IGCSE
GEOGRAPHY 0460
TOPICS
1. Population & Settlement
2. The Natural Environment
3. Economic Development
4. Geographical Skills
Assessment overview
All candidates take three components. All candidates take Paper 1 and Paper 2, and either
Component 3 or Paper 4. Candidates will be eligible for grades A* to G.
Paper 1
1 hour 45 minutes
Geographical Themes
45%
75 marks, weighted to 100 marks
Candidates answer three questions, each worth 25
marks. Candidates must answer one question from
each section
Paper 2
1 hour 30 minutes
Geographical Skills
27.5%
60 marks
Candidates answer all the questions
Paper 4
1 hour 30 minutes
Alternative to Coursework
27.5%
60 marks
Candidates answer two compulsory questions,
completing a series of written tasks
1. Population & Settlement
•1.1 Population Dynamics
•1.2 Migration
•1.3 Population Structure
•1.4 Population Density & Distribution
•1.5 Settlements & Service Provision
•1.6 Urban Settlements
•1.7 Urbanisation
2. The Natural Environment
•2.1 Earthquakes & Volcanoes
•2.2 Rivers
•2.3 Coasts
•2.4 Weather
•2.5 Climate & Natural Vegetation
3. Economic Development
4. Geographical Skills
•3.1 Development
•4.1 Geographical Skills
•3.2 Food Production
•3.3 Industry
•3.4 Tourism
•3.5 Energy
•3.6 Water
•3.7 Environmental Risks of Economic Activity
UNIT 1 POPULATION & SETTLEMENT
Unit 1.1 population dynamics
What is population dynamics in geography?
Population dynamics in geography refer to the study of changes in the size,
composition, and distribution of human populations over time and space. This
includes a wide range of topics, including population growth, migration patterns,
urbanisation, and demographic transitions.
Geographers who study population dynamics use a variety of methods to
analyze population data and understand the factors that influence population
change.
Population dynamics is an important field of study in geography because it helps
us understand how human populations interact with their environments and how
social, economic, and political factors affect population patterns. This knowledge
can be used to inform policies and interventions aimed at promoting sustainable
development, improving public health, and addressing social inequalities.
What is population distribution?
Population distribution refers to the way in which people are spread out across a
geographic area, such as a country, region, or city. It refers to the pattern of population
density across space and time.
Population distribution can be influenced by a variety of factors, such as topography,
climate, natural resources, and economic opportunities. For example, populations tend to
be concentrated in areas with fertile land, abundant water resources, or access to
transportation networks and economic centers.
Population distribution can also be uneven, with some areas having a high population
density, while others are sparsely populated. This uneven distribution can lead to social
and economic disparities, such as unequal access to services, infrastructure, and job
opportunities.
What is demographic transition?
Demographic transition is a theory that describes the changes in population growth rates
and patterns that occur as a country undergoes industrialization and economic
development. The theory suggests that countries experience a predictable pattern of
population growth and decline as they move from a pre-industrial to an industrialised
society.
The demographic transition theory identifies four stages of population growth
and decline. In the first stage, which is characterized by high birth rates and
high death rates, the population growth rate is low. This is typically the situation
in pre-industrial societies where health conditions are poor and child mortality
rates are high.
In the second stage, as countries begin to industrialise and improve their health
care and sanitation systems, death rates decline while birth rates remain high.
This results in a rapid increase in population growth rate.
In the third stage, as industrialisation continues and education levels increase,
birth rates begin to decline while death rates remain low. This leads to a slower
growth rate and a more stable population size.
In the final stage, birth rates and death rates both decline to low levels,
resulting in a population with little to no growth.
What is a population pyramid?
A population pyramid is a graphical representation of a population's age and gender structure. It
displays the percentage or number of individuals in each age group and gender within a given
population, typically a country or region.
The population pyramid is usually represented as a horizontal bar graph, with the age groups
displayed along the vertical axis, and the percentage or number of individuals in each age
group displayed along the horizontal axis. The left side of the graph displays the male
population, while the right side shows the female population.
The shape of the population pyramid can provide insights into the demographic characteristics
of a population. For instance, a pyramid with a broad base and a narrow top indicates a young
population with high fertility rates and low life expectancy, while a pyramid with a narrow base
and a broad top indicates an aging population with low fertility rates and high life expectancy.
Population pyramids are widely used by demographers, economists, and policymakers to
understand population trends, forecast future population growth, and plan for social and
economic policies. They are also used in fields such as public health, education, and social
welfare to plan for the needs of specific age groups within a population.
What are overpopulation and underpopulation ?
Overpopulation refers to a situation where the number of people in a given area or
region exceeds the carrying capacity of the environment. This means that the available
resources, such as food, water, and living space, are not sufficient to meet the needs of
the population, leading to environmental degradation, resource depletion, and social,
economic, and political problems.
Overpopulation is a complex issue that has multiple causes and consequences.
Overpopulation can have negative impacts on the environment, including
deforestation, soil erosion, air and water pollution, and loss of biodiversity. It can also
lead to social and economic problems, such as overcrowding, unemployment, poverty,
and inequality.
To address overpopulation, strategies that focus on sustainable development, family
planning, education, and resource management are often proposed. Some countries
including China and Singapore have in the past introduced policies to tackle the
problems of overpopulation.
1.1.1 Population
Population Increase
•The world's population is increasing by approximately 80 million people a year
•In 1804 the world population was 1 billion
•Population growth was steady and low
•It then took just over 100 years for the population to double to 2 billion
Exam Tip
In the exam you may be asked to describe population change on a graph.
Remember to consider the following points
•What is the main trend? Is it increasing, decreasing or staying about the same?
•Has the change been rapid or slow?
•Have changes occurred during specific times?
•Are there any anomalies?
•Don't forget to use figures from the graph
•The rate of increase after 1930 was then more rapid and led to a population
explosion
•The fastest increase in population happened during the 1980s and 1990s
•Population growth rate is the average annual change of the population size during
a set period of time, usually a year
• The population is still increasing but at a slower rate
• In 1970 the growth rate was 2%
• In 2022 the growth rate is under 1%
•It is predicted by the UN that the population will stabilise at around 11 billion in 2100
Exam Tip
Population increase is not the same as the population growth rate. The population can increase at
different rates. The rate at which it is increasing is known as the population growth rate.
Overpopulation & Underpopulation
•Every area has a carrying capacity this is the number of people that an area can support
• Overpopulation occurs when there are more people in an area than can be supported by its resources and
technology
• Underpopulation occurs when there are more resources available than the population can use effectively
•Overpopulation can lead to increased:
Levels of pollution
• Crime rates
• Unemployment or underemployment
• Levels of food and water shortages
• Pressure on services such as hospitals and schools
•Underpopulation also has consequences including:
• Fewer people pay taxes which can lead to higher taxes
• Underused resources, which can lead to waste
• A shortage of workers
• Lower levels of exports and production which affects the wealth of an area
• Fewer customers for goods and services
•The optimum population occurs when there is a balance between the number of people and the
resources/technology available
Worked example
Study Figure 1.1 which shows information about population and resources
How does the balance between population and
resources differ between a country which is underpopulated and one which is over-populated?
Answer:
•An under-populated country has more resources than population but
an over-populated country has more population than resources [1]
Exam Tip
It is important to remember that over-population is not simply that there are a lot of people and under-population
is not there are few people. The terms refer to the balance between population and resources. There may be
many people in a country, but it is only over-populated when there are too few resources to support that
population.
Case Study: Nigeria
•Nigeria's population is over 217 million and is forecast to reach 400 million by 2050 and 1 billion by 2100
• Lagos is predicted to become the world's largest city by 2100
•30% of the population live in poverty earning less than $515 a year
•The urban population has increased from 18% in 1960 to almost 53% in 2021
•Nigeria is experiencing rapid population growth at 2.5%
•Nigeria's population density is 226 people per km2
• In Lagos, the population density reaches 6871 people per km2
Resources
•Nigeria has many resources including oil, gas, iron ore, coal, zinc and arable land
•The resources do not provide wealth to the whole population due to:
• Poor management
• Ownership by foreign companies
• Corruption
•The top 5 richest Nigerians own and control more resources than the remaining 95% combined
•Combined with rapid population growth, it means that currently, resources are not supporting the population
Causes of over-population
Causes of over-population
•The high birth and fertility rates are the main cause of the rapidly increasing population
•The age of marriage in some areas can be as low as 13 and 45% of women are married
before they reach 18
• This increases the number of children each woman has; due to being married and
of childbearing age for longer
• The fertility rate is 5.32 births per woman (2019)
•Larger families are traditionally associated with higher social status
•In the past infant mortality rates have been high 125 per 1000 (1990) this decreased to 72
per 1000
• High infant mortality rates are associated with high fertility rates as women have
more children to ensure that some survive to adulthood. It takes time for this to
adjust to lower infant mortality rates
•Religious beliefs lead to larger family size
•Lack of education about family planning and contraception
•The decreasing death rate also contributes to the rising population
•Life expectancy is increasing
•The death rate has fallen from 19 per 1000 (1990) to 11 per 1000 (2020)
Impacts of overpopulation
•Lack of fresh water which leads to the spread of disease
• 29% of children in Nigeria do not have enough water to meet their daily
needs
•Increased levels of water, air and land pollution
• Lagos has one of the highest levels of air pollution of any city in the world
•Increased cultivation of land for food which leads to soil erosion and
desertification
• 40 million people in northern Nigeria are at risk of losing their livelihoods
due to desertification
• 19.5 million faces acute food insecurity
•Increased pressure on already poor services such as health and education
•Higher crime rates
•High youth unemployment has led to increased gang activity and militant
groups
•Development of informal settlements around cities particularly Lagos
• An estimated 70% of the population of Lagos lives in informal settlements
• 66% live on less than US$1 a day
Case Study: Canada
•Canada is the second-largest country in the world
• Population of 38.5 million
• Population density of 4 people per km2
•The rate of natural increase for Canada is 2.42 per 1000
•Most of the net population increase is the result of immigration
Resources
•Canada has vast resources:
• Fishing - it has the longest coastline in the world
• Largest producer of zinc and uranium
• Timber
• Gas, coal and oil
• Gold, nickel, lead and aluminium
• Major exporter of wheat
Causes of under-population
•The main cause of under-population in Canada is the low birth and fertility rates
• Low birth rate of 9 births per 1000
• Fertility rate is 1.47 children per woman which is below the fertility
replacement rate of 2.1
•The reasons for these low rates include:
• The average age for a woman to have her first child is 31 years, which means
that her childbearing years are reduced
• Increased levels of family planning and access to contraceptives
• Higher levels of education mean that women have careers and delay having
children
•It has many areas which are remote and difficult to access, building infrastructure for
settlements and industry would be costly
Impacts of under-population
•Shortages of workers in a number of areas including:
• Construction
• Engineering
• Food services
• Health care
•Low rates of unemployment
•An ageing population means more people of retirement age
•Fewer workers to pay taxes
•Healthcare and other social costs increase as the population ages
•Resources are not exploited fully reducing potential
•Lack of services due to low demand particularly in rural areas
Worked example
Describe the impacts of over-population on a country
[4]
•Identify the command word
•The command word is 'Describe'
•The focus of the question is 'over-population'
•Take care to ensure that you focus on over-population
•Answer
•Any four from the following:
• Lack of housing/overcrowded houses/shanty towns [1]
• Pressure on health care [1]
• Pressure on educational facilities [1]
• Lack of employment/low wages [1]
• Lack of food/farmland/starvation/need to import more food [1]
• Pressure on water supplies/lack of water [1]
• Pressure on sanitation/lots of waste/waste disposal problems [1]
• Traffic congestion/jams [1]
• Overuse of agricultural land/desertification/have to farm marginal land [1]
• Deforestation [1]
• Air/water pollution [1]
• Poverty [1]
• Pressure on electricity/power/fuel shortages [1]
• Government introduces anti-natal policy [1]
Exam Tip
It is important to remember that over-population is not simply that there
are a lot of people and under-population is not there are few people. The
terms refer to the balance between population and resources. There may
be many people in a country, but it is only over-populated when there are
too few resources to support that population.
1.1 Population Dynamics
The following are examples of paper 1 questions
Paper 1
3 marks
FIG.1.1
(i)Identify the stage when population is growing most rapidly
…………………………………………………………
(1)
(ii) Using Figure 1.1 only compare:
the birth rates in stage 2 and stage 3
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………….
The death rates in stage 1 and stage 2
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………..............................
(2)
Answer 1
(i) Stage 3 [1]
•For this question you need to look at the purple line on the graph which shows total population
•Although the total population is increasing in stages 2,3 and 4 the line is steepest in stage 3 which
indicates the greatest increase
(ii) The birth rate (it) is higher in Stage 2 than Stage 3/BR (it) is static/stays the same in Stage 2 but falls in
Stage 3/BR (it) decreases in Stage 3 [1]
The death rate (it) is higher in Stage 1 than Stage 2/DR (it) decreases in Stage 2/death rate (it) fluctuates
in Stage 1 and falls in stage 2 [1]
•In some questions on demographic transition model you can use figures if they are given on the graph
and use those to compare
•It is essential in this answer that you are comparing what happens to the birth and death rates in each of
the stages
Suggest reasons to explain why the population growth rate in Mexico is
likely to decrease between 2015 and 2050
Using Figure. 1.2 only, describe the reduction in birth rates of Vietnam between 1960 and
2015.Include statistics in your answer.
1.1 Population Dynamics
PAPER 2
Answer 1
(i)
2 billion [1]
(ii)
Asia [1]
•Looking at the steepness of a graph gives you an indication of the rate of growth
•In this case the Asia line is much steeper than the line for Africa
•This can be confirmed by looking at the figures Asia increased from 1.7 billion to 3.7 billion
between 1960 and 2000 whereas Africa's population increased from 0.3 billion to 0.8 billion
(iii)
Africa [1]
(iv)
11 billion [1]
•This is calculated by adding up the predicted figures for each region in 2100
•The figures are approximately - Africa 4.2 billion, Asia 4.75 billion, North and South America 1.25
billion, Europe 0.65 billion and Australasia 0.1 billion
1.1.2 Population Change
Population Change
There are two ways in which a population can change:
• Migration
• Natural population change
Migration
•Migration can cause the population to either increase or
decrease
•This occurs as the result of emigration or immigration
•Net migration is the difference between the number of
people moving into a country (immigrants) and the number of
people leaving the country (emigrants)
Exam Tip
Remember immigration and emigration are not the same. Immigration is the inward movement of people into a country.
Emigration is the outward movement of people from a country.
