Journal of Cleaner Production 99 (2015) 94e100
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Journal of Cleaner Production
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro
Use of Furnace Bottom Ash for producing lightweight aggregate
concrete with thermal insulation properties
Binyu Zhang, Chi Sun Poon*
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 18 June 2014
Received in revised form
29 December 2014
Accepted 2 March 2015
Available online 10 March 2015
The influence brought by Furnace Bottom Ash (FBA) incorporation on the properties of lightweight
aggregate concrete was studied systematically. In total, six mixtures of concrete targeted at a 28 d
compressive strength of 30 MPa were designed, including one control mix made with all normal weight
aggregates and at a water/cement ratio (w/c) of 0.6, and another five lightweight aggregate concrete
mixes at a w/c of 0.39 by using 0, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% FBA replacing natural fine aggregate (crushed
fine stone). The testing results of the hardened concrete properties showed that, for the lightweight
aggregate concrete using 100% FBA to replace crushed fine stone, a 28 d oven-dried density of about
1500 kg/m3 was obtained. The test results showed the lightweight aggregate concrete had lower strength
and stiffness compared to the normal aggregate concrete. But in terms of the effectiveness of strength
provided by unit weight of concrete indicated by compressive strength in MPa divided by saturatedsurface dried (SSD) density in g/cm3, fc/D, a satisfactory ratio can be obtained when not more than
50% FBA was used to replace the crushed fine stone. The durability property indicated by the chloride ion
penetration test shows the lightweight aggregate concrete with FBA had high chloride ion penetrability.
The heat insulation property (thermal conductivity K-value) test demonstrated that by using the porous
lightweight aggregate, the thermal conductivity could be lowered to around 70% of the control. When
more FBA was used to replace crushed fine stone, the thermal conductivity value could be further
reduced. The results of this study demonstrated it is feasible to produce lightweight aggregate concrete
with high volume of FBA incorporation for building insulation uses.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Concrete
Lightweight aggregate
Furnace Bottom Ash
Thermal insulation
1. Introduction
Recycling and reusing of waste materials has become an
increasingly important research area in recent years, and it is
widely recognized as an effective method for promoting sustainability. Zaman (2014) conducted a case study using the “zero waste
index”, and suggested that strategies should be taken to recycle
waste to replace virgin materials to help improving sustainability.
Blengini and Garbarino (2010) carried out a research on construction & demolition (C&D) waste recycling by adopting the life cycle
analysis (LCA) method, and they suggested that recycle and reuse of
C&D waste can alleviate pressure on landfill shortage while
reducing natural resources consumption. Using of recycled materials in concrete is not always associated with inferior properties
compared to concrete produced only with natural materials. A case
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ852 27666024.
E-mail address: cecspoon@polyu.edu.hk (C.S. Poon).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.03.007
0959-6526/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
study on preparing concrete for airport pavements using blasted
furnace slag (BFS). Jamshidi et al. (2014) indicated that the use of
recycled materials (BFS) not only benefits sustainable development
from the aspect of waste reduction, but also the properties of
concrete (e.g. structural performance) can be improved.
A large amount of FBA is generated as a by-product of coal fired
power generation every day, and finding recycling outlets for FBA
would contribute to the sustainable use of resources (Kou et al.,
2012). Previous studies showed that FBA can be used as a lightweight material to replace natural aggregates for concrete production. Kou and Poon (2009) showed that for the concrete mix
prepared with 100% FBA replacing natural fine aggregate, a
compressive strength of 32 MPa was achieved after 28 d curing at a
W/C ratio of 0.53. The 28 d compressive strength could be further
improved to 65 MPa when the W/C was decreased to 0.34.
Wongkeo et al. (2012) demonstrated the feasibility of using a
ground bottom ash (BA) with similar chemical compositions to FBA
to partially replace cement, and the result showed that 28 d
compressive strength slightly increased from 9 MPa to 11 MPa with
B. Zhang, C.S. Poon / Journal of Cleaner Production 99 (2015) 94e100
the increase of BA replacement ratio from 0 to 30% at a fixed w/c
ratio.
