CONTENTS
Foreword
Introduction
The Poliquin International
Certification Program
1
2
Chapter 1
5
Classification of Strength Qualities
Chapter 2
Manipulating Reps for Optimal
Strength Gains
11
Chapter 3
IVianipulating Sets for Optimal
Strength Gains
41
Chapter 4
The Science of Rest Intervals
55
Chapter 5
The Science of Tempo
65
References
79
Afterword
85
Mission Statement
It is the mission of the Poliquin International
Certification Program to globally foster and educate
our strength coaches and personal trainers. Providing
them with superior education and practical application,
in turn will raise the level of sport performance and
healthy lifestyle ideas. Poliquin Performance was
founded on this philosophy and continues to be our
driving force to help us remain the world leader in
strength and conditioning education.
Program Overview
The Poliquin International Certification Program
(PICP) recognizes strength coaches around the world
who demonstrate the knowledge and skills able to
effectively train athletes internationally.
Higher-quality strength coaching is an imperative
component in improving sports performance. The
PICP will provide strength coaches with unsurpassed
skills in program design and teaching methodogies.
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual
© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
SPECIAL ^
THANKS TD
Fergus Connolly, PhD
Fergus Connolly, PhD, is an internationally respected
sports performance consultant based in Ireland.
Through his company, Connolly Sports Performance,
Connolly works with and advises elite coaches and
athletes in many sports all over the world, translating
theory to on-field results. Having been fortunate to
work with and learn from several of the world's best
coaches in many sports, Connolly is consistently
bridging the theory-practice gap in strength,
speed, training organization, injury prevention and
rehabilitation.
Some of his continuing research interests include the
following:
• Nervous System Monitoring, Feedback and
Optimization
• Optimal Power and Speed Development for
Team Sport Athletes
• Elite Athlete Nutrition and Targeted
Supplementation
• Applied Kinesiology and Biomechanical Analysis
• Injury Prevention and Elite Athlete Rehab
Connolly's research into physical therapy, injury
prevention and athlete monitoring includes product
design for monitoring, biofeedback, injury prevention
and training software aimed at team sports to
maximize player playing time and eliminate downtime
and fatigue.
Some of the elite athletes and coaches he has worked
with and advised include . . .
•Ashley Jones, Strength and Conditioning Coach,
Canterbury Crusaders, New Zealand
• John McCloskey, Armagh Coach, All-Ireland
Winners 2002, Ulster SFC 2004, 2005, 2006
• Phil Morrow, Strength and Conditioning Coach,
Ulster Rugby, Celtic League Champions 2005/2006
• Enda McNulty, Armagh Senior Footballer,
All-Ireland Winner 2002, All-Star 2002
•Aldan O'Connell, Strength and Conditioning Coach,
Munster Rugby, European Cup 2006
• Tom Crick, Sprints Coach, Loughborough
University Track and Field, UK
• Many individual athletes in many other teams and
sports, including rugby, soccer, hurling, and track
and field.
Connolly's by-invitation-only website and forum for
his clients and elite coaches - The Elite Edge - is the
fastest-growing resource for athletes and coaches
looking for cutting-edge knowledge across the world.
Contact Fergus Connolly at www.fergusconnolly.com.
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual
© Poliquin Peii'ormance Center 2010
FDREWDRD
Charles Poliquin is an extremely well-paid strength
coach who has trained countless elite athletes, both
amateur and professional. He began as a young man
fascinated with weight training and looking for a way to
make it his life's work. You may be in a similar position;
or you may be a personal trainer, a coach, a student
of exercise theory and methodology, an athlete looking
for an edge or a physician or physical caregiver.
Regardless, this course contains the theories and
methodologies that dictate how he writes strength
training routines. These routines are his bread and
butter - they separate a coach of winning athletes
from a coach of wannabes.
It is Coach Poliquin's aim to share with you the
science of strength coaching from his experience. It is
also his aim to help you become as successful as he
has been in the field of strength coaching. Yet, even
more importantly, he wants to help a new generation
of coaches to take the athletes of the next century to
greater feats and new world records through intelligent
training rather than anabolics and other chemical
means.
With increased contributions from the scientific
community, the subject of training methodologies - in
particular, loading parameters - has become rather
complex. However, science has not yet provided all
the answers; and therefore, we will continue to see
much variation in training methods. This course will
help to open doors as we continue to progress.
This primer in strength coaching theory is not meant to
answer every conceivable question. However, Coach
Poliquin believes it will bring you a big step closer to
answering most questions, and it will also prepare you
to draw the logical and correct conclusions as science
provides us with more keys to training success. It
will also help you coach athletes regardless of their
particular sports. Although this variety increases the
difficulty of determining the most effective program
for each athlete, this course is designed to be the
most thorough treatise available on modern strength
coaching techniques.
Upon completion of the Poliquin Performance
Certification Course you will be able to write
better routines for a wider variety of sport-specific
applications, enabling your athletes to fulfill their
physical potential. There's a lot of intense studying
ahead for you, but when you're finished I'm certain
you'll agree that your investment has certainly been
worth it.
Kim Goss
Strength and Fitness Writer/Editor
US Air Force Academy Strength Coach, 1987-94
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual
© Poliquin Peii'ormance Center 2010
Foreword
1
The Poliquin International Certification
Program (PICP)
The Poliquin Strength Institute team is proud to
present our program to meet the needs of strength
coaches throughout the world: the Poliquin
International Certification Program (PICP).
The mission of the PICP is to improve the level of
sports performance the world over though high-quality
strength coaching. We do this by providing coaches
with the latest information on program design and
teaching methodologies.
Program Levels
Levels 1 to 3 of the program are designed for
strength coaches who work with developing athletes
participating at levels ranging from regional to national.
Each level of the PICP has three components: theory,
technical and practical. The PICP issues a diploma
upon completion of each component.
Levels 4 and 5 of the program are for well-established
strength coaches interested in coaching at the
international or professional sports level. Levels 4
and 5 are geared to highly qualified strength coaches.
By the end of Level 5, the strength coach will have
completed 12 requirements.
PICP Level 1: Regional Coach
Upper Body Structural Balance
At the conclusion of the PICP Level 1 Course,
coaches and trainers will:
1. Understand all Theory 1 Principles
4. Understand Upper Body Exercise Progressions
and Variations
5. Be able to differentiate strength programs and
have an introduction to Program Design
6. Have an introduction to stretching techniques
THEORY
The Theory component is the Level 1 Theory Manual.
In the Theory 1 Manual, coaches and trainers will
learn to differentiate strength qualities and know
the scientific basis of the following training loading
parameters: Manipulation of Reps, Manipulation of
Sets, Rest Intervals and Science of Tempo.
Upon completion of the Theory 1 Manual, the Theory
1 Exam (50-question, Multiple Choice) will need to
be submitted. The passing grade is 92% and must be
passed before attending the course.
TECHNICAL
The Technical component consists of an in-class
lecture/presentation based on designing effective
strength programs. By the end of the course, a written
exam will be given. The passing grade is 92%.
PRACTICAL
To complete the Practical component, the coach
or trainer will administer an Upper Body Structural
Balance Assessment. Grades will be based on a Pass/
Fail System.
2. Understand the concept of Structural Balance
3. Be able to perform the Upper Body Structural
Balance Assessment
2
Introduction
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual
© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
PICP Level 2: State/Provincial
Coach, Lower Body Structural
Balance
At the conclusion of the course, coaches and
trainers will:
1. Understand all Theory 2 Principles
PICP Level 3: National Coach
9 Tasks
{7 of 9 Tasks must be completed to fulfill PICP Level 3
Requirements)
At the conclusion of the course, coaches and
trainers will:
2. Understand the concept of Structural Balance
1. Understand Principles of Nutrition
3. Be able to perform the Lower Body Structural
Balance Assessment
2. Know how to design effective Nutritional Plans
4. Understand important Lower Body Exercise
Progressions
5. Have an introduction to Short Term Periodization
6. Have an introduction to Rehabilitation Principles
THEORY
The Theory component is the Level 2 Theory Manual.
In the Theory 2 Manual, coaches and trainers will learn
Principles of Safe and Effective Training, Exercise
Selection, Number of Exercises, Rate of Exercise
Exchange, Exercise Order, and Training Frequency.
Upon completion of the Theory 2 Manual, the Theory
2 Exam (50-question, Multiple Choice) will need to
be submitted. The passing grade is 92% and must be
passed before attending the course.
TECHNICAL
The Technical component consists of an in-class
lecture/presentation. The technical exam is designing
a lower body program with a given case study. Grades
will be based on a Pass/Fail System.
PRACTICAL
To complete the Practical component, the coach or
trainer will administer a Lower Body Structural Balance
Assessment. Grades will be based on a Pass/Fail
System.
3. Understand factors influencing Energy System
Prescription
4. Understand Principles of Energy Systems
5. Know how to help Prevent and Rehabilitate Upper
and Lower Body Injuries
6. Understand Supplementation for effective Training
and Athletic Performance
7. Understand Exercises and Variations for Applied
Functional Strength
8. Know how to design an effective Short-Term
Periodization program
9. Understand the fundamentals of Olympic Lifting
10. Understand new techniques for instant muscle
strengthening
THEORY
The Theory component is the Nutrition Manual. In the
Nutrition Manual, coaches and trainers will learn the
principles of Macronutrients, Calories, Hormones, Diet
Programs and Medication and Supplements.
Upon completion of the Nutrition Manual, the Nutrition
Exam (72-question, Multiple Choice) will need to be
submitted. The passing grade is 92% and must be
passed before attending the course.
TECHNICAL
The technical component consists of 14 gym-hours
and 14 hours of in-class lecture throughout the
duration of the course.
PRACTICAL
The practical component is designed to provide
coaches with feedback on their effectiveness when
coaching in the weight room.
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual
© Poliquin Peitormance Center 2010
Introduction
3
At this level, there is a specific criterion the PICP
will need to grant you in this component. You will
have to prove that you have at least one athlete
who followed your program and has participated in a
national championship and finished at a performance
level representing 90% of the average of the first 3
competitors. For example, if the average throw is 20
meters, the athlete will need to throw 18 meters.
PICP Level 4: International Coach
6 Tasks
At the conclusion of the course, coaches and
trainers will:
1. Understand Principles of Long Term Periodization
2. Know Training Recovery Methods
3. Learn How to Increase Your Revenue
PICP Level 5: Master Strength Coach
The highest goal in the Poliquin International
Certification Program is to reach the International
Master Course Conductor (IMCC) level. This level
falls under jurisdiction of the Poliquin Strength Institute
with the collaboration of the National Sport Governing
Organization (NSGO). The identification of an IMCC
needs the approval of both organizations.
This level is competency-based according to the
coach's experience and his form of education. The
coaches who desire this level of certification have
to submit their curriculum to the Poliquin Strength
Institute. All curriculums are based on the achievement
of the candidate.
Only active coaches can qualify for this level. You
need to meet four of the seven following criteria to
obtain the IMCC qualification:
• Train a medalist at the Olympic Games
4. Know Advanced Strength Training Techniques
5. Learn Stretching Techniques
• Train a medalist at the Senior World
Championships
6. Understand the Fundamentals of Plyometrics and
Speed Progressions
• Participate officially as a coach or athlete at the
Olympic Games or World Championships
PICP Level 4 represents one of the final steps of
the PICP for coaches and is designed for those
working with high performance athletes and for those
interested in pursuing a successful career in coaching.
Level 4 consists of Six Tasks. Coaches will learn
new tools that assist in the training of national caliber
athletes. They need to successfully complete the tasks
• Train a World Record Holder in a recognized
discipline
Only active coaches qualify for this level. You need to
complete the six tasks and have two of the 5 criteria to
obtain the ICC qualification:
• Participate officially as a coach or an athlete at the
Olympic Games
• Train an athlete who wins a distinguished award
in the professional league: i.e. Norris (NHL),
Cy Young (MLB)
• Develop course material for the PICP
• Work as a National Coach for 5 years
* Note: World Championships are for recognized
disciplines where coaching is a factor: i.e. track and
field, alpine skiing, volleyball, etc... Examples of sports
not recognized are: ice dancing, speed skiing.
• Participate officially as a coach or an athlete at the
World Championships
• Participate officially as a coach on the World Cup
circuit
• Coach an athlete to the Senior World
Championships
• Coach an athlete to the Olympic Games
• Coach an athlete on the World Cup circuit
4
Introduction
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual
© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
Classification of Strength Qualities
strength can be classified into many
different types, each defined by differing
capabilities of the neuromuscular system
and different time frames of strength
expression. Some types of strength can
be defined even more specifically by the
type of muscular contraction. This chapter
classifies these capabilities and defines
these contraction types.
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual
© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
Chapter 1
PRE-TEST
1. Maximal involuntary strengtii is another term for
which of the following?
A. maximal strength
B. limit strength
C. fascia strength
D. explosive power
neuromuscular system to produce the greatest
possible force in the shortest possible time frame?
A. reactive strength
2. How many types of maximal voluntary strength
are there?
A. 3
7. Which of these is a plyometric activity?
A. depth jumping
B. bounding
C. hurdle hops
B. 4
C. 15
D. 16
B. speed-strength
C. compensatory acceleration
D. B and C
D. All the above
8. The athlete's tolerance level to fatigue in
strength performance of longer duration is related
to what term?
A. aerobic volume
B. strength endurance
C. anaerobic endurance
D. neuromuscular volume
3. Which of these activities best represents an
isometric contraction?
A. the set position in sprinting
B. the shift phase of a roundhouse uppercut
C. the lowering phase of a bench press
D.B and C
4. The maximal stimulus to the neuromuscular
system is achieved by what type of contraction?
A. concentric
B. isometric
C. helvetica
D. eccentric
9. Optimal strength can best be described by
which of the following definitions?
A. the maximal force an athlete can generate,
irrespective of bodyweight and time of force
development
B. the optimal level of maximal strength needed for
a particular sport
C. the capacity to develop a vertical rise in force
once movement has been initiated
D. the ability to maintain postural balance in acyclic
activities
5. Isokinetic strength training would be most
appropriate for which sport/s?
A. canoeing
B. swimming
C. ice squash
D. Aand B
6. What term is used to represent the ability of the
10. In what phase is intensity the main stressor?
A. accumulation phase
B. intensification phase
C. Gamma phase
D. Both Aand B
a-OI. a-6 9-8 Q-L a-9 a-9 a-t'V-e V-3 an sjeMsuvisai-eJd
6
Chapter 1
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual
© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
C HAPTER 1
In certain sporting movements, such as moving out of
starting blocks in sprinting, an isometric contraction in
the set position precedes a concentric contraction, but
there is no external movement.
Classificatidn of
Strength Qualities
Experimental research and empirical evidence have
shown over and over that the amount of resistance
(load) used for a specific exercise is probably the most
important variable in resistance training (McDonagh
& Davies 1984, Spassov 1988). In other words, the
level of tension imposed upon the muscle is critical
for obtaining a strength response. The degree of
loading is usually described in terms of repetitions
maximum (RM). For instance the maximal weight
that can be lifted correctly four consecutive times
without significant rest would be known as 4RM. The
relationship between repetitions and the maximum is
known as the 1RM continuum.
Strength can be classified into many different
types, each defined by differing capabilities of the
neuromuscular system and different time frames of
strength expression. Some types of strength can be
defined even more specifically by the type of muscular
contraction. This chapter classifies these capabilities
and defines these contraction types.
Limit Strength. The peak force or torque the
neuromuscular system is capable of exerting in a
single maximal contraction. Limit strength is typified by
a survival (instinctual) response to a life-threatening
situation that involves little or no prior thought or
preparation. Limit strength is also known as maximal
involuntary strength.
IVIaximal Strength. The peak force or torque the
neuromuscular system is capable of producing in a
single maximal voluntary contraction, irrespective of
the time element. There are three types of voluntary
maximal strength, one for each type of muscular
contraction: isometric, concentric and eccentric.
Isometric (Static) Contraction. A muscle develops
tension while its length remains unchanged, thus
producing no external movement. In other words, a
muscle develops tension without a change in joint
angle. However, the muscle belly and accompanying
fascia do shorten internally during the process of
developing tension, but this shortening in the agonist
is countered equally by a shortening in the antagonist.
Concentric Contraction. The muscle develops
tension and shortens, causing movement to occur
During a chin-up, the joint angle at the elbow is
decreased from 180 degrees to 15 degrees as the
biceps works concentrically, resulting in an elevation of
the body.
Eccentric Contraction. The muscle lengthens while
producing tension, thus braking or controlling the
speed of movement. This contraction is exemplified by
the action of the quadriceps during the lowering phase
of the squat.
An eccentric contraction of the biceps occurs by
lowering the body from the completed chin-up position,
with the elbow joint angle increasing from 15 degrees
to 180 degrees. During the positive phase in the bench
press, the triceps contract concentrically as the joint
angle at the elbow increases, but contract eccentrically
as the joint angle decreases during the return phase
(the weight moves up, and then down, respectively).
The highest forces that the human body is voluntarily
capable of occur during an eccentric contraction, i.e.,
forces of 40 to 50 percent above values produced
by concentric contractions. Maximal eccentric
strength exercises provide maximal stimulus to the
neuromuscular system, but at a cost to the athlete of
greater levels of muscle soreness.
Isokinetic Contraction. Literally, "same speed,"
meaning that the muscle performs a maximal
contraction in moving the joint at constant speed
throughout the full range of motion. With an isokinetic
action the contraction is maximal throughout the range
of motion: thus, the resistance against which the
muscle works varies depending on the length of lever
arm offered by the changing joint angle.
An accommodating resistance apparatus allows a
constant and predetermined speed of movement.
The force exerted by the contracting muscle must
be maximal during an isokinetic contraction. Some
isokinetic devices also allow the maximum speed
of contraction to be preset and thereby enable the
simulation of contraction speeds required by a specific
sport.
Isokinetic strength training is most specific to the
so-called isokinetic sports, such as swimming.
