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HND in Computing
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W.R.S.Nirodha Dewapriya
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Unit or Component Number and
Title:
Unit 02 - Networking
Assignment title:
LAN Design & Implementation for Alliance Health
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LO1, LO2, LO3, LO4
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Nirodha Dewapriya
Networking
Unit 02
Page | 1
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Nirodha Dewapriya
Date
oshada@esoft.lk
Networking
Date
Unit 02
2022/06/13
Page | 2
Higher Nationals
Internal verification of assessment decisions – BTEC (RQF)
INTERNAL VERIFICATION – ASSESSMENT DECISIONS
Programme title
BTEC Higher National Diploma in Computing
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Unit(s)
Assignment title
Internal Verifier
Unit 02:
Networking
LAN Design & Implementation for Alliance Health
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Nirodha Dewapriya
Networking
Unit 02
Page | 3
Higher Nationals - Summative Assignment Feedback Form
Student Name/ID
Unit Title
Unit 02:
Assignment Number
1
Networking
Assessor
Submission Date
Date Received
1st submission
Re-submission Date
Date Received 2nd
submission
Assessor Feedback:
LO1 Examine networking principles and their protocols.
Pass, Merit & Distinction P1
P2
Descripts
D1
M1
LO2 Explain networking devices and operations.
Pass, Merit & Distinction
Descripts
P3
P4
M2
P6
M3
LO3 Design efficient networked systems.
Pass, Merit & Distinction
Descripts
P5
D2
LO4 Implement and diagnose networked systems.
Pass, Merit & Distinction
Descripts
Grade:
P7
P8
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M4
Date:
Resubmission Feedback:
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Date:
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grades decisions have been agreed at the assessment board.
Nirodha Dewapriya
Networking
Unit 02
Page | 4
Assignment Feedback
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signature
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signature
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Nirodha Dewapriya
Networking
Unit 02
Page | 5
Pearson Higher Nationals in
Computing
Unit 02: Networking
Assignment 01
Nirodha Dewapriya
Networking
Unit 02
Page | 6
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Nirodha Dewapriya
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Student Declaration
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nirodhadewapriya@gmail.com
Student’s Signature:
(Provide E-mail ID)
Nirodha Dewapriya
2/26/2024
Date:
(Provide Submission Date)
Networking
Unit 02
Page | 8
Higher National Diploma in Computing
Assignment Brief
Student Name /ID Number
Unit Number and Title
Unit 2: Networking
Academic Year
2022/23
Unit Tutor
Assignment Title
LAN Design & Implementation for Alliance Health
Issue Date
Submission Date
IV Name & Date
Submission format
The submission should be in the form of an individual report written in a concise, formal business style
using single spacing and font size 12. You are required to make use of headings, paragraphs and
subsections as appropriate, and all work must be supported with research and referenced using Harvard
referencing system. Please also provide an end list of references using the Harvard referencing system.
The recommended word count is 3,000–3,500 words for the report excluding annexures,
although you will not be penalised for exceeding the total word limit.
Unit Learning Outcomes:
LO1 Examine networking principles and their protocols.
LO2 Explain networking devices and operations.
LO3 Design efficient networked systems.
LO4 Implement and diagnose networked systems.
Assignment Brief and Guidance:
Nirodha Dewapriya
Networking
Unit 02
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Scenario
Alliance Health is a technology-enabled solutions company that optimizes the revenue cycle of the
US healthcare industry where its global delivery center is located in Colombo. The company is
planning to expand their business operations with their latest branch at Matara and wants it to be
one of the state-of-the-art companies in Matara with the latest facilities.
Assume you have been appointed as the new network analyst of Alliance Health to plan, design and
restructure the existing network. Prepare a network architectural design and implement it with your
suggestions and recommendations to meet the company requirements.
The floor plan of the head office in Colombo is as follows:
Floor 1:

Reception area

Sales & Marketing Department (10 employees)

Customer Services Area – with Wi-Fi facilities
Floor 2:

Administration Department (30 Employees)

HR Department (20 employees)

Accounting & Finance Department (15 employees)

Audit Department (5 employees)

Business Development Department (5 employees)
Floor 3

Video conferencing room

IT Department (60 employees)

The Server Room
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The floor plan of the branch in Matara is as follows:
Floor 1:

Reception area

Customer Services Area– with Wi-Fi facilities
Floor 2:

Administration Department (10 Employees)

HR Department (7 employees)

Accounting & Finance Department (8 employees)

IT Department (50 employees)
Foll ow i ng r equir ements ar e g iv en by the Manag ement.

All the departments mus t be separ ated with uni que subnet .

T he c onfer enci ng r oom of the head offic e and Customer Serv ic es Ar ea s of each
branch are to be equipped w ith Wi -Fi c onnec ti ons .

C onnec tivi ty betw een tw o br anc hes (Head Office and M atara ) wo uld allow the
intra branch co nnectiv ity between departments. (Use o f VP N is no t com pulso ry)

T he nec ess ary I P addr ess cl asses and r ang es m ust be decided by the network
designer and sho uld be use d fo r all the departments except the serv er r oom .

N umber of s erv ers r equi red for the Serv er r oom need to be decided by the Netwo rk
designer and sho uld be assigned with 10 .254. 10.0/ 24 subnet. (Uses static IPs)

Sal es and Marketi ng Team also needs to access Netwo rk resources usi ng WIFI
co nnectiv ity .
( N o t e : C l e a r l y s t at e y o ur a ss u m pt i o n s . Y ou a re a l l o w e d t o d es i g n t h e ne t w o r k a c c o r d i ng t o y ou r
a s s um p t i on s , bu t m a i n r e q u i r e m en t s sh o u l d n ot b e v i o l a te d )
Nirodha Dewapriya
Networking
Unit 02
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Ac tiv ity 01

D iscuss the benefits and co nstraints o f different netwo rk system types that can be
im plemented in the Matara branch and the m ain IEEE Ethernet standards that can
be used in above L AN and WLAN design .

D iscuss the im po rtance and im pact o f netwo rk to po lo g ies and assess the m ain
netwo rk proto co l suites that are used in netwo rk design using exam ples.
Recommend suitable netwo rk to po lo gy and netwo rk pro to col s for above scenario
and evaluate with v alid po in ts how the recommended to po lo gy demo nstrates the
efficient utilizatio n o f the netwo rking system of M atara branch.
Ac tiv ity 02

D iscuss the operating principles o f network dev ices (Ex: Ro uter, Switch, Etc.) and
server ty pes that can be used fo r abov e scenario while explo ring different serv ers
that are av ailable in today’s market with their specifications . Re commend
server/ servers fo r the abov e scenario and justify your selectio n with v alid po ints .

D iscuss the inter -dependence o f workstatio n hardware and netwo rking so ftware
and prov ide exam ples for netwo rking so ftware that can be used in abov e network
design.
Ac tiv ity 03

P repare a written netwo rk design plan to m eet the abo ve -mentio ned user
requirements including a blueprint drawn using a mo deling too l ( Ex: M icro so ft Visio ,
EdrawM ax) .Test and evaluate the pro posed design by analyzing user feedback with
the aim o f optimizing yo ur design and im prov ing efficiency.
(Suppo rt y our answer by prov iding the VLAN and IP subnetting schem e fo r the abov e
scenario and the list of dev ices, netwo rk com po nents and software used to design the
netwo rk for abo ve scenario and while justifying yo ur selectio ns. )
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Unit 02
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
Install and co nfigure Netwo rk serv ices , dev ices and applicatio ns (Ex: VL AN, WiFi,
D NS,Pro xy , Web, Etc.) according to the pro po sed design to accom plish the user
requirements and design a detailed M aintenance schedule for abov e Netwo rk.
*N ote: - Scr een s hots of C onfig ur ati on scri pts shoul d be pr esented.
Ac tiv ity 04

Im plement a netwo rked system based on yo ur prepared design with v alid
evidence s.