Natural Population Change
Natural causes of population change
•There are many factors which have combined to cause the rapid population increase including
improvements in:
• Agriculture during the agricultural revolution led to higher yields and more varied diets
• Medicine and medical care which reduces the death rate
• Technology and transport, lead to a wealthier population which increases life expectancy
•All these factors led to a decrease in the death rate
•The birth rate remained has remained high mainly in LEDCs due to:
• Lack of access to family planning and contraception
• An increase in women surviving childbirth
• Families continue to have large numbers of children to look after their parents in old age and to help
support the family
• The culture of having larger families which takes many years to change
• Religious reasons
•Natural change in population is calculated by deducting the death rate from the birth rate
•The combination of a decreasing death rate and high birth rate led to rapid natural increase and
population explosion
•Population also changes as a result of migration into and out of a country/area
•Natural decrease occurs when the birth rate is lower than the death rate
Demographic Transition Model
•The demographic transition model illustrates the five generalised stages of population
change that countries pass through as they develop
•It shows how birth and death rates change over time and how this affects the overall
population as the country
Stage 1
•The total population is low
•High birth rates due to lack of contraception/family planning
•High death rates due to poor healthcare, poor diet and famine
•High infant mortality which leads people to have more children so that some children survive to adulthood
Stage 2
•The total population starts to rise rapidly
•Birth rates remain high as people continue to have large families
•Death rates decrease as a result of improved diets, better healthcare, lower infant mortality and increased access
to clean water
Stage 3
•The total population continues to increase but the rate of growth begins to slow
•Birth rate begins to fall rapidly due to increased birth control, family planning, increased cost of raising children and
low infant mortality rate
•Death rate still decreasing but at a slower rate as improvements in medicine, hygiene, diet and water quality
continue
Stage 4
•The total population is high and is increasing slowly
•The birth rate is low and fluctuating due to accessible birth control and the choice of having fewer children as well
as delaying the age women start to have children
•The death rate is low and fluctuates
Stage 5
•The total population starts to slowly decline as the death rate exceeds the birth rate
•The birth rate is low and slowly decreasing
•The death rate is low and fluctuates
Worked example
Explain why birth rates are still high in many LEDCs
[4]
•Identify the command word
•The command word is 'explain'
•The focus of the question is 'birth rates'
•Take care to ensure that you focus on LEDCs (Less Economically Developed Countries)
•Answer
•Any two from the following with an explanation or any four from the following:
• Lack of /don’t use/cannot afford contraception [1]
• Lack of education about contraception/about problems of large families [1]
• Children needed for work/to earn money/for farming; needed to look after elderly/no
pensions [1]
• Children needed to do household chores or example – fetching wood/water, cleaning the
house, and looking after younger children [1]
• Traditional views about large families/polygamy/families want a male child [1]
• Religious/cultural views on contraception/abortion/family size [1]
• High infant mortality/they have more babies so some will survive [1]
• Early marriages/teenage pregnancy [1]
• Lack of emancipation for women/women don’t have careers/lack of education for women [1]
• No access to sexual (family) health clinics including abortion, etc. [1]
Population Change
•All countries have different rates of population change
•Population growth rates are currently highest in LEDCs such as Niger, Mali and Zambia
•Population growth rates are lowest in MEDCs
• In some MEDCs such as Italy and Japan, the population is decreasing as the number of deaths is higher
than the number of births
•World population growth rates
•These changes are dependent on three factors:
• Fertility
• Mortality
• Migration
Fertility
•As well as the birth rate, fertility can also be measured by the fertility rate
•There are a number of factors affecting fertility which can be categorised as social, economic or
political
Mortality
•The death rate is affected by a range of factors:
• Quality of, and access to, healthcare
• Natural disasters - famine, drought
• Diseases such as HIV/AIDS
• War/conflict
Worked example
Give three reasons why death rates vary from country to country
[3]
•Answer
•Any three from ideas such as (variations in the amount/quality of):
• health care/hospital/clinics/medicines [1]
• number of people per doctor/availability of doctors [1]
• food supply/diet/famine/starvation [1]
• water supply/quality/drought [1]
• sanitation/hygiene [1]
• diseases or examples/AIDS or HIV [1]
• wars [1]
• vaccinations [1]
• education about healthcare/disease [1]
• care for the elderly/pensions [1]
Case Study: Niger
•In 1960 the population of Niger was 3.3 million
•By 2021 the population had reached nearly 25 million
•A population growth rate of 3.8%
•This is the combination of a high birth rate and a rapidly decreasing death rate
High Birth Rate
•The reasons for the high birth and fertility rates in Niger include:
• The average age of marriage is 15.7 years meaning that women have more
childbearing years
• Low levels of education for women only 4 out of 10 girls finish primary
school
• High value is placed on large families
• Only 12% of women use modern contraception
Fertility Rate in Niger
•The death rate in Niger is decreasing falling from 29 per 1000 (1960) to 8 per 1000 (2020)
•The decreasing death rate has been the result of:
• Increased urbanisation - which improves access to services such as healthcare and food
• Better food and clean water supply
• Improved access to healthcare
• Government policies to improve farming practices which have increased food supplies
• Free healthcare to pregnant women improving mother and baby survival rates
Impacts
•A highly dependent population of young people below the age of 15
•Increased pressure on schools and health services
•A younger population should increase economic growth but job and wealth distribution is uneven
•Increased rural-urban migration to seek work
• Development of illegal settlements on the edges of cities
•Food shortages - an estimated 2.5 million people are suffering from food insecurity
Reducing population growth
•In 2014 Niger adopted a framework to promote fertility reduction by:
• Abolishing child marriage (marriage under the age of 18)
• Improving access to education
• Improved access to health services, contraception and family planning advice
• Girls and women no longer need permission from parents/husbands to access contraception
• Married and/or pregnant girls can still go to school to ensure they continue to receive an education
Case Study: Japan
•In 2010 Japan's population reached 128.1 million people
•In 2020 the population had decreased to 125.8 million people
•Japan has a population change rate of -0.3%
•This is a combination of a low birth rate and an ageing population
Japan's Population Structure
Low Birth Rate
•The fertility rate in Japan is 1.36 births per woman, well below the fertility replacement rate of 2.1
•The birth rate is 7.1 per 1000 people
•The reasons for the low birth rate include:
• Increasing numbers of women focussing on careers and delaying having children
• Inability to afford buying/renting own home (70% of unmarried people live with their parents)
• Declining marriage rate and increase in average age people get married (women 29.5 years, men
31 years)
• Economic insecurity - jobs are not as secure
• The expense of children is high due to childcare costs
Ageing population
•The death rate has increased in Japan from a low of 6 per 1000 in 1982 to 11 per 1000 in 2020
•In that time life expectancy has increased from an average of 77 years to 84.36 years
•This means the increased death rate is not due to poorer healthcare, diet or standard of living but
because the population is ageing
•One-third of the population is over 60 years old and over 12% are over 75
• Older people are more likely to become unwell and die
• The more elderly the population, the higher the proportion of people who will die
Impacts
•Shortage of workers
• Increasing numbers of the population being retired there are not enough workers to replace them
• Fewer innovations
• Closure of some services
•Higher taxes
• An ageing population puts more pressure on health service and pension payments
• There is predicted to be a shortage of 380,000 workers for elderly care by 2025
• Taxes have to be increased to pay for healthcare and pensions
•School closures
• Fewer children mean that schools and childcare facilities may close with the loss of jobs
• An average of 450 schools close each year due to falling numbers
•Economic stagnation
• The economy does not grow due to a lack of workers and the closure of businesses and industry
• The standard of living does not improve or falls
Solutions
•Development of robots to help with elderly care such as in the Shin-tomi nursing home in Tokyo
•Immigration laws were revised in 2018 to attract foreign workers and help with the worker shortage
• The aim is to attract 340,000 new workers
•The Angel Plan was a five year plan in 1994 to increase the birth rate, followed by the New Angel Plan in 1999 and Plus One Policy in 2009
these all aimed to encourage people to have children by;
• Improving the work environment to fit with family responsibilities
• Better childcare services
• Improved maternity and child health services
• Better housing for families
• Improved education facilities
•Plus One Proposal is the most recent policy and aims to increase 'parent-friendly' working and the construction of 50,000 new daycare facilities
Population Policies
•Many countries have at some time had population policies in an attempt to either reduce or increase their populations
•Governments do this to try and achieve a balance between population and resources
•Policies focus on birth rates and sometimes migration
Anti-natalist policies
•The aim of anti-natalist policies is to reduce pressure on resources and improve the quality of life for the whole
population
•These are policies introduced to reduce the birth rate
•Policies can be law - as in China - or they can be voluntary
•The best-known example is China's one-child policy which was in effect from 1979 to 2016, although it was relaxed in
1999
•The policy used a variety of methods to reduce the birth rate including:
• Fines for having more than one child
• Increased access to contraceptives and family planning education
• Posters and adverts to promote the advantages of only having one child
• Better employment opportunities for those with only one child
• No payment for education or healthcare for second children
• There were also reports of forced abortions and sterilisations
• Promoting late marriages
• Abortion was legalised
•The policy has had many impacts including:
• Affecting the male/female ratio due to the preference for male children
• There are over 30 million more men under 20 than women under 20
• Decrease in population growth rate
• An ageing population
•Other countries/special administrative regions which have had anti-natalist policies in the past include:
• Singapore 1972-1987
• Taiwan 1964 - late 1970s
Pro-natalist policies
•The aim of pro-natalist policies is to increase the population due to:
• An ageing population which increases social and healthcare costs
• A workforce shortage
• Reduced payment of taxes due to fewer workers
•There are a number of countries that have implemented pro-natalist policies including:
• France
• Singapore - after 1987
• Sweden
• Russia
•In France, past policies have included:
• Discounts on public transport for families with three or more children
• Increased paid maternity leave
• Better mortgage deals
• Tax allowances
• Free childcare from 3 to school age
• Cash incentives for mothers who stay at home to care for children
• Subsidised holidays
•The policies have led to one of the highest fertility rates in Europe
•Measures that have been used elsewhere to encourage people to have larger families include:
• Improved maternity and paternity leave/rights
• Increased child benefits
• Tax allowances for larger families which reduce tax payments
• Baby bonus (Singapore)
1.2 Migration
1.2.1 Reasons for Migration
Voluntary & Involuntary Migration
What is migration?
•Migration is the movement of people across an official boundary, either internationally or nationally, with
the intention of creating a permanent place of residence
•The UN defines the term 'permanent' as a change of residence for more than 1 year
•Migration has shaped the world of today and has impacted economically, culturally, politically and
environmentally
•Most people will go through several changes of residence during their lifetime
Exam Tip
Do not confuse the terms immigration and emigration, they are not the same:
• Immigration is the inward movement of people into a country
• Emigration is the outward movement of people out of a country
Push and pull factors
•There are different types of migration:
• Voluntary
• Involuntary or forced
• Internal
• Political - internally displaced, refugee and/or asylum seekers
•Common to all, are the reasons for these movements - push-pull factors
•The push factor is the reality of the current situation for the migrant; it is what makes the person consider
moving from the place of origin
•The pull factor is the perceived outcome; it is what they imagine the move will bring to the place of
destination
•Push-pull factors are unique to each migrant depending on their end goal - what is a pull factor for one
migrant may not be for another
•These factors can be further divided into:
• Social
• Economic
• Political
• Environmental
•High levels of unemployment are a push factor, whereas higher wages and a better lifestyle are a pull factor
Push-Pull Factors
Barriers to migration
•There are personal, national and legal barriers to migration
•Personal barriers include emotional and financial factors, these include:
• The cost of migrating:
• Closing down costs - selling of home, legal fees etc.
• Moving costs - transport, packing and shipping, visas etc.
• Setting up costs - renting or buying a home, legal fees, schooling
etc.
• Emotional costs such as not seeing loved ones again; leaving behind
their culture and country etc.
•Immigration laws present the greatest legal barrier to migration
•National barriers occur at a physical or political level:
• Distance between origin and destination
• Physical danger
• Prevented from leaving a country
Voluntary and involuntary migration
•Voluntary migration involves the free choice of movement either internally or internationally
• The usual reason is economic for work, promotion etc.
• In developing countries, this is usually internal from rural to urban areas
• In developed countries counter urbanisation is more common - urban to rural
•Involuntary or forced migration is where the migrant has no choice but to leave their place of origin
•This is usually an international movement but can also be an internal movement
•The United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) estimates 89.3 million people worldwide were forcibly displaced at the
end of 2021, of which 53.2 million were internally displaced people and 27.1 million were refugees, with the remaining 4.6 million
seeking asylum
•There are a number of reasons for internal forced migration:
• Natural hazards such as volcanic eruptions, tropical storms, floods and droughts
• In most cases, survivors will move back home when it is safe to do so, or
• Jobs become available again
•The biggest reason for forced migration is war and persecution
•This includes events such as the Jewish people fleeing German and Russian troops during the Second World War and more recently
the Syrian civil war where more than half of the country's population (13 million) has been forcibly displaced
•Ethnic cleansing forces out entire groups or communities from the country - Sunni and Shia Muslims in the Middle East or Rwanda in
1994 where the Hutus attempted to wipe out the Tutsis in 3 months forcing 2 million people to flee
•Not all forced migrants leave their country, and these migrants are termed an internally displaced person
• The Syrian conflict has created a number of refugee and internally displaced people, as have the conflicts in Afghanistan
and Yemen
• Major natural disasters can displace people, such as the 2011 tsunami that forced the evacuation of Fukushima in Japan or
the recent floods in Pakistan
Exam Tip
Remember that involuntary or forced migration is not only due to war or persecution, but can also be
due to natural events such as flooding, earthquakes or desertification etc.
Migration Trends
•According to the UN, approximately 3.6% of the world's population lives outside their
country of birth
•That equates to around 281 million international migrants in the world as of 2020, an
increase of 37 million people since 2015
•61% of global international migrants, reside in Europe and Asia with North America
hosting 21%, Africa 9%, Latin America and the Caribbean at 5%, and Oceania 3%
•The Covid-19 pandemic severely restricted migration, however, there are signs of a slow
return to previous levels of migration (UN, World Migration Report 2022)
•Whilst most international migration is work-related, Covid 19 has shown that remote
working may reduce the necessity for labour-related migration, although highly skilled
workers will still be required for some jobs
•The number of female migrants has increased, with women making up the
majority of contract work and so adding to migration becoming temporary and
circular in nature
•The majority of movement is between developing and developed countries, but
there are also signs of increased movement between developing (low to middleincome) countries
•With developed countries reinforcing border controls in response to illegal
immigration and security measures, there has been a rise in human trafficking
and exploitation
•International migration is not uniform around the world
•Economic, demographic and geographical factors have created distinct
migration patterns or 'corridors' over time
•The biggest corridors are usually from developing economies to larger, more
established economies such as France, USA, Germany and Saudi Arabia
•Globalisation has made these movements easier and faster
Number of international migrants by destination
Internal Population Movements
•Internal migration is higher than international movement, in
developing and developed countries
•Most internal movement in developing countries is from rural to urban regions
and has resulted in the very rapid growth of urban areas
•Movement is from poorer, rural regions to more affluent, developing urban
regions, with people seeking better standards of living
•China is seeing rapidly expanding urban/industrial areas across its country and
this has fuelled the largest rural-to-urban migration in history, with more than
150 million people moving to meet the demand for factory workers
•Since the 1950s, places such as Dhaka, Cairo, Nairobi and Sao Paulo have
seen rapid growth and despite no guarantee of employment, the perceived
opportunities are still greater at the point of destination than at the point of origin
Worked example
Study Fig. 1.2, which shows information about types
of migration.
Which type of migration are the following examples of? Circle your
answer for each of the three examples.
