SUMMARY FOR POLITICAL THEORY:
Plato:
1st political
philosopher,
direct student
of Socrates.
1st to think in
a systematic
way.
Wrote the
“republic.”
The Founder
of the
‘Academia,’
existed 900
years after
Plato’s
death.
Period:
Classical
antiquity.
Theoretical framework :
Main issues:
"Rationalism": Plato
believes in a specific
research method, he
says that in order to
understand reality we
have to use our reason.
The world of ideas is
real. Material items are
just a shadow of reality.
To see the truth you
must see the light, and
step out of the cave.
Once you step out of
the cave and look into
the sun, you receive
knowledge “truth.”
Reason, metaphysics, ideas before materialism.
“IDEALISM.”
Philosophers are the
guardians and everyone
else is auxiliaries.
No empirical thought,
just of reason and
metaphysics.
View on humans,
society and state: the
naturalistic approach,
all product of nature.
The state is organic and
comes about naturally.
Perception on human beings: Everyone posses: reason,
desire and courage. A just person is one who knows his
place in society.
Society: dependent on the harmony between the 3 social
classes, philosophers, soldiers and labors. These classes
should be divided according to tests, those are smartest:
philosophers, brave: soldiers, artisans the rest.
A citizen is one who participates in the political sphere. He
is a male, above 20, as long as daddy is citizen as well. No
women or slaves.
View on private property: “it is the chief temptation that
leads man to sacrifice public to personal interests.”
Philosophers and soldiers cannot posses’ private property,
because they are agents of the state.
Perception of the state: “There are 2 things that a guardian
must prevent from slipping into the state is wealth and
poverty. Wealth produces idleness and laziness, poverty
produces bad workmanship and the desire for a revolution.”
A state can grow as much as it can, as long as harmony stays
between the 3 classes.
States much have good judgment and reason.
Main quotes and
key words.
Simile of the cave.
“Stop using your
senses it distorts
the perception of
reality.”
“A state must
have 4 virtues of
wisdom courage,
discipline and
justice.” Justice is
above all.
“Justice consists of
minding your own
business and not
interfering with
others.”
Harmony:
between classes
and within each
person. Self
discipline.
Reason: all posses
and must use.
Education is they key to an ideal state.
The ruler: the philosopher king emerged the best from all
the tests. The true leader of the state must know everything,
study and be wise. Chosen by the people to navigate the
state, like the simile of the ship. A state with an enthusiastic
leader is the worse; one who isn’t is the best. Philosopher
king symbolizes the interaction between moral and political
authority. He is the ruler above all; he has no laws
restricting him because he has ultimate reason.
Justice: do the job you are meant to do, don’t interfere with
the harmony. Self discipline.
Freedom: escaping from the cave and seeing the light.
Freedom is attaining knowledge, must see beyond the
material world.
Knowledge: the
sun, stepping out
of the cave and
seeing the “light.”
Aristotle:
Period:
Classical
antiquity.
Was the
student of
Plato.
Teacher of
Alexander the
great.
Theoretical
framework:
Research methods:
empiricist, made
conclusions according to
observations. Inductive
reasoning: seeing as
much as you can and
then get an idea.
His view of reality:
realist, materialistic, only
saw one true reality,
unlike Plato who saw
two (Dualism).
Determinism: All forms
are pre-determined;
everything happens for a
reason, everything in
nature aspires to reach its
potential. Teleology:
everything has a purpose
Society: Organically
living body or structure.
There is a hierarchy.
View of the state: “The
city is the last in the
order of coming, but first
in the order of being.”
Last created, but most
important. Product of
nature.
Reality: The unmovedmover: theoretical
concept of G-d, stands in
the beginning of natural
transformation and
pushes matter into form.
G-d is nature, nature is
G-d.
Main issues:
Perception of human beings: There are different categories, people
who possess reason and people who don’t posses reason, (Plato,
however, says that everyone possesses reason). Aristotle believes
that the slave doesn’t posses reason, yet they posses physical
capabilities.
Women don’t posses reason. Men and women unite solely to
continue the species; there is no love or harmony.
A slave must be one who doesn't posses reason. It is impossible to
reverse.
Perception of citizens: A citizen is one who posses his life
studying politics and morals. Only Greek men can be citizens
because they posses reason and are rational. Only within a
political state can one reach full potential.
All citizens must live in consensus and unity, of natural order.
The participant in politics must be economically based in order to
deal with higher issues such as morals, politics…
Citizens have 2 lives: one in the household where they are masters
(private), and public.
