ANCIENT GREECE 1. The geography of Ancient Greece Ancient Greek civilisation developed in three distinct regions around the Aegean Sea: - European Greece was in the south of the Balkan Peninsula. The most important areas were Attica and the Peloponnese Peninsula. - Asian Greece was along the coasts of the Anatolian Peninsula (present-day Turkey). This was called Asia Minor. - The Greek Islands were the islands and archipelagos in the Aegean Sea, between European and Asian Greece. These regions were mountainous, with small plains and valleys that were isolated from each other, but faced the sea. This natural environment explains many of the characteristics of Greek civilisation. - Due to the topography and low rainfall of the Mediterranean climate, there was a insufficient agricultural production. The main agricultural products were wheat, grapes and olives. - As a consequence, trade developed with other peoples. Travelling over land was difficult, so sea trade developed. - The topography contributed to isolation and political division, so a united Greek state never emerged. Instead, there were various independent city-states called polis. Despite the isolation of the polis, they all shared the same language, culture and religion. They were all part of the same civilisation: all Ancient Greeks identified with Helladic1 culture (remember that the Ancient Greece was called Hellas) and all Ancient Greeks identified the people who weren’t Hellenes2 as barbarians. 1 Bronze Age culture around the Aegean Sea. 2 Person of Helladic descent. 2. The origins of Greek civilisation 2.1. The Minoan civilisation (2000 – 1450 B.C.) This was the first civilisation to develop in Europe. It emerged on the islands of Crete and Thira (which is now called Santorini). The Minoans traded around the Mediterranean, both selling (ceramics, wine, oil…) and buying (mostly metals). Due to their contact with Egypt, they developed a type of hieroglyphic writing. Because they controlled the seas, the Minoans didn’t need to build walls to defend themselves from other peoples. The centre of urban life was the palace. The most important one is the Palace of Knossos, in Crete. Around 1500 B.C. a huge volcanic eruption took place in the island of Thira, which it also affected Crete. Soon afterwards, the Mycenean civilisation invaded. 2.2. Mycenaean civilisation (1600 – 1200 B.C.) In around 1600 B.C., the Achaeans, the first Greek speakers, settled in European Greece and established the Mycenaean civilisation. The most important city was Mycenae. The Mycenaeans were a warlike civilisation. They used superior technology, like bronze weapons and chariots3, to easily conquer the Minoans. During this period, the Trojan War took place. This conflict later became the subject of Homer’s legendary tales, The Iliad and The Odyssey. 2.3. The Greek Dark Age (1200 – 750 B.C.) Around the year 1200 B.C., the Dorians invaded with their superior iron weapons. They occupied Crete and the Peloponnese Peninsula. The Dorians displaced4 other peoples, such as the Aeolians and Ionians, both settling on the coast of Asia Minor. The following centuries were a period of political, economic and cultural decline. This period is called the Dark Age because little information has survived from it. 3 Vehicle with two wheels that horses pulled, for fighting. 4 Force to move to another area. 3. The Archaic Age and colonisation (750 – 550 B.C.) During the Archaic Age, the population of the polis increased. Harvests were often insufficient. As a result, farmers became poor and were in risk of becoming slaves. Some inhabitants began to emigrate5 in search of a better life. Between the 8th and 6th centuries B.C. there were organised group migrations from the polis. These emigrants looked for places with agricultural and trading potential. There, they established new cities called colonies. The polis they had come from were called metropolises. The colonies had the same political and social structure as the metropolises, and their inhabitants enjoyed the same privileges. The main colonies were in the coastal region of the Black Sea, on the Italian Peninsula and Sicily, on Southern France and on the Iberian Peninsula. As a result of these colonies, the Greeks established a trade network throughout the Mediterranean. They started using coins, such as the silver drachma of Athens. 3.1. The Phoenicians The Phoenicians came from the Eastern Mediterranean coast, between Egypt and Mesopotamia. Similarly to the Greeks, they lived in independent city-states. The Phoenicians were expert sailors who specialized in sea trade. They established trading posts6 in the coasts of North Africa, Sicily and the Iberian Peninsula. In many cases, these trading posts developed into colonies and even major maritime powers, such as Carthage (present-day Tunisia). The Phoenicians invented the alphabet (remember than in an alphabet the signs represented sounds rather than ideas). This only consisted of consonants, but the Greeks adopted this and added vowels. 