D evelo p test cases and co nduct verificatio n (Ex: P ing, extended ping, trace ro ute,
telnet, SSH, etc.) to test the above Network and analyse the test results against
the expected results.
netwo rked
sy stem
Recomm end
with
v alid
potential future
justificatio ns
and
enhancem ents for the
critically
reflect
on
the
im plemented netwo rk, including the plan, desig n, configurations, test s and the
decisio ns m ade to enhance the system .
Nirodha Dewapriya
Networking
Unit 02
Page | 13
Nirodha Dewapriya
Networking
Unit 02
Page | 14
Grading Rubric
Grading Criteria
Achieved
Feedback
LO1 : Examine networking principles and their protocols.
P1
Discuss
the
benefits
and
constraints of
different
network types
and standards.
P2
Explain
the
impact
of
network
topology,
communicatio
n
and
bandwidth
requirements.
M1
Assess
common
networking
principles and
how protocols
enable
the
effectiveness
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Networking
Unit 02
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of networked
systems.
LO2 : Explain networking devices and operations
P3
Discuss
the
operating
principles
of
networking
devices
and
server types.
P4
Discuss the
interdependen
ce of
workstation
hardware and
relevant
networking
software
M2
Explore a range
of server types
and justify the
selection of a
server
for
a
given scenario,
regarding cost
and
performance
optimisation
LO 1 & LO2
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D1 Evaluate the
topology
protocol
selected for a
given scenario
and how it
demonstrates
the efficient
utilisation of a
networking
system.
LO3 : Design efficient networked systems
P5
Design
a
networked
system to meet
a
given
specification.
P6
Design
a
maintenance
schedule
to
support
the
networked
system.
M3
Analyse
user
feedback
on
your
designs
with the aim of
Nirodha Dewapriya
Networking
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optimising
your
design
and improving
efficiency.
D2
Critically
reflect on the
implemented
network,
including
the
design
and
decisions made
to enhance the
system.
LO4 : Implement and diagnose networked systems
P7
Implement
a
networked
system based
on a prepared
design.
P8
Document and
analyze
test
results against
expected
results.
M4
Nirodha Dewapriya
Networking
Unit 02
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Recommend
potential
enhancements
for
the
networked
systems.
D2
Critically
reflect on the
implemented
network,
including
the
design
and
decisions
made
to
enhance
the
system.
Nirodha Dewapriya
Networking
Unit 02
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Table of contents
1. An overview of the computer network
1.1 Network system types
1.2 What are the types of computer networks
1.3 Types of computer network Designs
1.4 LAN
1.5 MAN
1.6 WAN
1.7 PAN
1.8 SAN
1.9 VPN
1.9.1 CAN
2.Network Topology
2.1 Types of network topologies
2.2 Bus topology
2.3 Star topology
2.4 Ring topology
2.5 Tree topology
2.6 Hybrid Topology
2.7 Suitable network topology for alliance health
3. Network Standards and technologies
3.1 Internet protocols
3.2 IPV4
3.3 IPV6
3.4 VLAN
4. Network Standards
4.1 Institutions regarding network standards and communication
4.2 Ethernet
4.3 Wireless Personal area network
4.4 Other IEEE Network Standards
5. Network models and Protocols
5.1 TCP/IP Model
5.2 Network Protocols
5.3 Application layer protocol
5.4 FTP
5.5 SMTP
5.6 HTTP
5.7 DNS
5.8 DHCP (Dynamic Host configuration protocol)
5.9 Network Time protocol
5.9.1 SNMP
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6. Transmission Control protocol
6.1 User diagram Protocol
6.2 Internet Layer
6.3 Internet Protocol
6.4 Address Resolution Protocol
Activity 02
7.1 Network devices and server types
7.2 Hub
7.3 Router
7.4 Switch
7.5 Alliance health Network Devices
7.6 Firewall
7.7 packet shaper, Bridge, Repeater
7.8 Content Filter
7.9 Load balancer
8. Transmission Media Types
8.1 Guided media
8.2 Unguided media
8.3 Networking Software
8.4 Server Software, Servers
8.5 DNS
8.6 Different Server Types
8.7 Selective of server
Activity 3 and 4
9.1 IP and subnetting schemes
9.2 Required devices
9.3 Network Design blueprint
9.4 Setting up the network
9.5 Installing server OS
9.6 Network Implementation Using cisco packet tracer
9.7 Switch configuration
9.8 Switches
9.9 Assigning Trunk Ports
-Creating VTP Domain
-Assigning Ports for VLAN
-VLAN checking
- Router configuration
- Naming the router and activating router
- Configuration of dhcp pools
10.1 Testing the network
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-Pinging with same VLAN
-Pinging with Other VLAN
-Pinging to the servers
10.2 Subnetting Report
10.3 Maintanence schedule for the network
10.4 User feed back
Table of Figures
figure 1 peer to peer network
figure 2 Client server model
figure 3 LAN
figure 4 MAN
figure 5 WAN
figure 6 PAN
figure 7 CAN
figure 8 Network Topologies
figure 9 Star toplogy
figure 10 Mesh topology
figure 11 Ring topology
figure 12 Difference between IPV4 and IPV6
figure 13 Network standards
figure 14 IEEE standards
figure 15 Ethernet IEEE 802.3
figure 16 OSI model
figure 17 HTTP
figure 18 FTP
figure 19 Hub
figure 20 FTP
figure 21 STP
figure 22 UTP
figure 23 Coaxial Cable
figure 24 Fibre optic cable
figure 25 Difference between coaxial Cable and fiber optics
figure 26 – figure 67 Setting up the network
figure 68- 97 Configuration of switch
figure 98 – 101 Router configuration
figure 102- 112 Testing the network
figure 113 IP and subnetting scheme
figure 114 to 117 – User feedback
List of tables
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Table 1 Advantages and Disadvantages of PAN....................................................................... 35
Table 2 Pros and Cons of Storage Area Network ..................................................................... 37
Table 3 Advantages and disadvantages of CAN ....................................................................... 40
Table 4 Advantages and disadvantages of Bus topology ......................................................... 43
Table 5 advantages and disadvantages of Star topology ........................................................ 45
Table 6 Advantages and disadvantages of Mesh topology ..................................................... 47
Table 7Pros and cons of ring topology ..................................................................................... 49
Table 8 Advantages and disadvantages of hubs and switches ................................................ 74
Table 9 IP and subnetting scheme ........................................................................................... 97
Table 10 Maintanence shedule .............................................................................................. 154
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Unit 02
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Activity 01
Introduction Company Network Overview
This assignment extensively addresses the establishment of a computer network for Alliance
Health Company. Each section of the assignment delves into the network architecture,
detailing its construction, components, and individual functionalities. The report provides a
thorough explanation of protocols, network standards, and network topologies. Furthermore,
it outlines the types of servers essential for the company, how they align with Alliance
Health's business requirements, their significance, and their impact on the computer network
within the context of business processes. This solution is a comprehensive response for
Alliance Health Company, aligning with the specified business criteria and incorporating the
latest available technologies.
1.1. Network System Types
Definition of a Computer Network
In essence, a computer network represents a collective assembly of computing devices that
establish connections between two or more units to facilitate resource sharing. This
connection is established through various transmission mediums, including both wired and
wireless methods. The categorization of computer networks encompasses several
classifications.
Types of Computer Networks
An effective means of classifying diverse computer network designs is based on their scope
or scale. The networking industry conventionally labels various designs as some form of area
network. Key types of area networks include:
a) Peer-to-Peer Network
b) Client-Server Network
c) Cloud Computing
Nirodha Dewapriya
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Unit 02
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Understanding the intricacies of the Internet's organizational structure requires an initial
comprehension of basic computer network operations. This report delves into the expansive
categories of computer networking, providing readers with insights into the organizational
frameworks that govern computer networks.
1.1.3 Peer-to-Peer Network
A peer-to-peer network is characterized by the collaboration of two or more computers for
the purpose of file sharing and device accessibility, without the need for a distinct server
computer or dedicated software. Most operating systems inherently possess the capability to
function as servers, facilitating resource sharing. Peer-to-peer systems play a crucial role in
providing anonymized routing of network traffic, supporting parallel computing
environments, and enabling distributed storage, among other functionalities.
These networks operate on the principle of decentralized sharing, where each node
contributes to the collective resources and services. Peer-to-peer networks not only enhance
file-sharing capabilities but also find application in anonymizing network traffic, creating
parallel computing environments, and establishing distributed storage systems. The absence
of a centralized server distinguishes peer-to-peer networks, offering flexibility and scalability
in resource utilization.
In summary, this section provides an in-depth exploration of computer networks, delineating
their fundamental definitions, classifications based on scope, and a detailed examination of
the peer-to-peer network model. The ensuing discussions will further elucidate the intricacies
of client-server networks and cloud computing, offering a comprehensive understanding of
the diverse landscape of computer network systems.
Figure 1 Peer to Peer network
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Client-Server-Network
A client-server network is a computing architecture where tasks or workloads are divided
between servers, which are powerful computers dedicated to providing services or resources,
and clients, which are typically less powerful devices such as personal computers,
smartphones, or tablets, that request and consume those services.
Figure 2Client server model
In a client-server network:
1. **Clients**: These are the devices used by end-users to access services or resources
provided by servers. Clients initiate requests for data or services from servers.
2. **Servers**: These are specialized computers or software applications that fulfill requests
from clients. Servers are designed to handle a large number of simultaneous requests and are
optimized for providing specific services or resources. Examples of servers include web
servers, file servers, database servers, and email servers.
Client-server networks are widely used in various applications such as web browsing, email
communication, file sharing, and database management. This architecture allows for
centralized management of resources, efficient resource utilization, and scalability to
accommodate a large number of clients. Additionally, client-server networks often provide
mechanisms for authentication, authorization, and data security to ensure the confidentiality
and integrity of communication between clients and servers.
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What is Cloud computing?
Cloud computing refers to the delivery of computing services—including servers, storage,
databases, networking, software, analytics, and more—over the Internet ("the cloud") to offer
faster innovation, flexible resources, and economies of scale. Rather than owning and
maintaining physical data centers and servers, cloud computing enables organizations to
access computing resources on-demand from a cloud service provider.
Key characteristics of cloud computing include:
1. On-Demand Self-Service
Users can provision computing resources (such as virtual machines, storage, or applications)
as needed without requiring human intervention from the service provider.
2. Broad Network Access
Cloud services are accessible over the network and can be accessed from various devices
such as smartphones, tablets, laptops, and desktops.
3. Resource Pooling
Cloud providers pool computing resources to serve multiple customers, with different
physical and virtual resources dynamically assigned and reassigned according to demand.
Customers typically have no control or knowledge over the exact location of the resources
provided but may specify certain requirements such as region or data residency.
4.Rapid Elasticity
Cloud resources can be rapidly and elastically scaled up or down to accommodate changing
demand. This scalability enables businesses to quickly respond to fluctuations in workload
without the need for manual intervention.
5. Measured Service
Cloud computing resources are monitored, controlled, and billed based on usage. This payas-you-go model allows organizations to only pay for the resources they consume, similar to
utilities such as electricity or water.
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Cloud computing offers several deployment models, including
Public Cloud
Services are provided over the public internet and are available to anyone who wants to
purchase them. Examples include Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft Azure, and
Google Cloud Platform (GCP).
Private Cloud
Computing resources are dedicated to a single organization and are hosted either on-premises
or by a third-party provider. Private clouds offer greater control over security, compliance,
and customization.
-Hybrid Cloud
This model combines public and private cloud environments, allowing organizations to
leverage the benefits of both. It enables seamless data and application portability between onpremises infrastructure and public cloud services.
Multi-Cloud
Organizations use multiple cloud providers to distribute workloads across different platforms.
This approach helps mitigate vendor lock-in, increases redundancy, and optimizes costs.
Cloud computing has revolutionized the way organizations build and manage their IT
infrastructure, offering greater agility, scalability, and cost-effectiveness compared to
traditional on-premises solutions.
Figure 3 Cloud computing
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Cloud computing offers three main IT services
1. Software as a Service (SaaS)
2. Platform as a Service (PaaS)
3. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS).
SaaS involves third-party providers hosting applications and delivering them to customers
over the Internet. Examples include CRM, email services, virtual desktops, and games.
PaaS provides hardware and software tools for application development over the Internet,
eliminating the need for in-house hardware and software installation. Examples include
execution runtimes, databases, development tools, and web servers.
IaaS delivers virtualized computing resources over the Internet, including virtual machines,
servers, and storage.
Advantages of cloud computing include increased accessibility, scalability, and costeffectiveness. It allows organizations to access resources on-demand, scale up or down as
needed, and pay only for what they use. Additionally, it reduces the need for in-house
infrastructure maintenance and offers flexibility for remote work.
However, there are also disadvantages to consider. These include concerns about data
security and privacy, potential downtime or service interruptions, and dependency on internet
connectivity. Additionally, migrating existing systems to the cloud can be complex and may
require significant investment in training and infrastructure.
Type of Computer Network Designs.
In contemporary times, networks serve as the fundamental infrastructure supporting
businesses and various industries, owing to their remarkable advancements propelled by
technology. These networks are distinguishable based on their scale and characteristics.
Network scope refers to the geographical coverage and the quantity of interconnected
computing devices. Differentiation is achieved through assessing the extent of geographical
area they cover and the number of devices linked within. This differentiation aids in
categorizing networks according to their size and capabilities, reflecting the evolution and
versatility of networking technologies in meeting diverse organizational and industrial needs.
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Here are some network types that is being used in today’s world
a) Local Area Network – LAN
b) Metropolitan Area Network – MAN
c) Wide Area Network – WAN
d) Personal Area Network – PAN
e) Storage Area Network – SAN
f) Virtual Private Network – VPN
g) Controller Area Network – CAN
a) Local Area Network – LAN
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a type of computer network that spans a relatively small
geographic area, typically within a single building or campus. LANs allow multiple devices,
such as computers, printers, servers, and other peripherals, to communicate and share
resources with each other.
Characteristics of a LAN include
Limited Geographic Area
LANs cover a small physical area, such as a single building, office, or campus. They are
designed for use within a confined area to facilitate efficient communication and resource
sharing among nearby devices.
High Data Transfer Rates
LANs typically offer high-speed data transfer rates, allowing for rapid exchange of
information between devices. This enables efficient access to shared resources and supports
bandwidth-intensive applications such as multimedia streaming or file transfers.
Private Infrastructure
LANs are often privately owned and operated by an organization or individual. They are not
accessible to the general public and are protected by security measures to prevent
unauthorized access or tampering.
When considering, Ethernet or Wi-Fi Connectivity, LANs can be implemented using wired
Ethernet connections or wireless Wi-Fi technology. Ethernet LANs use physical cables to
connect devices to a central network switch or hub, while Wi-Fi LANs use wireless access
points to provide connectivity to wireless-enabled devices.
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Figure 4 LAN
B) Metropolitan Area Network – MAN
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a type of computer network that covers a larger
geographical area than a Local Area Network (LAN) but smaller than a Wide Area Network
(WAN). It typically spans a city or metropolitan area, connecting multiple LANs and other
network segments across a broader geographical region. MANs are designed to provide highspeed connectivity and facilitate communication and resource sharing between different
locations within the same metropolitan area.
Key characteristics of a Metropolitan Area Network include:
Medium to Large Geographic Coverage
MANs cover a metropolitan area or urban region, such as a city or county, and may extend
over tens of kilometers. They serve as an intermediary between LANs and WANs,
connecting multiple sites or campuses within the same geographical area.
High-Speed Connectivity
MANs offer high-speed data transmission rates, typically ranging from tens to hundreds of
megabits per second (Mbps) or even gigabits per second (Gbps). This enables fast and
efficient communication between interconnected sites, supporting bandwidth-intensive
applications and services.
Fiber Optic or Wireless Infrastructure
MANs may utilize fiber optic cables, microwave links, or other wireless technologies to
interconnect network nodes and transmit data over longer distances. These technologies
enable reliable and high-capacity communication over the MAN infrastructure.
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Figure 5 MAN
C) Wide Area Network-WAN
A Wide Area Network (WAN) is an expansive telecommunications or computer network that
spans across vast geographical areas. It primarily relies on internet connections and
specialized setups facilitated by internet service providers (ISPs). Often, WANs are
synonymous with the internet itself, as it encompasses a multitude of interconnected
