TD Theme:
Where we are in place and time
Central idea:
Evidence of ancient civilizations facilitate people make connections with present
day societies.
Lines of Inquiry
Characteristics of civilizations and societies- function
Relationship involved in collection, analyzing and validationConnection between past, present and implications for the future
Key concepts
Function, Connection, Causation
Related concepts
Continuity, progress, difference, Validity
What is civilization?
A civilization is a complex society that is characterized by urban development,
social stratification, a form of government, and symbolic systems of
communication.
A civilization is a complex human society, usually made up of different cities, with
certain characteristics of cultural and technological development. In many parts of
the world, early civilizations formed when people began coming together
in urban settlements. However, defining what civilization is, and what societies fall
under that designation, is a hotly contested argument, even among today’s
anthropologists. Anthropologists take a broad approach to understanding the many
different aspects of the human experience, which we call holism. They consider the
past, through archaeology, to see how human groups lived hundreds or thousands
of years ago and what was important to them.
The word “civilization” relates to the Latin word “civitas” or “city.” This is why the
most basic definition of the word “civilization” is “a society made up of cities.” But
early in the development of the term, anthropologists and others used “civilization”
and “civilized society” to differentiate between societies they found culturally
superior (which they were often a part of), and those they found culturally inferior
(which they referred to as “savage” or “barbaric” cultures). The term “civilization”
was often applied in an ethnocentric way, with “civilizations” being considered
morally good and culturally advanced, and other societies being morally wrong and
“backward.” This complicated history is what makes defining a civilization
troublesome for scholars, and why today’s modern definition is still in flux.
Still, most anthropologists agree on some criteria to define a society as a
civilization. First, civilizations have some kind of urban settlements and are
not nomadic. With support from the other people living in the settlement, labor is
divided up into specific jobs (called the division of labor), so not everyone has to
focus on growing their own food. From this specialization comes class structure
and government, both aspects of a civilization. Another criterion for civilization is
a surplus of food, which comes from having tools to aid in growing crops. Writing,
trading, artwork and monuments, and development of science and technology are
all aspects of civilizations.
However, there are many societies that scholars consider civilizations that do not
meet all of the criteria above. For example, the Incan Empire((1438-1533) empire
stretching along the coastal highlands and Andes mountains of South
America.) was a large civilization with a government and social hierarchy. It left
behind a wealth of art, and had highly developed architecture—but no written
language. This is why the concept of “civilization” is hard to define; however, it is
still a helpful framework with which to view how humans come together and form a
society.
Civilization describes a complex way of life that came about as people began to
develop networks of urban settlements- An Urban settlement is a
concentrated settlement that constitutes or is part of an urban area. It is an area
with high density of human-created structures. These geometrical patterns are
usually in squares and rectangles and are well laid out.
The earliest civilizations developed between 4000 and 3000 BCE, when the rise
of agriculture and trade allowed people to have surplus food
and economic stability. Many people no longer had to practice farming, allowing a
diverse array of professions and interests to flourish in a relatively confined area.
Civilizations first appeared in Mesopotamia (what is now Iraq) and later in Egypt.
Civilizations thrived in the Indus Valley by about 2500 BCE, in China by about 1500
BCE and in Central America (what is now Mexico) by about 1200 BCE. Civilizations
ultimately developed on every continent except Antarctica.
What are the characteristics of Civilization
All civilizations have certain characteristics. These include: (1) large population
centres; (2) monumental architecture and unique art styles; (3) shared
communication strategies; (4) systems for administering territories; (5) a complex
division of labour; and (6) the division of people into social and economic classes.
Urban Areas
Large population centers, or urban areas (1), allow civilizations to develop, although
people who live outside these urban centers are still part of that region’s
civilization. Rural residents of civilizations may include farmers, fishers, and
traders, who regularly sell their goods and services to urban residents.
The huge urban center of Teotihuacan, in modern-day Mexico, for example, had as
many as 200,000 residents between 300 and 600 CE. The development of the
Teotihuacano civilization was made possible in part by the rich agricultural land
surrounding the city. As land was cultivated, fewer farmers could supply more food
staples, such as corn and beans, to more people.
Trade also played a part in Teotihuacan’s urban development. Much of the wealth
and power of Teotihuacan was due to excavating and trading the rich deposits
of obsidian around the city. Obsidian is a hard volcanic rock that was highly valued
as a cutting tool. Teotihuacano merchants traded (exported) obsidian to
surrounding cultures in exchange for goods and services imported to Teotihuacano
settlements.
Monuments
All civilizations work to preserve their legacy by building large monuments and
structures (2). This is as true today as it was thousands of years ago.
For example, the ancient monuments at Great Zimbabwe are still consistently used
as a symbol of political power in the modern nation of Zimbabwe. Great Zimbabwe,
constructed between 1100 and 1450, describes the ruins of the capital of the
Kingdom of Zimbabwe. At its peak, Great Zimbabwe was inhabited by more than
10,000 people and was part of a trading network that extended from the Maghreb,
through the eastern coast of Africa, and as far east as India and China.
