Biological Basis of Behaviour Exam Notes
Chapter 1 - Textbook
What are the two main types of
cells that the brain is made out
of, and what do they do?
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N.
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○
Gli.C
○
Info
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Ins.Nut.Sup.RN.E
W
How do neurons work?
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Through interconnections, the neurons are able to send electrical and chemical
signals to communicate with one another, with sensory receptors, muscles, and
internal body organs.
○ Most of these interconnections are made through the spinal cord.
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The Central Nervous System is the brain and the spinal cord.
○ It's a part of the nervous system that is encased in bone.
It's called centrall because it is both the nervous systems physical core and the
core structure mediating behavior.
ITC = N -> E&C Signals
to Com w/ SR, M and
IBO’s.
ITC = S.C
What is the CNS and what does
it do?
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B & S.C
○ N.S.P.C &
C.S.M.B
What is the PNS and What does
it do?
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The Peripheral Nervous System are all the processes that radiate out beyond
the CNS.
○ Provides sensory and motor connection to and from the CNS.
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The brain is composed of two main sets of structures, the first is the cerebrum
(forebrain)
○ The cerebrum has two nearly symmetrical halves, called hemispheres
(left and right).
○ The cerebrum is responsible for most of our conscious behaviours.
○ It enfolds the brainstem.
■ A set of structures responsible for most of our unconscious
behaviours.
The second major part is the cerebellum.
○ Specialized in learning and coordinating our movements.
○ Assists the cerebrum in generating many behaviors.
Beyond CNS
○ S&M.C <-> CNS
Name the two major sets of
structures that the brain is
composed of.
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Half the brain is made out of cells called neurons.
○ These cells are specialized to interconnect with each other and with the
muscles and organs of the body with fibres that can extend over long
distances.
■ (Information processing cell)
The other half is made out of glial cells.
○ These cells provide insulation, nutrition, and support, and aids in
repairing neurons and eliminating waste.
CBR
○
○
CBL
○
Hem & C.B
B.S = UC.B
L & Coor.Mov
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○
Assist CBR w/ B
What is embodied behavior and
how is it useful in studying the
brain?
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Our behavior = Our Mov.
& Mov. in others
C can persist in absence
of M
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What is a DBS and how did it
help cure someone with MCS?
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Embodied behavior is a research and philosophical argument.
○ It proposes that the movements we make and the movement we
perceive in others are central to our behavior.
■ e.g. we understand one another not only by listening by but
observing gestures and other body language.
This view sees the brain as an intelligent entity that cannot be separated from
the body’s activities.
○ Sensory deprivation experiments by woodburn, or meditation by
Jacobson
However cases like Martin Pistorius (Locked down syndrome) showed that
consciousness can persist in the absence of most overt movement
Deep brain stimulation is a process in which electrical stimulation was applied to
the brain for 12 hours a day.
○ This was used on a man suffering from MCS (minimally conscious state able to display basic behaviors but is not conscious)
■ This process helped improve the patients behavior and ability to
follow command.
When his wakefulness was improved, so was behavior.
○ DBS can treat disorders like parkinsons, depression, & TBI (traumatic
brain injury)
According to Irenaus, what is
behavior?
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Behavior consists of patterns in time.
○ These parents can be made up of movements, speech, changes in
appearance, such as the facial movements used to smile.
○ How we think is also a pattern of time.
What are the two main forms of
behavior?
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The first is Inherited behavior.
○ I.B is behavior that requires little or no previous experience.
■ The brain has the requisite info required to produce these
behaviours.
The second is Learned behavior.
○ This behavior requires practice and experience.
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I.B
L.B
What is the theory of mentalism
and who developed it?
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Psy. = Beh.
Aristotle
Mentalism is a philosophical position that a person’s mind (psyche) is
responsible for behavior.
Aristotle was one of the founders of the theory.
○ Brain was responsible for cooling the blood.
○ He believed that all human intellectual functions are produced by the
psyche.
■ To Aristotle, the psyche was a nonmaterial entity independent of
the body but responsible for consciousness, perceptions, and
emotions.
What is the theory of dualism
and who developed it?
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N.M M & M B = Beh
○ Rene.D
■ P B/G lies
in the V =
L = Mov.
MBP
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Dualism is a philosophical position that both a nonmaterial mind and a material
body contribute to behaviour.
Rene Descarte was one of the founders of the theory.
○ He believed that the body and mind must be joined and united to
constitute people.
○ He believed that the pineal body/gland, which lies in the ventricles,
directed fluid from them through the nerves and into the muscles, which
produced movement.
■ This theory made no sense because those w/out a P.B were fine.
● Later experiments further debunked the theory.
Rene’s inability to explain how a nonmaterial mind and physical brain might
interact is called the mind-body problem.
What is the theory of
materialism?
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Materialism is a philosophical position that behavior can be explained as a
function of the nervous system w/out recourse to the mind.
○ Influential to modern contemporary psychology
How did Darwin, Mendel and
epigenetics help with the theory
of materialism ?