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual
© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
Chapter 1
7
synchronized swimming, canoeing and kayaking,
where acceleration occurs against the resistance
provided by water (i.e., water is an isokinetic medium).
It has low specificity in sports such as sprinting,
jumping and throwing, where acceleration against
gravity plays a major role. However, it does provide the
option in any sport of exposing the nervous system to
a different stimulus for all athletes, thus adhering to the
principle of variety.
per unit of time; the ability of the neuromuscular
system to continue developing the already initiated
force as quickly as possible; the rate at which one can
develop maximal or peak force.
Maximal strength plays a major role in sports where
great external resistance must be overcome, such as
hammer throwing, shot-putting and weightlifting. Its
importance as a determinant of athletic performance
diminishes as the duration of the event increases.
For example, swimming for 50 meters requires more
maximal strength than swimming for 1500 meters. As
Table 1.1 indicates, strength requirements vary greatly
from one sport to another. Sports of an intermittent
nature (such as racquetball), which require intense
bursts of power interspaced with lower-intensity
recovery periods, are also dependent on high levels of
maximal strength.
Reactive Strength. The ability to quickly switch from
an eccentric contraction to a concentric contraction.
This is also known as the stretch-shortening cycle.
Reactive strength regulates performance in sports
where stretch-shortening activity of the musculature is
great, e.g., volleyball, basketball and weightlifting.
Speed-Strength (power or fast strength, elastic
strength). The ability of the neuromuscular system
to produce the greatest possible force in the
shortest possible time frame. It is the capacity of the
neuromuscular system to overcome resistance with
the greatest contraction speed possible.
Speed-strength is a high priority in most cyclical
sports, such as in the field events; in the sprinting,
kicking, jumping and throwing activities of team sports;
and in the starts and acceleration phases of sprinting,
cycling, rowing, cross-country skiing, ice skating and
kayaking.
Speed-strength encompasses three other strength
qualities: starting strength, explosive strength and
reactive strength.
Starting Strength. The capacity to generate maximal
force at the beginning of a muscular contraction;
the capacity to overcome resistance and initiate
movement. Starting strength is of importance in
movements that require great initial speed, such as
boxing blows and racquetball thrusts. Starting strength
is a key determinant of performance in sports where
the resistance to overcome is relatively light. It is
dependent on the number of motor units accessed at
the beginning of the contraction.
Explosive Strength. The capacity to develop a
vertical rise in force once movement has been
initiated, measured in terms of the increase in force
8
Chapter 1
Explosive strength is a key determinant of
performance in sports where the resistance to
overcome is relatively great, such as wrestling,
hammer throwing and shot-putting.
Plyometrics. A form of training that utilizes fast
eccentric contractions followed by explosive concentric
contractions. Such activities as bounding, depth
jumping and certain forms of medicine ball work satisfy
this requirement. The term "plyometric" refers to the
enhancement of force development of a concentric
contraction that occurs when it is immediately
preceded by a rapid eccentric contraction.
As a training method, plyometrics bridge the gap
between pure strength training and speed-strength
training. This training method aims at producing the
explosive-reactive movements inherent in takedowns
in wrestling and in jumping, throwing and sprinting.
Strength Endurance (muscular endurance).
The athlete's tolerance level to fatigue in strength
performances of longer duration. It is the capacity
of a muscle to maintain consistent force output with
repeated contractions over time at a percentage of
maximal strength superior to 30 percent, the capacity
of muscles to resist fatigue while generating force over
a period of time.
Strength endurance is characterized by high strength
levels coupled with high levels of endurance. It is of
particular importance in cyclical endurance events,
such as rowing, cross-country skiing, swimming and
canoeing/kayaking, where the ability to overcome
exceptional resistance must be maintained over long
periods. It also plays a key role in sports or events of a
cyclical nature, such as gymnastics, wrestling, boxing,
judo, downhill skiing and most team sports.
Absolute Strength. The maximum force an athlete
can generate, irrespective of bodyweight and time of
force development. Bodyweight and performance are
closely correlated in athletes where absolute strength
is an important physical quality, such as throwers and
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual
© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
Discipline
Qualification
Full Squat in kg
Bench Press in kg
Weightlifting
220 kg jerk
285
70.0 (100)
Shot Put
20 m
235
200.0
Hammer Throw
72 m
225
190.0
Sprint
9.78 s
200
190.0
Cycling
Sprint
205
97.5
Bobsleigh
Olympic team
200
140.0
Hammer Throw
60 m
180
150.0
Judo (86 kg)
Olympic team
180
140.0
Alpine Ski
National team
170
80.0
Speed Skating
40.5 s
150
-
Shot Put
14 m
140
115.0
Decathlon
8,000 points
145
110.0
Decathlon
7,500 points
130
95.0
Rowing
National class
140
90.0
Badminton
National league
95
65.0
TABLE 1.1 Maximal strength performances of male athletes in different sports and with different levels of
qualification. (Modified from Letzeiter & Letzeiter 1986, Poliquin 1988).
American football linemen. These athletes can use
maximal strength gains through hypertrophy methods.
Relative Strength. The maximum force an athlete can
generate per unit of bodyweight irrespective of time of
force development. High relative strength is of critical
importance to performance in sports in which athletes
have to move their entire bodyweight, e.g., jumps,
gymnastics and sports that involve weight classes,
such as judo, wrestling and boxing. Strength training
for these athletes should aim at improving the neural
drive (maximal weights/nervous system methods).
Optimal Strength. The optimal level of maximal
strength needed for a particular sport (any further
increase in maximal strength would not improve
performance). In sports such as powerlifting,
where strength is expressed at slow speeds, the
level of optimal strength is open-ended; that is,
the more strength the athlete has, the higher the
sports performance. In sports where motor skill
predominates, such as table tennis, the levels of
optimal strength are quite low, since maximal strength
and performance are not highly correlated in these
sports. Table 1.1 illustrates the different levels of
strength commonly found in elite athletes.
Accumulation Phase. A training phase where the
main stressor is volume. Increased muscle crosssection or increased strength endurance levels are
sought in this phase.
Intensification Phase. A training phase where the
main stressor is intensity. Increases in relative strength
or speed-strength are sought in this phase.
In strength training the total volume of work varies
considerably from one sport to another. What
represents intensification for one sport is accumulation
for another. For example, when synchronized
swimmers are working in the 6-8RM range, they are
doing intensification work; for weightlifters this range
represents accumulation.
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual
© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
Chapter 1
9
The Four Strength Qualities
RELATIVE
FUNCTIONAL
Athletes who need high levels of
relative strength include gymnasts, high
jumpers, short track speed skaters, and
sports that involve weight classes, such
as judo, wrestling and boxing.
HYPERTROPHY
Athletes who need high levels of
functional strength include football
skill positions, sprinters and baseball
players.
ENDURANCE
Athletes who need high levels of
hypertrophy include football lineman
and shot putters.
Athletes who need high levels of
strength endurance include rowers,
cross-country skiers, swimmers,
canoeists, kayakers and figure skaters.
PICTURES 1.1-1.4
10
Chapter 1
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual
© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
Manipulating Reps for Optimal
Strength Gains
The first step in designing workout
programs should be deciding how many
reps to perform. The selection of reps
affects all other components of a workout.
Sets, tempo, rest intervals and even
exercise selection are influenced by the
number of reps performed.
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual
© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
Chapter 2
PRE-TEST
1. What determines how much tension is imposed
on a muscle?
A. how much weight is lifted
6. MUA is an acronym for what exercise term?
A. muscular unit activity
B. motor-unit activation
0. motor-unit acceleration
D. none of the above
B. friction of the muscle fibers during muscular
contraction
C. volume
7. What is the optimal intensity zone for a single
muscle group?
A. 50-70 percent of maximum
B. 70-80 percent of maximum
C. 70-85 percent of maximum
D. none of the above
D . B and C
2. What is the effect of reducing the speed of
movement of an exercise?
A. increase in the time a muscle is under tension
B. increase of muscle friction
C. increase in the intensity of the exercise
D. increase in the activation of Nelson motor units
3. What is a simple way to describe the intensity of
an exercise?
A. neuromuscular manipulating
B. repetition maximum (RM)
C. set maximum (SM)
D. volume/intensity ratio
4. What is a common way to explain the
relationship between reps and sets?
A. accumulation
8. Which of the following rep brackets would best
apply to functional training?
A. 1-5 reps
B. 6-8 reps
C. 10-12 reps
D. 10-15 reps
9. A 3011 tempo would yield a time-under-tension
value of how many seconds?
A. 4
B. 5
C. 6
B. Orion sequence
C. co-dependent
D. 7
D. 1RM continuum
5. Which of the following is true?
A. Low repetitions produce greater gains in
maximal strength.
B. High repetitions produce greater gains in
maximal strength.
C. The capital city of Iran is Iraq.
10. A 301X tempo would yield a time-under-tension
value of how many seconds?
A. 4
B. 5
C. 6
D. 7
D. Low repetitions produce greater gains in
strength-endurance.
v-01 a-6 a-8 a-z a-9 v-9 a-t^ a-e v-z v-i. sjbmsuv isej-ejd
12
Chapter 2
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Manipulating Reps for Optimal
Strength Gains
There is an abundance of peer-reviewed literature that
suggests the amount of resistance used for a specific
exercise is probably the single most important variable
in strength training (McDonagh & Davies 1984; Fleck
& Kraemer 1987).
How much weight is lifted (the load) determines how
much tension is imposed upon a muscle, and how
much tension is imposed upon a muscle determines
the strength training response.
Because the number of repetitions performed
influences how much an athlete can lift, this chapter
will review the basic principles for selecting reps. I've
come up with 24 principles, many that overlap and all
of which are important.
those performed by strength-power athletes, according
to the universally accepted definition of "intensity."
To increase training intensities using conventional
resistance training, a coach can either have his or
her athletes work at a higher percentage of maximum
ability (lifting heavier weights) or have them move
the weight faster during the concentric portion of an
exercise. Regarding this second point, proponents of
the "super-slow" weight training programs often claim
that their protocols are more intense than conventional
programs. Not quite. Reducing the speed of movement
of an exercise merely increases the time a muscle is
under tension, not the intensity.
I suggest you read this chapter several times and
review it periodically, as the information I'm about to
share with you is especially important and immediately
applicable to training.
The intensity of an exercise can be described in
terms of repetitions maximum (RM). For example,
the maximum weight that can be correctly lifted four
consecutive times without significant rest would be
known as the 4RM. The relationship between reps and
repetition maximum is known as the 1RM continuum
(Fig. 2.1).
Principle 1: The number of reps for a
given time under tension dictates the
training effect
Note: For this standard terminology, all reps are performed at
a moderate tempo for the eccentric range (3-4 seconds) and
as rapidly as possible for the concentric contraction.
How much weight an athlete lifts during a set gives the
coach immediate feedback about how closely athletes
are working to their maximum capacity.
The concept of workout intensity is often
misunderstood because bodybuilding magazines
use the term "intensity" to describe workouts that
are especially difficult. But the fact is, because
bodybuilders use relatively lighter weights (compared
to powerlifters, Olympic-style weightlifters and other
athletes involved in strength-power sports such as
football), bodybuilders' training cannot be as intense.
It's not that bodybuilders' training is easy but that their
workouts are not as hard on the nervous system as
Although the number of reps an athlete performs
influences the training effect (Fig. 2.2), it's also
important to consider the speed at which these reps
are performed. Unfortunately, in the strength training
literature most researchers have failed to take into
consideration the effects of different repetition speeds,
assuming that all reps are performed at roughly the
same tempo.
The number of repetitions you select will fall on
what's called a neuromuscular axis (Fig. 2.3). This
theory states that for a given tempo of execution,
lower repetitions emphasize neural adaptation and
higher repetitions emphasize muscular adaptation.
The scientific basis for this premise has been proven
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Chapter 2
13
1RM CONTINUUM
100
90
E
3
E
'S
ro
Z
Rowers
80
#
70
Normal
60
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 0
1 1
1 2
Repetitions
FIGURE 2.1 The relationship between reps and the one-repetition maximum is known as the 1RM continuum.
time and again: Groups training with low repetitions
achieved greater gains in maximal strength; groups
training with high repetitions achieved greater gains in
strength-endurance.
Principle 2: Maximal voluntary
contractions are essential to the
strength training process
The foundation of all successful resistance training
programs is the inclusion of maximal voluntary
contractions (Fleck & Schutt 1985, MacDougall 1986).
Maximal voluntary contractions can be defined as "the
attempt to recruit as many motor units as possible to
develop force." This definition has some limitations,
however, because neural mechanisms may inhibit an
athlete's ability to exert maximal force.
A maximum voluntary contraction does not necessarily
equal a 1RM load. It could mean the performance
of the last repetition of a 6RM load, wherein the 7th
repetition is impossible to perform. Therefore, the
last repetition of the set is accomplished by a muscle
reaching a fatigued state, at which point maximal force
is produced.
maximums, MUA increases with each subsequent
submaximal contraction, becoming maximal with
fatigue.
The use of repetition maximums complies with the
principle of overload because the muscle must
exert force against a resistance it normally does not
encounter. In other words, maximal effort must be
exerted to achieve maximal MUA, which will stimulate
neural adaptations and lead to enhanced strength.
If you accept the idea that one of the most important
physiological factors in strength training is maximal
MUA, an effective way to strength train would be the
rest-pause method.
With the rest-pause method the athlete begins with a
1RM load, causing all motor units to be fully activated.
Because fatigue would prevent the athlete from
lifting this weight again, the weight is reduced slightly
(2-5 percent) so that he or she can perform another
repetition. Although the weight is lighter, maximal
MUA would occur because the athlete is fatigued from
the previous rep (Fig. 2.4). The process would be
repeated, usually for no more than a total of 8 reps.
Working with 1RM loads enables an athlete to
achieve maximal motor-unit activation (MUA) with
each contraction. With a greater number of repetition
14
Chapter 2
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© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
POLIQUIN TRAINING EFFECT CURVE
u
u
I Relative
lU
OI
c
c
I Functional
ro
I.
I-
Hypertrophy
t*-
o
IEndurance
^ ® ®
1213
Repetitions
To 16 17 la
® —
Endurance
Relative
FIGURE 2.2 The Poliquin Training Effect Curve illustrates how the number of reps influences the training effect.
NEUROMUSCULAR AXIS
100
Metabolic
Adaptations
FIGURE 2.3 The Neuromuscular Axis illustrates that lower reps emphasize neural adaptation, and higher reps
emphasize muscular adaptation.
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© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
Chapter 2
15
Principle 3: Use 70 to 100 percent
of maximum capacity to develop
maximal strength
Principle 4: The range in repetitions
for strength training decreases with
training age
According to leading experts in strength training,
the best way to develop maximal strength is to use
weights that allow an athlete to perform 1-12 reps at
70-100 percent of the athlete's maximum (Feser 1977;
Letzeiter & Letzeiter 1986; McDonagh & Davies 1984)
(Fig. 2.5). There is, however, controversy as to what is
considered minimum intensity.
Training age influences the 1RM continuum. Training
age refers to the number of years an athlete has been
participating in serious strength training. If an athlete
has been strength training seriously for one year, that
athlete has a training age of one; if it's two years, that
equals a training age of two, and so on.
Some sport scientists believe the minimum intensity
level in strength training is 75 percent (Harre et al.
1989), while others suggest a minimum intensity as
low as 60 percent (Allsen et al. 1984; MacDougall
1986). Although beginners (and especially women)
can often make excellent progress using 60 percent
intensities, this intensity level may be better suited for
the development of muscular endurance (Letzeiter &
Letzeiter 1986; Schmidtbleicher 1985).
The bottom line is that there is an optimal threshold of
intensity required to stimulate strength gains, and as
such a coach must closely monitor and adjust intensity
levels and repetition ranges.
The average beginning weight trainee can often
perform a 20RM at 75 percent of maximum. After one
year of training he or she may be down to 10RM for
the same percentage, and after five years the same
athlete may barely be able to perform 4RM (Table
2.1). Also, differences in the 1RM between sexes have
been demonstrated (Table 2.2), as well as differences
between individuals (Chernik 1983, Poliquin & Leger
1990).
Applying this knowledge to the development of
maximal strength, a male athlete with a training age
of one year who can bench press 200 pounds may be
able to do 12 reps at 140 pounds (70 percent of max).
By the time this athlete can bench press 400 pounds,
he may be able to complete only 6 reps at his new 70
MOTOR-UNIT ACTIVATION
100
Pounds
100%
MUA
1
2
3
4
5
6
Repetitions
FIGURE 2.4 This graph demonstrates how fatigue can influence motor-unit activation.
16
Chapter 2
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© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
DEVELOPMENT OF MAXIMAL STRENGTH
FIGURE 2.5 The leading experts in strength training have determined that the best way to develop maximal
strength is to use weights at 70-100 percent of the athlete's maximum. Lighter weights may cause an athlete to
lose strength.
percent of maximum, which in this case is 280 pounds.
Because it is generally agreed upon in the strength
training community that 70 percent of maximum is the
minimum threshold for strength development, it would
not be wise to use programs that emphasize weights
lower than 70 percent (or repetitions higher than 6),
as the weight would be too light to elicit a strength
response (Fig. 2.6).
Principle 5: The intensity-zone
repetition bracket is specific to the
muscle
The 1RM continuum varies greatly among muscle
groups. At 12RM in the bench press an athlete may
be working at 70 percent of maximum, but at 12RM
for the leg curl he or she may be working at only 57
percent of maximum. And for lower-body exercises
with a high stretch-shortening cycle, such as the leg
press, some athletes may be able to complete as
many as 65 repetitions at 70 percent of maximum (Fig.
2.7)!
Principle 6: Long-term aerobic work
modifies the IRIVI continuum
Athletes who compete in events in which there is a
high cyclical component often can perform abnormally
high repetitions at a very high percentage of maximum.
Australian rowers have been shown to be able to
complete 12 reps at 97 percent of their maximum, in
contrast to the average athlete who may be able to
complete only 1-2 repetitions at that percentage (Fig.