Great Zimbabwe is a testament to the sophistication and ingenuity of ancestors of
the local Shona people. Politicians like Robert Mugabe, the president who led
Zimbabwe for nearly 40 years in the 20th and 21st centuries, built their entire
political identities by associating themselves with the ancient civilization’s
monumental architecture.
Buildings are not the only monuments that define civilizations. The distinct artistic
style of Great Zimbabwe included representations of native animals carved in
soapstone. The stylized stone sculptures known as “Zimbabwe Birds”, for example,
remain an emblem of Zimbabwe, appearing on the nation’s flag, currency, and coats
of arms.
Shared Communication
Shared communication (3) is another element that all civilizations share. Shared
communication may include spoken language; alphabets; numeric systems; signs,
ideas, and symbols; and illustration and representation.
Shared communication allows the infrastructure necessary for technology,
trade, cultural exchange, and government to be developed and shared throughout
the civilization. The Inca civilization, for example, had no written script that we
know of, but its complex khipu system of accounting allowed the government to
conduct censuses of its population and production across the vast stretch of the
Andes mountains. A khipu is a recording device made of a series of strings knotted
in particular patterns and colors.
Written language in particular allows civilizations to record their own history and
everyday events—crucial for understanding ancient cultures. The world's oldest
known written language is Sumerian, which developed in Mesopotamia around 3100
BCE. The most familiar form of early Sumerian writing was called cuneiform, and
was made up of different collections of wedge (triangle) shapes. The earliest
Sumerian writing was record-keeping. Just like written records of modern
civilizations, Sumerian cuneiform kept track of taxes, grocery bills, and laws for
things like theft.
Written language was a key part of shared communication during the Islamic
Golden Age, which flourished in southern Europe, northern Africa, and western Asia
from the seventh to the 13th centuries. So-called “Arabic numerals” and the Arabic
language were shared communications that allowed diverse cultures across the
Arabic world to contribute the dazzling advances in mathematics, science,
technology, and the arts.
Infrastructure and Administration
All civilizations rely on government administration—bureaucracy. (4) Perhaps no
civilization better exemplifies this than ancient Rome.
The word “civilization” itself comes from the Latin word civis, meaning
"citizen." Latin was the language of ancient Rome, whose territory stretched from
the Mediterranean basin all the way to parts of Great Britain in the north and the
Black Sea to the east. To rule an area that large, the Romans, based in what is now
central Italy, needed an effective system of government administration and
infrastructure.
Romans used a variety of methods to administer their republic and,
later, empire. Engineering, for instance, was a key part of Roman administration.
Romans built a network of roads so that communication between far-away
territories was as efficient as possible. Roads also made travel by the
Roman military much easier. Romans built structures of their civilization
everywhere they went: aqueducts supplied freshwater to towns for
improved sanitation and hygiene, for example.
Language also played a part in Roman infrastructure. Romans spread the Latin
language throughout southern Europe. The so-called "Romance languages"
(Spanish, French, Portuguese, Romanian, Catalan, and Italian) are called that
because they all developed from the Roman language: Latin. Having a similar
language made communication and leadership easier for Rome in its far-flung
territories.
Roman leaders relied on a series of legal codes for administration. These codes
helped structure laws between different parts of Roman territory, as well as
between rich and poor, men and women, slave and free. Roman laws included
restrictions on marriage, ownership of land, and access to professions such as
priesthoods.
One of Rome’s most lasting contributions to Western Civilization was the
establishment of legal culture itself. Roman law was largely public, and jurists
created such formalities as legal language and procedure that would define
European law for centuries. In fact, “Roman law” describes the legal system used
throughout Western Europe through the 18th century.
Finally, Romans used local leaders, as well as Romans, to administer the law in their
territories. Residents were more familiar with their own leaders, and more likely to
follow their announcements. Israeli leaders worked with Roman authorities in the
Roman territory of Palestine, for example, while British leaders often worked with
Romans on the island of Great Britain. Some people born in Roman territories
eventually became Roman emperors: The emperor Constantine, for instance, was
born in what is now Serbia; the emperor Hadrian may have been born in what is now
Spain. This interaction reduced conflict between Rome and its territories.
Division of Labor
Civilizations are marked by complex divisions of labor (5). This means that different
people perform specialized tasks. In a purely agricultural society, members of the
community are largely self-sufficient, and can provide food, shelter, and clothing
for themselves. In a complex civilization, farmers may cultivate one type
of crop and depend on other people for other foods, clothing, shelter, and
information.
