frequent in communities with unequal inheritance
laws, leading to a significant number of legal battles.
Case Studies
1. Goa Civil Code:
o Goa is the only state with a UCC, which is derived from the Portuguese Civil
Code of 1867.
o Features: Provides equal treatment for all citizens regarding marriage,
divorce, and succession.
o Impact: Seen as a model for UCC implementation, promoting equality and
reducing legal disputes.
2. Shah Bano Case (1985):
o Background: Shah Bano, a Muslim woman, was denied maintenance postdivorce under Muslim personal law.
o Supreme Court Ruling: Granted maintenance under the Criminal Procedure
Code, leading to widespread debate and the eventual enactment of the Muslim
Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986.
3. Sarla Mudgal Case (1995):
o Background: Addressed the issue of Hindu men converting to Islam to marry
again without divorcing their first wives.
o Supreme Court Ruling: Emphasized the need for a UCC to prevent misuse
of personal laws.
Conclusion
The implementation of a Uniform Civil Code in India remains a complex and contentious
issue, balancing the need for equality and secularism with respect for religious diversity. The
current personal laws exhibit significant disparities, particularly in terms of gender justice.
The UCC aims to unify these laws to promote equality, but its implementation requires
careful consideration of cultural and religious sensitivities. The experiences of states like Goa
and landmark legal cases highlight both the potential benefits and challenges of implementing
a UCC in a diverse society like India.