Music
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ollowing a month of Braziliansamba drumming and then
a few weeks of Irish/Celtic melodies, the general music
teacher announced to the fourth-gradechildren that Africa would be the next stop on their musical journey In a
series of eight sessions, they would learn to drum a
polyrhythm from the Akan of Ghana, play a Shona four-partxylophone piece from Zimbabwe, move to a Yorubajuju piece out of
Nigeria, and sing a South African freedom song. When discussing
her plans with other educators, the teacher enthusiastically stated:
"I consider it my responsibility to expose children to the world of
musical possibilities. It fits well with their social studies curriculum, too, because music is a way of knowing culture." The children'smusical tour would thus continue into a pan-Africanfusion
of experiences from the corners of the continent, where rhythms
and melodies, instrumental techniques, and songs would be featured, and stories and artifacts would help to contextualize the
music.
In another school-a high school long known for its exceptional concert, marching, and jazz bands-the district'smandate to
multiculturalize was all but dead-in-the-wind as subject-specific
skills and understandings took precedence. The band director's
musicof the world -0
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Patricia Shehan Campbell is
Donald E. Petersonprofessorof
music at the University of
Washingtonin Seattle.
S EPT EMBER
2
27
aims have been developing students'
independent musicianship, which is
centered on the development of performance techniques and notational
literacy,and forging community spirit
within his musical groups. As he tells
it, the repertoire of all the bands is
beyond ethnic boundaries. "I don't go
looking for some evenly balanced program of pieces by African-American
and Caucasian composers, and by
Hispanics and Asians," he says. "To
me, it's about kids making good music
and not about representing every last
ethnic enclave in some schlocky
arrangement." Students in this
school's top-rated bands hope to participate, as students have for several
decades, in the full realm of the music
program and in the performance of
whatever repertoire their teacher
deems essential, eager as they are to be
in the flow of the concerts, festivals,
and field trips.
Do these scenarios sound familiar?
They are real portrayalsof teachers in
the field, and they express views that
you, or the teacher down the road or
across the district, may well hold.
Should school music focus only on
subject-specific skill development, or
can musical growth ultimately lead to
a societal goal of cultural understanding? Should music teachers be expected to participate in the movement for
cultural democracy in curricular
design, or should they be supported
for maintaining their long-standing
ensembles and the repertoireassociated with them? Which is better: a
musical tour of many cultures, or the
study of fewer musics in greater
depth? A review of music education in
a time of cultural transformation,and
within the American movement
toward multiculturalism, may bring to
light responses to these and other
questions concerning music's role in
the schooling of young people in a
democratic society.
Frameworkfor
Multiculturalismin Education
Multiculturalism is a societal
movement, with roots traceable to the
turn of the twentieth century, that
began to surface as a significant component of school policy some fifty
years ago. It is rooted in the AfricanAmerican scholarship of writers like
28
W. E. B. DuBois and CarterG. Woodson,1 and it is linked to the intergroup
education movement of the 1940s that
set out to find ways of reducing prejudice and building interracial cooperation. The civil rights movement of the
1960s was the more immediate impetus for the formulation of multicultural education in the United States,
because this was the time when ethnic
minority groups initiated actions to
make others aware of the perspectives
and needs of their underrecognized
groups. First ethnic studies, the establishment of specialized courses about
the contributions of minorities to
American society, and then multiethnic
education,the provision of equal education opportunities for all students,
were developed to counter the historical injustices of schooling and society Multiculturaleducationbecame the
more encompassing term when other
groups, such as women and disabled
people, urged the incorporation of
their histories and cultures into the
school curriculum.2
Educatorshaveteamed with
in searchof
ethnomusicologists
musicalmaterialsand
appropriatemethodsfor
teachingthe world'smusics.
Multiculturaleducation has formulated its position from a variety of
constituencies, and its principles have
been sometimes vague and its policies
multifarious.3Yetit is a metadiscipline
of sorts, and it aims for increased educational equity for all students and for
representation of their values and
worldviews within the curriculum. It
concerns systemic change to schools
and universities and strives to reform
policy, attitudes, curriculum, assessment procedures, languages and
dialects within institutions, instructional styles and strategies, and the
materials of instruction. It is meant to
MUSIC
be broadly conceptualized, so that
instead of only raising the diversity
issues on Martin Luther King Day,
Cinco de Mayo, or Tet (Vietnamese
New Year), the principles of multicultural education can be seen as the
power of cultural democracy that
undergirds the construction of knowledge and skills every day of the year.
