YILDIZ TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF B IOMEDICAL
E NGINEERING
EXPERIMENT 7
Pulmonary Functions(1&2)
Author:
MARWA
ABOUARRA
31.May.2023
Grading
Objective
Theory
Data and Calculations
Discussion
Questions
References
Total
Points
5
10
25
30
25
5
100
Total
1.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of the experiment is to:
1) Observe, record, and crunch the numbers for specific lung volumes and capacities.
2) Compare what we find with the average values.
3) Dive into the world of normal pulmonary volumes and capacities. Check out how they differ
based on factors like sex, age, weight, and height.
4) Observe, record, and calculate the forced expiratory volume (FEV) and the mighty maximal
voluntary ventilation (MVV).
5) Compare what we observed for FEV with the predicted normal values.
2.
THEORY
Every creature under the sun craves that sweet, life sustaining O2. Oxygen plays a vital role in
the cellular processes that keep us all kicking. When our bodies indulge in the banquet of
metabolism, feasting upon proteins, carbs, and fats, oxygen is the star guest that gets consumed
while carbon dioxide raises a toast as the gaseous byproduct. The grand symphony of respiration
orchestrates the whole affair, consisting of three acts: external respiration, gas transport, and
internal respiration. Picturing this: external respiration is like breathing in the world around us,
savoring the oxygen while exhaling the carbon dioxide back into the wild. Gas transport acts as
the diligent courier, ensuring oxygen is delivered to every nook and cranny of our cellular empire
while escorting carbon dioxide out. And finally, internal respiration is where the magic happens
within the cells, with oxygen being consumed and carbon dioxide sprouting as a byproduct. In
this experiment we shall shine the spotlight on the marvelous mechanisms of human external
respiration [1].
Figure 1. example of respiratory volumes and capacities [1]
•
•
Tidal Volume (TV) refers to the amount of air breathed in or out during a single breath.
When a person is at rest and breathing normally, the tidal volume is around 500 ml. However,
during exercise, the tidal volume can increase to more than 3 liters.
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) represents the maximum amount of air that can be
inhaled at the end of a normal breath. In young adult males, the resting IRV is approximately
3,300 ml, while in young adult females, it is around 1,900 ml.
•
•
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) signifies the maximum amount of air that can be
exhaled at the end of a normal breath. Resting ERV is about 1,000 ml for young adult males
and 700 ml for young adult females.
Residual Volume (RV) is the volume of air that remains in the lungs even after a maximum
exhalation. Unlike IRV, TV, and ERV, the residual volume does not change with exercise. On
average, adult males have a residual volume of 1,200 ml, while adult females have around
1,100 ml. The residual volume reflects the fact that after the initial breath at birth, the lungs
are never completely emptied during subsequent breaths [1].
Pulmonary Capacity is the sum of two or more primary lung volumes. There are five
pulmonary capacities, which can be calculated as shown below [1]:
Table 1.[1]
Inspiratory Capacity (IC)
Expiratory Capacity (EC)
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)
Vital Capacity (VC)
Total Lung Capacity (TLC)
𝑰𝑪 = 𝑻𝑽 + 𝑰𝑹𝑽
𝐸𝐶 = 𝑇𝑉 + 𝐸𝑅𝑉
𝐹𝑅𝐶 = 𝐸𝑅𝑉 + 𝑅𝑉
𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼𝑅𝑉 + 𝑇𝑉 + 𝐸𝑅𝑉
𝑇𝐿𝐶 = 𝐼𝑅𝑉 + 𝑇𝑉 + 𝐸𝑅𝑉 + 𝑅𝑉
Table 2. [1]
Figure 2. The Respiratory System [1].
Figure 3. The Respiratory Tree [1].
Figure 4. Pulmonary Gas Exchange [1].
An upper division and a lower division as seen in Figure 1, working together. In the upper
division, we got the nasal and oral cavities, the pharynx (also known as the throat), and the
larynx (the voice box, where all the magic happens). Now, diving into the lower division, which
is like a beautiful, inverted tree, starting with the mighty trachea (windpipe), branching into the
right and left primary bronchi, then the lobar bronchi, segmental bronchi, sub-segmental bronchi,
and finally reaching the terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar
sacs, and individual alveoli. It's a whole ecosystem in there! But there's a twist. The real action,
the gas exchange extravaganza, takes place only in the dainty terminal parts of the respiratory
tree, starting from those cool respiratory bronchioles. Everything else in the respiratory tree and
the upper division is what we call anatomical dead space. It's there, doing its thing, but not
actually involved in the gas exchange party [1]. Looking at Figure 4, gas exchange in the lungs
involves a fascinating phenomenon known as simple diffusion. Gases have a knack for moving
from areas where they're more concentrated to areas where they're less concentrated. They also
love to travel from regions with higher partial pressure to regions with lower partial pressure.