Energy saving is also an important issue in sustainability. According to the Hong Kong Electrical and Mechanical Services Department's (ESMD) 2013 annual report of energy end use break
down, in the year 2011 space air conditioning accounted for about
23% and 26% of total annual electricity consumption in residential
buildings and commercial buildings, respectively (Electrical and
Mechanical Services Department, 2013), which indicates that
building materials with better thermal insulation properties have a
promising future. Previous research works proved that by using
lightweight aggregate (expanded perlite) in concrete mixes, the
thermal conductivity can be lowered to about 0.13 W/mK (Sengul
et al., 2011). Demirboga and Kan (2012) prepared lightweight
aggregate concrete with a modified waste expanded polystyrene
(MEPS) to replace natural aggregates, the thermal conductivity of
€ zoglu et al. (2013)
the concrete was reduced to 0.600 W/mK. Akçao
used recycled waste PET lightweight aggregate (WPLA) to produce
concrete with improved thermal insulation property, and the result
indicated that by replacing natural aggregate with WPLW at 60% by
volume, the fresh concrete density was reduced gradually to
1530 kg/m3 compared with 2240 kg/m3 of the control mix, while
the thermal conductivity value was reduced from 0.9353 W/mK to
0.3924 W/mK. Another commonly used aggregate to improve
concrete insulation properties is rubber aggregate. Mohammed
et al. (2012) prepared hollow concrete blocks of dimension
390 mm 190 mm 190 mm with 10%e50% crumb rubber
incorporation, and the thermal insulation properties tests indicated
that 50% rubber aggregate incorporation resulted in a reduction of
concrete thermal conductivity from around 1.0 W/mK to nearly
0.6 W/mK. However, they also pointed out that the use of high
volume rubber aggregate resulted in significant strength losses, as
the concrete compressive strength was reduced from more than
12 MPa to less than 2 MPa due to the rubber aggregate
incorporation.
As regards the mechanical properties of lightweight aggregate
€ zog
lu, when the replacement ratio of
concrete, according to Akçao
normal weight aggregate by WPLA aggregate was increased to 60%,
the compressive strength of the concrete using a 500 kg/m3 cement
content was only 9.5 MPa after 28 d curing and 11.1 MPa after 90 d
curing, which indicated that the ratio of compressive strength in
MPa divided by the saturated-surface dried (SSD) density (fc/D) of
this type of lightweight aggregate concrete was only around 6.0 to
€ zog
lu et al., 2013). Ben Fraj et al. (2010) prepared light7.0 (Akçao
weight aggregate concrete with a polyurethane foam waste (density 21 kg/m3, water absorption 13.9% by volume), the results
showed that at a w/c ratio of 0.55, the normal aggregate concrete
attained a compressive strength of 38 MPa after 28 d curing while
lightweight aggregate concrete only gained 16.5 MPa (when all the
normal coarse aggregate was replaced by the polyurethane foam
waste), and the fc/D ratio was only 10.7. Strength loss due to
lightweight aggregate incorporation limited the application of
lightweight aggregate concrete in building construction.
But high strength lightweight aggregate concrete for structural
uses had been prepared (Samuel et al., August 2011) by using a
vacuum saturated pumice to serve as both the fine and coarse aggregates, with the w/c controlled between 0.21 and 0.25. The results showed that this type of lightweight aggregate concrete was
able to achieve a 28 d compressive strength between 36.5 MPa and
40.5 MPa, while the fc/D ratio tested at 28 d curing age was ranged
from 18.1 to 19.6. Kockal and Ozturan (2011) investigated the mechanical properties of structural lightweight aggregate concrete by
using two different types of sintered lightweight fly ash aggregates
and one type of cold-bonded lightweight fly ash aggregate, the
results showed that adding 10% silica fume by cement weight was
95
effective in improving the mechanical and durability properties of
the concrete. Oil palm shell (OPS) is another lightweight aggregate
(density 1190 kg/m3, 24 h water absorption 21.82%) that can replace
natural coarse aggregate for the production of lightweight aggregate concrete, and it was demonstrated that when the cement
content was controlled at 550 kg/m3 and the w/c at 0.425, the fc/D
ratio from 22.1 to 24.3 was achieved at 28 days curing age (Shafigh
et al., 2011).