Perception of society: nature provides a hierarchy. Society
develops in a natural process. Based on the virtues: Wisdom,
justice, self control and courage. The household: the first unit of
natural association >>>> Village >>>> State (Polis). Only in a
state can one live a virtuous life. Based on mutual dependence,
master on slave, and man on women (all part of hierarchy).
The City-State: “It is the crown; it completes and fulfills the nature
of man.” It fulfils a good and happy life. It exists for the sake of a
good life, and for this reason all states exist by nature. "Self-
sufficiency."
Justice and freedom: Distributive Justice- where Plato says
everyone has justice, Aristotle the more you give to the state, the
more justice you get. A practical experience.
Golden path: a virtuous man goes the ‘golden path’ between 2
extremes. Freedom: All citizens are free and equal.
Ruler of the state: monarchy is ideal, but it is difficult to find a
just ruler. In a bad regime a ruler rules for his own interest, and in
a good regime a ruler rules for the common good. Supports a
bourgeoisie state.
Main key words,
quotes.
“He who is
without a city, is
either a poor
sort of being, or
a being higher
then man”
“Man by nature is
a political
animal.”
“The whole is
more necessary
then the part. The
city is prior then
the indivudals.”
“The city exists
for the sake of a
good life”
“All men do all
their acts with a
view of achieving
what is good.”
“All things derive
their character
from their
function and their
capacity.”
“The virtue of
justice belongs in
the city.”
Thomas
Aquinas
Theoretical framework
Main issues
Key words and quotes
Medieval
philosopher,
period.
Scholasticism- movement
that believed in a harmonious
relationship between faith
and politics, there is no
contradiction between faith
and reason.
Perception of the society: G-d as a society wants us to
have laws. There are four types of laws:
1) Eternal Laws- represents G-d’s wisdom, existed
long before creation. The universe is a reflection of
eternal laws.
No contradiction
between church and
state.
Feudalism.
New concept
at the
forefront of
thought
"Theocentris
m" (G-d at the
center).
Research methods: Rational
thought with faith, and
Empirical thought.
Epistemology- For the
knowledge of any truth, man
needs divine help; the
rational mind needs to be
moved by G-d to its act.
View of reality: an idealist,
with reality being the world
of G-d.
View human beings: born
with the original sin. Man
has free will, and free choice.
Man is composed of a
spiritual and a corporeal
substance. All created equal
in the image of god.
Everyone was given different
capabilities: it is human will
as to how we want to realize
these capabilities: Aquinas is
using Aristotle's concepts of
actuality/capability but
transforming them into a
Christian way of thought.
State is created by G-d, so
humans can govern morally.
2) Natural Laws: Human rights. Freedom to pursue
happiness, self preservation, protects oneself from evil.
Natural laws are using reason. In modern days, natural
laws are human rights.
3) Human Laws: Laws made by humans, and vary from
society to society. Justice, courage, self discipline,
reason, faith, hope, charity.
4) Divine Laws: direct laws from eternal, 10
commandments.
Perception of Humans: poses free will and choice, are
evil by nature.
Humans are equal in front of G-d and state, since we are
all image of G-d.
Perception of society: There is a Hierarchy: G-d>
Angels> Humans> animals> plants. Two sword
doctrine: Humans had dual allegiance, to the state and
to the church.
Perception of state: The highest moral authority is G-d.
Yet the church and state don’t contradict each other. For
moral decisions go to church, political- State.
Salvation will only be found in heaven. Thus, the state is
a step in the journey towards salvation. Salvation only in
the "City of god."
States are needed to preserve the peace and to help
people lead good and Christian lives.
Perception of the Ruler: Rulers rule because of the will
of G-d.
Believed in the world of ideas: there are the natural laws
of G-d.
Freedom and Justice: “since man is rational he must
have free choice.”
“Since man is rational
he must have free
choice.”
Two swords doctrine.
Eternal, natural, human
and divine laws.
Scholasticism,
Epistemology.
“Law is a rule and
measure of acts, by
which man is induced
to act or is restrained
from acting.”
The state is one step
before salvation.
“Nothing stands firm
with regard to the
practical reason, unless
it be directed to the last
end, which is the
common good.”
“Law is directed for the
common good.”
“Every act of reasoning
is based on principles
that are known
naturally and every act
of appetite in respect of
the means is derived
from the natural
appetite in respect of
the last end.”
(Regarding natural
law).
Niccolo
Machiavelli
Theoretical Framework
Main Issues
Main key words and
quotes: power!
Period:
Renaissance
Research methods:
Empiricism, rationalism
and realism.
Human beings: Egoistic, self centric, evil & cruel,
cravers of honor and fame. Individuals take their fate in
the own hands. Be wary of allies and especially of
friends and family, because they know your
weaknesses.
