First semester. General Farm Mechanization AEM 445 
General Farm Mechanization [AEM 445]
Department of Agricultural & Extension Management
Higher National Diploma (HND II)
Course lecturers: Dr. Bello R. S. & Ozor Anthony
Contact hours: 60 hours (1-hour lecture and 3 hours practical)
Credit units: 4.0
Course objective
Goal: This course is designed to provide the students with an understanding of the principles of the
basic principles of operation of farm machineries, implements and equipment.
General objectives: On completion of this course, the students should be able to:

Understand the operation and servicing of common types of farm tractors

Know the maintenance of common types of crop farm implement and equipment

Understand the operation of mechanized feeding systems for poultry, cattle and pigs

Understand the general principles of drainage and irrigation technology

Understand the general construction, operation and maintenance of milk production equipment

Know how to analyse cost and budget for farm machinery.
Reference materials
Bello RS, 2012. Farm machinery & mechanization. https://tinyurl.com/y6xtj4bb
Bello R.S. and Bello M.B., 2015. Agricultural Machinery Management. https://tinyurl.com/y3opnsnz
Bello RS. 2012. Agricultural Engineering Vol. 1 & 2. https://tinyurl.com/y59agc9j
Course modules

Module 1: Operation and servicing of common types of farm tractors

Module 2: Maintenance of common types of crop farm implement and equipment

Module 3: Operation of Mechanized feeding systems for poultry, cattle and pigs

Module 4: General principles of drainage and irrigation technology

Module 5: General construction , operation and maintenance of milk production equipment

Module 6: Farm machinery cost analysis and budgeting
First semester. Agricultural Machinery Design MEM 413 
Module 1
Operation and servicing of farm tractors
1.1 Farm tractors, implement and operations
A tractor is a self-powered work vehicle, designed for the purposes of producing and making power available for
various operations on the field. Evolution of the tractor has brought about changes in farm size and technology
and has also proved man to be an efficient producer controlling power rather than being the source of power.
Today’s agricultural tractors have several built-in features such as more power, hydraulic controlled power
steering and power brakes, incorporated three point hitches, remote hydraulic cylinders, power take off drives,
hydraulic controlled seat , installed air conditioner, installed integrated remote control system (infrared sensors
etc.), enclosed cab for operator’s protection and comfort among others.
Typical tractor
The power capability of the modern tractor has led to higher productivity with a significantly reduced workforce.
In recent years there has been a trend from four-wheeled to three-wheeled vehicles, where a single, central front
wheel can operate more successfully among crops planted or cultivated in rows.
Agricultural and farm machinery
Agricultural machinery: Agricultural machinery refers to any machine or implement used at every stage of
agricultural production and processing including equipment used in on farm and off farm activities where further
agricultural processing and related operations takes place. This equipment may or may not be powered by a power
unit. Therefore, agricultural machinery includes all equipment and machines used in land clearing, tillage, crop
planting and transplanting, fertilizer and herbicide application, harvest, soil and water conservation, crop
processing and storage, food processing and preservation activities, animal husbandry equipment etc.
Farm machinery: Farm machinery refers to any machine or implement used in agricultural production and
processing within the farm environment which may or may not be powered by power units. Examples include
machinery for conventional agricultural operations such as land clearing tools and machine, tillage, crop planting
and transplanting equipment, fertilizer and herbicide applicators, harvest machines, soil and water conservation
equipment, crop processing and storage equipment.
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First semester General Farm Mechanization AEM 445 
Areas of tractor application
Tractors are designed for one or several of the following applications
1. Pulling or pushing special machinery-moving or stationary (in either off-road or on-road operation),
2. Hauling of heavy loads over land.
3. Widely used in agriculture, building construction, road construction, and
4. For specialized services in industrial plants, railway freight stations, and docks.
5. Other areas of applications also include landform and land clearing development operations.
The place of tractor in achieving the set goals of mechanization has been very significant.
Areas of machinery application
Operation
Land clearing
Land forming
Tillage
Planting
Weeding
Harvesting
Description
Equipment
Cutting blade, stumper, splitters, root rake,
Vegetation clearing and disposal
Land
leveling,
land
filling,
MA rake, burner etc.
ditching
waterways
Suitable seed bed preparation and weed
control
Seed
and chemical application and
transplanters
Weed control, disease and pest control
Rotary hoes, mowers, sickles
crop harvest and handling preparatory for
processing,
more stable, beneficial and refined forms for
market satisfaction and storage purposes
Transportation
Excavator, ditcher, scraper, land plane
Seed establishment, propagation, fertilizer
Conversion of agricultural products into
Processing
Ploughs, harrows, cultivators, ridgers etc.
drills,
root
crop
planters,
Combine harvester, fruit harvester
Grain mills, mixers, chopping, waxing,
washing and packaging
Farm products transport, distribution and
Trailers, articulated vehicles, intermediate
marketing
vehicles ATVs
1.2 Tractor implements attachments
Implements can be attached to tractor through the following devices;
1 Single point hitch to drawbar
2 3-point hitch to drawbar
3 The 3-point linkage
Mounting slasher to tractor
Before mounting the slasher to the tractor, ensure that the stabilizer bars and adjustable top-links are fitted to the
tractor. It is essential that the slasher should be able to ride easily over obstacles. There must therefore, be no
downward pressure from the tractor’s hydraulic system, and all “down pressure” pins or other means of applying
downward pressure, should be removed. On many tractors the lift rods have an adjustable collar for exerting such
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First semester. Agricultural Machinery Design MEM 413 
pressure. This collar must be moved to its lowest point so that both lift rods may “float” and allow the slasher to
lift-up if it hits an obstacle.