Permeability is an important index in determining the durability
properties of lightweight aggregate concrete. Liu et al. (2010)
conducted a study on assessing the chloride ion penetration of
lightweight aggregate concrete made with different types of
expanded clay. The results indicated that concrete containing
lightweight aggregate showed higher chloride ion penetrability
than normal aggregate concrete, Silica fume was also found effective to mitigate the durability properties of lightweight aggregate
concrete (Liu et al., 2010).
Other than hardened properties, the fresh concrete properties
of lightweight aggregate concrete had also been investigated.
Shafigh et al. prepared lightweight aggregate concrete with waste
materials from palm oil industry (Shafigh et al., 2014), and the
results indicated that the oil-palm-boiler clinker (OPBC) incorporation led to a reduction in slump value, Recycled clay had also
been used as lightweight aggregate in concrete, and past study
results showed that at a cement content 350 kg/m3 and a w/c 0.55,
the slump value of concrete mixtures containing recycled clay
aggregate can be controlled to 120 mme130 mm (Bogas et al.,
2014).
But limited research has been done on assessing the thermal
insulation property of lightweight aggregate concrete produced
with FBA incorporation. This study is aimed to assess the feasibility
of producing such type of lightweight aggregate concrete with
satisfactory mechanical, durability and insulation properties.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
An ordinary Portland cement (ASTM Type I) sourced locally was
used in this study, the density of which was 3.16 g/cm3 and the
specific surface areas was 3500 cm2/g. The detailed chemical
compositions of the cement are presented in Table 1.
Crushed granite with maximum sizes of 10 mm and 20 mm
were used as natural coarse aggregate in the natural aggregate
concrete, and a crushed fine stone with a fineness modulus of 3.5
was used as the fine aggregate for both the normal weight aggregate concrete and the lightweight aggregate concrete. The properties of the normal weight aggregates are listed in Table 2.
A Lightweight expanded clay aggregate (LECA) with a diameter
ranged from 6 mm to 10 mm was used as the lightweight coarse
aggregate in this study. The surface saturated dried density of the
lightweight aggregate was 1192 kg/m3, and the 24 h water absorption value was 9.41%, as listed in Table 2.
The FBA used in this study was sourced from a local power
generation plant. FBA is a by-product of coal fired power generation
plants, and its density and water absorption values vary with
different sources of coal and type of plants. FBA used in this series of
experiment had a saturated surface dried density of 2208 kg/m3,
24 h water absorption of 11.17%, and a fineness modulus of 3.3. The
chemical compositions of the FBA are presented in Table 1, and the
properties of FBA can be found in Table 2.
A superplasticizer ADVA 109 (Grace) was used to control the
workability, as indicated by the slump values of the fresh concrete
mixtures. The amount of superplasticizer used in each mix proportion is listed in Table 3.
96
B. Zhang, C.S. Poon / Journal of Cleaner Production 99 (2015) 94e100
Table 1
Chemical compositions of cement and FBA (%).
Cement
FBA
SiO2
Fe2O3
Al2O3
CaO
MgO
SO3
SO4
Na2O
K2O
TiO2
Others
L.O.I.
19.61
52.10
3.32
11.99
7.32
18.34
63.15
6.61
2.54
4.85
2.13
e
e
0.72
e
2.43
e
1.57
e
0.87
e
0.52
2.97
4.13
Table 2
Properties of aggregates.
Properties
Sieve Analysis
(according to
ASTM C 136 06)
Ssd density (Kg/m3)
(according to BS
EN 1097-6:2000)
24 h water absorption
(%) (according to BS
EN 1097-6:2000)
Size of
sieve
(mm)
Percentage passing (%)
20 mm
Granite
10 mm
Granite
Crushed
fine stone
FBA
37.5
20
14
10
5
2.36
1.18
0.6
0.3
0.15
e
100
97
18
4
e
e
e
e
e
e
2652
e
e
100
96
21
4
e
e
e
e
2656
e
e
e
100
97
67
44
27
14
6
2670
e
e
e
100
83
61
46
36
28
19
2208
e
0.91
0.85
1.19
11.17
2.2. Mix proportion design
One control mix and one series of lightweight aggregate concrete were prepared, for the normal aggregate concrete (coded
NAC, control mix), the water/cement ratio (w/c) was set at 0.6;
while for the lightweight aggregate series (coded LWC), the w/c
was set at 0.39. To investigate the influence brought by FBA
incorporation to the lightweight aggregate concrete, FBA was
added to replace natural crushed fine stone at a ratio of 0, 25%, 50%,
75%, and 100% by volume, respectively. The details of all the concrete mixtures are listed in Table 3.