“It is much more secure
to be feared than
loved.”
Received a
humanist
education, yet
wasn’t one.
Humanism
believed in the
good of humans,
and Machiavelli
clearly states
otherwise.
Against fatalismfate can be
changed; there is
a cure for bad
luck.
Absolute
monarchy.
Wrote the prince:
as a guidance
book to the new
prince of the
Medici family.
Wrote it in
prison.
View of reality: Realism/
Materialism.
View of human being:
individuals, evil and
cruel, self-centric. Yet
have a free mind and free
will. Pragmatic: being
practical, don’t act
according to universal
ideas, act according to a
specific situation.
Men are equal in
obtaining power, and the
right to do so, yet don’t
have equal skills.
View of society:
anthropocentric- the
individual is most
important.
View of the state: The
state comes from the
individual, it comes
second. Shows the
egoism of the individuals.
The state is artificial, and
created to protect the
citizens.
Basic principles: Power,
Virtue, Fortuna. Don’t
use morals or ethics.
Perception of citizens: the ruler needs the order of the
subjects to stay in power. Don’t take property or
women, you will lose support. Respect based on fear,
better to be feared then loved.
Perception of society: power struggle, disconnect
politics and morals.
Perception of the state: Grant security and protection
for the citizens. State must always be ready for war, a
strong militaristic state is strong political state.
Ruler: 8 main points- 1) Realism: Realpolitik, assume
all people are evil and be prepared. 2) Empiricism:
study history, see how others behave, successes and
failures. Use reason to find solutions. 3) Be a master of
war- if you want peace, prepare for war. 4) Morals are
separated from politics. Be as brutal as possible in
order to stay in power, morals can make you weak.
Moral behavior limits and constraints.
5) Pragmatism: act according to necessity, if war is
necessary; go to war, peace then sign peace. Make
promises to your citizens, but you can break them.
6) Relationship between citizens and ruler: the ruler
needs the citizens. Yet, better to be feared then loved.
Never take property or their women. 7) Virtue- the
ability to translate ambition into action. Master of
public relations. The ability to gain and maintain
power.
8) Fortuna: fortune has half of our fate, but the rest is
our hands, we must seize it. Plan for the worse and the
unexpected. Be the master of fortune, be the master of
your fate. He who takes fortune for granted, today
prospers and tomorrow is ruined.
“A prince must be a
ferocious lion, and a
most astute fox, and
will see him feared and
revered by everyone”
“It’s true that fortune is
the arbiter of half our
actions but also that
even so she leaves the
other half or nearly to
be governed by us.”
“All men want to have
before them glory and
riches: one achieves so
with caution, the other
with impetus; one by
violence, the other with
art, one by patience,
and the other with its
opposite.”
“Whoever is the cause
of one becoming
powerful is ruined;
because that power is
caused by him either by
industriousness or by
force, and both of these
are suspect to whoever
has become powerful.”
Thomas Hobbes
Theoretical framework
Main issues
ModernityWrote leviathan.
Research methods: Political science,
politics as a science, not a theory. 1)
Atomistic view, to understand the
complex structure we must break it
down and analyze separate parts. 2)
Mechanistic materialism. Nature is
made of matter, atoms move freely until
the stronger one stops it. 3)
Anthropocentric- individualism, lead
isolated independent lives. 4) G-d is
passive; he created the world, now he
sits back and watches. Like a watch
maker, made it and now steps back.
On human beings: Are bad, are self centered, sign the
social contract for their self interest. Since there is chaos
in the state of nature, all are after the same natural
resources, this causes insecurity and competition, all are
free and equal. Yet by signing the contract their freedom
is given up for protection and security.
Influenced by
Machiavelli,
negative
understanding of
humans, and
believed in
absolute
monarchy.
Social contract
theorist!
Revolutionary.
Existing in the
state of nature is
chaos.
Lived during the
civil wars in
England,
experienced
chaos and
violence
throughout his
life.
Monarch is
chosen by the
people, not by Gd.
View of reality: materialism and
realism.
Perception on citizen: once the contract is signed, the
minority doesn't have the right to protest against the
majority. Gives up his freedom to the strongest person,
the monarch. Men and women are equal because both
posses’ reason, yet women do not participate in politics.
Perception of society: competition, fight for natural
resources. Sign the contract, and are protected.
