THEORY & PRACTICE
FITNESS
AS SPORT
JACOB TSYPKIN
P reface
Sci e n t i f ic P r in c ip les o f St ren g t h Tra in in g
P 1
THEORY & PRACTICE
FITNESS
AS SPORT
JACOB TSYPKIN
Dedicated to the Memory of my Grandmother, Izora
Petrovskaya, without whose courage, wisdom, intellect,
and wit, I would never have been capable of writing a
book.
And to the Memory of Jason Nolan, without whose
selfless help in building effective systems and processes,
TZ Strength would have been a shadow of the company
that it is today.
J acob Tsy p k i n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 3
TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S
P E R I O D I Z AT I O N I N F I T N E S S S P O R T 10
What Is Periodization? 11
Periodization & Sporting Form 16
Macrocycles
20
Mesocycles
26
Microcycles
32
W E I G H T L I F T I N G 37
Weightlifting in Fitness Sport:
Reps One to One Hundred
39
Variables Of Training
39
Means
42
Methods
45
S T R E N G T H D E V E L O P M E N T 51
Strength in Fitness Sport: The Strength Spectrum
52
Variables of Training
57
Means
61
Methods
73
GYMNASTICS
79
Gymnastics in Fitness Sport:
Low Horsepower, High Gas Mileage 82
Means
J acob Tsy p k i n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
87
P 4
E N E R G Y S Y S T E M S D E V E L O P M E N T 136
Basic Bioenergetics137
Bioenergetics in Fitness Sport
142
Means
152
Methods154
S P O R T S P E C I F I C P R E PA R AT I O N 165
Finding Specificity In Variance
166
Principles of Analysis
168
Principles of Speculation
170
Sport Specific Periodization
174
Testing Protocol Design178
I N D I V I D UA L I Z AT I O N 182
Individualization In Fitness Sport: Eliminate Weaknesses, Balance Strengths183
Athlete Classification184
S T R AT E G I C & TAC T I C A L C O N S I D E R AT I O N S 195
Output Management196
Event Assessment197
Scoring & Placing
204
AC K N OW L E D G M E N T S 208
WO R K S C I T E D 211
J acob Tsy p k i n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 5
I N T RO D U C T I O N
In 2007, the first CrossFit Games were held in Aromas, California. It
was a competition of roughly forty men and twenty women, which was
equal parts test of fitness and backyard barbecue, in which judges were
selected from the crowd and one event was quite literally drawn from
the hopper. If you had told me then that a mere eight years later, tens of
thousands of fans of fitness sport would crowd into a major stadium in
Southern California, to watch men capable of near four hundred pound
clean & jerks and low five minute miles, I would have laughed in your
face.
And yet, here we are.
This book is the result of nearly a decade of being involved in the
functional fitness community, and an all-consuming obsession with
fitness sport since that weekend in late June 2007 in Aromas. It is built
upon a lot of tacit and anecdotal knowledge about the sport itself, a
good deal of analysis of trends, some science regarding the constituent
domains of the sport, and a little bit of theory. Where possible, I
have tried to support these theories with the science in areas such as
strength development and bioenergetics. The research on concurrent
training (training for strength and endurance at the same time) is
sparse, and for fitness sport in particular, it is non-existent. Therefore,
I can not reasonably claim that this is a scientific text. It is based upon
my own experience, and my ability to logically sort through it, and the
comparison of my experience and conclusions to data from the sport
and the science.
J acob Tsy p k i n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 6
In his book “The Undercover Economist”, Tim Harford writes about
models:
“There are other models of the coffee business, useful for different
things. A model of the design and architecture of coffee kiosks could
be useful as a case study for interior designers. A physics model
could outline the salient features of the machine that generates the
ten atmospheres of pressure required to brew espresso; the same
model might be useful for talking about suction pumps or the internal
combustion engine. Today we have models of the ecological impacts
of different disposal methods for coffee grounds. Each model is useful
for different things, but a ‘model’ that tried to describe the design, the
engineering, the ecology, and the economics would be no simpler than
reality itself and so would add nothing to our understanding.”
The bulk of the book is organized as a series of chapters about the
constituent domains of the sport: weightlifting, strength development,
gymnastics, energy systems development, and sport specific preparation.
It presents conventional models of training for each of these areas, as
well as my observations and suggestions for how those models must
change to be applied to fitness sport.
I do not aim to build an all
encompassing, absolute, singular
model of training for fitness sport.
J acob Tsy p k i n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 7
In part, this is because I am not entirely sure it is possible at this time.
But perhaps more importantly, I am not convinced of the usefulness
of such an endeavor. Though it may be eventually possible, that model
will be built on the underlying facts about training for each aspect
of the sport, and tied together by the interactions of those domains.
Therefore, this text seeks to create an understanding of those facts and
interactions, so that you, the reader, may incorporate them into your
training and programming methodology.
My hopes for this book are twofold
1. Firstly, I hope that you, the reader, find in this book at least a few
pieces of theory, experience, or analysis that are directly helpful in
improving the way you approach your training, and/or that of your
athletes.
2. Secondly, I hope that this text aids in pushing forward and further
expanding the growing conversation among coaches and athletes
of philosophy, methodology, and best practices in fitness sport.
Jacob Tsypkin
Aliso Viejo, CA
October 2015
J acob Tsy p k i n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 8
DISCLAIMER
This book is a record of the program I prescribe to the athletes in
my care who are training to compete in fitness sport. It is not a
recommendation of training for any particular individual. Neither
the author, TZ Strength, or Juggernaut Training Systems take any
responsibility for injuries incurred if a reader chooses to attempt training
based on this book. Always consult a physician before undertaking any
exercise program.
The methods and opinions described in this work are solely the author’s
and in no way claim to be representative of the practices of and/or
opinions held by CrossFit, Inc. CrossFit® is a registered trademark held
by CrossFit, Inc.
J acob Tsy p k i n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 9
CHAPTER ONE
P E R I O D I Z AT I O N I N
F I T N E S S S P O RT
Periodization is a hotly debated topic within fitness sport communities,
with some well known coaches and athletes decrying its importance,
even as others tout it as the fundamental basis of effective program
design.
Often the parties on either side of the debate seem to have relatively
little understanding of what periodization actually is. Its detractors
represent it as an theory built upon the failures of sport scientists, who
have fundamentally misunderstood strength and conditioning since the
Ch apte r On e
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 10
inception of their field. Supporters of periodization frequently associate
it with a particular program, or a particular “type” of periodization, with
little understanding of the underlying principles.
It is the author ’s opinion that with a little time spent demystifying the
subject and developing an understanding of how it applies to the fitness
sport, it becomes undeniable that periodization is a useful tool in athlete
development.
In this chapter, we will develop an understanding of what periodization
actually is, and how it can best be applied to the training of fitness sport
athletes.
WHAT IS PERIODIZATION?
Israetel et al(2015) define periodization as:
The logical sequencing of training variables for the purpose of eliciting
maximal adaptations, reducing injury rates, and peaking the athlete
for best performance at a particular time of his/her choosing. The final
product of applied periodization is a properly constructed macrocycle of
training that leads to beneficial results. (p. 19)
Put more simply, periodization is organizing training for best results.
Typically, periodization refers to medium and long term organization,
rather than short term planning.
In this text, we will consider short term to be the planning of
microcycles, and medium term to be the organization of mesocycles and
macrocycles, up to one full year of training. Long term will refer to an
Ch apte r On e
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 11
athlete’s development over the course of her career.
In most sports, medium and long term periodization can be visualized
as a funnel. In the early stages of training (referring to either the
beginning of a training cycle or the novice phase of an athlete’s career),
programming is broad and general, aimed at developing the basis
for a broad range of independent athletic abilities, such as strength,
speed, power, and aerobic capacity. As training progresses, the range
of inputs narrows towards a specific sport. Finally, at the bottom of the
funnel, training is highly specific to the demands of the athlete’s chosen
endeavor.
Figure 1: Sport Training Funnel
Ch apte r On e
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 12
In the development of fitness sport athletes, medium and long term
periodization can be viewed as an hourglass instead of a funnel. The top
half of the hourglass is effectively a funnel, beginning with a broad range
of inputs, which we can consider generally broad training.
Gradually the inputs narrow to build the athlete’s abilities in the
independent domains of the sport. At the center of the hourglass, a
CrossFit athlete’s training is broadly specific, aimed at developing
specific ability in four general domains:
• Weightlifting: Training focused on maximizing results in the
snatch and clean & jerk. Includes the subcategory of power
endurance.
• Strength Development: Training designed to improve the
athlete’s maximum force production. Includes major lifts such
as squat, deadlift, and press variants, as well as accessory
work geared towards correcting imbalances, improving
general health, and potentiating higher levels of maximal
strength development. Includes the subcategory of strength
endurance.
• Gymnastics: Development of skill and strength in exercises
and movements borrowed or derived from the foundational
levels of competitive gymnastics.
• Energy Systems Development: Training geared towards
maximizing the intensity, duration, and variation which an
athlete can display in the first three domains. Includes the
subcategory of Sport Specific Preparation.
The program focuses on developing the athlete’s specific abilities
in each of the above domains, capitalizing upon the general base of
Ch apte r On e
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 13
fitness built in the earlier stages of training. The athlete is concerned
with maximizing her abilities in the snatch and clean & jerk, her chosen
means of strength development, a range of gymnastics skills, and the
full spectrum of energy systems, including both monomodal work like
running and rowing and sport specific training in the form of mixed
modality conditioning workouts.
As sand exits the top half of the hourglass – the funnel – it broadens
again, to evenly cover the floor of the lower globe. This is the phase of
training and development unique to fitness sport.
The athlete has developed a broad range of independent athletic
abilities in the top of the upper globe. Gradually, over the course of a
Ch apte r On e
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 14
training cycle and a career, the athlete has capitalized upon that range
to develop the most important specific qualities in each of the four
domains noted above. Finally, the athlete must translate those abilities
into her sport. Training is now specifically broad. The athlete must
be able to display her prowess in the four primary domains in nearly
limitless formats and combinations, under fatigue from varied stressors,
and across multiple domains of competition.
Figure 2: Periodization In Fitness Sport: The Hourglass
Ch apte r On e
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 15
PERIODIZATION & SPORTING FORM
In both the medium and long term, the ultimate goal of periodization is
for the athlete to be in the best condition possible for competition.
The state of being as well prepared for competition as possible is called
sporting form, or sometimes athletic form.
According to Stone, Stone, and Sands, “the overall cycle that each
athlete goes through consists of repeating three stages: (a) acquisition
of athletic form, (b) stabilization of athletic form, and (c) temporary loss
of athletic form.” (p.7)
In the long term, sporting form depends on the appropriate development
of the athlete - her progression through the hourglass. In order to
achieve the athlete’s potential, the relevant abilities must be developed
intelligently in a way that will translate directly to the sport.
In order to develop an effective training model to acquire sporting
form, the parameters of sporting form relative to the given task must
be defined. Without a deep understanding of the demands of the sport,
intelligent programming is nearly impossible.
Our challenge lies in the fuzzy parameters that define fitness sport,
which is in part defined by an element of uncertainty. There are broad
but generally realistic expectations for competition, but the specifics
remain undetermined until near the time of the event.
To address the nature of the sport, we must first dissect what that
nature is. This is difficult in fitness sport, which incorporates elements
and qualities from a multitude of disciplines.
Ch apte r On e
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 16
In this book, we will consider fitness sport to be a multimodal endurance
sport. This seems obvious on the surface, but unpacking these terms is
critical to a complete understanding of what they entail.
Multimodal endurance means two things
1. The athlete must be able to sustain submaximal power output
for a relatively long duration in a multitude of disciplines. This
is closer to the conventional definition of endurance, but fitness
sport athletes must be able to perform submaximal expressions
of strength repeatedly and for extended duration, regardless of
whether running, doing muscle-ups, or snatching.
2. Specific qualities like strength, power, and speed must endure.
The ability to squat 500 or clean & jerk 350 is important on its
own, but the fitness sport athlete must be able to maintain those
abilities under the fatigue from many and varied stressors.
These requirements reach beyond their physiological basis. Since upper
level fitness sport events, such as The CrossFit Games and their Regional
qualifiers occur across a total of three to four days, athletes must be
both physically capable of recovering between events and days, and
skilled enough to manage their output in order to do so.
Sporting form in fitness sport is defined by two parameters
• Maximum Intensity
• Durability
Ch apte r On e
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 17
Maximum Intensity is an athlete’s peak possible performance in any given
event, and should be the focus of almost all of an athlete’s training early
in her career. Maximum intensity will look very different from event to
event, but for our purposes, always represents the same thing. Maximum
intensity is of great importance, because if an athlete does not possess
sufficient maximum intensity, no level of Durability will be enough to
bring her to high levels of competition.
It is crucial to understand that training
to raise maximum intensity does not
mean constantly training at maximum
intensity.
Durability is an athlete’s ability to perform at or near maximum intensity
under adverse conditions. CrossFit Games athletes may be among
the best in the world in this particular capacity, since they compete
at high volumes and intensities for days on end. Though maximum
intensity comes first in the chronological hierarchy, durability is of equal
importance at the highest level of competition, and no level of maximum
intensity will make up for insufficient DB.
In order to be considered in sporting form at the time of the
competition, the athlete must be in a physiological and psychological
state conducive to:
• Setting maximum intensity PRs across a broad range of
fitness characteristics
Ch apte r On e
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 18
• Maintaining near maximum intensity for the duration of the
event across a broad range of fitness characteristics
Over the course of an athlete’s career, as well as across different training
cycles, the relative importance of these attributes will shift. Depending
on an athlete’s level of ability and training goals, maximum intensity
and durability can be at odds with or dependent on each other. While
the ultimate goal is to find balance between the two, this is a long term
process which may require prioritizing one over the others at varying
levels of specificity.
In the medium term, sporting form depends on structuring the
training cycle to maximize the athlete’s preparedness on the day of
the competition. Preparedness exists at the intersection of fitness and
fatigue. The relationship of the three is illustrated in the aptly named
Two Factor model, developed by E.W. Banister and originally called the
Impulse-Response model.
Every training session lends itself to the long term improvement of
an athlete’s fitness, by developing permanent qualities which are not
immediately available. Every training session also causes fatigue, an
immediate and short term decrease in fitness. Preparedness is where the
athlete stands at any given time given both of these factors.
When scheduling training, and particularly when programming
mesocycles, the designer seeks to stimulate enough progress that when
fatigue is reduced at the right time, substantial improvements in fitness
come to the forefront, and preparedness is as high as possible.
Ch apte r On e
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 19
Below, we explore the scheduling of training from large scale and
medium term down to small scale and short term.
MACROCYCLES
The macrocycle is the largest cycle used to organize an athlete’s
training. Often, the macrocycle represents an entire year of training.
For Olympic athletes, a macrocycle may even be the entire four years
between Olympic competitions, called a quadrennium.
In this book, the year is broken into three macrocycles. These long
blocks of training are slightly different each year, depending on the
athlete’s level of development and the competition schedule. However,
they follow the same basic outline every year.
Ch apte r On e
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 20
Sporting form is relative to the macrocycle in question. In the Off-Season
and Preseason, intensification will aim primarily to improve the one rep
maxes in the snatch and clean & jerk. During the competition season, the
intensification phase will focus on the broad application of the athlete’s
abilities in the snatch and clean & jerk, such as being able to perform as
close as possible to 1RM in a variety of formats and while fatigued from a
variety of stressors.
OFF SEASON
End of Competition Season through late July/early August
During the Off Season, a large portion of training volume is disintegrated
Ch apte r On e
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 21
to focus on independent elements. Much of the focus is on refining old
skills and learning new ones, potentiating future adaptations, and both
physically and mentally rejuvenating the athlete.
Training intensity is lower than the rest of the year, structure is
somewhat looser, and athletes are often encouraged to spend less time
training and more time with family and friends, engaging in recreational
physical activity outside of the gym (hiking, cycling, etc), and pursuing
other hobbies.
Restoring health during this time of year is crucial. Physically, this means
dedicating training time to prehab and, where needed, rehab, as well
as revisiting movement patterns which may see little attention closer
to competition, such as rotational exercises and unilateral squat, press,
and deadlift variations. Psychologically, this time of year should serve to
keep the athlete from burning out. Even if she does not feel as though
she needs to spend some time away, it will do more good than harm in
almost all cases.
The more successfully an athlete competes, the shorter her Off Season
will be. Since the highest level athletes will need the least time on nonspecific training (further details in “Athlete Levels” section below), this
is not a major problem. However, even Games level athletes should take
some time to reduce volume and intensity and get out of the mindset
and schedule of competition preparation. Therefore, for those athletes
who qualify for the CrossFit Games and thus do not complete their
competition season until late July, the base mesocycle of the Preseason
will need to serve as a short Off Season.
Ch apte r On e
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 22
PRESEASON
Late July/Early August through mid December
The Preseason is a mixed phase of increasing sport specificity while
continuing to improve abilities.
While total training volume does not increase much from the Off Season,
more of that volume is directed towards high intensity work, particularly
with regard to energy systems development. The athlete should now
be directing more of her psychological energy towards training, locking
in out-of-the-gym habits such as nutrition and sleep patterns, and
sharpening her focus on the sport.
Although fitness sport is ostensibly a test of general physical
preparedness, there are still specific formats and exercises in which the
athlete can expect to compete, and others which are not likely to be
a part of the competition. During the preseason, the increase of sport
specificity will be accompanied by a comparable decrease in non-sport
GPP.
COMPETITION SEASON
Early January through end of Competition
During the Competition Season, the continued improvement of base
abilities take a backseat to the sport specific implementation of those
abilities.
The Competition season presents the highest intensity and specificity
of the year, and in some cases the highest volume. The length of the
macrocyle depends heavily on the athlete’s level of competitiveness,
Ch apte r On e
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 23
ending somewhere between late
March and late July.
At this stage, the athlete’s entire
being is focused on the sport. She
should have planned processes
which help her recover physically
and mentally from the rigors of
training, nutrition must be dialed
in, and her lifestyle organized to
allow training as hard as possible
as consistently as possible.
Non-specific work is reduced to
focus on the athlete’s particular
weaknesses, with the large
majority of the training volume
focused on directly improving
sport specific qualities.
Due to the schedule of the
season, the competition season
is sometimes best split into
multiple shorter macrocycles.
Each of these would still follow
the basic template of base/
loading/intensification, with
gradual increases in volume and
shifts in emphasis for the stage of
competition being prepared for.
P 24
HOLIDAY TRANSITION
The astute reader will have noticed that while the Preseason ends in mid
December, the competition season does not pick up until early January
(typically the first Monday of the month.)
Over the years I have determined it is best to use a roughly two week
long deload/transition phase over the holidays. This is a question of
practicality impeding upon ideal training practice. Between travel, family
time, and various celebrations, athletes will often have relatively little
time to train over the holidays. In addition, it is likely that their nutrition,
sleep, and other recovery habits will not be as usual.
Therefore, during this time, I recommend implementing a transition
phase, reducing the total volume (and thus time spent in the gym) while
increasing specificity, and continuing to train weaknesses as much as is
reasonable.
In the case of an have an athlete who is willing and able to train normally
through the holidays, there is no reason not to. Simply add two weeks to
the Preseason or the Competition season, or one to each.
S id e ba r D i sc u s s i o n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 25
MESOCYCLES
Each of our three macrocycles is further divided into three types of
mesocycle. These are the base mesocycle, loading mesocycle, and
intensification mesocycle. Depending on the length of the macrocycle
in a particular athlete’s case, as well as a particular athlete’s individual
needs and level of development, the ratio of base or loading mesocycles
may change. Typically only one intensification mesocycle will be
employed. Within each of our domains of training, each mesocycle plays
a different but related role.
B A S E M E S O C YC L E
The primary purpose of the base mesocycle is to build a strong
foundation for the loading and intensification phases. What that
foundation entails depends on the macrocycle and the domain in
question.
During the base mesocycle, it is normal for the athlete to experience
some temporary loss in sporting form, the peak level of preparedness
which should have been attained during the previous intensification
mesocycle.
The base mesocycle should nearly always represent a reduction in total
volume from the intensification phase prior to it, to allow the athlete
physical and psychological recovery as well as some resensitization to
training volume.
Additionally, the base mesocycle should nearly always emphasize
technical and/or tactical development relevant to the athlete’s level of
training and the current macrocycle.
Ch apte r On e
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 26
OFF-SEASON BASE MESOCYCLES & THE
TEMPORARY LOSS OF SPORTING FORM
“The harmony of the body must be maintained by slowing down the
exercise tempo after every workout and every competitive season.”
(Verkhoshanksy & Siff, 2003, p. 24).
The base mesocycle(s) of the off-season represents the lowest total
training volume of the year. The athlete is cycling back into training
after the competition season, and training at this time should reflect
the fact that the athlete is still recovering from the physiological
and psychological stress of competition. A reduction in the athlete’s
preparedness compared to her peak during the competition is normal
and expected.
It is important to avoid the temptation to jump immediately into high
volume, high intensity training, even if the athlete desires to do so.
A relatively low pressure training cycle will not only help the athlete
recover physically, it will resensitize her to higher training volume and
restore her psychological state, setting her up for a successful year of
training.
S id e ba r D i sc u s s i o n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 27
L OA D I N G M E S O C YC L E
The loading mesocycle is generally the longest mesocycle, averaging
six to eight weeks, with the primary pursuit being the acquisition of
sporting form.
In order to build upon the strong foundation created in the base
mesocycle, specificity of training is increased, as are volume and
intensity, following patterns relevant to the athlete’s needs and level of
development, as well as the current macrocycle.
The loading mesocycle should nearly always contain the highest
volume of training of the macrocycle, with possible exceptions for the
intensification phase of athletes preparing for the CrossFit Games.
I N T E N S I F I C AT I O N M E S O C YC L E
The intensification mesocycle, or peaking mesocycle, is designed to
maximize sporting from by capitalizing on all the work done in the base
and loading mesocycles.
In general, volume will drop in favor of intensity during the
intensification mesocycle, in order to maximize preparedness by
improving or maintaining fitness and decreasing fatigue. However, this
is dependent on the particular macrocycle and the athlete’s level of
competition.
Depending on the macrocycle, the intensification mesocycle may
culminate in a major competition, or a testing phase. A large majority of
training volume should be specific to the competition or tests at hand.
Ch apte r On e
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 28
VOLUME, INTENSITY & THE COMPETITION
SEASON INTENSIFICATION CYCLE
In most performance sports, i.e. sports where the metric is almost
entirely objective and based on how well competitors complete an
identical task relative to other competitors, the ultimate goal on game
day is to maximize performance in a single event, or in a series of
relatively short events. Thus, it is standard practice to reduce volume
and increase intensity during the intensification cycle.
While this holds true in a general sense in competitive CrossFit, there
are some considerations unique to the sport which must be taken into
account when determining how much volume to drop when peaking for
competition.
The CrossFit Games season has three stages of competition, and
different peaking strategies must be employed for each one.
Stage one, the Open, rewards maximal intensity more than any other
stage, but there are two crucial variables to keep in mind when striving
to achieve that intensity.
The first is that during the Open, the athlete must achieve that high
level of single effort performance five weeks in a row, at a minimum of
once per week. This means that volume must remain sufficiently high
to keep fitness from dropping off, even while emphasizing intensity and
attempting to drop fatigue from week to week.
The second difference is that the Open starts roughly twelve weeks
before the first Regionals weekend. This means that depending on which
S id e ba r D i sc u s s i o n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 29
Region an athlete is competing in, they will have seven to nine weeks
between the end of the Open and their Regional competition. Therefore,
volume cannot drop so much during the Open that the athlete is not
prepared to segue smoothly and immediately into a hard preparatory
cycle for Regionals.
Stage two, Regionals, introduces a relatively small increase in volume
from the Open. The 2015 Open consisted of six scored events completed
as five efforts, and 2015 Regionals consisted of seven scored events
completed as six efforts.
However, Regionals represents a major increase in density of events.
The five efforts of the Open are completed across five weeks, with a five
day window to complete each event. Even allowing for two attempts per
event, and only counting the five day window within which the event is
live and eligible for competition, this comes out to an average of fortypercent of a single effort per day.
Contrast with Regionals, which averages two efforts per day, and it is
clear that the athlete’s durability must be substantially higher to be
successful at Regionals than in the Open. This should be reflected in
training by both a slightly higher total volume, as well as structuring the
training week to allow for increased density to prepare for Regionals.
Stage three is the CrossFit Games, and this is where the sport deviates
furthest from traditional intensification protocols.
In 2014, the Games consisted of thirteen scored events performed as
ten efforts, across five total days, one of which did not have any events.
Including the rest day in calculations, density compared to Regionals is
roughly the same, but volume is nearly doubled, not accounting for the
S id e ba r D i sc u s s i o n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 30
substantially longer duration of some events at the Games.
The Games athlete must have incredibly high levels of both maximal
intensity and durability. In preparation for the Games, volume and
intensity must both remain high, at most trading off from week to
week in an effort to keep the athlete competitive in both domains.
Unsurprisingly, few athletes are capable of sustaining this type of
training.
In designing programs for athletes, one must be realistic in assessing
their current level of ability, and peak them for the highest stage on
which they are likely to compete. This will help the athlete attain the
best possible result as well as avoiding unnecessary or inappropriate
trade-offs of volume and intensity which may be detrimental to the
athlete’s future success.
S id e ba r D i sc u s s i o n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 31
MICROCYCLES
Microcycles are the shortest periods of planning within the mesocycle.
Typically microcycles are one week in length, but some programs may
have two or three week microcycles.
Once the macrocycle and mesocycle have been designed, the microcycle
is the stage of the program the designer will have the most day-today interaction with, making small alterations according to the athlete’s
feedback and response to training. If the macrocycle and the mesocycle
are the engine of the program, the microcycle is the steering wheel:
it’s not enough to make the car go, but we need to make small, regular
changes to keep moving in the right direction.
The microcycle can also be considered in terms of the training split, that
is, the placement of each item of training within the schedule.
There is no single, universally correct way to plan the training split.
Macrocycle, primary goals, and the athlete’s individual focuses must be
taken into account.