Civilizations that depend on trade are specially marked by divisions of labor. The
city of Timbuktu, in what is now Mali, was an important trading center for several
African civilizations. Residents of Timbuktu specialized in trading such goods as
gold, ivory, or slaves. Other residents provided food or shelter for trade caravans
traveling on camels from the Sahara Desert. The urban center of Timbuktu was also
a center of learning. Its division of labor included not only merchants, but doctors,
religious leaders, and artists.
Class Structure
The last element that is key to the development of civilizations is the division of
people into classes (6). This is a complex idea that can be broken down into two
parts: income and type of work performed. Changing classes has traditionally been
difficult and happens over generations.
Classes can mean groups of people divided by their income. This division is
sometimes characterized as “economic class.” Modern Western Civilization often
divides economic classes into wealthy, middle-class, and poor.
In medieval civilizations of Europe, there were fewer economic classes. Kings and
queens had enormous amounts of money and land. Serfs, or people who worked the
land, had almost nothing. Eventually, a merchant economic class developed.
Class can also refer to the type of work people perform. There are many divisions of
social class. Social class is often associated with economic class, but not strictly
defined by it.
In the ancient civilization of China, there were four major types of social classes.
Scholars and political leaders (known as shi) were the most powerful social class.
Farmers and agricultural workers (nong) were the next most-powerful group.
Artists (gong), who made everything from horseshoes to silk robes, were the next
order of social class. At the bottom of the social classes were the merchants and
traders, who bought and sold goods and services. Known as shang, these
merchants were often much wealthier than the other classes but had a lower social
status.
Development of Civilization
Civilizations expand through trade, conflict, and exploration. Usually, all three
elements must be present for a civilization to grow and remain stable for a long
period of time.
The physical and human geography of Southeast Asia allowed these attributes to
develop in the Khmer civilization, for example. The Khmer flourished in parts of
what are now Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Myanmar between 800 and
1400.
Trade
The Khmer maintained vibrant trading relationships throughout East Asia,
the Indian subcontinent, and even Europe and Africa through the Silk Road, a
collection of both overland and maritime trade routes.
The Silk Road linked the spice and silk markets of Asia with the merchants of
Europe. Southeast Asia’s extensive network of waterways facilitated trade, with the
Khmer capital of Angkor being built on the shores of Southeast Asia’s largest
freshwater lake, Tonle Sap. The outflowing Tonle Sap River is a tributary of the
mighty Mekong River, which connects Southeast Asia with the Tibetan Plateau in
the north and the South China Sea in the south.
In addition to material goods, the Khmer civilization facilitated a powerful trade in
ideas. In particular, the Khmer were instrumental in spreading the influence
of Buddhist and Hindu cultures from the Indian subcontinent to Southeast and East
Asia.
Conflict
The primary conflicts of the Khmer civilization were waged with neighboring
communities—the Cham, the Vietnamese, and the Thai. The Cham were a collection
of kingdoms in what is today central and southern Vietnam, while the ancient
Vietnamese influence extended through what is today northern Vietnam. Thai
kingdoms such as Sukothai and Ayutthaya flourished in what are now Thailand,
Cambodia, and Malaysia.
The Khmer civilization was founded on the consistent resistance of political
pressure from the Cham and Vietnamese, but it ultimately could not withstand
pressure from Thai civilizations. Thousands of Thai peoples migrated from the
north (what is now the Yunnan region of China), establishing small kingdoms in the
southwest of the Khmer Empire. Eventually, these kingdoms became strong
enough to annex Khmer territory, leading to Ayutthaya’s conquest of the Khmer
capital of Angkor in 1431.
Exploration and Innovation
The Khmer civilization relied heavily on rice farming, and developed a
complex irrigation system to take advantage of the rivers and wetlands that dotted
their territory. An efficient series of irrigation canals and reservoirs,
called barays, allowed fewer farmers to produce more rice. This, in turn, allowed
more people to pursue non-agricultural lifestyles and migrate to great urban areas,
such as Angkor.
Angkor, the capital of the ancient Khmer civilization, is home to one of the largest
most distinctive religious monuments in the world, Angkor Wat. Angkor Wat was
originally constructed as a series of shrines to the Hindu god Vishnu in the early
12th century, although it became a Buddhist temple complex less than a hundred
years later.
Angkor Wat and its sister complex, Angkor Thom, are beautiful examples of classic
Khmer architecture. The towering, stepped pyramid towers of Angkor Wat are
called “temple mountains.” The towers are surrounded by open gallery walkways,
and the entire structure is enclosed by a wall and square moat. The thousands of
square meters of wall space at Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom are decorated by
thousands of bas-reliefs and sculptures depicting Hindu stories and characters.
The Khmer monument at Angkor Wat helps define the modern nation of Cambodia
today. It is the nation’s primary tourist attraction, a World Heritage Site, and even
appears on the Cambodian flag.
Fall of Civilizations
Many civilizations have flourished and then failed or fallen apart. There are many
reasons for this, but many historians point to three patterns in the fall of
civilizations: internal change, external pressure, and environmental collapse. The
fall of civilizations is never the result of a single event or pattern.
