CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study
Marriages as fundamental social institutions, are subject to various complexities that shape the
experiences of couples. In the vibrant context of Ilorin metropolis, the intricate interplay between
infidelity and infertility emerges as a focal point for understanding the predictors of marital
disharmony. Infidelity, characterized by breaches of trust and emotional betrayal, and infertility,
encompassing the challenges of conceiving and the associated emotional toll, stand as formidable
factors contributing to the erosion of marital stability (Adeyemo & Bamidele, 2016).
Marriage is a dynamic association engaged in by adults represents an important life Commitment.
According to Oniye (2018), marriage is a partnership contract without an escape clause. The
implication here is that marriage connotes a life-long engagement where the couples should
permanently survive a multitude of demanding situations such as illness and financial constraints
among many others. Marriage can also be viewed as the legalizing of a special relationship
between a man and a woman to which the society gives its approval; it places each Partner under
legal and social obligations to the other and the society (Odebode et al., 2018). As a life-long
agreement between the couples, marriage is supposed to be a sacred and permanent contract that
is assured to outlive the couples. The social recognition of mating that is accorded to marriage,
gives children produced by the couples a legal recognition in the society. It is worrisome that
infidelity seems to be associated with marriage. Marriage is a natural progression into adulthood
and a means of independence from parents and kin. Essentially, it is regarded as the socially
approved pattern of relationship whereby two persons establish a family. Marriage is a contract
between families since an individual did not exist as a separate person without family
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identification. Waite and Galagher (2001) described it as a union of love between an adult male
and female, a rite that affirms love, provides a source of social recognition and a gateway to legal
protection, responsibilities, and benefits. The essence of marriage includes companionship,
procreation, protection, pleasure/sexual gratification, consolidation of wealth among others.
Ombelet et al. (2008) observed that in many cultures, having children is an essential part of
marriage while infertility is seen as a personal tragedy, with the potential to impact the entire family
or community. While there is no universal definition of infertility, a couple is considered to be
infertile when pregnancy has not occurred after at least twelve months of regular unprotected
sexual activity (Alli et al., 2011). Infertility is defined as the inability to establish a pregnancy
within a specified period, usually one year, in a couple having regular unprotected sexual
intercourse (Harzif et al., 2020). Araoye (2003) defined infertility as a health problem with
devastating psychosocial consequences on the couples. Infertility means failure to get conceived
after at least one year of unprotected intercourse, regularly, usually two to three times a week.
Infertility is a very damaging condition that does not only affects couple but also exposes them to
emotional, physical and financially stress. Fido (2004) asserted that infertility is a source of distress
for couples as societal norms and perceived religious dictums may equate infertility with failure
on a personal, interpersonal, emotional, or social level. Women bear the brunt of these societal
perceptions in most of the cases. Ramezanzadeh et. al. (2004) stated that during the first three years
of married life, infertility is accomplished with the symptoms of depression, anxiety, lack of selfesteem, sexual impotency, and marriage maladjustment. It is obvious that infertility is a crisis that
leads to a psychological imbalance, especially when a possible and quick solution is not found.
Psychologically, infertility displays significant consequences in the form of tension, hostility,
anxiety, depression, self-blame, and suicide idea. Alli et. al (2011) reported that in Latin America,
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strong social stigma attached to infertility causes couple to blame themselves for infertility. While
in Mozambique, infertile women are excluded from certain social activities and traditional
ceremonies. Likewise, the social stigma of infertility is common across South Asia. For instance,
Alli et al. (2011) mentioned that in Andhra Pradesh and India 70% of women experiencing
infertility were being punished with physical violence. Some were verbally or physically
maltreated, deprived of inheritance, sent back to parents, disliked, looked down upon, or have the
marriage terminated. Collins & Negro (2007) opined that the causes of infertility in developing
countries may be linked to an act of God, punishment for sins of the past, prolonged use of
contraceptive, distinct dietary habits, and the handiwork of witchcraft whereas some people in
developed countries viewed infertility as caused by biological, medical and other related factors.
Infertility may likely be caused by an underlying medical condition that may damage the fallopian
tubes, interferes with ovulation, or causes hormonal complications.
Infidelity or extramarital affairs, which is as old as life itself, is an act that various societies,
religions and ages frown upon. In many societies, infidelity strives, leaving one to wonder why it
has taken a form of legacy that is passed from one generation to another. Since the early 1990s,
infidelity is almost becoming a norm among couples, particularly women. Recently, many married
women engaged in extramarital affairs, which is absurd and very different from what was in
existence decades ago when women were faithful, patient, and tolerant. These days, infidelity is
the most common reason for divorce. Based on research reports, 90% of all divorces involved
infidelity (Odebode et al., 2021). Infidelity is commonly referred to as a breach of the expectation
of sexual exclusivity. Infidelity can comprise several activities including having an affair, having
an extramarital relationship(s), cheating, having sexual intercourse (involving oral sex), kissing,
fondling, having emotional connections that are beyond ordinary friendships, internet relationships
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and pornography (Blow & Hartnet, 2005). In most cultures, during intimate relationships, there is
usually an expression of, or implied expectation of exclusivity, especially in sexual matters.
Infidelity is defined as being unfaithful to and cheating on a relationship partner that takes place
despite a commitment to be faithful. Infidelity by a partner is commonly called philander, adultery
or having an affair. The excessive use of internet pornography has increased the trauma of virtual
marital infidelity among women. Also, infidelity is increasing through social networks such as
Facebook, Twitter, yahoo messenger, Whatsapp, Mitz, and Instagram (Cravens et al., 2013). The
rising rate of infidelity between couples calls for worry as many marriages have been dissolved as
a result of it. Infidelity by a woman, either actual or suspected is the leading cause of spousal
battering and spousal homicide (Lammer et al., 2011).
The emotional repercussions of infidelity and the strains induced by infertility are not only
individual struggles but also collective challenges that impact the fabric of marital relationships.
Ultimately, this study endeavors to contribute substantively to the understanding of marital
dynamics, offering a foundation for targeted interventions and support mechanisms tailored to the
specific needs of couples in Ilorin metropolis.
Statement of the Problem
The contemporary landscape of marital relationships in Ilorin metropolis is marked by a growing
prevalence of disharmony, with infidelity and infertility emerging as significant contributors to
this concerning trend. While these issues individually pose profound challenges to the well-being
of couples, their coexistence within the marital dynamic remains a relatively underexplored aspect
in the local context. The lack of comprehensive research on the intersection of infidelity and
infertility in Ilorin leaves a critical gap in understanding the nuanced factors that fuel marital
discord. Infidelity, characterized by breaches of trust and emotional betrayal, has the potential to
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fracture the foundation of marital commitment. Marital infidelity in the family has an effect on
reproductive health of the people involved in it. Marital infidelity has deleterious effects on the
reproductive health (fertility or conception of children) and consequently, marriages. This is
because unsafe sexual liaisons put the involved individuals at risk of HIV/STD’s and other
infectious diseases. Smith (2007) found out that men acquire HIV through having affairs outside
marriage and thereby infecting their wives. Those involved in multiple sex partnerships hardly
care to use condom without the fear of HIV and AIDS or other sexually transmitted diseases, once
their basic needs are met which could be food, shelter or clothing. Marital infidelity perforates the
sacredness and sanctity of marriage institution as well as family in the society. It has rendered a
number of marriages meaningless by destroying the institutions of marriage and family.
Concurrently, infertility, with its emotional, physical, and societal implications, introduces an
additional layer of stress that can strain the resilience of couples. The society does not accord
respect to people without children. Specifically, childless couple could be vulnerable in old age;
they might be susceptible to dangerous and hazardous environmental condition. The economic and
financial needs in later life may be constrained. The simultaneous presence of these challenges
may exacerbate the complexities of marital relationships in ways unique to the cultural and societal
context of Ilorin metropolis.
Marital disharmony is a complex phenomenon with far-reaching implications for wellbeing and social cohesion. Infidelity and infertility are two factors known to contribute
significantly to marital discord, but their specific impact within the cultural context of Ilorin
metropolis remains poorly understood. This study seeks to fill a critical gap in the existing
literature, by investigating the relationship between infidelity, infertility, and marital disharmony
among married couples in Ilorin metropolis,. Understanding how these factors intersect and
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influence marital satisfaction can provide valuable insights into the dynamics of relationships
within this community. Furthermore, the study's findings have the potential to inform the
development of targeted interventions and support services aimed at addressing marital discord in
Ilorin metropolis. policymakers, healthcare providers, and marriage counselors can tailor their
approaches to better meet the needs of married couples facing these challenges by identifying
infidelity and infertility as predictors of marital disharmony,.
Research Questions
The following research questions will be designed to systematically explore the intricate dynamics
of infidelity and infertility, both individually and in conjunction, within the context of Ilorin
metropolis
1. How do couples in Ilorin view and experience infidelity and infidelity in their marriages?
2. What are the causes of infertility and infidelity as expressed by married individuals in Ilorin
Metropolis?
3. What are the impacts of infidelity and infertility on the well-being and satisfaction of
married individuals in Ilorin?
4. In what ways do infidelity and infertility interact within marriages in Ilorin, contributing
to challenges?
Research Hypothesis
The following null hypotheses formulated will be tested at P≤0.05 significant level.
1. H0 : There is no significant difference in relationship satisfaction between couples in Ilorin
who perceive and experience infidelity and those who do not
2. H0: The causes attributed to infertility and infidelity by married individuals in Ilorin have
no significant impact on their levels of distress and relationship dissatisfaction
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Research Purpose
The major purpose of this study will be to investigate infidelity and infertility as predictors of
marital disharmony among married couples in Ilorin metropolis. The specific objectives of this
study will be to;
1. explore the relationship between infidelity and marital disharmony among married couples
in Ilorin metropolis
2. examine the relationship between to infertility and marital disharmony among married
couples in Ilorin metropolis
3. assess the joint combination of infidelity and infertility to the prediction of marital
disharmony among married couples in Ilorin metropolis
4. investigate the relationship contribution of infidelity and infertility to the prediction of
marital disharmony among married couples in Ilorin metropolis
Significance of Study
This study is significant for its potential impact on the understanding and improvement of marital
relationships in Ilorin metropolis. It aims to contribute to clinical practices by informing mental
health professionals on tailoring interventions for the unique challenges posed by the intersection
of infidelity and infertility. Additionally, the research seeks to guide policymakers in developing
culturally sensitive policies and support systems to address the specific needs of couples in Ilorin.
It also aims to enhance relationship education programs by providing practical information and
tools for couples to navigate challenges and strengthen their marriages. Moreover, the study
contributes to the academic field by adding valuable insights to psychology, sociology, and
marriage studies, setting the stage for future research. Ultimately, the research aspires to empower
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couples in Ilorin by offering insights into effective coping mechanisms, encouraging open
communication, and promoting resilience in the face of infidelity and infertility.