Different points of implement attachment to tractor
Attaching remote hydraulic cylinder
Remote hydraulic implements such as tipping trailer, front-end loaders, post-hole-diggers, and ditchers extend the
usefulness of the agricultural tractor. These implements may be attached directly to the tractor or some distance
away, connected by a hydraulic line. Usually, the tractors’ own hydraulic PTO powers the remote units. Some
implements however, are equipped with their own hydraulic pump, which is driven from the tractor's PTO. These
systems are generally powerful.
1.3 Maintenance of farm machinery
Farm machinery requires regular maintenance to keep functioning. Several types of maintenance techniques have
been used in machinery and equipment maintenance and reconditioning and are classified as:
1.
Conventional maintenance (which include routine maintenance, preventive maintenance, default type, discard
type, offline and online type) and
2.
Proactive maintenance
3.
Reactive maintenance (corrective or breakdown maintenance),
1.
Reactive maintenance: Reactive maintenance is basically the "run it till it breaks" maintenance mode. No actions
or efforts are taken to maintain the equipment as the designer originally intended it to ensure design life is
reached. Advantages to reactive maintenance can be viewed as a double-edged sword. If we are dealing with
new equipment, we can expect minimal incidents of failure. If our maintenance program is purely reactive,
we will not expend manpower cost or incur capital cost until something breaks. Reactive maintenance is
further categorized as corrective/curative and failure-based/breakdown maintenance.
a.
Corrective /curative maintenance: These are maintenance carried out when a system has finally broken down
i.e., repairs is to be done on the engine system. Thus, it is included in both planned and unplanned
maintenance.
b.
Failure based /breakdown maintenance: Failure based or breakdown maintenance is carried out on the basis of
failure occurrence in machine. A little lubrication and minor adjustments are done in this system.
2.
Conventional/ traditional maintenance: Conventional or traditional maintenance practices include emergency
maintenance, routine maintenance and preventive maintenance.
a.
Emergency maintenance: This is the aspect of maintenance, which is necessary to put machine and equipment
in good working condition immediately to avoid serious consequences, for instance cleaning of distributor
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First semester General Farm Mechanization AEM 445 
cap in the electrical system of an engine. The machine can still function but when not attended to, can cause
major breakdown in the system.
b.
Routine maintenance: Routine maintenance is the simplest form of planned maintenance but very essential.
As the name implies, it is carried out at regular intervals. It involves periodic check of relevant areas. The
frequency of such check ranges between hourly, daily, weekly and monthly or as recommend by the
manufacturers.
c.
Preventive maintenance: This is one of the oldest and traditional methods of maintenance. It is used mostly
along with corrective maintenance and condition-based maintenance (diagnostic maintenance). Preventive
maintenance is a planned maintenance of plants resulting from periodic inspection in order to minimize
the breakdowns and depreciation rates. This includes the followings: servicing; adjusting; operating;
repairing and caring for agricultural machines so as to prevent unnecessary wear out of parts, and keep
time loss due to breakdown to a minimum.
b.
Proactive maintenance: Proactive maintenance is that type of maintenance that employs corrective actions
aimed at solving the problem of machine failure from the source. It is designed to extend the life of
mechanical machinery as opposed to making repairs when nothing is broken.
1.4 Internal combustion engine (ICE)
Internal combustion engine (ICE) utilizes the expansive force of gas produced when fuel is burn in enclosed
chamber to produce power. Diesel and petrol engines are common examples of internal combustion engine. Engine
parts are mutually constrained (restricted) to convert the expansive force generated in the cylinder into rotational
motion at the flywheel. The diesel engine is a compression ignition kind of engine in which air is taken in and
compressed to high temperatures and fuel is injected for combustion at very high pressures. The petrol engine
otherwise called spark ignition engine takes in fuel mixture (air + petrol) and a spark plug ignite the mixture to
produce power.
Engine components/parts are functionally divided into the following four divisions and will be the basis for our
descriptions.
Engine systems
Power train
Stationary components
Description
This part
Components
receives, exert and
transmit the motion forces
piston rings,
piston pin or
wristpin, connecting rod, crankshaft,
flywheel etc.
These parts constrain and supports
Cylinder block, cylinder head, crankcase,
all moving parts
base, engine supports, manifolds
These parts times the operating
Operating systems
Piston,
system, programmes the sequence
of operation and enhance engine
performance
air-intake system, fuel supply system,
carburetion and injection systems, valve
system,
lubrication
system,
cooling
system, ignition system and exhaust
system
Exhaust system and components, exhaust
gasket, fire arrester, turbocharging and
Auxiliary systems
Enhances engine performance
intercooling
ignition
cooling system
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systems,
systems,
supercharger,
electrical
system,
First semester. Agricultural Machinery Design MEM 413 
Module 2
Maintenance of common types of crop farm implement and equipment
2.1
Tillage equipment
For effective operation on the field, you need to carry out some basic essential maintenance on your tillage
implements. An operator must have an understanding of the function, operation and limitations of the equipment
he/she is operating. Hurrying to work and human errors are responsible for vast majority of equipment accidents.
The operator must resist the temptation to be hurried into an accident. Routine or periodic maintenance could be
carried out on the implements as follows
Before and during the season
1.
Tighten all bolts and nuts
2.
Applying grease to moving parts through the grease nipples using the grease gun.
3.
Scrape off soil that is attached around the center of the disc.
4.
Do NOT leave implement out on the open field. Keep them in implement shed
At the end of season
1.