Perception of the state: exists to grant security, created
through use of reason of man. Stages from state of
nature to the civil state: 1) state of nature- chaos, death,
misery, insecurity, hopelessness. 2nd stage:
commonwealth- political union created by individuals,
we renounce our absolute freedom the common wealth
in exchange for security. 3rd: Civil state is created, in
View of society: competitive, harsh. Yet this phase all are considered citizens except for women.
varies and is different between the state
of nature, which is insecure and
Ruler of state: we give our freedom away, in exchange
dangerous, and the social contract,
for protection and order. The head of the state isn’t
which protects and grants security to the limited by the contract, nor does he sign it. Diplomatic
individuals.
immunity. It’s better to fear one strong individual than
everyone else. Political and moral authority of the state.
View of state: social contract theory
validates the existence of the state.
Justice and freedom: In the state of nature, man has
Individuals create the state, it is
absolute freedom, with signing the contract the freedom
artificial, and they sign the contract so
is given up in exchange for security. The monarch is
the state will serve their interests. Must just, for he has the power. Justice belongs to the most
provide security.
powerful, if the people revolt and overthrows him; they
are just, because they are stronger. If the revolt fails, the
Basic principles: the basis of the natural monarch is just.
rights: life, freedom & survival, by
signing the contract you give up
freedom, for the 2.
View of human being: not social, lead
independent and isolated lives. Man to a
man is a wolf. Humans’ posses free
mind, will, life, survival and absolute
freedom: all are natural rights.
Key
quotes
“The life
of man:
solitary,
poor,
nasty,
brutish
and
short.”
“Man to
a man is
a wolf.”
“Every
man is
enemy to
every
man, in
the state
of
nature.”
John Locke
Directly
influenced by
Thomas Hobbes.
Firm social
contract theorists.
Father of the
liberal
democracy,
influenced the
American
revolution.
Wanted a
parliamentary
monarchy.
Theoretical framework
Research method: Same as
Hobbes.
View of reality: Same as
Hobbes.
View on Human: life in the
state of nature: harmony,
we act according to self
interest, but were capable
of acting morally in terms
of natural laws. Humans
are equal because they
posses’ three fundamental
rights: life, liberty and
private property. Humans
are looked in a good and
positive way, capable of
loving and act according to
mutual love.
View on society:
Harmonious.
View on the State:
Artificial, created by man.
The state’s task is to
preserve natural rights, not
by taking its citizens
freedom.
Basic principles: Liberal
democracy, the idea that a
state must guarantee life,
liberty and property to their
citizens. Locke’s state of
nature is different than
Hobbes’ interpretation.
Main issues
View on Human beings: motivated by self motivation
and desire. Everyone is equal and free. Humans relate
to each other peacefully and through harmonic means.
One of the most important natural laws is to respect
the rights of others. Man can only be free if he
respects these rights. Man is rational.
View on citizen: the state must protect the citizens’
natural rights, if they fail to do so; they have the
obligation to do so. Citizens had a role in gov't,
senators, congressmen…
View on society: All have the right to have private
property, as well as natural rights. In the state of
nature all have these rights, but signing the social
contract helps to protect these rights. Society comes
before the state; the majority must respect the
minorities’ rights. Mankind would be fine to live in
a state of nature, if it weren’t for degenerates.
Perception of the state: the state prevents people from
fighting and protects their natural rights. He put
forward the voting system, electing the parliament.
Separating legislative from executive. Popular
sovereignty and representative gov't. Gov't
represents the will of the people. Unlike Hobbes,
believes that absolute monarchy is insufficient.
Constitution is needed, so natural rights aren’t
interfered with. Positive laws, written laws of the state
that are the byproduct of natural laws.
Perception of the ruler: Unlike Hobbes, the leaders
aren’t above the law. The monarch receives his power
by trust and love, not by fear. Better to be loved than
feared.
Justice and freedom: like Hobbes, in the state of
nature, humans have complete freedom. Yet give up
partial freedom by signing the contract.
Justice is preserving others natural rights, and if one
harms another; the harmed may bring death upon the
offender.
Key quotes:
Liberal democracy, life,
liberty, private
property.
“Men when they enter
into society, give up the
equality, liberty, and
executive power they
had in the state of
nature, into the hands
of society, to be so far
disposed or by the
legislative, as the good
of the society shall
require.”
“They have thereby
made that community
one body, with a power
to act as one body,
which is only by the
will and determination
of the majority.”
“Hath brought men to
know that it is no less
their duty, to love
others then themselves,
for seeing those things
which are equal must
needs all have one
measure.”
Jean Jacque
Rousseau
Period:
Modernity
Theoretical framework
Main issues
Key words
and quotes
Research method:
rational and empirical.
5 stages that lead to a civic society:
Positive
freedom.
Social
contract
theorist,
follower of
Hobbes and
Locke.
View of reality:
rationalism and
materialism.
Born in
Geneva 1712
died in Paris
in 1778.