Scope of the Study
This study will encompasses an in-depth exploration of the relationship between infidelity,
infertility, and marital disharmony among married couples specifically within the geographical
confines of Ilorin metropolis. The study will involve married couples residing in Ilorin metropolis,
representing diverse socio-economic backgrounds, ages, and cultural affiliations to ensure a
comprehensive understanding of marital dynamics within the community. The primary variables
of interest are infidelity, infertility, and marital disharmony. The study will investigate the
prevalence of infidelity and infertility among married couples, as well as the extent to which these
factors contribute to marital discord. The study will utilize a mixed-methods approach, combining
quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews. This will enable a holistic examination of the
factors influencing marital disharmony, allowing for both statistical analysis of survey data and indepth exploration of couples' experiences through interviews. Ethical considerations will be
paramount throughout the study, including informed consent, confidentiality, and respect for
participants' autonomy. Measures will be implemented to ensure the ethical conduct of research
and protection of participants' rights.
Operational Definitions of Terms
1. Infidelity: Refers to the breach of marital trust, involving acts of betrayal or unfaithfulness
within the context of a committed relationship.
2. Infertility: In the scope of this study, infertility is defined as the inability of a couple to conceive
after a year of regular unprotected intercourse, or the inability to carry a pregnancy to term.
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3. Marital Disharmony: Describes the state of discord, tension, or dissatisfaction within a marital
relationship, encompassing emotional, psychological, and relational strains.
4. Perceptions: The subjective interpretations and views that individuals hold regarding infidelity,
infertility, and their impacts on marital relationships.
5. Coping Mechanisms: Strategies and actions employed by individuals and couples to manage
and navigate the challenges posed by infidelity and infertility within their marriages.
6. Relationship Satisfaction: The overall contentment and fulfillment individuals experience
within their marital relationships.
7. Interplay: Refers to the complex and dynamic interaction between infidelity and infertility
within the context of marital relationships.
8. External Factors: Societal, cultural, or familial influences that may be attributed as causes of
infertility and infidelity by married individuals.
9. Well-being: The holistic state of physical, mental, and emotional health and happiness
experienced by individuals in the context of their marriages.
10. Resilience: The ability of couples to adapt, recover, and maintain a sense of stability and
cohesion in the face of challenges posed by infidelity and infertility.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This chapter examined the fundamental ideas and theories in relation to this study in great detail.
To give its readers a comprehensive understanding of the topic under examination, it also examines
the opinions of other academics and resource people. The conceptual, empirical, and theoretical
issues are the main headings of this chapter, each having subheadings. The following outline
presents how this section was analyzed;
Conceptual Framework
An Overview of Marital Relationship
Gottman's Theory of Marital Stability and Relationship Dynamics
Concept of Marital Disharmony
Social Exchange theory (SET) as Predictor of Marital Disharmony
Concept of Infidelity
Attachment Theory as Predictor of Infidelity
Concept of Infertility
Stress and Coping Theory a predictor of Infertile in Martial Relationship
Theoretical Framework
System theory
Attachment Theory
Empirical Reviews of Literature
Infidelity and Marital Disharmony
Infertility and Marital Disharmony
Infidelity and Infertility as Determinant of Marital Disharmony
Appraisal of The reviewed Literature
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Conceptual Framework
An Overview of Marital Relationship
It is necessary for most individuals in Nigeria to choose a marital partner, especially among
traditional and family settings. It is an essential phenomenon in human life irrespective of tribe,
society and religious affiliation. In the opinion of Munroe (2003), marriage is a religious duty and
is consequently a moral safeguard as well as a social necessity. The assumption for its social
necessity is rested on the premises that through it, families are established and the family is the
fundamental unit of human society.
There are numerous definitions of the term ‘marriage’, the same way there are different
impressions about what marriage as a concept connotes (Tolkien, 2005). According to Habeeb
(2005), marriage is defined as a relationship involving two or more people of the opposite sex,
whose relationship is expected to endure beyond time. It is further explained that marriage is the
union of one man and one woman for their mutual help and happiness, procreation and child
rearing until death. In seeking to attain a greater understanding of the light and context surrounding
the dissolution of marriage, researchers have also discovered that approximately two-thirds of the
couples that divorce will do so within the first ten years of marriage (Clark, 1995). In the same
vein, Cohn (2010) reported that in United States of America, the rate of divorce in the 2001 survey
was forty-one percent for men who were between ages 50-90 and 39 percent for women in the
same age group. Also, about sixty percent of all marriages that eventually ended up in a divorce
occurred within the first twenty years of marriage.
Marriage is a legal union between a man and a woman as husband and wife, which further
connotes matrimony, wedlock, alliance, association and union (Ariyo, 2005). Deducing from the
definitions given above, certain purposes that constitute marriage are unveiled as follows:
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companionship, social integration of persons, approved sexual union, mutual commitment, mutual
growth, bridging of the gender gap and promoting the birthright of children. National polls showed
that what people consider being very important in marriage (that is, love, sexual fidelity and ability
to talk about feelings) have been fairly similar over the past two decades (Roper Organization,
1990). It was also found that a person’s beliefs about marriage and how marital satisfaction was
achieved might significantly affect one’s expectations and readiness for marriage (Akpan, 2002).
In Nigeria, more than ten percent of the marriages conducted every year, ended up in divorce
(Adeyemi, 1991). The number had since risen, according to Esere (2008). Yahaya (2008) found
that in Nigeria, twenty percent of the marriages conducted yearly ended up in divorce or separation.
Esere (2008) noted that about forty percent of the marriages contracted every year in Nigeria end
up in divorce or separation. Ogunsanmi (2008) also indicated that people who marry young are
likely to divorce at relatively young ages because, a person who marries young is cognizant of his
chances of remarriage in case of divorce. This makes them not to be tolerant in their marriages.
Ogunsanmi (2008) and Yahaya (2008) revealed that age at marriage does have a substantial impact
on marital satisfaction and stability.
Studies conducted so far identified various factors that are related to marital satisfaction.
For a better understanding of the factors that influence stable and healthy marital relationships,
scholars suggest the need to emphasize interpersonal, intrapersonal, and social factors (Lewis &
Spanier, 1979). From a positive psychology perspective, individual factors such as desires,
significance, and motivation are crucial for the establishment of a high-quality marriage (Fincham
et al., 2007). Interpersonal factors, such as a positive attitude and behaviour (Dew & Bradford
Wilcox, 2013), forgiveness (Timothy-springer & Johnson, 2018), and conflict management
(Hunler & Gencoz, 2005), as well as social factors like neighbourhood support (Minnotte et al.,
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2008), play a vital role in enhancing marital well-being and satisfaction. Individuals in healthy
marital relationships are more likely to engage in healthy behaviors rather than risky behaviors
(Fleming et al., 2010). In recent times, the prevalence of negative characteristics such as
selfishness, negative attitudes, and behavior have become a common phenomenon among couples
(Fincham & Beach, 2010). Thus, understanding the positive factors that contribute to marital
satisfaction is timely, considering the challenges that the institution of marriage has faced. A
family strength-based approach encourages scholars to emphasize culturally sensitive positive
marital qualities that contribute to strengthening marital relationships (Defrain & Asay, 2007). As
a result of the efforts made by the family strengths perspective and the positive psychology
movement, scholars have shifted their focus toward studying factors that strengthen marital
relationships (Braithwaite et al., 2011).
The study of positive psychology emphasizes identifying strengths that contribute to marital
success (Snyder & Lopez, 2001). From this positive perspective, scholars have identified several
relationship behaviors that contribute to a happy and stable marital relationship. These behaviors
include conflict resolution skills (Hunler & Gencoz, 2005), forgiveness and sacrifice (Fincham et
al., 2007; Timothy-springer & Johnson, 2018), generosity (Dew & Bradford Wilcox, 2013),
sharing household responsibilities and child care (Timothy-springer & Johnson, 2018) and holding
positive beliefs about marriage (Willoughby, 2014). However, most previous research on marriage
has primarily focused on deficit factors of marital relationships such as divorce and marital
dissatisfaction (Abdol Rahimi et al., 2012; Lavner & Bradbury, 2010; Tegegne et al., 2015).
Moreover, although some progress have been made, there is still a scarcity of studies that
emphasize on strengthening factors in marital relationships (Fincham et al., 2007; Marks et al.,
2008).
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Gottman's Theory of Marital Stability and Relationship Dynamics
Gottman's Theory of Marital Stability and Relationship Dynamics developed by John Gottman
focuses on predictors of marital stability and satisfaction which include communication patterns,
conflict resolution styles, and the presence of certain behaviors (e.g., criticism, contempt,
defensiveness, stonewalling).
John Gottman, a mathematician, psychologist, and researcher, has studied relationships in
the context of marriage and the family for the past 40 years. Gottman utilized his training in clinical
psychology and observational methods for evaluating the design and implementation of programs
with unique optimism. Practitioners and researchers in psychology and marriage, from the
beginning, were asking the question: “What makes some marriages happy, but others miserable?”
(Gottman, Murray, Swanson, Tyson, & Swanson, 2002, p.13). Finding the answer to this has taken
many turns over the past few decades. For example, in the initial stages of his research Gottman
(1982) wrote for a need of a new language which moves away from that which addressed
individuals in relationships and toward a language for relationships as a “temporal form”, or as
organisms themselves, which require attention (Gottman, 1982, p.373) John Gottman, a
psychologist, is renowned for his extensive research on marital relationships and his contributions
to the field of couples therapy. While Gottman's work is primarily known for his empirical studies
rather than a comprehensive theory like those proposed by other psychologists, such as Freud or
Piaget, he has developed several influential models and frameworks, including his theory of
marital stability and relationship dynamics. John Gottman was born on April 26, 1942, in the
United States. He received his Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology from the University of Wisconsin–
Madison in 1971. After completing his education, Gottman began his academic career, during
which he conducted groundbreaking research on marital relationships.
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Gottman's theory emphasizes the importance of certain factors and behaviors in predicting the
stability or instability of marriages. While not a comprehensive theory in the traditional sense,
Gottman's research identified several key components that contribute to marital satisfaction and
longevity. These components include 1. The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse: Gottman identified
four negative communication patterns that he termed "The Four Horsemen": criticism, contempt,
defensiveness, and stonewalling. These behaviors, if left unchecked, can erode trust and intimacy
in a relationship. 2. Bidirectional Influence: Gottman's research highlighted the bidirectional
nature of influence within marriages. He observed that partners' behaviors and emotional states are
interconnected, and each partner's actions can influence the other's responses. 3. The Magic Ratio:
Gottman proposed the concept of the "magic ratio" of positive to negative interactions in a
relationship. He suggested that for a marriage to thrive, the ratio of positive to negative interactions
should be at least 5:1. 4. Turning Towards vs. Turning Away: Gottman found that successful
couples consistently "turn towards" each other's bids for connection, while unsuccessful couples
tend to "turn away" from each other. This concept underscores the importance of responsiveness
and emotional attunement in maintaining marital satisfaction.