At the end of the season, open the hub and take out the taper roller bearings arranged in opposite directions
and wash, greases and coupled back.
2.
Scrape off soil that is attached around the center of the disc.
3.
Clean and oil disc concave for seasonal storage
4.
Keep them in safe storage for the season
Seeders and planters
Seeders and planters are designed for crops reproduction. Their function include metering and placing of seeds,
seedling plants or of parts thereof in the soil. The following conditions are critical to their performance:
1.
Soil properties related to soil type, soil moisture content, residue properties, and
2.
Interactions between soil conditions and residue properties.
Parts of a typical seeder/ planter
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The interaction between planting performance and soil type can be affected by soil structure, organic matter
content, and other factors affecting friability, adhesiveness, and hardness in the surface 5cm planting zone. Planting
machines must be operable in the worst soil conditions encountered by the individual operator. This must be
adjustable or adequate for other less severe conditions.
Planter maintenance
After carefully cleaning and inspection in the seed hopper and metering area, inspect the planter frame, particularly
near the seed drop tube, double-disc seed openers, depth wheels, and press wheels. Seed may have fallen during
cleanout, or may be sticking to planter components if soil is moist or seed opener is dirty. If required to get
underneath row units, make sure row unit or planter is supported safely and securely on blocks or stands.
Maintenance practices include:
1.
Removal of seed remains from within the hopper.
2.
Inspect the seed hopper, brushing all remaining seed into the seed removal tube.
3.
Remove the seed plate by removing the center attachment bolt.
4.
Inspect and remove seed in the metering area paying particular attention to brushes.
5.
After cleaning seed from this area and with the planter properly supported on blocks or stands
6.
Turn the depth gauging wheels and double-disc seed openers several revolutions.
7.
Seed that fell from the metering mechanism when the seed plate was removed typically gets caught in this area.
In a test approximately, 5 to 30 seeds per row unit were observed during cleanout of 3 units.
8.
An alternative to spilling seed from inside the metering mechanism into the seed opener area is to close a gate
between the seed hopper and metering mechanism, and then operate the planter to remove seed from the meter.
If this technique is used, make certain all seed in the hopper has been removed.
Removing the seed plate and cleaning in the depth wheel/seed opener area adds approximately 2 minutes per
row unit beyond simply emptying seed from the hoppers via the seed removal tube.
Operation and maintenance of sprayers/dusters
2.2
Sprayers
The sprayer is one of the most common machines used to apply liquid chemicals for weed and insect control.
Examples include knapsack sprayers (hand operated), boom sprayer (tractor mounted), mist applicators, electro
dyne sprayers etc. However, some sprayers were operated in the air through helicopter or airplane for large
hectares of land.
Sprayer components
A basic field sprayer typically consists of the following components:
1.
Tank: A tank to hold a mixture of active chemical ingredient(s) and water;
2.
Pump: The pump is usually a centrifugal-type pump;
3.
Pressure gauge: A pressure gauge monitors the pressure variations within the chemical tank and the discharge
nozzles;
4.
Control valves: Valves are vital to proper functioning of sprayers. Some typical valves in sprayers include;
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 Relief valves: These limit the maximum pressure of the sprayer and prevent damage. In addition to limiting
pressure,
 The unloader valve unloads the pump (full flow at low pressure) to save energy and wear when the sprayer is
idling and not calling for sprayer discharge.
 Throttling valves: Throttling valves are used to control the amount of flow volume and boom selector valves
control the active section of the sprayer boom.
 Flow control valves are available as manual or as electric valves.
5.
Boom: A boom for multiple spray nozzles spaced equally over a working width;
6.
Plumbing materials: Plumbing materials such as pipes, hoses etc. necessary to connect the components.
7.
Nozzles: The nozzle performs three main functions on the sprayer:
 Regulates flow;
 Atomizes the mixture into droplets; and
 Disperses the spray in a specific pattern.
2.3
Sprayers calibration
Sprayer calibration inherently refers to the process of establishing an accurate relationship between a sprayer and
the units it is intended to measure, by comparing the reading of the sprayer with an existing standard calibration
of known higher accuracy, and adjusting the sprayer to be within some given tolerance closer to the standard.
All calibration techniques rely on three variables that affect the amount of spray applied per hectare: the nozzle
flow rate, the ground speed, and the effective width of each nozzle. Any change in one of these variables will have
a direct effect upon the others.
Methods: Many methods are available for calibrating sprayers, but some are easier to use than others. Sprayers
can be calibrated in three ways:
1.
Field calibration
2.
Experimental calibration and
3.
Timed-flow method
2.4
Sprayers maintenance
New sprayers: Before use (if your sprayer is new) pure water into the tank and spray to wash the tank and nozzles
before purring in your chemical.
Used sprayers: If it is in use already, you have to calibrate to make sure the desired operational standards conform.
Make sure all the securing bolts are well tight. After each use pump clean water through the nozzles to rinse them.
Wash the filter in the nozzle thoroughly to avoid blockage.
Cleaning procedure: Sprayers should be cleaned as soon as possible after use. Herbicide residues that have dried
in the sprayer are much more difficult to remove than herbicides that remain in solution. The following guidelines
should be followed when cleaning a sprayer.
1.
Mix the required amount of pesticide, and apply the entire contents on the field as directed on the label.
Dispose of any excess spray by applying it to an approved crop according to label directions.
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2.
Thoroughly rinse sprayer tank with water, circulate the water through the sprayer system and, if possible,
apply rinsate on the treated field.
3.
To avoid contamination of wells and groundwater, do not flush and drain rinsate at a common location such
as near the mixing and loading site.
