Maslow: Holistic-Dynamic Theory - - variously been called humanistic theory, transpersonal theory, the third force in psychology, the fourth force in personality, needs theory, and self-actualization theory. the whole person is constantly being motivated by one need or another and that people have the potential to grow toward psychological health, that is, self-actualization. a) Maslow’s View of Motivation 1. holistic approach to motivation. That is, the whole person, not any single part or function, is motivated. 2. motivation is usually complex. meaning that a person’s behavior may spring from several separate motives. 3. people are continually motivated by one need or another. When one need is satisfied, it ordinarily loses its motivational power and is then replaced by another need. 4. all people from the same culture everywhere are motivated by the same basic needs. 5. needs can be arranged on a hierarchy A. Hierarchy of Needs - Maslow’s hierarchy of needs concept assumes that lowerlevel needs must be satisfied or at least relatively satisfied before higher level needs become motivators. - The five needs composing this hierarchy are conative b) c) d) e) needs, meaning that they have a striving or motivational character. Physiological Needs- food, water, oxygen, maintenance of body temperature, and so on. Safety Needs- physical security, stability, dependency, protection, and freedom from threatening forces. Love and Belongingness Needs- the desire for friendship; the wish for a mate and children; the need to belong to a family, a club, a neighborhood, or a nation. Esteem Needs- self-respect, confidence, competence, and the knowledge that others hold them in high esteem. Self- Actualization Needsself-fulfillment, the realization of all one’s potential, and a desire to become creative in the full sense of the word. B. Cognitive Needs - desire to know, to solve mysteries, to understand, and to be curious. - people who have not satisfied their cognitive needs, who have been consistently lied to, have had their curiosity stifled, or have been denied information, become pathological, a pathology that takes the form of skepticism, disillusionment, and cynicism. C. Neurotic Needs - Even if needs are satisfied it will only lead only to stagnation and pathology. - Desire to dominate, inflict pain or to subject oneself to the will of another person. General Discussion - - Other Categories of Needs: A. Aesthetic Needs - motivated by the need for beauty and aesthetically pleasing experiences and when these needs are not met, they become sick. - they may even become physically and spiritually ill when forced to live in squalid, disorderly environments. - Maslow believed that most people satisfy lower needs to a greater extent than they do higher needs and that the greater satisfaction of one need, the more fully the next highest need is likely to emerge. In some rare cases, the order of needs might be reversed. Deprivation of needs leads to pathology Inability to reach selfactualization results in meta pathology; the absence of values, the lack of fulfillment, and the loss of meaning in life. Instinctoid Needs innately determined even though they can be modified by learning. Sex, for example, is a basic physiological need, but the manner in which it is expressed depends on learning. Criteria for Self-Actualization Jonah Complex - - - - they were free from psychopathology. self-actualizing people had progressed through the hierarchy of needs. embracing of the B-values (being values). “full use and exploitation of talents, capacities, potentialities, etc.” - - Values of Self-Actualizers - - - self-actualizing people are motivated by the “eternal verities,” what he called Bvalues. (“Being” values”) Maslow termed B-values “meta needs” to indicate that they are the ultimate level of needs. Absence of the B-values leads to pathology just as surely as lack of food results in malnutrition. - Rogers: Person-Centered Theory - - Characteristics of SelfActualizers a. More Efficient Perception of Reality. b. Acceptance of Self, Others, and Nature. c. Spontaneity, Simplicity, and Naturalness d. Problem-Centering e. The Need for Privacy f. Autonomy g. Continued Freshness of Appreciation h. The Peak Experience i. Gemeinschaftsgefühl j. Profound Interpersonal Relations k. The Democratic Character Structure l. Discrimination Between Means and Ends m. Philosophical Sense of Humor n. Creativeness o. Resistance to Enculturation Another obstacle that often blocks people’s growth toward self-actualization. characterized by attempts to run away from one’s destiny just as the biblical Jonah tried to escape from his fate. represents a fear of success, a fear of being one’s best, and a feeling of awesomeness in the presence of beauty and perfection. “This is too much” or “I can’t stand it anymore.” Carl Rogers was the founder of client-centered therapy. He was more concerned with helping people than with discovering why they behaved as they did. Rogers built his theory on the scaffold provided by experiences as a therapist. Person-Centered Theory - During the early years, his approach was known as “nondirective,” Later, his approach was variously termed “client-centered,” “person-centered,” “studentcentered,” “group-centered,” and “person to person.” A. Basic Assumption Formative Tendency believed that there is a tendency for all matter, both organic and inorganic, to evolve from simpler to more complex forms. Actualizing Tendency - the tendency within all humans (and other animals and plants) to move toward completion or fulfillment of potential. B. Self and Self- Actualization Subsystems: Self- Concept - includes all those aspects of one’s being and one’s experiences that are perceived in awareness. organismic self on the other hand may be beyond a person’s awareness or simply not owned by that person. Ideal Self - defined as one’s view of self as one wishes to be. Without awareness the selfconcept and the ideal self would not exist. C. Awareness “the symbolic representation (not necessarily in verbal symbols) of some portion of our experience” Level of Awareness First, some events are experienced below the threshold of awareness and are either ignored or denied. Secondly, some experiences are accurately symbolized and freely admitted to the self-structure. Third, experiences that are perceived in a distorted form. When our experience is not consistent with our view of self, we reshape or distort the experience so that it can be assimilated into our existing self-concept. D. Needs Maintenance Needs physiological needs Enhancement Needs -needs that are used for growth and to realize one’s full human potential E. Conditions of Worth that is, they perceive that their parents, peers, or partners love and accept them only if they meet those people’s expectations and approval. F. Psychological Stagnation A person may experience incongruence, anxiety, threat, defensiveness, and disorganization. The greater the incongruence between self-concept and organismic experiences, the more they become vulnerable. 