Now, what's partial pressure, you might ask? Well, it's like a fancy term for measuring how much
a gas is hogging the spotlight in a gas mixture. It's the pressure that a gas exerts when it's
hanging out with other gases. To figure out the partial pressure of a gas, you just need to know its
percentage in the mixture and the total pressure of the whole shebang. Let's say we're at sea
level, where the atmosphere's pressure struts around at a confident 760 𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑔. If oxygen
decides to rock a 20% presence in the atmosphere, its partial pressure would be a groovy
152 𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑔 (that's 20% 𝑜𝑓 760 𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑔 in case you're wondering) [1].
Blood does the important job of shuttling gases to and from within your amazing body. The
respiratory system steps in to supply the blood with life-giving oxygen while kicking out the
pesky carbon dioxide. All this gas exchange action happens mainly in the alveoli, those tiny air
sacs in your lungs. Picture them as the bustling hub where oxygen and carbon dioxide do their
swapping dance. When you take a deep breath, the alveoli go, "Ahh, more air, please!" and
expand to let the fresh stuff in. But when you exhale, those alveoli say, "Hold up, gotta shrink
now!" and squeeze out some air to mingle with the atmosphere. It's like a rhythmic party of air
going in and out, and we call it pulmonary ventilation. This fantastic process keeps the oxygen
and carbon dioxide levels in the alveoli just right, making sure your blood gets its fair share of
oxygen and sends those carbon dioxide troublemakers packing. To understand how it all works,
we turn to Boyle's law, which is like the superhero of gas behavior. It says that when temperature
stays constant, pressure and volume have an inverse relationship. So, if the pressure goes down,
volume goes up, and if pressure goes up, volume goes down [1].
Picture the lungs nestled within, surrounded by the sternum, ribs, vertebral column, and the
mighty diaphragm (Fig2). These tissues create the captivating thoracic cavity, partitioned by
membranes into smaller cavities. Now, imagine the lungs dressed in a delicate membrane called
the visceral pleura. But wait, there's more! At the root of each lung, where the bronchi make its
entrance, the visceral pleura takes a detour and transforms into the parietal pleura. It lines the
thorax and even extends its embrace to a part of the diaphragm (Fig. 5). Naturally, the pleural
cavity, formed by the reflection of the visceral pleura, is the perfect dwelling for each lung. And
oh, the pleural membranes! They grant the lungs the freedom to glide gracefully within the
pleural cavity during the dance of respiration. Now, between you and me, the space between the
visceral and parietal pleura, known as the pleural space, is mostly just a potential space. Can you
believe it? Only a thin layer of lubricating fluid keeps these pleura layers apart. These pleural
cavities, my friend, are sealed tight and are an integral part of the thoracic cavity. But don't you
worry, the interior of the lungs knows how to have a good time. It's always open to the
atmosphere, thanks to those trusty airways. So, whenever the thoracic cavity decides to expand,
the pleural cavities and lungs join the party and enlarge along with it. Let the breaths and the
spaciousness abound [1]!
Figure 5. Pleural Cavities (Frontal Aspect) [1].
Figure 6. Intrapuulmonic pressure & Volume changes during 1 Respiratory Cycle [1].
Expiration starts when those inspiratory muscles take a breather. The diaphragm, like "ah, back
to the dome," resumes its resting position, shrinking the volume within the thoracic and lung
areas. Now, the external intercostals loosen up, allowing the ribs to chill in their cozy spot, thus
reducing the width and volume of the thorax and lungs (check out Fig 6). With the intrapulmonic
volume going down, intrapulmonic pressure goes up. And voila! As soon as intrapulmonic
pressure surpasses atmospheric pressure, air says, "I'm outta here!" and rides down the pressure
slope from those roomy lung spaces through the airways, back into the atmosphere. This flow
keeps going until intrapulmonic pressure is once again buddies with atmospheric pressure (see
Fig 6.)[1].