More than a fleeting movement, multicultural education is the reflection of
a society whose history is marred by
periods of class consciousness, cultural insensitivities, and racial bias. It is a
wholehearted effort to offer balanced
treatment of all students, beginning at
the earliest levels of their intellectual
and emotional development through
the continuing influence of schooling.
Multiculturalismas practiced within the school curriculum has been
based upon the perceivedneed to serve
an increasingly diverse population in
the U.S. and to develop in students an
understanding of the cultural thought
and practices of populations across the
globe. The first premise recognizes the
cultural pluralism within American
society and the demographic changes,
through immigration and birth rates,
that affect school populations. The
second dimension is driven by the
extensive growth in world networks of
communication and transportation
that have drawn nations and cultures
closer together, making teachers feel
obliged to "globalize"the curriculum.
While both are social causes for curricular change, some multiculturalists
would argue that the second is more
appropriately an example of global
and international education, rather
than of multicultural education,
because the emphasis is on the interrelationships among nations rather
than peoples within one nation.4 Yet
in subject areas such as music, the
boundaries have blurred as the fields
have been combined, so that what is
multicultural may also be global in
scope.
Historical High Points in
Multicultural Music Education
Historical evidence of a musical
democracy in school programs can be
traced to the first decades of the twentieth century. Physical education and
recreation specialists, and a rare breed
of music teacher, used RCA Victrola
EDUCATORS
JOURNAL
recordings of folk songs and dances in
classes, but this activity was primarily
an extension of the current interest in
physical movement and dance. Folk
song collections were appearing, and
by the 1920s there were numerous
music series texts that included both
the Germanfolk and classical songs of
earlier editions, as well as the more
recently included songs of England,
France, and other countries in northern and central Europe. The "songs of
many lands" phenomenon was on the
rise by the 1930s, and textbooks and
concert and conference programs
showed the extension of the repertoire
into the realm of African-American
spirituals and work songs, with an
occasional song (in English) from
Eastern European, North African, and
Native American cultures. Through
the 1940s, a quest for inter-American
unity through music was seen as an
important thrust of music education.
Spearheadedby the visionary ideas of
musicologist Charles Seeger and coordinated by Vanett Lawler,then MENC
associate executive secretary, the
Advisory Council on Music Education
in the Latin American Republics was
established. Articles on Latin American folk music appeared in the Music
EducatorsJournal, and conference sessions were organized around the panAmerican theme.5
The servicemen returning from
World War II and the Korean War
brought with them a broader view of
the world, which fueled the development of international studies. In the
academy, some viewed musicological
studies of Western art music as too
narrow, and thus came the development of ethnomusicology to probe
questions of music and culture
beyond Eurocentric parameters. The
founding in 1953 of both the Society
and the
for Ethnomusicology
International Society for Music
Education reflected this need to "go
global" and supported the belief that
an exchange of views on the study of
music and its transmission was of central importance for both scholarship
and educational practice. The music
of Africa and Asia came trickling into
textbooks of the 1950s and 1960s as
transcriptions of recordings or remakes of missionary and military collections, complete with full piano
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scores. The internationalization of the
music curriculum was sputtering
along, with elementary music teachers
increasingly translating the music of
the world into suitable forms for performance by their young students.
A growingrecognition
of the
has led
valueof culture-bearers
teachersto invitemusiciansfrom
the communityintoschool
classrooms.