Gottman's research has illuminated various types of interactions and behaviors within
marriages, ranging from supportive and affectionate to critical and hostile. The causes of marital
discord can be multifaceted, including communication breakdowns, unresolved conflicts, unmet
emotional needs, and external stressors. The consequences of marital disharmony, as identified by
Gottman, can be severe and far-reaching. They may include diminished emotional intimacy,
erosion of trust, increased conflict, decreased satisfaction, and ultimately, relationship dissolution.
Gottman's work has had a significant impact on the field of couples therapy and relationship
counseling. His research findings and therapeutic interventions based on his theories have been
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widely adopted by clinicians seeking to help couples improve their relationships and navigate
challenges more effectively.
Concept of Marital Disharmony
Marital disharmony is defined as a disagreement through which the parties involved
perceive a threat to their needs, interests or concern and it is also seen as a struggle or contest
between people with opposing needs, ideas, beliefs, values, or goals (Katzenback & Smith, 1992).
Marital disharmony is a form of association or interaction and is an indication that the couples care
enough about the relationship to fight. As long as conflict exists, the two parities at least have
relationship, no matter how bad it is (Esere et al., 2008). The increasing rate of family disharmony
such as the incidence of divorce in the society today justifies the fact that there are disharmony in
marital homes (Olaitan, 2003). Disharmony arise as an attempt to match the behaviour and
expectations of one with the behaviour and expectations of the other. This threatens the family
system because it entails disharmony when husband and wife disagree on certain goals to pursue,
it usually result to disharmony and confusion between them unless they come to agreement on the
goal to pursue. Marital disharmony is normal part of married life. When two people come together
in marriage, each partner comes into the union with his/her individualized personal characteristics,
needs, attitudes, values and idiosyncrasies (Uwe, 2006). Therefore, each one is going to react
differently to life challenges. Marital disharmony in this study, can be seen as a strain in marriage
interaction between a couple who are living together. Many factors are associated with marital
disharmony. Idialu (2003), opines that finance is one of the major causes. According to Idialu,
financial problems put erroneous strain on family relationship. Idialu argued that contemporary
marriages experiences more strain because of financial matters than any other factor. Variables
such as changes in growth and development, individual differences, home conditions, family size,
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human needs, parental attitudes and child training methods are associated with marital disharmony
(Idialu, 2003). There are major factors that may be associated with marital disharmony. According
to the studies of Aina (2004), the major causes of marital disharmony include refusal of wives to
submit to the husband’s authority, sexual misconduct by wives, interference by inlaws, conflicts
between career and domestic duties by wives, religious conflict between couples, flirtation by male
couples, and husbands’ inability to live up to their domestic responsibility due to poverty. Some
studies (Meyer, 2011) have been carried out on the causes of marital disharmony among couples.
Onwuasoanya (2006) state that age at marriage, educational level of couples, religious affiliation,
income, types of marriage contracts, fertility status, types of family practiced, communication,
cultural background, lack of trust, sexual incompatibility and problems of in-laws, have direct
bearing on marital disharmony. The studies carried by Oyedepo (2001) and Awok (2003)
maintained that the seeming unresolved marital disharmony is caused by marital expectation of
couples.
Despite the fact that the variables said above (Financial Independence) are unmistakably
of significance, this exploration concentrates on three economic contentions that have continued
throughout the years. Every one of the three identify with the female's capacity to generate income
in the work showcase. The main contends that as the female expands her capacity to generate
income; she turns out to be financially freer along these lines making divorce more probable.
Inseparably fixing to this contention is the relative cost of youngster bearing. As a female's
association with the work constrain reinforces, it builds the exchange cost of child rising. As a
legitimate consequence, having fewer children decreases the exchange cost of divorce. In this way,
by reinforcing relationships to the work constrain, the female constantly debilitates relationships
to the family. The second contention battles that, as female profit turn into a bigger offer of family
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income, marital grinding comes about and the probability of divorce increments. At long last, it
has likewise been contended that the family puts a high incentive on the capacity of the married
female to gain income and, hence, endeavors harder to maintain a strategic distance from divorce
as the female's capacity to win income rises.
Marriage has been archived in each known culture. Over 90% of the total populace will
wed in any event once. However, while marriage is by all accounts an exceedingly alluring
relationship, measurements demonstrate that marital fulfillment isn't effectively accomplished.
One has just to consider the incessantly high rates of jumpers keeping in mind the end goal to value
the greatness of this issue. So the rate of marital fulfillment is the essential factor that influences
the family as an opening. One of components that may influence the marital fulfillment identifies
with the identity attributes. As per an investigation of married couples in the U.S., each marital
accomplice's level of sadness anticipated their own particular marital fulfillment and that of their
life partner too. Discouraged people communicated larger amounts of dissatisfaction with their
marriage and their mates were more disappointed with the marriage, too. Untreated dejection
represents an undeniable danger to a marriage. Measurements demonstrate that in marriages where
one of the accomplices experiences discouragement, the divorce rate is nine times higher. Living
with a discouraged mate can abandon you feeling disliked, confounded, unsettled, furious and
angry. It is vital to perceive that before marital issues can be successfully managed, the
discouragement should be dealt with first.
The idea of infidelity has been characterized as an infringement of the responsibility
regarding sexual unwaveringness by one or the two individuals from a conferred relationship;
additional dyadic sex inside the setting of a monogamous relationship; a sexual, sentimental or
passionate inclusion that abuses a guarantee to an elite relationship and an accomplice's
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infringement of standards controlling the level of enthusiastic or physical closeness with
individuals outside the submitted relationship. Infidelity is an overall wonder which numerous
individuals openly censure, however secretly support as well as really take an interest in. The cost
of infidelity is extensive and achieves or develops dissatisfaction in the essential relationship.
Infidelity could in reality be the consequence of dissatisfaction with the vital relationship similarly
as it could be a reason for marital dissatisfaction.
Numerous marital conflicts are caused by absence of good communication. The way that
mates plate to each other is significant, additionally the way that they indicate love to assemble is
imperative on the grounds that these variables can decide marital result. Succinctly,
communication has for some time been the exploration center for marital specialists discovered
and numerous studies have association amongst communication and relationship fulfillment.
Other communication challenges inside a marital relationship may come about because of
sentiments of disdain, despondency, and even severity coming about because of undesirable
examples of relationship between the couple. Power battles, for example, can create this sort of
trouble where one life partner requests predominance, leaving the other individual from the
marriage in a docile position. This example regularly yields a slow floating separated with longer
and longer times of separation between the couple. Question coming about because of an
assortment of conceivable sources including substance Abuse can disturb or even halt
communication designs in the relationship.
Sometimes communication problems are the
aftereffect of couples that are over-dedicated in exercises outside the marriage. In our general
public where two or even three employments are normal for an individual, absence of
communication is frequently primarily an element of practically zero time together. Intemperate
volunteerism in associations, clubs, or even group work can put excessively space and separation
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between couples, especially when one accomplice does not have a similar level of enthusiasm for
the work. Likewise, in circumstances like this, one or the two individuals from the marriage are
incessantly exhausted and just don't have much vitality left for solid communication.
Marital issues are particularly normal amid the good 'ol days following the wedding. Amid
the outset of marriage, companions find to their extraordinary awe that the cherishing blessed
messengers they married are really people who have shortcomings and shortcomings! The
mindfulness this is a typical marvel, and a procedure that each couple experiences and which can
be worked out, is consoling. The inlaws contribution in their own life or family life influences the
married couple life alongside their children which can't be good. Thus, the in-laws issues with the
married couples influence their marital agreement. These issues influences the married couples as
showed and subsequently children too who experience childhood in an in place, two-parent family
with both natural guardians introduce improve the situation on an extensive variety of results than
children who experience childhood in a solitary parent family. Single parenthood isn't the main,
nor even the most vital, reason for the higher rates of school dropout, young pregnancy, adolescent
wrongdoing, or other negative results we see; however it contributes freely to these problems.
Neither singles parenthood ensure that children won't succeed; many, if not most, children who
experience childhood in a solitary parent family unit do succeed.
Social Exchange Theory helps us understand how people behave in relationships,
particularly marriages, by looking at what they give and what they get in return. Imagine it like a
scale in your mind. On one side, you put all the good things you get from being with your partner,
like happiness and companionship. On the other side, you put the not-so-good things, like stress
or disagreements. If the good things weigh more, you feel happy and satisfied. But if the not-sogood things start to feel heavier, you might feel unhappy or frustrated.
20
Sometimes, people compare their relationship with others or with what they think they could have.
If they think they could have a better relationship somewhere else, they might feel less satisfied
with what they have. This could lead to problems in their marriage. Marital disharmony, which is
when things aren't going well in a marriage, can happen when one person feels like they're putting
in more effort than the other, or when they feel like they're not getting enough back. It can also
happen when people start comparing their relationship with others or when they think they could
be happier outside of their marriage.
Social Exchange theory (SET) as Predictor of Marital Disharmony
Social Exchange Theory (SET) emerged at the end of the 1950s and has since developed
into a large body of research on social behaviour. The theory has been widely used to explain both
utilitarian and sociological views on relations within social networks (Blau, 2017; DeLamater &
Ward, 2013; 1987; Homans, 1961). The emergence and the development of the theory were largely
attributed to the works of John Thibaut, George Homans, Peter Blau and Harold Kelley. They were
interested in the psychology of small groups, aiming to understand interpersonal relationships in
communities and dyadic relationships (Emerson, 1976). Specifically, Homans used a reductionist
approach to explain the relationships between people through reinforcement mechanisms, whereby
the behaviour of social actors is reinforced by reward and inhibited by punishments (Delamater,
2006). The idea that the reinforcement mechanism underpins social relations stemmed from the
research on operant conditioning (e.g. the works of Burrhus Frederic Skinner). That stream of
research viewed behaviour as a result of a learning process through the positive and negative
consequences that such behaviour entails. (Homans, 1961). Blau built the theory by offering a
technical-economic perspective on the analysis of the properties of social systems (Blau, 2017).
While he shared similar views on rewards and punishments, Blau’s research approach derived
21
from the principles of utilitarianism. He considered the rationale for behaviour resulted from
anticipation, rather than the perception of actual gains (DeLamater & Ward, 2013). Social
exchange theory is a very broad framework, fitting many micro and macro-sociological theories.
The rather generic conceptualisation of relations within communities enables the theory to explain
almost any reasonable finding about the pattern of behaviour (Cropanzano et al., 2017). The focus
on the ubiquitous principle of reciprocity persistent in social relations makes the theory the pillar
of social behaviourism (DeLamater & Ward, 2013). It has become the unitary framework
explaining social power (Molm, Peterson & Takahashi, 1999), networks (Tsai & Cheng, 2012),
justice (Ambrose & Schminke, 2003), psychological contracts (Rousseau, 1995) and other social
phenomena. The principles of the theory have driven a large body of research attempting to
describe and explain different aspects of individuals’ behaviour, manifested in various disciplinary
contexts. The principles that ensure the wide application of Social Exchange Theory have come to
face criticism (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005; Coyle-Shapiro et al., 2002). It has been argued that
the core ideas of the theory are not adequately articulated and integrated, which creates problems
when using them as an overarching framework in research. The major limitation concerns the
nonexhaustive and overlapping list of constructs, which limit the explanatory capability of the
theory and undermine its predictive power. The tendency to use an incomplete set of constructs
leads towards a partial explanation of individuals’ behaviour. The vagueness of the theoretical
principles results in a number of interpretations of their conceptual boundaries, which, in turn,
creates a divergence in the interpretation of research findings (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005).