2.8).
Principle 7: The number of repetitions
is the loading parameter that athletes
adapt to most quickly
Because the body adapts very quickly to a given
rep range, frequent variation in rep prescriptions is
necessary to ensure optimal progress. I've found that
most athletes adapt to a given number of repetitions
in six workouts. After six workouts the rate of progress
is so insignificant that it is often futile to continue the
same program.
One approach to program design I particularly like is
to use a given rep bracket for two workouts, lower it
by 1 rep for two workouts and then lower it again by
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© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
Chapter 2
17
FIGURE 2.6 As an athlete's training age increases, lower reps with heavier weights are necessary to elicit a
strength response.
another rep for one or two workouts. I've had great
success using this approach with the more than 70
National Hockey League players I've trained and with
track stars Michelle Freeman and Carlette Guidry (Fig.
2.9). Here is one example of such a progression:
Workouts 1-2: 4 sets x 6-8 reps
Workouts 3-4: 5 sets x 5-7 reps
Workouts 5-6: 5 sets x 4-6 reps
Principle 8: Individualize the rep
prescription
The unique qualities of the individual athlete must be
addressed when designing a workout. Some athletes
respond better to rapid changes of reps and sets
(every 1-2 weeks), while other trainees respond better
to less rapid changes (every 3-4 weeks).
Many factors that influence the rate of adaptation to
training are genetic, including muscle fiber makeup,
systemic recovery rate and hormonal response. I
have also found that athletes in the so-called nervoussystem sports (such as the throws and the 100-meter
sprint) adapt much more rapidly to strength-training
prescriptions (Fig. 2.10).
18
Chapter 2
When helping Cathy Millen prepare for her onslaught
of powerlifting world records, I wrote a training
program for her in which the rep bracket was changed
downward every two workouts. In contrast, for
Olympic bobsleigh gold medalist Pierre Lueders,
who established start records worldwide, I wrote
programs in which a complete overhaul of the loading
parameters occurred every training session. The
difference between Cathy's and Pierre's training was
necessary because Pierre's sport required him to be
more explosive than Cathy.
Principle 9: Elite athletes must pay
attention to specificity of contraction
force
Repetitions in the 1RM to 5RM range increase
maximal strength with minimal gains in muscle mass.
Reps in the 8RM to 15RM range produce greater
hypertrophy gains with less effect on maximal strength.
Reps between 6RM and 7RM produce equal changes
in hypertrophy and strength. But these are general
guidelines.
Coaches must pay special attention to specificity of
contraction force. When training athletes with several
years of lifting experience, low repetitions (1-5) must
be used with high loads (85 percent or higher) for both
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© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
UPPER BODY UP TO 12 REPS
LOWER BODY UP TO 65 REPS
FIGURE 2.7 The 1RM continuum varies greatly among muscle groups. As such, the most effective
repetition ranges for lower-body exercises such as the leg press are much higher than for upper-body
exercises such as the triceps extension.
1 RM CONTINUUM
100
E
3
E
•><
n>
Endurance
Z
Normal
5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13
15 16 17
18 19 20
Repetitions
FIGURE 2.8 Athletes who compete in sports in which there is a major cyclical component, such as rowing,
can perform abnormally high repetitions at a very high percentage of maximum.
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Chapter 2
19
REPETITIONS MAXIMUM IN THE SCOTT CURL
1
Mean
ELITE
n
SD
1
Mean
NOVICE
—1
SD
Ratio
90%
2.48
1.27
4.29
1.14
0.58
85%
4.59
1.44
6.28
1.37
0.73
80%
6.28
1.88
8.23
1.79
0.76
75%
8.55
2.52
10.42
2.16
0.82
70%
10.84
2.66
12.52
2.08
0.87
50%
23.64
3.79
33.44
4.29
0.71
TABLE 2.1 Repetitions Maximum in tlie Scott Curl Achieved at Loads Corresponding to 50-90% of 1RM.
ELBOW-FLEXION STRENGTH
11
Mean
MALE
FEMALE
11
SD
Mean
SD
Ratio
409.0
90.0 ***
190.0
33.0
2.15
90%
3.5
1.9 NS
3.7
2.2
0.95
80%
8.0
2.6 NS
9.1
4.5
0.88
70%
12.0
2.3*
17.0
6.2
0.71
60%
20.0
6.6 **
33.3
7.8
0.60
50%
34.8
14.2
66.5
27.2
0.52
1RM(N)
TABLE 2.2 Elbow-Flexion Strength and Number of Repetitions Achieved at Loads Corresponding to 50-90% of
1RM (*p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.00^)(Maughan et al. 1986)
relative and absolute strength; mid-repetitions (6-12)
must be used with submaximal loads (70-84 percent)
for absolute strength gains; and high repetitions (13
and higher) should be combined with light loads for
strength-endurance (less than 70 percent). What
this means is that athletes with more weight training
experience who are interested in absolute strength
increases can afford to train with a broader spectrum
of repetitions. This specificity of contraction force has
its physiological basis within both the nervous and
muscular system (Table 2.3).
Principle 10: Don't perform low reps
too frequently
Robert Roman is a Russian sport scientist who wrote
extensively on the training of competitive weightlifters.
Roman suggested that training loads be distributed
20
Chapter 2
among intensity zones, and that the most successful
weightlifters tended to do most of their sets in the 3RM
to 4RM range.
This belief was echoed by Canada's most successful
weightlifting coach, Pierre Roy. Roy believes that the
average rep for a strength athlete should be around 3.
In other words, if the athlete does singles or doubles
too often, or for periods extended too long, progress
will stagnate.
After the fall of the Berlin Wall, I was able to analyze
training programs of athletes from various Eastern
Bloc countries such as Hungary, Cuba, Romania
and the former East Germany. I found that lifts above
90 percent generally represented between 5 and
13 percent of the volume. The percentages for that
intensity zone were normally in single digits in the
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© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
LINEAR VS. WAVE
100
ts
0)
it
Ul
O)
c
re
u
I-
Linear Loading
Wave Loading
FIGURE 2.9 The wave loading method alternates the repetition bracket. This is in contrast to the linear loading
method, in which there is a gradual, even decrease in the repetition bracket.
INDIVIDUAL NEED FOR CHANGE
FIGURE 2.10 The unique qualities of the individual athlete, such as muscle fiber makeup and hormonal response,
influence the distribution of the repetition brackets.
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© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
Chapter 2
21
preparatory periods, and rarely exceeded 12 percent
in the competitive periods.
Principle 11: Each muscle group
or lift responds best to a specific
average rep range
The optimal average rep range should be specific to
the muscle group or the exercise chosen.
Analysis of the training logs of the athletes I have
coached demonstrated that in the case of the elbow
flexors, the best strength gains were obtained when
no less than an average of 2.5 reps per set were
performed, with a minimum total of 15 reps completed
per workout. This principle explains why both the
sets/reps prescription in Figure 2.11 were equally
successful.
The bottom line is that there is a minimum-volume
threshold of reps and an average rep per set
necessary for optimal strength gains.
Principle 12: Intensity dictates
hormonal response
Repetition selection affects the hormonal response
of the workout. Finnish researchers Hakkinen and
Pakarinen (1993) demonstrated that moderate loads
(10 sets of 10 at 70 percent) produced a twentyfold
increase in growth hormone production compared to
only a slight change in a high-intensity protocol (21
reps at 100 percent).
It is imperative that your training protocols achieve
your desired hormone response. When you are
concerned with producing body-composition changes
in your athletes, strive to maximize growth hormone
output. In contrast, if relative strength is the primary
goal, then minimize the anabolic response and
increase neural adaptations (Fig. 2.12).
If relative strength is the primary goal, choose reps at
a given tempo that do not exceed 20 seconds of time
under tension (TUT). For example:
• 3 reps at a 4020 tempo
yielding a TUT of 18 seconds per set
• 4 reps at a 3011 tempo
yielding a TUT of 20 seconds per set
• 2 reps at a 3210 tempo
yielding a TUT of 12 seconds per set
• 2 reps at a 8010 tempo
yielding a TUT of 18 seconds per set
My tempo prescription will be explained in detail
in Chapter 5. In brief, I use a four-digit system to
represent the time it takes to complete the different
phases of a strength training repetition. Here are the
basics:
The first number is the eccentric lowering: that is,
when you lower the resistance (i.e., going down in the
squat, or bringing the bar to your chest in the bench
press). As a rule of thumb, this is when the muscle is
being placed under stretch.
The second number is the time of the pause in
the stretched position. The pause (an isometric
contraction) is usually between the eccentric phase or
lowering phase and concentric phase or lifting phase
(e.g., the bottom position in the squat, or when the bar
makes contact with the chest in the bench press).
The third number is the concentric contraction; that is,
lifting the weight (e.g., raising in the squat, or pressing
the bar at arms' length in the bench press). In this case
the muscle is shortening. An "X" instead of a number
is used to denote "as fast as possible" or "explosive
action with full acceleration."
The fourth number is the time of pause in the
contracted position, such as the top of a curl or a chinup.
Principle 13: The number of
repetitions dictates the load
Obviously, there are quite a few permutations possible
(Fig. 2.13)
When I write workouts, I first determine the desired
training effect and then select a repetition bracket that
suits that goal. If you're writing a program to maximize
muscle mass, select a load that enables the athlete
to complete between 6 and 12 reps. If the athlete can
perform only 5 reps with the weight, the weight is too
heavy; if he or she can perform 13 reps, the weight is
too light.
Principle 14: Novice lifters require
higher repetitions
22
Chapter 2
It is wise to use higher repetitions when introducing
trainees to strength training. At the initial stage of
instruction, beginners can make significant gains in
strength with as many as 20 reps because they are
at the lower end of their training-potential curve. Also,
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© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
SPECIFICITY OF THE CONTRACTION FORCE
REPS
INTENSITY
Relative
1-5
85%
Functional
6-8
79-84%
Hypertrophy
9-12
70-78%
Endurance
13+
69%
TABLE 2.3 Athletes with more weight training experience can afford to train with a broader spectrum of
repetitions, such as the four major repetition bracl<ets shown in this table.
exercising with these sub-limit loads provides great
opportunities for technique improvement, a priority for
those athletes of a young training age.
Table 2.4 shows loading patterns that can be used
for athletes with less than one year of weight training
experience who need to increase muscle mass.
* The percentages are only guiding values since the
relationship between the maximum and sub-maximum loads
is influenced by training status, gender and muscle groups.
Principle 15: The extent of effort
applied influences the training effect
if you do not apply the overload principle in designing
your workouts, there is no reason for your athletes
to get stronger. Athletes must periodically force
themselves to use higher loads or they will not
experience gains in strength or size (Fig. 2.14). The
decision to determine the extent of fatigue an athlete
should work towards, however, involves a number of
factors.
Before deciding to work to complete muscular failure
on each set, consideration must be given to the
athlete's ability to recover from this type of training.
Therefore, you must also try to determine if the training
approach will optimize the training effect.
Principle 16: The muscle fiber type
dictates the number of reps
The fiber composition of any given muscle influences
FIGURE 2.11 There is a minimum-volume
threshold of reps for strength training. For
example, when training the elbow flexors, best
results are obtained when a minimum total of 15
reps is completed.
Option A:
3x1,3x2, 3x3
total reps for that lift per
workout: 18 reps
fi
Option B: 6 X 2-3
total reps for that lift per
workout: 12-18 reps
• •'s'l
FIGURE 2.10 The unique qualities of the individual athlete, such as muscle fiber makeup and hormonal response,
influence the distribution of the repetition brackets.
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© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
Chapter 2
23
HORMONAL RESPONSE
U
M
(D
U
{D
GH production
FIGURE 2.12 Training protocols affect hormone response. This graph illustrates that higher repetitions produce
maximum growth hormone output.
ZONE TO TRAIN RELATIVE STRENGTH
Time under tension (TUT) per rep cycle (seconds)
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
FIGURE 2.13 Manipulating the tempo prescriptions allows for a considerable variety in the number of repetitions
performed in a set to achieve a specific training response.
24
Chapter 2
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual
© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
HYPERTROPHY LEADING PATTERNS FOR BEGINNERS
Training Type
% 1RM*
Reps
Sets
German Volume
Training
60%
10
10
Hypertrophy 1
70-75%
10-12
Hypertrophy II
Strength Endurance 1
% 1RM*
Reps
Sets
% 1RM*
Reps
Sets
%1RM*
Reps
Sets
3
76-78%
8
3
70%
12
3
75%
10
3
76-78%
8
3
7%
12
3
60%
20
3
65-68%
12-15
3
70-75%
10
2
60%
20
3
Strength Endurance II 60%
20
3
50%
30
3
65-68%
10-12
3
TABLE 2.4 This table shows optional set/rep prescriptions for beginners who need to increase muscle mass.
TRAINING LOAD
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11 12
13
Effect of a Session
• Workout 1
a Workout 2
• Workout 3
FIGURE 2.14 Proper application of the overload principle, such as shown here by increasing training loads, elicits
an optimal strength training response.
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© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
Chapter 2
25
the number of repetitions required to achieve a training
effect. A muscle with a high percentage of slow-twitch
fibers may require a higher number of repetitions. For
example, the soleus muscle in the lower leg contains
88 percent slow-twitch fibers. Repetitions in the
15-25 range may be needed to give sufficient time
under tension for this muscle to receive a stimulus for
growth.
There is an optimal number of reps per muscle group
for each individual, and this is strongly influenced by
the fiber makeup of the muscles. Athletes gifted with
a large number of fast-twitch motor units always do
fewer reps at a given percentage of maximum. Thus,
while the average trainee does 7RM at 80 percent of
his or her maximum, a high fast-twitch individual may
complete only 3 reps at this percentage. Conversely,
high slow-twitch individuals who are highly trained
aerobically have been shown to do 12RM to 37RM
at 95 percent of maximum, in contrast to the average
person's ability to do only 2RM to 3RM at this
percentage (Sayers 1998).
Because there is substantial empirical evidence and
scientific research to suggest that the development
of maximal strength is best accomplished by using
loads representing 70 to 100 percent of maximum, it's
essential to determine the exact number of repetitions
to be performed at this percentage range.
For most fast-twitch athletes the optimal rep bracket
for strength gains falls within the 1-to-6-rep range,
while most individuals will make gains in the 1-to-12rep range. In both of these examples they are working
at 70 to 100 percent of maximum. Furthermore, the
fast-twitch athletes would normally use more sets and
may even respond well to short rest intervals (1-3
seconds between reps) (Fig. 2.15).
Principle 17: The function of the
muscle dictates the number of reps
A well-known fact in physiology is that form dictates
function. Moreover, even though the following
conclusion has yet to be validated by science, it is my
experience that there are specific repetition ranges
that are more appropriate for certain muscle functions.
For example, training the knee flexors with sets
of 12 repetitions appears to have little bearing on
hypertrophy gains. Conversely, when training the knee
extensors, sets of up to 50 repetitions can induce
hypertrophy. The reason for this appears to be that
knee flexors are used mainly for explosive tasks, while
FAST-TWITCH ATHLETE BRACKET
6-12 reps
Type lla
12+ reps
Type I
FIGURE 2.15 The repetition bracket affects the fiber types stimulated in a strength training workout. As shown
here, the fast-twitch fibers (Type Mb) respond best to 1-5 reps.
26
Chapter 2
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual
© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
FUNCTION OF THE MUSCLE DICTATES THE NUMBER OF REPS
PICTURES 2.1 & 2.2 The knee flexors, which are emphasized with leg curls (left), respond best to lower reps.
The knee extensors, which are emphasized with leg presses (right), respond best to higher reps.
the knee extensors are used in maintaining posture
against gravity and are also used for repeated stretchshortening tasks such as rowing (Pictures 2.1 & 2.2).
Principle 18: The skill requirements
of the exercise dictate the number of
reps
If an exercise involves multiple joints in a complex skill,
such as the Olympic lifts, excessive repetitions will
bring about undesired technical and motor-learning
changes. Analysis of the training of weightlifters
(especially elite weightlifters) reveals that the snatch
is rarely performed for more than 2 reps per set, while
the clean and jerk is often performed for slightly more
reps per set.
In the case of the power clean, when performing
more than 6 repetitions small muscles (such as the
rhomboids, an upper back muscle) would tire out first,
causing a change in exercise posture. This fatigue
would lead to improper technique, impaired motor
learning and perhaps a greater risk of injury. The same
goes for front squats, where the postural muscles
will tire out isometrically before the prime movers
if the time under tension is too long. This is why
knowledgeable strength coaches rarely prescribe more
than 6 reps per set for the front squat and even fewer
for the power clean (Fig. 2.16).
Principle 19: The velocity of the
contraction determines the load in
eccentric contraction
When prescribing eccentric work, the coach should
have a good understanding of the time under tension
prescribed for the lowering of the load. If the target is
sets of 3 with 8 seconds lowering, the exercise should
be immediately stopped if the athlete cannot meet the
time restriction. Let's say an athlete is told to lower
300 pounds for 3 repetitions of 8 seconds in the squat.
Repetition 1 is performed for a smooth 8 seconds, but
repetition 2 lasts only 5 seconds. The set should be
stopped immediately, as another repetition would likely
be done at a pace that would be far too risky and could
lead to injury (Fig. 2.17).
Principle 20: Use lower reps with
eccentric training
Eccentric work is best accomplished with sets of 1 to 6
repetitions, since supramaximal loads are used in this
method. Depending on the muscle group or exercise
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© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
Chapter 2
27
EXERCISE VS. REPS
1. Complex skill:
Olympic lift, front squat,
etc.
2. Compound: squat,
bench press, deadlift,
pull-ups, etc.
w
c
o
3. Simple: most
machines, isolation, etc.
«
a
&
12
3
COMPLEXITY COMPONENT
FIGURE 2.16 Complex exercises using multiple joints, such as the Olympic lifts, should be performed for fewer
reps than are needed in simple exercises that use only one joint.
