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12000 BCE – 4000 BCE:
Name of Discovery: Domestication of Plants
Who made it: Unknown as it predated written history
What it was: Plant domestication was the process by which wild plants were selected and
cultivated for human use.
Why it was so important: Domestication of plants is considered to be the single most important
human achievement. It made it possible for humans to control their food plant food sources
rather than relying on foraging. This increased food availability and allowed societies to remain
in one place rather than roam in search of food. Populations grew and the increased labor force
created free time for the development of other skills.
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400 BC
Name of discovery: Four Humours Theory
Who made it: Hippocrates
What it was (simple description): This theory asserted that the body is made of four main
elements related to physical elements of the environment:
1. Blood – corresponded to air
2. yellow bile – corresponded to fire
3. black bile – corresponded to earth
4. phlegm – corresponded to water
Hippocrates theorized that illness resulted from having an imbalance in these humours and that
the humours as influence the mind and personality such that the proportions of humours in a
particular individual formed their temperament, and vice versa.
Why it was so important / impact it made: The four humours theory formed the basis of the
philosophy and approach of medicine until the mid-1900s. It was the first attempt to classify
personality types and is thought to be the origin of the field of psychology.
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400 BC – 500 AD
Name of discovery: Plumbing
Who made it: Ancient Romans
What it was (simple description): During the Roman Empire Romans developed extensive public
health facilities for the distribution of clean water and safe removal of waste water including
aqueducts, public baths, sewers, and drains.
Why it was so important / impact it made: These engineering feats improved the quality and
standard of living of millions of people and allowed the Roman Empire to grow and thrive.
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129-210 AD
Name of discovery: Arterial and venous divisions of the circulatory system
Who made it: Galen
What it was (simple description): Galen was the first scientist to determine that the circulatory
system is made up of two different types of blood – arterial and venous.
Why it was so important / impact it made: Prior to Galen’s discovery it was thought that
arteries carry oxygen, not blood. This and other medical discoveries of Galen had a strong
influence on medical science for 1500 years.
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1550
Name of discovery: Origin of Longevity Theory
Who made it: Luigi Cornaro
What it was (simple description): During the Renaissance Italian nobleman Luigi Cornaro
developed the concept of prolongevity. This theory posited that lifespan and quality of life are
under the individual’s control, which he wrote in a book titled, The Art of Living Long. He
asserted that with care, a simple life, and moderation people can live well past 60 or 70 years.
He applied his theories to himself and was able to overcome gout and other illnesses to live to
98.
Why it was so important / impact it made: Cornaro’s work marks the beginning of the longevity
movement. His book was translated into English, French, Dutch, and German.
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1570s
Name of discovery: Ligatures
Who made it: Ambroise Paré, French surgeon
What it was (simple description): Instrument used to stop bleeding during and after amputation
surgery.
Why it was so important / impact it made: The use of ligatures reduced blood loss and infection
risk from surgery, saving many lives and advancing the field of surgery. Prior to this invention
surgical wounds were closed by cauterization with a hot iron and many patients died of shock
due to blood loss. Ligatures were the predecessor of the modern haemostat.
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1590
Name of discovery: Microscope
Who made it: Zacharius Jannssen
What it was (simple description): The first compound lens microscope that used two lenses to
increase the magnifying power of a single lens, magnifying objects by 3X to 10X. Soon
thereafter, improvements to the design were made by other scientists, such as Anton van
Leeuwenhoek, who increased the magnification capacity of the compound microscope to 270x.
Why it was so important / impact it made: Early microscopes made the field of microbiology
possible.
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1628
Name of discovery: Blood Circulation
Who made it: William Harvey, English physician
What it was (simple description): Harvey determined that blood flows in a circular path through
the body and that the heart is a pump. He published his work in a 72-page document, Exercitatio
Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus, Latin for “An Anatomical Exercise on the
Motion of the Heart and Blood in Living Beings”
Why it was so important / impact it made: This was a landmark event in physiology that
introduced the concept of circulation of blood and laid the groundwork for our understanding of
the circulatory system.
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1665
Name of discovery: The Cell
Who made it: Robert Hooke, English scientist
What it was (simple description): While commissioned by King Charles II to study insects under
the microscope, Hooke observed a specimen of cork and noted a series of spaces bordered by
walls that he called pores, or cells.
Why it was so important / impact it made: Hooke is credited with discovering the cell as the
building block of life.
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1670
Name of discovery: Blood cells
Who made it: Anton van Leeuwenhoek, Dutch merchant and amateur scientist
What it was (simple description): van Leeuwenhoek was the first person to identify microscopic
life forms and the first to visualize red blood cells under the microscope.