Meanwhile, the civil rights movement was building its own momentum,
fanned by African-Americans'growing
dissent against racial discrimination,
including segregated schools and unequal schooling for their young. Some
music teachers working in urban districts, or in schools with large populations of African-American students,
were turning toward the establishment of jazz bands, the performance
of spirituals, and the study of assorted
African genres (considered the musical roots of their students) and "youth
music" (popular music with AfricanAmerican musical influences). More
often than not, however, music programs of the early 1960s in schools
with diverse populations were not distinguishable from those in all-white
and suburban districts. Nor did the
increase of Latin American and Asian
immigration spark much curricular
modification at this time. In retrospect, the civil rights movement
allowed for the verbal testimonies of
discontent-the protests-that led to
proclamations and policies advocating
change, which in turn pointed toward
the reshaping of instructional practice. The emergence of "urbanmusic,"
which in reality was the music of
African-Americans,was slow to come
but was indeed a response by a few
enlightened inner-city music teachers
to the discontent they heard around
them.
The Tanglewood Symposium of
1967, organized by MENC, was the
ultimate watershed of a profession in a
time of societal turmoil. The gathering occurred in order to resolve questions about the content of school
music programs and the relevance of
school music programs to young people. Performers, conductors, educators, sociologists, anthropologists,
government and industrial leaders,
scientists, and others met to discuss
"polyculturalcurriculums,"the reality
of a musical hierarchy (with European
art music at its apex), and "teenage
music ..., American folk music, and
the music of other cultures."6
Tanglewood, among the most cited
professional meetings of the century,
had to happen in order that change to
music programs could be a national
endeavor rather than the result of isolated efforts of individual teachers.
The symposium brought meaning to
the term "diversity"as it relates to the
American school-aged population and
the multiple musics to which people
could have access.
MENC went to work on the heels
of the symposium, implementing the
recommendations of the Tanglewood
Declaration. MENC's 1968 national
conference in Seattle featured three
hundred junior high school students
in a performance of an African song
with an African drumming ensemble
(all led by BarbaraReeder) that took
the conventioneers by surprise and by
storm. The Goals and Objectives (GO)
Project of 1968-69 included a "Music
of Non-Western Cultures" subcommittee and sought to advance the
teaching of music from all cultures.7
In October 1972, editorial chair O. M.
Hartzell oversaw the special Music
Educators Journal issue entitled
"Music in World Cultures," with a
foreword by anthropologist Margaret
Mead and contributions by ethnomusicologists and educators on musical
traditions from selected cultures of
Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe,
and Oceania (complete with a pair of
two-sided floppy vinyl records).8
A counterbalance for the worldcultures approach was seen in several
initiatives meant for the minorities in
urban schools: the publication of
James Standifer and BarbaraReeder's
Source Book of African and AfroAmerican Materials for Music Educatorsin 1972,9 the organizationof the
29
National Black Music Caucus, and the
formation of the Minority Concerns
Commission in 1973. Clinics and published materials by Reeder, Standifer,
William M. Anderson, and Sally
Monsour10were pioneering efforts set
against a backdrop of European folk
songs (in English), Brahms choral
arrangements, Mozart concerti for
orchestras, and transcriptions for
band. This work awakened teachers of
various levels to materials and methods by which music programs could
be multiculturalized.
Multiculturalism
assumesthat i
the valuesof all studentsare |
soughtand acceptedand that
the designand deliveryof|
knowledgeand skillsare sensitive
to theirexperiences,|
interests,and needs.i
Recent Moments in the
Multicultural Movement
From the 1970s through the end of
the century, the transformationof the
profession's perspective on musical
content and delivery continued.
Conferences of professional organizations began to be seasoned with the
musical traditions of African-Americans, as well as other world cultures.
Particularly since the middle 1980s,
programs of MENC, the American
Orff-Schulwerk Association, the
American Choral Directors Association, and the Organizationof Kodaly
Educators were loaded with concerts
and clinics meant to showcase and
teach a broader repertoire. Of course,
the International Society for Music
Education was a natural forum for
offering participants earfuls of the
world's musical cultures and the
inherent pedagogical systems through
which they are transmitted,and this is
where some of the most forward
30
thinking has occurred on "heritage
musics" in education. In recent years,
conference sessions have featured
"culture-bearers" (traditional musicians trained in the music of their culture) who present their music either
alone or paired with teachers (who
serve as "classroom translators").
These presentations have offered more
than merely a new tune to take home;
they aim to bring about, through a
musical event, a perceptualshift in the
understanding of the ways a group of
people thinks and behaves.