Forced Vital Capacity (FVC) is the fancy term for the maximum amount of air a person can
forcefully exhale after taking a deep breath. It's like a lung-powered cannon! Then we have
Forced Expiratory Volume (FEV), which measures the percentage of FVC blasted out in
different time intervals like 1, 2, and 3 seconds (𝐹𝐸𝑉1.0 , 𝐹𝐸𝑉2.0 , 𝐹𝐸𝑉3.0 ). It's like a countdown to
show how much air you can expel in a jiffy. Now, Maximal Voluntary Ventilation (MVV)
combines volume and flow rates to assess overall lung ventilation. These measurements are like
little superheroes that tell us the maximum respiratory power of an individual. When someone
takes a big breath and follows it up with a massive exhale, the volume of air they blow out is
called Single Stage Vital Capacity (SSVC). The time it takes to achieve that superhero-level
exhalation doesn't affect SSVC [2].
Table 3. [2]
Figure 7. Section of a record of Forced Expiratory Volume in 1s (𝐹𝐸𝑉1.0 ) [2].
Figure 8. MVV Example [2].
3.
METHOD
A spirometer is like a breath detective, measuring the amount of air you breathe in and out.
Picture this: a fancy contraption called a bell spirometer. It has a cylinder with a double wall and
an upside-down bell filled with oxygen-rich air. This bell takes a dip in some water, forming a
seal that seals the deal. But wait, there's more! A pulley comes into play, connecting the bell to a
nifty recording pen. This pen loves to doodle on a rotating drum that spins at a steady pace. Now,
when you take a deep breath in, the air escapes from the bell, and the pen gets all excited and
jumps up, marking the inspired volume. Then, as you exhale, the expelled air barges into the bell,
making the pen go down and leaving a record of the expired volume.
Figure 9. Bell Spirometer [1].
4.
DATA and CALCULATIONS
Part 1
•
Volume & Capacity Measurements
Table 4 Measurements.
Title
Tidal Volume
Measurement Result
TV
Calculation
a=
Cycle 3 inhale:
2.7 L
b=
Cycle 3 exhale:
2.45 L
c=
Cycle 4 inhale:
d=
Cycle 4 exhale:
(a + b + c + d)
/4=
2.65 L
2.7 L
2.73 L
Inspiratory Reserve Volume
IRV
Expiratory Reserve Volume
ERV
Residual Volume
RV
Inspiratory Capacity
IC
Expiratory Capacity
EC
Functional Residual Capacity
FRC
Total Lung Capacity
TLC
0.03 L
0.02 L
1.02 L
0.01 L
0.05L
4.01
Default = 1
(Preference setting)
TV + IRV =
2.68 L
TV + ERV =
2.67 L
ERV + RV =
1.04 L
IRV + TV +
ERV + RV =
3.72 L
•
Observed vs. Predicted Volumes
Table 5.Average Volumes vs. Measured Volumes.
Volume Title
Tidal Volume
Average Volume
TV
Inspiratory Reserve Volume
Expiratory Reserve Volume
IRV
ERV
Measured Volume
Resting subject, normal breathing:
TV is approximately 500 ml.
During exercise:
TV can be more than 3 liters
greater than
Resting IRV for young adults is
males = approximately 3,300 ml
females = approximately 1,900 ml
greater than
Resting ERV for young adults is
males = approximately 1,000 ml
females = approximately 700 ml
greater than
equal to
less than
equal to
less than
equal to
less than
Part2
A) Vital Capacity (VC)
= ______3.271__________
• Forced Expiratory Volumes: FEV1.0, FEV2.0, FEV3.0
Table 6
Time
Interval
(sec)
Forced Expiratory
Volume
Vital Capacity
(VC)
from A
(FEV/VC)
FEV/VC
x 100 = %
calculate
calculate
=
FEVx
Normal Adult
Range
0-1
1.3434
5.895
0.228
22.8%
FEV1.0
66% - 83%
0-2
5.2872
5.895
0.897
89.7%
FEV2.0
75% - 94%
0-3
5.8949
5.895
0.998
99.8%
FEV3.0
78% - 97%
•
MVV Measurements
a) Number of cycles in 12-second interval: ___16___
b) Calculate the number of respiratory cycles per minute (RR):
RR = Cycles/min = Number of cycles in 12-second interval x 5
Number of cycles in 12-second interval (from above): ______16 x 5 = ____80__cycles/min
c) Measure each cycle.