One of the most challenging elements of programming for fitness sport
athletes is balancing opposing elements. This is true not only with
regard to the development of those elements, but also when scheduling
training.
One of the most important heuristics to adhere to when designing
training splits is the Principle of Minimum Interference: Aim to pair
elements in ways which have as little negative effect on each other as
possible.
Ch apte r On e
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 32
There are two areas of interference with which we are concerned.
The first is performance interference. That is, elements which have
substantial negative impact on one another in the immediate sense.
For example, a very taxing deadlift session may be detrimental to the
intensity of a hard conditioning piece involving rowing and chest-to-bar
pullups.
The second is adaptive interference. That is, elements which have
substantial negative impact on long term adaptation to each other.
For example, max effort snatches are on the opposite end of the
bioenergetic spectrum from an easy 60 minute run, so those elements
may be best placed on separate training days.
Below are the two most common methods of designing training splits
utilized in TZ Strength programming.
Ch apte r On e
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 33
Load Split
• Pair light and/or fast strength elements, such as weightlifting
and gymnastics movements with high intensity conditioning
elements, such as relatively short, single all out efforts or
hard intervals with substantial rest.
• Pair heavy and/or slow strength elements, such as squatting
and pressing exercises, with moderate intensity conditioning
elements, such as longer single efforts at a controlled pace,
or intervals with insubstantial rest.
This schedule allows the athlete to push hard on high intensity
conditioning elements, because systemic and local fatigue will be
lower due to the lower intensity (in an absolute sense) of the strength
elements.
Body Part Split
• Pair upper body dominant strength elements, such as jerks,
snatches*, presses, and gymnastics with high intensity
conditioning elements.
• Pair lower body dominant strength elements, such as squats,
deadlifts, and their variations, with moderate intensity
conditioning elements.
• In practice, the body part split is a variant of the load split,
since upper body dominant strength elements necessarily use
substantially lower loads than lower body strength elements.
This schedule accomplishes much the same effect as the load split.
Ch apte r On e
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 34
Because upper body strength elements are so much less systemically
taxing than their lower body counterparts, the athlete is left with plenty
of energy for high intensity conditioning – probably more energy than
with a load split.
There is a tradeoff, however. Although upper body strength elements are
less systemically taxing than lower body strength elements, they are very
locally taxing. The muscles being trained are substantially smaller and
hold less glycogen, and often training volume for upper body lifts will be
higher than for lower body lifts. Accordingly, it may be difficult for the
athlete to achieve or sustain high intensity in a conditioning piece with
significant upper body elements.
The program can, of course, be designed to accommodate this. Either
split can be used with relatively little impact on the total success of the
program. The choice will often come down to the main purposes of the
training block or an individual athlete’s needs.
A note on the integration of low intensity steady state conditioning.
Wherever the program allows for it, it is ideal to perform this kind of
training on a day separate from anything else other than perhaps some
light skill work. It is both minimally taxing and falls far from the majority
of competitive CrossFit training on the bioenergetic spectrum. Allotting
it its own day allows the athlete to perform this important work without
impairing adaptation to other elements, and creates a built in active
recovery day in the middle of a hard training week.
Note: Snatches could be placed on either an upper or lower body dominant day. I typically
program them on upper body days with this type of split, since they are relatively light
compared to the lower body’s capacity for force production, and the musculature of the
shoulder is the weakest link in the chain of this movement.
Ch apte r On e
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 35
MINIMUM INTERFERENCE VERSUS SPORT
SPECIFICITY
The principle of minimum interference states that programs should be
built to avoid interference between dissimilar training elements as much
as possible. However, in a sport which necessarily, even intentionally,
pairs elements to negatively impact each other, minimum interference
seems contrary to sport specificity. Indeed, as with so many things in
this book, a tradeoff is necessary, and it is important to know when to
make it.
There are two primary scenarios in which specificity must take
precedence over minimum interference. One is based on the macrocycle,
and the other on the particular athlete.
• Regionals/Games Preparatory Cycles: For an athlete readying
herself for this stage of competition, performance interference
is part and parcel of the contest, and should be prepared for
in training. The Open does not necessarily require this type of
approach, since it is relatively easy to structure the athlete’s
training week to keep Open events from interfering with the rest
of training, and vice versa. However, by the time the Open rolls
around, higher level athletes should already be in a very sport
specific phase of training.
• Dominant Domains: An athlete who is “overdeveloped” in
any particular domain (competent at a level which exceeds
the demands of the sport) may safely ignore performance
interference for this domain, and in fact, will likely be best served
by doing this. Since the athlete does not need to further develop
that particular ability, it is more beneficial to develop her capacity
to perform in that very strong domain in a sport specific fashion.
S id e ba r D i sc u s s i o n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 36
CHAPTER TWO
WEIGHTLIFTING
Weightlifting is arguably the domain in which fitness sport athletes
have made the greatest strides in the last five years, and where many
recreational functional fitness participants choose to focus much of their
effort.
It’s easy to see why. The snatch and clean & jerk hold a certain allure,
combining tremendous strength and power with speed, finesse, and
flexibility. The pursuit of mastery in weightlifting is equal parts trying,
rewarding, frustrating, and exhilarating.
Ch apte r Two
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 37
The community-wide desire to improve these lifts shows. In 2009, the
winning snatch at the CrossFit Games was 240lbs. Compare that to
multiple lifts in the 300lb range at 2015 Regionals, where the event was
preceded by a 250’ handstand walk.
In recent years, fitness sport coaches and athletes have both made
substantial improvements in technique, programming, and training
practices for conventional weightlifting, as well as developed a fuller
understanding of the more robust weightlifting related abilities required
of the fitness sport athlete.
Of particular importance among those unconventional qualities is power
endurance, sometimes called strength-speed endurance. In this text, we
will consider a task to require or develop strength endurance when the
athlete must perform repeated efforts under fatigue at 70% or greater
of the 1RM in a given snatch or clean & jerk variant. In most cases, below
this intensity, the ability to generate sufficient power will not be the
limiting factor in slowing a fitness sport athlete down.
In this chapter we will assess these capacities, determine their
components, and craft a philosophy and approach for developing them.
Also, we will assess the multiple parameters which define weightlifting
success in fitness sport, and craft a philosophy and approach for
developing them.
Ch apte r Two
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 38
WEIGHTLIFTING IN FITNESS SPORT: REPS
ONE TO ONE HUNDRED
The utilization of weightlifting and weightlifting derived movements in
functional fitness and fitness sport has aroused equal parts joy and ire
from the weightlifting community.
Though CrossFit has undoubtedly been a large part of the recent rise
in the popularity of weightlifting in the United States, the practice of
performing the snatch and clean & jerk for high reps at low-to-moderate
loads, under fatigue, or for time has drawn criticism from weightlifting
traditionalists and strength coaches of various disciplines.
This book does not aim either to justify or to condemn the practice of
high rep weightlifting. It is, and as far as one can tell, will remain, a part
of the sport, and therefore it is the focus of this chapter to determine
best practices for developing the snatch and clean & jerk in all the ways
in which they will be tested in fitness sport.
VARIABLES OF TRAINING
Intensity: In order to determine the distribution of loading to achieve
best results, we are fortunate to be able to defer to the research of the
most prolific sport scientists in history, those of the former Soviet Union.
The table below illustrates patterns in distribution of loading
found among a large group of Master of Sport and Master of Sport
International Class weightlifters in the USSR.
Ch apte r Two
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 39
L OA D I N G D I S T R I B U T I O N PAT T E R N S
LOA D
S N AT C H
CLEAN & JERK
MEAN
<55%
0.83
1.36
1.09
55%
0.0
1.86
0.96
60%
4.08
4.82
4.45
65%
6.19
7.88
6.99
70%
11.7
8.18
9.91
75%
11.7
16.6
1 4 .1
80%
14.5
14.9
14.7
85%
22.9
18.4
20.7
90%
16.7
12.7
14.7
95%
8.9
11.0
10.0
100%
2.5
2.3
2.4
Source: Laputin & Oleshko 1982, p. 31
The numbers in the table represent the percentage of the total training load which was
performed at the specified intensity. E.g., in the 75% column in the snatch row, the number
11.7 means that 11.7% of all snatches performed in training were performed with 75% of the
athlete’s 1RM.
Volume: Volume for any particular athlete should always be
individualized relative to her total workload and maximum recoverable
volume. However, it is useful to have a guide in place. Fortunately,
A.S. Prilepin has done the hard work for us. Prilepin’s Chart is a useful
Ch apte r Two
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 40
starting point for determining total per session workload for the snatch,
clean & jerk, and their derivatives.
P R O G R A M M I N G VO L U M E
LOA D
REPS / SETS
O P T I M A L T O TA L R E P S
REP RANGE
55-65%
3-6
24
18-30
70-80%
3-6
18
12-24
80-90%
2-4
15
10-20
90% +
1-2
4
10
Source: Laputin & Oleshko 1982, p. 32, referencing the work of A.S. Prilepin
Frameworks such as these are only guidelines. In these cases, they
reflect the averages across data sets collected from high level
weightlifters and coaches across the U.S.S.R. The patterns are emergent
properties, and the trends tell us part of the story, but not the whole
thing.
It is not necessary to build programs by specifically adhering to these
data. However, it can inform us with regard to structuring training cycles
by following certain principles for volume and intensity.
• The majority of the work in the snatch happens between 70%
and 90%
• The majority of the work in the clean & jerk happens between
75% and 95%
Ch apte r Two
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 41
• The clean & jerk is taken over 90% slightly more frequently
than the snatch
• Both lifts are trained at 85% more than any other intensity
Frequency: For most athletes, it is advisable to train the snatch three
times per week for at least some of the year, and never less than two
times per week. The snatch is the most technical barbell exercise
available to us, and requires a very high degree of specificity and skill
development in order to progress.
The clean & jerk should almost never be trained less than twice per
week, though not necessarily together, but unlike the snatch, three times
weekly training may not be necessary. Two days per week of clean & jerk
exercises will be often be sufficient, particularly for athletes in need of
maximal strength development who may be better served with additional
heavy squatting and pulling volume in place of the third day of clean &
jerk training.
MEANS
Note: “Means” is a term used throughout this text. It refers to the
specific movements chosen for training. For example, snatches from the
floor, muscle-ups, back squats, and running are all particular means.
Exercise selection should be guided primarily by the principle of
specificity. The means chosen should have a high degree of carry over to
the classical exercises, that is the snatch and clean & jerk from the floor
as performed in weightlifting competitions. Aim to choose exercises
which develop strength, power, and technical characteristics in a way
Ch apte r Two
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 42
which is very similar to the full lifts.
As a heuristic, the program developer can primarily select means which
only differ in one to two ways from the classical lifts. A power snatch, a
snatch from blocks, or a no hook/no foot movement snatch would be a
single deviation. A power snatch from blocks would be two deviations.
A power snatch from blocks with no hook grip, foot movement, or body
contact would be four deviations, and (in most cases) too dissimilar from
the actual lift to have substantial carryover.
A note on “specificity” in weightlifting in fitness sport:
In the sport of weightlifting, the concept of specificity is straightforward.
Not only do the exercises themselves remain the same, the athlete knows
precisely how many lifts they will take on the platform, the minimum
(and maximum) amount of time they will have to complete each lift, and
to a reasonable extent, the amount of time between lifts.
In fitness sport, specificity in any domain is a much more fluid concept.
Instead of preparing for an exact event, the program designer must
predict a range of events, and determine both which are most likely and
which have the most carryover to the others.
With this in mind, below is a suggested hierarchy for developing the
snatch and clean & jerk in a way that is likely to have high carryover and
high likelihood to max effort weightlifting in fitness sport:
Ch apte r Two
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 43
WEIGHTLIFTING DEVELOPMENT HIERARCHY
RANKING
Tier 1
DESCRIPTION
•
Classical Exercises performed in
conventional formats
•
Variations of Classical Exercises
likely to appear in competition
performed in conventional formats
•
Classical exercises in
unconventional formats
•
Variations of classical exercises
unlikely to appear in competition,
performed in conventional formats
•
Variations of classical exercises
likely to appear in competition,
performed in unconventional
formats
Tier 2
Tier 3
EXAMPLE
•
Snatch, Clean & Jerk, no time
component, performed for
relatively low reps/high loads
•
Hang snatch, power clean,
power jerk, no time component,
performed for relatively low reps/
high loads
•
Heavy snatches on short clock;
clean & jerks between 400m runs
•
Snatch from blocks; clean with
pause below knees, no time
component, performed for
relatively low reps/high loads
•
Hang clean on short clock; power
jerks alternated with muscle-ups
The classical exercises are Tier 1. They are very likely to appear in
competition in some format, and though somewhat unconventional
formats are the norm, the primary requirement for being successful in
these events is first to be good at the lifts.
Tier 2 contains two items: the classical exercises in non-conventional
formats as listed above, along with competition likely variations of the
classical exercises. Competition likely variants include lifts from the
hang, power variations, and jerks from the rack.
Ch apte r Two
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 44
Tier 3 consists of competition unlikely variants of the classical exercises,
and competition likely variants of classical exercises in non-conventional
formats. Competition unlikely variants include lifts from the blocks, lifts
with a pause and complexes (which may be somewhat likely in some
iteration, but the odds of landing on the precise complex which will be
chosen for competition are very low.)
This is a chronological, not philosophical hierarchy. That is, it speaks
to the order in which these items should be developed, not always or
necessarily to how important they are to the sport or the particular
athlete.
METHODS
Note: “Methods” is a term used throughout this text. It refers to the
format in which a particular means is applied. For example, snatching
heavy doubles adding weight each set, snatching heavy doubles all at
the same weight, and snatching heavy doubles on a ninety second clock
are all different methods applied to the same means.
In selecting volume and intensity, the Soviet research referred to earlier
in this chapter is useful. With that information in mind, the program
designer knows that she should aim for the athlete to perform most of
her work in the snatch between seventy and ninety percent, most of her
work in the clean & jerk between seventy-five and ninety-five percent,
and doing much of that work in both lifts at eighty-five percent is a
sound strategy.
From here, the program can be structured to achieve adequate volume
at these intensities, using Prilepin’s chart as a guide. This includes
Ch apte r Two
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 45
selection of workout formats, of which there is relatively little right and
wrong.
Below are the three primary conventional formats used by the author in
weightlifting program design.
P L A N N I N G VO L U M E & I N T E N S I T Y
TYPE
EXAMPLE
Building Sets
70%x3, 75%x3, 80%x2, 85%x2x4
Top Set & Drop Sets
90%x2, 85%x2x2, 80%x2x3
Sets Across
85%x2x6
Considerations
• Building sets involve working from a bottom set to a top
weight for the day, sometimes performed for multiple sets.
There are no sets performed after the top set(s). This format
allows the athlete to hone in technique as she builds to her
primary working load.
• A top set with following drop sets allows for higher intensity
work without psychologically overwhelming the athlete. The
workout should be structured in a way that decreases in
load match accumulating fatigue as closely as possible. In
the example above this would mean that the athlete would
feel that they need to drop weight after the final set at each
prescribed intensity.
Ch apte r Two
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 46
• Sets across are physically and psychologically challenging.
They require, and develop, technical consistency, since
the athlete will maintain the same intensity as fatigue
accumulates.
Sport Specific Preparation: The means and methods laid out above
refer primarily to the development of the snatch and clean & jerk for
conventional purposes, that is, to increase the single lift maximum. Next,
we must consider means and methods for developing sport specific
abilities.
Means are largely the same, with one major exception: sport specific
preparation should rarely, if ever, select exercises which are competition
unlikely. In most cases, exercises which fall into this category are
designed to develop a specific quality to improve the lift, and would be
inappropriate within these formats. An example would be performing a
ladder with cleans paused below the knee. The athlete is developing a
skill which she will not likely need to use in competition, but she is also
not achieving the full benefit of the selected variation.
The methods for sport specific preparation are more novel and distinct
from conventional weightlifting training than the means are. Below are
several examples of sport specific formats for heavy weightlifting events.
It is important to note that these methods are primarily of value for
developing the specific skill sets required of fitness sport athletes. While
there may be intrinsic training value to implementing them solely in
variation, they pale in comparison to conventional means with regard to
developing ability in the maximal effort snatch and clean & jerk.
Ch apte r Two
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 47
SPORT SPECIFIC PROGRAMMING
TYPE
INTENSITY
EXAMPLE
Every 90 seconds:
1 Clean & Jerk
Ladder
High
Start at 255#/175#, increase by
20#/10# with every successful
attempt, until failure.
For Time:
1 snatch, 155#/105#
Speed Ladder
Moderate to High
1 snatch, 175#/115#
1 snatch, 195#/125#
1 snatch, 215#/135#
1 snatch, 235#/145#
Time Limit Top Set
High
On a 6 minute clock:
Hang Snatch 3RM
Two Attempts to Snatch 1RM
Limited Attempts Top Set
High
20 seconds per attempt
80 seconds between attempts
• A ladder involves multiple barbells ascending in weight.
Starting with the lightest bar, the athlete has a limited time
(typically 60-90 seconds) to complete the lift. If they are
successful, they move to the next bar at the end of the time
period.
• Speed ladders also require the athlete to lift multiple
barbells ascending in weight, now sequentially from lightest
to heaviest as quickly as possible. Speed ladders may not
actually be particularly heavy, but the athlete must be strong
Ch apte r Two
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 48
enough that the load does not impair her ability to move
quickly through the ladder.
• Time Limit Top Set: The athlete has a set time limit to
establish a 1RM (or 3RM, or complex, or whatever is being
contested.) Loading may either be athlete’s choice, or they
may be required to progress in specific increments.
Moving further down the road of unconventional weightlifting, we find
ourselves in the realm of power endurance. Fitness sport athletes must
not only develop the classical exercises to high levels of competency, but
they must parallel that with their ability to work at submaximal loads for
very high volumes under fatigue.
Power endurance, or strength-speed endurance, is specific to loads
of 70% or greater, on average. While all training is specific, there is
relatively little need or opportunity to put as much specialization and
organization into endurance for very light weightlifting when compared
to maximal efforts and power endurance.
It is crucial to remember that power endurance training is not
appropriate for developing peak power. In fact, it may be detrimental to
it. However, these tradeoffs are necessary given the nature of the sport.
So long as the program designer keeps in mind that the two attributes
are discrete, they can both be trained effectively.
Ch apte r Two
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 49
P OW E R E N D U R A N C E P R O G R A M M I N G
TYPE
INTENSITY
Power Endurance Timed Sets
Moderate to High
EXAMPLE
For Time:
30 Power Cleans, 75%
5 Rounds for Total Reps:
Power Endurance Intervals
Moderate to High
60 seconds Power Snatches,
70% 120-180 seconds rest
3 Rounds for Time:
Multi-Modal Power Endurance
Moderate to High
5 Clean & Jerk, 225#/155#
10 Muscle-Ups
Row 500m
The percentages in this table are based on the 1RM in the exercise indicated, NOT the
classical lifts.
Ch apte r Two
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 50
CHAPTER THREE
STRENGTH
D E V E LO P M E N T
Depending on who you talk to, the role of strength in fitness sport is
equal parts overrated, understated, and misunderstood.
It is not unreasonable for there to be confusion. The nature of the sport,
and the abilities of top athletes, can make it difficult to accurately assess
the importance of maximal strength. In this chapter, we will strive to
understand the role of strength in competitive CrossFit by answering
two questions:
Ch apte r T h re e
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 51
• How much maximal strength is necessary?
• Can an athlete develop too much maximal strength for fitness
sport?
And, with those answers in hand, we aim to develop an approach to
developing strength for fitness sport.
STRENGTH IN FITNESS SPORT: THE STRENGTH SPECTRUM
“Strength” is a broad term for a varied set of physiological abilities
involving force production. Strength can refer to maximal strength,
speed strength, strength endurance, starting strength, and more.
For fitness sport, we are primarily concerned with maximal strength and
strength endurance.
Maximal strength is defined as “the ability of a given muscle or group
of muscles to generate muscular force under specific conditions”
(Verkhoshanksy & Siff 2003, p. 1). In the gym, this is most often
practically measured via the one repetition maximum in any given “slow”
lift, such as the back squat, press, or deadlift.
In fitness sport, maximal strength is both a contested event, and a
contributing factor to other events, such as max effort snatches and
clean & jerks and strength endurance components of multimodal
endurance pieces.
Thus, the strength component of competitive CrossFit is unique among
Ch apte r T h re e
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 52
strength athletics, in that strength endurance is as important, arguably
more important, than maximal strength.
Verkhoshansky and Siff (2003) define strength endurance as “the ability
to effectively maintain muscular functioning under work conditions of
long duration” (p. 108).
There are various categories of strength endurance, dependent primarily
on the load being moved and the rate of force development required to
complete the lift successfully.
In this chapter, the term “strength endurance” refers to absolute strength
endurance, generally utilizing loads between 60-80%.
With that in mind, let us begin to consider our questions.
How much maximal strength is necessary for success
in fitness sport?
LIFT
MALE
FEMALE
Squat
Low to Mid 400s
Mid to High 200s
Push Press
Mid to High 200s
Mid to High 100s
Deadlift
Low to Mid 500s
Low to Mid 300s
The numbers shown are estimates for average CrossFit Games qualifying athletes based
on the author’s own experience. There have been no tests of these events in modern era
(2011 and on) CrossFit Games competition, and therefore no concrete data to utilize in this
determination.
Ch apte r T h re e
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 53
Even among CrossFit Games athletes, top end strength ranges fairly
widely. Above are numbers which seem to represent the current
requirements for maximal strength for the average qualifying athlete.
Can an athlete develop too much maximal strength for
fitness sport?
It is often said that “all other things being equal, the stronger athlete
wins.” While this statement is not strictly untrue, it is pragmatically
useless. All other things are never equal.
In a sport requiring more-or-less equal development of competing
qualities, any one of those qualities can be pushed too far. So, what does
it mean to be “too strong” for fitness sport?
Theoretically, there is no such thing as “too strong.” The strength itself
is not an issue, but rather what goes into developing certain levels of
strength.
In training for fitness sport, economy is key. With so many competing
demands, and a generally high volume of training, coaches and athletes
must determine where to make tradeoffs. In order to decide whether
an athlete is “strong enough” in a given lift, two questions must be
answered:
• Is the athlete within the ranges noted above on the lift?
• Does further developing the lift take away from other areas of
development?
If the answer is yes to both, the athlete will likely be better served
dedicating his time and energy elsewhere.
Ch apte r T h re e
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 54
MAXIMAL STRENGTH & STRENGTH ENDURANCE
When considering the development of endurance with barbell
movements, perhaps the most common mistake is the assumption that
an increase in 1RM will directly carry over to an improvement in strength
endurance in the same exercise.
With regard to endurance, maximal strength is a barrier to entry. An
athlete must possess a bottom line of strength simply in order to be at
a competitive level. As an athlete’s strength develops past that point,
training focused on increasing 1RM becomes less and less valuable to
endurance for several reasons.
1. Training Economy: As an athlete becomes stronger, the amount
of time and energy he will need to expend to further improve his
strength increases. While the increase from 500lbs to 550lbs in
the deadlift may improve the athlete’s ability to handle 315lbs in
an endurance event, it is unlikely that the increase will measure up
to the amount of work it required. The athlete would likely make
more improvement with a well structured strength endurance
phase utilizing submaximal loads, which would produce more of
the desired effect with less impact on the rest of the athlete’s
training.
2. Specificity of Adaptation: Training for 1RM improves maximal force
production. This is, of course, an extremely important part of
fitness sport. However, 1RM strength is necessary but not sufficient
for developing high degrees of strength endurance, because
strength endurance requires specific physiological adaptations
which maximal force production simply cannot elicit, because the
training occurs primarily in a different energy pathway.
S id e ba r D i sc u s s i o n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 55
3. Volume Tolerance: Adaptation occurs not only with regard to
the athlete’s ability to perform a given task, but also his ability
to recover from it. Just as training for 1RM does not elicit the
physiological adaptations required to improve strength endurance,
recovering from training for 1RM does not prepare the athlete to
recover from very high reps performed as quickly as possible with
low-to-moderate weight. The athlete must train specifically for
these types of events in order to not only perform competitively,
but to recover adequately.
S id e ba r D i sc u s s i o n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 56
VARIABLES OF TRAINING
Intensity: In order to develop maximal strength, the majority of the
training load should occur between 75-90% of the 1RM of the specific
exercise being trained (Israetel et al. 2015, p. 339). In practice, most
of the work will be between 75-85%. If the majority of the work is
performed at 85%+, the total training volume will be have to be relatively
low, and the athlete will have trouble creating sufficient stimulus to make
progress over the course of the training cycle.
Volume: Prilepin’s chart, elucidated upon in the weightlifting chapter,
is often used to determine training volumes for strength exercises as
well as the snatch and clean & jerk. However, the author’s experience
suggests that the chart, while a good starting point, sometimes
represents inadequate volume for competitive CrossFit athletes, since
Prilepin’s chart was retroactively developed to reflect the training of
elite weightlifters.
Fitness sport requires the athlete to handle high volume, moderateto-high intensity workloads. As a result, athletes are well adapted to
high volume training, and accordingly require higher workloads with
submaximal loads to induce sufficient stress to drive progress.
Additionally, fitness sport athletes have tremendous strength endurance,
and are frequently able to handle high percentages of their 1RM for reps,
and even in sport specific scenarios. Accordingly, some fitness sport
athletes will need to perform more work at higher intensities in order to
improve their top end strength.
Fortunately, these athletes are well equipped to handle higher training
Ch apte r T h re e
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 57
loads than conventional strength athletes, particularly with submaximal
loads. Below is a modified Prilepin’s chart for selecting strength training
volumes for fitness sport athletes.
P R O G R A M M I N G VO L U M E
LOA D
REPS / SETS
O P T I M A L T O TA L R E P S
REP RANGE
55-65%
3-6
30
24-36
70-80%
3-6
24
18-30
80-90%
2-4
18
12-24
90% +
1-2
6
2-10
Frequency: In training for fitness sport, the already complex question of
training frequency is further compounded.
Conventional strength training programs will typically have an athlete
training a particular movement pattern (squatting, pressing, pulling from
the floor, etc) OR a particular muscle group (legs, back, shoulders, etc)
between two and four times per week, depending on the method being
used, and the movement or muscle group in question.