6. narrow the gap between ideal self and real self; Self- Concept 11. become more congruent in relationships with others. - All aspects of one’s being and experiences. Barriers to Psychological Health - Conditions of Worth Defensiveness Incongruence Disorganization Rogers’ Theory of Therapeutic Change If the following conditions exist: 1. A vulnerable or anxious client 2. contacts a counselor who possesses 3. congruence in the relationship, 4. unconditional positive regard for the client, and 5. empathic understanding for the client’s internal frame of reference, and 6. the client perceives Conditions 3, 4, and 5—the three necessary and sufficient conditions for therapeutic growth Then therapeutic change occurs and the client will 1. become more congruent; 2. be less defensive; 3. become more open to experiences; 4. have a more realistic view of the world; 5. develop positive self-regard; 7. be less vulnerable to threat; 8. become less anxious; 9. take ownership of experiences; 10. become more accepting of others; The Person of Tomorrow - If a person is able to receive the three conditions, they become a fully functioning person or the person of tomorrow. May: Existential Psychology Existentialism I. Main Tenets a. existence takes precedence over essence. Existence suggests a process; essence refers to a product. Existence is associated with growth and change; essence signifies stagnation and finality. b. existentialism opposes the split between subject and object. people are both subjective and objective and must search for truth by living active and authentic lives. c. people search for some meaning to their lives. Who am I? Is life worth living? Does it have a meaning? How can I realize my humanity? d. existentialists hold that ultimately each of us is responsible for who we are and what we become. “Man is nothing else but what he makes of himself. Such is the first principle of existentialism” e. existentialists are basically antitheoretical. To them, theories further dehumanize people and render them as objects. II. Basic Concepts - The basic unity of person and environment is expressed in the German word Dasein, meaning to exist there or being in the world. Umwelt- the environment around us. Mitwelt-our relations with other people Eigenwelt- our relationship with our self. III. Anxiety a. Normal Anxiety- “which is proportionate to the threat, does not involve repression, and can be confronted constructively on the conscious level” b. Neurotic Anxiety- “a reaction which is disproportionate to the threat, involves repression and other forms of intrapsychic conflict, and is managed by various kinds of blocking-off of activity and awareness” IV. Guilt - arises when people deny their potentialities, fail to accurately perceive the needs of fellow humans, or remain oblivious to their dependence on the natural world. - both anxiety and guilt are ontological. V. Intentionality - The structure that gives meaning to experience and allows people to make decisions about the future. - Intentionality is “the structure of meaning which makes it possible for us, subjects that we are, to see and understand the outside world, objective that it is. In intentionality, the dichotomy between subject and object is partially overcome” VI. a. - It is sometimes unconscious Care, Love, and Will Union of Love Psychologically healthy people are able to combine love and will because both imply care, choice, actions, and responsibility. b. Forms of Love - Sex. a biological function that can be satisfied through sexual intercourse or some other release of sexual tension. - Eros. is a psychological desire that seeks procreation or creation through an enduring union with a loved one, built on care and tenderness - Philia. an intimate nonsexual friendship between two people. - Agape. “esteem for the other, the concern for the other’s welfare beyond any gain that one can get out of it; disinterested love, typically, the love of God for man” VII. Freedom and Destiny a. Freedom comes from understanding our destiny, destiny being our limitations in life (like death) b. Forms of Freedom - Existential Freedom. It is the freedom of action—the freedom of doing. - Essential Freedom. freedom of being or inner freedom. c. Destiny Defined - “the design of the universe speaking through the design of each one of us” - Our ultimate destiny is death, but on a lesser scale our destiny includes other biological properties such as intelligence, gender, size and strength, and genetic predisposition toward certain illnesses. Allport: Psychology of the Individual Overview - - - emphasized the uniqueness of the individual. Allport also advocated an eclectic approach to theory building. Morphogenic methods, are those that gather data on a single individual, whereas nomothetic methods gather data on groups of people. Allport was against psychoanalysis and animalbased learning theory. A. Personality - “the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment” - dynamic organization implies an integration or interrelatedness of the various aspects of personality. - Personality is organized and patterned. However, the organization is always subject to change. - behavior and thought simply refer to anything the person does. - human beings are both product and process; people have some organized structure while, at the same time, they possess the capability of change. B. Role of Conscious Motivation - Allport emphasized the importance of conscious motivation. Healthy adults are generally aware of what they are doing and their reasons for doing it. C. Characteristic of a Healthy Person a. extension of the sense of self. Mature people continually seek to identify with and participate in events outside themselves. b. warm relating of self to others. They have the capacity to love others in an intimate and compassionate manner. c. emotional security or selfacceptance. Mature individuals accept themselves for what they are and possess emotional poise (They do not dwell on minor irritations, and they recognize that frustrations and inconveniences are a part of living.) d. a realistic perception