VELOCITY OF CONTRACTION
*
* ^ %
eccentric
concentric
^
»
•
A
•A
w
velocity
FIGURE 2.17 When performing eccentric work, attention must be paid to the time the weight is lowered to achieve
the optimal training effect and ensure the safety of the athlete.
28
Chapter 2
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© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
CONTROLLED CONCENTRIC REPETITIONS
1 rep
2 reps
3 reps
4 reps
5 reps
FIGURE 2.18 Depending on tlie muscle group exercised or the exercise used, loads as high as 175 percent of
the 1RM can be used safely.
ADAM NELSON CHEST AND BACK ECCENTRIC ROUTINE
Order
Exercise
Sets
Reps
Tempo
Rest
A-1
Eccentric
7
1
10/0/X/0120
Incline
Presses
Weight sequence; 390-410-420-450-460-450-390 lbs (bodyweight included)
A-2
Incline 45°
7
1
40X0
0
Thick Bar (3")
Presses
Weight sequence; 320-340-350-360-370-380-320 lbs (bodyweight included)
A-3
Chin-Up
7
2-4
30X0
120
Supinated
Grip
Weight sequence; 260-300-310-310-310-310-310 lbs (bodyweight included)
Shot-putter Adam Nelson,
shown here with Charles
Poliquin, took a silver medal
in two Olympics, 2000 and
2004.
TABLE 2.5 The above exercise prescription was used by Adam Nelson in
preparation for the 2004 Olympic Games.
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Chapter 2
29
Workout
FIGURE 2.19 A classical pyramid training workout consists of loads with a wide variety of intensity levels. In this
example, the intensity spread is 70 to 100 percent.
used, loads as high at 175 percent of maximum
for controlled eccentric repetitions have been used
successfully (Fig. 2.18).
The athlete also should have completed two years of
strength training before trying eccentric work. As he or
she progresses in qualification, the number of reps per
set can be progressively reduced to allow for higher
intensities (Table 2.5).
Principle 21: There should be no
more than a 10 percent intensity
spread for a rep bracket
By keeping the intensity spread at 10-12 percent,
workouts will respect the Law of Repeated Efforts,
and the body's adaptive mechanisms will not be
confused by wide variation in training intensity. At the
same time, the 10-12 percent spread is sufficiently
wide to keep the training interesting. This pyramid can
be considered a "broad" pyramid, as opposed as the
classic "narrow" pyramid.
When selecting a repetition bracket there should be no
more than a 10 percent intensity spread between sets.
That is why the standard narrow-pyramid approach
still prescribed by many US college football strength
coaches does not produce exceptional results. In fact,
my NHL hockey players can outlift most linemen in the
30
Chapter 2
NCAA, who outweigh them by more than 80 pounds!
The pyramid system is a classical training system that
has been criticized by a number of strength training
experts, such as Vladimir Zatsiorski of the former
Soviet Union. A classical pyramid system would look
something like the pattern illustrated in Figure 2.19.
Critics of the classical pyramid system assert that the
intensity spread of 70 to 100 percent of maximum is
far too wide. They argue that the 30 percent intensity
spread crosses too many borders to be effective, so
that the body has a hard time figuring out what exactly
the training stimulus is. These critics generally favor
set/rep schemes that obey the Law of Repeated
Efforts at a given intensity: for example, 6 sets of 3
reps at 90 percent of maximum.
Romanian strength expert Tudor Bompa does not
reject the pyramid system entirely, but he argues
instead for using only a 20 percent intensity spread
(e.g., 60-80 percent, 70-90 percent or 80-100 percent).
I take this line of thought a step further and argue that
it is even more effective to limit the intensity spread
to 10-12 percent, while keeping the bottom end of the
range at not less than 70 percent of maximum (1RM).
This is in agreement with my colleagues Hartmann
and Tunnemann from the former East Germany.
Possible intensity spreads using this approach would
be 70-80 percent, 75-85 percent, etc.
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© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
BROAD PYRAMID HYPERTROPHY
u
c
o
3
4
Set Number
FIGURE 2.20 Research suggests that a narrow intensity spread is more effective for achieving an optimal training
effect. In this example for developing hypertrophy, the intensity spread is 78 to 87 percent.
BROAD PYRAMID RELATIVE STRENGTH
FIGURE 2.21 In this workout to develop relative strength, the intensity spread is 85 to 94 percent.
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Chapter 2
31
LOADING PARAMETERS FOR BENCH PRESS, CONVENTIONAL SET
LOAD
ECCENTRIC
CPNTRACTION TIME
CONCENTRIC
CONTRACTION TIME
(lbs)
(seconds)
(seconds)
1
240
4
1.2
2
240
4
1.2
3
240
4
1.3
4
240
4
1.4
5
240
4
1.4
6
240
4
1.8
7
240
4
2.3
Total
Average
1680
240
28
4
10.6
1.5
REP
TABLE 2.6 A conventional set of bench presses performed with 240 pounds for 7 reps, lowering the weight with a
4-second count.
LOADING PARAMETERS FOR BENCH PRESS, DROP SET
LOAD
ECCENTRIC
CONTRACTION TIME
CONCENTRIC
CONTRACTION TIME
(lbs)
(seconds)
(seconds)
1
300
4
2.2
2
285
4
2.3
3
270
4
2.5
4
260
4
2.8
5
250
4
2.8
6
240
4
3.1
7
230
4
3.2
Total
Average
1835
262
28
4
18.6
2.6
REP
TABLE 2.7 A drop set of bench presses performed with 300 pounds to 220 pounds, which results in an average
load that is 7.4 percent higher than the set described in Table 2.6.
32
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© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
MOTOR UNIT ACTIVATION ON THE BENCH PRESS
"O
c
3
O
0.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I
Conventional
240
240
240
240
240
240
240
I
Drop Set
300
285
270
260
250
240
230
FIGURE 2.22 Using tlie examples shown in Tables 2.6 and 2.7, this graph and chart show that the drop set
produces a higher overall level of muscle tension. With the drop set 1,835 pounds were lifted, compared to 1,680
for the conventional set.
1,680 lbs vs. 1,835 lbs
There are many possible variations of the broad
pyramid, depending on the training objective. Two
examples are found in Figures 2.20 and 2.21.
The broad pyramid system has been a staple of
strength training routines in the German-speaking
nations. There it has been used in the training routines
of bobsledders, throwers, jumpers, strongmen,
powerlifters and weightlifters. I have used the broad
pyramid system successfully with many athletes who
compete in short-duration power events. I also used
the system successfully with hockey defensemen.
Principle 22: Vary reps for tlie upper
body more than for the lower body
Research studies have shown that periodization
models using greater variation in intensities were more
beneficial in upper-body exercises than in lower-body
exercises. For example, if you plan a training cycle
for the bench press, you should inject more training
variety in terms of reps than if you were training for the
squat or the deadlift. For women, it has been shown
that the hypertrophic and strength responses occur
earlier in the upper body than in the lower body.
Principle 23: Use drop sets to
create maximal tension on the
neuromuscular level
Motor units are functional units of nerve and muscle.
Motor units consist of a nerve cell (motor neuron) and
the muscle fibers it controls. The body of the nerve
cell is located in the central nervous system, in the
brain stem or spinal cord. Another portion of the cell,
the axon, connects the cell body to individual muscle
fibers.
Motor units have activation thresholds. If your 1-rep
maximum for a particular lift is 300 pounds, lifting
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Chapter 2
33
DAVID BOSTON ARIVIS DROP-SET ROUTINE
Order
Exercise
Sets
Reps
Sequence
Tempo Rest
A-1
Seated 80°
5
4-7
3,2,1,1
2210
120 sec
4010
120 sec
4,2,2
3110
90 sec
4,2,2
4010
90 sec
Half Press
Weight sequence: 245-240-230-220 lbs
A-2
Hoagland
5
4-7
3,2,1,1
Bar Reverse Scott Curl
Weight sequence: 155-145-135-125 lbs
B-1
One-Arm
4
8
Low Pulley
Rope French Press
Weight sequence: 125-115-110 lbs
B-2
Standing
4
8
Thick Bar (2.5") Curls
Weight sequence: 245-240-230-220 lbs
TABLE 2.8 NFL receiver David Boston's drop-set routine for arms shows a combination of heavier loads and
slower movements.
150 pounds (50 percent intensity) will activate
only lower-threshold motor units. A higher training
intensity (e.g., 90 percent, or 270 pounds) would be
required to tap into motor units with higher activation
thresholds. Fast-twitch muscle fibers are associated
with higher-threshold motor units. These fibers are
capable of generating more force than their slow-twitch
counterparts, which are more resistant to fatigue. As
the name implies, fast-twitch fibers are also capable of
higher rates of force generation. The fast-twitch fibers
associated with the highest-threshold motor units are
the most difficult to recruit. They also have the greatest
potential for growth.
The body's response to weight training depends
in large part on the amount of tension applied to
muscles. To activate the highest-threshold motor units,
it is necessary to apply maximal tension.
One of the best ways to maximize muscle tension and
motor-unit activation is to vary the load during a set.
Let's compare two training protocols. First we'll look
at a conventional set. Let's say an athlete can bench
press 300 pounds for 1 rep and 240 pounds for 7 reps,
lowering the weight to a 4-second count. Table 2.6
shows loading parameters for a conventional set done
with 240 pounds.
34
Chapter 2
Now, let's have the same individual perform a 7-rep
set, but lift 300 pounds for the first rep, 285 for the
second, 270 for the third, and so forth, as shown in
Table 2.7 and Figure 2.22.
The average load for a 7-rep set is 7.4 percent higher
with the second protocol. The drop-set protocol
therefore produces a higher overall level of muscle
tension. Also, the average concentric speed is lower
with this protocol (2.6 seconds per rep compared to
1.5 seconds per rep), because each rep is performed
at 100 percent of momentary maximal strength. The
combination of heavier loads and slower movements
(higher intensity and increased time under tension)
makes the second protocol more effective than the first
for developing strength.
On all exercises, there is a 10-second rest between
weight drops. This break will provide enough recovery
to allow the reactivation of high-threshold fibers. The
weight drops are accomplished most effectively with
the help of two partners. They should quickly strip
the bar when the weight is at the top position, after
the trainee completes the concentric portion of the
movement and before they begin to lower the bar for
another eccentric contraction.
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For each series of exercises A-1 and A-2, begin with
a weight that corresponds to the trainee's momentary
2RM. Perform 2 reps and rest 10 seconds. Drop the
weight 5 percent, perform 1 rep, and rest 10 seconds.
Drop the weight another 5 percent, perform 1 rep, and
rest 10 seconds. Drop the weight another 5 percent,
perform 1 rep, and rest 10 seconds. This produces a
total of 5 gut-wrenching reps.
For each series of exercises B-1 and B-2, begin with
a weight that corresponds to the athlete's momentary
3RM. Perform 3 reps and rest 10 seconds. Drop the
weight 5 percent, perform 1 rep, and rest 10 seconds.
Do three more single reps, dropping the weight 5
percent on each and resting 10 seconds after each, for
a total of 7 reps. You will see a practical use of such a
system system in Table 2.8.
You might expect that the momentary 2RM and 3RM
on the second and third series will be lower than on
the first series due to fatigue. In fact, the momentary
2RM and 3RM could actually be higher on the second
and third series due to neural facilitation, especially
among advanced athletes.
The tempo prescription for all exercises has a
3-second eccentric component, an explosive
concentric component, and a pause. Although an
explosive concentric movement is prescribed, the
actual velocity of execution may be considerably
slower due to the very heavy loads. Don't worry. As
long as your athletes try to lift the weight explosively,
they will elicit the desired training effect.
Canadian researcher David Behm has demonstrated
that the intent of the trainee matters more than the
actual velocity of execution. On repetitions where
the velocity of execution is in fact explosive, make
sure that the trainees keep the weight under control.
They should try to accelerate the weight through the
concentric range. Near the end of the movement,
however, they will need to decelerate the weight to
prevent injuries.
Principle 24: Use 1-5 reps for
maximal relative strength
Repetitions in the 1RM-to-5RM range (85-100 percent
intensity zone) develop maximal strength by training
the nervous system. The changes you can induce in
the nervous system with low reps are as follows:
• Increased neural drive to muscle
• Increased synchronization of motor units
• Increased activation of the contractile
apparatus
• Decreased inhibition by the protective
mechanisms of the muscle
The 1-5 repetition bracket produces minimal increases
in muscle mass, and as such is of great value for
athletes who need higher levels of relative strength;
that is, athletes in sports in which hypertrophy can be
detrimental to performance. This would include the
following sportsmen, for the following reasons:
• Wrestlers, boxers and judokas (who have attained
the upper limit of their weight class)
• Jumpers and gymnasts (smaller mass to
accelerate)
• Lugers and ski jumpers (better aerodynamics)
• Swimmers and synchronized swimmers (buoyancy)
The repetition bracket is also valuable in sports that
require the expression of maximal strength for a single
contraction, such as in weightlifting, shot put, and the
high jump.
Training with high loads is highly effective for these
athletic activities because it has a specific training
effect on the nervous system (Harre et al. 1989;
MacDougall 1986).
Exercising with near-maximal loads is also beneficial
to the athlete because it increases adjunctive skills,
such as timing of mobilization of will power and the
ability to switch from relaxation to tension. Although
these adjunctive skills are more subjective in their
science, these are often the qualities in an athlete
that will make the difference between the gold and the
silver. The following charts shows loading patterns for
developing maximal and relative strength (Fig. 2.23,
2.24, 2.25, 2.26, 2.27, 2.28).
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© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
Chapter 2
35
WAVE LOADING 1
•Workout
3
4
Set Number
FIGURE 2.23 A loading pattern for developing maximal and relative strength.
WAVE LOADING 2
I Workout
3
4
Set Number
FIGURE 2.24 A second loading pattern for developing maximal and relative strength.
36
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© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
KULESZA METHOD 3-5 SETS
FIGURE 2.25 A third loading pattern for developing maximal and relative strength.
ALAN & BAROGA METHOD 5 SETS
Sets
FIGURE 2.26 A fourth loading pattern for developing maximal and relative strength.
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© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
Chapter 2
37
iillll
BULGARIAN METHOD
^
U)
c
(U
c
90
85
80
75
70
^
13
5
7
9
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
Set Number
FIGURE 2.27 A fifth loading pattern for developing maximal and relative strength. This method was used by
weightlifters from Bulgaria, a country that has consistently produced the top weightlifters for the past 30 years.
STEP LOADING
3
4
Set Number
FIGURE 2.28 A sixth loading pattern for developing maximal and relative strength.
38
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© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
C HAPTER 2
REFERENCES
Principle 1
The number of reps for a given time under tension
dictates the training effect Shimano et al. 2002,
2006, Campos et al. 2002, Gentil, Oliveira, Bottaro,
2006, Mo Donagh & Davies 1984, Paulsen et al. 2003,
Cronin et al. 1997, Tran et al. 2006, Gillies et al. 2006
Shimano 2006
Principle 8
Individualize the rep prescription
Folland & Williams 2007, Vikne et al. 2006, Jackson et
al. 1990, Taaffe et al. 1996, Kraemer et al. 1998
Principle 2
Maximum voluntary contractions are essential to
the strength training process
Principle 9
Elite athletes must pay attention to specificity of
contraction force
Van Cutsem et al. 1988, 1997, Griffin & Cafarelli 2005,
Patten & Kamen, 2000, Duchateau, et al. 2006, Farina
et al. 2005, Leong et al. 1999, Aagaard et al. 2000,
Izquierdo 2004, Izquierdo 1999, Nosaka & Newton
2002, Taaffe et al. 1996, Michaut et al. 2003
Huxley & Kress, 1985, Judge et al. 2003, Nosaka and
Newton 2002, Nosaka & Clarkson, 1997, Desbrosses
et al. 2006, Gabriel et al. 2006, Kraemer et al. 1998,
Kraemer et al. 2000
Principle 3
Use 70 to 90 percent of maximum capacity to
develop maximal strength
Campos et al. 2002, Leong et al. 1999, Linnamo et
al. 2005, Hortobagyi et al. 1996, Nosaka & Newton
2002a, 2002b, Cormie et al. 2007, Paddon-Jones &
Abernethy 2001, Nosaka & Clarkson 1997
Principle 4
The range in repetitions for strength training
decreases with training age
Smilios et al. 2006, Hakkinen & Pakarinen 1995,
Hostler 2001, Reeves et al. 2006
Principle 5
The intensity zone repetition bracket is specific to
the muscle
Folland & Williams 2007, Benson et al. 2006, Philippou
et al. 2004, Pincivero et al. 2004, Abdessemed et al.
1999, Pincivero et al. 1999, Izquierdo et al. 2006
Principle 6
Long term aerobic work modifies the 1RM
continuum
Arciero et al. 2006, Hickson et al. 1980, Bell et al.
2000, Goto et al. 2004, Kraemer 2003, Putman et al.
2004
Principle 7
The number or repetitons is the loading parameter
that athletes adapt to most quickly
Principle 10
Don't perform low reps too frequently
Adreani et al. 1997, Allen et al. 1995, Bigland-Ritchie
1986a, 1986b, Willardson and Burkett 2005, Pasquet
et al. 2000, 2005, 2006, Chiu et al. 2004, Fry et al.
1994, 1998, Kay etal. 2000, Hakkinen 1995
Principle 11
Each muscle group or lift responds best to a
specific average rep range
Sullivan et al. 1986, Allen et al 1995, Lawton et al.
2006
Principle 12
Intensity dictates hormonal response
Allen, et al. 1995, Hakkinen 1993, 1998, 2003,
Kraemer et al. 1998, Athianinen et al. 2005, 2004,
2003, Tran et al. 2006, Goto et al. 2007, Smilios et al.