View of the human
being:
Going through a
transition, individuals
were isolated from one
another in the state of
nature, but man is
good, and acts
according to 2
principles: Self
preservation
(survival), and
compassion. In the
state of nature humans
don’t use reason!!!
They are noble savages.
The nature of the
humans changed from
phase to phase. Unlike
Hobbs and Locke: He
claims that humans
sign the contract for
the gov't to allow their
freedom. Freedom isn’t
taken away but rather
guaranteed.
Was against freedom of
expression and speech.
The state of nature: nothing limits one’s choice or freedom. There are
no morals because there is no social interaction.
The golden age: Acquiring basic primitive language, begin to use
reason. There is a harmonious, peaceful relationship. The creation of
private property.
The corrupt civic state: self respect was lost and now man is
controlled by their own self interest. Before the civic state, there was a
peaceful, harmonious situation. But, now there is a situation of
unhappiness. Human beings lost their freedom. "Man is born free and
everywhere else we are in chains," chains of private property,
corruption and self interest. Rousseau sees the negative aspects of
progress, unlike enlightment philosophers; Rousseau sees progress as a
step towards war.
Regarding freedom: either completely free, or not free at all.
Absolute freedom is achieved by signing the social contract:
The monarch is limited, and so is everyone else. "Each, giving himself
to all, gives himself to no one." By signing the social contract, no
individual and no group will enjoy privileges that are denied to others.
By signing the social contract, you have one society.
The civic state: The rule is by the general will. It is based on natural
rights and an absolute sense of justice. Based on general interest.
People respect the ‘general will’, rather than the ‘will of all.’ The will
of all represents one’s selfish desires, whereas the general will,
benefits all individuals.
The perception on the ruler: Rousseau makes a distinction between
sovereignty and the gov't. The constitution is the prime law, and above
the ruler.
Perception on humans beings: they all transform from phase to phase.
Perception of the state: Artificial and the general will rules. The law is
above the ruler, it is the supreme authority on the land.
Perception of society: Believed in positive freedom. Only being part
of a community can one achieve absolute freedom. Laws, values,
morals and institutions will lead one to live a moral life, and be fully
free.
Freedom and justice: You must follow the laws of the general will in
order to realize full freedom.
5 stages:
nature,
golden,
corrupt,
contract, civil
state.
Against
progress,
leads to wars
and
unhappiness.
General will.
“To renounce
one’s
freedom, is to
renounce
one’s quality
as a man.”
“What then is
government?
An
intermediate
body,
established
between
subjects and
sovereigns so
that they
might
conform to
one another,
and charged
with the
execution of
the laws and
the
maintenance
of freedom,
both civil and
political.”
Edmund Burke
Theoretical framework
Main issues
Key words, quotes.
Conservative thinker.
Research method: empiricism.
Rejects the social
contract, claiming it is
abstract and unreal.
Rejects "A Priori"
thinking.
View of reality: Realism-materialism.
Perception of humans: Evil, cruel,
irrational, selfish, corrupt,
original sin (innate). Yet can change
with religion, education and
institution. Our instinctive feelings
of loyalty and love make us live
together within the family, the
church and the state.
Conservative.
Positive freedom.
Constructivism
(institutions & edu.)
Constitutional
monarchy.
Prefers freedom over
equality.
Burke supported the
American revolution
because it was done in
the name of history,
loyalty tradition;
historical rights yet
opposed the French
Revolution because it
was a very violent
revolution against the
tradition, with radical
changes.
View of human: Rational, and equal in
the eyes of the law, but he believes in
historical rights, such as liberty and
private property. Burke rejects the idea
of natural rights. Freedom above
equality. Egalitarian.
View of society: he was an elitist, and
believed in social classes, hierarchy. A
fan of aristocracy. It showed develop
itself, it is a living organism. Society is
like a tree, it develops slowly, step-bystep in harmony. Society should be
ruled by intellectual elite (similar to
Aristotle). Society is above the state, it
is more important. The nature of
society is to give up on ones liberty, so
we can have some liberty we give it all
up.
View of state: the state influences and
restrains human freedom. Citizens are
attached to the state by feelings and
loyalty. The state has a moral function.
Basic principles: constructivism,
constitutional democracy, positive
freedom.
Citizens: Feeling of loyalty to the
state.
Society: same as in framework.
State: same in framework.
Perception of the ruler: An elite
ruling family, like the Kennedy’s.
They have the manners and morals
of the society. An aristocratic
family, well based, with deep roots
in the nations past. The ruler should
base his decisions on past history.
Freedom and justice: positive
freedom. Constitutional democracy,
constraining and limiting the ruler.
Justice is the law, the constitution.