[3]
•Refugees moving to another country to avoid persecution
forced internal
forced international
voluntary internal
voluntary international
•A professional footballer moving from Spain to play in the English
Premier League
forced internal
forced international
voluntary internal
voluntary international
•A teenage girl moving from rural Kenya to study in Nairobi, the capital city
of Kenya.
forced internal
forced international
voluntary internal
voluntary international
•Answer:
• Forced international
• Voluntary international
• Voluntary internal
Depopulation & Counter-Urbanisation
Depopulation
•Developed countries such as the USA, France, Germany and the UK
experienced rural-to-urban migration since the late 18th century due to the
Industrial Revolution and urbanisation
•These processes have been central to depopulation in many rural areas
•Generally, it is the most isolated regions that are affected
•Once the cycle starts, there is a gradual decline in the area
Counter-urbanization
•However, since the 1970s, with over-crowding, high levels of pollution and
rising costs, many people have migrated from urban areas into rural
regions in a process called counter-urbanisation
•Some other reasons include:
• Mobility and accessibility: higher personal car ownership, increase
in public transport and road development making easier access to
rural areas
• Increased wealth: making housing and travel more affordable
• Agricultural decline (mechanisation and merger of farms): more
land becomes available for housing and agricultural workers leave
the area
• Green belt: people need to go further out to get the rural life they
are looking for
• Second homes and early retirement: have increased the
Exam Tipmovement of people from the city to the countryside
•One aspect for the cause of migration for you to consider is to do with global warming and climate change
•It is predicted that with the worsening of tropical storms, desert droughts and rise of sea levels, 200 million
people will be displaced by 2050
1.2.2 Impacts of Migration
Impacts on the Destination & Origin of Migrants
•International migration is nothing new and has been a major aspect in
shaping global cultures and cosmopolitan places such as New York, Paris
and London
•The World Bank (2012) noted that:
‘The overall economic gains from
international migration for sending countries, receiving countries, and the
migrants themselves are substantial.’
•However, some people disagree that these impacts are a good thing, and
that cultural identity is being lost through not just international migration but
also internal migration
Impacts on Country of Destination
Impacts on Country of Origin
Negative
Positive
Negative
More low-wage
workers
Job competition
Migrants may return with
new skills
Tax increase due to
depopulation
Job fulfilment
Increased pressure on
public services
Reduction in unemployment
Reduction of workforce
Less pressure on public
services
Brain-drain effect - less of a
skilled workforce
More resources available
Ageing population with an
outflow of young people
Remittances are a source of
income and can boost local
economy
Depopulation in rural areas
affecting agricultural output
Positive
Increased diversity
Cultural enrichment
Boost to local
economy
Discrimination and
racial tensions
(immigrant seen as
stealing jobs)
Increased pressure on
natural resources
Overcrowding
Impacts on Migrants
Impacts on Migrants Themselves
Positive
Negative
Better job on arrival
Running out of money
Escape from conflict
Language barriers and
cultural assimilation
Better quality of life
Exploitation
A better education and job
skills
Passport, visa or
immigration issues
A sense of integration/
hope
Weather conditions unsuitable clothing
Wider choice of job
opportunities
Problems with housing or
accommodation upon
arrival
Support family in country
of origin through
remittances
Illness - as there is often
no available health care
•Remittances are the most positive impact on a
country of origin, particularly developing countries
such as Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Mexico
•Remittances are seen as 'globalisation bottom up',
as they can account for as much as 20% annual
GDP as well as:
• Help decrease poverty
• Creates a multiplier effect and increases
investment in an area
• Soften the impact of a global recession
•Major sources of remittances come from USA,
Germany, UK, western Europe and the Persian Gulf
•Top 5 recipient countries for 2021 were India,
China, Mexico, Philippines, and Egypt
Worked example
Give two examples of the benefits of remittances to developing countries
[5]
•Answer:
1.Remittances are used to provide food for families [1], clean water and
sanitation [1] along with access to health services and education [1] which
directly helps reduce poverty and hunger [1]. This reduces pressure on the
government to provide aid which can then be directed elsewhere [1]
2.Remittances create a multiplier effect [1] through investments [1] or
purchasing goods and services [1] within the community, boosting other family's
income [1] and opportunities [1], particularly in rural areas [1]. Money spent will
increase tax revenues for the government, boosting economic development [1].
•Remember to state two benefits, but also how they benefit the country
•Many students lose marks by forgetting to add the why
Case Study - International Migration from Mexico to the USA
•There are many examples of international migration that could be used, and you should use the example you
have studied in school, however, one of the most well-used examples is Mexico to the USA
•This is one of the largest international labour migration streams in the world
•There were two smaller migration surges during the 1920s and 1950s, when the US government
encouraged temporary recruitment of Mexican guest workers
•However, persistent mass migration between Mexico and the USA only took hold over the last 40 years
•The states of California, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas have higher concentrations of Mexican migrants due
to:
• Proximity to the border
• Higher demand for immigrant farm workers
• Long-established urban Mexican communities
•It is estimated that 24% of foreign-born residents in the USA were Mexican - accounting for more than 10.9
million people
•Mexicans account for 51% of all unauthorised immigrants in the US (Migration Policy Institute, 2020)
•Over the last few years, the number of migrants has decreased due to:
• Tougher immigration enforcement
• Strengthening of the Mexican economy
• Increased US Border Patrols
• Covid 19
•The arguments posed against Mexican immigrants are:
• Negative environmental effects due to increased population
• Threat to established US culture
• Undermines employment of low-skilled US workforce
• Low income received by immigrants can lead to increased crime and drug trafficking
• Increased costs of healthcare, education and detention
•Others see these points as racist and uncharitable and argue that Mexicans have brought
many advantages to the country:
• Spanish is now widely taught in schools in the USA to widen the skills of young
people
• Increased tax payments to the government
• Mexican food and music have become increasingly popular in the USA
• There is a National Taco Day in the United States:
“According to NationalTacoDay.com, Americans eat billions of tacos every year,
4.5 billion to be more specific. That’s 490,000 miles of tacos, which could take
you to the moon and back. Around half of the U.S. population visits a Taco
Bell once every 11 days. Taco Bell started in 1954 as a burger stand,
however, because they were in a Hispanic neighbourhood, they started selling
hard tacos. ”
•Pull factors include:
• Higher average incomes in the USA
• Lower unemployment rates in the USA
• High population growth in Mexico resulting in faster labour force
growth and competition for few available jobs
• Quality of life is better in USA than in Mexico
• Ability to send remittances back to Mexico
•Push factors include:
• High crime rates in Mexico
• Higher unemployment and poverty rates
• High rates of subsistence farming
• Hot arid and semi-arid conditions cause water shortages, which
also limits agricultural potential
• Natural hazards such as earthquakes
Impacts of migration on the country of origin – Mexico
•Rural areas are left with a shortage of economically active people
•In some rural areas, women outnumber men with women having problems finding a
suitable marriage partner
•Certain villages such as Santa Ines have lost two-thirds of their inhabitants
•Remittances from Mexicans in the US have become one of Mexico’s most important
sources of income and boosted Mexican economy
•In Axochiapan, husbands and fathers are absent for years, leaving women to raise
their children; with the community becoming increasingly dependent on remittances
•Critics argue that dependence on remittances can slow local initiatives and
incentives for people to move forward
•Young adults tend to migrate, leaving an ageing community behind
•With fewer children, these communities will gradually die out
Impacts of migration on the country of destination - U.S.A.
•Illegal immigration costs the U.S. millions of dollars for border patrols, fences and
detention centres
•Mexicans are seen as a drain on the U.S. economy
•Migrant workers keep wages low which affects unskilled Americans
•Cultural and racial issues are increased in urban regions
•The US economy benefits from low waged Mexican migrants
•Mexican culture has enriched the US border states with food, language and music National Taco Day, mariachi bands etc.
•The majority of illegal Mexican immigrants work in restaurants, as janitors, truck
drivers, gardeners, construction labourers, or manual labour
•Rise in tensions between Mexican immigrants and other ethnic groups due to concerns
over the availability of jobs for working-class Americans and other immigrants
•Opposition to illegal immigration has seen the rise of 'Minutemen' groups - these are
civilian groups who patrol the U.S. borders and confront illegal workers around the
country
•Remittances are seen as money lost from the American Economy
• In 2021 $48.9bn was sent to Mexico from the U.S
Exam Tip
How to approach a case study question such as:
For a named country you have studied, explain why it has attracted large
numbers of international migrants [7]
•This style of question will be level marked
• Level 1 (1-3 marks) - simple statements that are non-place specific. E.g.,
jobs, education, better wages
• Level 2 (4-6 marks) - named examples are used with some developed
and linked statements. E.g., higher wages allow remittances to be sent
home
• Level 3 (7 marks) - named examples are used throughout with accurate,
comprehensive and linked statements that show place specific
knowledge
•NB: if you don't use an example or it is the wrong use of an example, then you
are limiting yourself to a maximum of 5 marks, no matter how well you write
•Remember to actually state the country or countries you are going to discuss
•Don't make it generic such as migrants come from rural areas
•Be place specific - more migrants move from northern states of X and Y to Z
because...
1.3.1 Reasons for & Implications of Different Population Structures
Population Pyramids
•The characteristics of a population, the distribution of age, sex, ethnicity, religion etc, is known as
the population structure
•It is the result of changes in:
• fertility
• mortality
• migration
•The two main components of age and sex can be shown on a population pyramid
Population pyramids
•Population pyramids (also known as an age structure graph) are used to display the gender and age structure of a
given population
•They illustrate the distribution of the population across age groups and between male/female
•They enable governments nationally and regionally to assess the needs of the population for services such as
healthcare and education
•This means the governments can estimate and plan for spending
•As countries develop and pass through the stages of demographic transition the shape of the population pyramid
changes
•The population pyramid can be used to identify the following groups:
• Young dependents
• Old dependents
• Economically active (working population)
• Dependency ratio
Population Pyramid - Niger
•LEDCs like Niger have a concave
pyramid shape
•At the start of stage 2 of the
demographic transition model
•This indicates:
• High birth rate
• Low life expectancy
• High death rate but starting
to decrease
• High infant mortality rate
• Young dependent population
dominates
Population Pyramid - Nepal
•LEDCs/NICs that are a little further
along the demographic transition
such as Nepal has a convex pyramid
shape
•Stage 3 of the demographic
transition model
•This indicates:
• Decreasing birth rate
• Increasing life expectancy
• Decreasing death rate
• Decreasing infant mortality
• Larger working age
population
Population Pyramid - USA
•HIC countries such as the USA have
a column shape
•Stage 4 of the demographic
transition model
•This indicates:
• Decreasing birth rate
• Increasing life expectancy
• Decreasing death rate
• Low infant mortality
• Larger working age population
Population Pyramid - Japan
•HIC countries such as Japan
have a pentagon shape with a
narrowing base
•Stage 5 of the demographic
transition model
•This indicates:
• Decreasing birth rate
• Increasing life
expectancy
• Death rate is higher than
the birth rate due to the
ageing population
• Low infant mortality
• Ageing population - older
dependent population
Implications of population structure
•Population pyramids mean that
population issues can be identified
•There are a range of issues including:
• Ageing populations
• Falling birth rates
• Impacts of migration
Ageing populations
•Many HICs are experiencing ageing
populations and an increase in the older
dependent population, the implications of
this include increased:
• Pension payments
• Need for care homes
• Pressure on the healthcare
service and social care
•It also results in fewer workers which
means:
• Governments are not able to
collect as much tax
• Some areas suffer worker
shortages
Falling birth rates
•Countries experiencing falling birth rates include many
HICs and MICs, the implications of this include:
• School closures due to fewer children
• Future workforce shortages
Migration
•In some countries, migration can lead to an imbalance in
the population structure
•The UAE has significantly more males than females
•29% of the population are males between the ages of 25
and 39 whereas only 10.5% of the population are women
25-39
•This is the result of the migration of males to the UAE to
work in the oil, gas and construction industries
•Rapid population growth in some areas as a result of
migration can lead to:
• Increased pressure on services such as healthcare
and schools
• A shortage of housing
• Increased traffic congestion
• Increased water and air pollution
• Shortage of food
• Lack of clean water
Exam Tip
When interpreting a population pyramid you need to look at four key areas
•Young dependents - is the birth rate high or low?
•Working population - are there enough people of working age to support the
young and old dependents?
•Old dependents - is it large or small? If it is large, then life expectancy is high
•Male/female split - are there any noticeable differences between the numbers of
males and females?
To calculate the dependency ratio:
Dependency ratio = young dependents = old dependents
working population
X100
Case Study: Japan
•Japan's population is decreasing, falling
from 128 million in 2007 to 125.8 million in
2020
•The fertility rate is 1.36 births per woman
which is well below the 2.1 fertility
replacement rate
•The birth rate is 6.8 per 1000
•The death rate is 11.1 per 1000
• The death rate has increased from
6 per 1000 in 1979
• This is not because healthcare or
diets are worse but because there
are far more elderly people who
are more likely to become ill and
die
•Japan has the highest life expectancy in
the world at 84.36 years
•Increasing life expectancy in Japan has led to an ageing population with an
increasing proportion of elderly dependents
•The issues that this has led to include:
• Increased pressure on health and social care
• Greater cost in providing pensions
• More use of public transport as the elderly age group is less likely to
drive
• Increased need for care homes
• Shortages of workers as more people retire and there are not enough
economically active people to take their place
•These issues are further increased by the falling birth rate
•The future impact on Japan may include:
• Increased taxes to cover health, social care and pension costs
• Continued population decrease
• Reduced economic development due to a shortage of workers
• Reconsideration of the immigration policies which are currently very
strict
• Introduction of pro-natalist policies to increase the birth rate and
encourage larger families
Worked example
Study Figure 1 which shows population pyramids of the structure of Mexico's population
in 1980 and 2010.
Describe the changes in Mexico's population structure between 1980 and 2010
[3]
•Answer - Remember your answer needs to be a comparison so it needs to state 'more' or
'less'
•Any three of the following - In 2010 there are:
• More economically active/working /15-64-year-olds [1]
• More elderly/old dependents/65+ [1]
• More young dependents in total/ bands up to 19 become more even [1]
1.4.1 Factors Affecting Population Density & Distribution
Population Density & Distribution
•Population density varies
across the world
•The way in which the global
population is spread across the
world is the population
distribution
•Population density is
calculated by dividing the total
population by the total area
• The total area can be on
different scales - region,
country, continent
Figure 1 - World Population Density
Physical Factors
•Monaco has the highest population
density in the world - 26,337 people per
km2 (2022)
•Greenland has the lowest population
density in the world - lower than 0.2
people per km2 (2022)
•In 2022 the world population density
was approximately 59.27 people per km2
•Population is not evenly spread, and
some areas are densely populated whilst
others are sparsely populated
•The population density is affected by a
range of factors both physical and
human
Human Factors
Climate - population density tends to Economic - more people live where
be lower in colder regions and
there are more jobs. The number of
tropical deserts. The extremes of jobs is often affected by the
temperature create a harsh living infrastructure
environment where growing crops (transport/communication) and
and accessing water are difficult capital (the money available)
Water supply - settlements are
Political - government investment in
usually located near a water supply an area can improve the
for drinking, washing etc... If water infrastructure which increases
is scarce or difficult to obtain, then industry/business and attracts more
population density tends to be lower people
Natural resources - these include
Social - the better the housing,
minerals such as coal and oil. Areas
education and services the more
with large amounts of natural
people are likely to be attracted to
resources tend to have higher
an area, increasing the population
population density. This depends on
density. The birth and death rates
how easily the minerals can be
also affect the population density
obtained
Relief - mountainous areas tend to
Cultural - in some cultures, larger
have lower population density due to
families are valued highly or
difficulties in building and growing
religious beliefs dictate larger
crops. Population densities are higher
families. This can increase the
where the land is flat or gently
population density within a country
sloping
Soil quality - population densities
are highest where the soil fertility
and quality is best. This makes it
easier to grow crops
Exam Tip
In the exam you may be asked to describe the distribution of population in
a region, country or world. When describing distribution ask yourself the
following questions:
•What is the general pattern?
•Does the pattern relate to anything else for example coastal areas, inland
areas or water supply?
•Can you name examples of countries which have the highest density and
examples of those with the lowest density?