of their environment. They do not live in a fantasy world or bend reality to fit their own wishes. e. insight and humor. Mature people know themselves and, therefore, have no need to attribute their own mistakes and weaknesses to others. They also have a nonhostile sense of humor f. unifying philosophy of life. Healthy people have a clear view of the purpose of life. Structure of Personality A. Personal Disposition - The most important distinction between a personal disposition and a common trait is indicated by the parenthetical phrase “peculiar to the individual.” Levels of Personal Disposition a. Cardinal Dispositions. Some people possess an eminent characteristic or ruling passion so outstanding that it dominates their lives. (the first trait people think of you when your name is mentioned) b. Secondary Dispositions. Less conspicuous but far greater in number than central dispositions. c. Central Disposition. which guide much of a person’s adaptive and stylistic behavior, blend into secondary dispositions, which are less descriptive of that individual. B. Motivational and Stylistic Disposition a. Motivational Disposition. These strongly felt dispositions receive their motivation from basic needs and drives. b. Stylistic Disposition. personal dispositions that are less intensely experienced, though these dispositions possess some motivational power. - Stylistic dispositions guide action, whereas motivational dispositions initiate action. C. Proprium - Self/Ego - refer to those behaviors and characteristics that people regard as warm, central, and important in their lives. - The proprium is not the whole personality. Motivation - Allport believed that people are motivated by present drives rather than by past events and are aware of what they are doing and have some understanding of why they are doing it. - Peripheral motives are those that reduce a need, whereas propriate strivings seek to maintain tension and disequilibrium. A. Theory of Motivation - people not only react to their environment but also shape their environment and cause it to react to them. - Personality is a growing system, allowing new elements to constantly enter into and change the person. B. Functional Autonomy - Functional autonomy represents a theory of changing rather than unchanging motives and is the capstone of Allport’s ideas on motivation. - functional autonomous motives do not have a deep meaning behind it. (e.g. a cheater, cheats on people simply because gusto nya lang, hindi dahil sa childhood trauma or the likes.) Two Levels of Functional Autonomy a. Perseverative Functional Autonomy. - is found in animals as well as humans and is based on simple neurological principles. - Simply means mga habits na nakasanayan mo (e.g. pagiinom ng alak or pagsisigarilyo, kahit na satisfy mo na yung pinaka reason kung bakit ka umiinom, tinutuloy mo pa rin paginom.) b. Propriate Functional Autonomy - refers to those self-sustaining motives that are related to the proprium. (e.g. a woman who doesn’t like her job when she first applied but as the years pass she develops a passion for her job.) C. Processes That Are Not Functionally Autonomous biological drives, such as eating, breathing, and sleeping motives directly linked to the reduction of basic drives. reflex actions such as an eye blink. constitutional equipment, namely physique, intelligence, and temperament. habits in the process of being formed patterns of behavior that require primary reinforcement. sublimations that can be tied to childhood sexual desires. some neurotic or pathological symptoms. McCrae and Costa’s Five-Factor Trait Theory The Pioneering Work of Raymond B. Cattell - - - - Cattell had only an indirect influence on McCrae and Costa. They did, however, share techniques and ideas, even if their approaches also had some real differences. Gordon Allport used common sense to identify both common and unique personality. Raymond Cattell used factor analysis to identify a large number of traits. Temperament Traits, include normal and abnormal traits, of the 23 traits 16 are measured by Cattell’s famous PF Scale. A. Basic Factor Analysis - Factor Analysis is a mathematical procedure for reducing a large number of scores to a few more general variables. - Factor Loadings are correlations of scores with factors. It gives an indication of the purity of the various factors and enables us to interpret their meanings. - Traits generated through factor analysis may be either unipolar or bipolar. - Unipolar traits are scaled from zero to some large amount. - bipolar traits extend from one pole to an opposite pole, with zero representing a midpoint. - In order for mathematically derived factors to have psychological meaning, the axes on which the scores are plotted are usually turned or rotated into a specific mathematical relationship with each other. - Two kinds of Rotation: Orthogonal Rotation (a rotation Eysenck mostly used), Oblique Rotation (was advocated and used by Cattell) The Big Five: Taxonomy or Theory? - - taxonomy as a classification of things according to their natural relationships, whereas theories generate research, taxonomies merely supply a classification system. The Big Five soon evolved into a taxonomy and the Five-Factor Model. After much additional work, this model became a theory, one that can both predict and explain behavior. Search and Founding of the Big Five - - - - - In addition, the five factors show some permanence with age; that is, adults—in the absence of catastrophic illness such as Alzheimer’s— tend to maintain the same personality structure as they grow older. Costa and McCrae’s Five-Factor Model of Personality High Scores Extraversion Neuroticism Openness The study of traits was first begun by Allport and Odbert in the 1930s and continued by Cattell in the 1940s and by Tupes, Christal, and Norman in Agreeableness the 1960s, finally in the late 1970s and early 1980s, Costa and McCrae. The NEO-PI was a revision of an earlier unpublished personality inventory that Conscientiousness measured only the first three dimensions: N, E, and O. Costa and McCrae did not fully develop the A and C scales until the Revised NEOPI appeared in 1992. The five factors have been found across a variety of cultures, using a plethora of languages. Low Scores affectionate joiner talkative fun-loving active passionate reserved loner quite sober passive unfeeling anxious temperamental self-pitying selfconscious emotional vulnerable calm eventempered self-satisfied comfortable unemotional hardy imaginative creative original prefers variety curious liberal down-toearth