While the lack of precisely defined constructs makes the theory widely used across disciplines, it
challenges the inference from conclusions and makes it difficult to replicate the findings
(Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). The second issue concerns a lack of accuracy and consistency in
22
terminology. The original works by Blau (Blau, 2017) referred to social and economic exchanges
as transactions and not relationships, like the mainstream literature (Organ, 1988). Despite
attempts to clarify the difference between relationship and exchange, there is still a need to define
whether an exchange is a type of relationship, a transaction that leads to a relationship or vice versa
(Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). For instance, a prior relationship between parties can have an
effect on the exchange, and the exchange can contribute to the development of continued
relationships. This debate has not been resolved to date, as scholars use the terms (transaction,
relations) interchangeably (Mora Cortez & Johnston, 2020; Davlembayeva, Papagiannidis &
Alamanos, 2020; Davlembayeva, Papagiannidis & Alamanos, 2021). The third issue concerns the
lack of consistency and definition of the rules of exchange across studies. Although the major
principle of the theory is the rule of reciprocity, scholars adopt a number of other principles (e.g.
negotiated rule, rationality, altruism, group gain, status consistency and competition) to explain
behaviour (Gouldner, 1960; Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). Different rules of exchange create a
heterogeneity of perspectives on individuals’ behaviour and put forward inconsistent findings
(Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). Therefore, there is a need to have a clear and single definition for
each rule of exchange to reduce the ambiguity associated with the theory's principles.
The consequences of marital disharmony can be tough. It might lead to arguments,
unhappiness, or even the end of the marriage. But by understanding Social Exchange Theory,
couples can work on balancing things out. They can talk more, understand each other's needs, and
try to make sure both partners feel valued and appreciated in the relationship.
Concept of Infidelity
Infidelity also known as extra marital affairs is one of the commonly pronounced problems in
marriage. Infidelity, according to Blow and Hartnett (2005), comprises of a number of activities
23
including an affair, extra marital relationship, cheating, sexual intercourse and emotional
connections that are beyond friendship outside marriage (Odebode, Oniye & Akangbe, 2018)..
Marriage is the legalizing of a relationship between a man and a woman to which the society gives
approval. Marriage places each partner under legal and social obligation in the society
(Ogwokhademhe & Ishola, 2013). According to Nwoye (1991), marriage is a union of a man and
a woman who agree to live together as husband and wife.
Nelson (2010) explained some fundamental causes of infidelity in society which are,
longing for wholeness and vitalization of the self, the need for new sexual excitement as a result
of sexual boredom which could be caused by repetitive exposure to the same erotic experience,
sexual dysfunction of the partner such as inability to achieve orgasm, lack of interest in sex,
premature ejaculation and lack of physical attachment. Many women observed a drastic change in
their relationships with their spouses after marriage. Before marriage, husbands were more
attentive and more willing to do all sorts of things they associated with romantic love. These
changes are attributed to the relative shift in power that occurs at marriage. During courtship, a
woman has two authoritative vetoes: she can deny sexual access and she can refuse to marry. But
in Africa, once a woman is married, the ability to opt-out of either marriage or marital sex is
dramatically reduced. Why women cheat differs from woman to woman. Some do it for love while
some do it for sex, some to boost their self-esteem and some just love to be unfaithful. Several
reasons have been put forward on why women engage in infidelity. For instance, some studies
report various results about the impact of the level of education on infidelity.
Atkins, Baucom and Jacbson (2001) found that highly educated people are more likely to
engage in extramarital sex. In another national study, Forte and Tanfer (1996) found that education
has a significant correlation with infidelity in married women who differ in the case of degree and
24
their partner’s education level. More specifically, they found that if a married woman is more
educated than her partner, she is more likely to be unfaithful in her marriage compared to a woman
with a lower level of education than her spouse (Barta & Kiene, 2005). Atkins, et al. (2001) found
that extramarital affairs were negatively associated with several aspects of a relationship including
the degree to which the relationship was generally satisfying, whether personal needs were being
fulfilled, the degree of love felt for the primary partner and the length of the marriage. Together,
these account for some of the variances in the incidence of infidelity. According to Allen et al,
(2005), boredom and lack of emotional support in marriage can put partners at risk for infidelity.
Another possible reason why women cheat is to get back at their husbands (i.e. for revenge); and
unexpressed anger or desire to get even with the partner for some perceived pains. Another
occasion that could give rise for a woman to cheat is lack of sex or when a woman is sexually
deprived. When sex becomes an obligation or happens occasionally, a wife may lose interest in
marriage.
Some men withhold sex as a form of punishment. Men who do not express their displeasure
with their wives may punish her by withdrawing from her sexually. When a woman feels her
husband no longer wants her sexually, she feels deprived and uncared a feeling that may spur her
to go outside the marriage to get what she has been deprived of. Furthermore, Nigerian men are
known to be polygamous. They marry younger women as they grow older and because they could
no longer satisfy these younger women or give them the sexual prowess that they crave, these
younger wives go outside in search of younger men who are stronger to give them what they yearn
for. Also, in a polygamous household, there are many wives, a husband sometimes could not meet
or match up with the sexual needs of his wives and this inability on his part creates room for
infidelity on the part of the various women he acquired but could not satisfy them sexually. Even
25
as expressed by men who are not polygamous, the quest to go after younger women for mistresses
and the neglect suffered by their legally married
Studies have shown that infidelity can have negative effects on the relationship, and may
be the most feared and devastating experience of a marriage (Pitman, 1994), which may lead to
divorce (Zordan & Stey, 2011). In the international scenario, infidelity is defined as a sexual and/or
emotional act by a person who is in a relationship of commitment, with this act occurring outside
the primary relationship and constituting a breach of trust and/or violation of the rules agreed by
the couple, by one or both individuals in an emotionally and/or sexually exclusive relationship
(Moller & Vossler, 2015). In addition to the violation of the exclusivity rule, it is common for
infidelity to generate secrets between the couple (Pitman, 1994).
According to Stritof (2019), men are more likely to have affairs than women and are often
seeking more sex or attention. Men express their love in a more physical way – they often don’t
have the perfect “feeling words” for their wives. So sex becomes an important path to connection
and intimacy. If men aren’t sexually satisfied (for instance, if their spouse declines sex often), they
take that rejection to heart, and it can easily translate to feeling “unloved.” In fact, men are more
likely than women to cheat due to a feeling of insecurity. When women cheat, they’re often trying
to fill an emotional void. Women frequently complain of disconnection from a spouse, and of the
wish to be desired and cherished. Women are more likely to feel unappreciated or ignored, and
seek the emotional intimacy of an extramarital relationship.
Marriage like many other institutions involving human beings has its own problems that
have exerted much negative influence on it. One of these major problems as seen by various
authors is the problem of marital infidelity. Schools also postulate that marital infidelity as the
betrayal of trust in marriage. According to Little-White (2011), everyone in a relationship wants it
26
better each day. Each set of New Year’s resolutions is made with a view to keeping the relationship
at its best. However, in many instances, there are some breakdown because of unfaithfulness also
called infidelity or adultery, by one or both partners. He added that a part of many vows speaks to
forsaking of all others, but how often are couples tempted to yield to temptation and become
unfaithful? While monogamy is highly valued among couples, infidelity continues to increase.
The following are some of the factors or causes of marital infidelity as outlined by various authors:
Whether it happens to a girl or a boy, early marriage is a violation of human right. The free
and full consent to a marriage is recognized in the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Right
(UDHR) and in many subsequent human rights instruments. Consent that cannot be free and full,
when at least one partner is very immature. For both girls and boys, early marriage has profound
physical, intellectual, psychological and emotional impact, cutting off educational opportunity and
chances of personal growth. Huse (2012) stated that marriage is one of the major events of life
and should therefore be wisely prepared for. To marry while one is very young may cause some
problems which do not arise if the person is older when he or she marries. Couples who marry at
a very early age are more likely to have problems with infidelity in late years of marriage than
those who married at a mature age. Huse (2012) also added that all too often, impulse is the
dominating factor in the selection of one’s partner. The result of such hasty decision is often
unsatisfactory leading to marital infidelity.
Imposition of marriage partners tends to create much havoc in marriage. Parents, especially
the illiterate and poor ones give out their daughters in marriage when they are very young and
unable to cope with family life. These teenage girls are at the mercy of their parents and their
husbands. Love making is also new to them and they are forced to accepting whatever their parents
and husbands may tell them. This situation may lead to frustration and bickering especially when
27
these teenagers see their mates who are still in school and move about without bounds. On the
part of the teenage boy, parental imposition of marriage partner is fraught with retardation. He
becomes a father shouldering family responsibility. When he is overburdened with these enormous
family responsibilities, he becomes aggressive to parents and wife and tries to free himself from
the marriage look.
Little-White (2011) argued that as some partners age, there is often the need for young
virile sexy lover. Men and women seek younger lovers to feel desirable and because their main
partners may be sexually dysfunctional, or they have become complacent in sexual overturns and
practices. In longstanding relationships, the frequency of intensity and quality of the sexual
contact often diminishes for many women, besides their recognition as a wife and mother, their
sexual needs seek validation. In many instances, it is easy to develop an intimate relationship with
a younger colleague to camouflage time spent together in the affair. People misconstrue monogamy
to mean a blank cheque for sexual escapades outside their matrimonial house. While some men
have been known to wreck their houses by keeping late nights with lovers to the detriment of the
family, their wives on the other hand, tend to pay back by joining the band wagon of fun seekers
on the sex lust queue.
Buss and Shackelford (2012) in a study also found out that childlessness among couples is
one of the causes of marital infidelity. Childlessness is usually regarded as a tragedy to a married
couple especially the wife. It causes a lot of domestic unhappiness, anxiety and ill health. Buss
and Shackelford (2012) reported that, traditionally children are of great importance to couples
throughout Africa, because they are perceived by many as an affirmation of life, a sign of strength
and an economic necessity. This is entrenched in our folklore, songs and adages like the Yoruba
adage that says that “children are the cloth of the body without children you are naked.” Continuing
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Buss and Shackelford (2012), said that in view of the importance of fertility to all societies,
infertility has traditionally been a source of pain, anxiety and shame. And the more important
children are to the society, the worse are the consequences to the infertile couple. Infertility is one
of the factors militating against successful marriage and could lead either the man or the woman
indulging in extramarital relationship, thereby causing infidelity.
Psychologically speaking, only a small percentage of couples who experience infidelity
can save their marriage after an affair and all marriage with infidelity do not end with divorce.