Of course freedom is above all
rights and equality.
Constitutional
democracy.
John Stuart
Mill
Born in
London.
1806-1873.
Critique of
the social
contract
theory.
Follower of
Burke yet
was a liberal
and not
conservative.
‘1st’ feminist,
women have
equal rights.
Idea of
freedom of
speech and
debate is
very similar
to Plato, yet
claims that
an absolute
truth cannot
be reached.
Theoretical Framework
Main issues
Research method: Empiricism,
rationalism.
Perception of human beings: Unique / spontaneous /
intellectually diverse and these individuals are the
counter-weights of mass conformity to democracy. He
has a good opinion of the individual.
View of reality: utilitarianism: The
greatest happiness, for the greatest
number of people. Greatest benefit at
the lowest possible cost. There is no
absolute truth, therefore doubt
everything. We need rational thinking.
View of the human being: completely
free individual. Rational, equal, avoids
pain, seeks pleasure, and has individual
rights but no natural rights.
View of society: Freedom is more
important than economic/social
equality. Society comes before the state.
Majority rules within the framework of
liberal democracy. Society should
guarantee individual freedom and
majority freedom. Society must
guarantee individual rights. Negative
freedom- supports a lack of restraints:
you cannot limit freedom, there are no
limits. Letting people do whatever they
want as long they don’t harm anyone.
Doing drugs in your home doesn't hurt
anyone. But if you drive a car, then that
can harm.
No institution or social values should
limit the free choice of the individual.
In favor of freedom of speech and
discussion. Importance of the dialogue
(Arhendt).
View of state: The influence of the state
should be limited. State shouldn’t
interfere in the citizens' private life. A
liberal democracy, gov't is limited by a
constitution, political power diffused
and balanced. Laws of the state should
function as utilitarian principle.
Democracy and utilitarianism go hand
in hand.
Basic principles: constitutional
democracy, negative freedom,
utilitarianism, separation of power.
Perception of the citizen: Citizens are in the center, they
should get the most benefit of the state. The citizens elect
the government (including women). Involved in the
decision making process. Citizens can oppose the gov't
(freedom of speech, right to assemble). Citizens are free
and equal. Truth loses it persuasive element when ideas
are silenced and dismissed, the goal is not to reach the
real opinion, because there is no absolute truth.
Perception of society: Society has negative freedom. The
majority is dangerous and needs to be limited, and
protect the rights of minority and individual; it must
work the framework of liberal democracy. Society
shouldn’t interfere with individual decisions. Society
relates to each other through dialogue, debate,
discussion. By guaranteeing the greatest happiness for
the greatest people, Mill rejects Rousseau’s belief of
the general will. Society must be just, because it
guarantees individual and majority rights. Society
cannot force its norms or customs of the majority on
the individual or minority. There is a fear that the
majority will become tyranny.
Perception of the state: it exists for the benefit of the
people, for the greatest amount of people. The best of
society should rule. Laws are man-made, and come from
the majority, as long as it doesn't harm the minority.
Laws are limited to protect individual rights. The state
should be liberal democracy, constitutional.
Perception of Ruler: Ruler should be the elite; they have
limited power, constrained by the constitution.
Freedom and justice: freedom is a right. Negative
freedom. Very similar to Plato. Justice for all, and same
for all.
Key words
and Quotes.
Utilitarianism,
Negative
freedom,
liberal
democracy.
“Liberty
means
protection
against the
tyranny of the
political
rulers.”
“Mind your
own
business.”
Frantz Fanon
Theoretical framework
Main issues
Key words and
quotes
Post World War
2.
Research method: Empiricism and
rationalism.

Alienation.
Based on Marx,
both believed in
dialectic means.
Both believed in
positive freedom.
View of Reality: realism and
materialism. The material world
creates the abstract world of ideas,
completely opposite of Plato.
View of human being: social,
Use of violence to individuals. We’re supposed to be
get rid of an
equal, but were not. In society
unfair hierarchic
black people are seen as savages,
society.
primitive and unequal. There is
hierarchy, as white man is superior
to black. Humans lack reason.
View of society: Society is unequal
and racist. Society is an unfair
system.
Alienation: The educated blacks
never fit in, if their in their country
they're outcasts because they don’t
speak the native language, but if they
go to France and speak perfect French
they're look at not as a smart person
but as smart blacks.

Inferiority complex of blacks

If one tries to say no were not
racist, blacks are just as smart as
whites, has intelligence ever
saved anyone?

White people talk down to blacks,
because of an appearance which
he is not responsible for. What is
important now is not to educate
the ‘Negro’, but to teach him not
to be the slave of the archetypes.