Sometimes, civilizations seem to “disappear” entirely.
Internal Change
Population dynamics are the most pervasive forces of internal change to a
civilization. A sudden population shift or a shift in demographics may force a
civilization’s infrastructure to break down.
Populations may grow, due to migration or a period of unusual health. Populations
may shrink, due to disease, extreme weather, or other environmental factors.
Finally, populations may redefine themselves. As civilizations grow, cities may grow
larger and become more culturally distinct from rural, agricultural areas. Large
empires may extend across such large regions that languages, cultures, and
customs may dilute the identity of the empire’s residents.
Internal changes contributed to the collapse of the Maya civilization, which
had thrived in Mesoamerica for more than a thousand years. The “Classic Maya”
collapse happened relatively quickly in the 800s. Diseases such as dysentery and
lethal hemorrhagic fevers killed and disabled thousands of Mayans. Millions more
were forced to relocate from cities to more rural areas. Such huge population shifts
reduced the ability of the Maya to communicate, administrate, and unite against
outside forces and natural disasters (such as drought).
External Pressure
The clearest example of external pressure on a civilization is foreign invasion or
sustained warfare. Protecting a civilization’s borders can be extremely expensive
and demand a strong military at the expense of developing or maintaining
other aspects of a civilization.
External pressure can lead to the relatively abrupt end of a civilization (and, often,
the adoption of another). The fall of the Aztec Empire with the arrival of
European conquistadores is such an example.
External pressures can also lead to the gradual diminishing of a civilization. The
“fall” of what we often think of as Ancient Egypt is a good example of how external
pressures can redefine a civilization over hundreds of years. Egypt had faced
longstanding, intermittent conflict on its borders, with competing civilizations such
as the Nubians (to the south), the Assyrians (in the Middle East), and the Libyans (to
the west). Later, Egypt encountered the civilizations of Ancient Greece and Rome,
and eventually became part of the Roman Empire.
Ancient Egypt also faced external pressures not directly associated with armed
conflict. The powerful forces of Christianity and Islam influenced the eradication of
both hieroglyphics, the writing system of Ancient Egypt, and
its polytheistic religion.
Environmental Collapse
Some anthropologists think that both natural disasters and misuse of the
environment contributed to the decline of many civilizations.
Natural hazards such as drought, floods, and tsunamis, become natural disasters as
they impact civilizations.
Drought contributed to the fall of civilizations such as the Maya and the Indus Valley
or Harappan civilization. The Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age civilization
in what is now Pakistan, India, and Afghanistan. The Indus Valley Civilization
depended on seasonal monsoon rains to supply water for drinking, hygiene, and
irrigation. Climate change made monsoons much more unpredictable and seasonal
flooding less reliable. Harappans suffered from water-borne diseases and were
unable to effectively irrigate their crops.
The collapse of Minoan civilization, a major influence on Ancient Greece, is often
associated with a catastrophic eruption of the Thera volcano on the island of what
is now Santorini. The eruption caused a massive tsunami that reduced the
population, trading capabilities, and influence of the Minoans.
Human activity can also strain the environment to the point of a civilization’s
collapse. One of several factors contributing to the collapse of the Viking outpost in
Greenland, for instance, was the failure of European settlers to adapt to
Greenland’s climate and soil. Farming methods that were successful in the
rich, loamy soils of Northern Europe were ill-suited to Greenland’s colder, thinner
soil and shorter growing seasons. The land could not support the crops necessary
to sustain Viking livestock, including goats, cattle, and sheep. In addition, the land
itself was harvested for peat, the outpost’s primary construction material. The
Vikings in Greenland also faced internal pressures, such as a weak trading system
with Europe, and external pressures, such as a hostile relationship with their Inuit
neighbors.
‘Lost Civilizations’
History and myth are rich with “lost civilizations,” entire ways of life that seemed to
flourish and then disappear from the historical record.
The disappearance of the Ancestral Puebloan civilization is one such mystery.
Ancestral Puebloan civilization thrived in what is now the Four Corners region of
Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona. Ancestral Puebloan civilization developed
around 1200 BCE and thrived for more than a thousand years.
Ancestral Puebloan civilization was marked by monumental architecture in the
form of apartment-like cliff dwellings and large urban areas known as pueblos.
Culturally diverse Ancestral Puebloans were connected by a complex road system, a
standard style of religious worship, and a unique art style evidenced by pottery
and petroglyphs.
Ancestral Puebloans seem to have abandoned their urban areas around 1300 CE.
The disappearance of this civilization remains a mystery, although most scientists
say Ancestral Puebloans engaged in warfare with their Navajo neighbors, internal
groups competed for land and resources, and sustained droughts reduced
Ancestral Puebloan ability to irrigate crops in the arid Southwest.