networks on a global scale. ISPs are key players in establishing WANs, including the World
Wide Web. Major entities like satellite companies, service providers, and cable companies
operate WANs, constructing extensive networks that cover entire cities or regions. They then
offer leasing agreements to customers for network usage. In essence, WANs form the
backbone of global communication, enabling seamless connectivity across distant locations.
Figure 6 WAN
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Key characteristics of WANs include
Large Geographic Coverage
WANs cover extensive geographical areas, allowing for communication and data exchange
between geographically dispersed locations.
Public Infrastructure
WANs often rely on public telecommunications infrastructure, such as leased lines, fiber
optic cables, satellites, and microwave links, to transmit data across long distances.
Internet Backbone
The internet itself is considered the largest WAN, connecting millions of networks and
devices worldwide. WANs can utilize the internet backbone to establish connections between
distant locations.
High-Speed Connectivity
WANs typically offer high-speed data transmission rates, although the actual speed may vary
depending on factors such as distance, infrastructure, and network congestion.
Multiprotocol Support
WANs support various network protocols and technologies, including TCP/IP, MPLS
(Multiprotocol Label Switching), Frame Relay, ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode), and
others, to facilitate communication between different types of devices and networks.
Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
WANs often incorporate VPN technology to create secure, encrypted connections over public
networks, enabling remote access and private communication between locations.
Centralized Management
WANs may be managed centrally by organizations or service providers to oversee network
configuration, security, and performance monitoring across distributed locations.
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D) Personal Area Network- PAN
A Personal Area Network (PAN) is a type of computer network used for connecting devices
within the immediate vicinity of an individual person, typically within a range of around 10
meters (30 feet). PANs are designed to facilitate communication and data exchange between
personal devices, such as smartphones, tablets, laptops, wearable devices, and peripherals.
Key characteristics of a Personal Area Network include
Limited Geographic Range
PANs cover a small physical area, usually within the personal space of an individual, such as
a room or office. The range is typically limited to around 10 meters, although this can vary
depending on the technology used.
Wireless Connectivity
PANs commonly utilize wireless communication technologies such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi,
Zigbee, or Near Field Communication (NFC) to connect devices without the need for
physical cables. This allows for greater mobility and flexibility in device placement.
Device Interconnectivity
PANs enable devices to communicate and interact with each other, facilitating tasks such as
file sharing, printing, synchronization, and remote control. Devices within a PAN may serve
different purposes but can collaborate to enhance functionality and user experience.
Low Power Consumption
Many PAN technologies are designed to be energy-efficient, consuming minimal power to
preserve battery life in portable devices. This is particularly important for wireless
technologies used in wearable devices, smartphones, and other battery-powered gadgets.
Ease of Setup and Use
PANs are typically easy to set up and configure, often requiring minimal user intervention to
establish connections between devices. Automatic pairing and discovery features simplify the
process of adding new devices to the network.
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Figure 7 PAN
Advantages and disadvantages of personal area network
Advantages
Disadvantages
Security
Easy to use
Auto configuration
Low latency
User freindly
Fragmented
No broadcasting
Multiple connections
Unreliable
Low priority
Table 1 Advantages and Disadvantages of PAN
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E) Storage Area Network -SAN
A Storage Area Network (SAN) is a specialized high-speed network that provides access to
consolidated, block-level data storage. Unlike traditional storage systems that are directly
attached to individual servers, SANs decouple storage devices from servers, allowing
multiple servers to access shared storage resources simultaneously.
Key characteristics of a Storage Area Network include
Centralized Storage
SANs centralize storage resources, such as disk arrays, tape libraries, or solid-state drives
(SSDs), into a separate network infrastructure dedicated solely to storage. This enables
efficient storage management and utilization across multiple servers or hosts.
Block-Level Access
SANs provide block-level access to data storage, allowing servers to access storage devices
at the block level rather than the file level. This provides high-performance, low-latency
access to data and enables features such as RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks)
and volume management.
High-Speed Connectivity
SANs typically use high-speed storage protocols such as Fibre Channel (FC), iSCSI (Internet
Small Computer System Interface), or Fibre Channel over Ethernet (FCoE) to provide fast,
reliable data transfer between servers and storage devices. These protocols offer high
bandwidth and low latency, making SANs suitable for demanding enterprise applications.
Scalability
SANs are highly scalable, allowing organizations to easily expand storage capacity and
performance as needed. Additional storage devices can be seamlessly added to the SAN
without disrupting existing operations, enabling organizations to adapt to changing storage
requirements over time.
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Advantages and disadvantages of using Storage Area network
Advantages
Disadvantages
Speed
Scalability
Fault Torelance
Centralized
Cost
Complexity
Vendor-lock on
Security
Table 2 Pros and Cons of Storage Area Network
F) Virtual Private Network- VPN
A Virtual Private Network (VPN) is a technology that establishes a secure and encrypted
connection over a public network, such as the internet, allowing users to access and transmit
data privately and securely.
Figure 8 Virtual Private Network
Key features of VPNs include
Encryption:
VPNs encrypt data traffic between the user's device and the VPN server, ensuring that any
data transmitted over the network is protected from interception or eavesdropping by
unauthorized parties.
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Privacy:
By routing data traffic through a VPN server, VPNs mask the user's IP address and hide their
online activities from internet service providers (ISPs), government agencies, and other
entities that may attempt to monitor or track their online behavior.
Anonymity:
VPNs provide anonymity by assigning users a temporary IP address from the VPN server's
pool of addresses, making it difficult for websites and online services to identify and track
individual users.
Access Control:
VPNs enable users to bypass geographical restrictions and access content that may be
blocked or restricted based on their location. By connecting to a VPN server in a different
geographic region, users can appear as though they are accessing the internet from that
location, allowing them to circumvent censorship and access geo-blocked content.
Advantages and disadvantages of using VPN
Figure 9 Pros and Cons of Virtual Private network
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G) Controller Area Network - (CAN)
Controller Area Network (CAN) is a robust vehicle bus standard designed to allow
microcontrollers and devices to communicate with each other within a vehicle without a host
computer. It was originally developed by Bosch in the 1980s for automotive applications but
has since been adopted in various other industries such as industrial automation, medical
devices, and aerospace.
Key features of Controller Area Network (CAN) include
Serial Communication:
CAN uses a serial communication protocol, allowing multiple devices to communicate over
a single pair of twisted-pair wires.
Message-Based Protocol:
Communication in CAN is message-based, with devices sending data packets known as
"frames" onto the bus. Each frame contains an identifier that determines its priority and
content.
Deterministic Communication:
CAN provides deterministic communication, meaning that messages are sent and received in
a predictable and timely manner. This makes it suitable for real-time applications where
timing is critical.
Error Detection and Fault Tolerance:
CAN includes error detection and fault tolerance mechanisms to ensure reliable
communication even in noisy environments. These mechanisms include cyclic redundancy
check (CRC) for error detection and fault confinement techniques for isolating faulty nodes.
High Data Rates:
CAN supports data rates ranging from a few kilobits per second (Kbps) up to several
megabits per second (Mbps), depending on the specific CAN protocol variant used.
Low Cost and Complexity:
CAN is known for its low cost and simplicity, making it a cost-effective solution for
networking applications in vehicles and other industries
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Figure 10 Controller Area Network
Advantages and Disadvantages of using Controller Area Network-CAN
Advantages
Disadvantages
High reliability
Limited bandwith
Scalability
Limited Distance
Low cost
Limited data payload
Deterministic Communication
Lack of security
Table 3 Advantages and disadvantages of CAN
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2. What are Network Topologies?
A network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of devices and connections
within a computer network. It defines how devices such as computers, servers, switches,
routers, and other network components are interconnected and how data flows between them.
Different network topologies, such as bus, star, ring, mesh, and hybrid, have unique
characteristics that affect network performance, reliability, scalability, and fault tolerance.
For instance, in a bus topology, devices are connected to a single communication line, while
in a star topology, all devices connect to a central hub or switch. The choice of network
topology depends on factors such as the size of the network, the desired level of redundancy,
the cost of implementation, and the specific requirements of the network's users. Overall,
selecting the appropriate network topology is crucial for designing an efficient and effective
network infrastructure.
Figure 11 Network Topologies
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What are the Types of Network Topologies?
Network topologies refer to the physical or logical layout of interconnected devices in a
computer network. Different network topologies define how devices are connected to each
other and how data flows within the network. Some common network topologies include,
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Bus Topology
Star Topology
Ring Topology
Mesh Topology
Tree Topology
1. Bus Topology
Bus topology is a type of network topology in which all devices are connected to a single
communication line, called a bus. In this setup, data is transmitted along the bus, and all
devices on the network receive the data. However, only the intended recipient processes it.
Key features of bus topology include
Single Communication Line:
All devices in a bus network are connected to a single central cable or bus. This cable
serves as the communication medium through which data is transmitted between devices.
Passive Topology:
Bus topology does not require any active components such as switches or routers. Instead,
devices are directly connected to the central bus.
Broadcast Communication:
When a device transmits data onto the bus, the data is broadcast to all devices on the
network. However, only the device whose address matches the destination address
processes the data.
Ease of Installation:
Bus topology is relatively easy to install and configure, as it requires minimal cabling and
no complex networking equipment.
Limited Scalability:
As more devices are added to the network, the bus can become congested, leading to
performance degradation. Additionally, the failure of the central bus cable can disrupt
communication for all devices on the network.
Limited Fault Tolerance:
Bus topology lacks redundancy, meaning that a single point of failure, such as a break in the
central cable, can bring down the entire network.
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Figure 12 Bus topology
Advantages and Disadvantages of Bus topology
Advantages
Disadvantages
Simplicity
Limited scalability
Cost effective
Single point of faliure
Ease of expansion
Limited cable length and distance
Efficient use of bandwith
Limited security and privacy
Table 4 Advantages and disadvantages of Bus topology
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2. Star Topology
Star topology is a type of network topology in which all devices are connected to a central
hub or switch. In a star topology, each device communicates directly with the central hub,
and data flows through the hub to reach other devices on the network.
Key features of star topology include
Centralized Hub:
All devices in a star network are connected to a central hub or switch. This hub serves as the
focal point for communication, managing the flow of data between devices.
Point-to-Point Communication:
In a star network, devices communicate with each other through the central hub. When one
device wants to transmit data to another device, it sends the data to the hub, which then
forwards it to the intended recipient.
Ease of Installation and Management:
Star topology is relatively easy to install and manage compared to other topologies. Adding
or removing devices from the network can be done without disrupting the rest of the network,
as each device connects directly to the central hub.
Fault Isolation:
If one device or connection fails in a star network, it typically does not affect the rest of the
network. This makes troubleshooting and maintenance easier compared to other topologies
where a single point of failure can bring down the entire network.
Scalability:
Star topology can easily accommodate a large number of devices by adding more ports to the
central hub or using switches with multiple ports. This scalability makes star topology
suitable for both small home networks and large enterprise networks.
Dependence on Central Hub:
The central hub or switch is a critical component of a star network. If the hub fails, the entire
network may become inaccessible until the hub is repaired or replaced.
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Figure 13 Star Topology
Advantages and Disadvantages of Star topology
Advantages
Disadvantages
Centralized management
Cost
Scalability
Cabling requirements
Performance
Limited distance
Security
Performance degration
Table 5 advantages and disadvantages of Star topology
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3. Mesh Topology
Mesh topology is a type of network topology in which each device is connected to every
other device in the network, forming multiple paths for data to travel. Unlike other topologies
where devices are connected in a linear or hierarchical fashion, mesh topology provides
redundant connections between devices, enhancing reliability and fault tolerance.
Key features of mesh topology include
Redundant Connections:
In a mesh network, every device has multiple direct connections to other devices. This
redundancy ensures that if one connection or device fails, data can still be routed through
alternative paths, minimizing downtime and ensuring continuous communication.
Fault Tolerance:
Mesh topology offers high fault tolerance due to its redundant connections. Even if one or
more devices or links fail, the network can automatically reroute traffic along functioning
paths, maintaining connectivity.
Scalability:
Mesh topology is highly scalable, as new devices can be easily added to the network without
disrupting existing connections. Each new device can establish direct connections with other
devices, expanding the network's capacity and coverage.
Flexibility:
Mesh networks are inherently flexible, allowing for dynamic routing and self-healing
capabilities. Devices in a mesh network can automatically discover and adapt to changes in
network topology, optimizing data transmission paths and maximizing network efficiency.
Complexity and Cost:
Implementing a fully connected mesh network can be complex and costly, especially as the
number of devices increases. The sheer number of connections required between devices can
lead to higher infrastructure costs and increased management overhead.
Performance:
Mesh topology typically offers high performance and low latency, especially in networks
with a dense mesh of connections. Data can be transmitted quickly between devices along
direct paths, minimizing delays and bottlenecks.
Mesh topology is commonly used in wireless mesh networks, where devices such as routers,
access points, and sensors form a self-configuring mesh network to provide wireless coverage
over a large area. It is also used in wired networks where high reliability and fault tolerance
are critical, such as in mission-critical applications and industrial control systems.
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Figure 14 Mesh topology
Advantages and Disadvantages Of Mesh Topology
Advantages
Disadvantages
Robustness
Complexity and Cost
Scalability
Resource Consumption
High reliability
Latency
Flexibility
Configuration and rooting overhead
Table 6 Advantages and disadvantages of Mesh topology
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4. Ring Topology
In a ring topology, devices are connected in a closed loop or ring configuration, where each
device is connected directly to exactly two other devices, forming a continuous pathway for
data transmission. Data travels around the ring in one direction, passing through each device
until it reaches its destination.
Key features of ring topology include:
Unidirectional Data Flow
Data circulates around the ring in a single direction, passing through each device in the
network until it reaches its destination. This uni-directional flow simplifies network operation
but can also lead to increased latency if the network becomes congested.
Equal Access to Network Resources
In a ring topology, each device has equal access to the network resources and bandwidth, as
there is no central hub or switch controlling communication. However, the bandwidth is
shared among all devices in the network.
Fault Tolerance
Ring topology offers inherent fault tolerance, as data can still be transmitted around the ring
even if one device or connection fails. The data is rerouted in the opposite direction,
bypassing the failed device or link.
Limited Scalability
Ring topology is not easily scalable, as adding or removing devices from the network can
disrupt the entire ring. Additionally, the maximum number of devices that can be connected
in a ring is limited by factors such as the length of the ring and the signal degradation over
distance.
Single Point of Failure
Despite its fault tolerance, ring topology can suffer from a single point of failure if the ring is
broken at any point. This can occur if a device fails or if there is a break in the physical
connection between devices.
Efficient Data Transmission
Data transmission in a ring topology is efficient, as each device regenerates and forwards the
data signal to the next device without the need for additional routing or processing.
Ring topology was commonly used in early Ethernet networks, but it has largely been
replaced by other topologies such as star and mesh due to their better scalability and fault
tolerance. However, ring topology is still used in some applications, particularly in industrial
control systems and telecommunications networks where fault tolerance and deterministic
communication are critical.
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Figure 15 Ring Topology
Advantages and disadvantages of ring topology
Advantages
Disadvantages
Efficient Data transfer
Single Point of Failure
Simple Installation and Expansion
Limited Scalability
Fault Isolation
Data Collision Risk
Suitable for Small Networks
Difficult to Troubleshoot
Table 7Pros and cons of ring topology