In fitness sport, however, we must account for the additional stress
of training those same movement patterns and muscle groups in
conditioning efforts, with loads which are too low to contribute to the
improvement of maximal strength.
Ch apte r T h re e
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 58
The simplest way to rectify this is by adjusting the conditioning in each
training block, or individual athlete’s programming, to accommodate the
frequency of the relevant movement patterns.
For example, if a base mesocycle has three days per week of squat
patterns, a decrease in squatting patterns in multimodal conditioning
efforts would be justified. For an athlete who is very strong in the squat
and who only trains it once per week, it is safe to increase the amount of
squatting patterns in conditioning efforts.
Finding this balance is more art than science, and the sweet spot will
be found at the intersection of an athlete’s tolerance for any given
movement pattern, and her need to further develop that movement
pattern.
Below are the author ’s general guidelines for training frequency in
three major movement patterns. These represent specific training for
improving maximal strength, and do not include instances of these
patterns in conditioning pieces.
Squat: 1-3 Sessions Per Week
• For most athletes, 2 sessions per week will be both necessary
and sufficient to drive progress in the squat. Particularly
strong or weak athletes may need to adjust accordingly.
• Most athletes who are neither particularly strong or weak in
the squat will benefit from occasional periods of 3x/week
squatting to improve special work capacity and technique.
Ch apte r T h re e
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 59
Press: 1-2 Sessions Per Week
• For most athletes, 1 heavy pressing session per week will
be sufficient, particularly since both weightlifting and
gymnastics training represent substantial volume on the
shoulders.
• Some athletes will benefit from avoiding heavy barbell
pressing entirely, in order to place more focus on the jerk
and/or various gymnastics elements. This tends to be true of
male athletes with very strong upper bodies, who tend to lack
finesse in the jerk and endurance in gymnastics movements.
• Conversely, some athletes will see tremendous carryover
to their weightlifting and gymnastics from heavy pressing
exercises. This tends to be true of female athletes,
particularly those with long limbs, who have trouble building
mass and strength in the shoulder girdle.
Deadlift/Posterior Chain: 0.5-2 sessions per week
• For most athletes, 1 heavy deadlift session per week will be
sufficient.
• Natural deadlifters can pull heavy every other week, or even
less, and still build strength in the movement, while avoiding
the high stress associated with deadlift training. These
athletes should concentrate most of their “deadlift” training
on general posterior chain development.
• If two sessions per week are used, one of them should focus
on an accessory variation of the deadlift which is relatively
less stressful, such as stiff leg (lower stress due to decreased
load) or sumo (lower stress due to the increased use of the
legs and reduced strain on the low back.)
Ch apte r T h re e
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 60
The absence of upper body pulling and midline is not an oversight.
Upper back accessories and abdominal accessories stemming from
conventional strength training means can be useful, and should be
utilized to some extent, the large majority of upper body pulling
exercises and midline strength development for CrossFit athletes should
come from gymnastics training.
MEANS
The three exercises the author has selected as primary measures of
strength are the back squat, push press, and deadlift. Below are notes on
the reason for these selections, as well as recommendations for selection
of secondary exercises to further develop them.
Ch apte r T h re e
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 61
Back Squat: In selecting exercises for strength development, we aim to
choose movements which meet requirements of specificity and overload.
In the author ’s estimation, the high bar back squat is the squatting
exercise which sits most evenly at this intersection. Because the high bar
back squat can be performed to similar depth as the receiving position
of the snatch and clean, and due to the very upright posture required for
the exercise, it has a high degree of specificity to the snatch and clean
& jerk. Since it can be loaded with substantially greater weights than the
front squat, it allows for higher levels of maximal strength development,
as well a larger magnitude training effect. The low bar back squat would
allow for still greater loads to be used, but generally shifts the stress too
far towards overload and too far away from specificity. Selecting the low
bar back squat as the primary means of squat development is likely not a
critical error, so long as it is not the wide, high, geared powerlifting style,
but the high bar back squat seems to be a superior candidate.
Below are listed important accessory exercises, both for developing the
back squat and ensuring well rounded squatting skill development for
the sport.
• Front Squat: Second only to the back squat in importance,
the front squat can be loaded heavily, and is the most specific
strength building exercise to the clean recovery. The front
squat also tends to be easier on the low back and, somewhat
counterintuitively, the knees, and so may be valuable for
athletes who need to reduce stress to these areas.
• Overhead Squat: Though of relatively little importance to
developing proficiency in the snatch, and almost impossible
to load substantially enough to develop strength in the legs,
the overhead squat is a frequently seen element in CrossFit
competition, and it is wise to dedicate some time to training
it. It is the author’s opinion that the safest way to develop
Ch apte r T h re e
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 62
the overhead squat is to work towards being able to perform
it with a relatively narrow grip, closer to the hand position
an athlete would use for the jerk than the snatch. This will
reduce the strain on the wrists, elbows, and shoulders.
• Paused Squats: The surest way to develop strength in a weak
position is to spend time there. Accordingly, paused squats
are one of the most valuable tools in the coach’s arsenal.
Most commonly, they are performed with a two to three
second pause in the bottom position. However, rebound
pause squats, wherein the athlete squats to the bottom as
normal, and pauses briefly just above parallel on the way up,
are an excellent way to improve positional strength in the
most frequent sticking point in the squat.
• Tempo Squats: Controlling the pace of the eccentric phase of
the squat is a useful training tool for three primary purposes.
Firstly, it can help the athlete develop strength and control
through the descent, an often overlooked component
of strong squatting. Secondly, the eccentric is the most
disruptive phase of the movement, and prolonging it can
allow for similar stress with reduced load. Third, and related
to the second, controlling the eccentric reduces peak forces
in the squat, both by necessitating lower loading and by
prefatiguing the relevant musculature during the descent.
This is valuable during peaking for competition, to reduce risk
of injury while maintaining strength.
Push Press: Unlike the back squat, the push press is not, in most cases,
the pressing exercise which allows for the greatest load to be used. That
distinction goes to the bench press.
Ch apte r T h re e
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 63
However, given the very high incidence of overhead movements in
competitive CrossFit, and the seemingly low likelihood of the bench
press arising in competition, the push press seems to be the best
compromise between overload and specificity for the sport. It allows
for higher absolute intensities than the strict press, trains the dip and
drive of the jerk, and is more specific to the most commonly employed
shoulder-to-overhead variant used for moderate-to-heavy loads in
competition, that being the power jerk.
The push press can be trained both from the front rack and behind the
neck. For athletes who have a tendency to press out on the jerk, the
behind the neck variant may be a better choice.
Ch apte r T h re e
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 64
Below are other valuable exercises for developing pressing strength.
• Press: Alternately referred to as shoulder press, strict
press, overhead press, and military press, this describes
the standing press to overhead without any leg drive. It is
an excellent developer of the musculature relevant to both
putting and holding weight overhead. However, the press is a
relatively low intensity lift for most athletes, and developing
it to the point of very high intensities can be detrimental,
both in terms of training economy and with regard to its
effect on other lifts, primarily the jerk. The lack of leg drive
is advantageous to development of upper body musculature,
but reduces the specificity of the exercise, and so the author
relegates this movement to accessory status. It can be
performed both from the front rack and behind-the-neck,
with the front rack being the generally more useful variation.
• Bench Press: Although the bench press is not highly specific
to competitive CrossFit, it provides the ability to press more
weight than any other exercise. Its greatest carryover may
not be to overhead lifts, but to gymnastics exercises, in
particular the muscle-up and handstand pushup. In general,
CrossFit athletes should avoid a particularly wide grip in the
bench press, as this will reduce the specificity of the exercise
and unnecessarily increase strain on the shoulders.
Deadlift: Unlike the back squat and push press, the status of which
as “most important” in their given categories could reasonably be
contested, the conventional deadlift is frankly unparalleled. Changes
in start position, such as to a clean deadlift or a stiff legged deadlift,
almost always come with a very significant decrease in potential for
maximum load. The only contender with regard to loading potential is
the sumo deadlift which, though at times a valuable accessory exercise,
Ch apte r T h re e
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 65
lacks the specificity to be our primary measure of strength in pulling
from the floor.
The conventional deadlift for one repetition maximum has only been
tested twice in the history of CrossFit Games competition (possibly with
exception for pre-standardized Regionals.) There was a deadlift ladder in
the 2009 CrossFit Games, and a max single for teams in the 2014 Games.
However, deadlifts have made an appearance in some way, shape, or
form, from very light to very heavy, in nearly every CrossFit event.
Thus it is clear that proficiency in the deadlift, across a broad range of
loads, is a necessity for competitive excellence. However, the deadlift is
arguably the single most taxing lift to train, and developing high levels
of maximal strength as well as high levels of strength endurance can
have a deleterious effect on the rest of an athlete’s training. Even at
comparatively light loads (<40% 1RM), high volume deadlifting can leave
an athlete hurting for days.
There are varying schools of thought regarding how to cope with the
taxing nature of the deadlift within the context of the training program.
Some coaches believe in training the deadlift like any other lift, typically
one session per week as well as a session focused on a deadlift variation.
Train it frequently enough, and the athlete will adapt to the stress.
Others suggest primarily developing the deadlift through accessory
exercises for the posterior chain and only occasionally deadlifting heavy,
with frequency ranges from once per two weeks to once per six weeks or
even more.
We then have two questions to answer. The first is “What method is best
for developing the deadlift in general?”, and the second is “What method
is best for developing the deadlift for fitness sport?”
Ch apte r T h re e
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 66
With regard to the first, this author generally agrees with training the
deadlift like any other lift. There is little convincing reason to believe
that the best way to improve the deadlift is to do it infrequently. As
such, most of the programming found on TZ Strength, particularly during
the off-season and pre-season, trains the deadlift once per week, with
a second day dedicated to a variation, or at the least a fairly heavy
posterior chain assistance exercise.
The second question, how to address the deadlift within the context of
fitness sport, is more complicated. There are more adaptations to be
made than for a powerlifter, and less leeway to recover from any single
aspect of training.
The graph below represents the author’s general methodology for
programming the deadlift.
Ch apte r T h re e
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 67
“Deadlift” refers to the conventional deadlift or any variation which is
a heavy pull from the floor, such as a deficit deadlift, sumo deadlift, or
stiff legged deadlift. “Posterior Chain” refers to exercises aimed at the
general development of the musculature of the posterior chain, such
as Romanian deadlifts, good mornings, or glute ham raises. This graph
refers only to the training of heavy deadlifting for strength and/or
specific strength endurance. It does not include instances of the deadlift
in sport specific conditioning.
The heuristics illustrated in the graph above are as follows
• High Proficiency Deadlifters train the deadlift or a deadlift
variation once per week during the Off-Season, once every
other week during the Pre-Season, and once every three to
four weeks during the Competition Season. They perform
developmental exercises for the posterior chain once per
week during the Off-Season and Pre Season, and once every
other week during the Competition Season.
• Moderate Proficiency Deadlifters train the deadlift or a
deadlift variation twice per week during the Off-Season, once
per week during the Preseason, and once every other week
during the Competition Season. They perform developmental
exercises for the posterior chain once per week throughout
the year.
• Low Proficiency Deadlifters train the deadlift or a deadlift
variation twice per week during the Off-Season and
Preseason, and once per week during the Competition
Season. They perform developmental exercises for the
posterior chain once per week throughout the year.
Ch apte r T h re e
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 68
The author’s most commonly used variations of the deadlift
• Deficit Deadlift: Pulling from a deficit is one of the best ways
to develop strength in the beginning of the deadlift, often
the weakest link in the chain. The deficit should be relatively
small, about two inches at most. Overdoing it will force the
athlete into a start position too unlike her actual deadlift, and
substantially reduce both carryover and loading potential.
• Pause Deadlift: Just as with the squat, pausing at a weak
point in the deadlift is an effective way to strengthen that
position. Most commonly the author prescribes the pause
immediately after breaking the bar from the floor, but a pause
can be employed anywhere throughout the range of motion
prior to lockout. Be aware that pause deadlifts, particularly
the aforementioned low pause, are very taxing on the low
back.
• Stiff Leg Deadlift: Arguably the best developer of hamstring
strength available, the stiff legged deadlift is an effective
compromise between loading potential, hamstring isolation
and specificity. A relatively small change in start position
leads to the hamstrings handling a substantially greater
portion of the work, and the movement can still be loaded
with appreciably heavy weights.
The author’s most commonly used developmental
exercises for the posterior chain
• Romanian Deadlift: More commonly referred to as the RDL,
the Romanian deadlift is an good tool for developing strength
and size in the musculature from the hamstrings to the upper
back with substantially lower loading than a stiff legged
Ch apte r T h re e
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 69
deadlift. Performed correctly it also has carryover to the
snatch and clean, since the athlete should be keeping tension
on the hamstrings and her chest over the bar through most of
the range of motion.
• Good Morning: An excellent option for athletes who have
trouble maintaining their posture in squatting or pulling
exercises, the good morning is also a good way to train the
posterior chain without having the bar in the athlete’s hands,
something which can be of benefit to fitness sport athletes
whose palms are routinely thrashed. The author’s preference
is to have the athlete perform the GM from pins or with a
brief pause at the bottom, focusing on maintaining tension
and posture during the stop before initiating the concentric.
Note On Accessory Work: In this book, “accessory work” refers to
exercises which are too unlike the primary lifts, too low in loading
potential, or both, to be considered as main training movements. Their
general purposes are as follows:
• To provide supporting work for the primary exercises with
relatively little stress
• To add muscle mass and/or strength in areas of particular
weakness
• To improve the athlete’s general base of strength and special
work capacity
Accessory work comes in many flavors. In some cases, they will be
derivations of the primary movement patterns of squatting, pressing, and
deadlifting. Others are entirely supplemental, exercises which are aimed
at training the relevant musculatures in a general way.
Ch apte r T h re e
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 70
The potential range of accessory exercises and modalities is nearly
limitless. To attempt to categorize them is well beyond the scope of this
text. Below are five very general categories, with accompanying notes on
their purpose and application.
• Unilateral Work: Training one side of the body at a time in
squatting, pressing, and deadlifting patterns can be beneficial
for achieving hypertrophy with lower systemic stress than
bilateral counterparts, addressing muscle imbalances, and
improving proprioception. There is also a sport specific
exposure component, as there is a reasonable likelihood of
encountering some type of unilateral exercise, such as a one
arm dumbbell snatch or one legged squat, in competition.
Ch apte r T h re e
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 71
• Upper Back Strength: Strong latissimus dorsi, rhomboids,
and trapezius are crucial not only to the squat, push press,
and deadlift, but to a large majority of movement patterns
commonly utilized in competitive fitness sport, across the
board from snatches to muscle-ups to rowing. Strength and
balance of this musculature is also important for maintaining
health in the low back, hips, and shoulders. In strength
development for fitness sport, the primary accessory for
upper back development are rowing exercises, with a
range of implements and at varying angles. These types of
movements are of great value, but can safely be trained with
limited volume, since gymnastics development will develop
upper back strength to a great degree.
• Midline Strength: This item is placed here primarily to address
its noticeable absence. The development of midline strength,
the ability to stabilize the trunk under heavy loads, dynamic
movement, and fatigue, is of immeasurable importance to
fitness sport, indeed to any sport. However, it is the author’s
opinion that gymnastics elements, both specific to the
midline and generally demanding of it, are by far the best
tool for developing this strength. Coupled with weightlifting,
strength development, and the technical demands of the
sport specific elements of fitness sport, there is little to no
need for other methods to develop this quality.
• Prehabilitation: There is a plethora of information available
regarding varying modes of prehab. The subject is well
beyond the scope of this book, and it is the author’s
opinion that regular consultations with a professional in
the field, preferably with experience in the sport or one of
its components, is worth every penny of a serious athlete’s
money.
• Strongman Training: Strictly speaking, Strongman is a sport
unto itself. But for fitness sport, the events and implements
of Strongman represent valuable auxiliary training tools.
Ch apte r T h re e
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 72
These events fulfill areas of development left untouched by
conventional strength training methods, and thus help to
create the well rounded athlete that fitness sport demands.
Along with their general qualities, strongman or strongman
derived events like the tire flip, front carry variations,
sled pushes and drags, and the yoke have made multiple
appearances in the CrossFit Games, and it is safe to assume
they will continue to be part of the sport. Be judicious in the
application of this type of training. It’s very taxing, arguably
more so than any of the means of conventional strength
training, and a heavy or high volume session will take a
substantial toll on the athlete.
METHODS
PURPOSE
Hypertrophy
Special Work
Capacity
Strength
CONVENTIONAL
PRESCRIPTION
65%x10x4
65%x5x10
75%x6x4
OPEN RANGE
PRESCRIPTION
65% x 40 total reps
(8-12/set)
65% x 50 total reps
(3-6/set)
75% x 24 total reps
(3-6/set)
R AT E O F
PERCEIVED
EXERTION
TIMED
SETS
10 @ 6, 10 @ 7, 10 @
8, plus two down sets
X
(repeat)
X
65%x5x10
EMOM
3 @ 6, 3 @ 7, 3 @ 8
plus four down sets
X
(repeat)
70% x 1-2 shy of failure
Strength
Endurance
X
X
(Capacity)
Rest 20 seconds 70%
70% x 30
x 1-2 shy of failure
reps for
Rest 20 seconds 70% x
time
failure
Strength
Endurance
85%x2x8
X
X
(Durability)
Ch apte r T h re e
X
Every 90
seconds
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 73
Conventional Prescription assigns intensity, total volume as number of
sets, and number of reps per set. It is perhaps the most commonly used
method in strength training. Its rigidity of structure is both its advantage
and its disadvantage. For novice athletes, it’s a borderline necessity.
Without several years of well used experience, the athlete is rarely
qualified to make the best selections for either intensity or rep range,
and this straightforward prescription leaves no guesswork.
Open Range Prescription assigns the intensity and total workload,
and gives the athlete a range of repetitions per set to work within.
This model guarantees the athlete fulfills the two most important
requirements for inducing the desired stress – sufficient volume at a
minimum intensity – while allowing flexibility with the less impactful
variable of reps per set. Since the volume and intensity are considerably
more important to the total stress than reps per set, this method
provides the athlete the opportunity to complete all the work prescribed
even if they’re not feeling as strong as usual, simply by reducing the
work per set.
Rate of Perceived Exertion, or RPE, is essentially an inversion of the
Open Range Prescription, assigning the total volume and reps per set,
but leaving the intensity to the athlete’s selection based on a scale
of difficulty. The benefit of this method is primarily that it allows
the athlete to take advantage of her physical state on any given day,
accommodating for the natural fluxes in preparedness which occurs
with training. When an athlete feels particularly good, she can push the
intensity, and when she feels more fatigued than usual she can reign it in,
and in either case get the work done. This is of particular use for fitness
sport athletes, since the voluminous and varied nature of their training
often makes it harder to predict how an athlete will feel on any given
day than in weightlifting or powerlifting, although fitness sport athletes
Ch apte r T h re e
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 74
are typically better equipped to train through fatigue. It is the author’s
opinion that this method is most useful at intensities greater than 85% of
1RM. Below is the scale used for RPE in TZ Strength programming.
Perceived exertion can also be brought into brought into play with
predetermined intensities, such as the strength endurance capacity
method displayed in the table above.
Timed sets are the most controllable method for developing strength
endurance. They allow for controlling both the intensity and the total
volume, and are very easy to progress. They create both strength
endurance and specific work capacity, and are best employed early in a
training cycle.
Ch apte r T h re e
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 75
R AT E O F P E R C E I V E D E X E R T I O N I N
STRENGTH TRAINING
Adapted with permission from “The Reactive Training Systems Manual”, M. Tuchscherer (2008, p. 15)
Ch apte r T h re e
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 76
AC C E S S O RY WO R K
The methods outlined above are designed for primary means of strength
development. Accessory work can be approached with a multitude of
methods, ranging from straightforward bodybuilding style training, to
multiple exercise circuits which are more reminiscent of low intensity
fitness sport training. The author adheres to the three following
heuristics when designing accessory work programming.
• There is no point in less than excellent technique. With
primary means of training, slight mechanical mishaps of
the non-injurious type can occasionally be acceptable in
the interest of achieving the desired stress. Accessory work
aims to increase specific musculature or improve specific
movement patterns. Its impact is primarily localized to those
areas or exercises, and so there is no reason to let the pursuit
of greater weight or more repetitions to eclipse the focus on
perfect form.
• Bolster, don’t hinder. Accessory volume needs to be sufficient
to complement the primary means of strength development,
without creating a significant impact on the athlete’s ability
to recover from training.
• Movement is primary, volume is secondary, intensity is
tertiary. This is simple inference from the two heuristics
above. Always prioritize movement, then ensure that volume
is appropriate, and only then consider trying to push load.
There is, of course, a minimum requisite intensity in order
for the accessory work to be useful. The author’s experience,
however, is that the number is lower than most athletes will
aim for, and that the best practice is to error on the side of
less.
Ch apte r T h re e
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 77
THAT PROGRAM FROM THE INTERNET
In the information age, coaches and athletes are lucky to have virtually
unfettered access to nearly unlimited resources on training. Without a
doubt, this has helped to improve training practices for fitness sport
athletes across the board.
The spread of information, however, does come with its own set of
problems. One of these is the implementation of “stock” programs.
Stock programs, such as Smolov, Sheiko, the Russian Squat Cycle, et
al, certainly have value in their own ways. They are useful models for
understanding how effective programs should flow throughout a cycle,
and they can provide models for creating one’s own program. However,
using them for fitness sport athletes comes with a number of issues.
First of all, the program is custom for some particular person and/or
goal, and stock for everyone/everything else. As with any well designed
program, they were designed with a specific purpose in mind, and
perhaps even for a specific athlete.
Those purposes are likely related to weightlifting or powerlifting, and
therefore cannot accommodate the needs of a fitness sport athlete.
A strength program designed for fitness sport athletes must take
into account the need for maximal strength development, strength
endurance, and the varied and competing stressors the athlete trains for.
Use stock programs for inspiration in developing your own model
that is better suited to the sport, but the author advises against their
implementation in their original form.
S id e ba r D i sc u s s i o n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 78
CHAPTER FOUR
GY M N A S T I C S
If the importance of weightlifting and strength development in fitness
sport is overstated, it is to the detriment of the development of
gymnastics prowess.
Although the importance of proficiency with certain gymnastics
movements, such as muscle-ups, kipping pull-ups, and handstand
pushups is obvious, all too commonly coaches and athletes fail to
develop a progressive, organized approach to developing these
movements with a bottom up approach.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 79
The importance of developing a fundamental base of strength and skill
for gymnastics movements cannot be overstated. To fail to do so is akin
to asking an athlete to snatch a max without learning the positions of
the pull. And yet, it is common practice to train the movements which
are, as of now, most important to fitness sport, without addressing their
constituent components.
In this chapter, we will assess the role of gymnastics in fitness sport, the
movements most likely to be indicators of success, and how to create
gymnastics proficiency from the ground up.
As is the case with weightlifting, the implementation of gymnastics in
fitness sport is frowned upon by some, due to the high volume, high
fatigue nature of the sport. However, the application of gymnastics
movements in fitness sport, however, is unlike movements borrowed from
weightlifting in one key regard.
In utilizing the snatch and the clean & jerk as contested events,
weightlifting’s entire repertoire is contained within fitness sport, albeit
in unconventional formats. The battery of skills drawn from gymnastics,
on the other hand, barely scratches the surface of the sport. The
movements used by fitness sport athletes, either as contested events
or as training tools, are of minimal complexity within the context of
gymnastics as a whole.
This does not mean that developing the areas of gymnastics relevant
to fitness sport is an easy undertaking. Although the subset of skills
is relatively narrow and basic, fitness sport athletes must acquire both
technical mastery and tremendous capacity with those movements.
Before diving into the nitty gritty of means and methods for gymnastics
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 80
development in fitness sport,
it is necessary to define the
use of the term gymnastics
within this text.
In fitness sport, gymnastics
is commonly used to denote
any movement where the only
load moved is the athlete’s
own bodyweight, barring
certain activities such as
running, cycling, or rowing.
By this broad definition, a
huge range of movements can
be classified as gymnastics,
including bodyweight squats,
box jumps, double unders,
burpees, etc.
Such a definition is too wide
for the purposes of this book.
What is required is a definition
which identifies a common
element tying together
the various skills under its
umbrella, and thus allows for
the delineation of broadly
applicable principles and
methods for developing those
skills.
P 81
Gymnastics Working Definition
Movements borrowed or derived from
the foundational levels of competitive
gymnastics.
With that loose but serviceable definition in hand, let us investigate the
role of these movements within the sport.
GYMNASTICS IN FITNESS SPORT: LOW
HORSEPOWER, HIGH GAS MILEAGE
The advent of kipping movements in both functional fitness and fitness
sport has been the source of much debate, ranging from safety, to the
efficacy of kipping movements in producing improved general fitness, to
best practices in developing competency in kipping movements.
To date, all muscle-ups, both bar and rings, in modern era CrossFit
Games competition have allowed kipping. Legless rope climbs have not,
as of yet, disallowed the use of the lower extremities to generate power.
The only gymnastics movement to be tested in its strict variant is the
handstand pushup, and it is in roughly equal proportion to its kipping
counterpart.
This text is concerned exclusively with the development of fitness sport
athletes. While there may or may not be valid questions surrounding the
safety or efficacy of kipping movements for the general public, these
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 82
exercises are unavoidably important to competitive success. Thus, this
subsection will focus only on the third question, that of best practices.
There are three equally important components to
developing kipping movements
• Strength
• Skill
• Endurance
Strength: The athlete must have requisite strength in the relevant
musculature to perform the kipping variant of the movement in question.
For any athlete seriously considering competition, this is very nearly a
moot point, meaning that if they don’t have that requisite strength, they
should not yet be considering competition.
Of greater importance to improving kipping-variant ability is strength
endurance. For example, with relatively little training, any increase the
1RM weighted pull-up will become irrelevant to the athlete’s max kipping
pull-ups, or her ability to repeatedly perform submaximal sets of kipping
pull-ups with little rest. This is no different than the 1RM deadlift losing
it’s ability to impact the athlete’s capacity with 50% of her 1RM for high
volumes.