The Pueblo people never disappeared, of course: Diverse groups developed their
own, competing civilizations after the Ancestral Puebloans migrated or fell apart.
These groups include the Zuni and Hopi civilizations.
A civilization is a complex culture in which large numbers of human beings share a
number of common elements. Historians have identified the basic characteristics
of civilizations. Six of the most important characteristics are: cities, government,
religion, social structure, writing and art.
River valley civilization
The First Civilizations
The first civilizations formed on the banks of rivers. The most notable examples are
the Ancient Egyptians, who were based on the Nile, the Mesopotamians in the
Fertile Crescent on the Tigris/Euphrates rivers, the Ancient Chinese on the Yellow
River, and the Ancient India on the Indus. These early civilizations began to form
around the time of the Neolithic Revolution (12000 BCE). Rivers were attractive
locations for the first civilizations because they provided a steady supply of
drinking water and made the land fertile for growing crops. Moreover, goods and
people could be transported easily, and the people in these civilizations could fish
and hunt the animals that came to drink water. Additionally, those lost in the
wilderness could return to civilization by traveling downstream, where the major
centers of human population tend to concentrate.
Hydraulic Empires
Though each civilization was uniquely different, we can see common patterns
amongst these first civilizations since they were all based around rivers. Most
notably, these early civilizations were all hydraulic empires. A hydraulic empire (also
known as hydraulic despotism, or water monopoly empire) is a social or
governmental structure which maintains power through exclusive control over
water access. This system of government arises through the need for flood control
and irrigation, which requires central coordination and a specialized bureaucracy.
This political structure is commonly characterized by a system of hierarchy and
control based around class or caste. Power, both over resources (food, water,
energy) and a means of enforcement, such as the military, are vital for the
maintenance of control.
The most notable examples are the Ancient Egyptians, who were based on the Nile,
the Mesopotamians in the Fertile Crescent on the Tigris/Euphrates rivers, the
Ancient Chinese on the Yellow River, and the Ancient India on the Indus.
Video link: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/worldhistory-beginnings/ancient-india/v/indus-valley-civilization
Characteristics of civilization
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Advanced Cities. As farmers settled in the fertile river valley, they began to grow
surplus or extra food. ...
Organized Central Government.
Complex Religions.
Job Specialization.
Social Classes.
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Writing.
Art and Architecture.
Public Works.
Types of Civilizations
Indus valley civilization
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Indus civilization, also called Indus valley civilization or Harappan
civilization, the earliest known urban culture of the Indian subcontinent. The
nuclear dates of the civilization appear to be about 2500–1700 BCE, though
the southern sites may have lasted later into the 2nd millennium BCE.
The civilization was first identified in 1921 at Harappa in the Punjab region
and then in 1922 at Mohenjo-daro (Mohenjodaro), near the Indus River in the
Sindh (Sind) region. Both sites are in present-day Pakistan,
in Punjab and Sindh provinces, respectively. The ruins of Mohenjo-daro were
designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1980.
The transmission of cultural heritage from one generation to another could be
possible through various mediums and manuscript is one of them. In the form of
manuscript collection, all the ancient civilizations have preserved their precious
cultural heritage. In fact, manuscripts are the legacy of treasure for them. The
present paper deals with the origin, historical background and various other aspects
of the precious heritage - ‘Manuscript’. Therefore mainly, the secondary sources of
data have been used for the study. Most of the facets are described with the help of
illustrations, bring from various sources. It is found that the beginning of a writing
tradition brought a major change to the human civilization. The manuscripts
available in different forms reflect the background of the cultural heritage of the
civilizations. These are preserved in different libraries, academic institutions,
museums, religious institutions and likewise in private collections of different corner
of the globe. Due to different factors, numerous manuscripts are now in a very
vulnerable condition. The available manuscripts are tried to preserve and make them
accessible as far as possible. It is suggested that every citizen of all the nations
should feel his/her duty to preserve this precious heritage and it is only possible
through making general awareness regarding significance of the explicit knowledge
of our ancestors -‘Manuscript’.
Keywords: Manuscript, Cultural heritage, Legacy of treasure, Manuscript
preservation
Introduction
The transmission of cultural heritage from one generation to another could be
possible through various mediums and manuscript is one of them. Manuscript of a
country not only carries its cultural heritage to each and every corner of it but also
carries that precious heritage to other parts of the world. In the form of manuscript
collection, all the ancient civilizations have preserved their precious cultural
heritage. In fact, manuscripts are the legacy of treasure for them. India is not
exceptional in this regard. There is a treasure of valuable manuscripts in India
showing the richness of its traditional culture.
Etymology, Meaning and Definition
Etymologically, the word ‘Manuscript’ has been originated from the Latin words ‘Manus’ (by hand) and ‘Scriptus’ (written). Thus, it means ‘a document written with a
person’s own hand’. Traditionally, a ‘Manuscript’ was any document written by hand.