According to Charny and Parnass, (1995), most of the studies about consequences of infidelity
showed negative outcomes like: rage, loss of trust, decreased personal and sexual confidence,
damaged self-esteem, fear of abandonment and surge of justification to leave the spouse. They also
concluded that partners who divorce because of their spouse’s infidelity experienced less
depression than those who end their marriage for other reasons. The unfaithful spouse has initiated
the divorce, but the faithful spouse is more likely to develop depression. When a person discovers
a partner’s infidelity, he should decide about forgiving the partner and remain together or end the
relationship (Audu, 2016). He also found that men and women who face different adaptive
problems over evolutionary history related to various types of infidelity have different reaction to
partner’s infidelity. It is more difficult for men to forgive a sexual infidelity than an emotional
infidelity and they are more likely to end a current relationship following a partner’s sexual
infidelity.
Infidelity is highly undesirable in the marriage institution, and can negatively impact the level
of trust between spouses. Infidelity is usually conducted in silence and therefore causes one partner
to feel not only hurt, but also betrayed by the other. Infidelity happens in different social groups.
A study showed when military couples are separated for long times, and have contact to the
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internet, it may not be odd for them to become emotionally engaged with cyber partners. Infidelity
makes distress in partner intimacy and reduces relationship satisfaction in both spouses. Further,
the victims and doers of infidelity also frequently experience negative outcomes, for example
decreased self-esteem, increased risk of mental health issues, shame and guilt feelings, and
depression.
Identifying psychological characteristics that may be associated with a risk of perpetrating
infidelity may help interventions to better target at risk partners. Studies have shown that infidelity
can have negative effects on the relationship, and may be the most fear and devastating experience
threatening a marriage, which may lead to divorce. Therefore, infidelity can display as a strong
predictor of divorce. The impact of parental infidelity on children can vary based on the child’s
gender, age, and even culture. Children’s’ state of cognitive and emotional development during
this sensitive period may inhibit or perpetuate the exercise of unilateral loyalty to a parent. It is
also at this point we look at the counselling implications and recommendations as it will help us
to counsel couples that are having infidelity problem in home.
Attachment Theory as Predictor of Infidelity
When it comes to relationships, one tough topic that often comes up is infidelity—when
one person in a relationship is romantically or physically involved with someone else.
Understanding why infidelity happens and what it means for relationships can be complex, but one
theory that helps make sense of it is Attachment Theory. Attachment Theory was developed by
psychologist John Bowlby. He was curious about how the relationships we have with our
caregivers when we're young affect the way we relate to others as adults. Bowlby found that the
bonds we form in childhood can shape how we behave in romantic relationships later on (Magro
et al., 2020).
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The theory of attachment was originally developed by John Bowlby (1907 - 1990), a British
psychoanalyst who was attempting to understand the intense distress experienced by infants who
had been separated from their parents. Bowlby observed that separated infants would go to
extraordinary lengths (e.g., crying, clinging, frantically searching) to prevent separation from their
parents or to reestablish proximity to a missing parent. At the time of Bowlby's initial writings,
psychoanalytic writers held that these expressions were manifestations of immature defense
mechanisms that were operating to repress emotional pain, but Bowlby noted that such expressions
are common to a wide variety of mammalian species, and speculated that these behaviors may
serve an evolutionary function (Jones et al,. 2020).
Drawing on ethological theory, Bowlby postulated that these attachment behaviors, such as crying
and searching, were adaptive responses to separation from a primary attachment figure--someone
who provides support, protection, and care. Because human infants, like other mammalian infants,
cannot feed or protect themselves, they are dependent upon the care and protection of "older and
wiser" adults. Bowlby argued that, over the course of evolutionary history, infants who were able
to maintain proximity to an attachment figure via attachment behaviors would be more likely to
survive to a reproductive age. According to Bowlby, a motivational system, what he called
the attachment behavioral system, was gradually "designed" by natural selection to regulate
proximity to an attachment figure (Lee et al., 2020).
The attachment behavior system is an important concept in attachment theory because it
provides the conceptual linkage between ethological models of human development and modern
theories on emotion regulation and personality. According to Bowlby, the attachment system
essentially "asks" the following fundamental question: Is the attachment figure nearby, accessible,
and attentive? If the child perceives the answer to this question to be "yes," he or she feels loved,
31
secure, and confident, and, behaviorally, is likely to explore his or her environment, play with
others, and be sociable. If, however, the child perceives the answer to this question to be "no," the
child experiences anxiety and, behaviorally, is likely to exhibit attachment behaviors ranging from
simple visual searching on the low extreme to active following and vocal signaling on the other
.These behaviors continue until either the child is able to reestablish a desirable level of physical
or psychological proximity to the attachment figure, or until the child "wears down," as may
happen in the context of a prolonged separation or loss. In such cases, Bowlby believed that young
children experienced profound despair and depression (Stern et al., 2018).
Although Bowlby was primarily focused on understanding the nature of the infantcaregiver relationship, he believed that attachment characterized human experience from "the
cradle to the grave." It was not until the mid-1980's, however, that researchers began to take
seriously the possibility that attachment processes may play out in adulthood. Hazan and Shaver
(1987) were two of the first researchers to explore Bowlby's ideas in the context of romantic
relationships. According to Hazan and Shaver, the emotional bond that develops between adult
romantic partners is partly a function of the same motivational system--the attachment behavioral
system--that gives rise to the emotional bond between infants and their caregivers. On the basis of
these parallels, Hazan and Shaver argued that adult romantic relationships, like infant-caregiver
relationships, are attachments, and that romantic love is a property of the attachment behavioral
system, as well as the motivational systems that give rise to caregiving and sexuality (Fraley et al.,
2023).
The idea that romantic relationships may be attachment relationships has had a profound
influence on modern research on close relationships. There are at least three critical implications
of this idea. First, if adult romantic relationships are attachment relationships, then we should
32
observe the same kinds of individual differences in adult relationships that Ainsworth observed in
infant-caregiver relationships. We may expect some adults, for example, to be secure in their
relationships--to feel confident that their partners will be there for them when needed, and open to
depending on others and having others depend on them. We should expect other adults, in contrast,
to be insecure in their relationships. For example, some insecure adults may be anxious-resistant:
they worry that others may not love them completely, and be easily frustrated or angered when
their attachment needs go unmet. Others may be avoidant: they may appear not to care too much
about close relationships, and may prefer not to be too dependent upon other people or to have
others be too dependent upon them (Dugan et al., 2023).
Second, if adult romantic relationships are attachment relationships, then the way adult
relationships "work" should be similar to the way infant-caregiver relationships work. In other
words, the same kinds of factors that facilitate exploration in children (i.e., having a responsive
caregiver) should facilitate exploration among adults (i.e., having a responsive partner). The kinds
of things that make an attachment figure "desirable" for infants (i.e., responsiveness, availability)
are the kinds of factors adults should find desirable in romantic partners. In short, individual
differences in attachment should influence relational and personal functioning in adulthood in the
same way they do in childhood (Nivison et al., 2023).
Third, whether an adult is secure or insecure in his or her adult relationships may be a partial
reflection of his or her experiences with his or her primary caregivers. Bowlby believed that
the mental representations or working models (i.e., expectations, beliefs, "rules" or "scripts" for
behaving and thinking) that a child holds regarding relationships are a function of his or her
caregiving experiences. For example, a secure child tends to believe that others will be there for
him or her because previous experiences have led him or her to this conclusion. Once a child has
33
developed such expectations, he or she will tend to seek out relational experiences that are
consistent with those expectations and perceive others in a way that is colored by those beliefs
(Dugan et al., 2024).
According to Bowlby, this kind of process should promote continuity in attachment
patterns over the life course, although it is possible that a person's attachment pattern will change
if his or her relational experiences are inconsistent with his or her expectations. In short, if we
assume that adult relationships are attachment relationships, it is possible that children who are
secure as children will grow up to be secure in their romantic relationships. Or, relatedly, that
people who are secure as adults in their relationships with their parents will be more likely to forge
secure relationships with new partners. Sometimes, people might feel like they're not getting what
they need from their current relationship, like enough attention or emotional support. So, they
might look for it elsewhere. Other times, it could be because they feel insecure or anxious about
their relationship, so they seek validation from someone else (Jones et al., 2024).
Infidelity can have serious consequences for relationships. It can break trust, hurt feelings,
and even lead to the end of the relationship. But Attachment Theory helps us understand why it
happens in the first place. For example, if someone had a caregiver who wasn't very reliable when
they were young, they might grow up feeling insecure in their relationships. That insecurity could
make them more likely to seek reassurance from someone outside their relationship, leading to
infidelity (Hudson and Fraley, 2017).
Concept of Infertility
Human existence from one generation to another is strongly rooted in the concept of reproduction.
Reproduction is a process by which living organisms produce offspring. Reproduction is one of
the essential characteristics of plants, animals, single cell organisms and it is necessary for the
34
preservation of species. According to Mishra and Dubey (2014), reproduction is the ability of the
human male to impregnate a female and/or conceive a baby through heterosexual intercourse.
Human reproduction formally and legitimately takes place after marriage in a rational society
where factors such as religion, social-economic and cultural background are highly considered.
Naturally, marriage is an institution ordained by God. It is widely adopted by most religions;
notably, in the Islamic Holy Book (Al-Quran) and the Christian Holy Book (The Bible). "And
among His Signs is this that He created for you mates from among yourselves, that ye may dwell
in tranquillity with them, and He has put love and mercy between your (hearts): Verily in that are
Signs for those who reflect" (Al-Room, 30:21) Similarly, the Holy Bible says: ‘’…Be fruitful and
multiply, replenish the earth and subdue it’’ (Genesis 1 verse 28). These Holy Books quotation
show that marriage is Gods’ ordained practise on man. Girgis, George and Anderson (2010)
described marriage as the union of a man and a woman who makes a permanent and exclusive
commitment to each other of the type that is naturally fulfilled by bearing and rearing children
together. Parker (2000) added that marriage is a natural progression into adulthood and a means of
independence from parents and kin. Essentially, it is regarded as the socially approved pattern of
relationship whereby two persons establish a family. Marriage is a contract between families since
an individual did not exist as a separate person without family identification. Waite and Galagher
(2001) described it as a union of love between an adult male and female, a rite that affirms love,
provides a source of social recognition and a gateway to legal protection, responsibilities, and
benefits. The essence of marriage includes companionship, procreation, protection,
pleasure/sexual gratification, consolidation of wealth among others. Infertility is a very damaging
condition that does not only affects couple but also exposes them to emotional, physical and
financially stress. Fido (2004) asserted that infertility is a source of distress for couples as societal
35
norms and perceived religious dictums may equate infertility with failure on a personal,
interpersonal, emotional, or social level. Women bear the brunt of these societal perceptions in
most of the cases. Ramezanzadeh et. al (2004) stated that during the first three years of married
life, infertility is accomplished with the symptoms of depression, anxiety, lack of self-esteem,
sexual impotency, and marriage maladjustment. It is obvious that infertility is a crisis that leads to
a psychological imbalance, especially when a possible and quick solution is not found.