A better bet would be to develop the athlete’s strict, unweighted pullups. They will be able to perform both reps per set and total volume in
numbers more comparable to kipping pull-ups, and with more similar
limiting factors (absolute strength endurance in the strict pull-up, speed
strength endurance in the kipping pull-up, rather than maximal strength
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 83
in the weighted pull-up) to kipping pull-ups.
Skill: In this case, the skill being referred to is the athlete’s ability to use
the kip to generate power with the lower body and effectively translate
that power into the upper extremities, conserving the relatively smaller,
weaker, and less endurant musculature of the back, arms, chest, and
shoulders.
The effective translation of improved upper body strength and strength
endurance into skill, from strict gymnastics movements into their kipping
counterparts, can be likened to the translation of increased leg strength
from squatting into the snatch. The improved ability to produce force
has the capacity to increase the athlete’s best performance in the snatch,
but her technique must be managed. Increased strength may lead to
changes in the rhythm or timing of the lift. This should be counteracted
with regular practice of the competition lift, and appropriately selected
drills and exercises.
Similarly, increased upper body strength and strength endurance via
improvement in a strict exercises can lead to changes in the way the
athlete executes the kipping variant. Skill should be preserved even
during strength building phases, through regular practice of the kipping
movement and appropriately selected drills and exercises.
Endurance: Ultimately, improvements in strength and skill relevant to a
particular kipping exercise are designed to lead to increased endurance.
The nature of kipping movements is such that they can be performed
for high volumes and under tremendous fatigue, and fitness sport most
frequently tests them under such conditions.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 84
Endurance in high volume kipping exercises would best be qualified
as speed strength endurance. The force produced is too low to be
considered power, or strength speed, and the velocity is correspondingly
higher.
Fundamentally, the development of speed strength endurance is no
different than that of absolute strength endurance. It depends on the
intelligent progression of volume and intensity to create the desired
effect. However, there seems to be a dearth of these well constructed
progressions in fitness sport programming.
Below is a sample progression for building monomodal endurance in
kipping ring muscle-ups.
TEST
Means: Muscle-Ups
Method: As Many Reps as Possible in 5 minutes
Result: 40 Repetitions
Per Minute Average: 8 Repetitions
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 85
MUSCLE UP PROGRESSION
LOA D
WO R KO U T
5 Sets:
1
9 Muscle-Ups in 60 seconds
Rest 30 seconds
2
•
Slight increase in total volume over
AMRAP 5 score
•
Slight increase in per minute
average over AMRAP 5 score
•
Mandatory rest period to facilitate
increased rate and volume
•
Allows the athlete to work at
a faster rate for a greater total
duration than the AMRAP 5 test
•
Rest significant enough to allow
athlete to maintain consistency
across sets
•
Highest stress session of block
•
Challenges athlete to maintain high
cycle rate for long duration
•
Requires the athlete to maintain
the rate and workload from week
1 of this block with a reduced rest
period between sets
•
Tests the athlete’s ability to
perform the original workload
•
Helps establish a goal for the
retest
•
Retest
3 x 2:00 Max Muscle-Ups
Rest 2:00 between sets
AMRAP 8:
3
Muscle-Ups
5 Sets:
4
PURPOSE
9 Muscle-Ups in 60 seconds
Rest 15 seconds
5
6
40 Muscle-Ups for Time
AMRAP 5 minutes:
Muscle-Ups
The table above shows a sample progression, meant to illustrate a method of gradually
overloading speed-strength endurance in kipping ring muscle-ups. The six week timeframe
shown may or may not be sufficient to make significant improvement in this domain,
depending on the athlete.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 86
MEANS
Gymnastics offers more types and variations of movement than any
other domain in fitness sport. For ease of use, this text will refer to these
movements within three general categories.
• Pull*: Any movement which involves pulling the body towards
an object or surface, such as pull-ups, bar muscle-ups, or
rope climbs.
• Press*: Any movement which involves pushing the body away
from an object or surface, such as handstand pushups or ring
dips.
• Midline: Any movement which primarily depends upon the
musculature of the hip flexors and/or abdominals. This
includes both dynamic movements such as toes-to-bar,
V-Ups, and handstand walking, and isometric exercises such
as L-holds, hollow rocks, and ring supports.
*The ring muscle-up is a combination movement under both pull and press. The bar
muscle-up is not, since the lockout atop the bar is so relatively easy as to be virtually
inconsequential to the successful completion of the exercise.
In the modern era of CrossFit Games competition, there have been a
total of seventy-five incidences of a gymnastics movement from one of
these categories coming up in an event, with twenty-nine being from
pulling movements, sixteen from pressing movements, fourteen from
ring muscle-ups (combination movement), and sixteen from midline
movements. Among these general categories, ten different movements
are represented, not accounting for variants of those movements (such
as chest-to-bar versus chin over bar versus weighted pull-ups, kipping
versus strict handstand pushups, etc.)
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 87
With such a bevy of movements to develop, it can be challenging to
determine which exercises to prioritize. In an effort to make that process
easier, below are several ranks showing the relative training value of a
wide range of pulling, pressing, and midline exercises.
The graphs below estimate the relative value in training of the specific
movements based on two factors: (1) the number of appearances a
specific movement has made in modern era CrossFit Games competition,
including the Open, Regionals, and CrossFit Games, and (2) the
carryover from a specific movement to other movements within the same
category. For a more in-depth description of methods, see Appendix C.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 88
Only a few of the movements on each graph have been tested in CrossFit
Games competition. The other exercises were selected for their ability to
contribute to the development of the general qualities required to build
those specific skills.
PULLING
Pulling movements have a significantly higher incidence in CrossFit
Games competition then pressing or midline movements, with a
whopping twenty-nine occurrences between 2011 and 2015, increasing to
forty-three if ring muscle-ups are included in the count.
Training Value of Gymnastics Pulling Exercises
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 89
Of those depicted on the graph, six have made an
appearance in competition
• Kipping Pull-ups (including both chest-to-bar and chin-overbar)
• Rope Climbs
• Legless Rope Climbs
• Kipping Bar Muscle-Ups
• Kipping Ring Muscle-Ups
• Weighted Pull-Ups
Since the last one has only been contested once, this section will
concentrate on the first five, with discussion on how the other
movements on the graph can help to develop them.
K I P P I N G P U L L- U P S
Kipping pull-ups, between chin-over-bar and chest-to-bar, have a higher
incidence in competition than any other gymnastics movement in any
category. The single incidence of weighted pull-ups in 2011 allowed
athletes to kip. It is clear that as of now, the kipping pull-up is the most
important pull-up variation to develop, and arguably the most important
pulling exercise in general.
In this text, “kipping pull-up” assumes utilizing a butterfly kip unless
otherwise specified. The butterfly is substantially faster than the tap
swing, or C kip. However, the athlete must master effective tap swings
before they can control the butterfly kip.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 90
The tap swing is the most specific way to develop the shape change
between arch and hollow in the C kip pullup, bar muscle-up, and ring
muscle-up. The shape change is what creates the power of the kip,
producing energy in the horizontal plane which the athlete can then
transfer vertically.
Points of Performance for the Tap Swing
• Whether in the hollow, the arch, or transitioning between the
two, the athlete must maintain head-to-toe tension in order to
control the movement.
• The athlete must possess the ability to quickly stop the tap
swing in any part of the range of motion.
• The athlete should be able to perform a correct tap swing
with hardly any movement, essentially just switching from arch
to hollow directly beneath the bar, or a very large range of
motion, going from far behind the bar to far ahead of the bar.
Points of Performance for the Tap Swing/C Kip Pull-Up
• At the back of the tap swing (in the hollow) the athlete must
learn to translate horizontal force into the vertical plane. She
does this by driving her hips upward at the right moment,
then lifting the legs and “kicking over” slightly. It is important
that she be patient to initiate elbow flexion. Doing it too soon
will cause the athlete to fall out of rhythm and lose the power
produced in the tap swing.
• The athlete is best served to keep her grip relaxed. This
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 91
helps to avoid superfluously fatiguing the relatively small
musculature of the hands and forearms, and reduces the
tendency to overuse the upper body in the kipping pull-up.
• At the top of the pull-up, the athlete should push herself
away from the bar as if bench pressing. This serves to force
the athlete back through the half circle she created during
the ascent, bringing her through the hollow and into the
arch, ready to execute the next repetition. Therefore, the
progression of positions in the tap swing pull-up is as follows:
• Arched at bottom
• Hollow at bottom
• Arched traveling upwards and forwards
• Hollow at top (push away from bar)
• Hollow at bottom
• Arched at bottom (initiation of next repetition)
All of the above points of performance hold true for the butterfly pullup
except for the last one, since the butterfly pull-up aims to take the half
circle of the tap swing pull-up and turn it into a full circle.
Points of Performance for the Butterfly Pull-Up
• The athlete travels up and back, then forward and down,
to create a full circle. At the bottom of the repetition, the
athlete will travel from arched to hollow as in the tap swing
pull-up. But instead of reversing direction at the top, the
athlete will continue in a downward and forward motion into
the arched position at the bottom.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 92
• The margin for error in the butterfly pull-up is smaller than
that in the tap swing pull-up. Because the athlete is moving
down as she approaches the initiation of the next rep,
reversing direction too late will cause her to lose rhythm.
The athlete must train a fast reversal of the hips as she
approaches the bottom during the descent.
• In the butterfly pull-up, the point at which the athlete is
highest above the bar should not be the same as the point at
which the athlete is closest to the bar. Highest above the bar
should occur during the up-and-back ascent. Closest to the
bar will occur during the forward-and-down descent. If this
is not the case, the athlete is not creating efficient circular
movement. Therefore, the progression of positions in the
butterfly pull-up is as follows:
• Arched at bottom (initiation of set with tap swing
pullup)
• Hollow at bottom
• Arched traveling upwards and backwards
• Arched traveling downwards and forwards
• Arched at bottom (initiation of next repetition)
Of the movements on the graph not including kipping pull-ups
themselves, the exercises below are considered by the author to have
the potential significant carryover to kipping pull-ups. The exercises are
listed in order of their estimated value to developing kipping pull-ups,
and notes are included on how they should be approached.
1 . S T R I C T P U L L- U P S
Strict pull-ups developed for high repetitions are an order of magnitude
above any other exercise in terms of carryover to kipping pull-ups.
The movement pattern is highly specific, they tax largely the same
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 93
musculature, and the capacity for reps per set and total volume is more
similar to kipping pull-ups than any other movement. Trained correctly,
they also develop a strong hollow position in the pull-up, crucial to an
efficient kip.
In order to maximize the carryover from strict pull-ups to kipping pullups, the following rules of thumb and points of performance are useful:
• Train the pull-up with a strict hollow position. Do not arch
the mid or lower back to initiate the pull from the bottom.
The ability to control the midline during the movement is
fundamental to effective kipping.
• Train both chin-over-bar and chest-to-bar to maximize
specificity for the kipping variations of both exercises
• Train the movement both with a full stop at the bottom and
a rebound at the bottom. The full stop, with active shoulders
and strong hollow, will help to develop the correct bottom
position and control of the descent, an important component
of the kip. The rebound will help the athlete learn to use the
“bounce” off the lats at the bottom of the exercise.
2 . L P U L L- U P S
The L Pull-Up provides many of the same benefits as the strict pull-up
and, like the strict pull-up, can be trained for high reps, providing great
carryover to kipping pull-ups. However, holding the L position, while a
great developer of general midline strength, does reduce the specificity
of the exercise.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 94
The same general points of performance suggested for the strict pull-up
can be applied to the L-pull-up, with the additional following points for
the L position itself:
• Top of thighs parallel with floor throughout range of motion,
bottom to top to bottom
• Aim to keep legs as close to straight as possible without
being forced to lower them
• A slight bend in the knee is preferable to changing the
angle of the legs
• Do not swing the legs into position at the bottom. Instead
start the rep from a complete stop.
3 . W E I G H T E D P U L L- U P
Adding external load to a gymnastics movement reduces the specificity
in three ways.
1. The increase in total weight changes the force production
requirements of the exercise.
2. The limiting factor changes. At a minimum, the strength
endurance being tested will be closer to the absolute strength
end of the spectrum. With a substantial enough external load, the
exercise becomes entirely a developer of absolute strength rather
than strength endurance.
3. Increasing the load necessarily reduces both the total volume and
reps per set with which the exercise can be trained, reducing the
ability of the movement to carry over to relevant improvements in
durability.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 95
However, the weighted pull-up is still the most specific way to improve
both absolute strength and hypertrophy in the musculature relevant to
vertical pulling exercises.
The points of performance for the weighted pull-up are identical to
those for the strict unweighted pull-up.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 96
PULL-UP VARIATION FOR SHOULDER
HEALTH
Along with being a highly sport specific skill, pull-ups can be beneficial
in maintaining shoulder health. Along with exercises chosen specifically
for carryover, use of the means below can contribute to creating
balanced strength in the shoulder girdle.
1. Grip Orientation: In the discussion above, the term “pull-up” is
used, vice the term “chin-up.” The two terms are generally used
to distinguish between performing the exercise with a prone and
supine grip, respectively. In training for fitness sport, many of the
exercises athletes perform across domains will require a prone
grip. From kipping pull-ups to clean & jerks, the fitness sport
athlete will often find herself with forearms and hands pronated,
and shoulders in slight internal rotation. Allotting some of the
athlete’s pull-up training to chin-ups can be beneficial for creating
evenly balanced strength in the shoulder girdle and maintaining
shoulder health.
2. Grip Width: Along with changing the orientation of the grip,
varying the width of the grip can contribute to shoulder health
by changing the angle at which force is being applied at the joint,
creating strength in a multitude of positions. This is relevant to
fitness sport athletes who need to be strong overhead with grips
ranging from pressing width, just outside the shoulders, to snatch
width, very wide.
3. Tempo: Performance of pull-up variations with varying tempo
help the athlete develop control over the shoulder. Combined with
variation of grip orientation and width, tempo is a useful tool in
creating stability in the joint.
S id e ba r D i sc u s s i o n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 97
BAR MUSCLE-UPS
The kipping bar muscle-up is the next logical step in the progression
of the kipping chin-over-bar and chest-to-bar pullups. It is distinct in
practice, however, because in fitness sport, kipping pull-ups are best
developed to be performed with the butterfly kip, a technique which
cannot be applied to the bar muscle-up.
The need for power in the kip of the bar muscle-up is substantially
greater than for the kipping pullup, since the athlete must travel
considerably farther. The more traditional tap swing is the chosen
method for the bar muscle-up.
The bar muscle-up is a highly specific exercise. Beyond the most basic
phases of development, few exercises will have much carryover. Perhaps
the most common misconception is that pulling strength is the major
factor in improving bar muscle-ups. In reality, once a fundamental base
of pulling strength has been established, the sustainability of an athlete’s
bar muscle-ups comes down to two primary factors:
• The ability to shape change between arched and hollow
positions with both aggression and control will determine the
efficiency of the movement
• The athlete’s strength speed endurance in the relevant
musculature will determine the athlete’s durability in the
movement
With that in mind, below are the two exercises with specific carryover to
the kipping bar muscle-up.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 98
1. Tap Swing on Bar
In the bar muscle-up, the athlete will need to be able to produce and
control a larger range of motion in the tap swing than in the tap swing
pull-up.
2. Kipping Pullups
Kipping pullups are the most relevant exercise other than bar muscleups themselves for developing specific strength speed endurance in the
relevant musculature. Additionally, the ability to maintain an efficient
and powerful butterfly kip under the high volume of kipping pullups is
related to maintaining an efficient and powerful tap swing in the kipping
bar muscle-up.
ROPE CLIMBS
Rope climbs both with and without the use of the legs are an important
component of fitness sport competition. To date, the CrossFit Games has
contested legless rope climbs only with a jump and kip-like movement of
the lower body allowed. However, just as with the kipping pullup, stricter
variations can be utilized to develop these movements.
1. Strict Rope Climb
In this text, the term “strict rope climb” refers to climbing the rope with
no use of the legs at all. They must simply hang beneath the athlete, as
they would in a strict pullup. Ideally, the athlete will start from a seated
position, and not consider the rep complete until she has lowered herself
all the way to the floor under her own control.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 99
In order to attain this ability, the following sequence of development
may be helpful.
1. Partial Climb, use legs on descent
2. The athlete may either start from standing, jump, and climb to the
top, or start from standing and climb as high as possible.
3. Climb from Standing, use legs on descent
4. Climb from Seated, use legs on bottom half of descent
5. Full Climb
Points of Performance
• Just as with the strict pullup, the athlete should strive to climb
with the body held in a strong hollow position throughout the
full rep.
• Legless rope climbs of any variation should be performed with
the elbows bent, rather than reaching to full extension before
pulling. The grip is often the weak link in the legless rope
climb, and pulling from a bent arm reduces the stress of each
pull on the musculature of the forearms and hands, which is
small, weak, and lacking in endurance compared to the other
musculature involved in the exercise, such as the lats.
2. L Rope Climb
The L Rope Climb is the logical extension of the strict rope climb, and its
relationship to the strict rope climb is similar to that of the L Pull-Up.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 100
The L Rope Climb is a challenging exercise, and is often best developed
by gradually increasing the portion of the climb in which the athlete
holds the L position.
1. Partial L Rope Climb: Start from seated and maintain the L as high
as possible before changing to a standard strict rope climb
2. Half L Rope Climb: Start from seated and maintain the L to the
top, switch to a hollow position on the descent
3. Three Quarters L Rope Climb: Start from seated and Maintain the
L top the top and approximately halfway through the descent,
before switching to the hollow for the end
4. Full L Rope Climb
For points of performance for the L position, see L Pull-Ups above.
3. Arm-Over-Arm Sled Pulls
Arm-Over-Arm sled pulls are only peripherally specific to rope climbing,
but can be a useful method to develop grip strength and endurance.
For best carryover to the rope climb, perform with moderate load
and moderate-to-high speed, utilizing a bent arm pull. They can be
performed either seated or standing.
Be careful with implementation, as this exercise can leave the biceps
debilitatingly sore if an athlete overdoes the volume without sufficient
progression.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 101
RING MUSCLE-UPS (PULL & TRANSITION)
Unlike the bar muscle-up, the ring muscle-up is considered a
combination exercise, as both pulling and pressing abilities have
significant impact on the athlete’s proficiency with the movement.
The pulling portion of the movement, however, contains the transition
through the rings, which is the portion of the ring muscle-up most
demanding of both strength and technique. The kipping ring muscle-up
also requires great efficiency and power in the tap swing, similar to that
of the bar muscle-up.
Good kipping mechanics are as integral to the ring muscle-up as the
bar muscle-up. As with the bar muscle-up, the tap swing or C kip is
the preferred method for most top athletes at this time. Butterfly ring
muscle-ups are possible, but it remains to be seen if they are a superior
option to the tap swing variant.
Points of Performance for the Tap Swing on Rings
The general points of performance for the tap swing are the same as
those for the tap swing on bar. However, there are a few other factors to
keep in mind:
• The rings will inevitably move when force is applied. If this
movement is not reigned in, the movement will turn into a
swing and the athlete will be unable to efficiently translate
horizontal force into vertical force. When performing the
tap swing on rings, the athlete should strive to be able to
move herself as far forward and backward as possible while
simultaneously minimizing horizontal movement of the rings.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 102
• Although the kipping ring muscle-up should be performed
without the false grip, the strict ring muscle-up rewards its
use. Even though the false grip will not be used in kipping
ring muscle-ups, training a tap swing with a false grip has
two benefits for the tap swing without false grip. (1) The
false grip is often the weak link in strict ring muscle-ups for
athletes who are new to the movement. Tap swings are an
effective way of developing false grip strength with much
higher volume and lower systemic stress than the athlete
could handle with strict muscle-ups. (2) The false grip
performed correctly will help the athlete create the full body
tension necessary for effective muscle-ups, both strict and
kipping. Learning how this feels with the false grip will help
the athlete to create this tension without the false grip.
• Training the tap swing without a false grip will have the
highest specific carryover to the tap swing in the kipping ring
muscle-up.
Points of Performance for the Turnover/Transition in
the Ring Muscle-Up
• Keep tight to the rings, aiming to drive the chest through as
the elbows trace the ribcage
• The chest faces towards the floor
• Shoulders ahead of the hands
Having received in this position, the athlete is prepared to initiate the
press out with the musculature of the chest, and/or the legs in the case
of the kipping muscle-up.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 103
RECEIVING THE MUSCLE-UP
In training the muscle-up, one reasonable question to ask is “at what
depth should the athlete aim to receive the muscle-up?”
At first thought, the answer may seem to be “as high as possible.” After
all, the higher the athlete receives the muscle-up, the less of the dip
they have to perform, thereby conserving energy in the relatively small
musculature of the pectorals, deltoids, and triceps.
This theory seems plausible, but there are a few problems.
• Sustainability: As the athlete fatigues, it is unlikely that she will
be able to maintain the very high receiving position she started
with, necessitating a change in mechanics mid-event.
• Rhythm: In order to receive the muscle-up higher, the athlete
must produce more vertical force from the lower body. Producing
more vertical force from the lower body means a bigger tap
swing, and a bigger tap swing increases the risk of losing the
rhythm of the movement and having to reset. This risk is further
magnified under fatigue and without a false grip.
• Precision: The higher the athlete catches the muscle-up, the
further her center of mass is from the rings, making for a
precarious receipt. A little too far forward and the athlete goes
tumbling through the rings, risking injury at worst and precious
time wasted at best.
Thus, the athlete is better served to receive the muscle-up using the
points of performance outlined above.
S id e ba r D i sc u s s i o n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 104
The following exercises have great carryover to various components of
the kipping ring muscle-up
1. Strict Muscle-Up: There is no better exercise for developing strength
in the transition of the ring muscle-up as the strict ring muscle-up.
The elimination of the kip means that the athlete must display not only
tremendous strength in the musculature relevant to the muscle-up, but
also great precision and timing.
Points of Performance for the Strict Muscle-Up
• Unsurprisingly, a strong hollow position is essential to good
strict muscle-ups. It is perhaps even more crucial here than
in other movements, because keeping the center of mass
close to the rings is one of the most important aspects of
the transition, and the hollow will allow the athlete to control
her position. Breaking this position will cause the legs to “fall
away” from the athlete, and make the transition far more
difficult than it needs to be.
• As the athlete approaches the rings from the bottom of the
hang, she should be pulling herself behind the rings. The
resulting position should have the front of her body, from
feet to chest, facing slightly upward. The athlete then drives
herself through the rings as she pulls. The body momentarily
faces forward, and as the athlete turns through the rings, she
directs her chest down to face the floor. This puts the athlete
in a position to utilize the large musculature of the pectoralis
major in the dip.
• As with strict pullups, there is value in developing great
control in the strict muscle-up with a variety of tempos and
positions. The progression is one of gradually adding a tempo
component to increasingly challenging components of the
exercise.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 105
Below are several examples, ranked in chronological order of
development:
1. Bottom-to-Bottom Muscle-Up: The rep is counted when
the athlete lowers herself back into the hollow hang with
false grip.
2. Tempo Muscle-Ups: From controlling the full range of
motion, the athlete may progress to controlling the pace
at which the exercise is completed. Initially it will likely be
easier to control the descent than the ascent. A sample
sequence of development is below.
3. X313 = Perform the muscle-up as normal, take three
seconds to lower to the rings, one second through the
transition, and three seconds to lower to the hollow hang.
4. X323 = Increase the length of the transition.
5. 3X3 up, 323 down = 3 Second Pull, normal transition, 3
second press, then three second descent to bottom of
dip, 2 second reverse transition, 3 second descent to
hollow hang
6. Perfectly Vertical Muscle-Up: In this variation, the athlete
strives to perform the exercise without the back/forward/
up angling of the body, increasing the challenge to the
major musculature of the upper body. It is a slightly less
specific movement pattern than the traditional strict
muscle-up, but a great developer of strength just the
same. This movement can gradually be developed with
tempos like those suggested above.
2. Weighted Muscle-Up: The relationship between the weighted muscleup and muscle-up is virtually identical to the relationship between the
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 106
weighted pullup and pull-up. The pros and cons are the same.
However, muscle-ups of any type have a greater strength requirement
than pull-ups, due to the nature of the transition. Therefore,
improvements in absolute strength are likely to have greater carryover to
both strict and kipping muscle-ups than weighted pull-ups will to their
unweighted counterparts.
Points of performance are fundamentally unchanged from strict
unweighted muscle-ups. It is worth noting that the transition is a
tremendously stressful movement without external load, and it is
important to be judicious in the addition of load, working very gradually
to avoid causing injury.
PRESSING
Pressing movements have made a total of sixteen appearances in modern
era CrossFit Games competition, not including ring muscle-ups. Though
at first glance this would seem to suggest that pressing is a significantly
less important component of fitness sport than pulling. However,
some particular considerations of the development of certain pressing
movements place a greater demand for training these movements than
their rate of appearance may suggest.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 107
Training Value of Gymnastics Pressing Movements
Of those depicted on the graph, six have made an
appearance in competition
• Strict Handstand Push-Up
• Kipping Handstand Push-Up
• Deficit Handstand Push-Up (including both strict and
kipping)
• Pushup
• Kipping Ring Dip
• Kipping Ring Muscle-Up
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 108
H A N D S TA N D P U S H - U P S
Not including the kipping ring muscle-up, handstand push-up variations
have the most appearances in modern era CrossFit Games competition
among gymnastics pressing movements by a large margin.
Handstand push-ups are also among the most difficult gymnastics
movements to develop, particularly strict and deficit variants. The
primary musculature involved (deltoids and triceps) is substantially
smaller than the prime movers in pulling exercises, dips, or push-ups.
Strict handstand push-ups in particular prove to be a major challenge for
many female athletes, and many long limbed athletes.
In this section, both strict and kipping handstand push-ups are
discussed. Deficit handstand push-ups are not elaborated on, as the
essential points of performance are the same as those for their floor
level counterparts.