Use map features to help with your description - place names, compass
points, latitude and longitude.
Worked example
Figure 2.1 gives information about the population density of
Bangladesh. Use fig 2.1 to answer the question below
Fig 2.1
Using fig 2.1, describe the
distribution of areas with more than
1300 people per km2 in Bangladesh
[2]
•Answer:
•Any two of the following answers
• in the north [1]
• central [1]
• inland [1]
Case Study: Singapore
•Singapore has a population density of 8,358 people per km2
•As a city-state, it is not the most densely populated city in the world, but it is the third
most densely populated country
Population Density in Singapore
Causes of the high-density population
•Singapore is only 716 km2 which means the population is living in a limited amount of
space
•Singapore has a tropical climate with uniformly high temperatures between 25oC and 27oC
•Almost all the land is habitable and either flat or gently sloping with the highest point at
only 165m above sea level
•Access to water supplies
•Excellent infrastructure and communication
•Low crime rates
•Stable government
•High immigration rates
•World's busiest port in shipping tonnage
Effects of high-density population
•Housing shortages
•High rents and house prices
•Only 1% of the land is used for agriculture which means most of the food is imported
•Increased pressure on infrastructure such as public transport and services such as
schools
•Increased waste
•Increased air and water pollution
Causes of the low population density
•The harsh climate in many areas with very cold winters which
can reach -30°C
•High altitudes mostly between 900 -1500m above sea level
•Vast areas of desert and semi-desert
•A short growing season of only about 90 days
• The climate and relief make agriculture very difficult
•Mongolia is a landlocked country which makes trade difficult
•Poor infrastructure and communication, only about 20% of
the few roads are tarmac
•Many people in rural areas are reliant on livestock herding for
their livelihood
• Severe winters and hot summers can lead to a lack of
pastures for grazing
•Low birth rates
Impacts of low population density
•Difficulties in accessing services such as healthcare and
education, particularly in rural areas
•Poor access to markets and trade
•A lack of economic activities
•Increased rural-urban migration
Population Density of Mongolia
Worked example
For a named country or area you have studied, explain why it is sparsely populated.
[7]
•Answer:
• Uses named example
• Comprehensive and accurate statements which explain why it is sparsely populated including some
place specific reference. Answers are likely to refer to:
•
• temperatures
• precipitation
• relief
• soil fertility
• lack of water sources/rivers
• lack of resources
• lack of economic growth
• poor access
• landlocked
• low employment
Place specific reference is likely to consist of:
• Named parts/settlements of the chosen country,
• Population data,
• Climatic data
1.4 Population Density & Distribution
PAPER 1 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
Level question: medium
Answer 1
Ideas such as;
(More) economically developed areas/stable economy tend to be densely
populated/more people/lack of economic development may result in sparse population [1]
Work/jobs/industry/earn money attracts people [1]
Example of industry/work/income, e.g.tourism/energy/mining/secondary/tertiary [1]
Economic development leads to increased accessibility [1]
Roads/railway lines/motorway built [1]
Ports/trade/imports/exports [1]
Healthcare/education improved to attract people/better healthcare [1]
Multiplier effect/investment [1]
Poverty may lead to high-density housing/shanty towns [1]
•To gain 4 marks answers will need be expected to explain four different factors
•It is important for this answer that you consider factors in addition to industry and the
availability of work
•Remember other factors influence the development of industry such as infrastructure roads/ports
Level question: Easy
Answer 1
(i)
Shading of Florida on Fig. 1.1 [1]
The shading in this answer must match the correct type of shading in the key in this case diagonal lines showing that Florida is
in the 501-1250 people per square km category
(ii)
California Texas Colorado Montana
All correct = [2]
2/3 correct = [1]
1 correct = 0
(iii). Ideas such as:
Uneven/clustered [1]
Many are coastal (states)/bordering ocean/Great Lakes [1]
East/North East [1]
West/South West [1]
When describing the distribution one of the key features is that population is unevenly distributed as people are never spread
evenly across an area or country
It is also important to use compass directions and whether the areas are coastal/inland
Level question: Hard
Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including
limited detail which
explain why a
country/area is sparsely
populated.
For example - large area
with few people
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed
statements which
explain why a
country/area is sparsely
populated.
(Note: Max 5 if no
named or inappropriate
example)
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example.
Comprehensive and
accurate statements
which explain why a
country/area is sparsely
populated including
some place specific
reference.
Content Guide:
Relief,
Climate,
Access,
Lack of resources,
Lack of employment,
Much land is used for agriculture/protected environments, etc.
Note:
•The area chosen can be at any scale. If a country is chosen the bulk of it needs to be sparsely populated (otherwise credit
at Max 5).
Acceptable examples include Australia, Canada, Egypt, Switzerland, Lesotho, etc.
•Reference to birth controls, immigration/VISAs, war and natural disasters will not be awarded marks
Place specific reference is likely to consist of:
Named parts/mountains/roads in the chosen country,
Climatic data,
Population data, etc.
Place specific examples include:
•Locational details - where situated Mongolia
•Specific details • Mongolia has an area of 1,564,000 km2
• Population density is 2 people per km2
•Examples of paragraphs which could be included in an answer to achieve Level 3:
• Mongolia has a harsh climate which means that it is a challenging environment. The winter temperatures can
reach lows of -30oC which means that it is difficult for people to survive. As a result of the climate the growing
season is only about 90 days long. This means that growing crops is challenging and restricts food supplies
• A lack of infrastructure means that many places are inaccessible. In Mongolia only about 20% of the roads are
tarmac which makes access to employment and resources difficult. Many people are reliant on livestock herding
for their income but severe winters and hot summers can lead to a lack of grazing which reduces population in
those areas
In north [1]
In centre [1]
Inland [1]
1.4 Population Density & Distribution
QUESTIONS
PAPER 2 SAMPLE
Answer 1
In north [1]
In centre [1]
Inland [1]
1.5 Settlements & Service Provision
1.5.1 Patterns of Settlement
Patterns of Settlements
Any form of human dwelling from a single house to largest city is a settlement. In other word, a settlement is a place in which
people live and where they carry out a variety of activities, such as residence, trade, agriculture, manufacturing etc.
1.Types of settlements: There are types of settlements such as: Rural and Urban settlement. Most of the rural settlements
are hamlets and villages, although not all are.
Categorising settlements
•A settlement is a place where people live and carry out a range of activities - trade,
manufacturing, agriculture etc.
•They can be categorised through their pattern
•However, there are other factors that influence settlements such as their:
• Shape or form
• Site and situation
• Function and hierarchy
• Change and growth - modern-day settlement patterns are changing due to population
change, technological developments, changing lifestyles and expanding urban limits (rise
of the megacities and urban sprawl)
Pattern
•Settlements come in different shapes
and sizes called patterns
•These range from isolated buildings
in rural regions to urban megacities of
over 10 million people
•Urban towns, cities, conurbations and
megacities are usually densely populated
over a smaller area
•Rural towns and fringe areas are usually
densely populated over a larger area
•Villages and hamlets will usually have a
lower population density and smaller
settled areas
•The physical geography of an area
dictates these patterns
Settlement Patterns
Form or shape?
•Both mean the same when it comes to describing the
pattern
•It is how the settlement is laid out
•For instance, a river, railway or major road would
encourage a linear development along this route to attract
trade
•However, linear settlements also arose due to physical
limitations such as poor drainage or the position of a
mountain
•Circular shapes grow around a central feature like village
greens or lake and are organised, so the middle remains
accessible
•A star form occurs when several roads meet, and houses
are built along those roads
•T-form settlements arise when one road meets another
at a junction
•Y-form settlements develop where two roads meet and
houses are built along these routes
•Cruciform shapes occur at cross-roads and houses
cluster (nucleate) and spread in all four directions
•Cross-shaped is similar to a cruciform, however, the
Settlement Patterns
•Dispersed
• Where isolated houses or farms are set in fields or along roads rather than
concentrated in one area
• Found in sparsely populated rural areas such as Sahel region of Africa, Australian
outback or the mountainous regions of Scotland and Wales
• The break-up of large rural estates led to dispersed settlements in England during the
16th and 17th centuries
• Dispersed settlements also occur where the physical geography is extreme - too hot,
wet, cold or dry - which in turn discourages settlement and development
•Linear
• Where there is a physical feature such as a river or a trade and transport route,
settlements group and form a line along its path
•Nucleated
• Form when settlements tightly cluster around a central feature such as a village green,
a crossroad or a church etc.
• Very few buildings are found further out, and these settlements are usually called
hamlets or villages, depending on their size and function
• There are a number of reasons for the development of nucleated settlements such as:
• Defence
• Trade
• Co-operative community - agriculture, water, work
• Floodplain - safer to group on a hilltop
Exam Tip
Make sure you can define the terms urban and rural. You
might think it is easy, but as settlements change, so does
their position in the hierarchy.
•Rural - an area with less than 10,000 people living within its
boundaries
•Urban - an area with more than 10,000 people living within
its boundaries
This use of a figure helps to keep the definition clearer and
it is easier to discuss the types of settlements found within.
•Rural - dispersed, hamlet, village and small market town
•Urban - large towns, cities, conurbations and megacities
PAPER 1
Paper 2
PAPER 4
(i)
Examples
Contains introduction / explanation of who is asking questions [1]
Aimed at target group [1]
Simple language / easy to read / follow / understand / answer / in native language / short / quick to carry out / to the point [1]
Explains why they are using the questionnaire [1]
Space to record gender / age information [1]
Space to add time / date [1]
Contains space to write answers / tick boxes / circle answers [1]
Questions are relevant to hypothesis [1]
Contains mixture of closed & open questions / multiple choice / easy Q at start and longer/harder at end / have YES/NO questions[1]
No personal / offensive questions / don’t ask age / address / income / make it anonymous [1]
Include thanks at the end of questionnaire [1]
(ii)
Plot data for number of people travelling more than 20 km (21–25). [1]
Plot one cross for each person travelling i.e. 2 @ 21, 1 @ 22, 3 @ 23, no cross at 0, 1 @ 25. top left.[1] Must all be correct and present for the mark
in the same method as shown in the diagrams.
(iii)
Hypothesis is true / correct – 1 mark reserve (✓HA)
People travel further to clothes shop [1]
People travel less distance to lower order services / doctor’s surgery / hairdressers [1]
OR
People travel further to the clothes shop (1) than the hairdressers / doctor’s surgery[1]
Credit 2 marks MAX for paired data comparing high/low order services
E.g. average distance travelled to clothes shop (High) = 16 km and but to hairdressers (Low) is 3.9 km[1]
E.g. people travel up to 25 / over 20 km to clothes shop / high order service but up to 8 / 11 km for hairdressers / doctor’s surgery / low order
services [1]
E.g. the minimum distance travelled to clothes shop / high order service is 9 km but the minimum distance to low order / hairdressers / doctor’s
surgery is 0.5 km [1]
No credit for hypothesis is false / partially true
If no hypothesis conclusion credit evidence
1.6 Urban Settlements
PAPER 1
Answer 1
(i)
12–14 km
(ii)
an area of traditional industry where redevelopment is taking place = B
An area where a ring road and business park have recently been built
on greenfield sites = E
(iii)
D is likely to:
be newer;
have a lower density;
be higher cost;
have detached/semi-detached houses rather than terraced/semi-detached
rather than detached;
have gardens/drives/garages
Etc.
(iv)
Services such as:
newsagent;
general store;
grocers;
primary school;
church etc.
Reasons such as;
they will have a small sphere of influence;
people will not travel far to use them;
threshold population will be small;
there will be lots of similar services;
people will use them frequently;
they sell convenience goods
Etc.
2 Marks MAX for each of examples and reasons.
1.6 Urban Settlements
PAPER 4
Answer 1
(a)
Student safety [1]
To divide up the tasks within each group [1]
Collect more data / get wider range of results / pool the
results of different groups / cover wider area [1]
Check that recording / fieldwork is done accurately / results
are reliable [1]
Compare results[1]
Work faster / study all 6 transects at the same time [1]
1.6 Urban Settlements
PAPER 4
Answer 1
(b)
Advantages
To get even coverage along the transect [1]
An easy method to use [1]
No bias caused by student selecting land use to record [1]
Will show major changes in land use along transect [1]
Disadvantages
Will require a lot of recording [1]
Might miss a typical land use / get an anomaly [1]
Land use on upper floor may be different to ground floor [1]
One side of the road may be different to the other side [1]
Case study: Service provision in a city or an area
Osaka- Kobe, Japan
The twin cities of Osaka –Kobe are located in the Kansai region of the Japanese Island of Honshu. Kansai with a population of over 9 Million, has
become a world leader in education, science, business, technology, industry etc.
Osaka and Kobe provide lots of services to the people in the city which lead to attract many people to migrate here. There is a good port and around
1400 ships a day enter the dock at Osaka. It is also known well-known for imports and exports raw materials and manufactured goods.
Kansai is a major industrial region. The port area has large oil refineries, steelworks and other industries processing imported raw materials.
Osaka and Kobe has a very good transportation link with bullet train, which provides the most reliable rail service in the world. One of the three
bullet train lines passes through Osaka and Kobe. The trains carry 275 million people per year, run at 7 minutes interval, are computer controlled,
arrive prompt to the second and
In addition to the present road transportation, a new road has been built linking Osaka and Kobe with the Islands of Awaji and Shikoku.
Kansai International Airport, built on an artificial Island in Osaka Bay, opened in 1994. The terminal, the world’s largest, can handle over 30 million
passengers a year.
The cities also provide good educational institutions and many people from different parts of Japan and abroad come to these cities for education
and research purposes.
Science and technology become another important center in these cities. Many people are involved in science and technology and research
projects.
Osaka-Kobe became the business center. Many business people across the globe come to visit here.
In addition to some of the mentioned above services, there are also many other services like hospitals, housing
facilities, safe drinking water, communications, power station and many other services.
URBAN SETTLEMENTS
Settlement hierarchy
The term hierarchy refers to the arrangement of settlements within a given
area in an ‘order of importance’.
The ‘order of importance’ in the hierarchy is determined based on:
i) the population size of a settlement
ii) the range and number of services provided by a settlement
iii) the sphere of influence, or market area, of a settlement.
Isolated home/farmstead (1family) → Hamlet (5-6 buildings) → Village (upto several
hundred people) → small town (10,000-20,000 people) → large town (upto 100,000
people) city (upto a million people) → Conurbation (1-2 million people) → Primate city
or capital (several million people)
Sphere of influence: The sphere of influence or market area is the area served by a
particular settlement. The area of sphere of influence depends upon the size and
services of a settlement. Hamlets and villages generally have low spheres influence.
Range of a good: The maximum distance that a person is prepared to travel to buy an
item (good) is known as the range of a good. Low order goods have a small range
whereas high order goods have a large range.
Threshold population: The number of people needed to support a good or service is
known as the threshold population. Low order goods may only need a small number of
people to support a small shop, whereas a large department store might require larger
number of people in order for it to survive and make a profit.
Factors affecting the size, growth and function of settlements
A number of factors affect settlement size, growth and function. In extreme
environments settlement are generally small.
Urban Settlements
2. Climatic condition also affect the growth and function of the settlement
3. Easy transportation and communication attract more settlement.
4. Settlement in the more favoured areas had greater potential growth, and a greater range of services and functions
Functions of urban settlement
 Market town where the famers buy and sell goods. There are many services e.g. shops and offices, have good transport links, a market place.
 Port where goods loaded and unloaded by ship. There are sheltered harbours, building or storage
 Industrial town where many people work in factories, processing raw materials or assembling products. It is found near coalfields.