Why it was so important / impact it made: These discoveries constitute the beginnings of
microbiology and earned van Leeuwenhoek the title “Father of Microbiology”.
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1796
Name of discovery: Vaccination
Who made it: Edward Jenner, English physician
What it was (simple description): Observing that milk maids who contracted cowpox were
immune to smallpox, Jenner introduced fluid from a cowpox blister into the skin of a healthy 8year-old boy. The boy developed a single blister that soon healed. A few weeks later Jenner
inoculated the boy with smallpox and the boy did not become ill.
Why it was so important / impact it made: This discovery paved the way for modern
vaccinations including polio, whooping cough, measles, tetanus, yellow fever, typhus, hepatitis B
and many others that have saved countless lives.
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1866
Name of discovery: Laws of Inheritance
Who made it: Gregor Mendel, Augustinian monk
What it was (simple description): Mendel conducted experiments on pea plants that
demonstrated that certain traits, such as flower colour, plant height, seed shape, and seed
colour, were passed from parent to offspring.
Why it was so important / impact it made: This discovery established the principal laws of
genetics.
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1850s
Name of discovery: Pasteurization
Who made it: Louis Pasteur, French chemist and microbiologist
What it was (simple description): Pasteur determined that microbes were responsible for
alcohol going sour. As a solution he devised a heating process to destroy the bacteria that we
still use today.
Why it was so important / impact it made: Pasteurization revolutionized food safety.
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1953
Name of discovery: DNA double helix structure
Who made it: James Watson and Frances Crick, UK scientists
What it was (simple description): Determination that DNA is made up of two strands of genetic
material twisted around each other in a ladder-like configuration and that each of the
nucleotide base that comprised the strands was paired with a base on the opposite strand. This
configuration implied the mechanism by which DNA copies itself, such that when the strands
separate the newly formed strand is determined by the sequence on the template strand.
Why it was so important / impact it made: This discovery earned Watson and Crick the Nobel
prize paved the way for modern molecular biology.
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1965
Name of discovery: Portable defibrillator
Who made it: Frank Pantridge, Irish medical doctor
What it was (simple description): A portable device for correcting ventricular fibrillation during
a cardiac event powered by car batteries. Marked an advancement over earlier versions, which
required a main power supply.
Why it was so important / impact it made: The revolutionary lifesaving invention earned
Pantridge the title “Father of Emergency Medicine”.
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2016
Name of discovery: Cellular Leapfrogging
Who made it: Ira L. Blitz, Margaret B. Fish, and Ken W. Y. Cho – U.S. cell biologists
What it was (simple description): A process by which cells are transformed from one tissue type
to a completely different tissue type. In laboratory mice, liver cells have been successfully
“leapfrogged” into functional nerve cells.
Why it was so important / impact it made: Leapfrogging marks the first time researchers have
been able to demonstrate the ability of one cell type to cross over and develop into a
completely different cell type without the use of stem cells. This development may safely
generate new cells for patients in need. It also holds promise for converting malignant cancer
cells into healthy benign cells.
Recent Advancements in Established Technologies
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1957
Name of discovery: Fiber-optics
Who made it: The first fiber-optics device was a gastroscope developed in 1957 by Lawrence
Curtiss, Basil Hirschowitz, and Wilbur Peters, American scientists.
What it was (simple description): A flexible glass fiber the thickness of a human hair, that
transmits light and is used to view internal organs. Recent advancements have paired fiberoptics with smart phones.
Why it was so important / impact it made: Fiber-optics marked the beginning of modern
endoscopy, which allows detailed visualization of internal organs and precise diagnosis of
diseases. Endoscopes are also used in surgical procedures to seal off blood vessels, obtain
biopsy samples, or remove small growths. Fiber-optic technology has made significant
contributions to medicine, advancing robotic-assisted surgery and improving invasive surgeries.
The development of single-use fiber-optic catheters has reduced pathogen transmission.
1957
Name of discovery: Neuroprosthetics
Who made it: The first known neuroprosthetic, a cochlear implant, was invented in 1957 by
French electrophysiologist Andre Djourno and French otolaryngologist Charles Eyries.
What it was (simple description): Neuroprosthetics are devices that directly stimulate the
nervous system to enhance motor, sensory, cognitive, or communicative deficits. They include
assistive devices, spinal stimulation for patients with spinal cord injury, transcranial stimulation,
robotics, virtual reality devices, and more. Visual neuroprosthetics have recently emerged that
capture visual images with a camera and encode the information in electrical patterns that are
transmitted to the visual cortex of individuals with impaired sight.
Why it was so important / impact it made: Neuroprosthetics have restored function for many
patients with various types of neurological deficits resulting from disease or trauma.