Educators have teamed with ethnomusicologists in search of musical
materials and appropriatemethods for
teaching the world's musics. The
Society for Ethnomusicology's Education Committee has identified
scholars who perform and teach and
has linked these "resourceethnomusicologists" to organizations of teachers
and university teacher-education programs. In 1984, MENC, Wesleyan
University, and the Theodore Presser
Foundation gathered ethnomusicologists and educators at the Wesleyan
Symposium, where they discussed
music's meaning and transmission
systems across an array of world cultures. MENC's 1989 textbook Multicultural Perspectives in Music Education was another testimony of the
effortof educatorsworking with ethnomusicologists to recommend sources
and procedures for teaching a broader
sampling of musical cultures.11On the
heels of this book, MENC, the Smithsonian Institution, and the Society for
Ethnomusicology cosponsored the
1990 Symposium on Multicultural
Approaches to Music Education in
Washington,D.C., where music educators, ethnomusicologists, and culturebearerswere brought togetherin a plan
designed by William M. Anderson to
representand demonstratethe music of
African-American, Chinese, Cuban/
Carribean,Mexican, and Native American cultures. The publication of
"Music in Cultural Context," an indepth series of interviews in the
1995-96 volumes of the Music
EducatorsJournal,was yet another collaborationof sorts, as eight ethnomusicologists responded to questions
prominent among teachers concerning
musical authenticity, representation,
and possible instructionalprocesses.12
MUSIC
Materialsand innovative technologies are being generated at lightning
speed today, thus silencing one of the
most frequently asked questions of a
generation ago: "But where are the
materials?"In a host of instructional
packages by professional societies and
publishing companies, music has been
found, arranged, and created to bring
musical diversity to classrooms and
ensembles in elementary and secondary school. Textbooks, recordings,
song collections, videotaped series,
and arrangements for classroom
instruments and for choral, wind, and
orchestral ensembles are widely available to those with even the tightest of
school budgets. CD-ROMS and Web
sites offer further information to
teachers seeking enlightenment on
music, musicians, and cultural contexts for the music. A growing recognition of the value of culture-bearers
has led teachers to invite musicians
from the community into school classrooms. Paid by PTAs or through
arrangements as "contract teachers"
(similar to part-timers who teach
group violin, oboe, or French horn
lessons), culture-bearers represent
musical traditions beyond the expertise and experience of the music
teacher; they may perform in special
programs, lead small-group workshops, or serve in long-term residencies. Materials are no longer scarce,
and sometimes the method of instruction is matched to the musicians and
traditions they represent.
A new phenomenon has taken
shape in recent years, even as elementary students sing songs of
Cambodia or dance a Croatian kolo,
concert choirs sway to the lively
polychoral sounds of the Zulu, and
band and orchestra teachers conduct
their students in arrangements of
Korean melodies and new music
from Latin America. Gradually, following decades of rhetoric on the
notion that traditional music can be
performed in schools on traditionalsounding instruments, new ensembles that use authentic instruments
are finally emerging (and re-energizing music programs). A tidal wave of
African drumming ensembles-in
which participants play Akan, Asanti,
Ewe, and Ga rhythms from Ghana in
a circle format-is rekindling the
EDUCATORS
JOURNAL
musical interests of upper-elementary and middle school students.
Trinidadian steel drums, or pan
ensembles, are a popular music elective for students from upper-elementary school onward. Mariachi bands
are sprinkled into high school programs from Oklahoma and Texas to
Arizona and California. Latin-flavored selections that feature guiros,
claves, reco-recos, and surdo (drum)
are increasingly included in the
repertoire of high school jazz bands.
Shona-style marimba music of
Zimbabwe played on Orff and oversized wood xylophones is a recent
from the Pacific
development
Northwest that is making its way
eastward. Secondary school teachers
who wish to maintain their longstanding school ensembles may still
develop new groups such as these to
multiculturalize the curriculum.
Are We There Yet?
Like children on a long car ride, we
might wonder, "Arewe there yet?" relative to the fate of multiculturalism.