2003, Hakkinen 1989, Izquierdo et al. 2006
Principle 13
The number of repetitions dictates the load
Mc Donagh & Davies 1984, Gabriel 2006, Campos et
al. 2004
Principle 14
Novice lifters require higher repetitions
Folland & Williams 2007, Pyka et al. 1992, 1992,
Smilios et al. 2006, Paulsen et al. 2003, Faighenbaum
et al. 1999, Newton & Alen 1998, Izquierdo et al. 2001
Benson 2006, Enoka 1988, 1997, Hakkinen 2003,
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© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
Chapter 2
39
Principle 15
The extent of effort applied influences the training
effect Fleck & Schutt 1985, Campos et al. 2004,
Pasquet et al. 2000, 2005, 2006
Principle 24
Use 1-5 reps for maximal relative strength
Mc Donagh & Davies 1984, Athianinen et al. 2005,
2004, 2003, Campos et al. 2002,
Principle 16
The muscle fiber type dictates the number of reps
Friden et al. 1984, Rayment et al. 1993, Van Cutsem,
etal. 1988, 1997, Taaffe et al. 1996
Principle 17
The function of the muscle dictates the number
of reps Allen, etal. 1995, Otten, 1988, Reeves etal.
2006, Cronin 2004, Chen et al. 2006
Principle 18
Coordination requirements of the exercise dictate
the number of reps Griffin & Cafarelli 2005, Vikne et
al. 2006, Kawamori & Haff 2004, Chen et al. 2006
Principle 19
The velocity of the contraction determines the
load in the eccentric contraction Gillies et al.
2006, Gleeson 2003, Hortabagyi et al. 1997, Van
Custom et al. 1988, Vikne et al. 2006, Michaut et al.
2003, Farthing & Chilibeck 2003a, 2003b, Nosaka &
Clarkson 1995, Nosaka & Newton 2002
Principle 20
Use lower reps with eccentric training Athianinen et
al. 2004, 2003, 2005, Hortabagyi et al. 1997, McNeill
et al. 2004, Pasquet et al. 2000, 2005, 2006, Nosaka
& Clarkson 1995, Nosaka & Newton 2002, Seger et al.
1998, Seger & Thorstensson 2005, Paddon-Jones et
al. 2001, 2004
Principle 21
There should be no more than a 10 percent
intensity spread for a rep bracket Duchateau et al.
2006, Farina et al. 2005, Hostler et al. 2001
Principle 22
Vary reps for the upper body more than for the
lower body Cormie et al. 2007, Larsson & HarmsRingdahl 2006, Leong et al. 1999, Van Cutsem, et al.
1988, 1997, Aagaard et al. 2000, Taaffe et al. 1996,
Chen et al. 2006, Chen & Nosaka 2006, Hakkinen et
al. 1997
Principle 23
Use drop sets to create maximal tension on the
neuromuscular level Athianinen et al. 2003, 2004,
2005, Griffin & Cafarelli 2005, Pasquet et al. 2000,
2005, 2006, Tran et al. 2006, Van Cutsem, et al. 1988,
1997, Lawton et al. 2006
40
Chapter 2
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© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
Manipulating Sets for Optimal
Strength Gains
There has been considerable debate about
whether or not only one set is needed to
elicit strength gains, with a vocal group
of strength coaches saying there are no
advantages in performing multiple sets of
an exercise.
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© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
Chapters
PRE-TEST
C HAPTER 3
1. What type of workout system generally
produces strength and power gains at a higher
rate?
A. single sets of eacli exercise to failure
B. multiple sets of each exercise
C. multiple sets for upper-body exercises, one set
for lower-body exercises
D. multiple sets for lower-body exercises, one set
for upper-body exercises
2. The Law of Diminishing Returns applies to
which of the following statements?
A. Sets to failure only leads to failure.
B. The relative reward for every set diminishes with
each additional set.
C. The relative volume for every set diminishes
with each additional set.
D. Intensity is directly proportional to volume.
3. How many sets would achieve the greatest
neural training effect?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 5
4. What is the basic premise of the critical drop-off
point?
A. High-intensity workouts must be preceded by
high-volume workouts.
B. If you walk in a straight line long enough, you
will fall off the edge of the earth.
C. Never increase quantity of stimulus at the
expense of quality.
D. Never decrease quantity of stimulus at the
expense of quality.
5. Which of the following is true?
A. To prevent overtraining, cut back first on sets,
not intensity
B. To prevent overtraining, cut back first on reps,
not intensity
C. To prevent overtraining, cut back first on
intensity, not sets
D. To prevent overtraining, cut back first on
volume, not reps
42
Chapters
6. During a specialization phase, what modification
is probably needed in weight training workouts?
A. a decrease in sets
B. an increase in sets
C. a decrease in intensity
D. Aand C
7. What effect does the use of chains have on an
exercise?
A. increases volume
B. changes the strength curve
C. decreases "time under tension"
D. Aand C
8. Which creates the greatest hormonal response?
A. an increase in sets
B. an emphasis on isolation exercises
C. a decrease in volume
D. a decrease in reps
9. A high-jumper would emphasize what type of
training protocol?
A. high number of exercises and sets
B. high number of sets and low number of
exercises
C. low number of sets and high number of
exercises
D. low number of sets and low number of exercises
10. What rep bracket would best train the Type I
muscle fibers?
A. 1-5
B. 2-6
C. 3-7
D. 12+
-0^ a-6 v-8 a-z a-9 v-9 O-P a-e a-s a-i. sjeMsuy }S9)-0Jd
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MANIPULATINC3 SETS FDR OPTIMAL
STRENC3TH GAINS
Because those who promote one-set systems are
often charismatic and because some athletes enjoyed
progress on these programs for brief periods, a
perception grew that weight training was simpler than
we had thought. It would be great if this were true, but
the fact is if you want your athletes to get as big or as
strong as possible as fast as possible, you can't adopt
such a simplistic approach to training.
Chapter 2 examined the first step in program design:
rep selection. This chapter focuses on the next step,
which is set selection. I wish this subject could be
covered with a few simple guidelines such as the oneset proponents advocate, but sometimes a "dummies"
approach is simply dumb.
Principle 1: IVIultiple sets lead to
higher and faster rates of strength
gains
A workout system that entails performing multiple sets
of an exercise generally induces strength and power
gains at a higher rate (McDonagh & Davies 1984)
and of a higher magnitude (Gotshalk et al. 1998,
Kraemer 1997, Kraemer et al. 1995, Marx et al. 1998,
Sanborn et al. 1998, Stowers et al. 1983, Atha 1981).
This means strength increases conform to a "doseresponse" that is correlated to the number of sets
prescribed.
Usually 1 or 2 sets are enough for beginners as a
training stimulus, but after 6-12 workout sessions the
coach must increase an athlete's volume of training
because the muscles will have adapted (Fleck &
Kraemer 1987). If the volume is not increased,
progress will slow down and plateau for extended
periods.
The coach must realize that the first 30 percent
of strength gains come from improvement of
intermuscular coordination. In effect, athletes "learn"
to lift so that they become more efficient by being able
to turn on the systems that are needed and to turn off
those that are not. This learning curve explains why
a novice lifter will often have a very erratic bar path
during his or her first attempt at the bench press, even
though it is a rather simple motor task.
Once initial strength fitness is achieved, a multiple
presentation of the stimulus (3-6 sets) with specific
rest periods between sets is superior to a single
presentation of the stimulus. However, it's important
that this increase is performed progressively.
When an athlete has completed several years of
proper training, I commonly prescribe 10-12 sets
of a single key exercise that is highly correlated to
performance in that athlete's sport. For example,
international success in the luge and the hammer
throw is highly correlated to maximal strength
performance in the pull-up. The athletes I've trained in
luge who had the fastest start times at the Olympics
could do 3 wide-grip pull-ups with 120 pounds tied
to their waist, at a bodyweight of 175 pounds. They
achieved these impressive demonstrations of strength
by using protocols of multiple sets (6-12) of low
repetitions (1-3) (Fig. 3.1).
Principle 2: The number of sets is
subject to the law of diminishing
returns
Even though multiple sets induce far greater maximal
strength gains than single-set training protocols,
those gains are asymptomatic in that the adaptations
increase with the number of sets up to a certain point.
That is, the number of sets is subject to the Law of
Diminishing Returns in that the relative reward for
every set diminishes with each additional set (Fig. 3.2).
This principle explains why, when time is limited, such
as during the competitive season of a professional
sport, it is important to perform 1 or 2 sets of an
exercise to maintain, or even in some cases gain,
maximal strength. Without the stimulation these sets
provide over and above the demands of the sport, this
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43
FIGURE 3.1 Athletes with a higher training age achieve better results with more sets.
law comes into play, and the athlete's strength can
begin to diminish. Professional hockey player Chris
Pronger is one of my athletes. The first man since
1972 to win awards as both the NHL's most valuable
player and top defenseman, Pronger is a strong
advocate of in-season training.
Principle 3: The more reps, the fewer
the sets
There is a minimum threshold of work that must be
performed for optimal size and strength gains. Many
former Eastern Bloc and Western strength training
authorities and weightlifting coaches have suggested
that there is an inverse relationship between the
number of sets and the number of reps (Medvedyev
1989, Worobojow 1984, Hartmann and Tunnemann
1993, Dreschler 1998). In other words, when using low
reps, do a high number of sets; when using high reps,
do a low number of sets (Fig 3.3).
From the perspective of practical application,
the fewer reps an athlete performs per set, the more
sets he or she needs to achieve the appropriate
training response (Tables 3.1 and 3.2, Fig. 3.4). The
rationale is that there is a minimal optimal volume for
strength development and that when training with low
reps, a higher number of sets would ensure sufficient
time of loading. More recently, a mathematical
44
Chapters
model establishing the inverse relationship has been
proposed (Kovarik 1991).
The rule to remember is that the higher the neural
training effect desired, the higher the number of sets
(for example, 5 or more) are needed. When training
with low repetitions (1-5), most of the adaptations
occur in the nervous system, hence the term (from
the German) "intramuscular coordination training" to
describe that intensity zone.
Training with high loads is like learning a foreign
language: Multiple presentation of the learning
stimulus must be present to assure modification and
retention of the acquired learning process. Conversely,
when a coach is seeking morphological or biochemical
adaptations in their athletes (6 or more reps), he or
she should prescribe fewer sets (3-5).
Principle 4: Individualize the number
of sets
It is my experience (as well as the experience of many
other successful strength coaches) that an athlete's
tolerance to greater workloads is one of the markers
for predicting success in building impressive levels of
maximal strength.
The requirements for exercise vary greatly from one
athlete to another because every athlete has unique
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responses to a given program. As a rule of thumb,
the athletes most gifted for strength development can
tolerate the highest number of sets.
When performing multiple sets, even if you allow
nearly complete rest intervals to replenish the
phosphagens, after a few sets the muscle will become
fatigued to the degree at which fewer and fewer reps
can be performed before reaching muscular failure.
This point is what I call the critical drop-off point (Fig.
3.5).
The basic premise of the critical drop-off point, which
I learned from discussions with track and field coach
Charlie Francis, is that a coach should never increase
the quantity of stimulus at the expense of quality. It is
pointless to do sets in which the resistance is lowered
so much that (a) sufficient tension is not put on the
muscle to elicit strength gains, and/or (b) motor units
of a lower threshold are trained. These additional
"garbage sets" would impede recovery by putting
excessive strain on the nervous system, energy stores
and neuroendocrine response. The cumulative effect
could be overtraining.
The critical drop-off point is highly individual and can
even vary from workout to workout. There is also
empirical evidence, however, that athletes with a
high fast-twitch fiber makeup tend to reach the critical
drop-off point faster. In contrast, the intake of various
substrates such as creatine and ribose will tend to
delay the onset of the critical drop-off point.
The threshold for the drop-off point will also depend
on which strength quality the coach is attempting to
improve. In the case of maximal strength training, once
an athlete reaches a 5-7 percent drop in performance,
it is time to move to another exercise or body part.
That 5-7 percent drop translates into having to lower
the load by the equivalent percentage to maintain
a selected rep range (e.g., 6-8 reps), or can be
demonstrated by a sudden drop of 2-3 repetitions from
one set to the next one.
From the world of pharmaceuticals we know that
there is a very wide variance in the dose-response
curve in substances such as ephedrine. To elicit "x"
physiological response, the dose may vary from 12 to
240 mg between subjects. The same applies for the
need to individualize the prescribed exercise stimulus.
Ideally, for the purpose of selecting a strength athlete,
a coach must look for a fast-twitch individual who
LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURNS
Relative
gains in
strength
Number of sets
FIGURE 3.2 The Law of Diminishing Returns states that the relative reward for every set diminishes with each
additional set.
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© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
Chapters
45
INVERSE RELATIONSHIP
FIGURE 3.3 There is an inverse relationship between sets and reps, meaning that when performing fewer reps,
athletes need to perform more sets to achieve an optimal training effect.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE VARIOUS LOADING PARAMETERS
Reps
Sets
Percentage
of Maximum
Rest
Interval (seconds)
Speed of
Execution
2-3
6-12
90-95
300-480
Moderate to Explosive
4-7
5-10
80-88
180-300
IVIoderate to Explosive
4-6
4-8
70-78
180-300
Extremely Slow
8-10
4-8
75-79
120-140
IVIoderate to Fast
11+
3-6
<72.5
30-180
IVIoderate
TABLE 3.1 A more detailed explanation, using several loading parameters, of the inverse relationship between
sets and reps.
46
Chapter 3
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MINIMUM VOLUME OF REPETITIONS
Intensity Zone
Percentage (%)
Total Reps
Sets Range
95-100
12-20
6-20
90-95
18-36
6-12
85-90
28-60
9-20
80-85
55-85
8-27
75-80
70-110
22-35
TABLE 3.3 Optimal rep-and-set ranges for various training percentages.
The Inverse Relationship Between Repetitions & Sets
Reps
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
15 +
J
f
Sets
k
r
High (4)
Low (2)
TABLE 3.4 A simple illustration showing the inverse relationship between sets and reps.
demonstrates superior work capacity. A classical
example of this would be three-time weightlifting
Olympic gold medalist Pyros Dimas from Greece, who
in one workout performed 12 sets of front squats at the
United States Olympic Training Center in preparation
for the Sydney Olympics. He averaged 1-3 repetitions
per set and, at a t)odyweight of 181 pounds, worked
up to approximately 600 pounds!
Monday: 5 sets of 4-6RM
Principle 5: To prevent overtaining,
cut back first on sets, not intensity
Saturday you decide to increase the starting weight to
230 kg, since you know your athlete can comfortably
do 225. Now your athlete's workout turns out like this:
if an athlete has not fully recovered from a workout,
first cut back on the number of sets, not the intensity.
It is generally a mistake to reduce the weight when
an athlete is tired; instead, just decrease the number
of repeated efforts performed at that load. Let's say
a male athlete has done the following workout on
Monday:
Saturday: 5 sets of 4-6RM (intended)
Set 1: 220 kilos x 6 reps
Set 2: 225 x 6
Set 3: 225 x 5
Set 4: 225 x 4
Set 5: 225 x 4
Terminate exercise; move on to next exercise
Set 1 : 230 x 6
Set 2 : 230 X 3
Terminate exercise; move on to next exercise
The athlete has become stronger (230 x 6 on Saturday
versus 225 on Monday), but on the second set there
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Chapter 3
47
CRITICAL DROP-OFF POINT
IRelative
100
93%
#
iFunctional
(0
87%
c
0)
Hypertrophy
80%
•Endurance
73%
Time of Training Unit
FIGURE 3.3 The critical drop-off point is the point at which it is futile to perform additional sets when excessive
fatigue is reached.
was a significant loss in his ability to do repeated
efforts. Therefore, to maintain a high quality of training
stimulus, the athlete must immediately terminate that
exercise after the second set.
Principle 6: A high number of sets
develops the skill of activating
muscle fibers for maximal efforts
By adhering to this principle of the critical drop-off
point, by the following Thursday (the next workout)
your athlete will be stronger because he will have
sufficiently recovered.
Just as a student would not expect high results on
an exam after a single night of cram studying versus
multiple exposures to the study material over a few
weeks, an athlete cannot expect motor-learning
acquisition from single-set sessions. This is particularly
true for lifts such as the power snatch and the jerk
when aiming to improve the rate of force development
(Fig. 3.7).
In contrast, the standard approach to handling a
similar scenario that I see in colleges all over the
United States is as follows:
Set 1
Set 2
sets
Set 4
sets
230x6
230x3
210x6
210x6
210x6
Terminate exercise; move on to next exercise
In this case, the athlete's recovery will be taxed so
harshly with low-quality work that he will regress again
during the next workout instead of being stronger.
The body is very well equipped to not overtrain by
intensity - it will just not lift the weight. It is not well
equipped to deal with too great a volume until it is too
late (Fig. 3.6).
48
Chapters
To improve maximal strength, the body must learn
what the new "normal" weight is; and to become
comfortable with this new weight, it must be exposed
to it several times. If not, the nervous system is like the
cramming student in that after the exam, all knowledge
is lost!
Principle 7: The metabolic cost of
an exercise influences the number
of sets to be performed in any given
exercise
The larger the mass involved in an exercise, the higher
the metabolic cost. Thus, lactate production will be
much greater with squatting than with forearm work,
so it is much easier to tolerate a great number of sets
for the forearms than for the squats. Anybody who has
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TRAINING VS. OVERTRAINING
90-!
80-|
0)
>
70-1
o
60
>»
50
0)
c
LU
40
30
20
10
0
I Training
I Overtraining
Microcycles
FIGURE 3.6 Performing too many sets results in overtraining, wliich drastically reduces the training effect.
THE LAW OF REPEATED EFFORTS
-m %
w
FIGURE 3.7 When performing complete exercises such as snatches, athletes must perform a high number of sets
to achieve a proper motor-learning response.
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© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
Chapters
49
ever done Peary Rader's breathing squats or German
Volume Training (10x10) can certainly attest to that!
Range of motion should also be factored into the
workout equation: for example, power snatches from
the floor require more flexibility than power snatches
from the hang. Similarly, the metabolic cost of a back
squat varies greatly between someone who is 5 feet
tall and someone who is 6 feet tall. The same can be
said for quantity of muscle mass per inch of height.