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Figure 16 tree topology
5.Tree Topology
Tree topology, also known as hierarchical topology, is a type of network topology that
combines characteristics of both bus and star topologies. In a tree topology, devices are
arranged in a hierarchical structure resembling a tree, with multiple levels of interconnected
branches stemming from a single root node.
Key features of tree topology include
Hierarchical Structure
A tree network consists of multiple levels of interconnected branches, with each branch
extending from a central root node. Devices are organized in a hierarchical fashion, with
parent nodes connecting to child nodes and forming a tree-like structure.
Centralized Control
The root node serves as the central point of control and management for the entire network. It
typically acts as a central hub or switch, connecting multiple branches and facilitating
communication between devices.
Scalability
Tree topology can easily scale to accommodate a large number of devices by adding
additional branches or expanding existing branches. This hierarchical structure allows for
efficient management of network resources and enables seamless integration of new devices
into the network.
Redundancy and Fault Tolerance
Tree topology offers built-in redundancy and fault tolerance, as data can be rerouted along
alternative paths in the event of a link failure or device malfunction. Multiple paths between
devices ensure reliable communication and minimize the impact of network disruptions.
Segmentation and Isolation
Each branch in a tree network can function as a separate network segment, allowing for
logical segmentation and isolation of network traffic. This can enhance security and
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performance by limiting the scope of network communication within specific branches or
subnetworks.
2.7 Suggesting a Suitable Network Topology for Alliance Health
As a network engineer at Alliance Health, considering the company's emerging status in the
movie industry and its need for a network that can easily grow, perform well, and be costeffective, I strongly recommend the Hybrid Topology. This topology offers a reliable and
comprehensive solution for the company. With multiple sections needing secure and private
functions, the Hybrid Topology is chosen for its expandability, ease of setup and
maintenance, and convenient administration. While star and hierarchical topologies could
also meet the company's needs to some extent, the Hybrid Topology is preferred for its ability
to blend elements of different topologies, ensuring smooth and efficient network
performance, even under high traffic and with a large number of nodes.
In summary, as an efficient and effective network engineer at Alliance Health, I believe that
the Hybrid Topology is the most suitable solution for meeting the company's network needs
based on the given scenario.
3. Network Related Technologies and Standards.
In today's modern world, network technology serves as the primary means for exchanging
data and information.
As the business industry evolves rapidly, driven by various technologies and their
applications, network specialists or technical engineers play a crucial role in configuring
network technologies to meet organizational needs. A proficient network engineer
recommends the most appropriate network technologies for an organization.
In the context of implementing a network solution for Alliance Health, leveraging networkrelated technologies and standards will boost the capabilities of the proposed network
solution, ensuring its effectiveness and alignment with the company's requirements.
3.1 Internet Protocols
3.2 what is IPV4?
IPv4, or Internet Protocol version 4, is the fourth iteration of the Internet Protocol (IP) suite.
It is the most widely used protocol for sending data over networks, including the internet.
IPv4 addresses are 32-bit numerical values expressed in dotted-decimal notation (e.g.,
192.168.1.1). Each IPv4 address consists of four octets, with each octet representing eight
bits. This allows for a total of approximately 4.3 billion unique IPv4 addresses.
The internet operates on a technology known as Internet Protocol addresses, with IPv4
representing the fourth iteration of this protocol. IPv4 serves as the backbone for data
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communication, providing a logical connection between devices within a network. It defines
IP addresses using a 32-bit format, such as 111.111.111.111, where each section can range
from 0 to 255. This allows for a total of 4,294,967,296 unique IPv4 addresses. However, with
the increasing global population and widespread internet connectivity, the availability of IPv4
addresses is becoming limited. As a result, there's a growing concern that IPv4 addresses may
soon be exhausted.
IPv4 provides the basic foundation for addressing and routing packets of data between
devices on a network. It defines the format of IP addresses, rules for packet forwarding and
routing, and methods for fragmentation and reassembly of data packets. IPv4 also supports
various higher-level protocols, such as Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User
Datagram Protocol (UDP), which enable reliable and connectionless communication,
respectively.
Despite its widespread use, IPv4 has limitations, most notably the depletion of available IP
addresses due to the exponential growth of internet-connected devices. To address this issue,
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) was developed, which provides a much larger address
space, allowing for trillions of unique IP addresses. However, IPv4 continues to be used
alongside IPv6 in many networks, and mechanisms such as Network Address Translation
(NAT) are employed to extend the usability of IPv4 addresses.
3.3 What is IPV6?
IPv6, or Internet Protocol version 6, is the most recent version of the Internet Protocol (IP)
suite. It is designed to succeed IPv4 and provides a larger address space to accommodate the
growing number of devices connected to the internet. IPv6 addresses are 128 bits in length,
expressed in hexadecimal notation (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
Key features of IPv6 include
Expanded Address Space:
IPv6 provides a significantly larger address space compared to IPv4, allowing for
approximately 340 undecillion unique addresses. This enables the allocation of unique
addresses to a vast number of devices, supporting the continued growth of the internet and
Internet of Things (IoT) devices.
Efficient Routing and Packet Processing:
IPv6 simplifies the packet header format, leading to more efficient routing and packet
processing. This results in improved network performance and reduced overhead compared to
IPv4.
Autoconfiguration:
IPv6 supports stateless address autoconfiguration, allowing devices to automatically generate
and configure their own IPv6 addresses without requiring manual intervention or the use of
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).
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IPv6, short for Internet Protocol Version 6, is the latest iteration of internet protocols,
designed to address the limitations of its predecessor, IPv4. Developed by the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF), IPv6 serves the fundamental purpose of identifying and
locating devices within networks and routers across the internet. In response to the
anticipated depletion of IPv4 addresses, IPv6 introduces significant improvements, notably
by extending the length of IP addresses from 32 bits to 128 bits. This enhancement ensures a
larger pool of unique addresses to accommodate the growing demands of internet-connected
devices, safeguarding the future scalability and functionality of the internet.
Differences between IPV4 and IPV6
Figure 17 Differences between IPV4 and IPV6
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An IP address is a numerical identifier used to locate devices on networks, but it can also be
represented in text format for human readability. For example, a 32-bit IPv4 address is
written as four numbers separated by periods, each ranging from zero to 255. For instance,
1.160.10.240 is a valid IPv4 address. On the other hand, IPv6 addresses are 128-bit addresses
represented in hexadecimal format and separated by colons. An example of an IPv6 address
is 3ffe:1900:4545:3:200:f8ff:fe21:67cf. MIT announced plans to sell some of its 16 million
IPv4 addresses and use the proceeds to finance its own IPv6 network upgrades.
3.4. What Is VLAN?
VLAN stands for Virtual Local Area Network. It is a network technology that allows for the
segmentation of a physical network into multiple virtual networks, or VLANs. Each VLAN
operates as a separate logical network, even though the devices may physically be connected
to the same physical network infrastructure.
This allows a group of servers, workstations, and other devices to appear as if they are on the
same LAN, regardless of their physical locations. In larger business networks, VLANs are
often used to improve traffic management by segmenting the network. Implementing VLANs
in Alliance Health's network solution would enhance efficiency by creating new network
segments with improved performance and data flow.
This technology is deployed to achieve security, scalability, and ease of network
management, enabling quick adaptation to network changes and the relocation of server
nodes and workstations. In the subsequent sections of the report, I have outlined the
allocation of VLANs in the company's network and their assignment to different sectors,
providing readers with a comprehensive understanding of VLAN implementation.
Key characteristics of VLANs include
Logical Segmentation:
VLANs enable the logical segmentation of a physical network, allowing different groups of
devices to communicate with each other as if they were on separate physical networks.
Isolation:
Devices within a VLAN are isolated from devices in other VLANs, providing improved
security and network management. This isolation prevents unauthorized access and reduces
the risk of network attacks.
Flexibility:
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VLANs offer flexibility in network design and management, allowing network administrators
to group devices based on factors such as department, function, or security requirements.
Broadcast Control:
VLANs help control broadcast traffic within a network by confining broadcasts to devices
within the same VLAN. This reduces network congestion and improves overall network
performance.
4. Network Standards
The internet working environment is regulated by two complementary sets of rules: standards
and models. Standards are regulations that vendors must follow to ensure compatibility with
other vendors, making their products valuable to end users. Some vendors may develop
unique features that can only be used on their equipment, known as proprietary features.
However, implementing proprietary features can limit their usability, making them less
desirable for network implementation.
Numerous network standards exist today, with new ones constantly being developed.
The three primary standards bodies to note are the;
1. ITU – T (International Telecommunication Union)
2. ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
3. IEEE (Institute of Electrical & Electronic Engineering)
ITU – T (International Telecommunication Union)
The International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector
(ITU-T) is a specialized agency of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
responsible for developing international standards for telecommunications and information
and communication technologies (ICT). It is one of the three sectors of the ITU, alongside the
ITU-R (Radio communication) and ITU-D (Development) sectors.
The ITU-T, or International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization
Sector, serves as the global standards organization for telecommunications. It can be accessed
online at www.itu.int/ITU-T/. Within the ITU-T, study groups comprising experts from
various countries convene to create international standards, referred to as "ITU-T
Recommendations." These standards play a crucial role in shaping the global infrastructure of
information and communication technologies (ICTs).
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ITU-T standards cover a wide range of topics within telecommunications, including network
architecture, protocols, interfaces, security, multimedia communication, and more. These
standards play a crucial role in ensuring interoperability and compatibility between different
telecommunication systems and devices worldwide.
ITU-T operates through various study groups, working parties, and expert groups composed
of representatives from ITU member states, industry stakeholders, and academia. These
groups collaborate to develop, review, and approve standards through a consensus-based
process.
ITU-T standards are widely adopted by telecommunications operators, equipment
manufacturers, and service providers globally, contributing to the development and
advancement of telecommunication technologies and services on a global scale.
ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is a private, non-profit organization that
oversees the development of voluntary consensus standards for products, services, processes,
and systems in the United States. Founded in 1918, ANSI's mission is to enhance the
competitiveness of businesses and the quality of life for Americans by promoting and
facilitating voluntary consensus standards and conformity assessment systems.
ANSI serves as the coordinator and administrator of the United States standardization system,
accrediting standards development organizations (SDOs) and ensuring that standards are
developed in an open, transparent, and consensus-driven manner. ANSI also represents U.S.
interests in international standardization activities, collaborating with other national and
international standards organizations to develop harmonized standards that facilitate global
trade and cooperation.
ANSI standards cover a wide range of industries and sectors, including manufacturing,
telecommunications, healthcare, information technology, and more. These standards provide
guidelines and best practices for ensuring product quality, safety, interoperability, and
environmental sustainability.
IEEE (Institute of Electrical & Electronic Engineering)
IEEE stands for the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. It is a global
professional organization dedicated to advancing technology for the benefit of humanity.
IEEE's scope of work covers a wide range of areas within electrical engineering, electronics
engineering, computer science, and related disciplines.
The IEEE, or Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, is recognized as the largest
technical professional organization globally. Its mission revolves around fostering the
advancement and application of electro technology and related sciences to serve humanity's
benefit, advance the profession, and promote the welfare of its members.
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IEEE is renowned for its development of technical standards, publications, conferences, and
educational resources in various fields, including telecommunications, power and energy,
computing, robotics, biomedical engineering, and many others. It serves as a platform for
researchers, engineers, educators, and professionals to collaborate, exchange knowledge, and
contribute to technological advancements.
One of the notable contributions of IEEE is its development of industry-leading standards,
such as those for wireless communications (e.g., Wi-Fi, Bluetooth), computer networking
(e.g., Ethernet), power systems, and semiconductor devices. These standards play a crucial
role in ensuring interoperability, reliability, and compatibility of products and systems
worldwide.
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4.2 Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
Ethernet, also known as IEEE 802.3, is a widely used networking technology for local area
networks (LANs). It defines the physical and data link layers of the OSI model and provides
a standardized method for devices to communicate with each other over a LAN.
Key features of Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) include
Physical Layer
Ethernet specifies various physical layer standards, such as twisted pair copper cables (e.g.,
Cat5e, Cat6), fiber optic cables, and coaxial cables. These cables carry electrical or optical
signals between devices on the network.
Data Link Layer
Ethernet uses the Medium Access Control (MAC) sublayer of the data link layer to manage
access to the network medium. It employs Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD) as the access method, allowing devices to listen for signals on the
network before transmitting data to avoid collisions.
Frame Format
Ethernet frames consist of a preamble, destination and source MAC addresses, type or length
field, data payload, and a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) for error detection. The frame
format ensures reliable and efficient data transmission over the network
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4.3 Wireless Personal Area Network (IEEE 802.15)
A Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN), defined by IEEE 802.15 standards, is a type of
wireless network designed to connect devices within a short range, typically within a few
meters to a few tens of meters. These networks are intended for personal use and can support
communication between various electronic devices, such as computers, smartphones, tablets,
wearable devices, and sensors.
A wireless personal area network usually operates within a limited range of approximately 10
meters, making it suitable for short-distance communication. Bluetooth, for instance, serves
as an example of this technology and forms the foundation of the IEEE 802.15 standard.
Key features of Wireless Personal Area Networks (IEEE 802.15) include
Low Power Consumption:
WPAN devices are designed to operate with minimal power consumption, making them
suitable for battery-powered devices and applications where energy efficiency is critical.
Short Range Communication:
WPANs typically have a limited range, which helps to minimize interference and ensure
secure communication within a confined area, such as a room or personal space.
Multiple Frequency Bands:
IEEE 802.15 standards support multiple frequency bands, including 2.4 GHz and sub-GHz
bands, allowing for flexibility in deployment and coexistence with other wireless
technologies.
Different Topologies:
WPANs can be organized in various network topologies, including point-to-point, star, mesh,
and ad-hoc networks, depending on the specific requirements of the application.
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4.4. Other IEEE network standards
Other IEEE network standards encompass a variety of specifications and protocols aimed at different
aspects of network management and operation:
1. IEEE 802.1: This standard pertains to network management protocols.
2. IEEE 802.2: Specifies standards for the data link layer within the OSI model.
3.
IEEE 802.4: Defines the Media Access Control (MAC) layer for certain types of networks.
4.
IEEE 802.5: Specifies the MAC layer for token ring networks.
5.
IEEE 802.6: Focuses on standards for Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs).
6.
IEEE 802.7: Provides specifications for network design, installation, and testing.
7.
IEEE 802.3ab: Specifies Gigabit Ethernet transmission over copper wires, allowing for data
transfer rates of 1GB/s over distances up to 100 meters using four pairs of CAT5 cable.
8.
IEEE 802.3u: Standard supporting data transfer rates of up to 100 Megabits per Second
(Mbps).
These standards cover a wide range of network technologies and protocols, contributing to the
development and standardization of various networking solutions and ensuring interoperability among
different devices and systems.
5. Network Models and Protocols.
A network model serves as a blueprint or framework for establishing communication between
different systems. It is also referred to as a network stack or protocol suite. Typically, a
network model is structured into layers, each representing specific functionality. Within these
layers, general protocols are defined to perform particular tasks, akin to a set of rules or a
language. Thus, a layer typically encompasses a collection of protocols.