1960s
Name of discovery: Stem Cell Research
Who made it: The first stem cells were blood stem cells discovered by Canadian researchers
Ernest McCulloch and James Till.
What it was (simple description): Stem cells are unspecialized cells that can develop into
specialized functional cells. Stem cells are found in embryonic tissue, in adult bone marrow and
fat, and more recently scientists have devised a method of producing embryonic-like stem cells
from adult skin cells. Stem cell research helps medical scientists learn about certain diseases by
observing how cells evolve and differentiate during development.
Why it was so important / impact it made: Stem cell therapies hold hope for patients in need of
organ transplants and for regenerating damaged tissues in the treatment of diseases such as
Parkinson’s, Huntington’s, and diabetes.
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1960’s
Name of discovery: Cellular senescence
Who made it: Leonard Hayflick, U.S. medical professor and researcher
What it was (simple description): The state in which mature cells continue to function but stop
dividing and replacing themselves.
Why it was so important / impact it made: Senescence is a key marker of cellular aging. There is
evidence that senescent cells have beneficial functions such as tumor suppression, wound
healing, and protection against fibrotic scar tissue formation. However, there is also evidence
that senescent cells promote inflammation and contribute to age-related diseases.
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1970’s
Name of discovery: Telomeres
Who made it: Elizabeth Blackburn U.K.-born researcher based in the U.S.
What it was (simple description): Telomeres are short DNA sequences at the ends of DNA
strands that serve as a “cap” that prevents DNA from unravelling, often likened to the plastic
tips on the ends of shoelaces. Telomeres gradually shorten over time until they become so short
that the cell is incapable of dividing. Blackburn received the Nobel prize for her work on
telomeres.
Why it was so important / impact it made: Telomere length is used as a marker for biological
age. Being physically active, reducing stress, and eating a high antioxidant diet have been found
to slow telomere shortening.
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1980’s
Name of discovery: Emergence of the field of lifespan psychology
Who made it: P.B. Baltes, German psychologist
What it was (simple description): A field of psychology that recognizes that the aging process is
significantly influenced by an individual’s life events.
Why it was so important / impact it made: Lifespan psychology is an extension of
developmental psychology. While developmental psychology describes the effects of early life
events on later mental, emotional, and physical health, lifespan psychology includes the entirety
of an individual’s life experiences.
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1980’s
Name of discovery: Resurgence of the concept of hormesis as an anti-aging process.
Who made it: Cancer researchers at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
What it was (simple description): Hormesis is a phenomenon in which exposure to a low dose
of a toxin can stimulate protective cellular responses whereas a high dose of the same toxin is
harmful. Though it has been recognized and studied since the 1930’s, cancer researchers
became interested in its application as a potential approach to cancer treatment in the 1980’s.
Why it was so important / impact it made: Hormesis research has led to the preferential use of
low-dose chemotherapy for some forms of cancer. During the hormesis response cells produce
molecules called mitokines, which improve metabolism and are anti-inflammatory. Longevity
researchers anticipate that these molecules may be developed for use as an anti-aging therapy.
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1992
Name of discovery: Gerontogenes
Who made it: U.S. geneticists T.E. Johnson and G.J. Lithgow
What it was (simple description): Genes that regulate aging and life span.
Why it was so important / impact it made: Identifying such genes implies that there is a genetic
basis for aging and that could potentially be manipulated to increase lifespan.
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1995
Name of discovery: Cancer Nanotherapy
Who made it: American physicist Richard Feynman originated the concept of nanotechnology in
1959. Since then, nanotechnology has been applied to numerous disciplines, including medicine.
The first U.S. FDA-approved cancer nanotherapy drug Doxil, came on the market in 1995.
What it was (simple description): In nanotherapy certain nano-particles are added to the
chemotherapy molecule that help it to attach to cancer cells but not to healthy cells.
Nanoparticles can also make a chemotherapy drug soluble so that it can easily enter the
bloodstream without the need for additional drug delivery agents, which are known to cause
allergic reactions in some patients.
Why it was so important / impact it made: Nanotherapy reduces the harmful side effects of
traditional chemotherapy and makes chemotherapy safer, more effective, and less costly than
traditional chemotherapy. Nanotherapy is making cancer treatment more accessible to more
people across the world.
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1992
Name of discovery: Gerontogenes
Who made it: U.S. geneticists T.E. Johnson and G.J. Lithgow
What it was (simple description): Genes that regulate aging and life span.
Why it was so important / impact it made: Identifying such genes implies that there is a genetic
basis for aging and that could potentially be manipulated to increase lifespan.