Principle 8: During a specialization
phase, more sets may be needed
Sometimes there is a need for specialized work that
will warrant a greater-than-normal number of sets,
such as 8-12 (Fig 3.8). In this case, you must consider
that the number of exercises consequently needs to be
reduced. This condition was very evident in my work
with the Canadian National Ski Team.
Alpine skiers tend to lose hamstring strength during
the competitive season. Further, the torque-producing
capabilities of their quadriceps may actually rise during
the competitive season, despite the fact that little
strength training is normally performed. Those gains
in quadriceps strength can be due to the overload
created by the g-forces held during the high-speed
turns inherent in alpine skiing. Thus, the hamstrings/
quadriceps strength ratio may decrease just because
of the lack of strength training for the hamstrings
during the competitive period.
To resolve the problem, it would be wise at the start
of the general preparatory period to increase the
overload on the hamstrings at the expense of volume
of load on the quadriceps. Normative data collected
from the Canadian National Alpine Ski Team showed
that when the ham/quad ratio went from 58 percent
to 80 percent, the incidence of knee injuries was
drastically reduced.
Principle 9: Nutrition and
supplementation influence work
capacity
There is an abundance of evidence in the scientific
literature pointing to the positive influence on work
capacity of a variety of supplements, such as ribose,
creatine, post-workout drinks and glutamine. Such
nutrition support translates into the ability to handle
greater average loads when performing multiple sets.
SPECIALIZATION PHASE
Sets
Session
FIGURE 3.8 During a specialization phase of training, a higher number of sets may be needed.
50
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SETS VS. TUT
FIGURE 3.9 The number of sets is inversely proportionate to the total time under tension per set. Thus, the more
reps performed, the fewer sets are needed to achieve the same TUT.
It is critical to pay attention to nutrition and
supplementation to augment work capacity. This
will enable an athlete to create greater overloads on
the neuromuscular system and thereby accelerate
progress. Just by looking at my athletes' work
capacities during training sessions, I can determine
their commitment to their supplementation programs.
I have been criticized for my strong recommendation
of supplements, and it's true I recommend the
supplements produced by many different companies.
But I am hired to produce results. In my experience,
supplementation is vital to the success of my athletes.
Supplementation is paramount, especially for the
natural athlete.
Principle 10: Specific exercises
require specific sets-and-reps
combinations
in analyzing the training logs of the athletes in all the
various sports that I have been fortunate to coach,
I have been able to formulate optimal thresholds for
sets and reps that are specific to chosen lifts.
My analysis of the training logs of athletes training
the elbow flexors for relative strength revealed that a
minimum of 16 lifts must be performed per workout
and the average rep for each set should not fall below
2.5 reps. In my conversations with Bulgarian- and
Chinese-trained successful weightlifting coaches, this
observation has been further validated.
It's been my experience that there are superior
sets-and-reps combinations that are specific to the
exercises intended to be improved. For example,
squat poundages in preparatory periods are best
driven upwards using a minimum of 7-8 sets of 4-5
repetitions. However, once the athlete fails to respond
to training volume as a stimulus, intensity becomes the
stimulus of choice. In that case, 6-10 sets of 1-3 reps
produce the best results.
Principle 11: The number of sets is
inversely proportionate to the total
time under tension per set
The understanding of "time under tension" is critical for
fastest results. For example, the optimal sets of 3RM
in the bench press will vary depending on whether
they are performed with chains or without chains
attached to the ends of the barbell, which alters the
strength curve. With added-on chains, the time under
tension will be greater; thus the number of optimal
sets must be fewer. With chains, the athlete cannot
move the load in the concentric range as fast as
without them; therefore the time under tension per rep
increases. So when training with just the barbell alone,
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51
CHRIS HETHERINGTON'S PROGRAM
Order
Exercise
Sets
Reps
Tempo
Rest (seconds)
A-1
Thick Bar
6
6,6,4,4,2,2
40X0
120
40X0
120
(2.5") Mid-Grip
Incline Presses
Weight sequence: 250-260-290-300-340-350 lbs
A-2
Pronated
6
Narrow-Grip
(3-4" apart) Pull-Ups
6,6,4,4,2,2
Weight sequence: 270-280-285-295-295-300 lbs (bodyweight included)
B-1
Incline Flys
On Swiss Ball
4
6-8
4010
90
6-8
4010
90
3
8-10
30X0
60
Neck
3
Extension on
Hammer Machine
8-10
30X0
60
Weight sequence: 50-52.5-55-57.5 lbs
B-2
Upright
Cable Row
4
Weight sequence: 205-215-225-235 lbs
C-1
One Arm
Dumbbell
Cobra
Weight sequence: 25-27.5-30 lbs
C-2
Weight sequence: 120-130-140 lbs
FIGURE 3.2 World-class athletes such as pro football player
Chris Hetherington know that multiple sets produce more strength
and hypertrophy gains. Here is one of his pre-season workouts.
Chris Hetherington
52
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EXERCISE AND SETS
FIGURE 3.10 The number of sets is inversely proportionate to the number of exercises.
one may prescribe 6-8 sets of 3RM; when chains are
added, the coach should prescribe only 4-6 sets (Fig.
3.9).
Principle 12: The more sets
performed, the greater the hormonal
response
The larger increases in strength seen with multipleset protocols may be explained, in part, by the finding
that higher volumes of total work produce significantly
greater increases in circulating anabolic hormones
during recovery (Gotshalk et al. 1997).
Because the first 30 percent of maximal strength is
due solely to intermuscular adaptations, to infer that
1 set produces the same results as 3 sets is true only
for novice lifters, which unfortunately is the standard
in the bulk of university studies on optimal loading
parameters. What is true for an unmotivated physical
education student who trains for an extra 5 percent on
a term paper has little to do with a dedicated national
team member, or even a state champion candidate.
Those of us who have produced world-class athletes
in a consistent manner know that multiple sets
produce more strength and hypertrophy gains. For
example, refer to one of Chris Hetherington's (NFL)
protocols (Table 3.2).
Principle 13: The number of sets per
exercise is inversely proportionate to
the number of exercises
This principle comes into play because the nature of
the athlete's sport influences how many exercises per
training session are necessary.
For example, high jumping requires emphasis on
the lower-body musculature, while judo requires the
athlete to be able to apply or resist force at many
different angles or planes. Thus, a high jumper's
strength training may consist of only 3-4 exercises,
whereas a judoka's may contain 8-12 exercises.
Because the high jumper is going to perform only 3-4
exercises, he or she will be able to do more sets for
optimal overloading without compromising the ability to
recover (Fig 3.10).
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53
Principle 1
Multiple Sets lead to higher and faster rates of
strength gains Benson et al. 2006, Paulsen et al.
2003, Cronin & Crewther 2004, Munn et al. 2005,
Gonzalez-Badillo et al. 2005, 2006, Denton & Cronin
2006,
Principle 2
The number of sets is subject to the law of
diminishing returns Gonzalez-Badillo et al. 2005,
2006, Haddock & Wilkin 2006, Hass et al. 2000,
Izquierdo et al. 2006, Chen et al. 2006
Principle 3
The more reps, the fewer the sets Hass et al. 2000,
Kawamori & Haff 2004, Munn et al. 2005, Hakkinen
1989, Lawton et al. 2006 , Kovarik 1991
Principle 4
Individualize the number of sets Jackson et al.
1990, Paulsen et al. 2003, Teramoto & Golding 2006
Principle 5
To prevent overtraining, cut back first on sets, not
intensity Chiu et al. 2004, Haddock & Wilkin 2006,
Paulsen et al. 2003, Hakkinen 1989, Hakkinen 1995,
Izquierdo et al. 2006
Principle 6
A high number of sets develops the skill of
activating muscle fibers for maximal efforts Cronin
& Crewther 2004, Gonzalez-Badillo et al. 2005, 2006,
Goto et al. 2004, Hass et al. 2000
Principle 9
Nutrition and supplementation influence work
capacity Haddock & Wilkin 2006, Kanaley et al. 2001,
Denton & Cronin 2006, Kraemer et al. 1998
Principle 10
Specific exercises require specific sets-and-reps
combinations Hass et al. 2000, Kawamori & Haff
2004, Abdessemed et al. 1999
Principle 11
The number of sets is inversely proportionate to
the total time under tension per set Kawamori &.
Haff 2004, Teramoto & Golding 2006, Denton & Cronin
2006, Gentil et al. 2006
Principle 12
The more sets performed, the greater the hormonal
response Gonzalez-Badillo et al. 2005, 2006,
Haddock & Wilkin 2006, Goto et al. 2007, Kraemer
et al. 1999, Raastad et al. 2000, Smilios et al. 2003,
Hakkinen etal. 1998, Hakkinen 1989
Principle 13
The number of sets per exercise is inversely
proportionate to the number of exercises
Abdessemed et al. 1999, Ahtianen et al. 2005, Kang et
al. 2005
Principle 7
The metabolic cost of an exercise influences
the number of sets to be performed in any given
exercise Gonzalez-Badillo et al. 2005, 2006, Goto et
al. 2004, Haddock & Wilkin 2006, Hunter et al. 2003,
Hakkinen 1989
Principle 8
During a specialisation phase, more sets may be
needed Hass et al. 2000, Kawamori & Haff 2004,
Kraemer et al. 1999, 2003, Ahtianen et al. 2005
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THE SCIENCE DF REST INTERVALS
Rest intervals, also known as rest periods,
refer to the length of rest between sets
and exercises. We can also elaborate on
the concept of rest between repetitions
within a set. It is an important but often
underestimated loading parameter.
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Chapter 4
PRE-TEST
1. What is another name for rest intervals?
A. tempo pause
B. aerobic phase
C. anaerobic phase
D. rest periods
when training the alactic power system?
A. Use shorter rest intervals
B. Use longer rest intervals
C. Use a combination of shorter and longer rest
intervals
2. Which are among the five main causes of fatigue
in intense exercise?
A. the accumulation of fatigue substrates
B. the depletion of energy substrates
C. disturbed coordination of movement
D. all the above
3. The neuromuscular basis of relative strength
training methods centers around the use of which
of the following?
A. brief, submaximal voluntary contractions
B. brief, maximal voluntary contractions
C. brief, maximal involuntary contractions
D. brief, submaximal voluntary contractions
4. How much longer does it take the nervous
system to recover than the muscular system?
A. two to three times longer
B. three to four times longer
C. four to five times longer
D. five to six times longer
5. Which of the following is true?
A. The length of the rest intervals dictates the
hormonal responses to a given workout.
B. The motor-unit magnitude decreases the
hormonal responses to a given workout.
C. The sky is blue because it reflects the ocean.
D. Aand B
6. How should you manipulate the rest intervals
D. Aand B
7. What is the effect of pairing antagonistic
muscles?
A. It allows for greater motor unit recruitment
B. It decreases motor unit recruitment
C. It allows for shorter rest intervals
D. Aand C
8. What would be the best pairing of exercises?
A. overhead presses and chin-ups
B. bench presses and rows
C. deadlifts and chin-ups
D. squats and deadlifts
9. What is the effect of shorter rest periods?
A. greater psychological anxiety
B. decrease in fatigue
C. lactate reduction
D. B and C
10. What is an appropriate ratio of aerobic training
to strength training for a football lineman to
develop an aerobic base?
A. 1:2 ratio (1 aerobic to 2 strength training)
B. 1:3 ratio
C. 3:2 ratio
D. A football lineman does not need an aerobic
base
a-01- a-6 a-8 a-z a-9 v-9 q -p a-e o-z a-i sjoMsuyisej-ajd
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THE SCIENCE OF REST INTERVALS
The rest interval during the strength training session
impacts the extent and nature of involvement of the
anaerobic energy sources and the intensity of the
training load. You must realize that there are five main
interrelated causes of fatigue (see Table 4.1) all of
which affect recovery from exercise bouts.
Principle 1: The length of the rest
interval is dictated by the training
goal
"What is the training objective?" is the question the
strength coach must answer before deciding on the
length of the rest intervals. The next question to
answer is "Do you want full recovery or incomplete
recovery?"
The training effects of various rest periods in
strength training have been extensively documented
in the scientific literature. Generally, if you want
to maximize impact on the nervous system, full
recovery is recommended. When maximal strength
is a concern, longer rest intervals are more likely to
promote strength gains than shorter ones because
near-maximal recovery offeree generation parallels
restoration of energy substrates (Figure 4.1).
The neuromuscular basis of relative strength training
methods centers around the use of brief, maximal
voluntary contractions. The great voluntary effort (and
excitation) normally associated with these brief bursts
of maximal exercise recruits the highest-threshold
motor units to make use of their greater strength
and rate of force development. This is why every
repetition must be performed with full concentration
and maximum effort. The high intensity required
calls for the use of long rest intervals. The ability
to restore neural drive, active muscle tension and
energy substrates is a time-dependent process,
demonstrating the importance of a non-contractile
period of rest following exercise. Rest intervals need
to be prescribed based on the training intent, such as
strength, relative strength, hypertrophy and strength
endurance.
The length of the rest interval used in heavy resistance
training appears to bring about specific changes.
The work of Kraemer et al. (1987) demonstrated
that powerlifters, even though accustomed to highresistance training, have little tolerance to resistance
training with minimal rest intervals. Bodybuilders who
tend to train in this fashion tolerate this type of work
with greater ease.
Principle 2: The nervous system
takes five to six times longer to
recover than the muscular system
Many exercise physiologists tend to prescribe rest
intervals in strength training that are far too short
because they make their recommendations based on
muscle cell physiology recovery studies. They forget
that the nervous system is hooked to these muscles,
and they are not aware that the nervous system takes
five to six times longer to recover than the muscular
system (Figures 4.2,4.3 & 4.4). As such, they tend to
underestimate the length of the rest interval. Olympic
lifting coaches have known this for a very long time
and just by sheer experience have prescribed the
correct length of rest interval by taking into account the
nervous system.
Principle 3: The length of the rest
interval dictates the hormonal
response to a given workout
Generally, the shorter the rest interval, the greater the
metabolic adaptation. When you keep the number
of RM identical (e.g., 10RM) but manipulate only the
rest interval (1 minute versus 3 minutes), the growth
hormone response varies dramatically. In this case,
the shorter the rest interval, the greater the GH
response. When repetitions are low and the length
interval is long, there is minimal hormonal response
(Figure 4.3).
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57
THE FIVE MAIN CAUSES OF FATIGUE IN INTENSE EXERCISE
1. The accumulation of fatigue substrates
(e.g., lactic acid)
2. The depletion of energy substrates
(e.g., lowering of glycogen levels)
3. Changes in the physio-chemical state
(e.g., lowered blood pH)
4. Disturbed coordination of movement
5. Lowering of neural conduction
TABLE 4.1 There are five main interrelated causes of fatigue, all of which affect recovery from
exercise (adapted from Pahike and Peters 1992, Davis and Bailey 1997, Green 1997).
Principle 4: When training the alactic
power system, the longest rest
intervals are indicated
Principle 6: The length of the rest
interval is a function of the amount of
muscle mass recruited
When training with maximal loads (1RM-5RM at
85-100 percent of maximum), length intervals of
3-4 minutes (Weiss 1991) or even up to 5 minutes
(Schmidtbleicher 1986, Zatiorsky 1995) have been
suggested to prevent the onset of early fatigue and
to allow for repeated efforts at these high intensities.
There is considerable debate in the literature on
the length of the rest interval to replenish the ATP
stores and the phosphocreatine stores (PCr). Some
researchers have demonstrated that both PCr and
ATP stores are almost completely restored following
a 4-minute rest interval, suggesting that the energy
contribution to successives from ATP and PCr is
unchanged.
The larger the muscle mass recruited, the greater the
length of the rest interval; for example, in back squats,
as they recruit the largest muscle mass in the human
body. Similarly, the glutes and thighs need longer
rest intervals than biceps curls, which recruit only the
relatively smaller elbow flexors.
Principle 5: The length of rest interval
is a function of the magnitude of the
range of motion
The greater the range of motion, the greater the need
for a longer rest interval (Picture 4.1). For example,
power snatches performed while standing on a 4-inch
platform require longer rest intervals than power
snatches performed from the mid-thigh. Also, for
a given repetitions range, heavy dumbbell work is
more demanding than barbell work; so for a 6RM set,
incline dumbbell presses require more rest than incline
barbell presses for 6RM.
58
Chapter 4
Principle 7: The length of the rest
interval is a function of the size and
strength levels of the athlete
The bigger and stronger the trainee, the longer the rest
interval should be. Empirical evidence shows a direct
relationship between the length of the rest interval and
the weight class of the weightlifter. One only has to
attend a National Team Weightlifting Camp to verify
this concept. In other words, the 54 kg lifter will tend to
take shorter rest intervals than the super-heavyweight
lifter. Conversely, aN offensive lineman would rest
longer than a running back.
Principle 8: The length of the
rest interval is a function of the
neurological complexity of the
exercise
The more demanding an exercise is neurologically,
the greater the length of the rest interval. Exercises of
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual
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FIGURE 4.1
The length
of the rest
interval is
dictated by the
training goal.
To maximize
impact on the
nervous system,
full recovery is
recommended.
59
RECOVERY COMPARISON OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Time in Seconds
• Muscular
• Nervous
FIGURE 4.2 The nervous system takes five to six times longer to recover than the muscular system.
HORMONAL RESPONSE VS. REST INTERVALS
FIGURE 4.3 When repetitions are low and the length interval is long, there is minimal hormonal response.
60
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TRAINING THE ALACTIC POWER SYSTEM
Atactic
Power
Lactic
rapacity Pow
Capacity Power
Rest
1 :30
1 : 15
1:3
Ratio
1 ;50
1 :29
1:4
fapaci
FIGURE 4.4 Work-to-rest prescriptions to develop the various energy systems.
a highly coordinative nature, such as split jerks and
power snatches, need far longer rest intervals than
simple isolation exercises such as rotator cuff work.
Olympic lifts and their variations demand very precise
patterns of force application and smooth coordination
as opposed to machine exercises, which are relatively
no-brainers. Again, this explains why heavy dumbbell
pressing work requires longer rest intervals than heavy
barbell pressing work. Another example would be
single-leg dumbbell calf raises versus seated one-leg
calf press.