4.
Fill the sprayer tank half full of water and add the recommended cleaning agent as directed on the herbicide
label. If no agent is recommended on the label, add a mixture of water and detergent. Circulate the cleaning
solution through the agitation system and spray boom for several minutes. Be sure that the walls of the
sprayer tank are thoroughly rinsed. Allow the spray solution to sit in the sprayer several hours—preferably
overnight. Then, pump the solution out of the sprayer system, and properly dispose of the rinsate.
5.
Rinse the entire spray system with fresh water. Be sure that all cleaning agent residues are out of the system,
including the spray boom.
6.
Remove and clean nozzles, tips, and screens with cleaning solution and rinse with water. Store extra or
unused tips in a clean, dry container that will protect the nozzle tips from physical damage.
Check the herbicide label for specific information on the recommended cleaning agent, protective clothing
required, and cleaning procedures.
General maintenance considerations for agricultural machinery
Maintenance of farm machinery is complicated by the usage pattern characterized by short-duration usage, to
periods of intense activity, followed by periods of non-use or storage. During the “standing” or non-use periods,
chemical interactions between metals and fluids can cause more damage than normal wear and tear from active
usage. This must be considered in planning machinery maintenance and the following suggestions are worthy of
consideration.
1.
Follow manufacturers’ instructions for all settings, adjustments, maintenance instructions, operating
requirements and long term storage.
2.
Follow manufacturers’ recommendations on safety aspects of operation and repair. Maintain all safety
equipment as installed or recommended by manufacturers.
3.
Do not overload equipment, or operate at higher speeds than manufacturer recommends.
4.
Do not add counterweights to equipment to increase load capacity unless authorized by manufacturer. Store
equipment in clean and dry conditions.
5.
Remove all vegetation such as grass, hay, crops and crop residue from equipment before storage periods.
Decomposing vegetable matter causes corrosion to metal surfaces. This is particularly important where
surfaces are polished from usage.
6.
Keep all cutting edges sharp and clean. Sharp cutters require less power and reduce overall load on
equipment. Cracked or damaged cutting edges are also easier to detect on clean equipment.
7.
Replace these items at end of season rather than at season commencement.
8.
Inspect machinery at end of season or harvest.
9.
Repair and adjust as required. Carry out maintenance work without pressure between seasons.
Operation and Maintenance of Food Processing Equipment
methods of size reduction
There are four main size reduction methods identified and is in common use: impacting, grinding, crushing and
sawing (Figure ). Impacting is suitable for hard and brittle raw materials, such as maize feed; sawing is better for
large and fragile feed; and crushing and grinding are used for tough feeds.
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First semester. Agricultural Machinery Design MEM 413 
Grinding methods for feed
Each of these methods employs one or more of four basic force actions: impact force, attrition force, shear force and
compression force.
In milling industry grinding is done in most cases by hammer mills; wheat is ground by cylindrical comminuting
equipment (roller mills). The following fractions are typical grain (particle) size distributions used in fodders.
a.
Grit: Fine grit = 90% of grain diameter less than 1.10mm
Medium fine grit = 90% of grain diameter between 1.0-2.0m
Coarse grit = 90% of grain between 3and 5mm
b.
Middling: 0.12-0.3mm grain diameter
c.
Flour: 0.07-0.2mm grain diameter
Many mills combine different methods. Those commonly found are roller mills, claw mill and pellet mills. The
roller mill uses a pair of opposed toothed rollers that rotate simultaneously in opposite directions and at different
speeds to grind the feed. Claw mills hit and grind material with claws fixed in a rotating disc, and are suitable for
concentrate grinding because of compact structure, small volume and light weight. The structure of a claw mill
with its feeding, grinding and discharging parts consist of a feed hopper, a feed control door and a feed tube.
A plate mill consists of a circular chamber made of cast iron or steel within which two plates with a narrow gap
between them mounted face to face. The plates are grooved in order to provide a shear mechanism (Figure 5-38).
When grains are introduced into the center of the mill, the plates shear the grains between them. One of the plates
rotates and the grains revolve, working their way to the outer edge of the plate before dropping by gravity into a
holding sack below.
The pellet mill consists of specially made rollers and dies which use special binders to produce high pressure to
palletize the feed for poultry, fish etc. They are available in both vertical as well as horizontal designs and have
high capacity. The rollers and dies are made of special alloy steel, which are hardened to the required properties
for reducing wear and tear. It is useful for making pellets for the feeding needs of poultry, cattle, pigs or aqua feed.
Impact equipment
The most common pieces of equipment used to reduce the particle size of grains by impact are the hammer mills.
There are different types of hammer mill, the choice of which to use depends on the unique requirements of every
individual situation.
Hammer mill
Hammer mills are among the oldest, yet the most widely used size reduction machines in feed mills. Although
recent years have witnessed the introduction of new types of hammer mills, many of them are a refinement of the
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First semester General Farm Mechanization AEM 445 
basic hammer mill designed in order to serve more specialized purposes. Hammer mills crush materials in two
stages:
Stage 1: The material is reduced by dynamic impact;
Stage 2: Crushing then occurs by attrition and shear in the second zone, where small clearances exist between
hammers and screen bars. This second zone is the final sizing zone for the product. Hammer mills have high
reduction ratios and will produce high capacities whether used for primary, secondary or tertiary crushing.
Feed mixers
Feed mixers are designed to handle two or more materials of different properties and thoroughly mix them
together into homogeneous materials. Several mixers are in use today though some disadvantages make them
inefficient. Mixers in the market fall into several general design categories and the followings are common
examples: Horizontal auger mixers, Reel mixer, Tumble mixer, Chain and paddle, Vertical screw mixer etc.