If Subject had only 5 complete cycles/12- sec period, then only fill in the volumes for 5
cycles. If there is an incomplete cycle, do not record it. (The Table may have more cycles
than you need.)
Table 7
Cycle
Number
Volume
Measurement
Cycle Number
Volume
Measurement
Cycle 1
1.082
Cycle 9
2.0406
Cycle 2
1.103
Cycle 10
1.5593
Cycle 3
1.324
Cycle 11
1.4716
Cycle 4
1.446
Cycle 12
1.3422
Cycle 5
1.526
Cycle 13
1.4341
Cycle 6
2.019
Cycle 14
1.1232
Cycle 7
1.571
Cycle 15
1.0752
Cycle 8
1.647
Cycle 16
1.2738
d) Calculate the average volume per cycle (AVPC):
Add the volumes of all counted cycles from Table 4.
Sum = ________ 23.038________ liters
Divide the above sum by the number of counted cycles. The answer is the average volume per
cycle (AVPC)
AVPC = _______ 23.038/ 16_____________ = ___________ 1.440_________liters
Sum
# of counted cycles
e) Calculate the MVVest
Multiply the AVPC by the number of respiratory cycles per minute (RR) as calculated earlier.
MVV = AVPC x RR = __ 1.440x80 _________ = _______ 115.2_____liters/min
AVPC
RR
5.
DISCUSSION
For table 4:
Tidal Volume (TV) indicates the amount of air inhaled and exhaled during a single breath cycle.
By averaging the values for inhales and exhales across cycles 3 and 4, we arrive at a Tidal
Volume of 2.65 liters.
Moving on, Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) represents the additional air that can be inhaled
after a normal inhalation, and it is measured to be 0.03 liters. Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
refers to the additional air that can be exhaled after a normal exhalation and is measured to be
0.02 liters. Residual Volume (RV) is the amount of air that remains in the lungs even after
forceful exhalation, and its default value is 1.02 liters (based on the preference setting).
Inspiratory Capacity (IC) is the maximum amount of air that can be inhaled after a normal
exhalation, calculated by adding Tidal Volume and Inspiratory Reserve Volume, resulting in
2.68 liters. Expiratory Capacity (EC) represents the maximum amount of air that can be exhaled
after a normal inhalation, calculated by adding Tidal Volume and Expiratory Reserve Volume,
resulting in 2.67 liters. Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) is the volume of air remaining in the
lungs at the end of a normal exhalation and is determined by adding Expiratory Reserve Volume
and Residual Volume, resulting in 1.04 liters. Finally, Total Lung Capacity (TLC) represents the
total volume of air the lungs can hold, calculated by adding Inspiratory Reserve Volume, Tidal
Volume, Expiratory Reserve Volume, and Residual Volume, resulting in 3.72 liters.
For table 6:
We have various time intervals, ranging from 0 to 3 seconds. In each interval, we see the values
for Forced Expiratory Volume (FEV) and Vital Capacity (VC). The FEV/VC ratio is calculated
as FEV divided by VC. To make things more interesting, we can convert the FEV/VC ratio into
a percentage. By multiplying FEV/VC by 100, we get the percentage value. For example, in the
0-1 second interval, the FEV/VC is 0.228, which translates to 22.8%. The normal adult range for
FEV1.0 is 66% to 83%. Moving on to the 0-2 second interval, the FEV/VC ratio increases to
0.897, corresponding to 89.7%. This falls within the normal adult range for FEV2.0, which is
75% to 94%. Finally, in the 0-3 second interval, the FEV/VC ratio reaches 0.998, equivalent to
an impressive 99.8%. This falls within the normal adult range for FEV3.0, which is 78% to 97%.
The FEV/VC ratio is a calculation that compares the amount of air forcefully exhaled (FEV) to
the maximum capacity (VC) in order to assess lung function. A higher FEV/VC ratio indicates
better lung function, as a larger proportion of the total lung capacity is being exhaled forcefully.