uncreative conventional prefers routine uncurious conservative softhearted trusting generous acquiescent lenient goodnatured ruthless suspicious stingy antagonistic critical irritable conscientious hardworking well-organized punctual ambitious persevering conscientious hardworking wellorganized punctual ambitious persevering Units of the Five-Factor Theory - - - - - behavior is predicted by an understanding of three central or core components which are; (1) basic tendencies, (2) characteristic adaptation, (3) self-concept, and three peripheral components which includes; (1) biological bases, (2) objective biography, (3) external influences the central or core components are represented by rectangles, whereas the peripheral components are represented by ellipses. The arrows represent dynamic processes and indicate the direction of causal influence. Eysenck’s Biologically Based Factor Theory Overview the individual differences in people’s personalities were biological, and not merely psychological, aspects of personality. His more likely to theorize before collecting and analyzing data. Also used a variety of approaches to gather data. Extracted only three factors compared to costa and mccrae A. Criteria for Identifying Factors a. Be based on psychometric evidence for the factor’s existence must be established. b. the factor must also possess heritability and must fit an established genetic model. c. the factor must make sense from a theoretical view. d. must possess social relevance B. Hierarchy of Behavior Organization a. At the lowest level are specific acts or cognitions, individual behaviors or thoughts that may or may not be characteristic of a person. b. At the second level are the habitual acts or cognitions, that is, responses that recur under similar conditions. c. Third level of behavior, defined traits as “important semipermanent personality dispositions” C. Dimensions of Personality a. Extraversion/ Introversion b. Neuroticism/ Stability c. Psychoticism/ Superego - although he did not rule out “the possibility that further dimensions may be added later” - Each factor is unimodally, rather than bimodally, distributed. Buss: Evolutionary Theory of Personality Overview: - - - - Charles Darwin laid the foundation for the modern theory of evolution. Artificial Selection a.k.a Breeding Natural Selection is simply a more general form of artificial selection in which nature rather than people select the traits. Sexual Selection operates when members of the opposite sex find certain traits more appealing and attractive than others and thereby produce offspring with those traits. Adaptation are evolved strategies that solve important survival and/or reproductive problems. - By-products are traits that happen as a result of adaptations but are not part of the functional design. - Noise a.k.a “random effects” occurs when evolution produces random changes in design that do not affect function. (e.g. a belly button, that is, whether it is an “innie” or an “outie.”) - - - A. Principles of Evolutionary Psychology The term “evolutionary psychology” was coined in 1973 by biologist Michael Ghiselin evolutionary psychology can be defined as the scientific study of human thought and behavior from an evolutionary perspective. Evolutionary theory , however, assumes that the true origins of these traits reach far back in ancestral times. The true origin of personality is evolution. B. The Nature and Nurture of Personality - - - - fundamental situational error, or the tendency to assume that the environment alone can produce behavior void of a stable internal mechanism. “Without internal mechanisms there can be no behavior” fundamental attribution error, our tendency to ignore situational and environmental forces when explaining the behavior of other people and instead focus on internal dispositions. There is no split between biological and environmental. Environment does not affect behavior without a mechanism to respond. C. Adaptive Problems and their Solutions (Mechanisms) it has been clear that all life forms are confronted with two fundamental problems of adaptation, namely survival (food, danger, - - - predation, etc.) and reproduction. The process of evolution by natural selection has produced solutions to these two basic problems of life and they are called mechanisms. Physical Mechanism are physiological organs and systems that evolved to solve problems of survival. Psychological Mechanism are internal and specific cognitive, motivational, and personality systems that solve specific survival and reproduction problems. D. Buss Model of Personality Surgency/extraversion/d ominance. A surgent person is one who is driven to achieve and often tends to dominate and lead others. (sociable and selfconfident) agreeableness/hostility, is marked by a person’s willingness and capacity to cooperate and help the group on the one hand or to be hostile and aggressive on the other. conscientiousness. Conscientious people are careful and detailoriented as well as focused and reliable. emotional stability/neuroticism revolves around response to danger and threat. Fear and anxiety are adaptive emotions. Without them we would certainly die as individuals and as a species. Openness/ Intellect. involves one’s propensity for innovation and ability to solve problems. It is closely aligned with intellect and intelligence but also a willingness to try new things and a willingness to have novel experiences rather than sticking with one’s routine. SKINNER: BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS Overview - - - - - - - Two of the early pioneers of behaviorism were E. L. Thorndike and John Watson, but the most associated was B.F Skinner. Skinner minimized speculation and focused almost entirely on observable behavior. Though he did not limit behavior to external event, private behaviors as thinking, remembering, and anticipating are all observable. Skinner’s strict adherence to observable behavior earned his approach the label radical behaviorism, a doctrine that avoids all hypothetical constructs, such as ego, traits, drives, needs, hunger, and so forth. As a determinist, he rejected the notion of volition or free will. As a environmentalist, he held the notion that physiological and constitutional components does not explain behavior but rather environmental stimuli does. The history of the individual, rather than anatomy, provides the most useful data for predicting and controlling behavior. A. Persecutors - Thorndike observed that learning takes place mostly because of the effects that - follow a response, and