Densification of agricultural materials
Densification is the use of mechanical pressure to reduce the volume of agricultural matter and the conversion of
this material to a solid form, which is easier to handle and store than the original material. Densification of
agricultural residues may be used as fuel for the generation of energy. Some of the methods available for
compaction of the residues are the piston press, screw press, roller press and palletizing machines.
Methods of densification
Four methods of achieving densification using commercial machines include: baling, cubing, pelleting, and
briquetting. These processes can be achieved by means of piston presses, extrusion screws or by roll presses.
Cubing, baling and pelleting processes have been frequently used in animal feed production while briquetting by
means of piston presses and screw extruders have been used in solid fuel manufacture. The roll press has been
used mainly for metallic and mineral dust compaction.
A basic method for reducing the volume of forage and granular-farinaceous fodders in material such that
separation of the individual component is prevented is referred to as pelleting.
Other common agricultural machines include Cassava dewatering machine, rice milling and destoning machine,
forage slicer, chopper etc.
Drying of agricultural materials
Drying is the reduction of moisture content to a given final value at which the material can be stored. During
drying, the moisture content of a product reaches equilibrium with the moisture content (relative humidity) of
the surrounding air. In general, safe storage of a product is reached below or at the equilibrium moisture content
that corresponds with a relative humidity of 70% or lower. For sowing seed, the upper limit is 40%, for tubers the
lower limit is 80%.
A product loses water (i.e. it dries out) when the relative humidity of the drying air is lower than the equilibrium
relative humidity that corresponds with the moisture content of the product. In comparison, the more the difference
between relative humidity of two particular products, the faster the drying process.
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First semester. Agricultural Machinery Design MEM 413 
The drying process for bulk agricultural materials is in practice a very complex process owing to various disturbing
phenomena such as shape of individual grains deviating from spherical and materials not being regarded as
homogeneous as regards to moisture conduction. The majority of agricultural products, which are dried, may be
regarded as solid, porous, or coarse material in a loose bulk state (in a layer or pile).
Drying mechanisms and systems
During drying water evaporating from the surface of the material is removed by air. Moisture migrates to the
surface under the effect of moisture gradient formed between the inner parts and the surface. This process lasts
until equilibrium is attained between the inner parts and the surface, and between the surface and the ambient.
Drying process is divided into three characteristic zones in which drying vary.
Stage 1: Moisture movement under the effects of capillary and osmotic forces from the inside to the surface of the
material.
Stage 2: Moisture drops below the maximum hygroscopic moisture content and the surface of the material dries to
the equilibrium moisture content corresponding to the drying air.
Stage 3: Moisture removal commenced when the moisture content of the material is less than the maximum
hygroscopic content.
Module 3
Feeding systems for poultry, cattle and pigs
Mechanised feeding of livestock
Mechanization of livestock feeding systems is designed to increase production, ease feeding stress and enhanced
operation. Livestock are not limited to poultry alone, but include all the ruminants, non-ruminants and small
animals that a re kept as pets. Examples include poultry birds, pig, cow, duck etc.
Common poultry farming equipment and their uses
A major key to a successful poultry business is the use of appropriate equipment. It is important to get your poultry
farming equipment from trusted vendors and also ensure they are in good working condition.
1.
Incubators: Incubators are devices used for ensuring the safe and productive hatching of eggs. An incubator is
a machine used to simulate avian incubation by keeping eggs warm at a particular temperature range and in
the correct humidity with a turning mechanism to hatch them. It takes 21 days to hatch a chicken egg. There
are varying types of incubators in terms of sizes, the possible number of eggs, and the method of operation.
2.
Brooders: A brooder is a heated structure that provides warmth for chicks. Research has shown that chicks that
are subjected to cold temperatures have impaired immune and digestive systems. As a result, cold-stressed
chicks have reduced growth and increased susceptibility to diseases. It is imperative to provide heat for the
chick. There are brooders that regulate heat and ensure optimum temperature.
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First semester General Farm Mechanization AEM 445 
3.
Chicken cages: The type of cage is dependent on factors like the system of production (open system or deep
liter system do not require cages.) and the type of bird (layers are more suitable for battery cages). Cages are
structured with either wood or iron rods and they come in various sizes and structures.
4.
Broiler battery cages: The broiler battery cages are semi-automatic models designed for clean and convenient
brooding within limited land spaces. They come with all the required water accessories and adjoining parts.
The cages are suitable for all kinds of poultry chicks as well as mature birds in an all-in-all-out intensive
management system.
5.
Layer battery cage: This system for layers is a type of intensive poultry housing system in which chickens are
kept in compartment units. This system is called the battery cage system because it involves the arrangement
of similarly-looking cages in rows and columns. What differentiates the layers’ battery cage from most other
cages is that its floors slope from back to front. The reason for this is so that eggs can roll from the back to the
front of the cage for easy collection.
6.
Transport crates: For ease of transportation, there are enclosed boxes that are called “transport crates”. They
are useful for the purpose of transferring birds from one place to another especially from hatcheries to farms.
7.
Feeders and drinkers: The regular supply of feed and water to birds is a very important factor that determines
their level of production. The system of production also affects the type of feeding and drinking equipment a
farmer will go for. There are various types of feeders and drinkers, some are hangable while some are
automatic.
8.
Poultry feeders are containers from which poultry birds feed. They hold the feed of the chickens and provide a
secure environment for them to eat without wastage.
9.