The table also provides the FEV/VC ratio as a percentage by multiplying it by 100. This allows
for easier interpretation and comparison of the results. The normal adult range for FEV1.0,
FEV2.0, and FEV3.0 is provided as a reference, indicating the expected range of values for
individuals without respiratory issues.
For table 7:
These results are more than just numbers. They give us a peek into the world of volume
measurements and respiratory calculations. The sum of the volumes tells us the grand total of all
the air involved, while the average volume per cycle gives us a glimpse into the regular amount
of air for each individual cycle. And let's not forget the MVVest, which gives us an estimation of
the maximum ventilation capacity.
6.
QUESTIONS
1) Why does predicted vital capacity vary with height?
Predicted vital capacity varies with height because, well, bigger is better! Taller people
often enjoy the advantage of larger lung volumes. As we grow taller, our thoracic cavity
expands, making more room for our lungs to stretch and breathe. It's like upgrading to a
spacious mansion for our respiratory system. So, when it comes to vital capacity, height
plays a significant role in determining how much air these lungs can hold.
2) Explain how factors other than height might affect lung capacity.
As we age, our lung capacity tends to diminish. It's just nature's way of reminding us that
time spares no organ. Then there's the bad habit of smoking. Puffing away on those
cancer sticks can do a number (damage/affect) on our lungs, reducing their capacity like a
deflating balloon. Regular exercise, especially cardiovascular workouts, can actually
enhance lung capacity. It's like giving our lungs a workout session of their own. There are
also medical conditions like COPD or asthma. Those troublemakers can wreak havoc on
lung capacity by causing inflammation, narrowing airways, or general mischief in lung
tissues.
3) How would the volume measurements change if data were collected after vigorous
exercise?
When we're putting in the work, your blood vessels open up, allowing more blood to flow
to the hard-working muscles. This means they get all swollen and pumped up, we see this
in after an intense workout and call it post-workout pump, all the muscles would be bigger
and more defined. So, we expect to see an increase in volume measurements after vigorous
exercise, but it's a temporary effect, and our muscles will settle back down once they've
caught their breath. :(
4) What is the difference between volume measurements and capacities?
volume measurements are all about calculating the amount of space occupied by a solid,
like a box of chocolates or a stack of books. It's all about those dimensions, multiplying
length, width, and height to get that volume. Capacities, on the other hand, are more about
the potential. It's the maximum amount that a container can hold, like a cup, a tank, or even
a whole swimming pool. So, while volume tells us how much space is taken up, capacity
tells you how much that container can handle.
5) Define the following terms:
a) Tidal Volume: refers to the amount of air breathed in or out during a single breath.
When a person is at rest and breathing normally, the tidal volume is around 500 ml.
However, during exercise, the tidal volume can increase to more than 3 liters.
b) Inspiratory Reserve Volume: represents the maximum amount of air that can be
inhaled at the end of a normal breath. In young adult males, the resting IRV is
approximately 3,300 ml, while in young adult females, it is around 1,900 ml.
c) Expiratory Reserve Volume: signifies the maximum amount of air that can be exhaled
at the end of a normal breath. Resting ERV is about 1,000 ml for young adult males and
700 ml for young adult females.
d) Residual Volume: It's that leftover air that stubbornly stays put even after we give it
our best exhale. Unlike IRV, TV, and ERV, this volume doesn't budge no matter how
much we exercise. On average, males hold around 1,200 ml of this post-breath stash,
while females keep around 1,100 ml. It's like a reminder that our lungs never truly hit
empty after that first breath at birth, keeping a little something in store for each
subsequent breath.
e) Pulmonary Capacity: represents the summation of two or more primary lung volumes.
f) Name of the Pulmonary Capacities: There are five pulmonary capacities:
Inspiratory Capacity (IC)
Expiratory Capacity (EC)
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)
Vital Capacity (VC)
Total Lung Capacity (TLC)
g) Forced Expiratory Volume (FEV): measures the percentage of FVC blasted out in
different time intervals like 1, 2, and 3 seconds (𝐹𝐸𝑉1.0 , 𝐹𝐸𝑉2.0 , 𝐹𝐸𝑉3.0 ).
h) Maximal Voluntary Ventilation (MVV): combines volume and flow rates to assess
overall lung ventilation.
6) How do Subject’s FEV values compare to the average per Table 7?