Once practical typewriters became available, typewritten documents were also
being included in its category, which were not mechanically printed or replicated in
some indirect or automatic way. Now, the term has included any written, typewritten,
or word-processed copy of the work of authors. It must not be a printed version of
the same. All those documents and books are included in the category of
manuscripts which were written before the invention of printing. On the basis of
contents, manuscripts cannot be determined. Mathematical calculations, maps,
music notation, explanatory figures or illustrations may be combined with writing.
The National Mission for Manuscripts, India defines, ‘A manuscript is a handwritten
composition on paper, bark, cloth, metal, palm leaf or any other material dating back
at least seventyfive years that has significant scientific, historical or aesthetic value’
[1].
Methodology
The present paper deals with the origin, historical background and various other
aspects of the precious heritage - ‘Manuscript’. It is basically a descriptive paper;
therefore, the secondary sources of data have been used mainly for the study. Most
of the facets are described with the help of illustrations bring from various sources.
Discussion
An Unique Search for Expression
The discovery of a way for humans to express their emotions through signs was a
revolutionary change in the development and progress of human civilization. One of
the initial methods of emotional manifestation through signs was ‘Art’.
Prehistoric Art
The prehistoric period began somewhere late in geological history. Prehistoric art is
art emerged in prehistoric and preliterate cultures for expression through signs. This
method of expression was generally continued until that cultures had developed
either script and writing or other techniques of record keeping. Human artefacts in
the Upper Palaeolithic era show earliest evidence of symbolic expression dating
back 40,000 years, although it is possible that it was originated earlier (Figure 1) [2].
Tally Marks
Upper Palaeolithic man has left tally marks in the figures on the walls of the cave as
evidence of the beginning of writing in the form of symbolic recorded information.
Besides, portable sticks crossed hash marks are also found. For instance, a bone tool
- ‘Ishango bone’ is found in the Congo, Belgium. It belongs to the Upper Palaeolithic
Age and its time is estimated to be around 18,000 to 20,000 BC. This dark brown bone
is actually the fibula bone of a baboon. It has a series of tally marks carved in three
columns running through the length of the tool (Figure 2) [3].
Historical Background of Manuscripts
It is believed that the script was invented in Sumer, southern Mesopotamia, around
3500-3000 BC. To convey information, the people of Sumer, firstly used ‘Clay tablets’
(Figure 3). The Egyptians initiated using papyrus scrolls by the Early Dynastic Period
(3150- 2613 BC) (Figure 4). It was adopted by Greeks and Romans, who further began
to use writing tablets of wood. Their wooden tablets were covered with wax (Figure
5). To form a ‘Codex’, a volume, between wooden or metals covers several wax tablets
could be bound together. In the Mediterranean region in 400 AD, the papyrus scroll
was replaced these tablets [4-6].
During the Han Dynasty in 105 AD, Ts’ai Lun invented ‘Paper’ in China (Figure 6). In the
7th century AD, Chinese merchants introduced it into the Arab world. The cities of
Baghdad and Damascus became important centers of paper and book production.
Muslim artisan inscribed illuminated manuscripts as they decorated their books with
elaborate borders and illustrations (Figure 7) [7, 8].
However, the recognition of paper was still centuries away in Europe. It was the
period of about one century when Chinese were using paper, while people in Asia
Minor developed ‘Parchment’, writing mediums made of animal skins (Figure 8).
‘Vellum’ was favoured by European monks and it was their customary means for
illuminated manuscripts (Figure 9). Thus, Paper would not be accepted by Europeans
before 11th century AD [9-11].
Indian Manuscripts
It is believed that the largest assemblage of manuscripts is of India, which is
scattered in all over the world. Indian manuscripts were inscribed or written in a
variety of languages and scripts. Variation can also be seen in themes, textures and
aesthetics, calligraphies, illuminations and illustrations. The symbolic expression of
language in a textual form was originated in India around 4000 BC. It was introduced
by Valmiki in his writing - ‘Ramayana’. ‘Vedas’ in Vedic, created during 1500 to 500 BC,
were some earliest bodies of writings in the world. Around the 4th century, a book in
Sanskrit - ‘Panniyam’ was written by Panini.
Several efforts have been done in this direction and it is claimed by several scholars
that they deciphered this script but their work has not yet approved by all, as some
recognise their ventures while others reject (Figure 10) [12].
The oldest physical writing in India survives as rock inscriptions. The most famous
and earliest inscriptions are those of King Ashoka of the 3rd Century BC who wrote
edicts to his subjects in a personal and confessional style. It was written in forms of
Prakrit in the Brahmi script (Figure 11) [13].
Over the 1st century BC, the Indian inscriptions become more widespread. These
were emerged on the surfaces of cliffs and pillars and stone tablets, drawn on rocks
and in caves, some engraved into the bedrock. Further, these were also written on
palm leaves (Figure 12), coins, and copper plates (Figure 13) and on walls of the
temples. Even in later stages paper was also used to write manuscripts [14, 15].