Network protocols divide complex processes into specific, clearly defined functions and tasks
at each level of the network. Within the standard framework, such as the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model, individual or multiple network protocols oversee operations at
each layer during communication exchanges.
There are primarily two networking models:
i. OSI Model
ii. TCP/IP Model
These models delineate the layers and protocols necessary for communication between
devices in a network, providing a standardized approach to network architecture and
operation.
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OSI Model
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework that standardizes
the functions and interactions of networking systems. It defines a hierarchy of seven layers,
each responsible for specific tasks related to data transmission and communication between
devices. Here's an overview of each layer:
Physical Layer
The lowest layer deals with the physical transmission of data over the network medium. It
includes specifications for cables, connectors, and other hardware components.
Data Link Layer
This layer ensures reliable point-to-point and point-to-multipoint communication between
devices on the same network segment. It handles error detection, flow control, and framing of
data packets.
Network Layer
The network layer focuses on routing and forwarding data packets across different networks.
It determines the optimal path for data transmission based on network topology, addressing,
and routing protocols.
Transport Layer
Responsible for end-to-end communication between devices. It provides reliable and efficient
data delivery services, including segmentation, error recovery, and flow control.
Session Layer
Manages the establishment, maintenance, and termination of sessions between applications. It
coordinates data exchange and synchronization between devices.
Presentation Layer
This layer is responsible for data representation, translation, and encryption. It ensures that
data exchanged between applications is in a format that both sender and receiver can
understand.
Application Layer
The topmost layer provides network services directly to end-users and applications. It
includes protocols for tasks such as email, file transfer, web browsing, and remote access
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Figure 18 OSI model
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The OSI model serves as a reference framework for understanding and designing network
architectures. While actual networks may not strictly adhere to the OSI model, it provides a
conceptual framework for organizing and troubleshooting network communications.
TCP / IP Model
The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) model is another conceptual
framework used for understanding and implementing network communications.
The TCP/IP model is the foundation of the internet and most modern networking protocols. It
provides a flexible and scalable framework for network communication, allowing devices to
communicate across diverse network environments. While the TCP/IP model differs from the
OSI model in its layer structure and terminology, both frameworks serve as valuable tools for
understanding and designing network architectures.
5.2 Network Protocol
A network protocol is a set of rules and conventions that governs the communication and
interaction between devices in a computer network. These protocols define the format,
timing, sequencing, error handling, and other aspects of data transmission, ensuring that data
is exchanged reliably and efficiently across the network.
Network protocols operate at various layers of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
model or the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) model, each layer
having its own set of protocols.
Network protocols are sets of clearly defined rules governing communication within
computer networks. They establish the guidelines and conventions for interactions between
different networks, serving as the mechanism through which messages are sent and received.
5.3 Application Layer Protocol
The Application Layer Protocol is a category of network protocols that operates at the highest
layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model or the TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) model. These protocols facilitate communication between
software applications running on different devices within a network. Here's an overview of
the Application Layer Protocol:
Functionality:
Application Layer Protocols provide specific services and functions to applications, enabling
them to exchange data and interact with other applications over the network. These protocols
typically handle tasks related to user interfaces, file transfers, email, web browsing, and other
application-level services.
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Examples:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
FTP (File Transfer Protocol):
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3)
IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)
DNS (Domain Name System)
Characteristics
Application Layer Protocols are often standardized by organizations such as the IETF
(Internet Engineering Task Force) to ensure compatibility and interoperability across
different systems and platforms.
These protocols may use a client-server model, where one device (the client) initiates a
request for a service or resource, and another device (the server) responds to the request.
Application Layer Protocols may support various features such as encryption, authentication,
and data compression to enhance security and performance.
1. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
HTTP is the protocol used for transmitting hypertext documents, such as web pages, over the
internet. It defines the format and transmission of requests from clients (web browsers) to
servers, and the responses from servers back to clients. HTTP operates on top of TCP/IP and
typically uses port 80 for communication.
Functionality:
HTTP enables users to access and view web pages, submit web forms, download files, and
interact with web-based applications.
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2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
FTP is a protocol used for transferring files between a client and a server on a computer
network. It provides a standard set of commands for uploading, downloading, renaming, and
deleting files on remote servers. FTP operates on top of TCP/IP and uses ports 20 and 21 for
communication.
Functionality:
FTP facilitates the efficient exchange of files between users and servers, enabling the transfer
of documents, images, videos, and other types of files.
Figure 20 FTP
3. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
SMTP is the protocol used for sending email messages between email servers over a network.
It defines the rules and procedures for message transmission, including addressing, routing,
and delivery. SMTP operates on top of TCP/IP and typically uses port 25 for communication.
Functionality:
SMTP allows users to send outgoing email messages to recipients' email addresses,
delivering them to the appropriate mail servers for further processing and eventual delivery to
the recipients' inboxes.
4. POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3)
POP3 is a protocol used for retrieving email messages from a remote mail server to a client
device. It allows users to download and manage their email messages locally on their
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computers or mobile devices. POP3 operates on top of TCP/IP and typically uses port 110 for
communication.
POP3 enables users to access their incoming email messages, download them to their
devices, and delete them from the server, providing a method for offline email access.
5. IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)
IMAP is a protocol used for retrieving email messages from a remote mail server to a client
device, similar to POP3. However, unlike POP3, IMAP allows users to access and manage
their email messages directly on the server, keeping them synchronized across multiple
devices. IMAP operates on top of TCP/IP and typically uses port 143 for communication.
Functionality:
IMAP provides users with the ability to access their email messages from multiple devices
while maintaining synchronization between the server and client, enabling features such as
folder management, message flags, and server-side searching.
6. DNS (Domain Name System)
DNS is a protocol used for translating domain names (e.g., www.example.com) into IP
addresses (e.g., 192.0.2.1) on the internet. It provides a distributed database system for
mapping human-readable domain names to numerical IP addresses, allowing users to access
websites and other internet resources using domain names. DNS operates on top of UDP or
TCP/IP and typically uses port 53 for communication.
Functionality:
DNS facilitates the resolution of domain names to IP addresses, enabling internet users to
navigate the web and access online services using easy-to-remember domain names instead
of complex numerical IP addresses.
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6. Transport/Host-to-Host Layer Protocol
The Transport Layer, also known as the Host-to-Host Layer, is a crucial component of the
OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model or the TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) model. This layer is responsible for providing reliable and
efficient communication between devices on a network. Here's an overview of the Transport
Layer Protocol:
Functionality:
The Transport Layer Protocol ensures end-to-end communication between source and
destination devices, regardless of the underlying network infrastructure.
It establishes connections, manages data transfer, and provides error detection and correction
mechanisms to ensure the integrity and reliability of transmitted data.
The Transport Layer also handles flow control, congestion control, and
multiplexing/demultiplexing of data streams to optimize network performance and resource
utilization.
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Key Protocols
6.1 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that guarantees reliable and ordered delivery of data
packets between devices. It establishes a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver,
handles acknowledgments, and retransmits lost or corrupted packets.
6.2 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
UDP is a connectionless protocol that provides lightweight, unreliable communication
between devices. It does not establish a connection before transmitting data and does not
guarantee delivery or ordering of packets. UDP is often used for real-time applications where
speed and efficiency are prioritized over reliability.
Characteristics
The Transport Layer operates independently of the underlying network technologies and
protocols, allowing different types of networks to interoperate seamlessly.
It shields higher-layer protocols (e.g., application layer protocols) from the complexities of
network communication, providing a standardized interface for applications to send and
receive data.
The Transport Layer Protocol ensures that data is delivered accurately and efficiently, even in
the presence of network congestion, errors, or disruptions.
6.3 Internet Layer
The Network Layer is the third layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model and
the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) model. It is responsible for
routing data packets from the source to the destination across multiple interconnected
networks.
The Network Layer is responsible for routing and forwarding data packets between devices
on different networks, ensuring efficient and reliable communication across interconnected
networks. It provides essential services such as addressing, routing, and packet forwarding,
enabling seamless connectivity and data transmission in complex network environments.
This layer, situated just above the lowest layer in the TCP/IP reference model, establishes a
universal logical addressing system. Within the internet layer, key tasks encompass traffic
routing, management, fragmentation, and logical addressing. Put simply, it's responsible for
efficiently sending data along the best available route when multiple options exist. Common
protocols within this layer include Internet Protocol (IP), Internet Control Message Protocol
(ICMP), Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), and Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
(RARP).
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6.4 Internet Protocols
The Internet Protocol (IP) is a fundamental communication protocol used in computer
networks, including the internet. It is part of the TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) suite, which defines how data packets are transmitted, routed, and
received across networks.
This , also can be referred as a prescribed set of regulations governing data transmission
across networks, adhere to the fundamental principles of communication protocols. The
primary role of IP involves addressing hosts and directing datagrams from their source to
designated destination hosts, spanning various network types.
6.5. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) serves as an integral part of the TCP/IP
protocol suite, operating at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model. Its primary
function is to enable communication between network devices for the purpose of network
diagnostics, error reporting, and status updates.
ICMP messages are encapsulated within IP packets, allowing them to traverse the network
alongside regular data traffic. These messages serve various functions essential for the
effective operation and management of computer networks.
One of the key functions of ICMP is error reporting. When a network device encounters an
issue while processing or forwarding IP packets, it generates ICMP error messages to notify
the source host of the problem. For instance, if a router determines that it cannot forward a
packet due to a network congestion or a routing loop, it will send an ICMP message, such as
"Destination Unreachable," back to the originating host. This allows the source host to take
appropriate action, such as retransmitting the packet or adjusting its routing tables.
ICMP also plays a crucial role in network diagnostics. Tools like Ping and Traceroute utilize
ICMP messages to test network reachability and measure network latency. Ping sends ICMP
Echo Request messages to remote hosts and awaits their Echo Reply responses, helping
administrators verify network connectivity and identify potential issues. Traceroute traces the
path packets take to reach a destination by sending ICMP Time Exceeded messages with
varying Time-to-Live (TTL) values and analyzing the responses from intermediate routers.
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6.5.Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a fundamental protocol within the TCP/IP suite,
primarily responsible for translating network layer addresses (such as IP addresses) into
corresponding data link layer addresses (such as MAC addresses). ARP operates at the
network interface layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.
When a device needs to communicate with another device on the same local network, it first
checks its ARP cache—a table storing mappings of IP addresses to MAC addresses. If the
destination IP address is not found in the ARP cache, the device sends an ARP request
broadcast message to the network, asking "Who has this IP address?".
The device with the matching IP address responds with an ARP reply message, containing its
MAC address. Upon receiving the reply, the requesting device updates its ARP cache with
the new IP-to-MAC mapping and can then send data directly to the destination device's MAC
address.
6.6.Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) is a networking protocol used to obtain
the IP address of a device when only its hardware address, such as a MAC address, is known.
RARP operates in a manner opposite to the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).
In a RARP request, a device broadcasts its MAC address and requests its corresponding IP
address from a RARP server. The RARP server maintains a database mapping MAC
addresses to IP addresses and responds to the request with the appropriate IP address.
RARP was primarily used in older computer networks, particularly diskless workstations, to
allow devices to boot and obtain their IP addresses dynamically. However, RARP has largely
been replaced by more advanced protocols such as DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol) which offer additional features and flexibility in IP address assignment and
configuration.
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Activity 02
7.1. Network Devices & Server Types
Network devices are essential components that facilitate communication and data exchange
within computer networks. These devices play various roles in ensuring network
connectivity, management, and security. Some common network devices include routers,
switches, hubs, access points, firewalls, modems, network interface cards (NICs), repeaters,
load balancers, and proxy servers.
7.2. Hub
What is a hub?
A hub is a basic networking device that operates at the physical layer (Layer 1) of the OSI
model. Its primary function is to connect multiple devices within a local area network (LAN)
and facilitate the exchange of data packets. Hubs are often used in small-scale networks or for
temporary setups due to their simplicity and low cost.
Physically, a hub typically consists of multiple ports where network cables can be plugged in
to connect devices such as computers, printers, or other networking equipment. When a data
packet arrives at one of the hub's ports, it is broadcasted to all other ports, regardless of the
intended recipient. This means that all devices connected to the hub receive the transmitted
data, and each device must determine whether the data is intended for it based on its MAC
address.
One of the key characteristics of hubs is their lack of intelligence or decision-making
capabilities. Unlike switches or routers, hubs do not examine the destination address of
incoming data packets or make forwarding decisions based on MAC addresses. Instead, they
simply replicate incoming data packets and send them out through all other ports, creating a
shared network segment where all devices share the available bandwidth.
While hubs are simple and easy to set up, they have several limitations compared to more
advanced networking devices. One significant drawback is their inability to segment network
traffic. Since all data packets are broadcasted to all devices on the network, hubs can suffer
from congestion and reduced network performance, especially in larger networks with heavy
traffic.
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Figure 21 A Hub
7.3 Router
What is a router?
A router is a networking device that operates at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model.
Its primary function is to connect multiple networks together and route data packets between
them. Routers use logical addressing (such as IP addresses) to determine the best path for
data transmission across networks. They make forwarding decisions based on destination IP
addresses, allowing data to be transmitted efficiently across interconnected networks. Routers
are often used to connect local area networks (LANs) to wide area networks (WANs), such as
the internet. They provide functions such as network address translation (NAT), which allows
multiple devices on a LAN to share a single public IP address. Routers can also provide
security features such as firewall capabilities to protect networks from unauthorized access
and malicious attacks. Some advanced routers offer additional features such as virtual private
network (VPN) support for secure remote access, quality of service (QoS) for traffic
prioritization, and traffic shaping for bandwidth management. Routers typically have multiple
ports for connecting to different networks and devices, including Ethernet ports for wired
connections and wireless antennas for wireless connectivity. Overall, routers play a crucial
role in facilitating communication and data exchange between different networks, enabling
the seamless operation of interconnected systems in today's digital world.