Principle 9: Pairing antagonistic
muscles allows for greater motor unit
recruitment, shorter rest intervals
and greater total volume done per
training session
By having the antagonistic pairs contracting alternately
(e.g., flexion followed by extension) instead of
employing agonist contractions alone (precontraction
of antagonists), the ability to achieve full motor unit
activation (MUA) in a muscle contraction is often
enhanced. This has the added benefit of allowing you
to double the workload per training unit. A good plan
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PICTURES 4.3 & 4.4 Intra-set pause should be taken at the advantageous position of the exercise to increase
workout intensity.
is to alternate exercises working agonist muscles with
exercises working antagonistic muscles together,
while respecting long rest intervals. For example, after
doing a 3RM set of close-grip triceps presses, rest
2-3 minutes, perform a heavy set for the antagonist
muscle (e.g., a 3RM to 4RM set of dumbbell curls
for the biceps), rest another 2-3 minutes and repeat
the above procedure for the required number of sets.
By training in this fashion, an athlete can do greater
tonnage per training unit, as alternating antagonist
pairs has been shown repeatedly to lower drop-off
curves more effectively than traditional standard sets
even with complete rest intervals.
The paired muscle groups are normally in opposite
motor patterns. For example, overhead presses
are alternated with forms of chins-ups, and lying
forms of presses are alternated with rows. You do
not necessarily need to pair large motor patterns
with other large ones. For example, deadlifts can be
alternated with tibialis raises, and chin-ups can be
alternated with rotator cuff work.
Principle 10: The length of the rest
interval is a function of the tempo
prescribed
Another factor that influences rest interval selection is
the cadence at which it is performed. Although there
is a scarcity of research in this particular area, you
may consider total time under tension of a given set
before prescribing the proper rest interval. Given that
information, you would prescribe a rest interval that is
inversely proportionate to the total time under tension
62
Chapter 4
of that set. For example, there would be significant
differences in the nature and the extent of the energy
substrate for sets of single repetitions in the chinup done at a 5:0:1:0 tempo versus reps done at a
30:0:30:0 tempo.
Principle 11: The length of the rest
interval is a function of the training
age
Tolerance to short rest intervals with loads in the
60-80 percent range (6-20 reps) is a function of
years of accumulated training. Short rest periods are
linked to greater psychological anxiety and fatigue,
and the lactate buildup resulting from this type of
training is tolerated by only the well-conditioned
athlete. Consequently, shortening the rest intervals
when working with 10RM loads should be done
progressively as the buffering mechanisms adapt to
increased muscle and blood lactate concentrations. I
believe that rest intervals have to be shortened for only
the advanced trainee, as lactate buildup will interfere
with the maintenance of proper technique in the
learning trainee.
Even in neural training, rest intervals can be
progressively shortened with no reduction in training
weight. Adepts of the Westside Barbell Club style of
training and the Bulgarian lifters are the living proof of
the trainability of this physical quality.
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PICTURE 4.5 To develop maximal strength, the intra-set rest intervals for a high fast-twitch individual should
never exceed 15 seconds when training on complex compound exercises such as the squat.
Principle 12: Short, intra-set rest
intervals recruit higher-threshold
motor units
The rest interval between repetitions within a series
has received very little attention from the strength
training community, yet it is an extremely important
loading parameter. Experience in the gym over the
last 50 years, also confirmed by scientific research
during the last two decades, has clearly shown that
taking small intra-set rest intervals in an advantageous
angle of execution permits the recruitment of higherthreshold motor units (Picture 4.3 & 4.4). For a given
submaximal force of contraction, motor unit activation
is greater for repeated (intermittent) contractions than
for sustained contractions.
For the development of maximal strength, the intra-set
rest interval should never exceed 15 seconds, and that
is only for high fast-twitch individuals training only on
complex compound exercises (Picture 4.5). Both the
experimental and practical settings have confirmed
this finding. That is why authors who recommend 20
pauses in cluster training have obviously no clue about
how to train athletes.
Principle 13: The aerobic base is not
a factor in strength development
The higher the aerobic base of an athlete, the
shorter the rest interval the athlete will want to take.
However, this practice is a double-edged sword, as the
aerobically fit trainee is normally weaker. Also, it is the
author's experience that these athletes have a hard
time grasping the concept of resting for a long time
between heavy sets to bring about neural adaptations.
For example, rowers and boxers will complain that
they are not sweating enough when doing relative
strength training and "there must be something wrong"
with the training process.
The work of Cooke et al. (1997) suggest that V02 max
is a poor predictor of metabolic recovery rate from
high-intensity exercise, and differences in recovery
rate observed between individuals with similar V02
max imply that other factors such as peripheral
adaptations and muscle fiber type influence recovery.
The rate of recovery may be influenced to a greater
extent by aerobic adaptation within the muscle and
may or may not be associated with V02 max.
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Principle 1
The length of the rest interval is dictated by the
training goal. Chiu et al. 2004, Willardson & Burl^ett
2005, IVIatuszal^ et al. 2003, Pincivero et al. 2004,
Pincivero & Campy 2004, Pincivero et al. 1999, 1997
Principle 2
The nervous system takes five to six times longer
to recover than the muscular system
Chiu et al. 2004, Haddock & Wilkin 2006, Kawamori &
Haff 2004, Matuszaket al. 2003, Hakkinen 1989
Principle 3
The length of the rest interval dictates the
hormonal response to a given workout Paulsen
et al. 2003, Raastad et al. 2000, Smilios et al. 2003;
Abdessemed et al. 1999; Pincivero et al. 2004;
Pincivero & Campy 2004; Pincivero et al. 1999, 1997;
Ahtianen et al. 2005; Fry et al. 1994, 1998; Hakkinen
1989; Richmond & Goddard 2004; Willardson &
Burkett 2006a, 2006b; Willardson 2006
Principle 4
When training the alactic power system, the
longest rest intervals are indicated Cronin &
Crewther 2004, Willardson & Burkett 2005
Principle 5
The length of a rest interval is a function of the
magnitude of the range of motion Willardson &
Burkett 2005, Matuszak et al. 2003, Abdessemed et al.
1999, Pincivero et al. 2004, Pincivero & Campy 2004,
Pincivero et al. 1999, 1997
al. 2004, Matuszak et al. 2003, Willardson & Burkett
2005, Richmond & Goddard 2004, Willardson &
Burkett 2006a, 2006b, Willardson 2006
Principle 9
Pairing antagonist muscles allows for greater
motor recruitment, shorter rest intervals and
greater total volume done per training session
Newton & Alen 1998, Chiu et al. 2003
Principle 10
The length of the rest interval is a function of
the tempo prescribed Willardson & Burkett 2005,
Abdessemed et al. 1999, Pincivero et al. 2004,
Pincivero & Campy 2004, Pincivero et al. 1999, 1997
Principle 11
The length of the rest interval is a function of the
training age Kawamori & Haff 2004, Kraemer et al.
1999, Kraemer etal. 1998, Hakkinen et al. 2000,
Izquierdo et al. 2001
Principle 12
Short, intra-set rest intervals recruit higherthreshold motor units Willardson & Burkett 2005,
Matuszak et al. 2003, Hakkinen 1995, Kang et al.
2005, Lawton et al. 2006
Principle 13
An aerobic base is not a factor in strength
development Leveritt et al. (1999)
Principle 6
The length of the rest interval is a function of the
amount of muscle mass recruited Kawamori & Haff
2004, Matuszak et al. 2003, Abdessemed et al. 1999,
Ahtianen et al. 2005, Richmond & Goddard 2004,
Willardson & Burkett 2006a, 2006b, Willardson 2006
Principle 7
The length of the rest interval is a function of the
size and strength levels of the athlete Jackson et al.
1990, Taaffe et al. 1996, Ahtianen et al. 2005
Principle 8
The length of the rest interval is a function of the
neurological complexity of the exercise Chiu et
64
Chapter 4
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THE SCIENCE DF TEMPO
Tempo is the least understood of
all the strength-training loading
parameters and the one most associated
with popular myths: Slow training is best!
Fast training is dangerous! Fast training
is the only way to train fast-twitch fibers!
This chapter teaches you the principles
that regulate tempo of execution
prescription while dispelling the myths.
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PRE-TEST
1. What does the first number represent in the
tempo prescription 4210?
A. eccentric lowering
B. stretched position
C. concentric contraction
D. pause in the contracted position
2. What does the second number represent in the
tempo prescription 4210?
A. eccentric lowering
B. the pause in the stretched position
C. concentric contraction
D. pause in the contracted position
3. Is training at slow speeds disadvantageous to
power development?
A. yes
B. no
C. only with advanced athletes
D. all the above except A, B and C
4. How could you increase the degree of
intramuscular tension during a bench press?
A. shorten the rest intervals
B. use lifting chains
C. use a smaller-diameter barbell
D. B and C
5. For maximal strength development, the
resistance must be heavy enough that the
concentric contraction takes roughly how long?
A. 0.3-0.5 seconds
B. 0.4-0.7 seconds
C. 0.5-0.8 seconds
D. 0.8-1.0 seconds
6. High-intensity, slow-speed training using
isokinetic loading is associated with increases in
which of the following?
A. muscle glycogen
B. CP, ATP, ADP
C. CP, ATP, IRS
D. Aand B
7. Slow-tempo work is best applied to which of the
following exercises?
A. squats
B. push jerks
C. power snatch
D. clean pulls
8. What can be said about the relationship between
maximal strength and speed of movement?
A. They are negatively correlated.
B. They are positively correlated.
C. They are inversely proportionate to
magnitude of the training load.
D. They're just friends.
9. When using eccentric contractions to develop
relative strength, what is the maximal time limit of
a single set?
A. 5 seconds
B. 10 seconds
C. 10-12 seconds
D. 20 seconds
10. Pausing in the advantageous isometric
position will favor which of the following?
A. muscle glycogen replacement
B. high-threshold motor unit recruitment
C. low-threshold motor unit recruitment
D. Aand B
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66
Chapter 5
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CHAPTER 5
PRINCIPLES OF TEMPO PRESCRIPTION FOR
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MAXIMAL STRENGTH
Here is the significance of the tempo symbol. I use
a four-digit system to represent the time it takes to
complete the different phases of strength training
repetition (Figure 5.1).
The first number is the eccentric lowering, that is,
when you lower the resistance (e.g., going down in the
squat or bringing the bar to your chest in the bench
press). As a rule of thumb, that is when the muscle
is being placed under stretch. During the eccentric
contraction the muscle is actually lengthening.
The second number is the time of pause in the
stretched position. The pause is usually between the
eccentric (lowering) phase and the concentric (lifting),
phase (e.g., the bottom position in the squat or when
the bar makes contact with the chest in the bench
press). So the "2" in a 4210 tempo in the bench press
would refer to a 2-second pause when the bar makes
contact with the chest. It can also refer to a pause
taken during the middle of a concentric range. A 5310
tempo in the standing paused reverse curl would
indicate a 3-second pause at a predetermined angle in
the concentric range of the reverse curl.
The third number is the concentric contraction, that is,
lifting the weight (e.g., rising in the squat or pressing
the bar at arms' length in the bench press. In this case
the muscle is shortening. If X is present in the tempo
expression instead of a number, it implies explosive
action with full acceleration.
The fourth number is the time of pause in the
contracted position (e.g., the top of a curl or chin-up).
Thus, 2010 in the flat dumbbell press would mean 2
seconds to lower dumbbells, no pause (0), lifting for a
count of 1, and no pause at the top.
UNDERSTANDING TEMPO
TEMPO
4
2
1
0
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CD
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Q.
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CD
How It Looks: Slow, controlled lowering
(4 seconds down) with a medium (2 seconds)
Q.
0
L_
pause, fast return (1 second to top) and
x
Q)
immediately (0 seconds) repeat the lift again.
C
CD
CO
Time in seconds
Q.
FIGURE 5.1 A four-digit symbol can be used to prescribe the appropriate tempo that should be used during a
weight training exercise.
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FIGURE 5.3 Tension is critical for maximal strength development. If maximal strength is the desired goal, highresistance training at slow velocities appears more effective than high velocities with light loads.
As another example, in the case of 4211 in the chinup, it would mean 4 seconds to lower yourself to the
arms outstretched position, a 2-second pause in the
stretched position, raising yourself for a count of 1, and
pausing for 1 second at the top.
Principle 1: It is the brain's intent that
determines the training effect, not the
actual velocity of the bar
There is some concern that displacing high loads
at slow speeds may be disadvantageous for power
development, but these fears are totally unfounded. It
is the brain's intent that determines the adaptation to
high-speed lifting. In other words, "concentrating on
acceleration" while reaching muscle failure will bring
about the same adaptation as will lifting at high speed,
as long as you concentrate on accelerating the load.
The key in power training for athletes is to keep the
repetitions low (1-5) so that the high-threshold motor
units are recruited. Training with higher reps (e.g., 1012), even though concentrating on acceleration, would
still access lower-threshold fibers more so than if the
reps were done at a controlled medium tempo.
Training with loads moved purposely slow will move
the force-time curve towards the right, which translates
68
Chapter 5
to less power even though the levels of maximal
strength may have increased.
Principle 2: Tension is critical for
maximal strength development
if maximal strength is the desired goal, high-resistance
training at slow velocities appears more advantageous
than training at high velocities with light loads (Fig.
5.3). This is because high levels of intramuscular
tension are the biological stimulus for the adaptive
process of strength development.
When you reach the upper levels of strength
development, you must seek ways to increase the
levels of intramuscular tension. This explains the
success of training implements that accommodate
the strength curve to increase the amount of tension
throughout the strength curve. One such example
is the use of chains added to the barbell squat to
accommodate the ascending strength curve. Another
example is the use of bungee cords attached to a bar
for training the incline press.
Even though science has yet to verify the following,
in my experience the best way to achieve the optimal
combination of slow velocity and high tension is not to
use purposely slow contractions but to use low-reps
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METABOLIC ADAPTATION
Speed
FIGURE 5.4 For maximal strength development, the resistance must be heavy enough that the concentric
contraction takes roughly 0.3 to 0.5 seconds.
.3 sec to 0.5 sec
85%
descending sets (which, of course, are done with a
proper warm-up). Here is an example of a descending
set for strength athletes:
1 RM @100 percent of maximum
Rest 10 seconds, drop load 5 percent
1 RM @ 95 percent of maximum
Rest 10 seconds, drop load 5 percent
1 RM @ 90 percent of maximum
Rest 3-5 minutes, repeat steps 1-6 another 4-5
times
• 100%
Principle 3: For maximal strength
development, the resistance must
be heavy enough that the concentric
contraction takes roughly 0.3-0.5
seconds
For maximal strength development, high-threshold
fibers must be recruited. High-threshold fibers take a
minimum of 0.3 seconds to generate maximal tension
(Fig. 5.4). Lifting explosively with light loads will not
do much for strength development. A minimum of 85
percent of the 1RM is necessary to elicit a strength
response when training explosively. In strength training
circles, this refers to the method of maximal efforts,
(a.k.a. relative strength training and weightlifter's
method).
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69
Principle 4: Slow-speed lifting brings
about more metabolic adaptations
than does high-speed lifting
High-intensity, slow-speed training using isol<inetic
loading is associated with increases in muscle
glycogen, CP, ATP, ADP, creatine, phosphorylase,
PFK, and Krebs cycle enzyme activity. Training at
faster speeds does not induce these changes (Brooks
and Fahey 1985).
Principle 5: For slow-tempo work, the
exercise must be adapted to fit the
strength curve
Slow tempo can be best applied to all extensor work
(e.g., squats, bench presses and deadlifts), particularly
when you use chains or bands to make the resistance
curve match more evenly the strength curve. However,
in the case of the more bell-shaped force curve (a.k.a.
ascending-descending) of certain muscles, slowtempo work appears to be appropriate in only partial
ranges (e.g., the first 45 degrees) of elbow flexion if
one uses constant-resistance devices such as the
old reliable barbell and dumbbells. For example, in
the case of slow-tempo elbow flexion work, I prefer to
prescribe the use of a Scott bench and a low pulley for
resistance overload. Using a barbell as the resistance
implement for the full range in this case would waste
most of the effort expended.
If a constant-resistance mode (e.g., dumbbell) is the
only means of resistance available, I would suggest
partial work, such as the first 45 degrees of elbow
flexion on a Scott bench. Concerning elbow flexion
work, resistance training devices that permit the shape
of the resistance to be adjusted, such as many of the
Strive® machines and some of the Hammer® pieces,
allow the optimalization of the resistance patterns for
those ascending-descending force curve muscles.
Schmidtbleicher 1981; Heyden et al. 1988) (See Table
5.1).
For example, consider a lineman who can incline
press 400 pounds versus a quarterback who can
incline press 250 pounds. If you test both athletes for
maximal bar speed at 100, 150, 200 and 250 pounds,
the lineman with the higher 1RM performance is more
likely to move all those loads at greater speeds than
the quarterback will. It goes without saying that the
speed of the bar for the quarterback would be 0.0 with
loads of 300 pounds and above.
Principle 7: It is easier to gain
strength at slow speeds than at high
speeds
The potential for strength gains is much greater
at slow speeds than at high speeds (Moffroid and
Whipple 1970, Berger 1982, Coyle and Feiring
1980). For example, you can expect higher rates and
magnitudes of improvement in back squats and bench
presses (slow lifts) than in power cleans and power
snatches (fast lifts).
Principle 8: The nature of the
exercise dictates the tempo at which
it will be optimally executed
Some exercises by their very nature must always
be done at high speeds, while others can be done
Another way to increase maximal tension when
training the flexors is to include isometric pauses in
the concentric range (see shaded box on isometronic
training in this chapter).
Principle 6: Maximal strength and
speed of movement are positively
correlated at all loads
Scientific research has demonstrated that there is
a positive correlation between maximal strength
and speed of movement at all loads (Burhle and
70
Chapter 5
FIGURE 5.3 Tension is critical for maximal strength
development. If maximal strength is the desired goal,
high-resistance training at slow velocities appears
more effective than high velocities with light loads.