Fanon views Colonialism as
creator of racism, while Marx
views it as a way for economic
gain.
View of the state: doesn't talk about
it, artificial?
Basic principles: Violence gives
you dignity; the only way to
overcome racism is through
violence. De-colonization,
nationalism. Language. Terror.
Three levels of violence:
1)
Individual level: through violence
he gets his dignity back. 2)
Through political: use violence to
change the system. A tool to
equalize between blacks and
whites. To fix what is broken and
not only to observe.
3)
Universal level: Whites are slaves
to their racist beliefs. Believes in a
socialist state. Violence will also
liberate the ‘whites’ from their
racist views.
Language: Mastery of language
affords remarkable power. The
black who spoke French, speak
like white people, and get better
jobs.
Fanon believes that after the violence,
the new society will be socially and
economically free and equal.
Freedom and justice: absolute
freedom can only be achieved through
violence and fighting.
False consciousness- Orientalism,
western thought, the belief that
western thought, culture, norms is
universal and benefits everyone. Its
psychological and cultural
oppression.
“What matters is
not to know the
world, but to
change it.”
“It is not out of
my bad nigger’s
misery, my bad
nigger’s teeth,
my bad nigger’s
hunger that I will
shape a torch
with which to
burn down the
world, but it is
the torch that was
already there,
waiting for that
turn of history.”
“There is only
one solution: to
fight. He will
embark on this
struggle, and he
will pursue it,
not as the result
of a Marxist or
idealistic
analysis but
quite simply
because he
cannot conceive
of life otherwise
than in the form
of a battle
against
exploitation,
misery, and
hunger.”
Karl
Marx
Theoretical framework
Main issues
Key words
and quotes
18181883.
Research method: Rational and
empiricism.
Wrote:
communi
st
manifest
o.
View of reality: Dialectic materialism.
The material world creates the abstract
world of ideas. There is a
superstructure: the base of the
pyramid is the material factors, money,
and economy. The base causes the
ideas, and the ideas are reflections of
the base. The mode of production is
capitalism, the means are the
machines; and the relation of
production is the bourgeoisie (capital),
and the proletarians (labor).
Perception of human beings: free and equal. The
revolution that will take place will be an act of the
immense majority against a tiny minority. People are
born equal and free. The bourgeoisie motivation is to
accumulate more wealth; the proletarians don’t have a
choice, but to be the laborers. It is matter that drives
humans’ motivation, not G-d, or nature.
“The
exploit of
the many
by the few”
Main
criticizer
of
feudalis
m,
capitalis
m.
Wants a
new
system:
communi
sm.
His view
of the
world is
that there
is a
division
of
aristocrac
y and
proletaria
ns.
After the
revolutio
n there is
no state.
Proletaria
ns vs.
bourgeoi
sie.
View of human being: Egalitarian,
they are victims of the unequal
hierarchic economic structure, between
the proletarians and the Bourgeoisie.
View of society: Hierarchic. Marx was
a scientific socialist; he studied history
in order to find way to change the
present. He studied history according to
objective and universal laws.
Because of capitalism there is economic
freedom, inequality, individualism,
bureaucracy, nationalism - they all
reflect the interests of the Bourgeoisie
that controls the base.
View of the state: States are artificial; a
tool of the bourgeoisie, after the
revolution in Marx’s eyes, there will be
no state.
Basic principle: Communism: it is a
social economic structure and political
ideology that promotes the
establishment of an egalitarian,
classless, stateless society based on
common ownership and control of the
means of production and property in
general.
Perception of citizen: same as humans.
Perception of society: Based on economic structure,
the base vs. superstructure. “The history of all hitherto
existing society is the history of class struggles.
Oppressor and oppressed.” Only after the revolution
when all is shared, will there be equality and justice.
Norms and values of society: class struggles, the
bourgeoisie rule all, and only after the revolution will
there be common values. After the revolution:
Abolition of private property.
Perception of the state: After the revolution there will
be no state, in the current system the state acts as a
means for the bourgeoisie to reach its capitalistic
gains. In a democratic state the only gainers are the
rich. The community therefore owns the property.
Communism means the abolishment of exploitation of
antagonism and of oppression for all human beings.
Under communism, we don’t have states anymore
because a state is a mechanism to control others. We
don’t need states, nations or religions all these
control others. Under communism, one engages in
absolute freedom because there is no private property
anymore. People are free because we enjoy our work
activity, we can enjoy our life and we have pride
again. Communism is thus the sphere of peace,
harmony, cooperation and integration. Under
communism I will work a limited number of hours
and the rest is leisure time. The rest will develop itself
intellectually. One will be with his colleagues and
friends. Communist society, p.231 is "an association
in which the free development of each is the condition
of the free development of all", according to Marx.