he called this observation the law of effect. - Skinner acknowledged that the law of effect was crucial to the control of behavior. - He also agreed with Thorndike that the effects of rewards are more predictable than the effects of punishments in shaping behavior. - An influence on Skinner’s work was John B. Watson. Scientific Behaviorism - His scientific behaviorism holds that behavior can best be studied without reference to needs, instincts, or motives. B. Philosophy of Science - Scientific behaviorism allows for an interpretation of behavior but not an explanation of its causes. - Skinner used principles derived from laboratory studies to interpret the behavior of human beings but insisted that interpretation should not be confused with an explanation of why people behave the way they do. C. Characteristic of Science - Science is unique not because of technology but rather because of its attitude. - Three main characteristics; science is cumulative; it is an attitude that values empirical observation; science is a search for order and lawful relationships. CONDITIONING - One distinction between classical and operant conditioning is that, in classical conditioning, behavior is elicited (involuntary) from the organism, whereas in operant conditioning, behavior is emitted (voluntary). A. Classical Conditioning - The simplest examples include reflexive behavior, responses are unlearned, involuntary, and common not only to the species but across species as well. - It can also be responsible for more complex human learning like phobias, fears, and anxieties. - The Little Albert Experiment, The key to this classical conditioning experiment was the pairing of a conditioned stimulus (the white rat) with an unconditioned stimulus (fear of a loud sudden sound) until the presence of the conditioned stimulus (the white rat) was sufficient to elicit the unconditioned stimulus (fear). B. Operant Conditioning - key to operant conditioning is the immediate reinforcement of a response, The organism first does something and then is reinforced by the environment. Reinforcement, in turn, increases the probability that the same behavior will occur again. - Shaping, is a procedure in which the experimenter or the environment first rewards gross - - - - - - - approximations of the behavior, then closer approximations, and finally the desired behavior itself. a) Three Conditions of Operant Conditioning Antecedent. the environment or setting in which the behavior takes place. Behavior/ Response Consequence. The consequence is the reward. This history of differential reinforcement results in operant discrimination. Skinner claimed that discrimination is not an ability that we possess but a consequence of our reinforcement history. A response to a similar environment in the absence of previous reinforcement is called stimulus generalization. a. Reinforcement. It strengthens the behavior and it rewards the person. Not every behavior that is reinforced is rewarding or pleasing to the person. (e.g. people are reinforced for working, but many find their jobs boring, uninteresting, and unrewarding.) Positive Reinforcement. Any stimulus that, when added to a situation, increases the probability that a given behavior will occur. e.g. Food, water, sex, money, social approval, and physical comfort. Negative Reinforcement. removal of an aversive stimulus from a situation also increases the probability that the preceding behavior will occur. - - - - b. Punishment. is the presentation of an aversive stimulus, such as an electric shock, or the removal of a positive one. A negative reinforcer strengthens a response; punishment does not. although it does not strengthen or weaken a response. the effects of a punishment are less predictable. Effects of Punishment; suppress behavior, conditioning of negative feelings, and spread of its effect (the abused becomes the abuser/ generational trauma). Skinner recognized the classical Freudian defense mechanisms as effective means of avoiding pain and its attendant anxiety. c. Punishment and Reinforcement Compared both punishment and reinforcement are means of controlling behavior, whether the control is by design or by accident. (Skinner favored planned control). A. Conditioned and Generalized Reinforcers - - Conditioned reinforcers a.k.a secondary reinforcers, are those environmental stimuli that are not by nature satisfying but become so because they are associated with such unlearned or primary reinforcers as food, water, sex, or physical comfort. Money is a conditioned reinforcer because it can be exchanged for a great variety of primary reinforcers. It can also be considered as generalized reinforcer because it is associated with more than one primary reinforcer. - Five important generalized reinforcers: attention, approval, affection, submission of others, and tokens (money). B. Schedules of Reinforcement - - continuous schedule, the organism is reinforced for every response. Intermittent schedules are based either on the behavior of the organism or on elapsed time; they either can be set at a fixed rate or can vary according to a randomized program. Four Basic Intermittent Schedule - - - a. Fixed-ratio schedule. the organism is reinforced intermittently according to the number of responses it makes. e.g. An experimenter may decide to reward a pigeon with a grain pellet for every fifth peck it makes at a disc. b. Variable-ratio. it is reinforced after the nth response on the average. proceed to a low response number, and then increase to a higher rate of response. c. Fixed-interval schedule. the organism is reinforced for the first response following a designated period of time. e.g Employees working for salary or wages approximate a fixed-interval schedule. They are paid every week, every 2 weeks, or every month. d. variable-interval schedule. is one in which the organism is reinforced after the lapse of random or varied periods of time C. Extinction - responses can be lost for at least four reasons; they can simply be forgotten during the passage of time, they can be lost due to the interference of preceding or subsequent learning, they can disappear due to punishment, and lastly because of extinction. - Operant Extinction. takes place when an experimenter systematically withholds reinforcement of a previously learned response until the probability of that response diminishes to zero. - Classical Extinction. is associated with weakening or eliminating a conditioned response by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. (e.g. ivan pavlov's experiment on dogs, may bell pero