 Resort a place where tourists visit to enjoy themselves. It is located on the coast with beaches or scenic inland areas, may be large historical cities.
Urban land use models:
Urbanization means an increase in the proportion of people living in towns and cities. Although towns were important even in the early civilization of
Mesopotamia and the valley of the Nile, Indus and Huang-He (China), most people tend to live in rural areas. However, due to rapid of industry in nineteenth
century that large-scale urbanization began in Europe and US.
Urban land use models:
A model is a theoretical framework which may not actually exist, but which helps to explain the reality.
Burgess’s concentric model (1925)
Assumptions:
 Burgess assumed that new migrants to a city moved into inner city areas where housing was cheapest and it was closes to the source of employment.
 Over time residents move out of the inner city area as they become wealthier
Features / characteristics:
Model based on Chicago in the 1920s
The city is growing spatially due to immigration and natural increase
The areas around the CBD has the lowest status and highest density housing
Residents move outwards with increasing social class and their homes are taken by new migrants
Heart of the city
Commercial and shopping facilities, intensive land development, sky scrappers
Concentration of main offices, shop, financial institutes, entertainment centres
Chief focus of traffic such as road junctions, bus stations
Large number of pedestrians
b. Burgess’s concentric model and c. Hoyt’s Sector model
1. Central Business District (CBD)
2. Factories/Industries
3. Working Class housing
4. Middle Class housing
5. a) A commuter zone
b) high class housing
In his model, housing quality and social class increase with distance from the city centre.
Land in the centre is dominated by commerce as it is best able to afford the high land prices, and
requires highly accessible sites. In the early twentieth century, public transport made the central
city the most accessible part of town.
Beyond the CBD is a manufacturing zone that also includes high density, low quality housing to
accommodate the workers.
As the city grows and the CBD expands, the concentric rings of land use are pushed further out.
The area of immediate change adjacent to the expanding CDD is known as the zone in transition.
Hoyt’s sector model (1939)
Homer Hoyt emphasized the importance of transport routes and the incompatibility of certain land
uses. Sectors develop along important routeways, while certain land uses, such s high-class
residential and manufacturing industry deter each other and are separated by buffer zones or
physical features.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by typical of a settlement
hierarchy?
In a typical settlement of hierarchy –
• there are more small settlements/low order than large ones/high order;
• larger settlements are further away from each other than small ones/smaller ones
are closer together;
2. Explain why people are prepared to travel further for some shops and services than
others.
Ideas such as;
• travel further for high order goods; it depends on the availability of the services; e.g. there
are lots of shops selling bread (dev); so people will be able to buy it locally (dev);
• main leisure facilities may only be found in large urban areas;
• so have to travel to a nearby city to go to cinema (dev);
• for some goods people go further so they have a better choice/a wider variety of
goods in some shops; travel further for a better quality product;
• General frequency of use idea e.g. don’t go there very often so will travel further;
• travel further for a specialized shop not found near where they live;
• travel further for cheaper prices; travel further for expensive goods e.g. car; etc
Urbanisation
Urbanisation is the increase in the population of people living in towns and cities.
Urbanization occurs because people move from rural areas to urban areas. This
usually happens when a country is still developing
In 1950s, urbanisation has slowed down in MEDCs, and now some of the biggest cities are losing population as people move
away from the city to rural environments. This is known as counter-urbanisation.
The main causes of urbanisation in LEDCs;
Rural to urban migration is happening on a massive scale due to population pressure and a lack of resources in rural areas.
(this is known as push factors)
People living in rural areas believe that the standard of living in urban areas will be much better than in rural areas. They for
well-paid jobs, greater opportunities to find ‘informal’ work, and better health care and education.
Main features/characteristics of Central Business District (CBD)
Commercial and shopping facilities, Intensive land development – skycrappers
Concentration of main offices – shops – financial institutions – entertainment centres
Chief focus of traffic (junctions, bust stations)
Large number of pedestrians
Vertical zoning – shops occupy ground floors because of accessibility while offices occupy upper floors
Functional grouping – similar shops and similar functions tend to locate together – increasing their threshold
Traffic restrictions are greatest in the CBD – pedestrianisation has reduced access for cars.
Concentration of retailing – high levels of accessibility attract shops with high range and threshold characteristics
Low residential population – high bed rents can only be met by luxury apartments
Benefits – basic facilities are available (road, water, electricity), city centre location, cheaper goods are available.
Migration from Rural Peru to Lima
Factors influencing migration from villages in Andes to Lima
Not enough agricultural land because it is shared between sons
Drought and other natural hazards
Low prices for agricultural products
Cannot afford clothes and food for children
Not much opportunity for children to go to school
No running water, electricity or sewage disposal in many villages.
What migrants experience when they get to Lima
Racial discrimination
Separation from family
Better quality services, e.g. water, electricity
Better schools for migrants children
Low pay and long working hours
Forced to live in self-built houses or on the streets
A case study on squatter settlement in Dharavi, Mumbai
Dharavi is a slum and administrative ward, suburbs of Mumbai, India. Dharavi is one of the largest slums in the world. It used to be the largest slum in
Mumbai at one time, but as of 2011, there are four slums in Mumbai larger than Dharavi. In 1986 the population was 530,225, but modern
Dharavi has a population near 1 million.
The facts:
1. Dharavi covers an area of 535 acres (217 ha), it is situated near to the Mithi River,
2. Migrants from Gujarat established a potters' colony.
3. Migrant tanners from Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra set up the leather tanning industry.
4. The embroidery workers from Uttar Pradesh, started the ready-made garments trade.
5. Dharavi's first school was constructed in 1924.
6. There is an increasingly large recycling industry, processing recyclable waste from other parts of Mumbai.
7. The district has an estimated 5000 businesses and 15,000 single-room factories
Positive Conditions:
1. Dharavi provides a cheap housing where rents are as low as US$4 per month.
2. Dharavi exports goods around the world. The total turnover is estimated to be over US$650 million/year.
3. Informal shopping areas exist where it is possible to buy anything needed.
4. 85% of people have a job in the slum and work LOCALLY, and some have even managed to become millionaires.
5. Everything is recycled (23% of plastic waste recycled in the UK, in Mumbai it is 80%)
6. These areas have strong safe neighbourhoods that have low crime and communal riots.
Negative Conditions:
1. Poor drainage systems make Dharavi particularly vulnerable to floods during the wet season.
2. Dharavi has severe problems with public health, due to the scarcity of toilet facilities. As of November 2006 there was only one toilet per 1,440
residents.
3. The area also suffers from problems with inadequate drinking water supply.
4. The doctors deal with 4,000 cases a day of diphtheria and typhoid.
5. People live in very small dwellings (12X12ft), often with many members of their extended families (5 people per room).
6. The houses often have no windows and safe doors.
7. They have to work under the hot sun in dangerous conditions with toxic substances without protective clothing to earn around a £1 a day, this could
affect life expectancy.
A case study on squatter settlement in Dharavi, Mumbai
Redevelopment;
1. There have been many plans since 1997 to redevelop Dharavi. In 2004, the cost of redevelopment was estimated to be
US$770 million.
© R.B. Thohe Pou M.A. PhD, HoD, Dept. of Geography (Class Notes for students only) Page 35
2. The Dharavi co-operative housing society, by the initiative of Shri. M.V. Duraiswamy, promoted 338 flats and 97 shops
and was named "Dr. Baliga Nagar."
The latest urban redevelopment plan proposed by architect Mukesh Mehta, involves the construction of 30,000,000
square feet of housing, schools, parks and roads to serve the 57,000 families residing.
The slum dwellers face 14 story apartments as accommodation as proposed by the cities Slum Rehabilitation Authority.
Redevelopment problems;
1. There has been significant local opposition to the plans, largely because existing residents are due to receive only 269
square feet of land each.
2. Furthermore, only those families who lived in the area before 2000 are slated for resettlement.
3. Concerns have also been raised that some of their small businesses in the "informal" sector may not be relocated under
the redevelopment plan as the government will only legalize industries that are not "polluting."
4. The locals would prefer small improvements to the existing slum such as improvements in drainage.
5. The value of land is so high that redevelopment is now a real threat. The alternative accommodation is very small.
6. This will separate communities and make people work away from where they live.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Explain why many new shopping and entertainment centres are being built in suburban
areas rather than in the centre of cities.
Ideas such as:
Low land costs; More space to built large mall ; and for parking (dev); Away from congestion
in CBD ; makes deliveries/access for customers easier (dev); easy access from motorway
(dev); Away from noise/atmospheric pollution ; more pleasant shopping environment (dev);
large market/lots of customers etc
2. Describe the problems in its rural-urban fringe which are being caused by its growth.
Traffic congestion as many people who live in new developments commute to work in
CBD, loss of farmland due to new housing developments/road construction, atmospheric
pollution from increased traffic etc
Urban Problems
Urban decay – urban decay occurs when parts of the city become run-down and
undersirable to live in. Examples of urban decays are:
 slum housing, with outside toilets, overcrowding, no hot water or central heating
 buildings in disrepair with leaking roofs, draughty windows and crumbling brickwork
 empty buildings boarded up or vandalized
 areas where buildings have been knocked down and which turn into derelict land.
Comprehensive redevelopment: There have been a number of schemes to reduce the problems
of urban decay. Comprehensive redevelopment occurs when all the building are knocked down
and the area is completely rebuilt, for example old housing and factories demolished and replaced
by new flats and multi-storey high-rise building. This approach has been criticized as people have
to move from their established communities and workplaces – they no longer know their
neighbours and they have moved away from their friends and relations.
Urban regeneration: urban regeneration is the renovation of existing housing and improvement
of the environment and economy including:
 rewiring the houses and fitting central heating
 fitting double glazing
 cleaning the outsides of old buildings by sand-blasting
 improving the environment by landscaping
 building or improving the social facilities such as clubs and medical centres
 encouraging new businesses and industry to set up in the areas with grants and loans
This has proved more popular as people have been able to stay in their own area.
Factors influencing CBD decline/ decay
- Investment in city centres often lack a co-ordinated plan
- Congestion reduces accessibility of CBDs
- Investors and businesses are attracted to peripheral sites that have better environments
- Cost of development is high – business rates, rents and land costs
- Rise in care ownership leads to increased personal mobility
- Planning policies can encourage urban expansion and provide ‘out of town’ developments
- Companies find peripheral locations cheaper, and nearer to customers and staff who live in the suburbs.
- City centres are perceived as dirty, unsafe, with an ageing environment and poor infrastructures
- Progressive suburbanization leads to urban sprawl
Problems associated with urban growth:
Lack of housing; Very high land values and rent in the city centre
Congestion in the CBD; Traffic congestion – time delay, accidents
Unemployment; Crime – robbery, theft; Racial conflict ; Pollution – air, noise, water etc; Lack of open spaceparks, brown field sites; Urban decay and dereliction; Overcrowding – congestion, pickpockets
Solutions to urban problems
Government support for low-income self-built housing
Provision of enough quality housing; Subsidies for home building; Flexible loans to help shanty-town
dwellers; Construction of health and educational services
Improve sanitary facilities; Increase access to electricity and potable water
Slum upgrading in central areas; Improved private and public rental housing
Site and service schemes; Encouragement of community schemes
Case study: Urban problems and solutions – Cairo in Egypt
Cairo is located around the banks and Island of the river Nile in the north of Egypt. There has been rapid growth of population since 1950s.
The growth has been too rapid
for the city to cope, with increasing demands for services such as piped water, schools, paved roads and electricity. Traffic congestion,
along with noise, air and water pollution, adds to the problems.
Problems in Cairo city:
1. Lack of housing: Self built brick houses are built illegally on farmland by the river Nile. These informal houses cover 80% of Cairo. Half
a million people live in homemade of huts on roof spaces of office blocks and flats in the city centre.
2. Traffic congestion: Between 1970 and 2000, the number of cars has increased from 100000 to over a million. Many drivers are
aggressive and do not keep to the rules of the road, causing danger for road users and pedestrians.
3. Lack of jobs: Jobs for unskilled workers are hard to find. Many poor people are forced to work in the informal sector, selling things on the
streets to earn a meager living.
4. Pollution: The air is heavily polluted by a cocktail of vehicle exhausts and fumes from fuels used in homes and workplaces. Ground
water is polluted by waste illegally dumped by factories and workshops.
Solutions to Cairo city problems:
1. New satellite and dormitory towns built around the city
2. Ring road built, encircling the city
3. People with donkey carts were lincensed to collect and recycle garbage
4. Homes and public services were upgraded in the most run-down part of the city.
5. A modern metro system was built
6. There greater Cairo waste water project, extended and repaired the sewage system.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. For a named urban area you have studied, describe the attempts taken to reduce the problems
caused by traffic.
Content Guide: pedestrianisation; road improvement / widening; ring roads; by-passes;
public transport systems / trams / tube / guided bus routes; congestion charging;
park & ride; number plate usage; lanes for car sharing; bus lanes; catalytic convertors / reduce air
pollution; etc.
Topic 1.10: Urban Sprawl
The expansion of the city into its surrounding rural areas is the urban sprawl. As population increases
in towns and cities, urban sprawl takes places. This happens in both MEDCs and LEDCs, but the
causes are different. Urban sprawl tends to be unplanned in LEDC cities and planned in MEDC cities –
but the outcome is similar. In both cases the urban area expands into the countryside, affecting people
and changing the environment at the rural-urban fringe.
Rural –Urban Fringe (zone of transition / green field) features
It is the transition zone where urban and rural mixture of land uses. The Rural-Urban fringe is the
name given to the land at the edge of an urban area, where there is often huge mixture of land uses.
Often science parks, business parks and industrial estates locate in the rural-urban fringe as the land is
cheaper, there is room for expansion and they are closer to transport links to allow export and import of
goods.
Recreational land-uses such as golf courses and leisure parks have been established in the ruralurban fringe. Out-of-town shopping centres also find that the space available, good transport
connections and cheap land encourage them to establish in the rural-urban fringe. Farming still occurs
in the rural-urban fringe, although the farmers often come under great pressure to sell their land for
development. A farmer will make far more money from a sale if there is already planning permission for
building to occur on the land.
Greenbelts
Greenbelts were established to prevent the continued growth of cities. They are rings of heavily protected
open land circling an urban area. They aim to protect the surrounding countryside from development, and in
some cases stop two large cities from merging. Planning permission is not usually granted for schemes on
green belt land, although there is often great pressure to allow some proposals through.
Main features of rural-urban fringe
Constantly changing pattern of land occupancy and or ownership.
Small farms in which intensive forms of agriculture, including market gardening are carried out.
Rapid residential expansion and predominance of speculative buildings.
Incomplete provision of public utilities and services.
Out of town shopping centers.
Socially, the residents tend to be segregated into distinctive groups; the older rural groups, the new
tenants and owner occupier of new private housing.
Roads – National highways, by-pass, low street density
There is also garden, gym, swimming pool, lifts, helipads, low housing density, outer city council estatelarge buildings for the poor.
Developments of high tech industries
Development of shopping complex, hyper markets, out of town shopping centres (occupy large space and
variety of goods, parking, high demand for goods)
Recreational areas – amusement parks, playground, sports stadium, country parks,
Science parks, hotels and conference centres (large area)
Sewage works and landfill sites for urban waste.
Advantages in the rural-urban fringe:
Availability of cheap land
Enough space for expansion
Good quality environment
Fresh land area
Good road transportation
Better security.