FEV1.0
less than
same as
greater than
FEV2.0
less than
same as
greater than
FEV3.0
less than
same as
greater than
7) Is it possible for a Subject to have a vital capacity (single stage) within normal range but a
value for FEV1.0 below normal range? Explain your answer.
Absolutely! It's totally possible for a subject to possess a vital capacity (single stage) that
falls within the normal range while simultaneously exhibiting an 𝐹𝐸𝑉1.0 value below the
normal range. Vital capacity reflects the maximum amount of air an individual can
forcefully exhale after taking a deep breath, which relies on factors like lung size and
respiratory muscle strength. Meanwhile, 𝐹𝐸𝑉1.0 measures the volume of air expelled
forcefully within the initial second of a forced breath and offers insights into airway
function, potentially indicating conditions such as asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD).
8) Maximal voluntary ventilation decreases with age. Why?
our lungs, like the rest of our body, undergo changes over time. The elasticity of lung
tissue tends to decline, making it harder to take in those satisfying, deep breaths. And let's
not forget about our respiratory muscles, they might not be as spry as they once were,
leading to a decrease in lung capacity. So the maximal voluntary ventilation takes a
downward turn as the years go by.
9) Asthmatics tend to have smaller airways narrowed by smooth muscle constriction,
thickening of the walls, and mucous secretion. How would this affect vital capacity,
FEV1.0, and MVV?
With the narrowed passages, thickened walls, and excessive mucus, their vital capacity
gets affected. Less air gets in and out, making it a struggle to breathe deeply. As for
𝐹𝐸𝑉1.0 , that fancy measurement of how much air you can forcefully exhale in just one
second, it's definitely affected. The restricted airways make it harder to blow out air
quickly. And let's not forget about MVV, the ultimate test of how much air you can suck
in and blow out in a minute. Asthma's grip on those airways means asthmatics might not
be winning any MVV competitions. Asthma symptoms can really put a damper on vital
capacity, 𝐹𝐸𝑉1.0 , and MVV.
10) Bronchodilator drugs open up airways and clear mucous. How would this affect the FEV
and MVV measurements?
They open up the constricted airways and clear out the mucous. FEV and MVV
measurements would definitely see a positive impact. FEV, the amount of air forcibly
exhaled during a specific time frame, would likely increase, indicating better airflow. And
MVV, the maximum amount of air that can be breathed in and out in one minute, might
also get a boost, showcasing improved lung function. So, thanks to bronchodilators, the
lungs can breathe a sigh of relief and show off their improved performance.
11) Would a smaller person tend to have less or more vital capacity than a larger person?
Less More
12) How would an asthmatic person’s measurement of FEV1.0 and MVV be compared to an
athlete? Explain your answer.
When it comes to measuring 𝐹𝐸𝑉1.0 and MVV, the asthmatic person's numbers tend to be
on the lower side of the spectrum. Why? Well, asthma is like having a grumpy bouncer at
the airway club, making it harder for air to get in and out smoothly. So, the asthmatic
people might experience decreased lung function and a reduced ability to blow air
forcefully in that first precious second (𝐹𝐸𝑉1.0 ) or take big gulps of air (MVV).
On the other hand, for athletics, their lungs differ due to them having trained their
respiratory systems to be strong and efficient. Thanks to their physical fitness, athletes
generally exhibit higher 𝐹𝐸𝑉1.0 and MVV measurements. Their lungs are ready to take in
more air and show off their impressive exhaling skills. So, in the battle of lung power, the
asthmatic person's measurements would likely lag behind the athlete's due to the
challenges posed by asthma.
REFERENCEs
[1] R. Pflanzer, Associate, J. C. Uyehara, Biologist, W. Mcmullen, and V. President,
“Physiology Lessons for use with the Biopac Student Lab Lesson 12 New Procedure
PULMONARY FUNCTION I Volumes and Capacities New Lesson Procedure,” 2005, doi:
https://doi.org/10.3-10.4. https://www.biopac.com/wp-content/uploads/bsl_l12update.pdf
[2] R. Pflanzer, J. Uyehara, Biologist, and W. Mcmullen, “Lesson 13 PULMONARY
FUNCTION II Pulmonary Flow Rates Forced Expiratory Volume (FEV 1,2,3 ) Maximal
Voluntary Ventilation (MVV).” [Online]. Available:
http://www.oamk.fi/~jjauhiai/opetus/fsk/PFL13.pdf