Routers use logical addressing (such as IP addresses) to determine the best path for
data transmission across networks.
They make forwarding decisions based on destination IP addresses, allowing data to
be transmitted efficiently across interconnected networks.
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
Routers are often used to connect local area networks (LANs) to wide area networks
(WANs), such as the internet.
 They provide functions such as network address translation (NAT), which allows
multiple devices on a LAN to share a single public IP address.
7.4.Switch
What is a Switch?
Figure 22 Switch
A switch is a networking device that operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI
model. Its primary function is to connect multiple devices within a local area network (LAN)
and facilitate the exchange of data packets. Unlike hubs, which broadcast data packets to all
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connected devices, switches use MAC addresses to forward data packets only to the intended
recipient device. This improves network efficiency and reduces network congestion.
Switches maintain a table, known as a MAC address table or forwarding table, which maps
MAC addresses to the ports on the switch. When a data packet arrives at a switch, it
examines the destination MAC address and forwards the packet only to the port associated
with that MAC address. This process, known as switching, enables devices to communicate
directly with each other without causing unnecessary traffic on the network.
Switches come in various configurations, including unmanaged switches, which are simple
plug-and-play devices that require no configuration, and managed switches, which offer
advanced features such as VLAN support, port mirroring, and Quality of Service (QoS)
settings. Managed switches allow network administrators to configure and manage the switch
remotely, providing greater control over network traffic and security.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Hubs and swtiches
Table 8 Advantages and disadvantages of hubs and switches
Advantages
Disadvantages
HUB
compatible with most
network devices
lead to network congestion
SWITCH
They increase the
performance of the network
Network connectivity issues
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7.5. Assigning network devices for alliance health
As the network consultant for Alliance Health's Matara branch, I have opted to utilize
switches and routers as the primary network devices for the network design. Routers will be
employed to establish connections between the LANs of different departments, serving as
gateways where necessary. On the other hand, switches will be deployed within each
department to construct the LAN infrastructure.
Switches play a crucial role in the network by efficiently directing data frames to their
intended destinations. Unlike hubs, switches have the capability to recognize the destination
of a data frame and allocate the full bandwidth of each port accordingly. This ensures optimal
data transmission within the LAN, enhancing network performance.
In addition to switches and routers, network security devices are essential components for
safeguarding the integrity and confidentiality of the network. These security devices monitor
network traffic, scanning for any suspicious activity that may indicate a potential security
threat. By correlating network activity signatures with databases containing known attack
techniques, these devices can identify and block malicious attacks in real-time, bolstering the
network's defenses against cyber threats.
The combination of switches and routers for network connectivity, along with network
security devices for threat detection and prevention, forms a robust and reliable network
infrastructure for Alliance Health's Matara branch.
7.6. Firewall
What is firewall?
A firewall is a network security device or software application designed to monitor and
control incoming and outgoing network traffic. It acts as a barrier between a trusted internal
network and untrusted external networks, such as the internet, to prevent unauthorized access
and protect against cyber threats.
Firewalls operate by inspecting data packets as they pass through the network and enforcing
predefined security rules or policies. These rules specify which types of traffic are allowed or
blocked based on factors such as source and destination IP addresses, port numbers,
protocols, and application types.
By filtering network traffic, firewalls help prevent unauthorized access to sensitive
information, block malicious attacks and malware, and ensure the confidentiality, integrity,
and availability of network resources. They are a critical component of any comprehensive
network security strategy, providing an essential layer of defense against cyber threats in
today's interconnected digital environment.
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7.7 Packet shaper
What is packet shaper?
A packet shaper, also known as a bandwidth management device, is a network appliance or
software application designed to monitor, control, and optimize the flow of data packets
across a network. Its primary function is to regulate and prioritize network traffic based on
predefined policies or rules, ensuring that critical applications receive the necessary
bandwidth and network resources while less important traffic is appropriately managed.
Packet shapers work by inspecting data packets as they traverse the network and applying
traffic shaping techniques to control the flow of data. This may include limiting the
bandwidth available to certain types of traffic, enforcing Quality of Service (QoS) policies to
prioritize specific applications or users, and implementing traffic optimization algorithms to
improve overall network performance.
By dynamically managing network traffic, packet shapers help prevent congestion, reduce
latency, and ensure a consistent quality of service for critical applications such as VoIP
(Voice over Internet Protocol), video streaming, and online gaming. They are commonly used
in enterprise networks, internet service provider (ISP) networks, and other environments
where efficient bandwidth management and traffic optimization are essential for maintaining
network performance and user satisfaction.
7.8 Repeater
What is repeater?
A repeater is a network device used to extend the reach or range of a network by regenerating
or amplifying signals. It operates at the physical layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model and is
typically used in environments where the length of the network cable exceeds the maximum
allowable distance, leading to signal degradation or attenuation.
When data travels across a network cable, the signal weakens over distance due to factors
such as resistance and interference. A repeater receives the weak signal, cleans it up, and
retransmits it at a higher power level, effectively boosting the signal strength and allowing it
to travel farther without degradation.
Repeaters are commonly used in Ethernet networks to extend the reach of network cables
beyond the standard maximum distance of 100 meters. They are simple devices that require
no configuration and are transparent to network traffic, simply amplifying signals as they
pass through.
While repeaters can extend the physical reach of a network, they do not actively manage or
control network traffic. They are primarily used to overcome signal loss and ensure reliable
communication over long distances in wired networks.
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Advantages and disadvantages of repeater
Advantages
1. Signal amplification: A repeater boosts the strength of signals, allowing them to
travel longer distances without degradation.
2. Signal regeneration: By cleaning up and retransmitting signals, repeaters help
maintain signal integrity over long cable runs.
3. Cost-effective solution: Repeaters are relatively inexpensive compared to other
network devices, making them a cost-effective solution for extending network reach.
Disadvantages
1. Limited functionality: Repeaters operate at the physical layer of the OSI model and
simply regenerate signals without any intelligence or control over network traffic.
2. Signal degradation: While repeaters can extend the reach of a network, they cannot
eliminate signal degradation entirely, especially over very long cable runs or in noisy
environments.
3. Limited scalability: Repeaters are best suited for small-scale deployments or pointto-point connections and may not be suitable for larger, more complex network
architectures.
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7.9. Bridge
What is bridge?
A bridge is a network device used to connect two or more network segments or LANs (Local
Area Networks) together, allowing them to communicate with each other. Bridges operate at
the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model and are capable of filtering and forwarding
data frames between connected network segments based on their MAC (Media Access
Control) addresses.
The primary function of a bridge is to reduce network congestion and improve overall
network performance by selectively forwarding traffic only to the segments where the
destination device is located, rather than broadcasting it to all segments. Bridges learn the
MAC addresses of devices connected to each network segment by analyzing the source
addresses of incoming data frames and building a forwarding table, which is used to make
forwarding decisions.
Bridges are particularly useful in larger network environments where multiple LANs need to
be interconnected, such as in enterprise networks or campus environments. They help
segment network traffic, isolate network problems, and improve overall network efficiency
by dividing the network into smaller collision domains.
Modern bridges are often integrated into switches, which combine the functionality of
bridges with additional features such as port management, VLAN support, and advanced
network management capabilities. However, the basic principle of bridging – connecting and
forwarding traffic between network segments based on MAC addresses – remains the same.
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7.9.1 Content Filter
What is content filter?
A traffic shaper, also known as a network packet shaper, is a network management tool
utilized to manage and regulate the flow of network traffic. Its core purpose revolves around
controlling the transmission of data packets within a network, with the aim of prioritizing
certain types of traffic while ensuring equitable distribution of network resources.
Operating akin to a traffic cop, a network packet shaper actively monitors both incoming and
outgoing data packets traversing the network. Its function extends to enforcing predefined
rules and policies designed to govern the priority and speed of different categories of traffic.
By doing so, it effectively shapes the traffic flow within the network, optimizing its
efficiency and ensuring that critical applications or services receive preferential treatment
over less important traffic.
The role of a packet shaper is multifaceted, encompassing several key objectives. Firstly, it
facilitates the prioritization of specific types of traffic, such as mission-critical applications or
real-time communication protocols, to ensure their uninterrupted and timely delivery.
Additionally, it regulates the bandwidth allocation for different types of traffic, preventing
any single application or user from monopolizing network resources to the detriment of
others.
Furthermore, a packet shaper plays a crucial role in maintaining network performance and
stability by mitigating issues such as congestion, latency, and packet loss. Through intelligent
traffic shaping algorithms, it optimizes the utilization of available bandwidth, thereby
enhancing overall network efficiency and user experience.
In summary, a traffic shaper acts as a proactive guardian of network resources, employing
sophisticated techniques to manage traffic flow, prioritize critical applications, and maintain
optimal network performance. Its versatile capabilities make it an indispensable tool for
organizations seeking to streamline their network operations and ensure the reliable delivery
of essential services.
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7.9.2 Load balancer
A load balancer is a network device or software application designed to evenly distribute
incoming network traffic across multiple servers, resources, or nodes within a server farm,
data center, or cloud environment. Its primary function is to optimize resource utilization,
enhance scalability, improve performance, and ensure high availability of applications or
services.
Load balancers operate at the application layer (Layer 7) or transport layer (Layer 4) of the
OSI model and can perform various functions based on their configuration and capabilities.
They act as intermediaries between clients and servers, intercepting incoming requests and
directing them to the most appropriate backend server based on predefined algorithms and
policies.
One of the key features of load balancers is traffic distribution, where they intelligently
distribute incoming network traffic among multiple servers or resources based on factors such
as server load, response time, or geographic proximity. By spreading the workload across
multiple servers, load balancers prevent any single server from becoming overwhelmed with
traffic, thus improving overall performance and reliability.
Load balancers also play a critical role in ensuring high availability and fault tolerance by
continuously monitoring the health and availability of backend servers. If a server becomes
unavailable or unresponsive, the load balancer automatically redirects traffic to other healthy
servers, thereby minimizing downtime and ensuring seamless failover.
Additionally, load balancers can support session persistence, SSL termination, and dynamic
scaling, allowing organizations to maintain consistent user experiences, offload encryption
tasks, and dynamically adjust server capacity based on demand or traffic patterns.
Overall, load balancers are essential components of modern IT infrastructure, providing the
foundation for scalable, resilient, and high-performance applications and services in both onpremises and cloud environments.
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8. Transmission Media types
Transmission media, also known as communication channels, are the physical pathways
through which data is transmitted from one device to another in a network. There are several
types of transmission media, each with its own characteristics, advantages, and limitations.
8.1. Guided Media
Guided media, also known as wired or bounded media, refers to transmission media that use
physical pathways to guide the transmission of electromagnetic signals. The signals are
confined within the physical medium, providing a direct path for communication. Some
common types of guided media include:
1. Twisted Pair Cable
2. Coaxial Cable
3. Optical Fiber
Twisted pair cable
Twisted pair cable is a type of guided transmission medium commonly used for multiple
telecommunications and computer networks. It consists of pairs of insulated copper wires
twisted together to form a cable. The twisting of the wires helps to reduce electromagnetic
interference (EMI) and crosstalk, which occur when electrical signals from adjacent wires
interfere with each other.
There are two main types of twisted pair cable: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded
twisted pair (STP).
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