Before casting, all lightweight aggregate was soaked in water for
24 h. After that the aggregate was scooped out, hanged in the air
until a saturated surface dried (SSD) situation was obtained.
2.3. Curing and testing
All the concrete specimens were demolded after 24 h of casting
and cured in a water tank at a temperature of 27 ± 2 C until the test
ages.
Slump test was performed to evaluate the workability of the
fresh concrete in accordance with BS EN 12350-2:2009 (British
Standards Institution, 2009a).
The
cubic
specimens
with
dimensions
of
100 mm 100 mm 100 mm at the SSD condition were used for the
density test, in accordance with BS EN12390-7:2009 (British Standards
Institution, 2009b).
To investigate the mechanical properties of the prepared concrete, compressive strength test and static modulus of elasticity test
were
carried
out.
Cubic
specimens
with
sizes
of
100 mm 100 mm 100 mm were used for the compressive
strength test carried out at the ages of 1 d, 3 d, 7 d, 28 d and 90 d in
accordance with BS EN 12390-3:2009 (British Standards
Institution, 2009c).
Cylindrical specimens with a diameter of 100 mm and a height
of 200 mm were prepared for conducting the static modulus of
elasticity test at the ages of 28 d and 90 d in accordance with BS
1881-121 (British Standards Institution, 1983).
The accelerated chloride ion permeability test was conducted at
the curing ages of 28 d and 90 d based on ASTM C 1202-09
(American Society of Testing Materials, 1997) to assess concrete
durability.
For the thermal conductivity test according to BS EN 1934:1998
(British
Standards
Institution,
1998),
three
identical
300 mm 300 mm 60 mm slabs were prepared for each mix.
They were cured in a water tank for 28 d, followed by placing them
in an oven for 24 h at 105 C to drive out the free moisture. The
equipment used for measurement the K value was fabricated according to BS EN 1934:1998 (British Standards Institution, 1998)
(Fig. 1). The temperatures of the cold and the hot side of the
chamber were set at 23 C and 53 C, respectively. The thermal
conductivity K-value is calculated by the following Equation (1):
K¼
Q
L
A DT
(1)
where
K is thermal conductivity value, in W$m1 K1;
Q is heat flux through tested specimen, in W;
A is the area of heat flux, in mm2;
L is the thickness of the slab, in m; and
DT is the temperature difference of two surfaces of tested
specimen, in K.
The setup of the thermal conductivity test is illustrated in Fig. 1.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Workability
From Fig. 2, it can be seen that all the fresh concrete mixtures,
with different amounts of superplasticizer added, had slump values
ranging from 120 mm to 200 mm. The result indicates that with
Table 3
Mix proportion designs (kg/m3).
ADVA 109 (L/m3)
Mix code
W/C
FBA
Cement
Water
Crushed fine stone
Coarse Aggregate
10 mm
20 mm
LWA
NAC
LWCF0
LWCF25
LWCF50
LWCF75
LWCF100
0.6
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0
0
156
312
468
624
325
450
450
450
450
450
195
175
175
175
175
175
1041
755
566
377
189
0
276
e
e
e
e
e
552
e
e
e
e
e
e
477
477
477
477
477
3.55
1.46
1.96
1.37
1.86
1.76
B. Zhang, C.S. Poon / Journal of Cleaner Production 99 (2015) 94e100
97
Fig. 1. Schematic of thermal conductivity test setup.
proper amount of additives, lightweight aggregate concrete prepared with different amounts of FBA incorporation can reach an
acceptable slump value, and thus can be considered suitable for
construction works.