wala nang kasamang meat.) The Human Organism - - Skinner agreed with John Watson that psychology must be confined to a scientific study of observable phenomena, namely behavior. human behavior (and human personality) is shaped by three forces: (1) natural selection, (2) cultural practices, and (3) the individual’s history of reinforcement. - “It is all a matter of natural selection since operant conditioning is an evolved process, of which cultural practices are special applications” - - The Unhealthy Personality a. Counteracting Strategies - When social control is excessive, people can use three basic strategies for counteracting it—they can escape, revolt, or use passive resistance. Strategy of escape, people withdraw from the controlling agent either physically or psychologically. Revolt against society, controls behave more actively, counterattacking the controlling agent. People can rebel through vandalizing public property, tormenting teachers, verbally abusing other people. Passive resistance, The conspicuous feature of passive resistance is stubbornness. A child with homework to do finds a dozen excuses why it cannot be finished; an employee slows down progress by undermining the work of others. b. Inappropriate Behaviors - include excessively vigorous behavior, which makes no sense in terms of the contemporary situation, but might be reasonable in terms of past history. - excessively restrained behavior, which people use as a means of avoiding the - aversive stimuli associated with punishment. blocking out reality by simply paying no attention to aversive stimuli. defective self-knowledge it is manifested in such selfdeluding responses as boasting, rationalizing, or claiming to be the Messiah. Self-punishment people directly punishing themselves or by arranging environmental variables so that they are punished by others. BANDURA: SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY Overview - - - - - takes chance encounters and fortuitous events seriously. Basic Assumption the outstanding characteristic of humans is plasticity. through a triadic reciprocal causation model, people have the capacity to regulate their lives. social cognitive theory takes an agentic perspective, meaning that humans have the capacity to exercise control over the nature and quality of their lives. people regulate their conduct through both external and internal factors. when people find themselves in morally ambiguous situations, they typically attempt to regulate their behavior through moral agency, redefining the behavior, disregarding or distorting the consequences. A. Learning a. Observational Learning, Bandura believes that observation allows people to learn without performing any behavior. Modeling, modeling involves cognitive processes and is b. not simply mimicry or imitation. You learn from the role models in your life. - factors determine whether a person will learn from a model, characteristics of the model are important. the characteristics of the observer affect the likelihood of modeling. People who lack status, skill, or power are most likely to model. the consequences of the behavior being modeled may have an effect on the observer. c. Enactive Learning allows people to acquire new patterns of complex behavior through direct experience by thinking about and evaluating the consequences of their behaviors. - The learning process allows people to have some degree of control over the events that shape the course of their lives. - B. Processes Governing Observational Learning a. Attention, we pay attention to people whom we frequently associate with. attractive and popular models garner our attention most. the nature of behavior also affects our attention. b. Representation, In order for observation to lead to new response patterns, those patterns must be symbolically represented in memory. c. Behavioral Production, After attending to a model and retaining what we have observed, we then produce the behavior. d. Motivation, Observational learning is most effective when learners are motivated to perform the modeled behavior. Triadic Reciprocal Causation - This system assumes that human action is a result of an interaction among three variables—environment, behavior, and person. B. Human Agency - - - - - - - - A. Chance Encounters and Fortuitous Events Bandura is the only personality theorist to seriously consider the possible importance of these chance encounters and fortuitous events. Chance Encounter, “an unintended meeting of persons unfamiliar to each other” Fortuitous Event, is an environmental experience that is unexpected and unintended. - - - a. Core Features of Human Agency Intentionality refers to acts a person performs intentionally. An intention includes planning, but it also involves actions. Foresight to anticipate likely outcomes of their actions, and to select behaviors that will produce desired outcomes and avoid undesirable ones. Self-reactiveness People not only make choices but they monitor their progress toward fulfilling those choices. Self-reflectiveness They are examiners of their own functioning; they can think about and evaluate their motivations, values, and the meanings of their life goals. People’s most crucial selfreflective mechanism is selfefficacy: “people’s beliefs in their capability to exercise some measure of control over their own functioning and over environmental events” C. What contributes to selfefficacy? Mastery of experience Social modelling Social persuasion Physical and emotional states D. Proxy Agency Proxy involves indirect control over those social conditions that affect everyday living. “no one has the time, energy, and resources to master every realm of everyday life. Successful functioning necessarily involves a blend - - - - - - - - - of reliance on proxy agency in some areas of functioning” It simply means one can't be totally independent, you still need help from others. E. Collective Efficacy “people’s shared beliefs in their collective power to produce desired results” collective efficacy is the confidence people have that their combined efforts will bring about group accomplishments. Collective efficacy does not spring from a collective “mind” but rather from the personal efficacy of many individuals working together. F. Self- Regulation When people have high levels of self-efficacy, are confident in their reliance on proxies, and possess solid collective efficacy, they will have considerable capacity to regulate their own behavior. In self-regulation people use both reactive and proactive strategies they reactively attempt to reduce the