UTP consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together without any
additional shielding.

It is the most common type of twisted pair cable and is widely used in Ethernet
networks, telephone lines, and other communication systems.

UTP is relatively inexpensive, flexible, and easy to install.

It provides adequate performance for short to medium-distance communication and is
suitable for most residential and commercial applications.
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Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

STP consists of pairs of insulated copper wires surrounded by a metallic shield,
typically made of foil or braided wire.

The shield helps to further reduce electromagnetic interference and provides better
protection against external noise and signal degradation.

STP is commonly used in environments with high levels of electromagnetic
interference, such as industrial settings or areas with large electrical equipment.
Figure 23 STP
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Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable, often referred to as coax cable, is a type of electrical cable that is commonly
used for transmitting cable television signals, internet data, and other high-frequency
electrical signals. It consists of a central conductor, which is usually made of copper or
aluminium, surrounded by a dielectric insulating material, and then an outer conductor or
shield made of metal braid or foil. The outer conductor is usually covered by a protective
layer, which can be made of PVC or another material.
The key design feature of coaxial cable is that the central conductor and the outer shield share
the same axis, hence the term "coaxial." This design helps to minimize signal interference
and loss, making coaxial cable ideal for transmitting high-frequency signals over long
distances without significant degradation.
Coaxial cable is widely used in various applications, including cable television distribution,
internet connectivity (such as cable internet), telecommunications, and networking. Its ability
to carry high-frequency signals efficiently makes it a popular choice for transmitting data
reliably over long distances.
Coaxial cable offers several advantages and disadvantages
Advantages
Wide Application Range: Coaxial cable is used in various applications, including cable
television distribution, internet connectivity, telecommunications, and networking.
Signal Quality: Coaxial cable provides high-quality signal transmission, minimizing signal
degradation over long distances. Its shielding helps to protect against interference, ensuring
reliable data transmission.
Broad Bandwidth: Coaxial cable supports a wide range of frequencies, making it suitable
for transmitting high-speed data and multimedia content.
Disadvantages
Limited Distance: While coaxial cable can transmit signals over moderate distances without
significant loss, it is not as effective over very long distances compared to fiber optic cables.
Signal Interference: Despite its shielding, coaxial cable can still be susceptible to
electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI), especially in
densely populated areas or environments with high levels of electromagnetic activity.
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Optical Fiber Cable
Optical fiber cable, commonly known as fiber optic cable, is a type of cable that uses optical
fibers to transmit data in the form of light pulses. It consists of one or more hair-thin strands
of glass or plastic fiber enclosed in a protective sheath. The core of the fiber is where the light
travels, surrounded by a cladding layer that reflects light back into the core, allowing it to
travel long distances without significant loss.
Here are some key features, advantages, and disadvantages of optical fiber cable:
Features
Light Transmission: Optical fiber cable transmits data using light pulses, allowing for highspeed data transmission over long distances.
Low Signal Loss: Fiber optic cable experiences minimal signal loss compared to traditional
copper cables, making it suitable for long-distance communication without the need for
signal boosters or repeaters.
Advantages
High Speed: Fiber optic cables offer significantly higher data transmission speeds compared
to copper cables, making them ideal for applications requiring fast and reliable data transfer.
Security: Fiber optic cables are difficult to tap into, providing a higher level of security for
data transmission compared to copper cables, which can be more susceptible to interception.
Longer Distances: Optical fiber cables can transmit data over much longer distances without
the need for signal amplification, making them suitable for long-haul communication
networks.
Disadvantages
Cost: Fiber optic cables can be more expensive to install initially compared to copper cables,
primarily due to the higher cost of fiber optic components and specialized equipment required
for installation and maintenance.
Fragility: Optical fibers are delicate and can be easily damaged if mishandled during
installation or maintenance, requiring careful handling and protection to avoid signal loss or
breakage.
Compatibility: Fiber optic technology may not be compatible with existing infrastructure in
some cases, requiring upgrades or modifications to existing systems for integration.
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Figure 25 coaxial cable
Figure 24 fibre optic
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8.2 Unguided Media
Unguided media, also known as wireless communication, refers to transmission channels
that convey data without the use of physical cables. Instead, they utilize electromagnetic
waves or light to transmit signals through the air or free space. Examples include radio
waves, microwaves, and infrared signals. Wireless communication is widely used in various
applications, including cellular networks, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and satellite communication. It
offers mobility and flexibility, allowing devices to communicate without being tethered by
cables, making it ideal for mobile devices and dynamic environments. However, unguided
media are susceptible to interference from other wireless devices and environmental factors,
which can degrade signal quality. Security concerns also arise due to the potential for
unauthorized access and interception of data. Despite these challenges, wireless
communication continues to play a crucial role in modern telecommunications, providing
connectivity and convenience in diverse scenarios.
examples of unguided media
Radio Waves: Radio waves are electromagnetic waves with long wavelengths used for
various types of wireless communication, including radio broadcasting, cellular networks,
Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and RFID (Radio Frequency Identification).
Infrared Signals: Infrared signals are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths longer than
visible light but shorter than microwaves. They are commonly used for short-range
communication, such as infrared remote controls, infrared data transmission between devices
like smartphones, and infrared communication in some wireless LANs.
Light Waves (Visible and Ultraviolet): Light waves, including visible light and ultraviolet
(UV) light, can also be used for wireless communication. For example, visible light
communication (VLC) uses light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to transmit data through visible
light signals, which can be utilized in indoor positioning systems and wireless data transfer in
environments where radio frequency communication is restricted.
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Advantages of unguided media
Mobility: Unguided media allow for greater mobility as devices can communicate without
being physically tethered by cables. This makes them ideal for mobile devices such as
smartphones, tablets, and laptops.
Flexibility: Wireless communication offers flexibility in deployment, allowing for easy setup
and reconfiguration of networks without the need for laying down cables. This makes it
suitable for temporary installations or dynamic environments where wired connections may
be impractical.
Scalability: Wireless networks can be easily expanded to accommodate more devices or
cover larger areas by adding additional access points or repeaters. This scalability makes
them suitable for both small-scale and large-scale deployments.
Cost-effectiveness: In some cases, wireless communication can be more cost-effective than
deploying wired infrastructure, especially in situations where laying cables is prohibitively
expensive or impractical, such as in remote areas or across bodies of water.
Disadvantages of unguided media
Interference: Wireless signals can be susceptible to interference from other wireless devices,
electronic equipment, and environmental factors such as weather conditions, which can
degrade signal quality and reliability.
Limited Range: Wireless signals have a limited range compared to wired communication,
especially for high-frequency signals. This limitation can result in dead zones or areas with
poor signal coverage, particularly in large buildings or outdoor environments.
Bandwidth Constraints: Wireless networks typically have lower bandwidth compared to
wired networks, which can result in slower data transfer speeds and reduced performance,
especially in densely populated areas where multiple devices compete for bandwidth.
Reliability: Wireless communication may not be as reliable as wired communication, as it
can be affected by factors like signal attenuation, multipath interference, and signal fading.
This unreliability can lead to dropped connections or intermittent connectivity issues.
Health Concerns: There are ongoing debates and concerns about potential health risks
associated with prolonged exposure to electromagnetic radiation emitted by wireless devices
and infrastructure. While research in this area is inconclusive, it remains a consideration for
some individuals and organizations.
Power Consumption: Wireless devices require power to operate, and transmitting and
receiving wireless signals can consume more energy compared to wired communication. This
can lead to shorter battery life for mobile devices and increased energy costs for wireless
infrastructure.
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8.3 Networking Software
Deciding the Server OS
The operational backbone of Alliance Health's Matara branch relies on the implementation of
essential server functionalities, including Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP),
Mail Server, and Web Server. To facilitate these critical tasks, a reliable server operating
system is imperative. Among the multitude of server operating systems available, Microsoft
Server 2019 has been selected as the preferred choice for Alliance Health's Matara branch.
Microsoft Server 2019 offers a comprehensive suite of features tailored to meet the specific
needs of businesses and organizations. Its robust capabilities enable seamless deployment and
management of DHCP services, ensuring efficient allocation of IP addresses to network
devices. Furthermore, the Mail Server functionality provided by Microsoft Server 2019
facilitates reliable email communication within the organization, fostering collaboration and
productivity among staff members.
Additionally, the Web Server capabilities of Microsoft Server 2019 empower Alliance Health
to establish and maintain a secure and responsive web presence. By leveraging this featurerich operating system, Alliance Health can efficiently host and manage their website,
providing vital information to clients and stakeholders while ensuring optimal performance
and accessibility.
The decision to implement Microsoft Server 2019 at the Matara branch of Alliance Health
underscores the commitment to reliability, security, and scalability. With its robust suite of
features and proven track record, Microsoft Server 2019 is poised to support Alliance
Health's network infrastructure needs, enabling seamless operations and facilitating the
delivery of quality healthcare services to the community.
The Active directory
Active Directory is a fundamental component of Windows Server OS, employed by
Microsoft for controlling computers and devices within a network. It serves as a
comprehensive toolset for network administrators, facilitating the construction and
administration of domains, users, and objects. For instance, administrators can create user
groups and allocate specific permissions for accessing designated server folders. Active
Directory offers a systematic approach to organizing numerous users into logical groups and
subgroups, essential for managing network scalability. Additionally, it ensures access control
at each hierarchical level, thereby enhancing security and streamlining network management
processes as the network expands.
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8.4.Compatability
Compatibility entails the seamless operation of two systems without requiring modification.
Software applications are considered compatible when they utilize identical data formats.
This concept extends to various products, including hardware and software, whether they are
of the same or different types, or even different versions of the same product. In networking,
several elements must exhibit compatibility:
a) Hardware: Applications should support a range of hardware configurations.
b) Operating Systems: Programs need to be compatible with diverse OS platforms like
Windows, Unix, and Mac OS.
c) Software: Applications should integrate smoothly with other software, such as MS Word
with MS Outlook, MS Excel, and VBA.
8.5. Client Server
A client-server architecture is a computing model where tasks or workloads are distributed
between service providers, called servers, and service requesters, called clients. In this model,
clients initiate requests for services or resources from servers, which then process these
requests and provide the necessary services or data back to the clients.
Key characteristics of a client-server
Client and Server Roles: Clients are devices or applications that request services or
resources, while servers are devices or applications that provide these services or resources.
Communication: Communication between clients and servers typically occurs over a
network using protocols such as TCP/IP. Clients send requests to servers, and servers respond
to these requests accordingly.
Centralized Services: Servers centralize resources and services, allowing clients to access
them remotely. This can include file storage, database access, computation, printing services,
and more.
Scalability: Client-server architectures are scalable, allowing for the addition of more clients
or servers as needed to accommodate changes in demand or workload.
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8.5. Server Software
Server software, also known as server operating system (OS) or server application software,
is a type of software specifically designed to operate and manage server hardware and
resources. It enables servers to perform various functions and provide services to clients or
other devices on a network. Server software can be divided into two main categories:
Server Operating Systems (OS)
Server OS is the foundational software that manages the hardware resources of a server and
provides essential services and functionalities. It typically includes features such as user
management, file and storage management, network services, security mechanisms, and
remote administration tools. Examples of server operating systems include Microsoft
Windows Server, Linux distributions like Ubuntu Server, CentOS, and Red Hat Enterprise
Linux, and Unix-based systems.
Server Application Software
Server application software refers to additional software applications installed on a server to
provide specific services or functionalities to clients or users on a network. These
applications run on top of the server OS and utilize its resources to perform their tasks.
Examples of server application software include web server software like Apache HTTP
Server, Microsoft Internet Information Services (IIS), and Nginx; database server software
like MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle Database, and PostgreSQL; email server
software like Microsoft Exchange Server, Postfix, and Sendmail; and file server software like
Samba and FTP servers.
8.6. Domain Name Server
A Domain Name Server (DNS) is a fundamental component of the internet's infrastructure
that translates human-readable domain names into numerical IP addresses, which are used by
computers to identify each other on the network. When you type a domain name (e.g.,
www.example.com) into your web browser, your device sends a DNS query to a DNS server
to resolve the domain name into the corresponding IP address.
DNS servers maintain a distributed database called the DNS zone file, which contains
mappings of domain names to IP addresses. There are several types of DNS servers:
Recursive DNS Servers: These DNS servers respond to DNS queries from clients by either
resolving the query directly if the requested domain name is in their cache or recursively
querying other DNS servers until they obtain the IP address corresponding to the domain
name.
Root DNS Servers: These DNS servers are the highest level of the DNS hierarchy and are
responsible for providing referrals to other DNS servers that have authoritative information
for top-level domains (TLDs) like .com, .net, .org, etc.
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8.7.Mail Server
A mail server is a type of server software or hardware that is responsible for sending,
receiving, storing, and managing email messages within a network or across the internet. It
facilitates the exchange of electronic mail (email) between users and supports various email
protocols such as SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), POP3 (Post Office Protocol
version 3), and IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol).
Key functions of a mail server
Sending and Receiving Emails:
The mail server accepts outgoing emails from email clients (such as Outlook, Thunderbird, or
webmail interfaces) and delivers them to the recipient's mail server. It also receives incoming
emails from other mail servers and stores them in the recipient's mailbox.
Mailbox Storage:
Mail servers typically include storage capabilities to store email messages in users' mailboxes
until they are accessed by the recipients. This allows users to access their emails from
multiple devices and locations.
User Authentication and Authorization:
Mail servers authenticate users' credentials to ensure that only authorized users can send and
receive emails. They also enforce access control policies to protect users' mailboxes from
unauthorized access.
Spam Filtering and Virus Scanning:
Mail servers often include built-in spam filtering and virus scanning features to detect and
prevent unsolicited emails (spam) and malicious email attachments from reaching users'
mailboxes.
Message Routing and Delivery:
Mail servers route email messages between sender and recipient mailboxes based on the
recipient's email address. They use DNS (Domain Name System) to look up the recipient's
mail server and deliver the message to the correct destination.
Queue Management:
Mail servers maintain a queue of outgoing emails waiting to be delivered to their recipients.
They manage the queue to ensure efficient and reliable delivery of emails, retrying delivery
attempts if necessary.
Examples of popular mail server software include Microsoft Exchange Server, Postfix,
Sendmail, and Exim
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8.8 Printer Server
A printer server, also known as a print server, is a device or software application that
facilitates the management and sharing of printers within a network. Its primary function is to
centralize printer resources and make them accessible to multiple users or devices connected
to the network.
key functions and features of a printer server
Printer Management: A printer server allows network administrators to centrally manage
and configure printers, including setting up printer properties, configuring print queues, and
managing printer access permissions.
Print Queuing: Printer servers typically include print queue management functionality,
which allows users to submit print jobs to a centralized queue. The printer server then
processes and prioritizes the print jobs, ensuring that they are printed in the order they were
received and that printer resources are utilized efficiently.
Driver Management: Printer servers often store printer drivers and make them available to
client devices, eliminating the need for individual devices to install printer drivers locally.
This simplifies printer setup and ensures that users can easily print to network printers
without having to manually install drivers.
Access Control: Printer servers allow administrators to control access to printers by setting
permissions and restrictions on who can use specific printers and what actions they can
perform, such as printing in color or printing double-sided.
Monitoring and Reporting: Printer servers typically include monitoring and reporting tools
that allow administrators to track printer usage, monitor printer status and performance, and
generate reports on print activity and usage trends.
Printer servers can be implemented using dedicated hardware devices, such as standalone
print servers that connect directly to printers via USB or Ethernet, or they can be
implemented using software applications that run on existing server hardware. Additionally,
many modern network printers include built-in print server functionality, allowing them to be
directly connected to the network without the need for an external print server.
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8.9 Proxy Server
A proxy server acts as an intermediary between clients and other servers on the internet.
When a client (such as a web browser) requests a resource (such as a web page or a file) from
another server (such as a website server), the request is first sent to the proxy server. The
proxy server then forwards the request to the destination server on behalf of the client,
receives the response from the destination server, and forwards it back to the client.
Proxy servers can serve various purposes and offer several benefits
Anonymity and Privacy:
Proxy servers can hide the IP address of clients from the destination server, providing
anonymity and privacy for users browsing the internet. This is often used by individuals who
want to protect their online identity and location.
Content Filtering and Access Control:
Proxy servers can be configured to filter and control access to specific websites or types of
content based on predefined rules. This is commonly used by organizations to enforce
internet usage policies and prevent access to inappropriate or unauthorized websites.
Caching:
Proxy servers can cache frequently requested web pages and files, storing copies locally.
When a client requests a cached resource, the proxy server can serve it directly from the
cache without needing to fetch it from the destination server. This reduces bandwidth usage
and improves performance by speeding up access to frequently accessed content.
Load Balancing:
Proxy servers can distribute incoming client requests across multiple backend servers,
helping to balance the load and ensure optimal performance and availability of services.
Security:
Proxy servers can act as a security gateway, inspecting incoming and outgoing traffic for
malicious content and blocking potential threats such as malware, viruses, and phishing
attacks. They can also provide encryption and secure tunneling capabilities to protect
sensitive data transmitted over the internet.
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8.9.1 Web Server
A web server is a software application or hardware device that serves web content to clients
over the internet or an intranet. It hosts websites, web applications, and other web-based
content, making them accessible to users via web browsers. When a user requests a web page
or resource (such as HTML files, images, videos, or scripts), the web server processes the
request, retrieves the requested content, and sends it to the user's web browser for display.
Key functions and features of a web server
HTTP Protocol Support:
Web servers support the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and its secure variant, HTTPS,
for communication between web clients (such as web browsers) and the server. HTTPS
encrypts data transmitted between the client and the server, providing security and privacy for
sensitive information.
Content Storage and Retrieval:
Web servers store web content, such as HTML files, images, CSS stylesheets, JavaScript
files, multimedia files, and other resources, in a file system or database. When a client
requests a web page or resource, the web server retrieves the content from storage and sends
it to the client.
Request Handling:
Web servers handle incoming HTTP requests from clients, parsing the requests, identifying
the requested resources, and executing the appropriate actions to fulfill the requests. This may
involve processing dynamic content generated by server-side scripting languages (such as
PHP, Python, or Ruby) or interacting with databases to retrieve dynamic data.
Virtual Hosting:
Web servers support virtual hosting, allowing multiple websites or domains to be hosted on
the same server. Each website is associated with a unique domain name or IP address and can
have its own configuration settings, content, and security policies.
Security Features:
Web servers include security features to protect against common web-based threats, such as
denial-of-service (DoS) attacks, cross-site scripting (XSS) attacks, SQL injection attacks, and
unauthorized access to sensitive resources. These features may include access control,
authentication mechanisms, encryption, and secure communication protocols.
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8.9.2 Server Selection
When selecting servers for different tasks, it's crucial to evaluate factors like performance,
reliability, and scalability. This ensures that the chosen servers can effectively handle the
workload, maintain uptime, and accommodate growth as needed for optimal operation.
Requirement Identification
Requirement identification for server selection at Alliance Health involves analyzing factors
such as anticipated workload, performance needs, data storage requirements, security
considerations, and scalability. This process ensures that the selected servers can meet the
organization's operational demands effectively and efficiently while aligning with its longterm goals.
Server Type
Determining the best server type for Alliance Health depends on several factors, including the
organization's specific requirements, budget, scalability needs, and regulatory compliance
considerations.
Networking
Consider the network bandwidth requirements, especially for data-intensive applications.
Ensure server compatibility with VLANs, diverse network interfaces, and security features.
This involves verifying support for segregating network traffic, accommodating different
connectivity options, and implementing protective measures.
Operating System and Software Compatibility
Verify that the server can run the intended operating system and software smoothly.
Cost
Contrast initial expenses, ongoing operational costs, and potential savings associated with
energy-efficient hardware.
Environmental Considerations
Consider heat production and electricity consumption, particularly for on-premises
installations.
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8.9.3 Identification And Selection of The server For Alliance Health
In the scenario of Enclave Films and Alliance Health, the primary need is to establish an
efficient network solution for the organization. When implementing such a solution, several
crucial factors need consideration, including the selection of the most appropriate server for
the company's needs. The provided information below outlines various types of servers
available in the market, along with their key specifications and features.
Server Type:- Dell EMC PowerEdge T440 Tower Server
Processor:- Intel Xeon E3-1225 v5
Ram:- 12GB UDIMM (up to 64 GB)
Storage:- 1-2 TB 7.2 RPM
Price:- approx.: 312,560/=
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Activity 3 and 4
9.1. Network Design Plan
The network design plan for the Mathara Branch must accommodate Alliance Health's
requirement for six separate subnets, each dedicated to a specific department. Additionally,
unique VLANs need to be established for each department as per Alliance Health's directives.
Table 9 IP and subnetting scheme
IP and subnetting Schemes
Dep.
Users
B.
Size
Network
Address
First IP
Address
Last IP
Address
Broadcast IP
Address
Subnet Mask
Class
IT
50
64
192.168.10.0
192.168.10.1
192.168.10.62
192.168.10.63
255.255.255.192
/26
Customer
Service
Area
Account &
Finance
11
14
192.168.10.64
192.168.10.65
192.168.10.78
192.168.10.79
255.255.255.240
/28
8
14
192.168.10.80
192.168.10.81
192.168.10.94
192.168.10.95
255.255.255.240
/28
HR
7
14
192.168.10.96
192.168.10.97
192.168.10.110
192.168.10.111
255.255.255.240
/28
Admin
10
14
192.168.10.112
192.168.10.113
192.168.10.126
192.168.10.127
255.255.255.240
/28
Reception
4
6
192.168.10.128
192.168.10.129
192.168.10.134
192.168.10.135
255.255.255.248
/29