It can be seen from Table 2 that FBA aggregate used in this study
had a similar size distribution to that of the natural crushed fine
stone, which enables FBA suitable for use as a fine aggregate in
concrete without compromising the fresh concrete workability.
3.2. Density and mechanical properties
Previous research works (Kou et al., 2009; Mounanga et al.,
lu,
2008; Panyakapo and Panyakapo, 2008; Topçu and Uygunog
2010) suggested that generally, replacing natural aggregates by
recycled aggregates resulted in a reduction in density of concrete
when the density of the recycled aggregate is lower than that of the
natural aggregate.
The data illustrated in Fig. 3 indicate that by using lightweight
aggregate to replace natural coarse aggregate, the concrete density
can be lowered from about 2300 kg/m3 to 1800 kg/m3. Furthermore, when using a higher volume of FBA to replace natural
crushed fine stone, the concrete specimens can attain an ovendried density value of about 1500 kg/m3. This can also be
Fig. 2. Slump test results.
attributed to the lower density of the FBA aggregate compared to
the natural crushed fine stone. The density values obtained show
the prepared specimens can be regarded as a light weight concrete
according to ACI guide (ACI Committee, 1999).
From Fig. 4, it can be seen that with increasing curing age, the
compressive strength of the concrete mix increased gradually. The
data illustrated in Fig. 5 indicates that the concrete with a higher
volume of FBA incorporation had lower compressive strength.
However, even when 100% FBA was used to replace natural fine
aggregate, a 28 d compressive strength of higher than 30 MPa could
still be achieved. According to American Concrete Institute (ACI)
Committee Report 213 “Guide for Structural Lightweight-Aggregate
Concrete” (ACI Committee, 1999), lightweight aggregate concrete
with a 28 d compressive strength of higher than 17 MPa can serve
as structural concrete.
The data illustrated in Fig. 6 show that by using the lightweight
aggregate, a significant decrease in E-values is noticed due to the
lower density of the lightweight aggregate compared to the natural
aggregates. Regarding the effect of FBA replacement ratio, the Evalues of the concrete mixtures further decreased linearly with the
increase of FBA content. The data also show that for all the concrete
mixes, after 90 d of curing, higher E-values can be achieved when
compared with the specimens tested after 28 d curing, which was
attributed to the continued hydration process of the cementitious
systems.
Fig. 3. Surface saturated density and oven-dried density test results.
98
B. Zhang, C.S. Poon / Journal of Cleaner Production 99 (2015) 94e100
Fig. 4. Compressive strength test results.
Fig. 5. Correlation between FBA incorporation % and compressive strength.
Fig. 7. Correlation between fc/D ratio and FBA incorporation %.
chloride ion penetrability was resulted even after 90 d of hydration,
and this can be attributed to the porous structure of the lightweight
aggregate. A positive linear correlation between the replacement
ratio of sand by of FBA and charge passed (coulombs) can be seen in
Fig. 8, which demonstrates that higher volumes of FBA incorporation had a negative impact on the concrete durability properties.
The reduced resistance to chloride ion penetration with an increase
in FBA aggregate content can be attributed to the higher volume of
pores and the higher water absorption characteristics of the FBA
aggregate compared to that of the natural crushed fine stone.
It is necessary to improve the durability property of the concrete
mixtures prepared in this study. Previous research work (Chia and
Zhang, 2002) on the chloride ion penetrability of high strength
lightweight aggregate concrete using expanded clay as the aggregate showed when 10% silica fume was added as a binder, the
charge passed volume could be significantly reduced. Similar
methods may also be applicable to mitigate the strength loss and to
improve the impermeability of light weight aggregate concrete
with FBA and further studies on this will be conducted in our future
studies.
3.4. Thermal conductivity
Fig. 6. Modulus of elasticity test results.
Fig. 7 plots the correlation between FBA incorporation and fc/D
ratio of the concrete after 28 d and 90 d of water curing. Lightweight aggregate concrete produced in this study achieved fc/D
ratios of 18.3e25.2 at 28 d and 19.4 to 27.4 at 90 d. Compared to the
values obtained by Shafigh et al., the present study is able to produce lightweight aggregate concrete with comparable or higher fc/
D values.