4. The Classical Age 4.1. Athens Poverty in the countryside led to social revolts in Athens against the abuses of the aristocracy (rembember: a small group of people of the highest class who have the power). In the early 6th century B.C. Solon introduced reforms to reduce the power of the aristocracy. Later, the tyrants ruled. Tyrants defended the people against the aristocracy, but were authoritarian. 5 Leave one’s native country to settle in another. 6 Settlement in a remote area established for trade. In the late 6th century, Cleisthenes introduced reforms: the aristocracy had to share their power with the free people, who became citizens. These citizens had the same political rights, paid the same taxes and went through the same military service. However, this status had its restrictions. Women, metics7 and slaves weren’t considered citizens. Athens had a direct democracy8. To protect it, ostracism appeared. This meant that the citizens could vote to expel the people from the polis who they thought were too popular or powerful, and thus presented a risk of becoming tyrants. These were the most important institutions in Athens: - Assembly or Ekklesia. It passed laws, declared war, made peace treaties and appointed magistrates. All citizens could participate in it. - Council of the Five Hundred or Boule. It wrote laws for the Assembly to pass. They chose their members by drawing lots9. - Supreme Courts or Heliaia. It administered justice using a jury. 201 (or 501 in some cases) citizens heard each case and decided if the accused has innocent or guilty. - Magistrates. People nominated by the Assembly each year, who were in charge of implementing its decisions. It included military strategists, archons10 and treasurers11. Under the governor Pericles, the 5th century B.C. became the golden age of politics, arts, sciences and philosophy. He commissioned the building of beautiful monuments and made Athens the cultural centre of Ancient Greece. 4.2. Sparta Instead of emigrating and founding colonies, the Spartans conquered neighbouring lands. Sparta created a powerful army consisting of its citizens, who dedicated their lives to military training. The helots12 became their slaves. They performed a range of non-military tasks. 7 Foreigners who had to pay taxes to live in Ancient Athens. 8 Type of democracy in which people make decisions directly, without representatives. 9 System in which each person takes a piece of paper and those who select the marked ones win. 10 Highest magistrates in Athens. 11 Person who manages finances. 12 Person who the Spartans defeated in war. The Spartan political system was an oligarchy13. It was a combination of a monarchy, an aristocracy and a democracy. It consisted of: - Two kings. They inherited their positions and led the army and religious acts. - Assembly or Apella. It was a meeting of citycens with political rights who were over 30 years old. They had limited power, as they could only accept or reject the proposals of the Gerousia. - The Gerousia. It was a council of 28 elders, who the Assembly appointed to make proposals. - Five ephors. These five people kept order, monitored the kings and presided over the Apella and Gerousia. 4.3. The Greco-Persian Wars (499 – 449 B.C.) By the 5th century B.C., the Persians had conquered many lands and formed a huge empire. The Greeks in Asia Minor fought against the Persians with the help of Athens, but Darius I defeated them. When Darius I tried to conquer Greece, Athens and Sparta led the alliance of the Greeks polis in the Greco-Persian Wars. In the first war, Darius I conquered various regions of Greece- However, when he attacked Athens, the Greeks defeated him at the Battle of Marathon (490 B.C.). In the second war, the Persian emperor Xerxes II attacked Greece with a powerful army in 480 B.C. The Greeks, led by Spartan King Leonidas I, lost the Battle of the Termopylae. However, the Athenians defeated Xerxes’ fleet at Salamis and won the Battle of Platea (479 B.C.). The victorious Greek polis divided into two alliances. Athens led the Delos League and Sparta led the Peloponnesian League. 4.4. The Peloponnesian Wars (431 – 404 B.C.) The rivalry between Athens and Sparta caused the Peloponnesian Wars. In this series of conflicts, Athens and its allies fought against Sparta and its allies. Although Athens lost the wars, the conflict severely weakened Sparta and most of the other polis as well. 13 Political system in which a minority holds power. 