K I P P I N G H A N D S TA N D P U S H - U P
Kipping handstand push-ups have made more appearances in modern
era CrossFit Games competition than any other pure pressing
gymnastics exercise. It can be viewed in a sense as a reverse thruster,
starting from a position of deep hip and knee flexion, driving the legs
towards the ceiling instead of into the floor and timing the press to
minimize interference with the power generated by the lower body.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 109
Points of Performance for the Kipping Handstand
Push-Up
• Unlike the tap swing in the pull-up or muscle-up, the kip for
the handstand pushup requires the athlete to maintain hollow
throughout the range of motion. The need for a strong hollow
is greatest at the bottom. As the athlete brings the thighs
forward of the body to load the legs for the kip, the center of
mass necessarily moves with them, away from the wall. If the
athlete loses the hollow position, the pelvis will tilt anteriorly,
and the legs will be more likely to fall away from the wall. At
worst, this will cause the athlete to fall off the wall, breaking
the set. Even if this does not occur, the athlete will not be set
up for maximally generating, translating, or directing power
in the kip.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 110
• In order to maintain a strong hollow at the bottom, the
athlete must set herself up in a tripod position. As she
descends, the athlete should move down and forward,
towards the wall, so that her head ends up closer to the
wall than her hands. This will both allow for greater ease in
maintaining the hollow position, and enable the athlete to use
a through-the-window motion, driving herself slightly away
from the wall as she initiates the press with the shoulders, in
order to make the lockout easier.
• As the athlete initiates the kip, she must strive to stay close
to the wall. This will largely be a product of maintaining
the hollow and creating a strong tripod at the bottom.
However, some attention must be given to where the athlete
directs force, particularly in the early stages of learning the
movement.
• At the peak of the drive, the athlete must take care not to
press too early. Akin to the same mistake in a push press
or jerk, engaging the upper body too soon will reduce the
efficacy of the kip, as well as increasing the likelihood of
breaking hollow and/or falling away from the wall.
S T R I C T H A N D S TA N D P U S H - U P
Arguably the most challenging gymnastics pressing exercise to
develop, particularly for athletes who are not well suited to it, the strict
handstand pushup is rapidly becoming standard practice in CrossFit
Games competition. In 2014, strict handstand push-ups made their
first appearance in CrossFit Games Regionals, and in 2015 a deficit was
added. These events proved to be major separators in the field.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 111
Strict handstand push-ups have made considerably fewer appearances in
competition than kipping handstand push-ups. One may then infer that
the training of kipping handstand push-ups is of greater importance than
strict handstand push-ups.
In this case, our graph is somewhat misleading. The author contends that
the development of strict handstand push-ups should be placed on bar
with the development of kipping handstand pushups, for the reasons
outlined below.
1. The degree of difficulty in developing the strict handstand pushup is extremely high compared to the development of the kipping
handstand push-up. At times, athletes who excel in kipping
handstand push-ups will struggle tremendously with their strict
counterpart.
2. Strict handstand push-ups have a very high carryover to kipping
handstand push-ups, particularly when the athlete is able to
perform them for fairly high volumes.
3. The likelihood of encountering strict handstand push-ups in
competition seems to be increasing over time, suggesting that
within a few more years of CrossFit Games competition, their rate
of incidence may equal that of kipping handstand push-ups.
Once the athlete is capable of performing strict handstand push-ups,
even for very low volumes, there is no exercise with truly substantial
carryover. The best approach the author has tested is moderate-to-high
frequency, submaximal volume workouts (see “volume accumulation”
in table of methods.) However, the challenge often lies not only in
developing the athlete’s capacity with strict handstand push-ups, but in
developing the ability to do them at all. Below are exercises which seem
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 112
to have considerable carryover to development of the strict handstand
push-up, beginning with athletes who cannot perform them at all and
moving gradually to lateral and up-scaling. By and large, these exercises
also have carryover to the kipping handstand push-up.
1. Pike Push-Up
Performed with the feet on a box and the hips at a ninety degree angle,
the pike pushup is the most specific way to begin to develop the strict
handstand push-up by reducing the total load on the movement. Points
of Performance and heuristics are below:
• The athlete must stay hollow throughout the press. Breaking
of the hollow reduces the specificity of carryover the
handstand pushup in two ways. (1) As the back arches, the
musculature of the chest will become more involved, reducing
stress on the musculature most relevant to the handstand
pushup. (2) If the back arches when an athlete is performing
handstand pushups against a wall, the hips will move further
from the wall, followed by the feet, increasing the tendency
of the athlete to fall out of position mid set.
• The athlete must keep the torso vertical. If the athlete
performs the exercise with the torso at an angle which allows
the chest to face the floor, rather than keeping the torso
completely perpendicular to the floor, this shifts the load
of the exercise onto the musculature of the chest, much as
breaking the hollow would do.
• As the athlete descends, her head should move slightly
forward, so that at the bottom her head and hands form
a tripod on the floor. This sets the athlete up into a good
position to maximize the use of the triceps as well as the
deltoids, and will allow her to use the movement of the head
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 113
in (towards the arms) during the ascent to aid in finishing
the exercise, much as one would drive her head “through the
window” when pressing a barbell.
2. Assisted Handstand Push-Up
The assisted handstand push-up picks up where the pike pushup leaves
off, increasing both specificity and load but still keeping some of the
athlete’s bodyweight out of the exercise.
The movement is self descriptive. It is a strict handstand pushup with
a partner providing slight assistance at the legs to help the athlete
complete the exercise. The points of performance for the pike pushup all
stand, in addition to the following:
• The helper’s role in the assisted handstand pushup is of great
importance. If he provides too much assistance, the athlete
will not obtain most of the benefit of the exercise. Too little
and the athlete will be unable to complete the repetition with
good mechanics, or at all. If possible, the athlete should have
a consistent training partner or coach who helps her with the
assisted handstand push-up on a regular basis.
3. Handstand Push-Up Negatives
The handstand push-up negative is perhaps the most overused method
of developing the strict handstand push-up. This is because it is most
often applied to athletes who cannot perform strict handstand push-ups
yet, and lack the ability to control the movement properly. This exercise
is best implemented for athletes who can do a small amount of strict
handstand push-ups and are able to control the full range of motion.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 114
All points of performance which apply to the pike push-up and assisted
handstand push-up apply, in addition to the following:
• If the athlete cannot control the exercise to the absolute
bottom, most commonly the weak point in the movement,
there is little value to training negatives. For athletes who can
control the movement completely, adding a slight deficit may
be beneficial.
• Eccentric loading is very stressful, and total volume should
be watched carefully. Err on the side of less when starting
out, and monitor the athlete’s tolerance, increasing volume
gradually as recovery allows.
4. Chest-to-Wall Handstand Push-Up
Depending on the athlete, chest-to-wall handstand push-ups may be of
roughly equal difficulty to standard strict handstand pushups, slightly
harder, or slightly easier. In general, they may be considered a lateral
scale, used to improve the athlete’s control of the hollow position and
groove the correct line of movement for the strict handstand pushup. Points of Performance continue to include the import of the hollow
position, tripod at the bottom, and through-the-window movement
during the ascent. Fundamentally there are no changes to the points of
performance outlined for the movements above.
5. Weighted Strict Handstand Push-Up
The only up-scale on the list, the weighted handstand pushup, differs
from its counterpart the weighted pullup in a key regard. The weighted
pull-up can be loaded with weight demanding maximal force production.
The weighted handstand push-up cannot safely or reasonably be loaded
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 115
to the same extent. Even if one possesses a strange abundance of ankle
weights and the ingenuity to strap them all on the athlete at once, the
author’s opinion is that it is simply unsafe to maximally load an exercise
in which the athlete will place her weight and the weight of the external
load on her neck in the bottom position.
However, the movement can still be loaded lightly and trained for fairly
high volumes in order to improve absolute strength endurance. There are
no significant changes to points of performance.
M U S C L E - U P/ R I N G D I P
In the section on pulling, the pull and transition of the ring muscle-up
were covered. Here we will discuss the development of strength and
endurance in the pressing portion of the exercise, the ring dip.
All but two of the appearances of the ring dip in modern era CrossFit
Games competition have been as a component of the ring muscle-up.
Both instances in which the ring dip was tested as its own movement,
kipping was allowed.
For the most part this section will discuss high carryover movements
to the ring dip as a component of the muscle-up. Inherently, these
movements will apply to improving the ring dip in its own right.
1. Strict Ring Dip
The reader will likely be unsurprised to find that this is the number one
method for developing absolute strength endurance for the top half of
the ring muscle-up, for much the same reasons that strict pull-ups carry
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 116
over to kipping pull-ups. Below are Points of Performance and training
heuristics for the strict ring dip.
• The athlete must keep the rings as tight to the body as
possible throughout the range of motion, and thus the athlete
should maintain the hollow position throughout the range
of motion. Should the athlete lose the hollow on the ascent,
the tendency will be for the rings to float away from the
body, making the movement substantially more difficult to
complete.
• As the athlete descends, the elbows should move back
alongside the athlete’s ribcage. At the same time, the torso
should lean slightly forward and the trunk should flex slightly,
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 117
so that the athlete’s chest is facing the floor at the bottom
position. This allows the athlete to utilize the musculature of
the pectorals in pressing out from the bottom of the dip.
• Train the ring dip both with and without rebound. Training
with a rebound at the bottom will teach the athlete to utilize
the stretch reflex to conserve energy, a very valuable skill at
the bottom of the muscle-up. Training from a full stop will
develop strength from a stand still, preparing for the athlete
for the possibility of being unable to utilize the rebound when
under fatigue.
• The ring dip should alternately be trained with the maximum
safe depth and a more controlled depth slightly below
parallel, comparable to where the athlete receives the
muscle-up.
2. Kipping Ring Dip
The kipping ring dip must be trained for dual purposes. First, fitting
within the general theme of this section, is that the kipping ring dip
is part of the kipping muscle-up, and thus a skill which should be
developed. Second, the kipping ring dip has been tested of its own
accord in modern era CrossFit Games competition, and there is no
reason to believe it won’t be tested again.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 118
Points of Performance and Training Heuristics for the
Kipping Ring Dip Are Below
• Like the kip for the handstand push-up, kipping the ring dip
requires the athlete to maintain the hollow through the entire
range of motion, rather than changing shape between arch
and hollow.
• The descent and bottom position are identical as those for
the strict ring dip
• To initiate the kip, the athlete will drive the knees towards the
chest. If performed correctly, this movement will “break” the
athlete off of the rings at the bottom and start the upward
movement of the torso, and then the athlete will overtake
with the chest and triceps at the peak of the drive. As in the
handstand push-up, the athlete must take care not to press
too early, lest they reduce the efficacy of the kip.
3. Weighted Ring Dip
Weighted ring dips can be used to develop hypertrophy, maximal
strength, and absolute strength endurance in the musculature relevant
to ring dips and muscle-ups. Their points of performance are identical to
those for the strict ring dip.
4. Parallel Bar Dips
Athletes who are still developing ring dips can use parallel bar dips as a
supplementary exercise to accumulate greater dip volume. The points of
performance are fundamentally no different than those for the strict ring
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 119
dip. It should be noted that the athlete should aim to perform parallel
bar dips using an apparatus which keeps the hands and elbows close to
the body, as would be the case in a ring dip.
PUSH-UP
Push-Ups are the lowest level gymnastics pressing skill to have made
an appearance in CrossFit Games competition. Its development is
straightforward, but perhaps because of its apparent simplicity, it is
often performed incorrectly, or at least in such a way as to reduce the
potential benefits of its development.
In particular, the nature of the push-up, as the easiest of the gymnastics
pressing movements elaborated upon in this chapter, makes it a great
candidate for developing general speed strength endurance in the
musculature relevant to pressing.
Additionally, athletes who have trouble with gymnastics pressing
exercises will be able to accumulate substantially larger training volumes
with push-ups than dips or handstand push-ups. These athletes may
also be able to train the shoulders through a larger range of motion with
deficit push-up variations, while they could not increase the range of
motion on handstand push-ups.
In order to maximize carryover to other gymnastics pressing exercises,
the following Points of Performance should be adhered to for any
variation of push-up:
• The most common, and commonly left uncorrected fault in
push-up mechanics is the breaking of the hollow. Although
theoretically the hollow can be broken anywhere, typically
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 120
it occurs as the athlete is initiating the press out of the
bottom. The athlete lifts her chest clear of the floor, rather
than moving her body as a single piece, and as a result the
low back arches and the hollow is lost. In order to ensure
that push-ups are developed in a way so as to carry over to
other gymnastics pressing movements, the hollow must be
maintained.
• By way of a combination of competition standards, nature
of the apparatus being used and general best practices,
handstand push-ups and ring dips will be trained with a
relatively narrow grip, biasing the musculature of the triceps
over that of the pectorals. Push-ups are best trained in a
similar fashion, with the hands close to the body and the
elbows tracing the ribcage during the descent.
MIDLINE
Despite the relatively low incidence of appearance in competition of
gymnastics based midline movements, they remain a crucially important
part of gymnastics development for the fitness sport athlete.
No doubt at this point, the reader has noted that the points of
performance for every movement listed in the pulling and pressing
sections include the importance of the hollow position, and/or the ability
to effectively shape change between arched and hollow. The hollow
position in particular serves as the platform for all of these exercises,
allowing for maximal force production and best translation of that force
in the desired pattern.
As such, all gymnastics movements are, to an extent, midline movements.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 121
Training Value of Midline Gymnastic Exercises
Of those movements on the graph, three have been tested in modern era
CrossFit Games competition:
• Toes-to-Bar
• Handstand Walk
• L-Hold
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 122
This section will address each of these movements as a general category.
The toes-to-bar section will address dynamic midline strength, that is,
exercises where the athlete is using the midline to create a given range
of motion. The L-Hold section will address static midline strength, that is,
movements where the athlete uses the midline to hold a given position.
The handstand walk section will address general development of the
handstand.
TO E S -TO - B A R / DY N A M I C M I D L I N E S T R E N G T H
Toes-to-Bar are the most common gymnastics based midline movement
in modern era CrossFit Games competition. To date, only kipping toesto-bar have been tested.
Of nearly equal importance is that when developed appropriately, toesto-bar have great carryover to general midline strength.
Points of Performance for Kipping Toes-to-Bar
• The kip for the toes-to-bar is best classified as a tap swing
with extended hollow. The athlete progresses through the
arch, moves backward into the hollow, and then maintains the
hollow as the feet move to the bar.
• As the athlete’s feet move towards the bar, necessarily
creating a greater degree of hip flexion, her hips move back
slightly, only enough to counteract the effect on the upward
and forward movement of the feet and keep the athlete’s
center of mass beneath the bar. If the center of mass strays
too far from the bar, the athlete will begin swinging and fall
out of rhythm.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 123
• The torso stays more-or-less perpendicular to the floor. If
the hips rise too far and the angle of the back is too close
to parallel, the athlete will likely be unable to maintain her
rhythm.
• Tension in the lats is key to maintaining control of the
horizontal momentum during the descent, and avoiding
falling out of rhythm. By using the lats to control the rate
at which the torso moves back into the arch, the athlete is
able to prevent mistiming the descent. This should not be
conflated with using the lats to aggressively pull down and
move the hips further away from the bar. This is usually
indicative of a lack of flexibility and/or hip flexor strength.
Below are exercises which have great carryover to kipping toes-to-bar,
and/or general dynamic midline strength.
1. Strict Toes-to-Bar
Strict Toes-to-Bar are a valuable developer of general dynamic midline
strength, as well has having higher carryover to kipping toes-to-bar than
any other movement.
From a mechanical perspective, the only difference between the strict
and kipping toes-to-bar is the kip itself. Without the kip, the athlete
simply raises the legs to the bar. Strict toes-to-bar are beneficial not
only for developing specific lat, hip flexor, and abdominal strength
for kipping toes-to-bar, but also to teach the athlete how to maintain
tension and avoid creating excessive backswing.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 124
2. L Toes-to-Bar
L Toes-to-Bar are an up-scale for the strict toes-to-bar, in which the
repetition starts and ends at an L hang instead of the hollow hang. L
Toes-to-Bar demand great static and dynamic hip flexor strength, and
will force the athlete to develop control over the descent of the exercise,
lest they let the legs drop too fast and are unable to stop in the L
position.
They are more challenging than strict toes-to-bar, but come with a slight
reduction in specificity to kipping toes-to-bar.
3. Tempo Toes-to-Bar
Performing toes-to-bar with a tempo are another up-scale to strict toesto-bar, and are roughly equal in difficulty to L toes-to-bar, unless the
tempo is particularly challenging. Using the tempo can help the athlete
develop control throughout the full range of motion, and eccentric
tempo in particular will help the athlete master the skill of keeping the
hips in place and develop the strength for maintaining rhythm during the
kip.
4. Windshield Wipers
Moving into less specific dynamic midline strength exercises, windshield
wipers come in at the top of the list. They maintain some relation to
toes-to-bar, the most specific dynamic midline strength exercise in
the arsenal, but develop strength in lateral flexion, a quality often left
untrained in fitness sport.
Windshield wipers begin with a strict toes-to-bar. At the top, the athlete
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 125
stays in her hip flexed position, and then rotates side to side, keeping
the hips beneath the bar as the bring the legs to parallel with the floor
first on the left, then on the rights.
Eventually, windshield wipers can be progressed to around-the-worlds,
wherein the athlete will start in the hollow hang, bring the legs up and to
the side and create a full circle back to the hollow hang.
5. V-Ups
Moving from bar to floor, V-Ups are a great exercise for training
abdominal and hip flexor strength along with the most basic variant
of the hollow position. In order to receive the maximum benefit, the
athlete must return to the hollow between reps, not to the floor, until
termination of the set. This allows for static hollow strength and dynamic
hip flexion strength to be developed simultaneously.
Athletes who lack the strength and/or flexibility to perform V-Ups can
substitute Tuck-Ups.
L- H O L D/ S TAT I C M I D L I N E S T R E N G T H
The L-Hold in the 2011 CrossFit Games was the only example of pure
static midline strength which has been tested in the modern era of the
event. With competition as an important component of deciding how
and what to train, it would seem permissible to leave the L-Hold out of
this section entirely.
However, the L-Hold is in reality a proxy for the entire category of static
midline strength, and static midline strength is an invaluable component
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 126
of not just every gymnastics exercise, but of exercises across domains.
The ability to keep the midline stable under high force, high power, high
speed, and great fatigue are crucial to the development of fitness sport
athletes, and gymnastics exercises provide that base, specifically for the
movements elaborated upon in this chapter, and generally for all of the
domains in which the fitness sport athlete must compete.
Thus, this section will discuss the L-Hold itself, but it will be as a conduit
to discussing static midline strength as a whole, and other exercises
which can help develop it.
Points of Performance for the L-Hold
• Tops of the thighs should be parallel with floor, hamstrings
slightly above parallel. Visually, look for the most posterior
aspect of the heels to be slightly higher than the most
posterior aspect of the knees, which should be slightly higher
than the most posterior part of the hamstrings.
• Keep the shoulders back and down, wrist straight, and above
all, stay hollow. If the athlete goes into anterior pelvic tilt
(excessive lordosis), the ability of the L-Hold to develop
relevant midline strength is at best severely compromised.
• Use parallettes for the standard L-Hold. Rings or Pull-Up
Bar can be used for certain exercises and variations, but
basic development is best done close to the floor to give
the athlete a better sense of how high they are keeping the
legs. Use a plate or similar equipment stacked to the relevant
height to keep the athlete’s legs at the correct angle.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 127
Below are exercises deemed by the author to have great carryover to
static midline strength, both specifically for gymnastics exercises and
generally to other domains.
1. Hollow Rock
By this point, it is likely that the reader has noted the importance of
developing the hollow position as the foundation of gymnastics practice.
Indeed, it would be difficult to argue for a more important fundamental
ability.
The hollow rock is the most basic tool for developing the position. All
other midline exercises are built on it. Though it is straightforward, even
the most advanced athletes should revisit it with some regularity.
2. Toes-to-Bar Hold
The hollow rock develops static midline strength with the hips in a very
slight degree of flexion, the L-Hold with the legs level with the hips.
The toes-to-bar hold continues the progression of closing the hips,
developing strength with the legs as close as possible to parallel with
the torso.
The benefits of the exercise are twofold. Generally, the toes-tobar hold helps to develop hip flexor strength through a full range of
motion. Specifically, the final inches of that range of motion are the
most challenging of both strict and kipping toes-to-bar, and spending
additional time in that position will carry over to improving both
variants.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 128
H A N D S TA N D WA L K /G E N E R A L H A N D S TA N D
DEVELOPMENT
The handstand, and specifically the handstand walk, has become an
increasingly important part of fitness sport. The handstand walk first
appeared at the CrossFit Games in 2011 and have been part of the
competition every year since apart from 2012. In 2014, its inclusion at
CrossFit Games Regionals was a source of some controversy, and among
the deciding factors in several previous CrossFit Games athletes missing
out on qualification.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 129
Development of the handstand itself is valuable not only to the
handstand walk, but to handstand push-ups, and to a limited extent, the
general development of overhead strength.
The author is of the opinion that the most common mistake made in
development of the handstand walk is failing to develop the handstand.
Most fitness sport athletes learn to walk on their hands, but not to
actually handstand walk.
It is a question of some debate whether a traditional gymnastics
style handstand walk or an arched back, less technically correct
handstand walk is superior for maximal speed, and thus for fitness sport
competition. However, it is not likely that it is a coincidence that the
athletes winning handstand walk events in competition are often former
gymnasts. Whichever variant is faster, it seems clear that the athlete who
has superior control over the movement will be capable of developing
the highest speed.
Therefore, this section will aim to foster an understanding of the
handstand walk as an extension of the handstand, with the assumption
that once the athlete has mastered the fundamental skill they will be
able to make adjustments to her technique to maximize relevant sport
specific abilities.
Points of Performance for Handstand
• The athlete must strive to stack her body with feet directly
over the hips, hips directly over the shoulders, and shoulders
directly over the hands.
• The head must be held neutral, between the shoulders. If the
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 130
athlete pulls her head back to look forward, she will likely
lose the hollow.
• The athlete’s weight should be evenly distributed across the
palms of her hands. If the body is stacked correctly, this will
naturally occur.
• The athlete should reach for the ceiling with her entire
body. Pointed toes aren’t just for show. By bringing the feet
together, reaching the toes for the ceiling, and simultaneously
pushing through the floor, the athlete creates full-body
tension similar to the kind one should strive for when holding
a heavy barbell overhead.
The hollow position is arguably more important to the handstand than
to any other movement commonly seen in fitness sport. Ironically, the
handstand is often where it is least well developed. The athlete finds
herself unable to keep the low back from hyperextending as they invert,
and the hips push forward, moving the center of mass away from the
base of support. To counteract this, the hips overextend so that the feet
can go the opposite direction of the hips, bringing the center of mass
back into balance, but putting the athlete’s low back and shoulders
in weak and potentially injurious positions, and reducing the athlete’s
ability to control the movement.
Points of Performance for Handstand Walk
• The athlete must strive to maintain all of the above points of
performance. Whether she succeeds in doing so or succumbs
to technical flaws is the difference between handstand
walking, and walking on one’s hands.
• The athlete must strive to walk, rather than fall, forward.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 131
Proper tension and position will enable the athlete to lift the
hands under her own control, rather than as a protective
reaction to the body tumbling forward.
Below are exercises designed to teach, strengthen, and enforce proper
positions in the handstand and handstand walk.
1. Chest-to-Wall Handstand
Training the handstand with the back facing towards the wall is
necessary for fitness sport, but can lead to poor mechanics, by allowing
the athlete to break the hollow and maintain her balance by leaning into
the wall.
The chest-to-wall handstand is a literal and figurative one-eighty
from the back-to-wall handstand. Performed correctly, it requires and
develops a strong, stacked hollow position.
The Points of Performance for the chest-to-wall handstand are identical
to those for the handstand itself, with one addition:
• Only the nose and toes are in contact with the wall. This will
ensure that the athlete is stacked correctly, since too much
flexion at the hips will mean falling off the wall.
Once the athlete is performing the chest-to-wall handstand correctly,
she can progress through hand lifts of various difficulty:
• Weight Shift: Keep both hands planted on the floor, shift
bodyweight from side to side.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 132
• Hand Lift: Elevate one hand slightly off the floor at a time.
Aim to be able to control the position for a one count before
returning the hand to the floor.
• Shoulder Tap: Lift one hand at a time to touch the shoulder
on the same side. Aim to be able to control the position for a
one count before returning the hand to the floor.
• Cross Shoulder Tap: Lift one hand at a time to touch the
opposite shoulder. Aim to be able to control the position for
a one count before returning the hand to the floor.
Finally, the athlete can use exercises based on the chest-to-wall
handstand to develop the handstand walk.
• Wall Walk: Starting in a push-up position with her feet
against the wall, the athlete walks her feet up the wall and
her hands along the floor until she finds herself in a chestto-wall handstand. She then reverses the movement. Key is
maintaining the hollow and a straight line from shoulders to
hips to feet for as much of the movement as possible. Do not
arch the back or pike the hips while moving. Additionally, the
athlete should aim to keep the hands directly beneath the
shoulders as much as possible.
• Walk Off Wall: The athlete starts in a chest-to-wall handstand
and walks forward, away from the wall. Key to this exercise
is initiating by lifting the hands, not by pushing oneself away
from the wall.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 133
GYMNASTICS TRAINING METHODS
METHOD
VO LU M E
A C C U M U L AT I O N
6 minutes volume
Strength
accumulation:
Weighted Chest-toBar Chins @ 65% 1RM
MAX EFFORT
Weighted Chest-toBar Chin, build to
1RM
SUBMAXIMAL
SETS
Weighted Chest-to-Bar
Chin 3 @ 6, 3 @ 7, 3 @
8, plus four down sets
(repeat)
TIMED SETS
Weighted
Chest-toBar Chin
65%x3x10
EMOM
6 minutes volume
accumulation:
Handstand Walk
Skill
50’ inside 4’ lane,
X
unbroken.