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Darwin/Wallace (observation - theory of evolution), Mendel (experimentation flowers), and epigenetics have three important implications for the theory of
materialism:
○ (1.) Because all animal species are related, their brains must be related
○ (2.) Because all species are related, their behaviour must be related.
○ (3.) Brains and behaviors in complex animals such as humans evolved
from simpler animals brains and behaviors.
What is and who developed the
concept of eliminative
materialism?
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Donald Hebb's explanation of consciousness, that consciousness is created in
terms of the physical properties of the brain, created the philosophical position
of eliminative materialism.
○ This concept states that if behaviour can be described adequately
without recourse of the mind, then the mental explanation should be
eliminated.
What is taxonomy?
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Taxonomy is a branch of biology - used to classify living organisms
○ 5 kingdoms = Monera, Protista, Plantae, Fungi, Animalia
○ 7 Chordata - Agnatha, Chondrichtyes, Osteichthyes, Amphibia, Reptilia,
Aves, Mamalia.
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Brain cells and muscles evolved together enable movement
○ It originated in single cell animals like amoeba.
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A.S.R = Br.R
A.S.R = Beh.R
Br & Bh evolved from
S.Br & S.Bh
Classify
5K
○ M.P.P.F.A
7C
○ Ag.C.O.Am.R.AV.
M
How did neurons and muscles
evolve as a nervous system?
■
What is the simplest form of
N.S?
Traits = specialized in multicell animals.
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The N.S of older phyla (jellyfish) was extremely simple.
○ It consisted of a nerve net.
■ An unstructured collection of neurons that receive sensory info
and connect directly to other neurons that move muscles.
○ Resembles a brain or spinal cord.
■ Found in sea anonymous and jellyfish
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Bilateral symmetry.
○ The N.S on one side of the animal mirrors that on the other side.
■ Human N.S = B.S
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Segmentation is when the N.S contains similar repeating N.S segments.
○ Humans = Vertebrae contain similar repeating N.S segments of the
spinal cord.
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Ganglia are clusters of neurons that resemble primitive brains and function
somewhat like them.
○ They are command centres.
○ Some insects ganglia are large enough to = brain
■ Found in clams, snails, octopus
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Chordates have a single N.S pathway that connects the brain w/ sensory
receptors and muscles called the spinal cord.
○ (Chordates are animals that have both an Sp.C and a brain.)
○ In humans bony vertebrae encase the sp.c
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Encephalization is another term for a true brain.
○ The chordate phylum displays the biggest degree of Ence.
○ Brain of each chordate is specialized related to the distinctive beh. of
that species.
What is common about all N.S of
chordates?
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Basic structural pattern of Bil.Sym, Seg., and Sp.c and Br is encased in cartilage
or bone.
○ 38,500 chordates
What does the evolution of the
CBR and CBL have to do with
the evolution of more complex
beh.?
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The cerebellum and cerebrum are small and smooth in the earliest evolved
classes.
○ e.g. fish, reptiles.
In later evolved mammals, the structures became more complex.
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Nerv.N
Us.C.o.N
R.S.I & C.D.o.N =
Mov.Mu
What is the N.S found in more
complex animals like flatworms?
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B.S
What is segmentation?
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Rep.N.S.Seg
What is the Ganglia?
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Cl.o.Ne = Pr.Br = C.C
What’s special about chordates
N.S?
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Sp.C
What is encephalization?
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T.B
=
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In large brained mammals, both structures are extensively folded,
increasing size.
■ This allowed for more complex beh.
Which primate are humans
closest related to and what's
common about all primates?
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Chimpanzee
○ We have one common ancestor.
Use of vision to guide hand movement
What are some of the main
hominids that have evolved
through the years?
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There were several Hominids (primates that walk upright)
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Au
H.h
H.e
H.n
How do you estimate relative
body size?
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C.C
P.D
(1.) Australopithecus:
■ 3.8 million years ago.
■ First primates to use tools and walk upright.
○
(2.) Homo Habilis
■ 2.8 million years ago.
■ Brain larger, teeth and jaw smaller than the austra.
○
(3.) Homo Erectus
■ 1.6 million years ago.
■ First to emigrate beyond Africa into europe and asia.
● Bigger brain = ability to travel and become well dispersed.
■ Tools were more sophisticated.
○
(4.) Homo Neanderthalis
■ Extinct about 20,000 years ago.
● Coexisted with humans
■ Slightly larger brains, used tools, wore makeup and jewelry.
■ Culture orientated.
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You use the exphalization quotient.
○ Developed by Henry Jeninson, it measured brain size in relation to body
weight.
■ A domestic cat had an EQ of 1.
○ The lower an animal’s brain falls relative to the trend line, the smaller the
EQ, and vice versa.
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Counting cells.
○ The weight of the brain in relation to body mass does not truly explain
the complexity behind the brain.
■ (Just cause the worms brain is ⅓ of its weight does not make it
more complex than a humans)
Packing density is a better unit of measurement to estimate the Beh.Cap of the
brain.
○ Brain can either have diffusely distributed large neurons or closely
packed small neurons.
EQ
What is another way of
estimating behavioral capacity of
the brain?
○
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○ EQ and Brain cell could provide a good comparison of brain sizes.