The emergence of practise of illuminated manuscript can be traced in India by 800
AD. The traditions of illuminated manuscripts among Jain, Hindu and Buddhist can
be seen various regions of India (Figure 14). During the Mughal period, it became the
dominant style of producing manuscripts and Akbar was the biggest patron of this
tradition in India (Figure 15). This style of manuscript format quickly spread in Hindu
dynasties (Figure 16) and the Hindu religious writings like Ramayana, Mahabharata,
stories and fairy tales have been written in this format in various languages and
scripts [16-19].
Medium of Manuscripts
Since the art of writing was discovered, for the transmission and physical
conservation of knowledge across time and space, various materials were used as
writing surface. In earliest phase, rock, clay tablet, metal plates etc. were used.
Later, these were replaced by softer and tenable parts of the trees such as birch
bark, palm leaf, etc. Finally, paper replaced all such materials and it has become a
significant part of the human culture and society. Some of the mediums of
manuscripts are discussed below:
Stone or Rock
In early times, people used to engrave or inscribe certain specific information of that
time on the rocks, pillars or stones and the walls of caves and temples which were
expected to be permanent. On the polished and smooth surface of stone, a skilled
artist first scribed the text with ink or dye which was then incised by an engraver
using hammer and chisel. Stone is regarded as one of the ancient medium of writing.
In India also such stone engraved document is found (Figure 17) [20].
Clay Tablet and Brick
Since 3100 BC, the clay tablet as writing media was first used by the Sumerians of
southern Babylonia (Figure 18). Later, this media became the common medium of
written communication throughout Mesopotamia and in the entire ancient East.
Though the clay tablet or bricks were not the common form of writing materials in
India, in some temples it is seen. The evidence of using earthen pots and seals as
writing material is also found [21].
Earthen Pot, Seal and Coin
The evidence of using earthen pots, seals and coins as writing material is also found
(Figure 19). Generally, the shorter inscriptions are found on these mediums of writing
[22].
Papyrus
Papyrus made of the essence of papyrus plant that grows in the marshes and along
riverbanks like the Nile. The thick reeds of the papyrus plant were peeled and then
cut into thin and flat strips of about 40 cm long. The thin strips were laid out on
boards overlapped to form sheets and were gently beaten with a wooden mallet; and
the surface was polished by a pumice stone. When dried, this became a flat and
strong writing material which lasted for thousands of years if stored in dry and dark
place. In ancient Egypt, around 3000 BC, the papyrus was first used as writing
material (Figure 20). It was adopted by all over the Mediterranean world in which
Greece and Rome were included [23].
Bones
The oldest Chinese inscriptions on bone were seen around 1200 BC in Anyang which
was the capital of the Shang Dynasty. These inscriptions consist of short texts. The
script was inscribed on ox scapulae and turtle plastrons. It is known as the ‘Oracle
bone script’ or ‘Shell bone script’ and was in practice between 1500 and 1000 BC
(Figure 21) [24].
Bamboo and Wooden Strip
In early China, the strips of bamboo and wood were used as one of the main writing
surfaces. These strips were long and narrow in size. Only a single column text was
written on each strip. Then strips were bound together in order with cord (Figure 22).
This writing medium was used from the 1500 B.C [25].
Wooden Board
Wooden boards as the medium of writing had been in use in India mainly during the
Buddhist age. Generally, these were known as ‘Phalak’ and were used by the school
going children. These boards were mainly made up of sandalwood (Figure 23) [26].
Parchment and Vellum
The parchment and vellum are two different types of writing surface used in the
ancient period. Due to shortage of papyrus in Europe, animal skins were also used
for writing. Usage of this durable material dates back to 300 B.C. The ‘parchment’
was a prepared smooth surface for writing made of goatskin and it was reusable
(Figure 24). During the 7th to the 9th centuries, some parchment manuscripts were
cleaned through scrubbing for rewriting using milk and oat bran and these
reprocessed parchments are known as palimpsests. ‘Vellum’ was made up of calfskin
and most of the improved types of medieval manuscripts were written on vellum
(Figure 25). These have significantly higher durability in moist climates [27,28].
Birch Sheet
Birch sheets, called ‘Bhurja patra’ in Sanskrit, are produced from the birch tree. Origin
wise, the birch tree is mostly Himalayan. It is a moderate size tree. Inner bark of this
tree is very flexible. To prepare for writing, the barks of birch were slowly dried, oil
was applied to them and they were polished. These sheets are composed of
numerous layers joined together with natural gum and woody knots. Thus, they were
prepared fit for to write on with ink. The written leaves of the birch bark were then
held together with a string through their middle portion, which was usually left
unwritten (Figure 26). Compact book was then fastened to two wooden boards, which
not only protected its leaves but also served as its get up. This was used as writing
medium since 1st century AD, originated in Afghanistan. In India, from the 10th
century AD, birchbark was used for the purpose of writing [29].