5. The Hellenistic Age After the Peloponnesian wars, the Greek polis continued to fight each other. The wars continued to weaken the polis and Phillip II, the King of Macedonia, took advantage of this and conquered them. 5.1. The conquests of Alexander the Great Some years later, Phillip II was killed when he was planning to start a war against Persia. His son and successor, Alexander, then led a military campaign against the Persian Empire. The Macedonian army was much smaller, but Alexander made it invincible. He defeated Darius III and went on to conquer the whole Persian Empire. He then conquered western India after the Battle of the Hydapses (326 B.C.). Because of all these conquests he was named Alexander the Great. 5.2. The Hellenistic kingdoms When Alexander died in 323 B.C., his generals fought each other and eventually divided the empire. Each general made himself king of a region, which later became the Hellenistic kingdoms. Antigonus ruled in Macedonia and Greece, Seleucus ruled in Mesopotamia and Persia, and Ptolemy became the king of Egypt. Alexandria, which Alexander founded in Egypt, became the capital of the Ptolemaic dynasty and the most spectacular city at that time. Other important Hellenistic cities were Pergamon, Miletus and Antioch, the capital of the Seleucid Empire. In the Hellenistic kingdoms, Greek art, religion and culture mixed with eastern traditions, creating Hellenism. A form of Greek, called Koine, became the official language. In the 2nd century B.C., a new military power, Rome, began to conquer the Hellenistic kingdoms. 6. Economy Agriculture was very important in Ancient Greece. Productivity was low, however. The main crops were wheat, grapes and olives. The main livestock were sheep, goats, pigs and donkeys. In the polis, there were many artisans who made leather products, perfumes, ceramics and fabric. There was extensive trade between the metropolises and their colonies. The farmers and artisans also sold their products in the markets of the polis. 7. Society From the Archaic Age onwards, society in Ancient Greece consisted of these groups: - Aristocrats. They were members of rich families who owned large farms and were politically powerful. - Free people. They were traders, artisans or farmers who lived modestly. Men served in the army and, in return for that service, they could participate in the assemblies and own property and land. - Metics. They were free people who didn’t have political rights. They had to pay some taxes to live in the polis. They were traders or artisans. The freed slaves had a similar status. - Slaves. They were many of them, as they were the main workforce. Slaves were barbarians who had been captured by the Greeks as prisoners of war. However, some slaves were ex-citizens who couldn’t pay their debts. Slaves worked in agriculture, craftwork, mining, administration and domestic service. Greece was a patriarchal14 society and women had no political or legal rights. They always depended on a man: their father, brother or husband. Most women worked and carried out domestic tasks. Aristocratic women didn’t work and spent most of their time in the gynaeceum15. Women didn’t receive much education. 7.1. Education In Athens, only boys received a formal education. It included literature, music and gymnastics. They had to memorise extract the works of the great poets, such as Homer’s The Illiad and The Odyssey. Women taught girls some basic concepts at home. In Sparta, boys left home at the age of seven years. At that point they became the responsibility of the state and lived with other boys of their age. They studied music and received military training. Spartan girls received a similar education to Spartan boys, mainly consisting of music, gymnastics and other types of sports. 8. Life in the polis The polis consisted of the city and the surrounding countryside. These lands were called chora and were owned by the aristocracy and free people. They included villages and land for growing crops and keeping livestock. 14 In which men make the decisions. 15 Part of the house exclusively for women’s use in Ancient Greece. The city had a high and low area. The high area, called the acropolis, had a defensive wall around it. The most important place was the agora or central square, which was the social centre of the city. There were covered passageways with columns called stoas around the agora. The most important buildings were located around this space. 9. Culture 9.1. Religion The Greeks were polytheists. They believed their gods were human in form and lived on Mount Olympus. Both gods and humans were the subjects of stories that explained natural phenomena, political events and customs. These are called myths, and together we call them mythology. Gods had virtues and defects like humans (they searched for love, fun and revenge). However, they were also immortal and had great power nature and man’s destiny. To predict the future or the wishes of the gods, the Greeks searched for omens16 and visited oracles, sacred places where the gods spoke through seers17. Their messages were usually ambiguous and mysterious. The most famous oracle was in the city of Delphi, which became a very important sanctuary for the Greeks. Each polis worshipped a guardian spirit in public. Families also worshipped the gods at altars in their homes. Sometimes the Greeks sacrificed animals to please the gods. In addition, the Greeks held events to honour the gods, as theatrical contests and sports competitions. The most important event was the Olympic Games, which was held in Olympia every four years. 