Disadvantages in the rural-urban fringe
Loss of farming land and jobs;
Increase in population results in suburbanisation of
villages;
Increasing competition for land between industrial
and agricultural purpose;
Loss of natural reserves for wild life;
Increase in traffic leads to accidents,
Sewage works and disposal causes land, water
pollution.
The growth of out-of-town shopping centres
Shopping in MEDCs (more economically developed country) and NICs
(newly industrialised country) has changed from an industry dominated by
small firms to one being led by large companies. The retailing revolution
has focussed on superstores, hypermarkets and out-of-town shopping
centres. These are located on Greenfield suburban sites with good
accessibility and plenty of space for parking and future expansion. The
initial out-of-town developments came in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
Now more than 20% of shopping expenditure in MEDCs takes place in outof-town stores.
Advantages:
Plenty of free parking
Lots of space so shops are not cramped
New developments so usually quite attractive
Easily accessible by car
The shops can sell large volumes of goods and often at slightly lower
prices
Having a large shop means that individual shops can offer a greater
range of goods than smaller shops
Developments on the edge of the town reduce the environmental
pressures and problems in city centres
Many new jobs can be created both in the short term and in the long
term.
Disadvantages
They destroy large amount of undeveloped Greenfield sites
They destroy valuable habitats
They lead to pollution and environmental problems at the edge of town
And increase in impermeable surfaces (shops, car parks, roads etc) may lead
to an increase in flooding and a decrease in water quality
They only help those with cars – people who do not benefit might include the
elderly, those without a car, those who cannot drive.
Successful out-of-town developments may take trade away from city centres
and lead to a decline in sales in the CBD
Small businesses and family firms may not be able to compete with the vast
multinational companies that dominate out-of-town developments – there may
be a loss of the personal touch
They cause congestion in out-of-town areas
Many of the jobs created are unskilled.
A case study: Urban sprawl in Atlanta
Atlanta is the capital of Georgia state. Its population has grown from 1.4 million in 1970 to
5.1 million in 2006. Between 2000 to 2006 it has added 1 million population which is
becoming the fastest-growing metropolitan city in the USA.
Growth creates problems
Population growth – Atlanta is the largest metropolitan area in south-east USA. With 5.1 million
populations in 2006, urban sprawl was inevitable.
Traffic congestion – plus air and noise pollution is the fourth worst in the USA. 90% of residents drive
to work experiencing 68 hours of delays year year.
Air quality – traffic congestion causes increases in respiratory illnesses such bronchitis, asthma etc. air
stagnates here so fumes from vehicles are rarely blown away.
Water quality and quantity – sanitation systems cannot cope. Increased water demand for industry and
irrigation uses up supplies, affecting fishing habitats.
Agricultural land – expansion has meant that farmland has been bought and covered with shopping
malls and other developments.
Loss of green space – the city losses an average of 125 hectares of trees per day by deforestation.
Ecosystems suffer a wildlife dies or migrate away.
Cultural loss – civil war battlefields surrounding Atlanta, such as the Kennesaw mountain national
battlefields to the north, are under threat from suburban homes.
Socio-economic division – most sprawl is to the north where white middle- class suburbs have
developed. The inner city has less investments; this is where the poorer black population has stayed.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of creating areas of green belt land around cities.
Ideas such as:
Advantages:
Retains rural/peaceful environment/stops excessive urban growth/prevents sprawl/
prevents unsightly buildings being built; people can easily access land for walking
dog/cycling/amenity; lead to increased property prices; Provides clean air for city/stops/reduces
air pollution; May contain water sources for city/no water pollution e.g. reservoir/river; Can be
used for producing food/farming; etc.
Disadvantages:
Makes expansion of urban area more difficult; less land to build services e.g. schools;
Therefore building of new housing is difficult/not enough homes for people; encourages upward
growth/high rise; Have to live further away from city/development has to be at other side of green
belt; leads to more traffic movement/congestion/more fumes/air pollution from traffic; makes
construction of ring roads/by passes difficult/rail/airport;
increased property prices;
2.
Describe the hierarchy of settlements
More small villages than large cities, one big city which is the capital, several large cities
within each part of the country etc.
THEME 2. NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
2.1.1 Main Features of Earthquakes & Volcanoes
Main Features of Volcanoes
•A volcano is formed when magma erupts onto the
Earth's surface as lava through a vent in the Earth's
crust
•The magnitude of a volcanic eruption is measured
on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)
• The scale is open ended but the highest in
recorded human history was an 8 (Tambora
1815)
•All volcanoes have features in common, as shown in
the diagram:
•Due to the type of lava erupted the formation of a
volcano varies
•Composite (strato-volcanoes)
• Steep-sided
• Sticky (viscous) lava
• More explosive eruptions
• Formed from alternating
layers of ash and lava
• Tend to form on
convergent (destructive)
plate boundaries
•Shield volcanoes
• Gently sloping sides
• Runny/thin lava
• Less explosive - gentle
eruptions
• Tend to form on divergent
(constructive) plate
boundaries or hot spots
• Frequent eruptions
•Volcanoes may be active, dormant or extinct
• Active
• The volcano has recently erupted and is likely to
erupt again
• Dormant
• Has erupted in the last 2000 years and may
possibly erupt again
• Extinct
• Shows no evidence of eruption in historic times
and there is no evidence of a magma reservoir
Volcanic eruption features
•Eruptions may include a range of features as shown in the table below:
Feature
Characteristics
Lava
When magma erupts to the surface it is known as lava. The lava can be thin
and runny or thick and slow moving. This depends on the composition of the
magma
Ash
Pulverised solid lava which measures less than 2mm in diameter. Ash is
ejected into the atmosphere and can travel thousands of kilometres
Pyroclastic flow
Lahars
Earthquakes
Volcanic bombs
Fast moving, very hot clouds of poisonous gases mixed with ash. Average
speeds of about 100km/h but can move at up to 700km/h
When volcanoes erupt snow and ice on the peak melts and combines with the
ash. This creates fast moving mudflows or lahars
Magma rising to the surface through the vents in the volcano increases
pressure on the Earth's crust leading to earth tremors
Fragments of molten rock which are ejected from the volcano. These are
between 60mm and 5m in diameter
Worked example
Shield volcanoes are often formed on constructive
(divergent) plate boundaries.
Describe two characteristics of a shield volcano.
[2]
•Answer: Any two of the following
• Fluid/thin/runny lava [1]
• Low (height to width ratio) [1]
• Gentle slopes [1]
• Gentle eruption [1]
• Frequent eruptions [1]
Main Features of Earthquakes
•An earthquake is the sudden, violent shaking of the ground
•Earthquakes are the result of pressure building when tectonic plates move
•The epicentre is the point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus
•The focus is the point at which the earthquake starts below the Earth's surface
•The magnitude (amount of energy released) by earthquakes is measured on the Moment
Magnitude Scale which replaced the Richter scale
•The damage caused by earthquakes is measured on the Mercalli Scale
•Earthquakes can occur anywhere but mostly occur at or near plate boundaries
•Earthquakes happen at all plate boundaries - constructive (divergent), destructive
(convergent), collision and conservative (transform)
•At a constructive (divergent) plate boundary, earthquakes tend to be weaker as the plates are
moving apart
•At destructive (convergent), collision and conservative (transform) plate boundaries
earthquakes tend to be stronger
Earthquake sequence
•The sequence of an earthquake is the same
regardless of the boundary at which it
happens:
• As the tectonic plates move, they can
get stuck
• Pressure builds as the plates continue
to try to move
• Eventually the plates jolt free, and the
pressure is released as energy
• The point at which the earthquake
starts is the focus
• The epicentre is the point directly
above the focus on the earth's surface
• The energy passes through the Earth's
crust as waves which is the
earthquake
Features of an Earthquake
•Earthquakes can also happen as a result of human
activity such as drilling into the crust or mining
Worked example
Tick the one statement in the table below which is the correct definition of an
earthquake.
A crack in the earth's crust caused by a volcano
A vent between two plates of the earth's crust through
which molten magma escapes
Movement of large slabs of rock in the mantle
The shaking of the ground caused by plate movement
•Answer:
• The shaking of the ground caused by
plate movement [1]
Exam Tip
When describing the processes which lead to an earthquake or
volcanic eruption, it is helpful to write the formation down as a
sequence of steps. This will make the process easier to
remember.
2.1.2 Distribution of Earthquakes & Volcanoes
Earthquake & Volcano Distribution
Earthquake distribution
•Earthquakes occur at all types of plate boundaries
•
Most occur along the Pacific 'Ring of Fire' (approximately 90%)
Earthquake Distribution
Volcano distribution
•Most volcanoes occur at divergent (constructive) and convergent (destructive) plate boundaries
•The majority of active volcanoes (approximately 75%) are located around the rim of the Pacific
Ocean called the 'Ring of Fire'
•Hotspots occur away from plate boundaries and are plumes/columns of magma which escape
through the Earth's crust
Active Volcano Distribution
Exam Tip
When describing the distribution of hazards from a
map ask yourself the following questions:
•What is the general pattern?
•Does the pattern relate to anything else for example
the location of plate boundaries?
•Are they close to the equator or further away?
•Are they inland or coastal?
Use map features to help with your description - place
names, compass rose, latitude and longitude.
2.1.3 Causes of Earthquakes & Volcanoes
Causes of Earthquakes & Volcanic Eruptions
The structure of the Earth
•The Earth is composed of four main layers
• Inner core - about 1400km in diameter, a
solid and dense layer composed of iron and
nickel with temperatures of about 5500oC
• Outer core - about 2100km thick, a semimolten metal layer with temperatures
between about 5000-5500oC
• Mantle - about 2900km thick, a semimolten layer which is less dense than the
outer core
• Crust - the thickness varies and it is made
up of two types of crust
Structure of the Earth
Crust
•There are two types of crust
• Continental crust is thick (25-90km), old and
not as dense as oceanic crust
• Oceanic crust is thinner (5-10km), heavier
and denser than continental crust
•Oceanic crust is continually being created and
destroyed as a result of plate movement where it is
denser and so subducts under the continental crust
Plate tectonics
•The crust is broken into a number of tectonic
plates
•These plates move on top of the semi-molten
mantle below.
•The movement of the plates is in part due to
the convection currents within the mantle
•A plate boundary or margin is where two
plates meet
Types of plate boundary
•Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes most
commonly occur at or near plate
boundaries
•There are four main types of plate
boundaries:
• Divergent (constructive)
• Convergent (destructive)
• Collision
• Transform (conservative)
Tectonic Plates
Divergent (constructive) plate
boundary
•At a divergent boundary the plates
are moving apart
•The Mid Atlantic Ridge is an
example of a divergent plate
boundary
•Both volcanic eruptions and
earthquakes can occur at this type
of plate boundary
Divergent (constructive) plate boundary
Collision boundary
•At a collision boundary two
plates of similar density move
towards each other
•Neither is dense enough to
subduct, so the land is pushed
upwards
•This forms fold mountains such
as the Himalayas
•Earthquakes are the main
hazard at this type of plate
boundary
Collision Boundary
Transform (conservative)
boundary
•At a transform (conservative)
boundary the plates move passed
each other in opposite directions or
in the same direction at different
speeds
•Earthquakes are the only hazard at
this type of boundary
Transform (conservative) Boundary
Worked example
Study Fig 1, which is a cross-section through a
volcano.
(i) What type of plate boundary is shown in Fig 1?
•Answer:
• Constructive/divergent [1]
(ii) Choose the correct labels for features X and Y shown in
Fig 1.
Choose from the list below:
- convection currents
- direction of plate movement
- lava escaping from the volcano
- new crust created
- subduction
•Answer:
• X = convection currents
• Y = direction of plate movement
Exam Tip
Draw each of the plate boundaries and add annotations to outline the
processes. This will help you to remember what happens at each one.
Causes of Earthquakes & Volcanic Eruptions
•Volcanoes occur at divergent (constructive), convergent (destructive) plate boundaries and hot spots
•Volcanoes do not occur at collision boundaries or transform (conservative) boundaries
Volcanoes at constructive boundaries
•At a divergent (constructive) the tectonic plates are moving away from each other:
• Divergent plate boundaries often occur under the sea/ocean
• The lava escapes through the gap left as the plates move apart
• The lava cools and hardens forming a new crust
•At divergent plate boundaries the lava tends to be runny, and eruptions are less explosive
•These types of eruption form shield volcanoes which have gently sloping sides
Volcanoes at destructive boundaries
•At a destructive (convergent) boundary the tectonic plates are moving towards each other:
• The heavier, denser oceanic plate subducts under the lighter continental plate
• In the subduction zone the two plates come together causing friction
• Friction causes heat and the plate material melts forming magma
• The magma rises to the surface through cracks in the crust
• The cooling lava and ash build up forming a volcano
•At destructive plate boundaries the lava tends to be sticky and produces explosive eruptions
•These eruptions tend to form composite or stratovolcanoes
Volcanoes at hot spots
•At a hot spot the tectonic plate passes over a plume of magma:
• The magma rises to the surface through cracks in the crust
• As the tectonic plate moves slowly over the magma plume a line of islands may form
e.g. Hawaii
Causes of Earthquake Hazards
Earthquakes and plate boundaries
•Earthquakes can occur anywhere but mostly
occur at or near plate boundaries
•Earthquakes happen at all plate boundaries divergent (constructive), convergent
(destructive), collision and transform
(conservative)
•At a divergent (constructive) plate boundary,
earthquakes tend to be weaker as the plates
are moving apart
•At convergent (destructive), collision and
conservative (transform) plate boundaries
earthquakes tend to be stronger
2.1.4 Effects of Earthquakes & Volcanoes
Effects of Earthquakes & Volcanic Eruptions
The impacts of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions can be categorised into:
•Primary hazards - these are a direct result of the earthquake or eruption
•Secondary hazards - these occur as a result of the primary effects
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
Earthquake
Ground Shaking
Surface rupture
Liquefaction
Landslides
Tsunami
Fires
Volcanic
Eruption
Pyroclastic flow
Lava flow
Volcanic Bombs
Lahars (mudflow)
Earthquakes
Direct ash fall
Landslides
Tsunami
Acid rain
Ash fallout from
the atmosphere
Factors affecting the impacts of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
•All earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are unique
•The impacts that they have depend on a range of factors both human and physical
Human
Physical
Earthquake
Building construction and design - poorly
constructed buildings with poor quality building
materials are more likely to collapse. Higher
buildings amplify the shockwaves and are more
likely to collapse
Building density - where buildings are close
together, they are more likely to damage or
destroy other buildings if they fall
Population density - the higher the density
population the more people are likely to be
injured or killed
Preparation - earthquake drills can reduce the
impact
Magnitude - the amount of energy released by the
earthquake. Usually, the higher the magnitude the greater
the impact
Geology - some rocks are more prone to liquefaction others
provide stronger foundations for buildings
Distance from the epicentre - the closer somewhere is to
the epicentre the stronger the shock waves will be
Depth - shallower earthquakes mean less energy is absorbed
by the crust before the shockwaves reach the surface
Volcanic Eruption
Proximity of population - how close populations
are to the volcano. The nearer that people are
the more likely they are to be affected by lava
flow and ash
Planning and preparation - where authorities
have planned exclusion zones and evacuation
plans the impact may be reduced
Magnitude - the size and strength of the eruption. Usually,
the higher the magnitude the greater the impact
Type of volcano - composite (strato-volcanoes) tend to be
more explosive and less predictable than shield volcanoes
Amount of ash ejected into the atmosphere - ash in the
atmosphere can impact on areas 100s of km away and can
affect the global climate
Effects of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
•Although the characteristics of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are very different
many of the impacts are similar
•Impacts include:
• Loss of life and injury - this may be immediate through falling buildings or ash
fall. Alternatively, it may be in the days and weeks after the event due to
unclean water or disease
• Collapse or destruction of buildings - this leads to people being homeless
for months and even years after the event
• Transport network - roads, bridges and railways may be damaged or
destroyed. This can impact on the speed which aid can get to affected areas
• Loss of jobs and businesses - this impacts the economy when factories and
offices are destroyed or damaged
• Loss of crops - leads to food shortages and affects farmers income
• Power and water supply damaged - this affects the supply of clean water
• Damage to the environment - loss of vegetation and habitats, effects on
climate of ash
• Closure of airports - it is dangerous for jet planes to fly through ash clouds
due to possible engine failure, so flights are cancelled
Exam Tip
It is easy to confuse the primary and secondary
effects/impacts for earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Remember:
•Primary effects are those which occur as a direct
result of the earthquake or volcanic eruption. For
example, buildings collapsing is a direct result of the
earthquake ground shaking.