No doubt, there has been a paradigm
shift within the profession, and it rests
in the repertoire. Musica exotica, it
might be called, the exoticization of
repertoire for various levels and settings, with the implicit assumption
that the more distant the culture from
which the music has come, the better.13The multicultural music education movement (which some have
called world music education) has
been primarily about musical diversity, with less regard for the cultural
interfaces, contexts, and processes of
the music. Perhaps this is because it is
easier and far more economical to
publish instructional packages complete with fully notated melodies than
it is to run institutes for teachers in
which culture-bearers transmit the
music (and not incidentally, cultural
constructs, too) in a traditional timehonored manner. It may also be that
music teachers are naturally drawn to
the music, are captivated by the new
and unfamiliar styles that the world
has to offer, and hold fast to the ideal
that good music from anywhere in the
world will gain and maintain the
attention of young people-a reasonable assumption, although not failsafe without the knowledgeable delivSEPT
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ery of a strong teacher who knows his
or her students well.
The movement, it must be noted,
has focused less on the cultural diversity of the students and the communities from which they come. Multiculturalism assumes that the values of all
students are sought and accepted and
that the design and delivery of knowledge and skills are sensitive to their
experiences, interests, and needs. But
there are minorities close to home,
having many generations of heritage
in the U.S., who do not see the content or method of school music as relevant to them. The urban music initiatives that spun out of the civil rights
movement were short-lived, and the
profession has given little attention to
preservice and in-service training of
teachers working within cities, barrios, and reservations. The challenge
of making music education a multicultural endeavor is to seek ways to
match program offerings to student
needs, to understand differentiated
learning modalities, to develop social
transaction skills, and to gain as
teachers the cultural competence to
communicate music-any music-to
young people of various cultural backgrounds.
In a host of instructional
packagesbyprofessional
societiesand publishing
companies,musichas been I
found,arranged,and created
to bringmusicaldiversityto
classroomsand ensemblesin
elementaryand
secondaryschool.
Activity on the multicultural front
is still tilted toward programs in the
elementary school, with teachers of
children in general music classes
assuming the greatest responsibility of
a district's mandate. The practice of
musical tourism (the whirlwind tour
of songs from many lands), however,
may breed more of an exposure than
an educational outcome for young
students, and elementary teachers
may want to consider the gains of
offering children the knowledge of
fewer cultures in greater depth. A
multicultural directive could be continued from kindergarten through
high school; otherwise, children who
are introduced to a wide variety of
sounds but are gradually deprived of
choices as they approach middle
school will not choose music as a
prime elective. Beyond the splinter
group of students geared toward the
standard school ensembles, there is
hope for the greater masses with the
establishment of pan or drumming
ensembles. If schools could move
toward offering an "other" ensemble
(even through the contract hiring of a
specialist), it might be possible to
attract students who love a different
kind of music than the standard
school offerings. In this way, the
responsibility for teaching from a multicultural perspective extends through
all the grade levels and relates to cultural as well as musical diversity. See
the Multicultural Music Education
Resources sidebar for sources of additional information.
We are not there yet, multiculturally speaking. In shaping music education in this time of cultural transformation, there are grand leaps forward
but also concerns that the profession
may become complacent with its
accomplishments in diversifying the
curriculum. There is even indication
of a backlash, of a pendulum swinging
past the center to programs that use
"world music" without thoughtful
consideration of its cultural meaning
to the people of its place of origin or
to the varied population of students
within the classroom. Also, some
teachers have not yet moved out of a
one-track, Eurocentric valuing of the
music of their earlier training that
they wish to pass on to their own students. Other teachers are working,
without great substance, to have their
students sing or play many songs-all
in the same way. The period ahead will
be a telling time, when the increased
population of minorities will have
their say about societal changes and
curricular redesign. Maybe, in the
31
Multicultural Music
Education Resources
Anderson, William M., and Marvelene C. Moore, eds. Making Connections:
Multicultural
Musicand the NationalStandards.Reston,VA:MENC, 1997.
Anderson, William M., and Patricia Shehan Campbell, eds. Multicultural
Perspectivesin MusicEducation.Reston,VA:MENC, 1989 and 1996.
2001.