discrepancies between their accomplishments and their goal; but after they close those discrepancies, they proactively set newer and higher goals for themselves. External factors provide us with standards for evaluating our behavior as well as external reinforcement in the form of rewards received from others. Internal factors in selfregulation include (1) selfobservation, (2) judgmental processes, and (3) selfreaction. ROTTER: COGNITIVE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY - Overview - - - - - assumes that cognitive factors help shape how people will react to environmental forces. Both rotter and Mischel object Skinner’s theory. They suggest that one’s expectations of future events are prime determinants of performance. As an interactionist, he believed that neither the environment itself nor the individual is completely responsible for behavior. he held that people’s cognitions, past histories, and expectations of the future are keys to predicting behavior. Empirical law of effect, “defines reinforcement as any action, condition, or event which affects the individual’s movement toward a goal” A. Basic Assumptions - - - humans interact with their meaningful environments, People’s reaction to environmental stimuli depends on the meaning or importance that they attach to an event. human personality is learned. personality is not determined at any particular age, it however can be changed and modified as long as people are capable of learning. personality has a basic unity, people’s personalities possess relative stability. People learn to evaluate new experiences on the basis of previous reinforcement. - motivation is goal-directed. human behavior lies in people’s expectations that their behaviors are advancing them toward goals. people are capable of anticipating events. they use their perceived movement in the direction of the anticipated event as a criterion for evaluating reinforcers. B. Predicting Specific Behaviors - suggested four variables that must be analyzed in order to make accurate predictions in any specific situation. a. Behavior Potential, is the possibility that a particular response will occur at a given time and place. The behavior potential in any situation is a function of both expectancy and reinforcement value. b. Expectancy, refers to a person’s expectation that some specific reinforcement or set of reinforcements will occur in a given situation. c. Reinforcement Value, the preference a person attaches to any reinforcement. - Internal reinforcement the individual’s perception contributes to the positive or negative value of an event. - external reinforcement, which refers to events, conditions, or actions on which one’s society or culture places a value. d. Psychological Situation, “a complex set of interacting cues acting upon an individual for any specific time period” C. Basic Prediction Formula - a hypothetical means of predicting specific behaviors. Predicting General Behaviors D. Generalized Expectancies a. Needs, behavior or set of behaviors that people see as moving them in the direction of a goal. - Rotter speaks of goals; when it is on the person, he talks of needs. Categories of Needs - Recognition-Status - Dominance - Independence - Protection-Dependency - Love and Affection - Physical Comfort - - - Three Need Components Need Potential, the possible occurrence of a set of functionally related behaviors directed toward satisfying the same or similar goals. Freedom of Movement, is analogous to expectancy. It is one’s overall expectation of being reinforced for performing those behaviors that are directed toward satisfying some general need. Need Value, the degree to which she or he prefers one set of reinforcements to another. E. General Prediction Formula Rotter’s two most popular scales for measuring generalized expectancies are the Internal-External Control Scale and the interpersonal Trust Scale. - To assess internal and external control of reinforcement, or locus of - - control, Rotter developed the Internal-External Control Scale. Interpersonal Trust, “a generalized expectancy held by an individual that the word, promise, oral or written statement of another individual or group can be relied on” F. Maladaptive Behavior - is any persistent behavior that fails to move a person closer to a desired goal. - the combination of high need value and low freedom of movement. - maladjusted individuals are characterized by unrealistic goals, inappropriate behaviors, inadequate skills, or unreasonably low expectancies of being able to execute the behaviors necessary for positive reinforcement. MISCHEL: COGNITIVE-AFFECTIVE THEORY - - - - holds that behavior stems from relatively stable personal dispositions and cognitive-affective processes interacting with a particular situation. Mischel’s cognitive social theory has much in common with Bandura’s social cognitive theory and Rotter’s social learning theory. He believes that cognitive factors, such as expectancies, subjective perceptions, values, goals, and personal standards, play important roles in shaping personality. His contributions to personality theory have evolved from research on delay of gratification. His early research led him to believe that behavior was largely a function of the situation. A. Consistency Paradox - Mischel saw that both laypersons and professional psychologists seem to intuitively believe that people’s behavior is relatively consistent, yet empirical evidence suggests much variability in behavior. - Stable pattern of variation; consistently inconsistent behavior. B. Person-Situation Interaction - a meaningful interaction - one’s perception of a particular situation (thinking of how you will behave in a particular situation). - - - To solve the classical consistency paradox, Mischel proposed a cognitiveaffective personality system. This accounts for variability across situations as well as stability of behavior within a person. The cognitive-affective personality system predicts that a person’s behavior will change from situation to situation but in a meaningful manner. - A. Behavior Prediction “If personality is a stable system that processes the information about the situations, external or internal, then it follows that as individuals encounter different situations, their behaviors should vary across the situations” C. Cognitive Affective Units What a person does includes more than actions; it includes cognitive and affective qualities such as thinking, planning, feeling, and evaluating. These units include people’s - - Cognitive-Affective Personality System - B. Situation Variables