My freedom depends on the freedom of the
community. Freedom and justice: Freedom is when
there are no more class struggles. Justice as well.
Alienation:
not only
the
proletarians
are
alienated
but the
bourgeoisie
is also
alienated
because
they are not
working
and not
being
creative.
“Working
men of all
countries
unite”
“Let the
ruling class
tremble at a
communist
revolutionn the
proletarians
have
nothing to
lose but
their
chains.”
Hannah Arendt
Theoretical
framework
Main issues
Key words and quotes
Research method:
Empirical.
Freedom:
True freedom meant
political participation
in the sphere of
debate.
“Violence can end a
political regime, but it
can't create a new
one.”
(1906- 1975)
Influenced by:
Aristotle, Plato and
Mill, who all focused
on debate. Unlike
Fanon, Marx,
Machiavelli who saw
power as the most
important, Arendt
believes in speaking
and not in violence
and power.
Reality: Materialism.
Human being:
egalitarian.
Society: Harmonious
because of the
dialogue.
State: Artificial.
Strongly opposes
violence.
Basic principles:
Dialogue and end of
terror and violence.
Violence and terror:
are characteristics of a
totalitarian regime.
“Violence is
speechless; it isn’t a
language that resolves
conflicts.”
“The technical
development of the
implements of
violence has now
reached the point
where no political
In order for there to be goal could
conceivably
dialogue, there has to
be a relation amongst correspond to their
destructive potential
equals.
or justify their actual
use in armed conflict.
Warfare has lost much
of its effectiveness,
and nearly all its
glamour.”
Criticizes the
Machiavellian
understanding of
politic.
John Rawls
Theoretical framework
Main issues
Key words and
quotes
1931-2002.
“A theory of
justice.”
Research method:
Empiricism and
rationalism, the ‘veil of
ignorance exercise.’
Perception of human beings: According to the equal
liberty principle, we should all be equal with regards to
our basic principles. However to ensure incentive for
societal progress for talented people there cannot be
socio-economic equality.
Negative
freedom.
Justice as
fairness.
No socioeconomical
equality.
Social contract
theory, negative
freedom, liberal.
Reject
utilitarianism.
Criticizes liberal
democracy.
Follower of
Locke, Mills and
Plato.
Search for
justice.
Completely
contradicts Marx.
View of reality: Materialist.
Human beings: Rational,
make decisions according
to self interest. All have
reason. Natural, free and
equal. Negative view of the
humans
View of society: Equality is
unjust. Equality should be
with rights and basic
liberties, political freedom,
freedom of thought and
speech and private
property. But there
shouldn’t be equality
regarding social
economic. Negative
freedom.
View of state: artificial.
The individual comes
before the state because it
created the state.
Basic principles:
Liberalism, with social
contract and utilitarianism.
Justice as fairness. Initial
position. Overlapping
consensus.
Perception of citizens:
Majority of the citizen’s rule.
Perception of society:
Initial position.
Like Plato:
Search for
justice!!
Perception of the state: Separation of power, executive
and legislative.
Justice and Freedom/Society: Justice as fairness.
Believes in the need for an initial position, where
everyone starts from scratch, with no identity, religion,
culture, class, no advantage over another. Only then can
everyone come to agree on what is Justice. The ‘veil of
ignorance exercise.’
He searches for an objective answer and “overlapping
consensus,” to which everyone can agree as to what the
definition of justice is, this explains justice as fairness,
and justice is impartial.
3 Main principles: 1) Equal liberty principle:
Principle that will guarantee a person's honor and
integrity as a human being. It is the ABSOLUTE
PRINCIPLE: right to vote, freedom of speech,
assembly, thought, and private property, freedom from
unjust arrest and unjust search and seizure. Everyone
will agree on these rights!
2) Difference principle: “Social and economic
inequalities are to be arranged so that they both (a)
reasonably expected to be in alls advantage and (B)
attached to positions and offices open to all. deals with
social and economic affairs; it states that social and
economic inequalities are just as long as they improve
the situation of the weak.
3) Priority rule: If there is a contradiction between the
first 2, the first takes precedence.
Injustice is simply inequalities that are not to the benefit
of all.
“My aim to
create an
alternative
thought in
contrast to
utilitarianism,
main idea is that
society is just
when institutions
achieve the
greatest net
balance of
satisfaction
summed over all
the individuals
belonging to it.”
“The social
system is not an
unchangeable
order beyond
human control,
but a pattern of
human action. In
justice as fairness
men agree to
share one
another’s fate.”