Campbell,PatriciaShehan.LessonsfromtheWorld.NewYork:McGraw-Hill,
'i1
,I
C
9- J
k fj
i g r:
Music in Cultural
Context: Eight
Views on World
Music Education*
Campbell,PatriciaShehan,ed. Musicin CulturalContext:EightViewsonWorldMusic
Education.Reston,VA:MENC, 1996.
Floyd,Malcolm,ed. WorldMusicsin Education.Hants,UK:Scolar Press, 1996.
What is
Fowler,Charles.Music!Its Roleand Importancein OurLives.NewYork:Glencoe,
1994.
world music?
Margot.TeachingMusicsof theWorld.Affalterbach,Germany:Philipp
Leith-Phillipp,
1995.
Verlag,
find materials
America.New
Lornell,Kip,and Anne K. Rasmussen,eds. Musicsof Multicultural
York:Schirmer,1997.
Nettl, Bruno,and Ruth M.Stone, eds. The GarlandEncyclopediaof WorldMusic.
10 vols. New York:Routledge, 1997-2002.
Nettl, Bruno,et al. Excursionsin WorldMusic. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River,NJ:
Prentice Hall,2001.
Reimer,Bennett,ed. WorldMusicsand MusicEducation:
Facingthe Issues.Reston,
VA:MENC,2002.
Stock,Jonathan.WorldSoundMatters.London:Schott, 1996.
to the Music of the World's
Titon, JeffTodd, ed. Worldsof Music:An Introduction
CA:
2001.
Schirmer,
Peoples.Belmont,
Foundationsand Principles.
Volk,Terese M.Music,Education,and Multiculturalism:
New York:Oxford UniversityPress, 1998.
Where can I
Eight Views on
WorldMusic Education
,. ",
I IX,,,
.. I ,
our own.
Notes
1. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Philadelphia
Negro: A Social Study (Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1899);
Carter Godwin Woodson, The Mis-education of the Negro (Washington, DC:
Associated Publishers, 1933).
2. James A. Banks, "Multicultural
Education: Historical Development,
32
Dimensions, and Practice,"in Handbookof
Research on MulticulturalEducation, eds.
James A. Banks and Cherry A. McGee
Banks (New York:Macmillan, 1995).
3. David A. Hollinger, Postethnic
America: Beyond Multiculturalism (New
York:Basic Books, 1995).
4. James A. Banks, Multiethnic
Education: Theory and Practice (Boston:
Allyn and Bacon, 1994); Christine E.
Sleeter and Carl A. Grant, "AnAnalysis of
Multicultural Education in the United
it? Is there a
UI
difference between
"authentic" and "traditional" music? These key
questions and others are
addressed in this series of
eight interviews that first
in
Music
appeared
EducatorsJournal. Patricia
Shehan Campbell
asks
eight ethnomusicologists
to provide information on
advice on introducing that
culture's music to the
classroom setting. 1996.
88 pages.
ISBN 1-56545-100-7
#1634. $19.00/$14.25
MENC members
Toorder,use the MENC
Resources
order form on page 71.
Continued on page 54
MUSIC
..
for teaching
a specific culture and give
end, all cultures will blend, and all
musical features will fuse. But, for
now, the challenge of the profession
remains: to develop in all young people the skills and knowledge of some
of the musical expressions that
resound in a cultural democracy like
I
EDUCATORS
JOURNAL
andMusic
Cultural
Transformation Technology
Continuedfrom page 32
Continuedfrom page 43
States," Harvard Educational Review 57,
no. 4 (1988): 421-44.
5. Terese M. Volk, Music, Education,
and Multiculturalism(New York: Oxford
University Press, 1988); Patricia Shehan
Campbell, "Music, Education, and
Community in a MulticulturalSociety,"in
Cross Currents, ed. Marie McCarthy
(College Park, MD: University of
Maryland, 1996); Marie McCarthy, "The
Birth of Internationalism in Music
Education, 1899-1938," International
Journal of Music Education 21 (1993):
3-15.
6. Robert A. Choate, ed., Documentary
Report of the Tanglewood Symposium
(Washington, DC: Music Educators
National Conference, 1968).