Rest 20+ seconds
3x75’ handstand walk
EMOM 10:
inside 4’ lane, unbroken
Handstand
Rest 60 seconds
Walk 20’,
between sets
unbroken
between sets
Kipping Chest-to-Bar
Endurance
(Capacity)
1 x Max Kipping
X
Chest-to-Bar pullups
pull-up
3 x 4-5 reps shy of kip
failure
X
Rest 20 seconds
between sets
6 minutes volume
Endurance
accumulation:
(Durability)
10 Unbroken Kipping
X
Chest-to-Bar pull-ups
Kipping Chest-to-Bar
EMOM 6-8:
pull-up
30% of max
2-3 x 70% of top set
kipping
Rest 120 seconds
chest-to-bar
between sets
pull-ups
4x10 Kipping Chest-toFor Time:
Cycle Time
X
40 Kipping Chestto-Bar pull-ups
Bar pull-ups @ 5-10%
faster than 40 for time
pace
X
Rest 30 seconds
between sets
Notes: Kip failure = being forced to switch from butterfly kip to C kip. If an athlete does not
have this problem, use normal failure as your metric.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 134
Volume Accumulation has the athlete working at a skill or set of
skills for a predetermined amount of time at a submaximal pace. It
is a tremendously valuable tool, and underutilized in fitness sport
communities, where intensity is often valued to the point that it’s
immediate implementation is treated with greater import than its long
term development. Volume accumulation is absolutely not a max effort.
It requires the athlete to reign herself in, with a focus on keeping all
reps/sets submaximal and technique as good as possible.
Max Effort work is crucial for maximizing intensity across a broad range
of applications. In order to get as much out of it as possible, it must be
intelligently targeted. As an example, in the table above, the max effort
endurance capacity item is a single max set of kipping chest-to-bar pullups. There are three further workouts in the table which are based on
that top set.
Submaximal Sets should generally fall somewhere on the intensity scale
between volume accumulation and max effort work. Both reps per set
and total volume should flirt with, but not cross, the athlete’s threshold.
Apart from the difference in intensity, submaximal sets will generally
have predetermined total volume, unlike volume accumulation.
Timed Sets are an effective way of controlling the total volume, and
requiring the athlete to work at a predetermined minimum rate and
intensity. Timed sets are flexible and can be employed for a multitude of
purposes, ranging from easy skill work to threshold training.
Ch apte r Fo u r
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 135
CHAPTER FIVE
E N E RGY SYS T E M S
D E V E LO P M E N T
Do improvements in maximal strength improve strength endurance?
Does low intensity steady state training carry over into fitness sport?
Is our limited training time best spent focusing on developing aerobic
capacity? Perhaps anaerobic lactic capacity? ATP/CP?
In the final estimation, very nearly all questions and debates with regard
to developing fitness sport athletes are questions of energy systems
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 136
development. This is because, strictly speaking, all training is energy
systems training. 1RM deadlifts, half marathon rows and everything in
between can, on a purely physiological level, be viewed as optimization
of the way the body processes, stores, and utilizes energy.
In the common vernacular of the fitness sport community, “energy
systems development” typically refers to development of the glycolytic
and oxidative pathways. For the purposes of this text, energy systems
development is defined as follows:
• Training geared towards maximizing the intensity, duration,
and variation which an athlete can display in the first three
domains.
As the reader will see, this does primarily concern development of
the glycolytic and oxidative pathways, not because those pathways
hold dominion over all things bioenergetics, but because they are the
pathways in which most of fitness sport takes place.
This chapter aims to build an understanding of conventional energy
systems training models within the context of fitness sport: if, when, and
how they apply, and if, when, and how they must be modified.
BASIC BIOENERGETICS
An in-depth understanding of the way the body processes, stores, and
utilizes energy is not within the scope of this text. The information
is readily accessible in most basic exercise science textbooks, and
the author advises the reader in taking this route to develop an
understanding of these fundamentals of physiology.
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 137
However, in order to ensure that the reader can understand the
terminology of this chapter easily, a brief review of the energy pathways
will be helpful.
W H AT I S E N E R G Y ?
Energy is the capacity to perform work. There are two types of energy:
• Potential Energy is stored. Picture a swing being held back. It
has the potential to move, and as soon as the holder releases
the swing, the energy will become kinetic.
• Kinetic Energy is the actual performance of work. As the
swing is moving through the air, it possesses kinetic energy.
There are also many different categories of energy, such as mechanical,
chemical, and thermal. Bioenergetics is concerned with the storing of
chemical energy, and its conversion into mechanical energy.
Metabolic potential energy is stored in the chemical bonds between
certain molecules. When those bonds are broken, that energy is released,
not unlike the swing, and creates mechanical energy. This underlying
process lies behind every movement the body makes, from snatches and
running to typing or making a cup of coffee.
The particular chemical energy which the body uses to create
mechanical energy is called adenosine triphosphate, or ATP. As its
name suggests, ATP contains three phosphate molecules. When one of
these molecules is removed from the group, ATP becomes adenosine
diphosphate, or ADP. This process is of great importance to us for two
reasons:
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 138
1. When a phosphate molecule is dropped from ATP, energy is
released. This is the energy our bodies use to create movement.
2. Since all movement is produced through the process of converting
ATP into ADP, one of the primary concerns of energy systems
training is improving the rate at which the body can restore the
third phosphate molecule and convert ADP back into ATP, which
can then be used for further work.
H OW D O E S T H E B O DY U S E E N E R G Y ?
There are three pathways, or systems, by which the body can utilize ATP.
1. The Phosphagen Pathway (Anaerobic Alactic)
The phosphagen pathway depends on ATP as well as creatine phosphate
(PCr) which is stored in the muscle. Because of this, the phosphagen
system is capable of utilizing a lot of energy very quickly. However, very
small quantities of ATP and PCr are stored within the muscles, and run
out quickly, making this pathway ideal for short duration, high output
activities. It is generally agreed upon that the maximum duration for the
phosphagen system as primary energy pathway is about ten seconds.
This pathway is often referred to as ATP/CP.
The development of this pathway is extremely important. However, the
majority of that development comes through weightlifting and strength
development, and so while this chapter will discuss the roles of this
pathway, in particular its interaction with the other bioenergetic systems,
there will be relatively little in the way of actually training it.
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 139
2. The Glycolytic Pathways
Glycolysis depends on the metabolization of glucose. That glucose can
come either from the blood, or from glycogen stored in the muscles (or,
to a lesser extent, the liver.) There are two types of glycolysis, and which
one is primarily used is dependent on the intensity and duration of the
exercise.
1. Fast Glycolysis (Anaerobic Lactic) converts pyruvate into lactate,
using either blood glucose or muscle glycogen, without any
oxidation. This process produces relatively fast production and
utilization of ATP, though very significantly slower than the rate
at which the ATP/CP pathway is able to utilize it. Fast glycolysis
is very important for moderate-to-high intensity exercise, and it
is generally agreed upon that this pathway picks up where the
phosphagen systems leaves off, at around ten seconds, and can
be the primary driver of energy production for up to roughly two
minutes.
2. Slow Glycolysis (Aerobic Lactic) can also use either blood glucose
or muscle glycogen. However, this process allows for the use
of oxygen to produce additional ATP, by converting pyruvate
into acetyl-CoA instead of lactate. Acetyl-CoA can then enter
the mitochondria and be used to produce energy aerobically.
The tradeoff for the greater yield of ATP is a slower rate of
production. However, because the process depends in part on
oxidation, and does not produce lactate, slow glycolysis can be
used for a substantially longer duration than fast glycolysis. Slow
glycolysis begins to take over as the rate-limiting energy system
between the two and five minute mark. Its relevant contribution
to sustained activity begins to decrease past the fifteen to twenty
minute mark, though it remains an important source of energy for
all but the most moderate of efforts past this duration.
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 140
3. The Oxidative Pathway (Aerobic Alactic)
Oxidation uses proteins, fats, or carbohydrates as energy substrates for
the production of ATP. At rest, the large majority of ATP produced is
derived from fat. Low intensity exercise utilizes a blend of carbohydrates,
fat, and protein with an increase in carbohydrate usage as intensity
rises. For exercise of moderate-to-high intensity, carbohydrates are
the primary fuel. Because the oxidative system is dependent on (1) the
consumption of oxygen, which one hopes is readily available at all times,
and (2) metabolism of fat, which even very lean athletes have relatively
high stores of, the duration of the pathway is effectively indefinite.
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 141
It is important to understand that while these definitions seem to lump
the energy pathways into a set of discrete systems which the body
turns on and off, this is not a reflection of the reality of bioenergetics.
These systems operate on a spectrum, each of them making relative
contributions, or applying relative limitations, to the particular task at
hand.
BIOENERGETICS IN FITNESS SPORT: THE
MULTIMODAL ENDURANCE ATHLETE
Armed with a basic understanding of the energy systems, there are
questions to be answered about their role in the sport itself.
• What is the role of each energy pathway in fitness sport?
• How must energy pathways interact with each other in fitness
sport?
• How can interference between energy pathways be
minimized?
As one may assume, the answers to these questions are complex and
nuanced. In most multimodal sports, the primary energy pathways
remain the same. Triathlon, for example, is a more or less purely
oxidative sport, despite there being three distinct modalities: swimming,
cycling, and running.
Perhaps the closest event to fitness sport is the decathlon, which has
elements of strength, speed, power, and endurance. But even the breadth
of decathlon pales in comparison to fitness sport. The shortest events in
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 142
decathlon are a few seconds long, and the longest is a few minutes long.
In the modern era of the CrossFit Games, the shortest events have been
a few seconds long, and the longest event has been over two hours.
R O L E O F T H E P H O S P H AG E N PAT H WAY IN FITNESS SPORT
Though development of the ATP/CP systems is crucial to fitness
sport, its direct applications in the sport are somewhat limited. The
phosphagen pathway is ultimately responsible for the athlete’s ability to
produce maximal force and power. In fitness sport, this has implications
for a multitude of events and fitness characteristics.
Weightlifting and strength events are the most obvious place where
the development of the ATP/CP pathway comes into play. The athlete’s
ability to effectively utilize stored ATP will have the greatest impact on
events testing her maximal power and force production, and in fitness
sport, that ability is most commonly expressed with a barbell.
Max effort sprints, whether run, row, bike, sled, or multimodal, are
also dependent on the ATP/CP system. However, these events have
historically played a smaller role in CrossFit Games competition than
weightlifting and strength events. It is the author’s opinion that true
sprint training has relatively little carryover to the sport, and, in most
cases, is not worth the cost of training. This is particularly true for
running sprints, which come with a fairly high risk of hamstring injury.
Note: while relatively few events take place within the confines of the
phosphagen pathway, the training done in this pathway has great and
important carryover to many fitness characteristics in the sport.
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 143
R O L E O F T H E G LYC O LY T I C PAT H WAY IN FITNESS SPORT
Both because glycolysis, particularly slow glycolysis, resides in the area
between power/force production and endurance, and because so many
of the events in fitness sport are between two and fifteen minutes in
length, it is reasonable to consider that it is the pathway most pertinent
to fitness sport. In many ways, improvements in the ATP/CP and
oxidative pathways lead to improvements in the glycolytic system, and
those improvements are arguably as or more important than the specific
improvements to anaerobic alactic or aerobic alactic capacity.
Fast glycolysis is the athlete’s primary source of energy for events in
excess of ten seconds, and up to roughly two minutes. Like the ATP/
CP system, the athlete’s capacity in this pathway plays a limited but
important role in fitness sport. Perhaps the most important aspect is
that of improving the lactate threshold, or LT.
The lactate threshold is the intensity at which blood lactate increases
sharply. It typically begins between 70-80% of v02 max in trained
endurance athletes. The author’s experience is that fitness sport athletes
trend towards a lower LT, most likely due to the greater prevalence of
type II muscle fibers and the correspondingly higher capacity for force
and power production. In other words, fitness sport athletes are capable
of a higher output, but will pay a higher cost.
Training performed at or slightly above LT is the best way to improve the
LT. There are several possible mechanisms for how this occurs, but what
matters is that training of this type leads to delaying the intensity at
which blood lactate accumulates to the point where it becomes limiting
to the athlete’s performance. In order to both work at a sufficiently
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 144
high intensity and be able to perform sufficient duration and training
volume to create substantial improvements, this training will primarily be
powered by fast glycolysis.
Slow glycolysis is the ultimate gray area of bioenergetics. It does not
produce ATP at a fast enough rate to drive truly high intensity activity.
Nor does it allow for very long duration, since it is dependent on stored
glycogen. It is also the pathway in which a large percentage of fitness
sport events occur, and thus its development is crucial.
As with fast glycolysis, slow glycolysis begins with the breaking down of
glucose into pyruvate to create ATP. However, in aerobic glycolysis, the
pyruvate is then oxidized to produce more ATP.
Due to the additional ATP produced through oxidation, aerobic glycolysis
is substantially more efficient than anaerobic glycolysis. However, the
process takes longer and therefore is less capable of driving high force
or high power activity.
Spending time training in slow glycolysis is important and does carry
over to improvements in the metabolic process. However, gray area
that it is, the largest improvements come in shades of black and white.
Increasing lactate threshold and aerobic capacity will have the largest
impact on improving the athlete’s capacity in slow glycolysis.
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 145
R O L E O F T H E OX I DAT I V E PAT H WAY IN FITNESS SPORT
The oxidative pathway is perhaps the most misunderstood, and
most under trained, in fitness sport training. Much of the sellability
of functional fitness style training is rooted in the precedence of
high intensity, relatively short duration efforts, which are capable of
producing greater results in less time than more conventional low and
moderate intensity methods.
The author is mostly in agreement with this opinion. High intensity
energy systems training produces tremendous systemic effects which
can have huge benefits both for the general population and, naturally,
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 146
for fitness sport athletes, who primarily compete in high intensity
multimodal events.
However, there are sound reasons for directly developing the oxidative
pathway in order to maximize the fitness sport athlete’s competitiveness.
The relationship of the oxidative system and the various anaerobic
processes can be likened to the relationship between hypertrophy and
strength. Hypertrophy is not strength in and of itself. However, a certain
degree of hypertrophy is a necessary base to build strength upon. As
the athlete’s strength improves, the muscles must grow in order to
accommodate further strength gains. Early in an athlete’s development,
hypertrophy training may improve strength more than training in lower
rep ranges with more weight. As the athlete improves, she will need a
specific, organized training cycle which first develops hypertrophy and
then develops strength.
Aerobic processes underlie the development of anaerobic processes
in similar fashion. For new athletes, aerobic development is often a
more productive way of improving the lactate threshold than anaerobic
glycolytic training. As the athlete improves, she will need to dedicate
some period of training to improving the aerobic base in order to further
increase the lactate threshold atop it.
Although many of the events in fitness sport are driven by slow
glycolysis, aerobic physiological processes provide the foundation for
the athlete’s capacity in the glycolytic and ATP/CP pathways.
Despite being on the opposite end of the bioenergetic spectrum, the
phosphagen system and oxidative system can, to an extent, have positive
carryover to each other. There are some particular benefits to a well
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 147
developed aerobic base for strength and power development.
Aerobic training is capable of increasing the amount of phosphagens
the muscles store (Ericksson, Gollnick, & Saltin, 1973; Karlsson et al.,
1972). The repletion of those phosphagens post-exercise is primarily
dependent on aerobic metabolism (Harris et al., 1976). And perhaps
most importantly, appropriate development of the oxidative pathway can
decrease the rate of depletion of phosphagens at a given submaximal
power output (Constable et al., 1987; Karlsson et al 1972). In this context,
“given” means that the weight being used is predetermined, rather than
being a percentage of the athlete’s maximum, i.e. relative submaximal
power output.
This means that between two athletes of
roughly equal strength, required to move
a submaximal load repeatedly, the athlete
with superior aerobic development is
likely to come out on top.
This is of particular importance in fitness sport, where most events,
especially those with an endurance component, are performed at a given
absolute intensity.
Glycolytic processes can be similarly supported by the aerobic system.
For example, aerobic training is capable of increasing glycogen
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 148
concentration in the muscles (Gollnick et al., 1972, 1973). Additionally,
a base level of aerobic fitness is required in order to improve the
lactate threshold. Newer athletes often see greater improvement in
their anaerobic capacity from aerobic development than direct lactate
threshold training, likely because the untrained athlete cannot handle
sufficient training volume at intensities in excess of the lactate threshold
to produce a large training effect. The ability to handle that volume can
be developed through aerobic training.
Furthermore, it seems to be the case that in trained athletes, improving
lactate threshold is, to an extent, dependent on the athlete’s aerobic
capacity.
Perhaps the most commonly known study regarding the benefits of
anaerobic training on aerobic fitness is the so called Tabata study
(Tabata et al., 1996). In the six week long study, subjects were divided
into two training groups:
• Group 1 exercised five days per week for 60 minutes at 70%
of the athletes’ vo2 maxes.
• Group 2 exercised five days per week. On four of those days,
the athletes would perform 7-8 sets of 20 seconds work at
170% of vo2 max with 10 seconds rest in between. On the fifth
day, they performed 30 minutes of work at 70% of vo2 max,
followed by 4 sets of the same high-intensity protocol.
The results were striking. In group 1, there was no change in anaerobic
capacity after 6 weeks of training. There was a significant increase in the
vo2 max.
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 149
In group 2, however, the anaerobic capacity increased by a whopping
28% after 6 weeks of training. Somewhat surprisingly, the vo2 max
improved as well, despite the very low volume of aerobic training.
At first glance, the meaning of the results seems clear. Anaerobic
training is (1) better at improving anaerobic capacity than aerobic
training and (2) can have a meaningful impact on aerobic capacity, the
converse of which is not the case.
However, all may not be as it seems. There are two key points to
consider, which may suggest that aerobic development does indeed play
an important role in the improvement of anaerobic fitness.
1. Of the 28% increase in anaerobic fitness measured over the 6
week training period, 23% occurred in the first four weeks, leaving
just 5% over the final two weeks. This is a sharp rate of diminishing
returns, and it may be reasonable to conclude that if the study
had continued for more than 6 weeks, the downward trend may
have continued.
2. Despite only a single instance per week of training for 30 minutes
@ 70% of vo2 max, that number still represents approximately
88% of the total training volume. It would be a stretch to suggest
that this means that the 30 minutes of aerobic training per week
is the primary driver of the improvement in anaerobic fitness. But
it would be equally foolish to discount such a significant portion
of the participants’ total training volume as irrelevant to the final
results.
As it turns out, there are good reasons to believe that establishing and
improving aerobic fitness lay the foundation for improved anaerobic
fitness.
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 150
At the end of the fast glycolysis process, pyruvate is produced and
converted into lactate. There are then several pathways the lactate may
take:
• Remain in the muscle in which it was produced
• Move to adjacent muscle fibers
• Move into the space between muscles
• Move into the bloodstream
The lactate threshold can be viewed at the highest rate of work at which
the athlete can match lactate production with lactate clearance. The
following adaptations to aerobic training can improve lactate clearance,
thereby pushing the lactate threshold higher.
• Cardiac Output: The amount of blood the heart pumps out
per minute. The product of heart rate (HR) and stroke volume
(SV), cardiac output, or CO, is an important component of
improving aerobic fitness. But it also has an important role
in lactate clearance. First and foremost, lactate clearance
depends on circulation, and circulation, in effect, is the
athlete’s CO. To a point, as blood flow increases, so does the
potential for lactate clearance.
• Capillary Density: Capillaries are the body’s smallest blood
vessels. By surrounding muscle fibers, capillaries provide
a place for diffusion to occur. The greater the density of
capillaries, the more time there is for oxygen to get into the
muscle, and lactate to move out of the muscle and into the
capillaries.
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 151
• Mitochondrial Capacity: If the lactate remains in the muscle,
it can be moved into the mitochondria and used to produce
energy aerobically. If an athlete has a higher mitochondrial
capacity, they will be able to process lactate at a higher rate,
meaning the athlete can work at a higher intensity before
hitting lactate threshold (Bassett & Howley, 2000; Klaussen et
al., 1981).
Armed with a basic understanding of the workings of energy pathways,
focus can turn to their development.
MEANS
MEANS
OFF-SEASON
PRIORITY
PRE-SEASON
PRIORITY
COMPETITION SEASON
PRIORITY
Run
3
3
4
Row
3
4
4
Cycle*
3
2
1
*Cycle is typically an Airdyne or similar, but other variants may be used
Across the entirety of energy systems development for fitness sport,
there are theoretically unlimited means of training. The very nature of
the sport is to mix and match elements of various performance sports to
create innovative tests which challenge multiple skills and systems.
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 152
The goal of this chapter is to understand the underlying mechanics of
bioenergetics so that they can be implemented in program design. For
that reason, the wide variety of exercises available to the fitness sport
coach will be left to be discussed in the sport specific preparation
chapter.
Priorities are based on a 9-point scale with no limitations on allotment.
Below is a more thorough explanation of the priorities for each
mesocycle of the training year.
Offseason Priorities: During this time of year, the three means are placed
on equal footing. The athlete will have spent much of her training time
and energy on running and rowing in the competition season, both
independently and as part of multimodal conditioning efforts. Spending
some of that energy on the bikes will allow psychological recovery and
physiological resensitization. All three means are trained through a
structured energy systems development program.
Pre-Season Priorities: In the pre-season, cycling gives up a point to
rowing on the priority scale, with running remaining the same. The
reasons for this are twofold: (1) The earliest phase of the CrossFit Games
competition season will be the Open, and as of this writing it seems
unlikely that running will be part of that competition. Rowing has been
part of the competition since 2014, and therefore, when considered along
with point two, the pre-season seems to be a good time to emphasize
rowing over running. (2) During the offseason and pre-season, most
athletes will spend more time on conventional strength and weightlifting
development than they do in the competition season. Running seems to
have a greater negative impact on strength development than rowing or
cycling, likely as a function of its impactful nature, and it is likely that
this effect is magnified in fitness sport athletes, who are typically more
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 153
muscular and heavier than endurance athletes.
All three means are trained through a structured energy systems
development program.
Competition Season Priorities: Running picks up a point on the priority
scale to draw even with rowing, leaving cycling far behind. This is due to
the preponderance of running and rowing in CrossFit Games competition
compared to cycling. It is conceivable that this will change in future, but
as of this writing, building a training plan focused on maximizing rowing
and running ability with cycling as a support exercise seems to be the
best approach.
During most of the competition season, running and rowing will be
approached with a structured energy systems training plan, while most
of the cycling will be done as part of multimodal conditioning efforts.
This is not to say that it is not approached in an intelligent fashion, but
rather that it becomes part of sport specific preparation versus part of
the discrete energy systems training plan.
These priorities are generalized, and may need to be adjusted to suit
an athlete’s strengths, weaknesses, and the way they respond to each
means of training.
METHODS
In approaching the actual methods of training, the program designer
must have a clear idea of what she strives to achieve – what goals to set.
For conventional endurance athletes, this is easily accomplished. Pick
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 154
the race, train for it appropriately. In fitness sport, the issue is somewhat
more confused for two reasons.
1. Unlike conventional endurance sports, classical systems of energy
systems training in fitness sport represent both (a) a potential
event in competition and (b) development of the underlying
bioenergetic pathways for much of the rest of the sport.
2. Fitness sport athletes must be prepared for a wide range of
endurance activities, both in terms of intensity/duration, and in
terms of the actual content of the event.
This section will begin by sorting through the process of determining
which pure energy systems events to train for, and then selection and
implementation of the methods themselves.
In general, the author uses three tests per macrocycle. One test between
1-4 minutes, one between 5-15 minutes, and one in excess of 15 minutes.
These ranges are relatively large, with good reason: it is simply not
feasible to test at every point which may represent a shift in primary
contributing energy systems. Instead, it seems best to select for three
fairly general domains, which the program designer can then manipulate
across the training year, or to suit a particular athlete’s needs.
The astute reader will notice that there is no test of peak anaerobic
power. Although there may be some cases in which this is appropriate,
fitness sport athletes generally already spend a lot of time training those
abilities, albeit in very different domains, with strength development and
weightlifting. In general, the author’s experience has been that tests of
this type in running, rowing, and cycling are of relatively little utility to
fitness sport athletes.
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 155
Due to the training model presented later in the chapter, durations both
under and over the range described here will be developed.
With regard to selecting domains for the tests, the following protocol is
simple and effective.
T E S T I N G P R OTO C O L
MEANS
OFF-SEASON
TEST
PRE-SEASON
TEST
COMPETITION SEASON
TEST
Run
1
1
1-2
Row
1
2
1-2
Cycle*
1
0
0
Offseason Testing: One test in each means of training, resulting in just as
much value being given to training all three areas.
Pre-Season Testing: Reflective of the increased priority in rowing
elucidated upon above, and the concurrent decrease in priority in
cycling, the pre-season will have two rowing tests, one running test, and
no cycling tests, shifting use of the bike into a support role.
Competition Season Testing: In the competition season, running and
rowing are at a premium with virtually all specifically organized energy
systems training based around them. The athlete should perform either
two running tests and one rowing test or vice versa, depending on her
particular needs, including not only which she needs to improve more,
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 156
but how well she recovers from each modality and the impact each
modality has on the rest of her training.
With an organized approach to goal selection, the next step is
understanding what goes into achieving them. To that end, this text will
use a classification and periodization system adapted from “The Science
Of Running” by Steve Magness, who in turn credits Renato Canova’s “A
Scientific Approach For The Marathon” with the popularization of the
method in Europe. Below is an example using the 5000m row as the
selected “race”.
E N D U R A N C E P E R I O D I Z AT I O N
C L A S S I F I C AT I O N
PA C E
EXAMPLE
Recovery
Indefinite
Anything Slower
General Endurance
+125-150% Race Distance
~12500m-15000m Pace
Aerobic Support
+100-125% Race Distance
~10000m-12500m Pace
Direct Endurance Support
+50-100% Race Distance
~7500m-10000m Pace
Specific
Race Pace
~5000m Pace
Direct Speed Support
-40-60% Race Distance
~2000m-3000m Pace
Anaerobic Support
-60-80% Race Distance
~1000m-2000m Pace
General Speed
-80-90% Race Distance
~500m-1000m Pace
Pure Speed
Sprints
~250m-500m Pace
Adapted with permission from “The Science of Running”, S. Magness (2014, p. 174).