Nipple drinkers are designed to assist and provide the poultry birds with clean drinking water. This type of
drinker is a three-in-one drinker consisting of the nipple, clip, and drip cup. They can be used for broilers,
breeders, and layers.
10. Bell drinkers is used in supplying water sufficiently to poultry birds groomed with the deep litter system- from
day-old chicks to matured chickens.
11. Vaccination equipment: There is equipment that is used to administer vaccines and drugs to farm birds.
Intravenous injectors are very common in poultry farms.
1.
Debeaking machine: Debeaking is a term in poultry that refers to the act of reducing the length of a bird’s beak,
especially layers and turkey for several reasons. It is also called beak trimming or beak conditioning. There
are two types of debeaking equipment, the infrared debeaking machine and the hot blade debeaking machine.
12. Poultry processing equipment: Processing equipment comes to play in the packaging value chain in poultry
production. There is equipment that is useful for the purpose of slaughtering, defeathering and packaging
matured poultry birds in an efficient way.
13. Egg crates: Egg crates are peculiar to layers and they are useful for the purpose of transferring and storing eggs
from poultry.
Cattle and pig feeding systems
1.
Automatic feeding systems
2.
Manual feeding systems
3.
Hopper feeders
4.
Bowls
5.
Feeding equipment
6.
Valves
7.
Milk mixers
8.
Milk whisk
9.
Dispensers
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Module 4
General principles of drainage and irrigation technology
Drainage is the removal of excess water from the land. In removing excess water in humid area, it is usually
necessary to use either surface ditches, tiled drains or a combination of the two. Wetland is usually flat, has high
fertility and does not have serious erosion problem. Drainage in humid areas often precedes land development
while in arid region, it normally accompanies irrigation. Drainage systems could be surface type or subsurface
drainage.
Longitudinal section of a lateral drains
Outlet of surface runoff from a shallow ditch to a collector drain
Needs and benefits of drainage
The principal purpose of drainage in irrigated region is to replace saline and alkaline soils by leaching and to
prevent salinity problems by maintaining a low water table. Where salinity problems exist, land should not be
developed for irrigation unless drainage facilities can be provided.
Equipment for ditching trenches and waterways
a.
Ditchers: Ditchers are rear mounted implements usually mounted to the back of the tractor, and often have
their own hydraulic pump driven from the tractor's PTO shaft. Ditcher consists of two curved wings with
cutting blades, front cutting point, tie bars for adjusting wingspan, and hitch assembly with 3-point linkages.
The cutting blades and cutting point are made of medium carbon or alloy steel, hardened and sharpened. These
are used in drenching drains and waterways. The tractor operated ditcher is controlled by the hydraulic
system.
The ditcher penetrates in the soil due to its own weight and suction of the cutting point. Upon drawing the
ditcher in the fie1d, it opens the soil in the shape of ditch with either 'V' bottom or flat bottom. The wings enable
the ditcher to slice and roll the tough sod, brush and root sets. The depth and width of the ditch is adjusted
from the operator’s seat. The front cutting point and wings cutting edges are replaceable. It is used for making
ditches for irrigation and drainage.
b.
Rotary ditcher: This consists of a rotary cutter operated by PTO shaft of the tractor, gear box, 3-point linkage,
hitch system, frame, body, deflector and ditch former. The machine is operated by tractor. Rotary cutter is main
component of the ditcher and it consists of drum fitted with cutting knives or cutters. The knives are of different
shapes and are made of alloy steel by forging.
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The knives can be replaced on becoming blunt. The rotary cutter excavates soil, which is uniformly distributed
to one side. The deflection of the soil can be adjusted by the deflector. Ditch former, having trapezoidal shape
fitted in the rear, form the ditch. It is used for making ditches for irrigation and drainage.
c.
Irrigation furrower: Irrigation furrower is designed to make deeper irrigation furrows, and to work in harder
soils. The ditcher consists of two curved wings with cutting blades, front cutting point, tie bars for adjusting
wingspan, and hitch assembly with animal drawn hitch point or the 3-point linkages in tractor. The cutting
blades and cutting point are made of medium carbon or alloy steel, hardened and sharpened.
d.
Excavators: Excavators are landform equipment used for making trenches or grassed waterways for drainage
Principles of Irrigation Technology
Irrigation is defined as the application of water to land using means other than the natural rain, the purpose of
which is to provide sufficient water for plant growth and productivity. Irrigation is necessary to provide enough
water to fill the deficit arising from the depletion of soil moisture from the combine action of two separate
phenomena of evaporation and transpiration.
Irrigation provides one of the greatest possibilities for increased production. Although it is fairly practiced in the
Northern Nigeria, the south is yet to embrace it with zeal and vigor.
Types of irrigation
Surface irrigation: This method include furrow, basin, border, contour ditches (wild flooding), and water spreading.
Contour ditches (wild flooding), and water spreading basically consist of directing water diverted from ditches or
watercourses onto sloping fields. They are primarily used to irrigate pasturelands and are generally very
inefficient. The main surface methods are basin, furrow, and border irrigation.
Sprinkler irrigation: Sprinkler irrigation is a method in which water is applied above plant foliage, high enough that
water will be distributed freely and without obstruction. The sprinklers are connected at the top of riser equally
spaced along the laterals. The laterals convey water under pressure head and divide it efficiently among the risers.
The sprinkler distributed the water over a circular or rectangular area under light wind. The water jet coming out
of the nozzles breaks up into drops which spread over the sprinkled area. At the nozzle, the pressure head is
converted into velocity head giving the water jet its initial velocity. There are many types of sprinkler systems, but
all have the following basic components:
1.