•Secondary effects are those things which result from
the primary hazards. For example, fires caused by gas
mains which have fractured.
Worked example
Study Fig 1, which shows information about the problems faced
by households after an earthquake in Port-au-Prince, Haiti.
(i) Identify the two main problems caused by the earthquake in
Haiti
[2]
•Answer:
• Lack of shelter [1]
• Shortage of food [1]
(ii) Explain why it is necessary to provide clean water and
sanitation after an earthquake.
[3]
•Answer:
• People need clean water supply/water to drink/to
live/survive/prevent
dehydration [1]
• Water/sewage pipes/water treatment stations will be cut
off/damaged/broken [1]
• No running water [1]
• People cannot wash/bath/shower [1]
• No flush toilets [1]
• Sewage will spill out/contaminate (water
supplies/area) [1]
• Disease/germs from dirty/polluted water or people sick
from dirty water/waterborne diseases/examples of such
2.1.5 Hazards & Opportunities
Hazards & Opportunities
•It is estimated that 600 million people will live in tectonically active areas by 2025
•There are many hazards associated with living in areas vulnerable to
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions as outlined in the previous section
•There are also many opportunities which are particularly associated with living
near to volcanoes including:
• Fertile soils - the ash and cooled lava contain many minerals which lead
to high yields of crops
• Tourism - many people want to visit areas where there are active
volcanoes, this increases the number of jobs available
• Minerals and precious stones - these can be mined and sold providing
work for local people
• Geothermal energy - as the magma is closer to the surface the heat can
be used to generate geothermal energy
• Creating new land area - once the lava and ash have cooled this forms
new land area
Worked example
Fig 1 shows Teide, an active volcano in the Canary Islands.
Give three opportunities that
volcanoes like Teide offer to people.
[3]
•Answer:
• fertile soils [1]
• tourism [1]
• geothermal power [1]
• minerals [1]
• relief rainfall in dry areas [1]
• creating new land area [1]
2.1.6 Reducing the Impact of Earthquakes & Volcanoes
•The responses to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions can be short term or long term
• Short term responses are those which happen straight after an event and include aid and disaster relief
• Long term responses aim to reduce the impact of future hazard events and include risk assessments and hazard mapping
Earthquakes - long term responses
•Accurate prediction of earthquakes is not currently possible, but monitoring is
•Many different methods of monitoring are being used to help research possible prediction methods:
• Tiltmeters - which monitors ground changes
• Clusters of small earthquakes
• Changes in radon gas emissions
• Changes in animal behaviour
• Remote sensing of ground movement using satellites
•In developed countries building design and engineering is commonly used to reduce the impact of earthquakes
•Building regulations and codes require new buildings to include earthquake resistant features:
• Shutters on windows prevent falling glass
• Cross-bracing or diagonal bracing of steel frames
• Flexible building materials
• Foundations sunk deep into the bedrock
• Frames which sway with the earthquake tremors
• Rubber shock absorbers to reduce tremors moving through the building
• Reinforce walls/pillars with concrete
• Shatter proof/reinforced glass
• Fire resistant materials
• Automatic cut off for gas/electricity
•In many countries earthquake drills are regularly carried out
•The drills help people to prepare for what to do in an earthquake to protect themselves
•Education about how to prepare homes means that people are less likely to be injured by falling objects and furniture
Volcanoes and earthquakes - long term responses
•There are some examples of planning which are used in both areas vulnerable to
earthquakes and those vulnerable to volcanic eruptions
•In vulnerable areas:
• Remote sensing of the Earth's surface by satellites such as Sentinel 1 provides
data about changes in ground movement
• Geographic Information Systems (GIS) provides layers of data such as:
• vulnerable areas
• land use
• infrastructure such as roads
• GIS data is then used to assist with land use planning
• Land Use Planning
• Mapping of areas most at risk from earthquakes
• Planning can ensure that valuable services such as the fire service and
hospitals are not built in high risk areas
• Densely populated housing can be located away from high-risk areas
Worked example
Explain how new buildings can be earthquake-proofed, so they are less
likely to be damaged in an earthquake.
[4]
•Answer:
• Build deep/stronger/sturdier foundations/base [1]
• Reinforce/use concrete/bricks for buildings/walls/roofs [1]
• Use metal/steel/aluminium beams [1]
• Use diagonal bracing [1]
• Flexible building materials [1]
• Use dampers/shock absorbers in base of building [1]
• Computers controlled weights/counter balances on roof/weight on
roof [1]
• Automatic window shutters [1]
• Shatter proof/strong/reinforced glass [1]
• Use fire resistant materials [1]
• Build low building/do not build high rise [1]
• Use automatic cutoff for gas pipes/electricity cables [1]
Case Study: Nepal
•Nepal is one of the poorest countries in the world with a Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) per capita of under $1000
•Located between China and India, Nepal is a landlocked country
•In 2015 80% of the population lived in rural, often remote, communities
•In April 2015 at 11.26 am Nepal was struck by an earthquake, magnitude
7.8
•The epicentre was 80 km northwest of Kathmandu in the Gorka district
•The focus was shallow at only 15 km beneath the surface
•Over 300 aftershocks followed the main earthquake
Location of Nepal Earthquake
Cause
•Nepal is located on a collision boundary between the Indian and Eurasian
plates
Effects
•Approximately 9000 deaths
•Over 20,000 people injured
•Electricity and water supplies cut
•7000 schools and 1000 health facilities were damaged or destroyed
•Almost 3.5 million people were made homeless
•Offices, shops and factories were destroyed meaning people were unable to
make a living
•UNESCO world heritage sites destroyed as well as many temples
•Loss of tourist income which Nepal is reliant on
•Avalanches on Mount Everest and in the Langtang Valley
•Landslides which blocked roads and rivers
•Damages estimated at between $7 and $10 billion about 35% of the GDP
Immediate responses
•Donations of money and aid from around the
world totally $3 billion including $3.3 million
from China and $51 million from the UK
•Many countries sent aid in the form of:
• Temporary shelters
• Medicines
• Food
• Water
• Clothing
• Search and rescue teams
• Medical staff
•90% of the Nepalese army were mobilised
•Tent cities were set up in Kathmandu for
those made homeless
•GIS crisis mapping tool was used to coordinate the response
•$3 million grant was provided by the Asian
Development Bank for emergency relief
Long term response
•Landslides were cleared and roads repaired to
restore access to remote rural communities
•Schools were rebuilt
•Earthquake drills were introduced to provide
people with education about what to do in the
event of an earthquake
•Stricter building codes with more enforcement
•$200 million was provided by the Asian
Development Bank for rebuilding
•A new government task force was set up to
plan for future earthquake events
Case Study: La Palma
•Part of the Canary Islands, La Palma is
located in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of
North Africa
•The Canary Islands are an [popover
id="RAr2r~3MbVY7biGB"
label=''autonomous region"] of Spain
•There are 33 volcanoes across the Canary
Islands, 10 of which are in La Palma
•La Palma has a population of 85,000
•The Cumbre Viejo volcano on La Palma
began to erupt on the 19th September 2021
and the eruption lasted for almost three
months
•The eruption was VEI 2 to VEI 3
Location of Cumbre Vieja Volcano
Cause
•La Palma and the other Canary
Islands are located on the African plate
•The islands are
an archipelago which has formed as
the result of a hot spot
•This means that they are not located
on a plate boundary but over a magma
plume
Signs of eruption
•Deformation of the mountain indicated
rising magma about a week before the
eruption
•Between 10-19th September there
were over 25,000 earthquakes - an
'earthquake swarm'
Effects
•Over 7,000 people had to be evacuated from their
homes
•Almost 1,500 houses were destroyed by the lava
flow
•Over 1,500 other buildings such as churches,
shops, schools were destroyed
•The lava flow cut across the coastal highway
•Water supply was cut off for almost 3,000 people
•400 hectares of banana farms were destroyed
•Almost 1,300 hectares of land was effected
•1 death
•About 20,000 people were exposed to the eruption
and its effects
•Air traffic disruption
•€1 billion damages
Immediate response
•A warning was issued of an eruption on 13th September and 40 people and
livestock were evacuated
•A further 1000 people were evacuated after the eruption began on the 19th
September
•5600 more people were evacuated over the next few weeks
•Alert level was raised to red
•Air traffic was briefly suspended
•Constant monitoring of lava flow and gas emissions to ensure the safety of the
population
•Food and shelter were provided for those made homeless
•€5.4 million advanced payment donated by the EU
Long term response
•Spain promised €400 million to La Palma for rebuilding
•Prefabricated housing was built for those made homeless but six months on many
people were still living in hotels and with family/friends
•Constant monitoring of the volcano and others on La Palma
•Improved crisis management processes now in place for future eruptions
Explain why an earthquake happened in an area you have studied
7 Marks
Name of area;……………………………….
Answer 1
Levels marking
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including
limited detail which
explain the causes of
anearthquake.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed
statements which
explain the causes of an
earthquake.
Uses named example.
Comprehensive and
accurate statements
which explain the causes
of an
earthquake, including
some place specific
reference.
(Max 5 if no named or
inappropriate example)
Content Guide:
Answers are likely to refer to:
Plate movement,
On/close to plate boundaries/lines
of weakness/where plates meet;
Where plates move (in relation to
each other)/one under
another/subduction/slide past;
Friction / plates stick;
Pressure build up/tension;
Energy released/plates jerk apart
Etc.
Place specific reference is likely to
consist of:
Locational details,
Date / time / Richter Scale
measurement
named plates
Place specific examples include:
•Locational details - plate boundaries, Nepal
•Specific details • Earthquakes occur at all plate boundaries
• Shallow earthquakes are more likely at divergent boundaries
• Stronger earthquakes tend to occur at convergent, collision and
transform boundaries
• Most earthquakes occur around the Pacific Ring of Fire approximately 90%
•Examples of paragraphs which could be included in an answer to
achieve Level 3:
• Earthquakes occur as a result of plate movement. As the plates
move friction is created and they can stick. This is particularly
the case at convergent, collision and transform boundaries
where the plates are moving past or towards each other. Nepal
is on a collision boundary which means that two continental
plates, the Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates, are moving
towards each other. In April 2015 a 7.8 earthquake occurred,
the epicentre was at Gorkha to the north west of Kathmandu
the capital.
• As the plates move towards each other they stick and pressure
builds. Eventually the plates jolt free and the energy that
has built up is released as seismic waves travelling through the
Using evidence from Fig.3.1,explain the cause of
Bio-Bio earthquake.
Answer 1
Bio-Bio close to/on plate boundary,
plates converge/collide,
subduction (or description of
subduction),
of oceanic plate,
oceanic denser/continental less dense,
friction,
compression/pressure,
fracturing/faulting,
release of energy,
Answer 1
(i)
Diagram C [1]
A conservative plate boundary occurs where two plates are moving past
each other
(ii)
Ideas such as:
Fluid/thin/runny lava [1]
Low (height to width ratio) [1]
Gentle slopes [1]
Gentle eruption [1]
Frequent eruptions [1]
Shield volcanoes are low and flat they have gentle slopes because the lava
is thin and runny
The runny lava means that the eruptions tend to be more gentle
Answer 1
Destructive/convergent [1]
The Nazca plate and the South American plate are
moving towards each other which leads to the Nazca
plate subducting under the South American plate
2. The Natural Environment
2.2 RIVERS
According to the United States Geological Survey there are over 3 million rivers around the world and 1500 river
systems in the UK alone.
How are rivers formed?
Rivers are formed when water flows downhill due to gravity, driven by rainfall, melting snow, or underground
springs. As the water flows, it erodes the earth, carrying away sediment and creating channels, which eventually
become rivers. The size and shape of a river are determined by various factors, such as the geology, topography
(shape of the land), climate, and the amount of water flowing through it.
Why are rivers important?
Rivers are important for several reasons. First, they provide a source of freshwater for human and animal
consumption, agriculture, and industry. Second, rivers transport nutrients and sediment, which are essential for the
survival of plants and animals. Third, rivers create habitats for a diverse range of species, from fish and birds to
insects and microorganisms. Fourth, rivers play a crucial role in regulating the earth's climate by transporting heat
and moisture. Finally, rivers have significant cultural and spiritual value for many communities worldwide, with
many rivers being considered sacred.
However, human activities, such as damming, deforestation, and pollution, are putting pressure on the world's
rivers, threatening their health and the services they provide. It is, therefore, essential to protect and conserve
rivers for their ecological, economic, and cultural value.
How do rivers shape the landscape?
Erosion, transportation, and deposition are the three primary processes that occur in a river, shaping the
landscape. These processes are constantly occurring in rivers, and can have significant effects on the river
ecosystem, water quality, and the surrounding landscape. Understanding these processes is essential for
managing and protecting river environments.
What are the processes of erosion in a
river?
Erosion is the process by which water
and other natural forces, such as wind
and glaciers, wear away rocks, soil, and
other materials from the earth's surface.
In a river, the erosive force of flowing
water can create deep channels, carve
canyons,
and
cut
through
rock
formations.
There are four main types of erosion in
rivers: Hydraulic action, which occurs
when the force of the water dislodges and
carries away sediment, abrasion, which
involves the scraping of rocks and other
materials against the riverbed, attrition,
where the rocks being carried by the river
knock against each other and finally
solution where the slightly acidic river
water dissolves the material of the bed
and banks.
What are the processes of river
transportation?
Transportation is the process by
which sediments and other
materials are carried downstream
by the river's flow. The amount of
sediment transported depends on
the speed and volume of the water,
as well as the size and shape of
the particles. The four main types
of transportation in rivers are
suspension, where fine particles
are carried along by the water,
traction, where larger particles are
dragged or rolled along the
riverbed, solution, where material
is dissolved in the water, and
saltation, where particles bounce
along the riverbed.
How and why does deposition occur in a river?
Deposition is the process by which sediment and other
materials are deposited on the riverbed or its banks.
This occurs when the velocity of the water slows down,
causing the sediment to settle. The deposition of
sediment can lead to the formation of floodplains,
levees, and deltas.
How are waterfalls and gorges formed?
Waterfalls and gorges are formed by the erosive power
of water, which gradually wears away rocks and soil,
creating dramatic landscapes.
Waterfalls are formed when a river flows over an area of
harder rock, such as a layer of igneous or metamorphic
rock, that is resistant to erosion. The water erodes the
softer rock below the harder rock more quickly, creating
a steep drop-off. Over time, the force of the water falling
over the edge of the drop-off causes the erosion to
continue, creating a deeper and deeper basin below the
waterfall called a plunge pool and undercutting the
harder rock. Eventually the overhang of harder rock falls
due to the fact it is unsupported and the whole process
starts again. As the waterfall retreats upstream it leaves
behind a steep-sided gorge.