Generally, a couple is generally considered clinically infertile when there is no pregnancy
occurring after a minimum of twelve months of regular unprotected sexual activity. It is considered
as a major life crisis with the potential to threaten the stability of individuals and relationships
(Abari and Audu, 2013). Infertility has been documented to affect 10–15% of couples having to
seek specialist fertility care at least once during their reproductive lifetime. Over 80 million
couples suffer from infertility globally, majority of which reside in developing countries. The rate
of infertility in Africa was documented to range between 8.6 to 21.5% in 2003 due to the inability
to achieve the desired social role of fatherhood. Also, men with infertility has been documented to
have lower overall life satisfaction, heightened distress, and higher treatment-related anxiety. Male
infertility defined as the inability of a male to cause pregnancy in a fertile female account for 4050% of infertility.1 Inability to bear a child has been associated with raised anxiety, low selfesteem, mood instabilities, or depression in males. Infertility is a public health problem with
significant social and psychological distress of the affected men due to the inability to achieve the
desired social role of fatherhood. Also, men with infertility has been documented to have lower
overall life satisfaction, heightened distress, and higher treatment-related anxiety. Male infertility
defined as the inability of a male to cause pregnancy in a fertile female account for 40- 50% of
36
infertility. Inability to bear a child has been associated with raised anxiety, low self-esteem, mood
instabilities, or depression in males (Abiona, 2015).
Knowledge about infertility is insufficient in many parts of the world and it has been reported
that husbands lost interest in their wives because of infertility, while some have had to marry
another wife because of children. A study in Ile-Ife, Nigeria found a prevalence of divorce (38.9%)
among the respondents because of infertility. Children in a family represent old age insurance and
guarantors for generational continuity (Araoye, 2003). In African settings especially, land sharing
is commonly based on the number of children after a man’s death. Among the Yoruba ethnic group
in Nigeria, the number of children is usually considered in the distribution of properties after a
man’s death.
Infertility, a poignant challenge faced by many couples, encompasses a myriad of factors
that intricately intertwine within the fabric of marital relationships. Biological factors often take
center stage, ranging from hormonal imbalances and reproductive organ abnormalities to genetic
predispositions. The health and wellness of both partners play a pivotal role, as conditions such as
polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) or endometriosis can significantly impact fertility. In addition,
sperm quality and quantity, influenced by factors like age, lifestyle choices, and environmental
exposures, contribute to the overall fertility equation. Cultural and societal pressures also cast their
shadow on fertility dynamics. Societal expectations regarding the timing of parenthood, family
size, and gender preferences can induce stress and contribute to fertility challenges. Moreover,
cultural stigmas surrounding infertility may impact individuals’ willingness to seek assistance or
share their struggles, exacerbating the emotional toll.
Access to healthcare and fertility treatments plays a critical role in navigating infertility. Economic
factors, geographical location, and cultural attitudes toward fertility treatments may either facilitate
37
or impede couples’ ability to seek professional assistance. The level of awareness and education
about reproductive health within a community further shapes individuals’ proactive pursuit of
fertility support.
In the opinion of Elhussein, Ahmed, Suliman and Adam (2019), infertility is basically caused
by male factor and female factor. In the view of Jimoh (2004), the abnormalities in women that
accounted for female infertility include ovulation problems or disorders, blocked or damaged
fallopian tubes, hostile cervical mucus/uterine causes, fibroid tumor, endometriosis, excess weight,
sexually transmitted infections (STIs), certain medications, age, smoking, environmental factors
and repeated induced abortions. Likewise, Nwajiaku, Mbachu and Ikeako (2012) affirmed that
some abnormalities or conditions in the male consequently lead to infertility
The inability to conceive or experience recurrent pregnancy loss often initiates a deeply
personal and shared journey of distress for couples. The emotional toll is palpable, as feelings of
inadequacy, guilt, and shame may infiltrate the very foundation of marital bonds. Partners may
grapple with a sense of loss, mourning the dreams of parenthood that seem elusive.
Communication within the marriage may undergo significant strain as couples navigate the
challenges of infertility. Misunderstandings, blame, and a sense of isolation can permeate the
relationship. The desire for children, initially a shared goal, transforms into a source of tension,
potentially triggering conflict and exacerbating pre-existing vulnerabilities (Orji et al., 2002).
The societal and cultural expectations surrounding family-building can amplify the impact of
infertility. Couples may face external pressures from family, friends, or societal norms, adding an
extra layer of stress to an already delicate situation. The perception of failure to fulfill societal
expectations may contribute to a diminished sense of self-worth, further straining the emotional
fabric of the marriage. Intimacy, an integral component of marital relationships, can be affected by
38
the challenges of infertility. The pressure to conceive may lead to a transactional view of intimacy,
overshadowing the emotional connection between partners. This shift in focus from shared
intimacy to performance-oriented interactions may erode the emotional foundation of the
relationship (Olaitan, 2012). Furthermore, the pursuit of fertility treatments can introduce
additional stressors. Financial strain, the unpredictability of treatment outcomes, and the physical
demands of medical interventions contribute to the overall burden carried by couples. Decisionmaking regarding fertility treatments may also become a source of conflict if partners do not align
in their preferences or tolerances for such interventions.
Stress and Coping Theory a predictor of Infertile in Martial Relationship
When it comes to understanding how infertility affects people, there's a theory called the Stress
and Coping Theory that can shed some light on it. This idea was developed by two psychologists
named Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman. Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman were interested
in how people deal with stressful situations. They noticed that when people face something really
tough, like not being able to have a baby when they want one, they go through a lot of emotions
(Kazeem, 2009).
Richard S. Lazarus (1922-2002) received his BA from The City College of New York in
1942 and his PhD from the University of Pittsburgh in 1948. He taught at Johns Hopkins
University, Clark University, and, from 1957 until his retirement in 1991, the University of
California, Berkeley. At Berkeley, Dr. Lazarus began his influential research into psychological
stress and coping processes which contributed substantially to the "cognitive revolution" that
occurred in psychology during the 1960's. Dr. Lazarus published over 200 scientific articles in
social, personality, clinical, and health psychology and 20 books, including "Psychological Stress
and the Coping Process" (1966), "Stress, Appraisal, and Coping" (1984), and "Emotion and
39
Adaptation" (1991). Dr. Lazarus became a Guggenheim Fellow in 1969 and received two Doctors
Honoris Causa, one in 1988 from Johannes Gutenberg University, Germany and one in 1995 from
Haifa University, Israel. In 1989 he was awarded the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award
by the American Psychological Association. Susan Folkman, PhD, is the Director of the Osher
Center for Integrative Medicine and the Osher Foundation Distinguished Professor of Integrative
Medicine at the University of California, San Francisco. Since 1990, she has also been Professor
of Medicine at UCSF, and from 1994 until 2001 she was CoDirector of the UCSF Center for AIDS
Prevention Studies. Dr. Folkman received her PhD from the University of California at Berkeley
in 1979, where she remained as a research psychologist until coming to UCSF in 1988. She is
internationally recognized for her theoretical and empirical contributions to the field of
psychological stress and coping. Her work since 1988 has focused on stress and coping in the
context of HIV disease and other chronic illness, especially on issues having to do with care giving
and bereavement. In 1997, she was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of Utrecht,
The Netherlands, for her contributions to coping theory and research (Bento et al., 2010).
Lazarus states that stress is a condition or feeling experienced when a person perceives that
the “demands exceed the personal and social resources the individual is able to mobilize." this is
called the 'transactional model of stress and coping. Neither the environmental event nor the people
response defines stress, rather the individuals perception of the psychological situation is the
critical factor. According to Lazarus, the effect that stress has on a person is based more on that
persons feeling of threat, vulnerability and ability to cope than on the stressful event itself (Gibson,
2997). He defines psychological stress as a "particular relationship between the person and
environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and
endangering his or her wellbeing." Cognitive Appraisal; Lazarus stated that cognitive appraisal
40
occurs when a person considers two major factors that majorly contribute in his response to stress.
These two factors include: 1). the threatening tendency of the stress to the individual, and 2). the
assessment of resources required to minimize, tolerate or eradicate the stressor and the stress it
produces. In general, cognitive appraisal is divided into two types or stages: primary and secondary
appraisal. Primary Appraisal - In the stage of primary appraisal, an individual tends to ask
questions like, “What does this stressor and/ or situation mean?”, and, “How can it influence me?”
According to psychologists, the three typical answers to these questions are: 1) "this not
important", 2)"this is good", 3) "this is stressful". To better understand primary appraisal, suppose
a non-stop heavy rain suddenly pours at your place. You might think that the heavy rain is not
important, since you don’t have any plans of going somewhere today. Or, you might say that the
heavy rain is good, because now you don’t have to wake up early and go to school since classes
are suspended. Or, you might see the heavy rain as stressful because you have scheduled a group
outing with your friends. After answering these two questions, the second part of primary cognitive
appraisal is to classify whether the stressor or the situation is a threat, a challenge or a harm-loss.
When you see the stressor as a threat, you view it as something that will cause future harm, such
as failure in exams or getting fired from job. When you look at it as a challenge, you develop a
positive stress response because you expect the stressor to lead you to a higher class ranking, or a
better employment. On the other hand, seeing the stressor as a “harm-loss” means that the damage
has already been experiences, such as when a person underwent a recent leg amputation, or
encountered a car accident. Secondary Appraisal - Unlike in other theories where the stages usually
come one after another, the secondary appraisal actually happens simultaneously with the primary
appraisal. In fact, there are times that secondary appraisal becomes the cause of a primary
appraisal. Secondary appraisals involve those feelings related to dealing with the stressor or the
41
stress it produces. Uttering statements like, “I can do it if I do my best”, “I will try whether my
chances of success are high or not”, and “If this way fails, I can always try another method”
indicates positive secondary appraisal. In contrast to these, statements like, “I can’t do it; I know I
will fail”, “I will not do it because no one believes I can” and, “I won’t try because my chances
are low” indicate negative secondary appraisal. Although primary and secondary appraisals are
often a result of an encounter with a stressor, stress doesn’t always happen with cognitive appraisal.
One example is when a person gets involved in a sudden disaster, such as an earthquake, and he
doesn’t have more time to think about it, yet he still feels stressful about the situation (Lazarus,
1984).
Coping is defined as a process of “constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to
manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the
resources of the person. There are two forms of coping: Problem-focused coping used when we
feel we have control over the situation, thus can manage the source of the problem. There are four
steps to manage this stress: 1.Define the problem, 2. Generate alternative solutions, 3. Learn new
skills to dealing with stressors, 4. Reappraise and find new standards of behavior. Emotion focused
coping used when an individual feels as if they cannot manage the source of the problem. It
involves gaining strategies for regulating stress. 1. Avoiding (I am not going to school), 2.
Distancing (yourself from the stress, 'it doesn't matter'), 3. Acceptance (I failed that exam, but I
have 4 other subjects), 4. Seeking Medical Support, 5. Turning to alcohol.
Infertility can feel like a big problem because it goes against what many people hope for
in life—having a family. When someone finds out they're having trouble getting pregnant, it can
make them feel sad, frustrated, and sometimes even like they're not good enough (Petterson et al.,
2006).