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1993
Name of discovery: CRISPR (clustered, regularly interspaced, short palindromic repeat) gene
editing technology.
Who made it: CRISPR was originally discovered in 1993 by Spanish researcher Francisco Mojica.
In 2013 U.S.-based researcher Feng Zhang successfully adapted CRISR for gene editing.
What it was (simple description): CRISPR is a segment of DNA found in the immune systems of
bacteria that allows bacteria to memorize and store the DNA of an attacking virus within its own
DNA. CRISPR later became the inspiration for a gene editing technique that was named after it.
Scientists are now experimenting with using CRISPR to edit out disease-causing genes, for
example a cancer gene.
Why it was so important / impact it made: CRISPR is a game-changer in genetic engineering
that holds great promise for advancing the prevention of genetic diseases, eradicating
pathogens, and other potential medical benefits.
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2000’s
Name of discovery: The term inflammaging is coined.
Who made it: Claudio Franceschi, Italian immunology professor and researcher
What it was (simple description): The concept that chronic, low-grade inflammation impairs
health and shortens lifespan.
Why it was so important / impact it made: Franceschi was one of the first scientists to publish
research on the effects of inflammation on human health and aging and the first to refer to the
process as inflammaging. Subsequently, the term inflammaging was replaced by the current
term immunosenescence, to indicate the broader role of immunity in aging, of which
inflammation is a component.
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2004
Name of discovery: The role of NAD+ and sirtuins in regulating lifespan and cellular response to
caloric restriction.
Who made it: David Sinclair, Australian-born biologist based in the U.S.
What it was (simple description): Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) is a coenzyme
molecule that is central to the process of cellular metabolism and is found in all cells. Sirtuins
(SIR) are a family of proteins that help regulate cellular homeostasis. Sirtuins require NAD+ to
function. Sinclair discovered that caloric restriction induces production of SIR1, which makes
cells more resilient to stress and preventing early cell death.
Why it was so important / impact it made: This discovery helps explain the mechanism by
which caloric restriction may extend lifespan.
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2012
Name of discovery: Popularization of intermittent fasting for weight loss and longevity.
Who made it: Michael Mosley, British physician, author, and journalist
What it was (simple description): Intermittent fasting is an eating plan in which meals are
consumed during a certain window of time during the day. It is based on evidence that when
humans were in the hunter-gatherer stage of evolution our metabolism adapted to be able to
function efficiently for long periods of time without eating. Typically, in intermittent fasting the
overnight fasting period is extended through the morning and eating stops in the late afternoon
or early evening to achieve a 16-hour fast and 8-hour eating window.
Why it was so important / impact it made: Intermittent fasting has been found to improve
metabolic regulation. It is a milder form of caloric restriction and is easier than caloric restriction
to maintain as a lifestyle.
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2013
Name of discovery: Horvath clock, aka Epigenetic clock
Who made it: Steve Horvath, German-born aging researcher, geneticist, and biostatistician
based in the U.S.
What it was (simple description): A method of estimating biological age based on DNA
methylation, a process by which a small molecular group, called a methyl group, attaches to
various locations on a DNA molecule and changes the activity of the DNA at that location. DNA
methylation regulates gene expression in protective ways such as turning off tumour promoting
genes. It is most active during development and early life and declines with age. Impaired DNA
methylation is associated with autoimmune disorders. Certain nutrients, including folate,
vitamin B6, vitamin B12, and choline are known to promote DNA methylation. The Horvath
technique measures DNA methylation in a broad range of tissue and cell types.
Why it was so important / impact it made: The Horvath clock allows comparison of the rate of
aging between numerous tissue types within the same person. This makes it possible to detect
tissues or organs that are aging more rapidly than others and that may be a signal of underlying
disease, such as cancer.
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2018
Name of discovery: Aging is recognized as a disease
Who made it: World Health Organization
What it was (simple description): Classification of aging as a disease under International
Classification of Disease (ICD) standards along with relevant diagnostic codes.
Why it was so important / impact it made: It is predicted that classifying aging as a disease will
promote an approach to aging as a treatable condition and will generate more funding for
studies that emphasize the use of healthy aging metrics.
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2020’s
Name of discovery: Development of a blood-based technique for measuring DNA-methylation.
Who made it: Daniel Belsky, PhD; U.S. epidemiologist
What it was (simple description): A blood test that measures methylation of DNA.
Commented [TR1]: I copied this section from the Belsky
entry, deleted it from there and revised that entry. Since
this one precedes that one chronologically, the description
of DNA methylation should appear here first.
Why it was so important / impact it made: Having a simple blood test that can quantify the
level of DNA methylation can provide a window into an individual’s rate of biological aging.