Palm Leaf
Another writing material used in Sri Lanka, India, Tibet, and other parts of Southeast
Asia is ‘Palm leaves’. In India, it was mainly used in the southern part and in the states
like West Bengal and Odisha. To prepare for writing, Palm leaves were firstly dried
and then boiled in water for a few hours. After that these were dried again and
polished with a conch-shell or stone. According to need, these prepared leaves were
cut into different sizes. Generally these varied from 15 cms. to 1 meter in length, while
2 to 10 cms. in breadth. Sometimes, two or more leaves were stitched together.
These were of two varieties i.e. ‘Tala’ and ‘Sritala’. ‘Tala’ leaf is thick and coarse and
is tough to handle. It does not absorb writing ink. ‘Sritala’ leaf is thin, flexible, and
beautiful and can be handled like a paper. In the palm leaves, the text was scratched
into the surface, and then rubbed with dark colour to make the characters more
distinct. In normal environmental conditions it can be preserved for many years,
even many centuries. From 200 AD, palm leaf was used as a writing medium and was
in continuous use till the 19th century. In India, palm leaf was common writing media
until the paper was introduced during 13th century (Figure 27) [30].
Cloth
In ancient India, cotton cloth, called ‘Pata’ in Sanskrit, was also used as writing
material. The piece of cloth was covered with a thin layer of wheat or rice pulp and
then polished with a conch-shell or a smooth stone after the same was dried. Thus,
it became usable as writing material. Silk cloth was also utilized as writing medium,
mainly in China (Figure 28) [31].
Paper
Paper was developed by the Chinese around 105 AD. Thus, it came into use about
2000 years ago (Figure 29). The paper was firstly prepared through fibre of the hemp
plant or the inner bark of the mulberry tree. The Chinese later prepared the pulp from
fibres gained from pounding rags, rope, or old fishing nets for paper making. In early
stage, Chinese paper was very coarse for writing purpose. Thus, the art of paper
making developed in China and later the technology first spread east through
Mongolian immigrants and eventually reached Maya in Mexico. In the west it reached
Islamic lands from Samarkand and ultimately spread to Europe and America. Besides
these, some kinds of metallic plates were utilised for writing purpose especially for
some special and important incidents. The various types of plates are:
I. Gold Plate
The gold plates were not used on a wide scale, because of its expensive nature, but
in some cases, these were used for writing purposes (Figure 30). The important
documents like moral maxim, royal letter and land-grants were written on this media
[33].
II. Silver Plate
Silver though cheaper than gold, was not used as a writing medium in extreme
number. Some official documents were inscribed on it. Along with these, certain
inscriptions are found on ancient silver amulet (Figure 31) [34].
III. Copper Plate
The inscribed copper plate is known as ‘Tamrapatra’. In ancient and medieval India,
copper was the most commonly used material to write on (Figure 32). For making
writable, copper pieces were hammered into various shapes and sizes. After the
plates were prepared, an expert writer generally wrote on it the body of the text,
which was then incised by an expert smith. Sometimes the letters were inscribed in
the form of dotted lines with a punch [35].
IV. Brass and Bronze
Brass and bronze were also used for writing purposes to some extent (Figure 33). The
Archaeologists discovered bronze tablets from ancient Roman collections [36].
Tools Used in Writing Manuscripts
In the ancient time, various tools were used for writing on different mediums.
• Reed stylus is a wiring tool used to inscribe into clay tablets (Figure 34).
• For the rock and other metals, different types and size of hammer, chisel, graver
etc. were used to inscribe the script on it (Figure 35) [33,34].
• The brush and pointed knife were used to write or inscribe on wood, bamboo and
even flat animal bone (Figure 36). Further, to make it more distinct ink was often used
to fill in the inscribed writing.
• A bronze made stylus was used to write on palm leaves. One end of stylus was sharppointed and was used to inscribe the letters. There was a flat blade on another end
to make the surface of the leaf very smooth through scraping (Figure 37).
• A pen like long and thin stylus was used to inscribe on the wax. Its pointed end was
used for writing purpose. There was a broad flat part on another end, used for erasing
by flattening the wax out (Figure 38).
• For writing on papyrus, a special reed pen was used. There was a slit in its pointed
end to facilitate the movement of the ink (Figure 39). The pen had to be repeatedly
dipped in ink for writing, but this functioned good enough.
• A bone stylus with metal tip or a thin piece of lead known as ‘plummet’ was used to
inscribe on the parchment and vellum (Figure 40). Various types of pens were used
for writing on this medium which included reed pens, and quill pens made up of flight
feathers of large birds (Figure 41).
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/civilizations
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldcivilization/chapter/rivervalley-civilizations/
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indus-civilization