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 157
The examples in the rightmost column indicate the pace the athlete
should be working at in order to achieve the desired impact. It does
not require that she specifically row that distance. Below are several
examples:
C L A S S I F I C AT I O N
PA C E
Direct Endurance Support
2x4000m/8 minute rest @ 6000m Pace
500m/1000m/1500m/2000m/1:1 Rest
Anaerobic Support
@ 3000m Pace
Specific Training
3x2000m/4 minute rest @ 5000m Pace
The athlete need not have a tested trial at every distance. Intelligent
estimation will be sufficient.
The table above illustrates how to use varying paces to elicit specific
adaptations. The next step is determining when to develop these
adaptations across the macrocycle.
M E S O C YC L E
ENDURANCE
P E R I O D I Z AT I O N
C L A S S I F I C AT I O N
ENDURANCE SIDE
SPEED SIDE
Base
Base
General Endurance
General Speed
Loading
Pre-Competition
Aerobic Support + Direct
Anaerobic Support +
Endurance Support
Direct Speed Support
Intensification
Competition
Direct End Support +
Direct Speed Support +
Specific Training
Specific Training
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 158
In periodization for endurance sport, there are generally considered
to be three phases: Base, Pre-Competition, and Competition. For the
purposes of fitness sport athlete development, those categories must be
made to fit within the wider periodization scheme.
E N D U R A N C E P E R I O D I Z AT I O N P Y R A M I D
Adapted with permission from “The Science of Running”, S. Magness (2014, p. 178)
This method of periodization is categorized as the funnel model, and
seems to have its roots in the work of Italian coaches Canova (mentioned
above) and Gigliotti. It is not dissimilar from the top half of the hourglass
described in the chapter on periodization.
In more traditional linear endurance periodization, blocks of training
would generally progress from very low intensity, generalized endurance
to high intensity, race specific training in a straight line, dropping
mileage and increasing speed and specificity as the competition season
approaches.
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 159
The funnel model seeks to develop both speed and endurance
simultaneously, starting from the far ends and working outside-in.
Magness (2014) describes the principles of the model as follows (p. 178):
• Start Backwards
• Work The Extremes
• Bring It Together
• Never Leave Anything Behind
• Progress Everything
This model is well suited to fitness sport in particular due to the last
two principles above. Progressing everything and never leaving anything
behind is, fundamentally, the goal of fitness sport athletes across all
domains. This approach to endurance training allows the athlete to
improve in the specific tests set out to her, while also maintaining her
abilities in other ranges.
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 160
Below are examples of a base block, loading block, and intensification
block focused on the 5000m row.
5 W E E K B A S E M E S O C YC L E ( 5 0 0 0 M R OW )
WO R KO U T 1
6x500m @ RPE 8-9
@/Rest 1:1
4x1000m @ RPE
8-9 @/Rest 1:1
8x500m @ RPE 8-9
@/Rest 1:1
5x1000m @ RPE
8-9 @/Rest 1:1
10x500m @ RPE
8-9 @/Rest 1:1
Ch apte r Fi ve
C L A S S I F I C AT I O N
WO R KO U T 2
C L A S S I F I C AT I O N
General Speed
Row 10000m @ 8 RPE
General Endurance
60 minutes @ 6 RPE +
Recovery + Pure Speed
10x100m @ 500m Pace
Maintenance
General Speed
General Speed
General Speed
General Speed
Row 11000m @ 8 RPE
60 minutes @ 6 RPE +
10x100m @ 500m Pace
Row 12000m @ 8 RPE
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
Recovery + Pure Speed
Maintenance
Loading
General Endurance
P 161
5 W E E K L OA D I N G M E S O C YC L E ( 5 0 0 0 M R OW )
WO R KO U T 1
3x1500m @ RPE 9
@/Rest 1:1
5x1000m @ RPE
8-9 @/Rest 1:1
4x1500m @ RPE 9
@/Rest 1:1
2x2000m @ RPE 9
@/Rest 1:1
2x2500m @ RPE 9
@/Rest 1:1
Ch apte r Fi ve
C L A S S I F I C AT I O N
WO R KO U T 2
C L A S S I F I C AT I O N
Anaerobic Support
Row 9000m @ 8 RPE
Aerobic Support
Anaerobic Support
Anaerobic Support
Direct Speed Support
Direct Speed Support
Row 2x6000m @ 7 RPE
Rest 10 Minutes
Row 8000m @ 8 RPE
Row 2x6000m @ 8 RPE
Rest 10 Minutes
Row 2x5000m @ 8 RPE
Rest 10 Minutes
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
Aerobic Support
Aerobic Support
Direct Endurance Support
Direct Endurance Support
P 162
5 W E E K I N T E N S I F I C AT I O N M E S O C YC L E ( 5 0 0 0 M R OW )
WO R KO U T 1
2x3000m @ RPE 9
@/Rest 1:1
1x4000m @ RPE
8-9
C L A S S I F I C AT I O N
Direct Speed Support
Specific Training
WO R KO U T 2
2x4000m @ RPE 9 @/
Rest 1:1
2x3000m @ Projected 5k
Pace / Rest 6 Minutes
C L A S S I F I C AT I O N
Direct Endurance Support
Specific Training
2x3000m @
Projected 5k Pace
Specific Training
1x6000m @ RPE 8-9
Specific Training
Specific Training
1x5500m @ RPE 8-9
Specific Training
Test
30 Minutes @ 6
Recovery
/ Rest 5 Minutes
1x4500m @ RPE
8-9
5000m Time Trial
Notes
•
The mesocycles show above do not necessarily represent the entirety of the
energy systems training an athlete should undertake at any given time. This
model is meant only to show progression of training through the macrocycle.
•
Rest times are always notated as Work:Rest, e.g. 2:1 = rest for half of the working
duration
•
Increases in speed are notated based on 500m split, e.g. 3000m @ 0:01-0:02
faster than 5000m pace means 1-2 seconds faster per 500m
•
This example uses RPE for the majority of the work, because it is rare that fitness
sport athletes have measured paces at most distances. If the athlete does have a
reliable measured pace, or if the athlete or coach is experienced with estimating
paces, these methods are often, though not always, more effective.
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 163
A final note on the implementation of this model for fitness sport
athletes and how it differs from the original applications designed for
endurance athletes:
The chart in this book, adapted from page 174 of “The Science Of
Running”, uses a fairly linear progression of paces from the specific
distance of choice, ranging from 15-80% farther than race pace on the
endurance side, and 15-80% shorter than race pace on the speed side.
The original chart uses much larger differences in distance, particularly
on the endurance side. The reason for this change is that fitness sport
athletes, who are generally heavier, stronger, and more powerful than
conventional endurance athletes, are likely to have much larger dropoffs
in their ability as the distance increases.
For example, where a 6:00 mile may be predictive for roughly a 12:45
two mile for a 135 pound male runner, it is probably predictive of
something like a 14:00 two mile for a 195 pound male fitness sport
athlete.
Fitness sport athletes will see larger differences in their pace as the
distance increases. Accordingly, when training qualities such as general
endurance and aerobic support, they will need to utilize distances closer
to their chosen race event in order to maintain the requisite pace.
Ch apte r Fi ve
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 164
CHAPTER SIX
S P O RT S P EC I F I C
P R E PA R AT I O N
Perhaps the only thing an athlete in a given sport absolutely must
not forego is practicing that sport. There have been NFL players who
neglected the weight room. Swimmers who did not do dry land training.
There are even weightlifters who perform no assistance work. But there
are no NFL players who do not play football, no swimmers who do not
practices their races, no weightlifters who do not snatch and clean
& jerk. This is so clear as to be a tautology: all football players play
football.
Ch apte r S i x
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 165
In the development of athletes, training that is designed to very directly
improve the specific skillset required for the sport in question is referred
to as sport specific preparation, or SSP. Free sparring, positional
sparring, and technique drills all directly improve a wrestler’s wrestling.
Lifting weights indirectly improve his wrestling, by improving the fitness
characteristics which allow her to express her skill.
Sport specific preparation (SSP) is the single most vital component of
any athlete’s training. It follows that the coach or program designer must
have a sound method for determining what, precisely, constitutes sport
specific preparation. In most cases, this is a straightforward process.
That which walks, talks, and sounds like a duck, is very likely a duck.
Fitness sport is not quite so simple.
FINDING SPECIFICITY IN VARIANCE: THE FITNESS SPORT PROBLEM
Fitness sport presents two distinct challenges with regard to SSP.
The first is the difficulty of identifying which aspects of training are
SSP. In a sport where much of the training program both has the ability
to improve other areas of performance, and the potential to be an
event in competition, the lines between direct and indirect training are
thoroughly blurred, and the relative importance of any given mean or
method of training is difficult to discern. This text will refer to this issue
as the categorical problem.
The second issue is substantially more complex, and will require a
greater deal of speculation and reasoning from the program designer.
Ch apte r S i x
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 166
The CrossFit Games and its qualifying rounds are often billed as being
unknown and unknowable. Though that may be a slight exaggeration,
it is certainly fair to say that the events are undetermined and
undeterminable. It is possible to make predictions about the events
themselves, the order they will occur in, and how they will impact each
other, but no matter how much data is accumulated, there will be a finite
limit on how much the program designer can actually know about the
competition the athlete is preparing for. This text will refer to this as the
epistemological problem.
The categorical problem can be seen as a short term issue. The
epistemological problem, on the other hand, is endless. There is nearly
unlimited battery of movements and athletic pursuits for competition
designers to select from. More than that, relatively small changes such
as event format, order of events, and the use of novel implements for
ubiquitous movements make it difficult to make all but the broadest
speculations.
With both the categorical problem and the epistemological problem in
mind, the purpose of this chapter will be to develop a robust approach
to preparing athletes specifically for competition in fitness sport,
by helping the coach to make well informed selections of the most
important means and methods for sport specific preparation, via the
analysis of available data, and well reasoned speculation.
Ch apte r S i x
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 167
PRINCIPLES OF ANALYSIS
As of this writing, there are five years of data from the modern era
CrossFit Games to draw upon. Fifteen total competitions, one hundred
twenty-four scored events from which to draw conclusions about what
athletes may face in the future. Over time, as more data becomes
available, the predictions made based upon this data can reasonably be
trusted to become more and more accurate. These data are how program
designers can contend with the categorical problem.
In order to do so effectively, the program designer needs to have
a system by which she can make decisions about the value of any
particular means or methods of training. This text suggests a system
based on three principles, upon which a scale for ranking can be built.
1. Likelihood of Incidence in Competition: The perceived and/or
measured likelihood that a particular means or method will be part
of the event.
2. Carryover to Other Means and Methods: The perceived and/
or measured ability of a particular means or method to improve
performance in other means and methods.
3. Need for Specificity in Development: The perceived and/or
measured requirement of specific training to gain sufficient
proficiency in a given means or method.
LIKELIHOOD
C A R R YOV E R
SPECIFICITY
0-4 Points
0-4 Points
0-2 Points
Ch apte r S i x
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 168
Using this scale, a maximum of ten points are available to any given
means or method. A score of ten would classify the means or method in
question as indispensable.
Likelihood is awarded up to a maximum of four points. It is our greatest
measure of what constitutes sport specific preparation, and thus must
be weighted heavily.
Carryover is weighted equally to likelihood, up to four points. Due to
the nature of training for fitness sport, it is crucially important to select
for means and methods which have as great a positive impact on other
means and methods as possible.
Specificity seems to be given short shrift, but there is good reason for
the maximum of two points. The rationale is as follows.
Every possible means and method benefits from specificity, and
could reasonably be argued to require specificity in order to develop
proficiency. Because of this, giving specificity the potential for equal
value to likelihood and carryover creates an imbalance in the scale,
wherein means and methods with relatively little actual importance in
training wind up appearing equal to counterparts of greater value.
This scale can theoretically be applied to any variable in the sport.
The most obvious ones are things like movement selection and event
duration. The author ’s opinion is that as the specificity of the category in
question increases, the less useful the scale becomes. As an example, the
scale is more useful for determining the value of multimodal endurance
events in the 6-8 minute range than the value of couplets in the 6-8
minute range, and more useful for determining the value of couplets in
the 6-8 minute range than couplets in the 6-8 minute range in which one
Ch apte r S i x
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 169
of the exercises is the power clean.
The reader will have noted the use of the term “perceived and/or
measured” in the description of the scale. It is important to understand
that this is not a throwaway term. It is meant to reinforce that this scale
will necessarily be, to varying degrees, a subjective endeavor.
For example, one coach may place relatively greater general carryover
to fitness sport from front squatting than back squatting. Neither coach
is necessarily wrong, and both methods can certainly produce positive
results. The scale will be individual to the coach, and in some cases to
the athlete. So long as the user is consistent over time, she will be able
to use the scale effectively.
PRINCIPLES OF SPECULATION
The scale above gives the program designer an effective way to address
the categorical problem, by determining the relative importance of
means and methods as they relate to competition.
This leaves the epistemological problem to be dealt with. Given that
(1) there is always a degree of uncertainty about the competition and
(2) one poor performance can be enough to knock an athlete out of
contention, it is clear that some organized method of dealing with the
ambiguity inherent in fitness sport.
While the specific format and order of events cannot be predicted, it
is possible to develop best practices for preparing athletes for a broad
range of possibilities while improving abilities in the core areas of
development.
Ch apte r S i x
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 170
Three Steps to Take In This Process
1. Analyze Limitations
Every competition has intrinsic limitations, based on things like location,
climate, and duration. Where attempting to divine the specifics of the
competition is fruitless, the program designer can make reasonable
assumptions about events based on certain limitations.
The CrossFit Games Open is unlikely to test running due to the
limitations of video-based score confirmation. CrossFit Games Regionals
are unlikely to test swimming due to the logistical challenges of
Ch apte r S i x
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 171
arranging for swimming pools in eight different Super Regions.
Conclusions such as these, while imperfect, can aid in honing the focus
of a particular block of training.
2. Control Limitations
Once potential limitations are understood, the program designer must
carefully decide when and where to disregard them.
This is counterintuitive. After all, if these perceived limitations aren’t
going to guide training, why bother determining what they are?
The answer is that limitations themselves are limited, and change
over time. Just as the program designer can make efforts to predict
limitations, she can also try to determine how those limitations will
change over time.
Until 2014, rowing was considered something that would never be part
of the CrossFit Games Open. Until 2015, handstand pushups were in
the same boat. In the same year, Regionals featured a relatively long
distance run for the first time.
As fitness sport grows, event coordinators and programmers become
more effective and innovative, and more money enters the arena, be
prepared for fewer logistical problems to limit the possible range of
events.
Ch apte r S i x
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 172
3. Broad Exposure
With a sound grasp of potential limitations in hand, the program
designer ’s job is to ensure that athletes experience the broadest range
of stimuli possible while staying within the bounds of the program.
To an extent, that exposure includes duration and format of events, but
most of that is addressed through the primary domains of training in
weightlifting, gymnastics, strength, and energy systems development.
The area in which reaching for broad exposure is most important is
movement selection.
Variance and novelty are at the very heart of fitness sport. Often, good
coaches (the author included) can fall into the trap of trying to make
every single variable in the program act as a reference to something else,
or a progression from or to something else. This is a laudable goal, and
in many sports, may even be attainable. But in fitness sport, it is simply
not possible both to accomplish this goal and to expose the athlete to
the broadest range of movements possible.
And that exposure is very important. Certain exercises, like snatches and
muscle-ups, are an indispensable part of training year round. Others do
not require such attention, whether due to low likelihood of incidence
in competition, low carryover to other domains, or a low need for
training specificity. Just training movements like these once in a while is
sufficient, but it is also crucial. An athlete with just a few exposures to
carrying sandbags will be almost immeasurably more likely to perform
well in a sandbag event than an athlete who hasn’t trained them at all.
Seek out novel movements, and judiciously apply them.
Ch apte r S i x
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 173
SPORT SPECIFIC PERIODIZATION
Once the program designer has a good grasp of how to approach SSP,
that general approach must be organized to suit the athlete’s schedule
of training across macrocycles.
In the Offseason, SSP should aim to do the following
1. Maintain a baseline level of multimodal endurance.
2. Maintain technical parameters with movements which the athlete
is currently performing in relatively limited volume.
3. Maintain pacing/output management skills.
Ideally, this is accomplished while minimizing interference from
multimodal endurance pieces of other areas of training. The following
tools are helpful in this endeavor:
• Intensity/Volume Controls: Design of a workout in such a way
as to limit the rate at which the athlete can work, and/or the
total amount of work being done. This can be accomplished
through a multitude of means, including but not limited to:
• Enforced Rest Periods
• Rate Limiting (i.e. telling the athlete precisely how
much work she can do in a given amount of time)
• Movement Selection (i.e. select for movements which
require the athlete cannot perform at a high rate)
• Work Limiting (i.e. telling the athlete precisely how
much work to complete in total)
Ch apte r S i x
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 174
• Low Impact Movements: Select exercises which are less likely
to interfere with other areas of training. For example, running
is more likely to interfere with strength development than
rowing or cycling. Heavy lifting should, generally, be avoided
during this time for much the same reason.
• Uncommon Movement Patterns: Integrating exercises and
patterns which are not frequently seen in fitness sport is
beneficial both as a way of minimizing interference, but
also for improving the athlete’s general health. Rotational
movements, unilateral movements, and various carries should
be near the top of this list.
Pre-Season SSP shifts towards a higher degree of intensity, with less
frequent use of controls and uncommon movement patterns, and
a relative increase in higher impact and higher load movements in
multimodal endurance pieces. At this time, SSP should aim to do the
following:
1. Improve multimodal endurance (as measured by predetermined
testing protocols, discussed in the section on mesocycles).
2. Improve tolerance for volume in sport specific skills which were
trained at lower volumes in the offseason (kipping movements,
high rep weightlifting, etc).
To reflect this need, workouts shift more towards “conventional”
multimodal endurance pieces. Intensity is generally high, movements
are varied but relatively sport specific, but interference across training
domains should still be minimized to the extent possible while still
attaining the above stated goals.
Ch apte r S i x
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 175
The Competition Season is when minimizing interference truly takes a
back seat to specificity.
In fact, one could say that the roles are switched, and now the goal is
to maintain abilities in weightlifting, strength, gymnastics, and energy
systems development while increasing the athlete’s ability to apply them
to the specific nature of the sport.
Although, naturally, it is still important to improve the athlete’s ability
in all domains to the extent possible (and PRs absolutely can and do
happen in this phase of training), the ultimate focus of the competition
season is to maximize the athlete’s sporting form, and in this endeavor,
multimodal endurance and sport specific skill and strength are more
important than any other quality. To that end, competition season SSP
aims to do the following:
Ch apte r S i x
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 176
1. Maximize multimodal endurances.
2. Maximize sport specific strength/skill.
Sport specific strength/skill refers to the athlete’s ability to express
relatively high power, strength, or skill movements under sport specific
conditions. Below are a few examples:
CrossFit Games Open Events 15.1 + 15.1a
• AMRAP 9:
• 15 Toes-to-Bar
• 10 Deadlifts, 115#/75#
• 5 Snatches, 115#/75#
• Immediately into:
• 6 minutes to establish 1RM Clean & Jerk
2015 CrossFit Games Regionals Events 4 + 5
• 250’ Handstand Walk for Time
• Rest 1:40 after 3 minute timecap
• Two attempts to establish 1RM snatch
Ch apte r S i x
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 177
2015 CrossFit Games Event 4
• Snatch Speed Ladder
• Three rounds of ladders, each with progressively
heavier barbells
• Each ladder completed for time
In order to safely facilitate the development of these abilities, the
training volume of conventional methods of developing skill, strength,
and power should be reduced.
TESTING PROTOCOL DESIGN
One of the most important aspects of sport specific preparation is the
effective selection of sport specific testing protocols, and this is an area
in which many program designers make mistakes. There is one particular
trend, which manifests in many ways but presents the same set of
problems. That is the preference for creating one’s own testing protocol
rather than using tests which already exist.
Typically, coaches will choose a large battery of tests, ranging from
benchmark workouts (“Fran”, “Cindy”, etc) to multimodal gymnastics like
100 pullups for time. The author has certainly fallen into this trap.
The problems caused by this method are twofold.
Firstly, it generally results in an unrealistically large battery of tests.
If the program designer wishes to obtain an accurate measure of the
Ch apte r S i x
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 178
athlete’s capacity in each one, the testing block winds up taking weeks,
and eats into precious training time.
The second issue is that no matter how wide the battery of tests, it
can never be as accurate as testing actual competition events. At best,
correlations can be drawn. If an athlete improves both her 100 chestto-bar pullups for time, and her Open Event 15.2 score (overhead squats
and chest-to-bar pullups), the program designer can safely assume that
one has to do with the other. However, there was no real need for a
specific test of 100 chest-to-bar pullups for time, since 15.2 is sufficiently
informative.
A relatively narrow, but very sport specific battery of tests is likely to
be at least as predictive of competitive performance as a wider battery
of less specific tests, with less impact on time the athlete should be
spending training, rather than testing.
Ch apte r S i x
Fitn es s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 179
APPLYING SPORT SPECIFIC PRINCIPLES TO
INDEPENDENT DOMAINS
During the competition season, and for certain athletes during other
parts of the year, independent domains of training – weightlifting,
strength, gymnastics, energy systems development – must be given the
sport specific treatment.
This problem is, fortunately, less complex than it seems. The key lies in
distilling the domain and particular modality down to its key principles,
and discarding the frills which don’t make much difference in favor of
specificity.
In the Strength chapter, a table presenting total volume and reps/set
distinctions at a given intensity was presented as a way of creating
strength development progressions. Since the most important aspect
of this method is the total volume accrued at the given intensity, the
program designer may take this principle, discard the reps per set goal,
and combine the movement with another element.
A training session developed along these lines may look like this:
EMOM 10
• 3 back squats, 70% 1RM
• 4 Muscle-Ups
The primary goal of accumulating sufficient volume to drive strength and
hypertrophy adaptations is fulfilled. Additionally, the time component
S id e ba r D i sc u s s i o n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 180
and mixture of modalities allows for the athlete to use their strength
training as sport specific preparation.
This method can be applied to any movement or domain, so long as the
key principles behind the development of that movement or domain are
understood.
S id e ba r D i sc u s s i o n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 181
CHAPTER SEVEN
I N D I V I D UA L I Z AT I O N
The tailoring of training to suit individual needs is integral. Though its
importance is widely agreed upon, there is little cohesive understanding
about what individualization of training should look like.
In general, there are two camps. The first says that training should be
extremely individualized, to the point that two athletes programs may
look almost entirely different, despite training for the same event. The
second says that athletes training for the same sport should, by and
large, train the same way, and that individualization should make up for a
relatively small portion of the program.
Ch apte r S eve n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 182
This author falls into the second camp, and holds that with exception
for extreme cases, athletes in fitness sport should train as athletes in
virtually every other sport do – by practicing it as they will compete,
with relatively little time dedicated to improving upon weaknesses. The
word “relative” is the key operator in this statement. Of course athletes
must spend time training in areas which need development, but it is the
author’s opinion that training should not be so heavily specialized as to
appear wholly unlike the sport itself.
INDIVIDUALIZATION IN FITNESS SPORT:
ELIMINATE WEAKNESSES, BALANCE
STRENGTHS
The purpose of individualization is to mold the program in a way to make
the athlete more competitive, by way of (1) improving upon weak areas
so that they do not have such a negative impact in competition, and (2)
improving or maintaining strengths so that they carry the athlete higher
in the field in competition.
The second point is often overlooked. In the pursuit of shoring up weak
spots in an athlete’s game, gradual improvement, or in some cases
merely maintenance of her strong points can fall by the wayside. With
rare exception for truly extreme cases, this is to the athlete’s detriment.
The numbers make it clear that both minimization of weaknesses and
very high levels of success in strong areas are strong contributors to
final placement.
Once the need for individualization is understood, the program designer
has two challenges to surmount.
Ch apte r S eve n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 183
1. Understand how to analyze and classify athletes for
individualization.
2. Understand how to apply individualization within the context of
the sport.
ATHLETE CLASSIFICATION
The classification of athletes based on their current level of development
is imperative to sound program design.
This section categorizes fitness sport athletes into three levels. The
levels described herein refer to the athlete’s development relative to her
own potential, rather than her level of competitiveness relative to the
total field of fitness sport athletes. By using relative ability instead of
current competitiveness, the scale can be accurate and meaningful for
any athlete.
LEVEL ONE
This is the first stage at which an athlete is ready for competition-geared
training, i.e. getting out of the class model and into a more structured,
specific, and encompassing program.
An athlete at this level should be starting a complete and well-rounded
program, which addresses all of the needs of the sport consistently.
Movement selection should be fairly general and technically focused. At
this stage of development, the athlete will likely find the most benefit
Ch apte r S eve n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 184
from a simple increase in training frequency, particularly with regard to
technical movements. A concerted effort should be made to address the
athlete’s weaknesses, but overall, a balanced program with relatively few
individual changes will likely suffice.
The nature of this change in programming will provide the athlete with
her first significant increase in training volume.
During this phase, the athlete is relatively new to the training process.
She is developing volume tolerance, perfecting mechanics, and making
fast improvement, particularly in areas she is naturally suited to.
Along with this, there is an important revelatory component to this
stage of training. The athlete’s rapid progress in her strongest domains
will give the coach an idea of where she will need to place particular
attention as she develops, to make her abilities as well-rounded as
possible.
Training Implications For Level One Athletes
Weightlifting: Exercise selection should aim at perfecting mechanics
and maximizing consistency. Most weightlifting training should be
disintegrated and focused on conventional development of the classical
exercises. At this stage of the athlete’s career, power endurance for
moderate to heavy high rep weightlifting and speed strength endurance
for light high rep weightlifting will best be served in the long term by
perfecting movement patterns and improving strength and power, while
aerobic and glycolytic capacities are improved through other domains of
training.
Ch apte r S eve n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 185
Strength Development: As with weightlifting, the Level One athlete
should primarily focus on conventional strength training. Tolerance to
volume will be developed through the use of basic strength development
methods coupled with increased general fitness. Training should be
well balanced, and, in most cases, should focus more or less equally
on strength and hypertrophy. Occasional heavy multimodal endurance
pieces are reasonable, but not integral. They should not form a major
component of the Level One athlete’s training.