42
Theoretical Framework
Literally, a theory is a set of ideas and beliefs a person holds and expresses or describes in writing
on a certain phenomenon or concepts. In other words, it is an explanation of the general principles
of an art or science, it is ideas and facts put forward to explain or translate concepts or events.
According to Sheztzer and Stone (1976), in Okobiah and Okorodudu (2006), a theory is a
framework for making systematic observations and explaining a phenomenon. . Several theories
provided insightful analyses of the underlying dynamics when assessing infidelity and infertility
as predictors of marital disharmony among married couples the relationship. This study is however
enhanced on system theory and attachment theory.
System theory
Systems Theory, originating from the work of biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy in the mid-20th
century, provides a comprehensive framework for understanding complex interactions within
various systems. It posits that a system, such as a marriage, is an interconnected and interdependent
set of elements that work together to achieve a collective goal (Said, 2019). The theory transcends
disciplinary boundaries and has been widely applied in fields such as biology, psychology,
sociology, and organizational studies. At its core, Systems Theory emphasizes the interdependence
of elements within a system, highlighting the notion that changes in one part can have cascading
effects throughout the entire system. It introduces the concept of feedback loops, where the outputs
of a system are fed back as inputs, creating continuous cycles of interaction and adaptation. Within
the context of marriages, elements like communication patterns, trust, and power dynamics are
integral components that contribute to the overall functioning of the system. Systems Theory
illuminates the multifaceted impact on the marital system. Fertility challenges introduce a new
element that permeates various aspects of the relationship. Emotional responses, coping
43
mechanisms, and communication dynamics are all influenced by the systemic shifts brought about
by the struggle to conceive (Nuri et al., 2017). The theory allows for an examination of how
infertility becomes integrated into the larger framework of the marriage, shaping the couple’s
interactions and overall satisfaction. Intersection of infidelity and infertility within the marriage
forms a complex web of interactions The ripple effects extend beyond the immediate act of
infidelity, affecting communication patterns, eroding trust, and potentially altering the balance of
power within the relationship. Understanding infidelity as a systemic disruption enables an
exploration of how couples navigate these changes and attempt to restore equilibrium within their
marriages that Systems Theory is well-suited to unravel. It helps us comprehend how these two
challenges coexist and potentially amplify each other’s impact. For instance, the emotional strains
of infertility may exacerbate vulnerabilities, creating fertile ground for the occurrence of infidelity.
Simultaneously, the discovery of infidelity may introduce additional stressors that complicate the
emotional landscape surrounding fertility challenges (Atkins et al., 200)
Attachment Theory
Attachment Theory, developed by John Bowlby and expanded by Mary Ainsworth, offers a
profound lens through which to understand the intricate dynamics of emotional bonds and their
impact on adult relationships. At its core, the theory posits that the quality of early attachments,
particularly with primary caregivers, significantly influences individuals’ emotional regulation,
interpersonal dynamics, and responses to stressors throughout their lives (Mousa et al., 2021).
The theory delineates distinct attachment styles that individuals develop based on their early
caregiving experiences. A secure attachment style typically results from consistent and responsive
caregiving, fostering a sense of safety and trust in relationships. Those with secure attachments
44
tend to view themselves positively and have confidence in the availability of support from others
(Zahra &Samane, 2021).
On the contrary, individuals with anxious or ambivalent attachment styles may have experienced
inconsistent caregiving, leading to heightened anxiety about the availability of emotional support.
These individuals often seek reassurance but may struggle with persistent doubts about their
worthiness of love and commitment. Avoidant attachment styles develop when caregivers are
consistently unresponsive to emotional needs. Individuals with avoidant attachments may become
self-reliant and dismissive of emotional intimacy to protect themselves from potential rejection or
disappointment.
Attachment Theory’s application to marital dynamics is profound, especially when exploring
challenges like infidelity and infertility. Securely attached individuals may approach these
challenges with a foundation of trust and effective communication. They are more likely to view
their partners as sources of support, fostering collaborative problem-solving (Shima et al., 2016).
Conversely, individuals with anxious attachments may experience heightened distress in the face
of infidelity or infertility, leading to increased emotional turmoil and potential communication
breakdowns. The fear of abandonment or rejection may intensify, exacerbating the impact of these
challenges on their well-being. Those with avoidant attachment styles may adopt coping
mechanisms such as emotional withdrawal or minimizing the importance of the challenges. Their
reluctance to seek emotional support may hinder effective communication with their partners.
Attachment Theory gains additional relevance as cultural influences may shape attachment
styles. Societal expectations, family structures, and community norms can impact how individuals
form emotional bonds and navigate relationships (Roslina et al., 2021).
Empirical Reviews of Literature
45
This section delve into existing studies and research findings that have investigated and assessed
the study related to infidelity, infertility, and marital disharmony among married couples. . This
section serves as a critical analysis of empirical evidence, aiming to synthesize findings, identify
trends, and evaluate the strength of the research.
Infidelity and Marital Disharmony
Kasyoka Kioko (2015) conducted a study on the determinants of infidelity among married couples
in Mwingi Central Constituency Kitui County in Kenya. The study adopted a descriptive survey
research design as well as a structured questionnaire, focus group discussion and interview
schedule. The population of the study was 19,591 households in Mwingi Central Constituency
(MCC) in which a sample size of 265 households were used. The finding of the study reveals that
each gender has specific motivators to engage in marital infidelity depending on their specific
attitudes towards marital infidelity. The study concluded that the key determinants of marital
infidelity among married couples are gender specific and diverse and are broadly classified as
cultural, social, physical and economic.
Onwuegbusi (2010) conducted a study on public perceptions of the effects of marital
infidelity on the family Idemili North Local Government Area of Anambra State. Population of
the study was 193,952 in which 86,201 were married men while107, 751 were married women.
The study adopted the systematic sampling approach with a sample size of married 530
respondents aged 25-45 years. The finding of the study indicated that inability of partners to
provide the material needs of their partners in marriage often leads one of the partners to seek
assistance outside the marriage and in so doing get involved in marital infidelity. The study
concluded that marital infidelity has wrecked a number of marriages, breaking them apart.
46
Idoko (2017) conducted a study on public perception on the prevalence and causes of
marital infidelity among married women in Enugu North L.G.A, Enugu State, Nigeria. The study
adopted the cross sectional survey design as well as multi-stage sampling technique. Population of
the study was 321, 510 with a sample size of 400 respondents. The findings of the study showed
that a majority of the respondents were aware that married women engaged in marital infidelity. A
total of 77.6% of the respondents identified sexual infidelity as the most common form of
infidelity, and 28.5% agreed to economic support as the major reasons women engage in marital
infidelity. The study also found that religious opposition and customs had a significant influence
on people’s attitude towards marital infidelity in Enugu North Local Government Area. The study
concluded that married women who engage in infidelity do so because of sexual benefits
(satisfying their sexual urge) as well as for economic support.
Kasyoka Kioko (2015) conducted a study on the determinants of infidelity among married
couples in Mwingi Central Constituency Kitui County in Kenya. The study adopted a descriptive
survey research design as well as a structured questionnaire, focus group discussion and interview
schedule. The population of the study was 19,591 households in Mwingi Central Constituency
(MCC) in which a sample size of 265 households were used. The finding of the study reveals that
each gender has specific motivators to engage in marital infidelity depending on their specific
attitudes towards marital infidelity. The study concluded that the key determinants of marital
infidelity among married couples are gender specific and diverse and are broadly classified as
cultural, social, physical and economic.
Mapfumo (2016) examined unfaithfulness among married couples in Manicaland
Zimbabwe. The study adopted a mixed method design using approaches from the quantitative and
qualitative paradigms. Questionnaire and focus group discussion were also used for data
47
collection. Forty-three (43) respondents participated in the study. The findings of the study
revealed that the common understanding of infidelity/unfaithfulness was a married person’s sex
relationship with a person outside the principal relationship; infidelity was more prevalent among
married men than it was among married women. Reasons for infidelity included sex, finance,
respect, dignity and luxuries. The effects of unfaithfulness were diseases, stress, violence and
divorce. The study also found that, after being cheated on, one would seek for counselling failure
which divorce would be the final resort. The study concluded that the understanding of the concept
of infidelity in this study was as much as it was understood elsewhere to mean sexual intercourse
between at least one dyadic partner and another person who does not belong to the primary
relationship.
Akinade and Dulaman (2002), cited in Nwadike (2014), investigated how sexual contacts
outside marriage take place in exchange for money and other material compensation. The study
adopted descriptive survey. Structured questionnaire was used as instrument for data collection. A
total of 308 married respondents were interviewed. The result indicated that many married people
have sex outside marriage in exchange for what they don’t have, like getting jobs and promotions
among others.
In the study of Ogwukhademhe and Ishola (2013) on factors responsible for extramarital
affairs in Lagos, Nigeria, it was revealed that sex related factors, infertility, socio economic factor,
occupational related factor and age related factors are the leading factors responsible for extra
marital affair.
Whyle (2008) posits that sexual disorder, either on the part of the man or the woman, may
lead to marital infidelity. Sexual disorder on the part of the man may be impotence, a situation
where he cannot reach erections fully to satisfy his wife’s sexual needs. The woman may be frigid
48
in which the man finds it difficult to penetrate and usually gets away annoyed. The above may lead
him or her to engage in marital infidelity. Also, a situation where the husband and wife are no more
physically attracted to each other, the feeling of guilt sets in, thereby making either of the partners
to be unfaithful.
Infertility and Marital Disharmony
Alubo (1997, cited in Idyorough, 2007), attributed the problem of women in Nigeria in general to
patriarchy which subordinates and marginalises women by denying them access to economic
resources and political power. Whereas this may be true of spousal relationships in general and as
it relates to health matters discuss above, this is not clear in relation to the experiences individuals
faced when they first discovered that they were infertile and how this impacted upon their marital
satisfaction. Upton (2001), in his study in Northern Botswana reported that men and women
reacted differently when they first received the news that they were infertile. The scholar found
that majority of the male respondents were shock because they never believed that men can also
be infertile, while women reacted by crying profusely. This gender difference in reaction to
infertility remain unclear among the Tiv people of Mkar in Gboko LGA and hence the need to
research and document it.
Guz, et al. (2003) found that anxiety and sorrow increased in women who are involuntary
childless when their period and span of remaining childless increased. This further intensifies the
distress and depression of the couples (Berg and Wilson, 1991). This finding corroborates that of
Anate and Akeredolu (1995), who reported that inability to conceive is associated with many
psychological reactions such as anxiety, shame, grief, social loneliness and self blame in couples.