It is feasible to recycle FBA as aggregates to produce light weight
aggregate concrete with strength effectiveness.
As illustrated in Fig. 9, under the same temperature difference
and relative humidity conditions, the normal aggregate concrete
had a higher heat flux value higher than the lightweight aggregate
concrete, which indicates that the lightweight aggregate concrete
had better thermal insulation properties than the normal aggregate
concrete.
It can be noticed from Fig. 10 and Fig. 11 that by replacing natural
coarse aggregate with lightweight aggregate, the thermal conductivity (K-value) can be lowered from more than 0.9 W/mK to around
0.65 W/mK. Fig. 10 shows that with FBA incorporation, the thermal
3.3. Chloride ion penetrability
Chloride ion penetrability is an important indicator for concrete
durability. The test results are shown in Fig. 8, and the classification
of chloride ion penetrability is listed in Table 5 according to the
classification system (Table 4) of ASTM C 1202-09 (American
Society of Testing Materials, 1997).
According to the data presented above, it can be seen that by
using lightweight aggregate as the coarse aggregate, a high level
Fig. 8. Chloride ion permeability test results.
B. Zhang, C.S. Poon / Journal of Cleaner Production 99 (2015) 94e100
99
Table 4
Standard classification of chloride ion penetrability.
Charge Passed (Coulombs)
Chloride ion penetrability
>4000
2000e4000
1000e2000
100e1000
<100
High
Moderate
Low
Very Low
Negligible
Table 5
Classification of chloride ion penetrability results.
Mix code
NAC
LWCF0
LWCF25
LWCF50
LWCF75
LWCF100
28d
90d
Moderate
Low
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
Fig. 11. Correlation between concrete 28d oven-dried density and thermal conductivity values.
Fig. 9. Heat flux data of normal aggregate concrete and lightweight aggregate concrete
slabs.
conductivity decreased with increasing FBA content, which can be
attributed to the lower density of FBA compared to the natural
crushed fine stone. The correlation between concrete oven-dried
density and thermal conductivity is illustrated in Fig. 11. When
100% FBA was used to replace natural fine aggregates, the thermal
conductivity was further reduced to less than 0.5 W/mK.
An ACI guide (ACI Committee, 2002) suggested that concrete
thermal conductivity is associated with the oven-dried density as
illustrated by the following equation:
K ¼ 0:072e0:00125d
where
K is the thermal conductivity in W/mK; and
d is the oven-dried density of concrete in kg/m3.
This equation reveals that in general concrete with a lower
oven-dried density would result in a lower thermal conductivity.
Also, previous research works (Benazzouk et al., 2008; Sengul
et al., 2011; Ünal et al., 2007) on using light weight aggregate in
concrete indicated that the incorporation of light weight aggregate
had positive effects on improving the concrete thermal insulation
properties.
In subtropical regions like Hong Kong, a large percentage of total
energy input is used for air cooling systems in buildings. With
lower thermal conductivity values and improved thermal insulation properties, the FBA incorporated light weight aggregate
concrete can be used as building envelop materials to save energy
use in buildings.
4. Conclusion
Based on the above results and discussion, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. Lightweight aggregate concrete with up to 100% FBA as fine
aggregate could achieve an equivalent workability and similar
compressive strength to that of the normal aggregate concrete;
2. The oven dried density of concrete decreased with the increase of
FBA content, which can be attributed to the lower density of FBA
compared to natural crushed fine stone, and concrete with 100%
FBA as fine aggregate reached an oven-dried density of 1500 kg/m3;
3. When the FBA replacement ratio was less than 50%, the fc/D
ratio was higher than most other results reported in previous
research works. This proves that light weight concrete containing FBA is suitable for structural use.
4. The thermal conductivity of concrete decreased with increase of
FBA amount, which can be attributed to the higher porosity of
FBA; meanwhile no detrimental strength loss occurred due to
high volume FBA incorporation, which makes this type of light
weight aggregate concrete has good potential to be used as
energy saving building envelop materials.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank The Hong Kong Polytechnic University for funding support.
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