The block size specified in this table serves the purpose of identifying the subnet
block associated with the IP addresses assigned to devices within each department.
A static IP address, 10.254.10.0, is allocated for the server within the network, while
DHCP IP addresses are assigned to all other devices. Furthermore, dedicated
VLANs are set up for each department, and there are wireless internet facilities
available specifically in the Customer Service Area.
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9.2 List of required Devices
1. Computers and Laptops
2. Ethernet Cables – Fast Ethernet and Giga Ethernet Cables
3. Routers
4. Switches
5. Servers
9.3 Network Design Blueprint
Figure 26 network design blueprint
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Figure 27 setting up the network
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Figure 28
Figure 29
Figure 30
Figure 31
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Figure 32
Figure 33
Figure 34
Figure 35
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Figure 32 setting up the network
Figure 33
Figure 33
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Figure 34
Figure 35
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Figure 36
Figure 37
Figure 37
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Figure 38
Figure 38
Figure 39
Figure 39
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Figure 40
Figure 40
Figure 41
Figure 41
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Figure 42
Figure 42
Figure 43
Figure 43
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Figure 44
Figure 44
Figure 45
Figure 45
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Figure 46
Figure 46
Figure 47
Figure 47
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Figure 48
Figure 48
Figure 49
Figure 49
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Figure 50
Figure 50
Figure 51
Figure 51
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Figure 52
Figure 53
Figure 53
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Figure 54
Figure 54
Figure 55
Figure 55
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Figure 56
Figure 56
Figure 57
Figure 57
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Figure 58
Figure 58
Figure 59
Figure 59
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Figure 60
Figure 60
Figure 61
Figure 61
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Figure 62
Figure 62
Figure 63
Figure 63
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Figure 64
Figure 64
Figure 65
Figure 65
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Figure 66
Figure 66
Figure 67
Figure 67
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9.5 Network Implementation design by cisco packet tracer
Figure 68
Figure 68
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9.6 Configuration Of switch Through cisco packet tracer
In this network setup, devices are connected to ports 0/1 through 0/22 on the switches, while
network devices are connected to ports 0/23 and 0/24. Ports 0/23 and 0/24 are configured as
trunk ports. Each switch's device ports are assigned to specific VLANs, ensuring access
only to their designated VLANs.
9.7 Switches
Figure 69
Figure 69
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Figure 70
Figure 70
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Figure 71
Figure 71
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Figure 72
Figure 72
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Figure 73
Figure 73
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Figure 74
Figure 74
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9.8 Assigning Trunk ports through Cisco packet tracer
Figure 75
Figure 75
Figure 76
Figure 76
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Figure 77
Figure 77
Figure 78
Figure 78
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Figure 79
Figure 79
Figure 80
Figure 80
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Figure 81
Figure 81
Figure 82
Figure 82
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Figure 83
Figure 83
Figure 84
Figure 84
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Figure 85
Figure 85
Figure 86
Figure 86
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Figure 87
Figure 87
Figure 88
Figure 88
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Figure 89
Figure 89
Figure 90
Figure 90
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Figure 91
Figure 91
Figure 92
Figure 92
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Figure 93
Figure 93
Figure 94
Figure 94
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Figure 95
Figure 95
Figure 96
Figure 96
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Figure 97
Figure 97
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9.9 Router Configuration
Figure 98
Figure 98
Figure 99
Figure 99
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Figure 100
Figure 100
Figure 101
Figure 101
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10. Testing The network
VLAN-Pinging






Test scenario = Account and Finance Department Switch
Description = Pinging PC0- PC8
Expected Result = Ping Successful
Received Result = Ping Successful
Loss 0%
Grade = Success
Figure 102
Figure 102
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




Test scenario = Administrator Department Switch
Description = Pinging PC2- PC9
Expected Result = Ping Successful
Received Result = Ping Successful
Pass
Figure 103
Figure 103
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•
•
•
•
•
Test scenario = Reception Switch
Description = Pinging PC2- PC10
Expected Result = Ping Successful
Received Result = Ping Successful
Pass
Figure 104
Figure 104
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•
•
•
•
•
Test scenario = IT department Switch
Description = Pinging PC2- PC11
Expected Result = Ping Successful
Received Result = Ping Successful
Pass
Figure 104
Figure 104
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•
•
•
•
•
Test scenario = customer service Switch
Description = Pinging PC6- PC11
Expected Result = Ping Successful
Received Result = Ping Successful
Pass
Figure 105
Figure 105
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• Test scenario = Reception To customer service Switch
• Description = Pinging PC6- PC11
• Expected Result = Ping Successful
• Received Result = Ping Successful
• Pass
Figure 106
Figure 106
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•
•
•
•
•
Test scenario = IT department to Account departent
Description = Pinging PC5- PC11
Expected Result = Ping Successful
Received Result = Ping Successful
Pass
Figure 107
Figure 107
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•
•
•
•
•
Test scenario = HR Department
Description = Pinging
Expected Result = Ping Successful
Received Result = Ping Successful
Pass
Figure 108
Figure 108
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10.1 Pinging to servers
•
•
•
•
•
Test scenario = IT Department PC to Server
Description = Pinging PC0 - Server
Expected Result = Ping Successful
Received Result = Ping Successful
Pass
Figure 109
Figure 109
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•
•
•
•
•
Test scenario = HR Department PC to Server
Description = Pinging PC2 - Server
Expected Result = Ping Successful
Received Result = Ping Successful
Pass
Figure 110
Figure 110
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•
•
•
•
•
Test scenario = Admin Department PC to Server
Description = Pinging PC3 - Server
Expected Result = Ping Successful
Received Result = Ping Successful
Pass
Figure 111
Figure 111
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•
•
•
•
•
Test scenario = Reception Department PC to Server
Description = Pinging PC4 - Server
Expected Result = Ping Successful
Received Result = Ping Successful
Pass
Figure 112
Figure 112
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10.2 Subnetting report
Figure 113
Figure 113
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10.3 Maintenance schedules for the network
A maintenance strategy is essential for ensuring network security, stability, and costeffectiveness. This plan includes routine checks on hardware and software to detect and
resolve issues proactively, minimizing downtime. Additionally, it improves security
measures by identifying vulnerabilities, safeguarding important data, and lowering
operational expenses. By prioritizing preventive maintenance, businesses can save resources
and time, ensuring uninterrupted operations and meeting customer expectations. Hence,
implementing a maintenance plan is vital for maintaining high network performance and
dependability.
Table 10 Maintanence shedule
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TASK
Frequency
Hardware and clean up
Monthly
Back up Data
Weekly
Software Update
Monthly (2 x per month)
Hardware Update
If required Only
Fixing Bugs
Weekly Checking
Check up network Speed
Weekly
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10.4 User feedback
Figure 114
Figure 114
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Figure 115
Figure 115
Figure 116
Figure 116
Figure 117
Figure 117
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