Findings further indicated that the level of distress and depression was high in females but not in
men. The study concluded that couples with higher congruence had higher and better adjustment
49
in their marital relationships. Similarly, Shaprio, Palmer, and Capute (2003), conducted a study
on 82 newly married (4-6 years) couples. Out of the 82 couples in the study, 43 of them had
children and 39 could not have a child. Couples with children were interviewed when wife became
pregnant and again when the baby was three months old in order to determine the level of marital
satisfaction. Married females in the study reported an initial higher level of satisfaction in marriage
but this was no longer the case as time passed, because the level of marital satisfaction decreased
as compared to wives without children. Among couples with children, 33% of the wives reported
higher satisfaction in their marital relationship. On the other hand 67% of the wives with children
reported decrease in the marital satisfaction. Out of the couples without child, 51% of wives
reported improvement in the satisfaction of their marital relationships whereas 49% reported a
decrease in the marital satisfaction. The most important finding of the research was that 33% of
the couples undergoing highly stressful transition to parenthood manage to improve their
satisfaction in their marital relationships. Hence, validating the findings of Anate and Akeredolu
(1995), that marital adjustment is dependent on whether or not there exist high congruence
amongst the couple.
Alli et. al (2011) reported that in Latin America, strong social stigma attached to infertility
causes couple to blame themselves for infertility. While in Mozambique, infertile women are
excluded from certain social activities and traditional ceremonies. Likewise, the social stigma of
infertility is common across South Asia. For instance, Alli et. al (2011) mentioned that in Andhra
Pradesh and India 70% of women experiencing infertility were being punished with physical
violence. Some were verbally or physically maltreated, deprived of inheritance, sent back to
parents, disliked, looked down upon, or have the marriage terminated. Causes of infertility among
married adults varied based on cultural and environmental factors. According to Lindsay and
50
Vitrikas (2015) the factors that mostly contribute to infertility among women are problems in
ovulation, blocked or scarred fallopian tubes, and uterine abnormalities. Likewise, Olooto, Amballi
and Banjo (2012) attributed the causes of infertility to pelvic inflammatory disease, uterine
fibroids, ovulation problem and uterine problems. Bharadwaj, 2000; Van, Balen and Gerrits, 2001;
Bolvin, Bunting, Collins, Negro (2007) opined that the causes of infertility in developing countries
may be linked to an act of God, punishment for sins of the past, prolonged use of contraceptive,
distinct dietary habits, and the handiwork of witchcraft whereas some people in developed
countries viewed infertility as caused by biological, medical and other related factors.
Infidelity and Infertility as Determinant of Marital Disharmony
Infidelity, defined as engaging in sexual or emotional relationships outside the bounds of a
committed partnership, is a prevalent issue in contemporary societies. Research suggests that
approximately 20% to 25% of married individuals in the United States admit to engaging in
extramarital affairs (Allen et al., 2005). Moreover, with the advent of digital communication and
social media, opportunities for infidelity have expanded, further complicating marital dynamics.
infertility, characterized by the inability to conceive after one year of regular, unprotected
intercourse, affects an estimated 10% to 15% of couples worldwide (Mascarenhas et al., 2012).
The emotional toll of infertility is profound, with individuals and couples grappling with feelings
of inadequacy, guilt, and grief over their perceived failure to conceive.
The causes of infidelity and infertility are multifaceted and often intersect with broader
relational and psychological dynamics. Infidelity may stem from individual vulnerabilities such as
low self-esteem, narcissism, or a history of trauma (Hall & Fincham, 2006). Relationship factors,
including dissatisfaction, communication breakdowns, and unresolved conflicts, also contribute to
the likelihood of infidelity (Mark et al., 2011). Similarly, infertility can arise from a multitude of
51
factors, including physiological conditions, genetic predispositions, and lifestyle factors such as
obesity or substance abuse (Boivin et al., 2007). Psychological stressors, such as anxiety and
depression, can further exacerbate fertility issues by disrupting hormonal balances and
reproductive function (Lynch et al., 2014).
Both infidelity and infertility have profound implications for marital satisfaction and
stability. Infidelity breaches the fundamental trust upon which marriages are built, leading to
feelings of betrayal, anger, and insecurity (Whisman et al., 2007). While some couples may attempt
to reconcile through therapy or renegotiating relationship boundaries, others may opt for separation
or divorce, further eroding marital cohesion. Similarly, infertility can strain marital relationships,
exacerbating existing conflicts and magnifying feelings of disappointment and grief (Peterson et
al., 2012). Couples undergoing fertility treatments often experience heightened stress, financial
strain, and disruptions to their daily lives, placing additional strain on their relationship dynamics
(Greil et al., 2010).
While infidelity and infertility are often studied as distinct phenomena, there is growing
recognition of their interrelatedness within marital relationships. Marshall, Panuzio, and Taft
(2011) explored the association between intimate partner violence and infidelity among military
veterans and active-duty servicemen. Their findings suggested that experiences of trauma and
relational conflict, including infertility-related stressors, could increase the risk of infidelity within
marriage. Similarly, Pasch, Bradshaw, and Sullivan (2012) investigated the importance of
disclosure in coping with infertility among couples. They found that open communication and
mutual support were crucial for navigating the emotional and relational challenges associated with
infertility, reducing the likelihood of infidelity and promoting marital cohesion.
Appraisal of The reviewed Literature
52
The reviewed literature provides shows complex interplay between infidelity, infertility,
and marital disharmony. The literature underscores the prevalence and significant impact of
infidelity and infertility on marital relationships. Infidelity, affecting approximately 20% to 25%
of married individuals, breaches trust and security within marriages, leading to emotional turmoil
and instability (Allen et al., 2005). Similarly, infertility, impacting 10% to 15% of couples
worldwide, elicits profound feelings of inadequacy, guilt, and grief, further straining marital
dynamics (Mascarenhas et al., 2012).
The literature also highlights multifaceted determinants of infidelity and infertility, ranging from
individual vulnerabilities to relational and psychological stressors. Infidelity may stem from
factors such as low self-esteem, dissatisfaction, and communication breakdowns, while infertility
can result from physiological conditions, genetic predispositions, and psychological stressors (Hall
& Fincham, 2006; Boivin et al., 2007; Lynch et al., 2014).
Both infidelity and infertility have profound implications for marital satisfaction and
stability. Infidelity breaches trust and undermines marital cohesion, leading to feelings of betrayal
and insecurity among partners (Whisman et al., 2007). Similarly, infertility exacerbates existing
conflicts and magnifies feelings of disappointment and grief, placing additional strain on marital
relationships (Peterson et al., 2012). The literature highlights the interrelatedness between
infidelity and infertility within marital relationships. Experiences of trauma, relational conflict,
and infertility-related stressors can increase the risk of infidelity within marriage (Marshall et al.,
2011). Conversely, open communication and mutual support play crucial roles in coping with
infertility and reducing the likelihood of infidelity, promoting marital cohesion (Pasch et al., 2012).
This appraisal reveals the importance of comprehensive approaches to addressing marital
disharmony, considering the diverse nature of infidelity and infertility within marital relationships.
53
54
CHAPTER THREE
Research Methodology
Introduction
This chapter covers the techniques and steps used to complete this research project. The research
design, study population, sample size, population, sample techniques are all covered in this
section
Research Design
This study will employ a mixed-methods research design, combining qualitative and quantitative
approaches to comprehensively explore the intricate dynamics of infidelity and infertility as
predictors of marital disharmony among couples in Ilorin metropolis. The qualitative component
allows for an in-depth understanding of individuals’ experiences, perceptions, and coping
mechanisms, while the quantitative aspect enables the measurement of patterns, prevalence, and
statistical relationships (Osagie, 2015).
Population of the Study
The study will involve married couples residing in Ilorin metropolis who voluntarily choose to
participate. This population represents individuals who are currently married or in a marital
relationship, regardless of age, socioeconomic status, or cultural background. Ilorin the capital city
of Kwara State Nigeria, is located on latitude 8◦30’N and longitude 4◦35’E with an area of about
100 km2 (Ajadi and Tunde, 2010). The city is made up of three Local Government Areas viz :
Ilorin East, Ilorin West, and Ilorin South. The National Population Commission (NPC), gives the
population census of Ilorin metropolis in 2006 to be 781934 people: Ilorin East 207462, Ilorin
South 209251 and Ilorin West 365221. The population projected for 2011 is 908490: Ilorin East
241040, Ilorin South 243120 and Ilorin West 424330.Ilorin is characterized of traditional town
55
alongside a modern urban centre. The centre of the city encompasses the Emir’s palace, the Central
mosque and the Emir’s market. The transitional zone contains deteriorating houses and the
independent working man zone, which consists of second generative immigration into the city.
The fourth zone is characterized of citizens that are in the categories of: middle class, businessmen
and the professionals (Ajadi and Tunde, 2010).
Sample and Sampling Technique
Sampling technique is defined as a systematic process employed to select a required proportion of
the target population (Manoochehr, 2019). As a result of unavailable data on number of married
couples in the municipality. A purposive sampling method will be employed to ensure diverse
representation based on demographic factors such as age, duration of marriage, and socioeconomic
status (Omid & Arezoo, 2020). The purposive sampling technique was used to select one hundred
and fifty (150) married couples in Ilorin Metropolis, 50 couples representing the three Local
Government Areas which are Ilorin East, Ilorin West, and Ilorin South. Simple random sampling
technique was used to select the respondents for the study.
Instrument
According to Oyewo (2003), instrumentation is the process of selecting or developing a measuring
device method appropriate to a given evaluation or research problems. The instrument employed
in gathering data from the respondents will be researcher-designed questionnaire title “Infidelity
and infertility as predictors of marital disharmony among married couples in Ilorin metropolis
(Neda et al., 2021) .
The questionnaire will have three (3) sections; A, B and C. Section A will be focused on
the demographic data of the respondents which include information on age, length of marriage,
gender and religion. Section B will contain items that sought to establish some of the factors
56
responsible for marital infidelity and marital infertility among married couples and lastly Section
C of the questionnaire will focus on assessing marital disharmony among married couples. This
section aims to understand the level of discord and dissatisfaction within marital relationships. It
will include items related to various aspects of marital disharmony, such as communication issues,
conflicts, emotional distance, and overall relationship satisfaction. The response format will be in
4 point Likert scale of Strongly Agree (SA) = 4, Agree (A) = 3, Disagree (D) = 2 and strongly
Disagree (SD) = 1.
In-depth interviews will be conducted with selected couples to explore their lived
experiences, perceptions, and coping mechanisms regarding infidelity and infertility. Open-ended
questions will be used to encourage participants to express their thoughts freely (Cravens , 2013).
Validity and Reliability
The instrument will be tested to ascertain its usability by administering 20 copies to married
couples having the characteristics required for the study. A total of Two experts from the
Department will assess the instrument and confirmed that it possessed content validity. The
comments given will be noted and used in modifying the final/validated version of the
The test re-test method of estimating reliability will be adopted for the study. The
questionnaire forms will be administered twice within four weeks to 20 married couples who were
not part of the final study. The scores obtained were compared and correlated using Pearson
Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (r).
Statistical software (STATA) will be utilized to analyze quantitative data. Descriptive
statistics will provide an overview of demographic characteristics, while inferential statistics, such
as correlations and regression analyses, will explore relationships between variables and test
research hypotheses (Unguryanu & Grjibovski, 2014).
57
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