7. Michael L. Mark, "MENC: From
Tanglewood to the Present," in Vision
2020: The HousewrightSymposiumon the
Futureof Music Education,ed. Clifford K.
Madsen (Reston, VA:MENC, 2000).
8. "Music in World Cultures," special
focus issue of the Music EducatorsJournal
59, no. 2 (1972).
9. James A. Standifer and Barbara
Reeder, Source Book of African and AfroAmerican Materials for Music Educators
(Washington, DC: Contemporary Music
Project, 1972).
10. See Standifer and Reeder, Source
Book; William M. Anderson, Teaching
Asian Musics in Elementaryand Secondary
Schools (Dallas: Taylor Publishing
Company, 1975); and Sally Monsour,
Songs of the Middle East (Miami: Warner
Bros. Publications, 1995).
11. William M. Anderson and Patricia
Shehan Campbell, eds., Multicultural
Perspectivesin Music Education (Reston,
VA: Music Educators National Conference, 1989). A second edition was published in 1996.
12. These articles are compiled in
Patricia Shehan Campbell, Music in
Cultural Context: Eight Views on World
Music Education (Reston, VA: Music
Educators National Conference, 1996).
13. PatriciaShehan Campbell, "Musica
Exotica, Multiculturalism, and School
Music," The QuarterlyJournal of Music
Teachingand Learning 5, no. 2 (1994):
65-75. a
3. A Web site for exploring virtual
museum sites is: www.musicamecanica.
org/musica_mecanica/a/index.html. This
location provides links to hundreds of
museums internationally.
4. Reviews of the very first issues of the
MusicSupervisors'Journal
reveal advertisements for different models of the Victor
TalkingMachinevictrolaand for a series of
recordings from the firm that would
become the RCA recording company of
today. See Cynthia A. Hoover, The History
of Music Machines (New York: Drake
Publishers, 1975).
5. For more information on how this
phase affected music teaching, see Music
EducatorsJournal 57, no. 5 (1971). This
first special focus issue on music technology featuresarticleson synthesizeruse, programmed instruction, films, and computer-assistedinstruction.
6. An excellent review of these software
developments with large mainframe systems can be found in John M. Eddins, "A
Brief History of Computer-Assisted
Instruction in Music," College Music
Symposium21, no. 2 (1981): 7-14.
7. For more informationon this period,
see Music EducatorsJournal 69, no. 5
(1983). This is the MEJs second special
focus issue devoted to technology, and it
features articles on the microcomputer,
synthesizers, and music technology pedagogy
8. For a summary of some of these
developments, see MusicEducatorsJournal
79, no. 3 (1992). This is the MEJs third
special focus issue devoted to technology.
9. See Bill Waters, "Ideas for Effective
Web-Based Instruction," Music Educators
Journal85, no. 4 (1999): 13-17.
10. An excellent source on the emergence of constructionismas a modern philosophy for learning is: Yasmin Kafai and
Mitchell Resnick, eds., Constructionismin
Practice:Designing,Thinking,and Learning
in a Digital World(Mahwah,NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum,1996).
11. For a glimpse into how this might
occur, read about the work of Tod
Machover and others at the MIT Media
Lab, where new "hyperinstruments"are
being createdand used in interestingways.
See: www.media.mit.edu/-tod/
54
PERFORMING
MUSIC
WITH
UNDERSTANDING
The Challenge of the
National Standards
for Music Education
Presents
keyideasand
for
practical
suggestions
themusic
implementing
standards
through
Includes
disperformance.
cussionof howthestandards
applyto theperformance
aspectsofallmusicprograms,theroleof bodily
inperforming,
movement
modelrehearsal
strategies
thatincorporate
the
andeffective
standards,
ways
to broaden
theperformance
to include
music
repertoire
thatoftheWestern
beyond
tradition.
Basedona
Northwestern
University
MusicEducation
Leadership
Seminar.
Edited
byBennett
Reimer.
2000.216pages.
pages.ISBN1-56545-118-X.
#1672.$30.00/$22.50
MENC
members
To order, use the MENCResources
order form on page 71.
EDUCATORS
JOURNA
I