9.2. Philosophy Philosophy originated in Ancient Greece. Greek philosophers were the first thinkers to reject18 mythical explanations (mythos) and use logic reasoning (logos). They reflected in everything that affected human beings: nature, laws, politics and morals. The most important Greek philosophers were Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. 16 Event signaling the arrival of something good or evil. 17 Person who the Ancient Greeks believed could predict the future. 18 Not accept or believe something. 9.3. Literature Epic poetry developed. Poems told the stories of heroes, mythological beings who were the children of a god and a human. The most famous Greek heroes are Theseus, Perseus, Heracles and Achilles. Two of the most important epic poems were Homer’s The Illiad and The Odyssey. 9.4. Theatre, history and science Theatre was very important. The actors were all men, who wore masks that showed the feelings of the characters. They wore disguises19 to play the roles of women because only men could act. Greek plays20 were tragedies and comedies: - Tragedies. Mythical or epic stories which usually ended with the death of the main character. - Comedies. Plays in which actors impersonated21 and made fun of people. The Ancient Greeks made great developments in history and all the sciences, thanks to rational thinking. 10. Art The Greeks based their ideal of beauty on balance and harmony. Artistic creations focused on the human form and used specific proportions based on ideal models. The Greeks painted their buildings and sculptures. These colours haven’t survived, so for a long time we believed they were monochrome. 10.1. Architecture The main characteristic of Greek architecture is the use of straight lines. The Greeks didn’t use arches, domes or vaults and the covered their buildings with lintels. The most important building was the temple, which was the house of the gods. Only priests, who looked after the treasure inside, could enter. Religious ceremonies happened outside. Most temples had rectangular floor plans, but some had circular ones called tholos. They had a stepped platform with columns, called a peristyle. On top of the columns there was an entablature22 to support the weigh of the roof. Temples had 19 Something you wear to change your identity. 20 Theatre performances. 21 Imitate another person. 22 Horizontal structure on top of a column. sloped roofs with a triangular piece at each of the ends, called pediment. Pediments and entablatures were decorated with statues and reliefs. The Greeks also built: - Stadiums. Rectangular buildings with on semicircular end, where they held sports events. - Hippodromes. Rectangular buildings with both semicircular ends, where they held chariot races. - Gymnasiums and palaestra (wrestling schools). - Theatres. They were built on mountain slopes to create circular rows of seats. - Porticos. A roof supported by columns attached to a building. It sheltered people from the sun. 10.2. Sculpture The Greeks tried to achieve proportion, balance and beauty in their sculptures. They were made of wood, limestone, marble and bronze. The human form was the main subject. Archaic Age Egyptian sculptures influenced the Greek ones. The figures had rigid, static postures. They faced forwards and their faces had big eyes and a forced smile, called Archaic smile. The best examples are nude figures of men called Kouros and clothed women called Korai. Classical Age Sculptures aimed for idealized beauty through perfect proportion. This was called the canon. Polykleitos, a sculptor, established that the body should be seven times the size of the head. Among other famous sculptors (Myron, Phidias, Lysippus, Scopas…), Praxiteles is one of the best example of Ancient Greeks’ obsession with the human figure. He created the contraposto technique to give movement to the figures, giving them the shape of an inverted ‘S’. Hellenistic Age Sculptures became more expressive. Apart from idealized beauty, Greeks depicted human emotions and bodies in movement. 10.3. Painting Few examples of Greek painting have survived, except on pottery. The Greeks decorated ceramics with geometric and organic patterns. Later, they used black figures on a red background, red figures on a black background and figures in various colours on a white background.