Humans have 86 billion neurons.
○ Human Beh. is due to the large brain and large number of densely
packed neurons.
What happens when brains get
larger?
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Brains become large with the addition of neurons, and the adding of neurons
adds more connections between those neurons.
○ Neurons become specialized, with the neurons dedicated to primary
functions aggregating to keep their connections short.
■ As their numbers increase, they begin to form new regions.
● New functions like visual pathways (guides locomotion
and control of hand) require both new connections and
regions.
What are two types of maps that
emerge as the brain gets larger?
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Topographic:
○ Represents the different functional areas of the CNS. (areas that control
primary senses)
Connectome:
○ Represent the connections through which each of these regions
influence each other.
■ All the pathways connection regions of the CNS
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What are the 4 main theories on
how the Hominid Brain evolved?
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(1.) Climate change:
○ New hominid species appeared after climate change devastated old
environments.
○ Forced the brain to adapt to new environments and threats.
■ Humans were the best at adaptation thus they are the only ones
left.
○ Only the strong and willing survived, passing on their genes to the next
generation.
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(2.) Primate lifestyle:
○ Social group size is correlated with brain size.
■ More people groups = more foraging for food (more fruit
harvesting) = more nutritional value = bigger brain.
■ The teaching of fruit finding skills by parents, and being a good
learner was also useful.
○ Eventually cooking food by the H.sapiens, maximised caloric gain and
lessened the time devoted to foraging.
■ Cooperation in food gathering and cooking (part of lifestyle) =
evolution of a larger brain.
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(3.) Changes in Hominid Physiology:
○ Cooking food made eating easier = reduction in muscle fibres in the
face.
○ Hominid skull contains holes = widely dispersed blood flow = more
affecting cooling system through the circulation of blood = larger brain.
■ Falks theory (Radiator theory).
○ Brain cooling is important because brain metabolic activity generates lots
C.C = Adapt
P.L = Groups, Fruit,
Cooking
C.in.H.P = Falks theory
A.M = Hetero and Neo
of heat.
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(4.) Altered Maturation:
○ Altered heterochronicity (process that regulates onset and end of life
stages and development speed and duration) accounts for a larger brain.
○ Neoteny has led to adults with proportionally larger bodies and skulls to
house the brains.
■ Neo = juvenile stage of predecessors become adult features of
descendants (the new adult species resembles the young
species of its ancestors).
○ Humans also retain some behaviors of primate infants. Brain processes
that support learning thus are trained in adulthood.
○ Each stage of human dev is also prolonged.
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A gene active when the CBR is developing.
○ Plays a role in determining the number of neurons that compose the
CBR
The gene mutated, three times, producing duplicate copies in the human
genome.
May explain brain size enlargement.
What is SARGP2?
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What were Gould’s three main
criticisms of the theory that
intelligence and brain size was
linked?
What are some reasons behind
brain shinkrange?
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Neuro D
○ FASD & ASD
Stress
Br.Inj
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(1.) Brain measurement.
○ Measuring a brain is difficult as no agreement about whether volume or
weight is a better measurement has been made.
○ Too inconsistent.
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(2.) Correlating brain size and intelligence.
○ Large differences between the brains of individual people do exist.
■ Einstein's brain was normal in size.
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(3.) What intelligence is.
○ Comparing behaviour across species, we are comparing species typical
behaviour.
○ There are way too many ways to measure intelligence and too many
interpretations of what it is.
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Neurological diseases
○ FASD (fetal alcohol spectrum disorder)
○ ASD (Autism spectrum disorder)
Stress associated with physical or behavioral deprivation during infancy.
Brain injury near time of birth.
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What are some reasons behind
brain enlargement?
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Gen int
Dependent
○ H.M.T.IL
What is the Flynn effect?
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Spearman proposed a performance analysis to measure the rate of intelligence
in humans.
○ He found a correlation among tests and suggested a single factor
explained them. (he called g for general intelligence)
g also varies; it's dependent on health, motivation, training, interest level, ect.
○ Very little findings to support validity
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The tendency for IQ tests to increase by as much as 25 points from generation
to generation.
○ Brain size does not increase, which means it's most likely the level of
education and other life experiences explain it.
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He proposed the humans have a number of intelligences - verbal, musical,
mathematical, social, visual, kinesthetic, naturalistic.
○ Each type of intelligence is dependent on the function of a particular
brain region or regions.
■ Hampshire tests proved this theory.
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Culture allowed for development of artistic expression, agricultural,
mathematics, mechanical and digital skills,
Allowed skills and behavior to be passed on from generation to generation
○ The human brain evolved to contain the elements necessary of adapting
to more sophisticated skills.
Increase of IQ from gen
to gen
What was Howard Gardner's
theory?
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Good nutrition
Brain plasticity
○ New creation of connections among brain cells.
G.N & B.P
What is Spearman's g?
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7 intelligences
○ V.Mu.Ma.So.K.Vi.
Na
Why is culture important for brain
development?
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What are memes? and how are
they important?
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Ideas, behaviors, or styles, called memes, may spread from person to person,
and culture to culture.