situation variables and personal qualities can be determined by observing the uniformity or diversity of people’s responses in a given situation. - Encoding strategies, people’s ways of categorizing information received from external stimuli. competencies and selfregulatory strategies, Our beliefs in what we can do and ability to control our behavior through selfimposed goals and selfproduced consequences. Expectancies and beliefs Goals and Values Affective Response KELLY: PSYCHOLOGY OF PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS Overview - - - - It has been variously called a cognitive theory, a behavioral theory, an existential theory, and a phenomenological theory. the most appropriate term is “metatheory,” or a theory about theories. People exist in a real world, but their behavior is shaped by their gradually expanding interpretation or construction of that world. People are not victims of circumstances, because alternative constructions are always available. Kelly called this philosophical position constructive alternativism. Kelly’s Philosophical Position - - - He rejected extreme phenomenology, which holds that the only reality is what people perceive. people’s personal constructs, or ways of interpreting and explaining events, hold the key to predicting their behavior. Kelly’s philosophical position is constructive alternativism. A. Person as a Scientist - when you try to decide what to eat, what to watch, or what occupation to enter you are already thinking like a scientist - That is, you ask questions, formulate hypotheses, test them, draw conclusions, and try to predict future events. - Like all other people (including scientists), your perception of reality is colored by your personal constructs. B. Scientist as Person - If people can be seen as scientists, then scientists can also be seen as people. - Kelly hoped that his theory would be overthrown and replaced by a better one. - Just as all of us can use our imagination to see everyday events differently, personality theorists can use their ingenuity to construe better theories. C. Constructive Alternativism - Different people construe reality in different ways, and the same person is capable of changing his or her view of the world. - - In other words, people always have alternative ways of looking at things. Kelly believed that the person, not the facts, holds the key to an individual’s future. Facts and events do not dictate conclusions; rather, they carry meanings for us to discover. Personal Constructs - - - - - people continually create their own view of the world. Some people are quite inflexible and seldom change their way of seeing things. They cling to their view of reality even as the real world changes. looking at their world through “transparent patterns or templates” that they have created in order to cope with the world’s realities, Kelly referred to these patterns as personal constructs A. Basic Postulates “a person’s processes are psychologically channelized by the ways in which [that person] anticipates events” In other words, people’s behaviors (thoughts and actions) are directed by the way they see the future. person’s processes refer to a living, changing, moving human being. channelized to suggest that people move with a direction through a network of pathways or channels ways of anticipating events, which suggests that people guide their actions according to their predictions of the future. People continuously “reach out to the future through the window of the present” - - - - B. Supporting Corollaries Construction corollary, “a person anticipates events by construing their replications” It emphasizes the notion that people construe or interpret future events according to recurrent themes or replications. Individuality Corollary, “Persons differ from each other in their construction of events” Because people have different reservoirs of experiences, they construe the same event in different ways. Organization Corollary, “characteristically evolve, for [their] convenience in anticipating events, a construction system embracing ordinal relationships between constructs” Dichotomy Corollary, “a person’s construction system is composed of a finite number of dichotomous constructs” Kelly insisted that a construct is an either-or proposition— black or white, with no shades of gray. Choice Corollary, People choose for themselves that alternative in a dichotomized construct through which they anticipate the greater possibility for extension and definition of future constructs. the choice corollary assumes that people choose those actions that are most likely to extend their future range of choices. - - - - Range Corollary, “A construct is convenient for the anticipation of a finite range of events only” assumes that personal constructs are finite and not relevant to everything. Experience Corollary, “A person’s construction system varies as he [or she] successively construes the replications of events” Experience consists of the successive construing of events. Modulation Corollary, “The variation in a person’s construction system is limited by the permeability of the constructs within whose range of convenience the variants lie” This construct has permeability, meaning new elements can be added. Fragmentation Corollary, “A person may successively employ a variety of constructive subsystems which are inferentially incompatible with each other” allows for the incompatibility of specific elements. Commonality Corollary, “To the extent that one person employs a construction of experience which is similar to that employed by another, [that person’s] processes are psychologically similar to those of the other person” Two people need not experience the same event or even similar events for their processes to be psychologically similar. Sociality Corollary, “People belong to the same cultural group, not merely because they behave alike, nor because they expect the - - - - same things of others, but especially because they construe their experience in the same way” they not only observe the behavior of the other person; they also interpret what that behavior means to that person. Kelly introduced the notion of role, a person’s understanding of the constructs of others. C. Role Construct Repertory (Rep) test. The purpose of the Rep test is to discover ways in which people construe significant people in their lives. The major goal of the test involves developing the constructs a person has about the important people in their life by asking the person (rater) to choose any three people from the given list at one time.