The pump draws water from the source, such as a reservoir, borehole, canal, or stream, and delivers it to the
irrigation system at the required pressure.
2.
The mainline is a pipe that delivers water from the pump to the laterals. In some cases, the mainline is placed
below ground and is permanent. In others, portable mainline laid on the surface can be moved from field to
field.
3.
The lateral pipeline delivers water from the mainline to the sprinklers. It can be portable or permanent and may
be made of materials similar to those of the mainline, but is usually smaller. In continuous-move systems, the
lateral moves while irrigating.
4.
Risers: These are vertical pipeline installed on the laterals bearing the sprinkler head. The risers are connected
to the laterals with couplings.
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5.
Sprinkler sprays the water across the soil surface with the objective of uniform coverage. Sprinklers can be
adapted to most climatic conditions, but high wind conditions decrease distribution uniformity and increase
evaporation losses, especially when combined with high temperatures and low air humidity.
Module 5
Milking machine operation and maintenance
Introduction
The primary purpose of milking is to extract or express milk from the cow using vacuum pressure from a milking
machine. The machines are designed to apply a constant vacuum to the end of the teat to suck the milk out and
convey it to a suitable container, and to give a periodic squeeze applied externally to the whole of the teat to
maintain blood circulation.
Methods of milking
Hand milking: Hand milking is the expression of milk from cow using manual squeezing of the udder with hand.
This methos is labour intensive, high capital investment, running costs, low productivity and milking performance.
Basic equipment required in hand milking include clean milking clothes, buckets, udders and hands in good
hygienic conditions.
Bucket milking: Bucket milking method of milking is the earliest development in the mechanization of milking
systems. They were designed particularly for herds housed in cowsheds. Some essential components of this system
include a 15 liter capacity lidded bucket, pulsator and teat-cup assembly or cluster for cow milking. The system is
mechanically simple with relatively low investment, running and maintenance costs compared with milking
machines in parlours.
Direct-to-can milking: The direct-to-can milking system was designed for use in the milking parlour. Milk is
drawn direct from the udders to the milk cans via a specially designed lid which connects the milk can to the
vacuum supply.
Pipeline milking: This method requires that milk is transported under vacuum from udder to dairy for cooling
and storage and the cleaning and disinfection of the milking equipment can be done in-situ with very little manual
involvement. In addition, devices can be inserted into the milking pipeline to reveal clinical signs of mastitis,
indicate the milk yield from each cow, allow samples to be taken and automatically remove the cluster when milk
flow ceases (thus eliminating overmilking).
The labour input, capital investment, and running costs are lower compared with bucket machines.
Common types of milking machines
Three basic types of milking machine layout systems include the bucket/cowshed layout, milking pipeline layout
and recorder layout. Each of these milking machines are similar in operation, having a pump to remove air from
the vacuum pipeline, a vacuum regulator and a container to collect the milk that comes into the teat-cup assembly
during milking.
Bucket (cowshed) layout
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(b) Milking pipeline (cowshed and parlour)
Recorder/palour milking
Maintenance of milking machine
Milking machine requires regular servicing and maintenance for continuous operation. The following routines
should be carried out on milking equipment.
1.
Check pipelines and interceptor to ensure that they are free from milk or water, if found, drain and flush with
chlorinated water (100 ppm)
2.
Check for water behind teat-cup liners if found drain
3.
Check oil level in pump, if necessary, top-up to correct level
4.
Check vacuum for leakages,
5.
Check regulator for continuous airflow into the vacuum system
6.
Check air admission hole in claw is clear
7.
Check pulsator action of all clusters with thumbs in teatcup liner
8.
Check vacuum pump drive belt tension by deflecting belt,
9.
Check oil level in vacuum pump oil reservoir and refill.
10. Inspect air filters on pulsators and vacuum regulators
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Module 6
Machinery cost and budgeting
Introduction
Machinery investment analysis is more complex than dealing with costs of annual cash inputs such as seeds or
fertilizer, because machinery investment benefits and costs accrued over a number of years. Agribusiness manager
should be able to correctly evaluate particular machinery condition and take into account the extra effort required
to keep used machinery in good operating condition.
Also, initial high interest expense gradually diminished whether the interest cost is cash interest paid on a loan, or
an opportunity cost based on revenue foregone by continuing to own a machine year after year. Average costs per
hour can be used to make comparisons with new machinery.
Efficient machinery management has the following advantages
1.
Good return on investment
2.
Effective job delivery
3.
Reduced possibility of machine failure during operation
4. Lower machinery repairs cost
5. Preserve the service life of such machine.
6. Enhance machine performance at peak load i.e. To get the most of your machine.
7. Conserve cost in unnecessary procurement of new machine thereby increasing the overhead cost.
8. Restore machine to or near its original state at manufacture.
9. Increase output and profit
10. Provide the operator some comfort while in operation.
The negative impacts or consequences of wrong machinery selection are three-fold:
1.
Bad matching of equipment which increases maintenance requirements.
2.
Shortening of the useful life of machinery.
3.
Loss in output.
Farm machinery cost variables
Fixed costs: Fixed costs are those monetized input resources, which can be predetermined as accumulating with the
passage of time, rather than with the rate of work. They do not stop when the work stops and must be spread over
the hours of work during the year. Commonly included in fixed costs are equipment depreciation, interest on
investment, taxes, and storage, and insurance.
Operating costs: Operating costs vary directly with the rate of work. Operating costs include; costs of fuel, lubricants
repairs and labour. Operating costs per hectare change very little as machinery size is increased or decreased.