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ISOMETRONIC TRAINING
This routine's physiological basis is what American sport scientists Fleck & Kraemer and O'Shea call
"functional isometric contractions" (FIC). Over thirty years ago, players of the Iron Game were introduced
to this training method under the term "isometronics," which was a contraction of the terms "isometrics"
and "isotonics." German strength experts such as Letzelter & Letzelter and Hartmann & Tunnemann
prefer to use the term "auxotonics" to describe this training method. The concept behind this training
method is to use the best of what the isometric method can offer and combine it with the regular type of
lifting still known as "isotonics."
With FIC you make use of the specific joint-angle strength gains of isometrics after pre-fatiguing the
muscles involved by using heavy short-range repetitions in the power rack.
In the bench press movement, you'll select three equally divided ranges of motion: start range, mid-range
and end range. In all three ranges, you will select a specific weight that you can move from the bottom of
the range of motion to its top position. In all ranges, the amplitude of the movement will be regulated by
sets of pins. Here are the steps for performing FIC:
1. Perform 4-6 partial reps in the normal fashion on a 20X2 tempo.
2. When you come to the end of the last concentric repetition, make contact with the bar against the top
pins. Apply as much force as possible for 6-8 seconds, trying to blast through the pins! Do not hold your
breath during the isometric contraction; instead, use a very brief cycle of breathing, alternating rapidly
between short inhaling and short exhaling. This would be performed on a 20X8 tempo.
3. If you've performed this set properly, you should not be able to perform another concentric repetition
after lowering the barbell—if you can do the rep, the weight you used was simply too light.
Make sure to do this program only once every 10 days. Do a more regular program on other training days.
at any speed (Pictures 5.1 & 5.2). Exercises that
need to performed at only high speeds include the
Olympic lifts (clean and jerk, snatch), partial Olympic
lifts (e.g., power cleans, power snatch) and the
numerous Olympic pulls. These exercises train the
synchronization of muscular chains to improve the rate
offeree development and involve a multitude of joints
that have to be used in a precise order for optimal
performance. Normally these are done at a XOXO
tempo. However, in some instances, I may prescribe
an isometric pause right in the middle of the concentric
range. For example, in the power clean, if an athlete
has a tendency to rush the lift, I may have him or her
pause for 2 seconds once the bar clears the knees in
the concentric range.
Exercises that can be done at almost any speed are
usually less complex in coordinative nature and are
used most often for the purpose of building maximal
strength and/or hypertrophy (e.g., presses, squats,
curls).
Principle 9: For relative strength
development, the total time under
tension per set should not exceed 20
seconds
Relative strength is the maximum force that an athlete
can generate per unit of bodyweight irrespective of the
time taken to develop this force. A high-level relative
strength is of critical importance in sports in which
athletes have to displace their entire bodyweight
(e.g., jumps, gymnastics); in sports that have weight
classes (e.g., judo, wrestling, boxing); and in sports
in which sudden acceleration is critical (e.g., sprints,
hockey, soccer). Strength training for athletes in these
sports should be based on maximum-weights/nervoussystem methods, methods that enhance the neural
drive, producing increased recruiting and firing rate of
motor units. A list of sports requiring relative strength
can be found in Table 5.2.
For relative-strength sports, hypertrophic adaptations
should be minimized, hence the need to access
only high-threshold motor units and keep time under
tension to a minimum. By keeping the time under
tension short, you ensure that the high-energy
phosphagens are the main fuel sources for those highintensity contractions (Table 5.3).
Normally, for relative strength development, the athlete
utilizes 1-5 repetitions per set. Of course, to keep the
total time under tension under 20 seconds, the higher
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71
CORRELATIONS
Angular speed (°/s)
Group n
15,6
31,3
62,6
94,0
125,3
r
r
r
r
r
GO
17
.97+++ .95+++ .92+++ .90+++ .95+++
G1
8
.95+++
.89++
.73+
.60 ns
.78+
G2
9
.97+++ .87+++
.80++
.74+
.69+
(ns = not significant; p < .05 = +; p < .01 = Hi-+; p < .00'i = +++
GO (weightlifters) G1 (strongest lifters) G2 (weakest)
TABLE 5.1 Correlations Between Isometric Maximal Strength and the Relative Dynamic Strength Maximum
at Different Speeds of Movement for the Three Groups: GO (all weightlifters), G1 (strongest weightlifters), G2
(weakest weightlifters) (Heyden et al. 1988).
the number of reps per set, the lower the time under
tension per repetition can be. Table 5.4 illustrates a
sample tempo selection in relation to sets and reps for
the development of relative strength.
Principle 10: Relative strength
training allows for a great variety of
tempos in the eccentric and pause
phases
When seeking to develop relative strength, eccentric
contractions can be as slow as 10 seconds, while
isometric pauses can be as long as 8 seconds.
However, the length of the total set should not exceed
20 seconds. In the case of the 8-second isometric
pauses, they are done with maximal tension against
an immovable object like the pins in a power rack.
Principle 11: Time under tension per
set should not exceed 40 seconds in
absolute strength sports with a high­
speed component
If you are in an absolute-strength sport with a high
power component (e.g., bobsleigh, hammer throwing).
72
Chapter 5
do not exceed times under tension of 40 seconds.
In those sports, you want hypertrophy but the
hypertrophy must be functional, hence the short times
under tension. It is my experience that hypertrophy
gained by sets of longer time under tension negatively
affects performance.
Principle 12: Variation in tempo
is critical for long-term maximal
strength development
Various authors have contended that muscles gain in
strength faster if trained at various speeds, rather than
constantly being trained at the same speed (Biihrle
and Schmidtbleicher 1981, Lilikow and Worobjow
1984, Poliquin 1988).
A recent study (Harris et al. 1996) supports these
authors. In this study performed at Appalachian State
University, three separate groups of trainees were
used. Group 1 trained at 30 percent of their onerepetition maximum, Group 2 trained at 80-85 percent
of their one-repetition maximum, and Group 3 trained
using two intensities, one day at 80-85 percent of
their max and a second day at 55-60 percent of their
one-repetition maximum. All three groups were divided
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THE CONCEPT OF TIME UNDER TENSION
When hypertrophy is the goal, research and empirical data both tend to support the 40-to-70-second rule
of thumb, which states that a muscle must be loaded within that time frame to optimize the hypertrophy
response. When relative strength is the primary concern, duration of the stimulus (set) should not exceed
40 seconds, and for even better results should not exceed 20 seconds. The reason for doing this is to
recruit the high-threshold motor units, which use the high-energy phosphagens as a source of fuel.
For the purpose of selective hypertrophy, here is how you can adjust the sets, reps and tempo to achieve
the desired training effect:
a. 3 x 15-20 on 2010 tempo will recruit slow-twitch fibers and stimulate specific biochemical
adaptations.
b. 4 X 4-6 on 4080 will stimulate the intermediate Ma fibers.
c. 6 X 2-3 on 3011 will access high-threshold lib fibers, the fibers that have the highest potential for
growth. In this case, the pause should be at a mechanically advantageous angle to permit higherthreshold fibers.
Slow Speed vs. Fast Speed
OPTIMAL TEMPO
PICTURES 5.1 & 5.2 Olympic lifting exercises such as the clean pull (left) should be performed at high speeds,
whereas basic strength exercises such as the decline triceps extension should be performed at slow speeds.
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73
SPORTS REQUIRING RELATIVE STRENGTH
Reason
Sports (Examples)
Buoyancy
Synchronized swimming
Hydrodynamics
Swimming, water polo
Aerodynamics
Luge, ski jump, cycling, downhill skiing
Weight-Class Sports
Combative sports (e.g., judo), lifting sports (e.g., weightlifting)
Jumping Power
Basketball, handball, pole vault, triple jump
Aesthetics
Figure skating, rhythmic gymnastics, synchronized swimming
TABLE 5.2 A list of sports requiring relative strength.
TIME UNDER TENSION FOR STRENGTH AND ITS RELATED ENERGY SYSTEM & FUEL SOURCE
Time under Tension
Energy System
Fuel
1-10 seconds
Anaerobic alactic power
ATP-CP
11-20 seconds
Anaerobic alactic capacity
CP
21-40 seconds
Anaerobic lactic power
Glycogen
41-120 seconds
Anaerobic lactic capacity
Glycogen
TABLE 5.3 By keeping the time under tension short, you ensure that the high-energy phosphagens are the main
fuel sources for those high-intensity contractions.
SAMPLE TEMPO PRESCRIPTIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF RELATIVE STRENGTH
Tempo
Reps
Sets
Time/Rep
Time/Set
10/0/1/0
1
7-10
11
11
3110
2
6
5
10
3012
3
6
6
18
4010
4
5
5
20
TABLE 5.4 To keep the total time under tension under 20 seconds to emphasize relative strength, an increase in
reps per set requires that the TUT per rep be reduced.
74
Chapter 5
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equally in number, training for nine weeks using the
same loading parameters in terms of sets and reps.
Performance measurements demonstrated that the
third group made the biggest improvements in athletic
performance.
Two recent studies have shown the superior value of
periodizing speed compared to keeping the speed of
contraction identical throughout a program. The study
by Urdang et al. (1989) demonstrated that periodized
training in which individuals move from low velocity to
high velocity may be necessary if increases in force
are required at both speeds. The work of Doherty et al.
(1989) supports current theory with regard to velocityspecific resistance training; that is, low-velocity training
produces greater increments in force production at low
speed than does high-velocity training. However, their
results suggest that high-velocity training alone does
not produce changes as great as periodized low- and
high-velocity training performed in sequence.
These data support the practice of periodized training
programs in which the velocity of the movement is
varied over the course of the training program for
athletes attempting to increase force production at
high speeds. Recent studies support the concept
that when athletic performance variables demanding
strength, power and speed are desired, a combination
of training velocities is desirable (Harris et al. 1996;
Little et al. 1996).
However, for elite athletes the variation of training
velocities may be necessary to elicit a training
response. Various world-class athletes have reported
enhanced sports performance from systematically
planned variations in speed of contraction. For
example, in hammer throwing, low-velocity work (e.g.,
slow-tempo deadlifts) has been perceived as beneficial
for enhanced control of knee- and trunk flexion during
turns, and high-velocity training (speed snatch) is used
to ameliorate power in the release of the throwing
implement (Picture 5.3 & 5.4).
My experience with elite athletes indicates that the
tempo of contraction for any given exercise should
be varied every three weeks or less. In preparation
for the Athens Olympic Games, shot-putters would
vary the tempo on a four-training-day system. The
very nature of the exercise helped dictate the velocity.
The following workout shows how the hip extension
movements were periodized.
TEMPO VARIETY
PICTURES 5.3 & 5.4 Elite athletes need a greater variety of training velocities to elicit a training response. This
requirement necessitates a variety of exercise types.
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75
Principle 14: Pausing in the
advantageous isometric position
will favor high-threshold motor unit
recruitment
Adam Nelson Program
Workouts 1, 5, 9, 13
Snatch deadlifts on podium, 5 x 6-8,
5020
Workouts 2, 6,10, 14
Clean pulls from low blocks, 5 x 4-6,
32X0
Pause is taken just above the kneecap
This rest interval between repetitions within a series
has received very little attention from the strength
training community, yet it is an extremely important
loading parameter. A question that has been raised
recently is whether hypertrophy is best accomplished
by pausing between reps or by continuous exercise
(Pictures 5.5 & 5.6).
Workouts 3, 7,11, 15
Above-kneecap power cleans, 6 x 2-4,
10X0
Workouts 4, 8,12, 16
Mid-thigh power snatch, 9 x 1-3,
XOXO
As you can see, as the intensity is raised through the
cycle by dropping reps, the tempo is shortened to
work on acceleration. Thus, muscle adaptations are
favored initially to move on to neural adaptations as
you go through the cycle. Also, the range of motion is
diminished as the tempo is shortened.
Here is how varying the tempo can be used to im­
prove performance in the incline press:
Workouts 1, 5, 9, 13
Incline dumbbell presses, 5 x 6-8,
4010
Workouts 2, 6, 10, 14
Inertia incline press in rack, 5 x 4-6,
2210
Workouts 3,7,11,15
Incline barbell presses with chains, 7 sets,
(2,2,2,4,4,6,6) 3011
Workouts 4, 8,12,16
3-inch-thick-bar incline press, 9 sets
(3,2,1,3,2,1,3,2,1), 20X0
Principle 13: The length of the
eccentric contraction is proportionate
to the range of motion of the exercise
As a rule of thumb, for safety purposes, the longer the
range, the longer the eccentric tempo; this is so the
athlete can maintain proper bar pathway and reduce
the probability of a musculoskeletal injury. Therefore,
theoretically, a squat done on a 10X0 tempo is
potentially riskier than a reverse wrist curl done on the
same tempo.
76
Chapter 5
A Canadian study done six years ago has shown that
sets of 15-20RM done in a continuous mode with one
minute between sets increases primarily the crosssection of slow-twitch fibers. This study negates the
ideas about fiber recruitment of Iron Man author Jerry
Robinson. Japanese researchers have contended
that these results may be due to the oxygen debt
caused by continuous-tension sets. This debt may
very well be the cause of the adaptation taking place
in the slow-twitch fibers. In a talk on future trends
in strength training held at the National Coaches
Seminar in Ottawa, Canada, Australian strength and
biomechanics expert Greg Wilson advanced the
concept that pausing between the concentric and
eccentric portions of reps may offset that oxygen debt
and permit the recruitment of higher-threshold fibers
such as the fast-twitch Mb fibers. So for bodybuilders
who don't care where the hypertrophy comes from,
both styles of rep performance can be used to
maximize the cross-section of all fibers. On the other
hand, strength and power athletes will want to pause
between reps so that they hypertrophy only the fibers
that they need - the high-threshold fast-twitch fibers.
For relative strength development, it would be
beneficial to pause in the advantageous isometric
position. The placement of this pause would of course
vary from one exercise to another. In most flexion
exercises, such as biceps curls and hamstrings
curls, the advantageous pause would be between
the eccentric and concentric phases of the repetition
cycles (Picture 5.5). In contrast, in most extension
exercises such as bench presses and squats, the
pause would be between the concentric and eccentric
phases of the repetition cycle, when the limbs achieve
the near-lockout position. Based on my experience,
the length of the pause should be in the range of 1 to 2
seconds.
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Principle 15: Threshold levels of
maximal strength are needed before a
fast lift can be improved
When you need to improve performance on a fast lift
lil<e the power snatch, you need to attain a thresholdlevel of maximal strength. For example, you cannot
power snatch 100 kg unless you can full squat 184
to 194 kg. So if you can back squat only 160 kg, no
magical program in the power snatch will enable you
to do 100 kg until you put 24 to 34 kg on your full back
squat.
Principle 16: Purposely slow training
is applicable only in rehabilitation
phases or in the training of
bodybuilders
Purposely slow training, such as bench presses done
on a 5050 tempo, only brings muscular adaptations.
It only has applications in the early stages of injury
rehabilitation or in the development of non-functional
muscle mass.
At the Poliquin Strength Institute we use the ratios
between the power snatch, power clean, front squat
and back squats to determine the percentage of time
devoted to power vs. maximal strength development,
TEMPO VARIETY
PICTURES 5.5 & 5.6 Pausing at the advantageous isometric position, as shown at left, will favor high-threshold
motor unit recruitment.
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Chapters
77
CHAPTER 5
REFERENCES
Principle 1
It is the brain's intent that determines the training
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Bottaro et al. 2007, Chen et al. 2006, Paddon-Jones et
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Principle 2
Tension is critical for maximal strength
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Taaffe et al. 1996, Hakkinen 1995, Gentil et al. 2006,
Paddon-Jones et al. 2001, 2004
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Munn et al. 2005, Hunter et al. 2003, Michaut et al.
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Raastad et al. 2000, Michaut et al. 2003, Farthing &
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Time under tension per set should not exceed 40
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Variation in tempo is critical for long-term maximal
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Teramoto & Golding 2006, Chapman et al. 2006
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Hakkinen 1989, Behm & Sale 1993
Principle 8
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2000, Farthing & Chilibeck 2003a, 2003b
Principle 16
Purposely slow training is applicable only
in rehabilitation phases or in the training of
bodybuilders Bottaro et al. 2007, Hunter et al. 2003, .
Gentil et al. 2006
Principle 9
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© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
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Now that you've completed this theory section of the
Poliquin Performance Certification Course, I'd like to
discuss a few points that sum up the current situation
in this profession:
that are not optimal but produce slow changes due
to the anabolics - therefore, they never optimize
the training process and their methods contribute
litte to the knowledge of training methods.
• There are no magical programs. If a magical
program existed, every trainee would be able to
squat 1,000 pounds and bench press 800 pounds.
Then there would be no need for this course.
• There are always new ways to improve your
training program; that is, of course, if you are
prepared to be open-mined and learn from others.
In many instances people are not prepared to do so
because they believe their way is the best and only
way.
• There are several ways to train. Athletes who have
achieved world-class standards in the Iron Game
have all experimented with various combinations
of the loading parameters to get to their level
of sporting excellence. Both Bulgaria and the
former Soviet Union, for example, have produced
numerous world records in weightlifting using very
different training philosophies.
• Knowledge about training programs has been
hampered by the common use of anabolic steroids.
Training on anabolic steroids makes it difficult to
access which is working - anabolics or the training
methods. Many anabolic users gain on programs
The Poliquin Performance Certification Course reflects
my way. As you begin to apply its methods, bear in
mind the aforementioned points. Keep an open mind
and don't try to look for a single, straightforward
answer. Be an active participant and apply what you
read to what you practice. Then analyze the results,
and adjust the formula accordingly with your new
knowledge. With that, we will both continue learning
and traveling the path toward optimal performance.
Charles Poliquin
The Poliquin International Certification Program - Theory 1 Manual
© Poliquin Performance Center 2010
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