Gymnastics: Level One athletes should approach gymnastics in a similar
fashion to weightlifting, placing a premium on developing foundational
gymnastics strength and skill with capacity as a secondary concern.
Gymnastics movements should be regularly included in multimodal
endurance pieces, but most organized and progressive training should
focus on establishing mastery of the fundamental positions and
movements of gymnastics training, rather than developing endurance or
tolerance for high volumes.
Energy Systems Development: In general, athletes who do not come
into the sport with a well developed aerobic base will benefit most
from training to improve that capacity. This does not mean that other
energy systems should not be addressed. But since, as is made clear in
the energy systems development chapter, aerobic processes underlie
so much of bioenergetics, athletes will do well to spend a good amount
of time and energy to develop their aerobic fitness at this stage. In
general, energy systems development at this time should be approached
primarily from a monostructural standpoint at this time, using the time
to develop comfort and technical skill with running, rowing, cycling, and
swimming.
Ch apte r S eve n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 186
L E V E L T WO
After a time, a well-balanced program will have improved the athlete’s
general level of ability significantly. It will also have given the coach and
trainee insight into the trainee’s particular strengths and weaknesses.
Almost every athlete, for reasons ranging from genetic proclivity to
athletic background to psychological preference, will have particular
domains in which she is predisposed to succeed, and she will develop
these abilities more quickly than others. Correspondingly, though the
athlete is better all around, the gaps between her strengths and her
weaknesses are typically more clear. This stage of training is where most
Ch apte r S eve n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 187
athletes will need the highest degree of individualization, attacking
the weak links in the chain as aggressively as possible while avoiding
creating new imbalances.
In order to appropriately address those weaknesses while maintaining
as much balance as possible, it is likely that an increase in total training
volume will be necessary. This increase in training volume also serves the
purpose of helping the athlete get closer to the level of volume tolerance
requisite for fitness sport.
Training Implications For Level Two Athletes
Weightlifting: At this stage, the athlete has a sound base of weightlifting
fundamentals, but is probably not lifting at her potential. Training should
focus towards continuing to perfect mechanics and improving results
in the classical exercises. However, at this point some specificity should
come into play. Semi-regular use of timed format workouts, such as
EMOMs, short clocks, or requiring the set to be done within a certain
period of time are useful. Occasionally requiring the athlete to lift under
fatigue and/or integrated with other elements is acceptable, but is not a
major concern at this time.
Strength Development: Level Two athletes often require more
individualization in strength development than other areas of training,
to account for weak movement patterns, predisposition to hypertrophy
(or lack thereof), and individual anthropometry. Additionally, Level
Two athletes are often reaching the point of absolute strength where
improving 1RM no longer has a substantial effect on strength endurance.
However, these athletes are also likely in greater need of focused blocks
Ch apte r S eve n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 188
of hypertrophy training, and this should be sufficient for a large portion
of their strength endurance development.
Gymnastics: At this point, the athlete has developed technical
competence in most basic gymnastics skills which are common in
fitness sport. Her focus should be placed on developing endurance and
durability with high value movements, as well as progressing to more
challenging variations of the skills she has a strong grasp on. New skills
can be introduced to improve her general level of ability.
Energy Systems Development: The Level Two athlete will see relatively
little change to her energy systems training. However, at this stage, her
aerobic fitness should be at a fairly high level, and so a higher degree
of average intensity can be applied, as the athlete now has sufficient
baseline aerobic development to focus more of her training time on
harder, shorter efforts which are more specific to the most common time
domains of fitness sport.
LEVEL THREE
An athlete at this stage has spent a substantial amount of time utilizing
a well-designed program. She has largely evened out major imbalances
and none of her weaknesses are so glaring that they overshadow her
general level of fitness.
For this athlete, individualization is reduced in favor of greater
specificity. A relatively small amount of her total training load is
personalized in an effort to continue to improve weak areas. More time is
spent creating sport specificity in all aspects of training, from max effort
lifts to pure aerobic efforts.
Ch apte r S eve n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 189
A high tide raises all boats,
and in this athlete’s training,
a high tide we seek. Though
there will inevitably need to
be additional work on areas
of weakness, the athlete
who has reached this stage
is training very specifically
for competition, and seeks
to elicit widely dispersed
adaptations, eking out
marginal improvements in
every facet of the sport.
Training Implications
For Level Three
Athletes
Weightlifting: At Level Three,
power endurance and sport
specific strength/skill are
elevated to equal value as
the athlete’s abilities in the
classical exercises. Phases of
training focusing on driving
the lifts up earlier in the year
should be complemented by
phases of training designed
to ensure that the athlete can
P 190
express those abilities in a wide range of circumstances.
Strength Development: At this stage, the athlete has run through most of
the peripheral improvements for both absolute strength and hypertrophy
training to improve the type of strength endurance relevant to the sport.
The athlete will now need to make a specific and concerted effort to
improve strength endurance, alongside her hypertrophy and strength
development.
Gymnastics: Unsurprisingly, sport specific strength/skill, such as strict
handstand pushups, muscle-ups, and handstand walking are of great
importance for the Level Three athlete. Of similar importance is high
level endurance and durability. By and large, this is par for the course
for athletes at this stage of development. However, gymnastics offers
an important element which is mostly absent from other disciplines:
as Level Three athletes continue to develop fitness characteristics
necessary for sport performance, they should also be learning new
gymnastics skills. Gymnastics is the only training domain in which there
are virtually limitless new movements to add to the athlete’s repertoire.
The acquisition of these skills will help to improve the athlete’s general
gymnastic abilities, and prepares her for the possibility of her eventual
inclusion in competition.
Energy Systems Development: Level three athletes have a well
developed aerobic base as well as great anaerobic capacity. Along
with continuing to improve these fitness characteristics, athletes at
this level must place a premium on integration. A larger degree of
their progressive energy systems training should combine conventional
elements of monostructural training, such as running and rowing, with
gymnastics, strength, and weightlifting movements. This is beneficial for
accumulating training volume in these domains, particularly gymnastics,
Ch apte r S eve n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 191
and allows for a high degree of specificity in training. Level three
athletes will also benefit from a wider battery of monostructural training
means. Along with running, rowing, and cycling, athletes at this stage
should be swimming (it is perfectly reasonable to work this into an
athlete’s training earlier in her career, but at this level it’s a must have),
and can additionally do various types of sled work, road biking, Concept
II Ski Erg, etc.
Ch apte r S eve n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 192
BEYOND THE SPECTRUM
It is important to note that this structure is not an all encompassing
framework. It merely provides a general guide for classifying an athlete’s
ability, to make the process of programming easier. There are clear cases
which require a reorganization of this hierarchy.
One example is the Novice Elite athlete, and the challenge lies not
necessarily within programming for this athlete, but misidentifying her.
The Novice Elite is characterized by having a low training age coupled
with high level results. The easy mistake to make is using the Novice
Elite athlete’s natural ability as the primary guideline for designing her
program. She may qualify for CrossFit Games Regionals in her first year
of training, but this does not necessarily mean that a Level 1 or Level
2 approach is not better for her long term development. Regardless of
initial ability, athletes adapt to training in largely the same ways. Take
care that you set up the novice elite athlete for success as you would
with anyone new to the sport. Once you understand where the athlete
actually falls on the spectrum of stages, it’s easy to determine what she
needs from her programming.
Another case is the Elite Novice athlete. The Elite Novice has been
training consistently and intelligently for a long time. She is not a high
level athlete, but she has moved through stages 1 and 2, and reached
the level of the sport she is going to ascend to through those phases.
Again, the mistake is using the athlete’s absolute level of ability as the
sole measure to guide her programming, instead of her relative level of
development. Despite being less able than the Novice Elite, the Elite
Novice will actually need a higher level, more specific training program.
S id e ba r D i sc u s s i o n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 193
Like the Novice Elite, this is about proper identification.
The third case concerns athletes who come into the sport with extreme
gaps between domains of ability. For example, a female athlete coming
from a throwing background, who has a low 300s squat but runs a 9
minute mile.
This athlete has effectively surpassed Level 1 in a particular domain,
while remaining undeveloped elsewhere. Her strong suits are already
developed well beyond her weaknesses. Her time will be best spent by
tipping the scales in the other direction while, to the extent possible, not
losing her strengths, except in truly extreme cases where the athlete can
afford to lose some of her ability and still be dominant in that domain.
This athlete may require Level 1 training in certain areas and Level 2 or
even Level 3 training in other domains.
S id e ba r D i sc u s s i o n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 194
CHAPTER EIGHT
S T R AT EG I C & TAC T I C A L
C O N S I D E R AT I O N S
Most of this text has dealt primarily with the fitness part of fitness sport,
the development of the various physiological characteristics necessary
for success in competition. The bulk of focus is directed towards fitness,
because without it, there is no room for fitness sport. However, some
attention should still be given to the sport side of the equation.
With that in mind, this chapter will focus on strategic and tactical
concerns for fitness sport athletes, organized as a series of heuristics
Ch apte r Ei g h t
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 195
and processes regarding various aspects of competition. First,
understanding the concept of output management, and how it relates
both to individual events and to the competition as a whole. Second,
assessing particular events to understand how they can be managed.
Third, understanding scoring and placing to craft a strategy for
approaching fitness sport competitions.
OUTPUT MANAGEMENT
Output management, more commonly referred to as pacing, is a
crucial skill to any endurance sport. It’s part of the reason that sport
practice is necessary year round. Fundamentally, the heuristics and
practices outlined in this chapter all fall under the umbrella of output
management.
There Are Two Equally Important Aspects of Output Management
1. Intraevent Output Management: The process of assessing a
particular event and developing a strategy which best leverages
the athlete’s abilities for success in that event.
2. Interevent Output Management: The process of using a developed
understanding of placing and scoring systems in fitness sport to
develop a competition strategy which best leverages the athlete’s
abilities across the competition as a whole.
The two sections following seek to outline effective processes and
heuristics for both intraevent and interevent output management.
Ch apte r Ei g h t
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 196
EVENT ASSESSMENT
In fitness sport, intraevent output management is a complicated
endeavor. Radically different alternating components within a single
event mean that a single pace is inapplicable. The athlete must have a
pace for each aspect of the event, put fully in context with the other
aspects of the event.
In order to create a strategy which suits the athlete’s capabilities, the
coach and/or athlete must have an effective method for assessing
the event. Without such a process, too much guesswork is involved in
crafting the athlete’s approach to the workout.
This text proposes a four step model for assessing an event.
Ch apte r Ei g h t
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 197
1 . I D E N T I F Y G E N E R A L L I M I T I N G FAC TO R S
Many, though not all multimodal endurance events will have one or
several factors which are the major limiters of performance. An extreme
example of this is CrossFit Games Open Workout 14.3:
AMRAP 8
• 10 Deadlifts, 135#/95#
• 15 Box Jumps, 24”/20”
• 15 Deadlifts, 185#/135#
• 15 Box Jumps, 24”/20”
• 20 Deadlifts, 225#/155#
• 15 Box Jumps, 24”/20”
• 25 Deadlifts, 275#/185#
• 15 Box Jumps, 24”/20”
• 30 Deadlifts, 315#/205#
• 15 Box Jumps, 24”/20”
• 35 Deadlifts, 365#/225#
• 15 Box Jumps, 24”/20”
In this event, the athlete’s deadlift strength and strength endurance are
far and away the factors which limit performance.
Ch apte r Ei g h t
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 198
Another example is the Muscle-Up Biathlon from the 2014 CrossFit
Games:
For Time
• Run 400m
• 18 Muscle-Ups
• Run 400m
• 15 Muscle-Ups
• Run 400m
• 12 Muscle-Ups
*Every time the athlete breaks a set of muscle-ups, they must run 200m.
Even without the penalty for breaking sets, this workout would be
limited primarily by the athlete’s proficiency at muscle-ups. With the
penalty, muscle-ups are what make this workout almost in its entirety.
The examples above were chosen for their extremity, to illustrate how
limiting factors work. However, there is a limiting factor in every event,
to a greater or lesser extent.
Limiting factors must be identified because, in effect, they dictate the
approach to the event. If the limiting factor is muscle-ups, there is little
reason to push hard on the run, when the athlete will likely be better
served using the run to recover her heart rate so that she can better
attack the next round on the rings.
Ch apte r Ei g h t
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 199
2 . I D E N T I F Y I N D I V I D UA L L I M I T I N G FAC TO R S
Alongside factors which limit performance for all or most athletes, each
athlete will have individual limiting factors, based in her strengths and
weaknesses, and two athletes may need fairly different approaches to
the same workout.
As an example, take the Triangle Couplet from the 2015 CrossFit Games:
15-10-6 For Time
• Thruster, 165#/115#
• Bar Muscle-Up
A relatively heavy athlete, with a lot of muscle mass and who excels in
weightlifting and strength exercises will primarily be limited by the bar
muscle-ups. The opposite will likely be true for a lighter athlete who’s
strongest domain is gymnastics.
For another angle, let’s look at 2014 Regionals Event 6:
5 Rounds For Time
• 25 Calorie Row
• 16 Chest-to-Bar Pullups
• 9 Strict Deficit Handstand Pushups, 4.5”/3”
Ch apte r Ei g h t
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 200
In most cases, the strict handstand pushup would prove to be the
limiting factor. But to an extent, athletes who excel at handstand
pushups tend to be light, short in stature, and short limbed. In these
cases, the 25 calorie row may become the factor which most dictates
their time to completion.
3 . S T R AT E G I C A N D TAC T I C A L C O N S I D E R AT I O N S
Once both general and individual limiting factors have been assessed,
strategic considerations must be taken into account. Strategy refers here
to the athlete’s planned method of attack for the given event, including
targeted result and overall pace. Tactics refers to the utilization of
specific approaches in order to reach that goal.
As an example, one could devise both a strategy and a tactical approach
for CrossFit Games Open Workout 14.4:
AMRAP 14
• 60 Calorie Row
• 50 Toes-to-Bar
• 40 Wall Ball Shots, 20# to 10’/14# to 9’
• 30 Cleans, 135#/95#
• 20 Muscle-Ups
Formulating a strategy includes, but is not necessarily limited to:
Ch apte r Ei g h t
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 201
• Determining the goal score
• Determining the overall pace
• Determining the pace per component
Formulating a tactical approach includes, but is not necessarily limited to
• Determining how to approach each component in order to
meet the goal pace and reduce accumulation of fatigue
• Creating fallback tactics in case the original plan breaks down
General and individual limiting factors are the guiding light in strategic
and tactical consideration. Without first understanding where the event
is likely to be most challenging for the athlete, it is impossible to make
intelligent decisions about how to approach it.
This approach to strategic and tactical consideration is also one of the
strongest cases in favor of a data driven approach. If the coach and
athlete know how long any given component of a workout is likely to
take an athlete, it is much easier to plan for it. The best way to have a
reasonable estimate is to meticulously track the athlete’s training, on
both a large scale like time to completion for given events, but also a
smaller scale like how long a particular amount of a given movement
tends to take, or what size sets an athlete generally needs to perform a
particular exercise in. The numbers tell a story which is ignored at the
athlete’s peril.
Ch apte r Ei g h t
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 202
4 . T E C H N I C A L C O N S I D E R AT I O N S
Should the athlete jump down or step down on the box jumps in a
given workout? In an event with high rep weightlifting, is the load
heavy enough to necessitate traditional mechanics, or can technique
be optimized for increasing speed and reducing total fatigue? What is
the most efficient pattern for bar loading in a workout with ascending
weight which requires the athlete to put the plates on herself?
All of these questions, and those like them, fall under the heading of
technical considerations. In answering them, we seek to determine the
best way to perform a given task in an event, in ways ranging from
Ch apte r Ei g h t
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 203
actual weightlifting and gymnastics technique, to when in the workout
to load the bar to maximize the value of the brief rest and minimize time
wasted.
Technical selection for a given movement in a given event has three
purposes:
1. Improve score/time to completion
2. Reduce fatigue
3. Minimize risk of injury
Each event will have its own particular qualities which lend to the final
decisions regarding technical considerations. However, one point should
be made very clear: when moving away from conventional technique,
the changes made must be regarded within a spectrum. Improving
efficiency is acceptable, but intentionally giving up those technical
parameters which keep the exercise safe is not. Naturally, under fatigue
and high intensity, there will be mechanical flaws which create a higher
risk of injury. However, it is imperative that the athlete’s training is
designed specifically to reduce the likelihood of this occurrence. It is no
coincidence that top CrossFit Games athletes move safely, efficiently,
and consistently, even under fatigue.
SCORING & PLACING
In order to develop an effective approach to competition, it is important
to understand how the scoring system works, and how scores affect
placing. This section will focus on how an athlete should approach
Ch apte r Ei g h t
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 204
competition given how placements in a given event tend to affect the
final placement.
H E U R I S T I C 1 : T H E O N LY P L AC I N G I S T H E F I N A L P L AC I N G
The first thing to understand when approaching competition is that there
is a limit to how much any single event can impact an athlete’s final
standings.
As of this writing, the ability of a single event to impact the final
standings is reduced as the season progresses. A single bad event in
the Open can knock an athlete out of contention. This is less likely at
Regionals, where there are more events and fewer athletes. The Games
keeps the same number of athletes as Regionals, but typically has close
to double the number of events.
At the 2015 CrossFit Games Pacific Regional, Ben Garard finished day
one with twenty-seventh and twenty-third place finishes – not a strong
start for an athlete looking to qualify for the CrossFit Games. Over the
remainder of the weekend, Garard did not have a single finish lower than
ninth, and ended up narrowly making it to ninth place and a qualifying
spot.
This is an extreme example, but represents the case nicely: even
though Garard had two very weak events, they weren’t weak enough to
overshadow his strengths. They kept him close enough, and his strong
events did the rest.
Application of this Heuristic: The athlete must be prepared to
Ch apte r Ei g h t
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 205
psychologically move on from each event as soon as it’s over, whether
she places well or poorly. The ability to control emotions, stay calm,
and prepare to perform as well as possible in the next event is more
important to the final standings than the placing in any single event.
Leave it behind to ensure that the athlete’s full focus is on the next task.
H E U R I S T I C 2 : T H E L E A D E R B OA R D M OV E S
Following on from Heuristic 1, the nature of the scoring system,
particularly at Regionals and The CrossFit Games, is such that after an
event, the placings can shift dramatically. The standing changes can
be so major that at Regionals and the Games, Saturday is informally
referred to as “moving day”, the day athletes move into the placings
which will position them to make the final run at the podium on Sunday.
The reason that the large swings in the leaderboard have little meaning,
particularly early in the competition, is that the placing isn’t really
what matters – the points are. If an athlete stays close enough in her
weak events – as Garard in the example above – she will still be in good
position to finish at or near her expected final placing at the end of the
event.
As a personal anecdote, in 2015 the author had an athlete finish day one
of Regionals in twenty-fourth place, day two in fifth, and day three in
sixth. Another athlete finished day one in twenty-sixth place, day two in
fifteenth place, and day three in ninth place.
Application of this Heuristic: Athletes should not be watching the
leaderboard unless they are coaching themselves. Ideally, the athlete’s
only job is to perform each event to the best of her abilities. Since the
leaderboard is prone to large scale changes between events, especially
Ch apte r Ei g h t
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 206
early in the competition, the swings are likely to cause the athlete undue
stress with no benefit.
HEURISTIC 3: BE REALISTIC
Athlete and coach must enter the competition with a realistic view of the
athlete’s overall capabilities, both overall and in each event.
This is a crucial long term perspective. Entering the competition with
unrealistically high expectations will set the athlete up for failure, an
unenjoyable event, and very likely a negative impact on the athlete’s
training, which usually manifests in one of two ways:
1. The athlete is discouraged and feels like a failure. This results in
reduced motivation and poor efforts in training.
2. The athlete is angry and feels like they simply did not “do
enough”. This results in over motivation, and the tendency to go
outside of her programmed training to do more, reducing the
efficacy of the program and increasing risk of injury.
Application of this Heuristic: Athlete and coach must set realistic
(if ambitious) goals. An athlete who is almost certainly not going to
qualify for the CrossFit Games should not go into Regionals that the
mindset that she will. This may seem like negativity, but it’s not nearly as
negative as the athlete’s experience will be if she enters the competition
aiming for a qualifying slot and falls very, very short. Competing, like
training, is a long term process, and expectations should be grown over
time, in accordance with the athlete’s abilities.
Ch apte r Ei g h t
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 207
AC K N OW L E D G M E N T S
In writing these acknowledgments, I find myself somewhat awed at the
sheer amount of people whom I should be thanking. There are so many,
in fact, that to try to express gratitude to every one of them individually
would be an endless endeavour.
There are some people, however, whose direct or indirect contributions
to this book have been major enough that to go without thanking them
would be utterly unacceptable.
First and foremost, my parents Mikhail and Elena Tsypkin, without whose
support I would never have had the opportunity to embark on the long
path that has led to the writing of this book.
Chad Wesley Smith and Juggernaut Training Systems, for both providing
me with a platform for expressing my ideas, in articles, seminars, and
now this book. Being associated with JTS has also led to my being
introduced to some coaches who have contributed enormously to my
training philosophies. Foremost among these are Chad himself, Mike
Tuchscherer of Reactive Training Systems, and Dr. Mike Israetel of
Renaissance Periodization.
My knowledge and experience in the sport of weightlifting come from a
large variety of sources. However, thanks are due in particular to Glenn
Pendlay of MuscleDriver USA, who took me under his wing, allowed me
to train with his team, and patiently answered all of my repetitive and no
doubt irritating questions.
With regard to gymnastics development, two individuals have been
J acob Tsy p k i n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 208
instrumental in helping to develop my philosophy and methodology. TZ
Strength’s gymnastics consultant, Chris Lofland of GymnasticsPR, has
succeeded in increasing my gymnastics IQ and the general practices
for gymnastics training employed in TZ Strength programming, and
has made immeasurable contributions to the gymnastics technique of
many TZ Strength athletes. Thanks are also due to my good friend Elisa
Rhynedance, who has consistently helped me with programming and
technical development, as well as directly working with TZ Strength
athletes during training camps.
Alex Viada of Complete Human Performance has been instrumental in
my understanding of bioenergetics, and has also done the important and
unique work of codifying his singular knowledge of concurrent training
so that others may learn from his success. His book “The Hybrid Athlete”
is required reading for the serious fitness sport coach and athlete, for
whom understanding how to balance the development of opposing
fitness characteristics is at the very heart of the sport.
With regard to the specifics of strategy, tactics, and both physical and
psychological preparation for fitness sport competition, no individual has
had as much impact on me as Alex Cardenas of Prepare And Execute.
Alex’s objective, critical, and extraordinarily thorough approach to
the sport has been of immense benefit to myself and all TZ Strength
athletes. Alex remains one of my closest advisors, and continuously
pushes me to be a better coach.
Four individuals took time out of their schedules to help with the editing
of this book. Derek Simonds, Adam Palmer of Photo Reactive, and
Dr. Anthony D’Orazio of Complete Human Performance all assisted in
various types of editing for sections of the book.
J acob Tsy p k i n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 209
My main editor, Katie Butler, smashed through the entire text of this
book in under a week, despite having a real, grown up job. Her keen eye
and liberal use of the proverbial red pen have undoubtedly made this
book far more clear, organized, and digestible than it would have been
without her input.
Last, but certainly not least, I must extend my deepest gratitude to every
athlete, from the most intense competitor to the most casual participant,
who has entrusted me with their training since I began coaching
professionally in 2007. You have been, and continue to be, the reason for
and the conduit and culmination of my all of my efforts in this industry.
Without you, there is no book, there is no TZ Strength, and there is no
opportunity for me to do what I love every day and call it my job.
Thank you.
J acob Tsy p k i n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 210
WO R K S C I T E D
Bassett, D.R., Howley. E.T., 2000. Limiting factors for maximum oxygen
uptake and determinants of endurance performance. Medicine and
Science in Sports and Exercise 32: 70-84
Ericksson, B.O., P.D. Gollnick, and B. Saltin. 1973. Muscle metabolism and
enzyme activities after taining in boys 11-13 years old. Acta Physiologica
Scandinavica 87: 485-497
Gollnick, P.D., R.B. Armstrong, W. Saubert et al. 1972. Enzyme activity
and fibre composition in skeletal muscle of nontrained and trained men.
Journal of Applied Physiology 33: 312-319
Gollnick, P.D., R.B. Armstrong, B. Saltin et al. 1973. Effect of training
on enzyme activity and fibre composition of human muscle. Journal of
Applied Physiology 34: 107-111
Israetel, M., Hoffman, J., & Smith, C. (2015). Scientific Principles of
Strength Training (Juggernaut Training Systems)
Karlsson, J.L., O. Nordesco, L.Jorfeldt et al. 1972. Muscle lactate, ATP and
CP levels during exercise and after physical training in man. Journal of
Applied Physiology 33(2): 194-203
Klaussen, K.L., Andersen, B., Pelle, I., 1981. Adaptive changes in work
capacity, skeletal muscle capillarization, and enzyme levels during
training and detraining.
J acob Tsy p k i n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 211
Laputin, N. & Oleshko, V. (1982). Managing the Training of Weightlifters
(Sportivny Press)
Magness, S. (2014). The Science of Running (Self Published)
Stone, M., & Stone, M. (2007). Principles and Practice of Resistance
Training (p. 7). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
Tabata, Izumi, Nishimura, Kouji et al. 1996. Effects of moderate-intensity
endurance and high-intensity intermittent training on anaerobic capacity
and vo2 max. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 28: 1327-1330
Tuchscherer, M. (2008). The Reactive Training Systems Manual (Reactive
Training Systems)
Verkhoshanksy, Y. & Siff, M. (2003). Supertraining (6th ed) (Supertraining
Institute)
P H OTO G R A P H Y C R E D I T
The photos for this book were provided by Jessica Grondahl and the
Dakota Games.
J acob Tsy p k i n
Fitnes s As Spor t: T h eor y & P ractice
P 212
THEORY & PRACTICE
FITNESS
AS SPORT
JACOB TSYPKIN
P reface
Sci e n t i f ic P r in c ip les o f St ren g t h Tra in in g
P 213