Labour costs: Labour costs are those costs associated with engaging labour including direct wages, salaries, food
contributions, transport, and social costs, including payments for health and retirement. The cost of supervision
may also be spread over the labour costs. Labour costs include direct and indirect payments such as taxes, insurance
payments, food, housing subsidy, etc.
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Machinery costs: Machinery cost affects fundamental machinery buying and trading decisions, selection of crop and
at the long-run farm profitability. A farmer with his own land and machines needs machinery cost information for
management purposes.
Total cost (TC): This cost is functionally defined by three variables; fixed cost, variable cost and volume of
production output. If variable cost per unit output is constant, then the total cost for any number of units of
production will be the sum of the fixed cost and the variable cost multiplied by the number of units of production.
This is expressed mathematically in equation 1.1 below.
TC = Fixed cost + (variable cost × Prodction output)
Depreciation
Depreciation is the loss in value and service capacity resulting from natural wear, obsolescence, accidental damage,
rust, corrosion and weathering. A machine naturally wears out with use, but the rate of wear depends on the skill
of the operator, the lubrication programme, the conditions under which it operates and the quality or design of the
machine itself. Depreciation represents the cost value place over any equipment over the number of hours it is
owned.
Assets that may be depreciated include: Vehicles, machinery, equipment, building, fences, purchased breeding
livestock, wells. Land is not depreciable, but some improvements to land (e.g. drains) are depreciable.
Methods of calculating depreciation
a. Straight-line method: In this method, depreciation factor is determined if the original value of the item is divided
by its service life (total number of years). The resulting quotient will be the amount (depreciation factor) by
which the item depreciates each year. i.e.
𝐷𝑒𝑝 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒
b. Double declining balance method: Double declining method of depreciation is an accelerated depreciation method
in which the amount of depreciation that is charged to an asset decline over time. This method is generally used
when an asset is depreciating at a faster rate at the beginning of its lifespan. In other words, more depreciation
is charged during the beginning of the life time and less is charged during the end.
In the double declining balance depreciation method, the value of the item is depreciated twice; 1) as a function
of the service life each year and 2) as a function of the remaining value each year. Hence, the actual amount
(depreciation factor) will vary from year to year.
To obtain the service life depreciation factor, divide 2 by the life of the item. This factor is multiplied by the new
value of the item at the beginning of each year (not the original value of the item) to obtain the annual depreciation.
2
Dep = [
]
Service life
The second depreciation value of the original item is
Annual dep = New value − (Dep x New value)
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c.
Sum of the years’ digits method: In this method, the value of the item will decrease by a percentage that is
different each year. The depreciation factor will be a fraction whose denominator is the sum of the digits 1 to
n, where n represents the service life of the item. The annual depreciation factor is calculated thus
Annual depreciation = (Cost − Salvage value)
RL
SOYD
Where RL= Remaining years of useful life, SOYD = sum of all the numbers from 1 through the estimated useful
life, 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + n
The depreciation factor varies as n decreases yearly till the end of the material lifespan i.e. n, n-1, n-2…n-(n-1).
The annual depreciation is estimated by equation given below
𝑛=0,1,….𝑛𝑡ℎ
𝐷𝑒𝑝 =
∑
𝑖=1𝑠𝑡 ,…𝑛
𝑛
1
+
2
+
⋯+ 𝑛
𝑡ℎ
For a 10 year lifespan, the numerator will be 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 10 = 55 for the first year, the numerator will be n,
for the second year, it will be (n - 1), 3rd year (n-2), 4th year (n-3) etc. The yearly depreciation is obtained by
multiplying the depreciation factor by the original value of the item.
Machinery budgeting
The term budget refers to an estimation of revenue and expenses over a specified future period of time and is
usually compiled and re-evaluated on a periodic basis. This means all aspects of actually running the machines
and the other costs around that. Factors like labour, electrical, consumables, maintenance, and repairs.
Methods of machinery budgeting
Some methods of machinery budgeting include partial, capital, break-even budgeting, etc.
1.
2.
3.
Partial budgeting is a planning and decision-making framework used to compare the costs and benefits of
alternatives faced by a farm business. It focuses only on the changes in income and expenses that would
result from implementing a specific alternative.
Capital budgeting:
Break-even budgeting:
Machinery tenure/ownership
Decision on equipment procurement must be made if profit is your concern. At this stage, decision on the type of
ownership most suitable for profit, such as owing/buying, leasing, hiring or rentals must be made. Decision on
ownership of machinery is based on choice or economy of scale: purchase of machinery, leasing, rental, hiring, or
cooperative ownership. Types of ownership include:
a.
Direct purchase or ownership: Machinery can be owned by buying either used or new.
b.
Leasing: Leasing is an act of renting equipment for a specific (relatively long) period of time, usually for 5 to 7
years.
c.
Custom hiring: Custom hiring is a practice of paying a person or agency of government to provide equipment
and labour to do a specific job.
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d. Machinery rental: Renting is an act of securing equipment for a specific (relatively short) period of time, usually
for few days. Renting is usually cheaper than custom hiring since the renter provides the labour.
e.
Rollover purchase plan: Rollover purchase plan implies that the operator purchases a new or nearly new piece
of equipment from a dealer with the expectation that it will be exchanged for another model after one year or
season.
f.
Cooperative ownership: Cooperative ownership is a system of machinery ownership in which a group or arm of
the government owned machinery and made them available to a group of farmers at subsidized rate.
g.
Syndication: A number of small farmers can form a syndicate and buy one piece of machinery, sharing it
between many farms.
h. Reciprocal borrowing: This arrangement is similar to a syndicate, however under this arrangement each farmer
agrees to purchase and maintain a separate piece of machinery.
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