How do river meanders and oxbow lakes form?
River meanders are formed through
a combination of erosion and
deposition by the flowing water of a
river.
As a river flows downhill, it erodes
the outer bank of a bend and
deposits sediment on the inner
bank. Over time, this erosion and
deposition cause the river channel
to curve in a snake-like pattern. As
the curve becomes more
pronounced, the water on the outer
bank flows faster, creating more
erosion, and deepening the channel.
Meanwhile, the water on the inner
bank slows down, allowing sediment
to accumulate and gradually build
up the bank.
The process of erosion and deposition continues, causing the
meander to grow and change over time. As the river continues to
flow, it may even cut through the narrow neck of a meander,
leaving behind an oxbow lake, which is a U-shaped body of water
separated from the main channel of the river.
The formation of meanders is influenced by various factors,
including the velocity and volume of the water, the type of soil and
rock in the riverbed, and the slope of the river.
How are floodplains and levees formed?
Floodplains and levees are formed as a result of
the natural processes of erosion and deposition
by rivers.
A floodplain is a flat or gently sloping area of land
adjacent to a river that is prone to flooding.
Floodplains are formed when a river overflows its
banks during periods of high flow, depositing
sediment on the surrounding land. Over time,
this sediment builds up and creates a flat surface
that can support vegetation and provide a variety
of ecological habitats. Floodplains can also serve
as valuable agricultural land and are often home
to human settlements.
Levees are natural embankments which form
adjacent to the river. Levees are formed when
the river overflows its banks and deposits the
heaviest sediment first creating a ridge. During
successive floods this builds up to form an
embankment.
Why do rivers flood?
Rivers flood due to a variety of natural and human-related factors.
Natural factors include heavy rainfall, snowmelt, and flash floods caused by sudden and
intense rainstorms. When the capacity of the river is exceeded, the water spills over its banks
and onto surrounding land, causing flooding. This is more likely to occur in areas with steep
topography, as water can quickly flow downhill and overwhelm the river channel. However,
other natural causes include low-lying land, vegetation, geology (rock type) and soil type.
Human-related factors that contribute to flooding include land-use changes such as
deforestation and urbanization, which can increase the amount of runoff and decrease the
ability of the land to absorb water. Dams and levees can also alter the flow of a river and
contribute to flooding, as they can restrict the natural movement of water and sediment
downstream.
Climate change is also expected to increase the frequency and severity of river flooding in
many regions of the world. As global temperatures rise, the atmosphere can hold more
moisture, leading to more intense rainfall events and a higher likelihood of flooding.
Floods can have significant impacts on human communities and infrastructure, including
damage to homes and buildings, disruption of transportation and communication networks, and
loss of crops and livestock. Floods can also have ecological impacts, such as erosion,
sedimentation, and changes in water quality, which can affect the health of river ecosystems
and the plants and animals that depend on them.
2.2.1 Hydrological Characteristics
Hydraulic cycle is where water is constantly recycled
through the system.
Drainage basin - the area of land drained by a river.
•Catchment area - the area within the drainage
basin.
•Watershed - the edge of highland surrounding a
drainage basin. It marks the boundary between two
drainage basins.
•Source - The beginning or start of a river.
•Confluence - the point at which two rivers or
streams join.
•Tributary - a stream or smaller river which joins a
larger stream or river.
•Mouth - the point where the river comes to the end,
usually when entering a sea.
Drainage basins act as a system with:
•Inputs: precipitation
•Transfers: infiltration, percolation, surface runoff,
throughflow & groundwater flow
•Stores: interception, surface storage, soil moisture
storage & groundwater storage
•Outputs: evaporation & transpiration or
evapotranspiration
Drainage basin features:
•Bed: The bottom of the river channel
•Bank: The sides of the river channel
• A river has two banks
•Width: The distance between the two banks of a river
•Depth: The distance from the water surface to the bed of a river
•Speed of flow: how fast the water in a river is moving; different speeds
arise at different parts of the river
•Wetted perimeter: length of bed and banks in contact with river
•Channel: The route course (between bed and banks) that a river flows.
The flow of the river is often described as channel flow.
•Thalweg: The fastest part of the river, always near the middle of the
river channel, where there is least friction
River Processes:
1.Erosion
2.Transportation
3.Deposition
1. Erosion:
Erosion is wearing away of surfaces.
•Attrition: large particles such as boulders collide and break into
smaller pieces.
•Hydraulic action: flowing water that hits against the riverbanks and
beds.
•Abrasion: smaller particles rub against the riverbanks and bed like
sandpaper.
•Solution: acid in rivers dissolve rocks; occurs at any part of river
TYPES OF EROSION:
•Vertical erosion: is dominant in the upper course of rivers. It
increases the depth of the river and valley, as the river erodes
downwards.
•Lateral erosion: is dominant in the middle and lower course of
rivers. It increases the width of the river and valley as it erodes
sideways.
2. Transportation:
•Traction: rolling stones along the bed
•Saltation: small particles bounce along
bed in a leapfrog motion
•Suspension: silt and clay-sized are
carried within the water flow
•Solution: minerals dissolve in the water
•3. Deposition:
•When a river lacks the energy to carry its load; it begins
depositing the heaviest particles
•Happens when there is less water or where the current
slows down
•Large boulders are deposited at the top, and very small
particles are deposited at the end, resulting in sorting
River profiles:
•Long profile:
Cross profile
•River landforms and its formation:
Water Fall and gorges:
V-shaped valley:
Interlocking spurs:
Meanders:
Oxbow lake:
Floodplains and levees:
FLOODS
•Causes of flooding:
• No vegetation
• Deforestation
• Urbanization
• Poor drainage
• Steep slopes
• Rock type (impermeable rocks does not absorb water)
• Wet soil (over saturation)
Impacts
Opportunities
People can be killed.
Water supply (drinking, washing)
Homes destroyed.
Fishing industry
Spread of water borne diseases
Transportation for trading
Shortage of clean water and food
Tourism
Infrastructure damaged
Fertile soil
Businesses destroyed.
Powerplants (dams)
Sports/recreation
Flood Management Techniques:
2.3 Coasts
•Coasts are formed by the sea and wind working together in 3 key tasks: erosion,
transportation and deposition
•Components of a wave:
• Swash: when a wave breaks & washes up the beach
• Backwash: when the water drains back into the sea
TYPES OF WAVES
Constructive
Destructive
Low wave height
High wave height
Beach gradient is gentle
Beach gradient is steep
Spill forward gently
Plunge forward
Creates a strong swash
Swash is weak
Water drains through beach material
Rotation of water causes a strong
backwash
Backwash is weak
Erodes beaches
Deposits material
Builds up beaches
Erosion:
•Abrasion: larger rocks and sediments like boulders grind against the riverbed
•Corrosion: salts and acids slowly dissolve a cliff
•Attrition: smaller sediments collide with each other while moving in the flow, making
them rounder and smaller
•Hydraulic action: the force of waves compresses air in cliffs
Transportation:
Longshore drift:
•Waves approach the coast at an angle
•Swash moves up the beach at an angle
•Backwash drains straight back down the beach
•Gradually moving material along the beach in a zig-zag
motion
Coastal Opportunities
Coastal Threats
Sports/recreation
Hurricanes
Groundwater recharge
Coastal storms
Habitat for fish
Tsunamis
Transport (shipping goods)
Landslides
Tourism
Flooding
Job opportunities
Coastal erosion
COASTAL MANAGEMENT:
Hard Engineering:
Located at
Advantages
Disadvantages
Sea wall
Coastlines/foot of cliffs
Reduce erosion and prevents
flooding; Curved structure breaks
waves
Very expensive and big, requires
constant maintenance
Groynes
In front of the area facing coastal
erosion
Increases distance between waves
and coasts → Waves lose energy →
Reduces impacts of waves.
Certain sections of the coast may be
more exposed to erosion
Gabions
Base of cliff
Reduces the impact of waves on a
cliff, prevents cliff from being
undercut; cheap
Not as effective as other coastal
defences
Revetments
Slanted barrier against waves at
base of cliff
Absorbs energy of waves, prevents
cliffs from being eroded; Rippled
surfaces helps dissipate wave
energy; No need much maintenance
Expensive
Rip-raps
Rocks and stones put against base of Absorbs wave energy, protects cliffs
cliff
behind
Visual pollution, susceptible to being
moved by the sea
Breakwaters
Near coasts
Effective, breaks incoming water
Visual pollution, easily destroyed
Tidal barriers
Side of coasts
Prevents storm surges, very effective Expensive
Name
Soft Engineering:
Name
Beach nourishment
Land management
Description
Advantages
Sand/shingle added to the
beach
Increases distance between
waves and cliffs → Waves
Effectiveness is uncertain
lose energy → Less erosive
power
Protect and rebuild dunes
Tourism affected as dunes
Good barrier against coastal
marked out of bounds to
flooding and erosion
general public
Break up waves and reduce
speed and power of waves
→ Limits area which waves Effectiveness is uncertain
can reach → Prevents
flooding
Marshland
Beach stabilization
Disadvantages
Planting dead trees in sand
to stabilize
Widen beach and reduces
wave energy, lowers profile
of beach
Effectiveness is uncertain
Landforms:
Cliffs and wave-cut platforms:
•Wave erosion is concentrated at the foot of the cliff
•A wave-cut notch is formed
•Cliff is undercut & collapses
•Repeated collapse causes retreat of the cliff
Caves, arches, and stack:
•A band of weaker rock extends through a headland.
•Erosion produces caves on both sides of the headland.
•More erosion produces an arch through the headland.
•Eventually, the roof is weak & collapses, forming a stack.
Beaches:
•In bays, the waves diverge outwards.
•The wave energy is dissipated, creating a low-energy
environment. hence deposition to form beaches.
Bays and headland:
•Bays are formed due to
softer rock getting eroded
easily
•Headlands are usually
formed since they are made
of resistant rock and so is
eroded more difficultly.
Spits:
•Spits form when the coastline changes direction
•Longshore drift carries material in same
direction
•Sand & shingle is built up to form a spit
•End of spit curves due to wave refraction or
wind.
Sand Dunes:
•Sand dunes form behind wide sandy beaches
•Onshore winds pick up the dry sand from above the
high-water mark & carry it landward by saltation
•If they encounter an obstacle the wind loses energy
& deposits sand in the lee of the obstacle
•Eventually a dune is formed
•Plants grow on it which stabilizes it & traps more
sand
Mangrove swamps:
•Mangrove swamps are trees and shrubs that grow in
saline coastal habitats in the tropics and subtropics
•Provide a habitat and protection for many fish & other sea
animals, especially when young
•They slow water flow encouraging any sediment to be
deposited, keeping sea water clear
•Protect the coast from erosion, storm surges, hurricanes,
and tsunamis
•They are a source of food and material
•Conditions required for formation of mangrove swamps:
Coral reefs:
•Coral reefs support a great diversity of life
•Built from the limestone remains of coral skeletons &
coralline algae
•Conditions required for the growth of coral reef:
• Warm water/seas; temperatures 20 - 30C
• Shallow water; not more than 60 meters deep
• Water free from sediment/clear/availability of light
• A plentiful supply of oxygen in water/unpolluted
• A plentiful supply of plankton
• Lack of strong current
Salt marshes:
2.4 Weather
•Weather:
• The mix of events that occur in our atmosphere,
including changes in temp., rainfall and humidity
• Can vary from day to day and from place to place
Pro tip: important to know features of the Stevenson’s
screen
Stevenson’s Screen: contains the thermometers
•Painted white to reflect sun with double lid for insulation
•Slatted sides to let the air circulate, but slanted
downwards to prevent light getting in
•Legs 1m long to prevent heating from ground
•On short grass for same amount of reflection
Pro tip: important to know how weather instruments look like and brief knowledge of how to use
Rain Gauge: has a fixed diameter so that they collect the
same amount of water & so comparisons can be made
•Made of a hollow cylinder (C) containing:
• Funnel (A) to collect the water.
• Container to collect water which may be graduated
• Emptied once every 24hrs
• Rain is measured in millimetres.
• Sunk into ground, but not level so splashes or
surface water can’t get in
Anemometer: Measures wind speed
•Three light rotating cups (mounted
on a high pole) are blown around
by the wind the revolutions are
counted & converted into m/s,
km/h or knots
Sunshine Recorder (Heliograph): records
the amount of sunshine at a given location
•Burns a timeline
•Traces sun shine not the hours
of daylight
•The glass ball focusses the light
•This burns a line onto the card
Max-min thermometer: Records max. &
min. temp. over 24hr period
•Max thermometer contains mercury & min contains
alcohol
•As temp. rises, mercury expands & pushes up a metal
index and when it cools, mercury contracts and index is
left in place at highest temp
•As temp. falls, alcohol contracts & pulls metal index with
it; but as alcohol expands, it flows past index, leaving it at
lowest temp
•Both indexes read from bottom once every 24hrs
Wet & dry bulb thermometer
(hygrometer): Used to calculate humidity
of air
•Dry bulb is a normal mercury thermometer and it
measures actual air temperature
•Wet bulb is same but bulb is covered with a fine
cloth which is connected to a reservoir of water.
•Water evaporates from the cloth & cools
temperature so it reads a few degrees lower than air
temp.
•Both wet & dry bulb temperatures read
Barometer: Measures air pressure
**Protip**Unit used: mb/millibars (was asked in 2021
Geography paper 4)
•An aneroid barometer has a vacuum
chamber
•As air pressure rises & falls, the chamber
contracts & expands
•Levers conduct this movement to a spindle
which moves pointer on the dial which
records the air pressure in mmHg
Wind vane: Records wind direction
•The fletching is blown by the wind so
that the arrow head points into the
wind.
•Mounted on a high places (rooftops)
•Make sure no trees are blocking
2.5 Climate & Natural Vegetation
•Weather
• Describes condition of atmosphere eg sunny, hot, windy
•Climate
• This is the average conditions over a longer period of time, usually a few
years.
Factors Influencing Climate Characteristics:
•Latitude: closer to the equator = higher temperature
•Distance from the sea: coastal area = warmer winters
and cooler summers
•Prevailing winds: seasonal difference in heating
between land and sea affects temperature of prevailing
wind. Warm prevailing wind = rise in temperature
•Ocean currents: warm currents raise winter
temperatures in coastal areas; cold currents cool them
down in summer
•Altitude: higher altitude = lower temperature (1° per
100m)
Tropical rainforest":
Distribution:
Structure:
Climate:
•Are close to the equator so they have very similar climates all
year around
•Temp. is constant between 25-30°C
•Rainfall all year around, monthly amounts vary slightly
•Days start of warm & then temp. and humidity build up
•Hot air rises causing low pressure.
Adaptations
Plants
Animals
Drip tips - plants have leaves with pointy tips. This
allows water to run off the leaves quickly without
damaging or breaking them.
The sloth uses camouflage and moves very slowly to
make it difficult for predators to spot
Drip tips - plants have leaves with pointy tips. This
allows water to run off the leaves quickly without
damaging or breaking them.
The spider monkey has long, strong limbs to help it to
climb through the rainforest trees.
Epiphytes - these are plants which live on the branches The flying frog has fully webbed hands and feet, and a
of trees high up in the canopy. They get their nutrients
flap of loose skin that stretches between its limbs, which
from the air and water, not from the soil.
allows it to glide from plant to plant.
Lianas - vines which use the tall
trees as support to reach the
sunlight
The toucan has a long, large bill to allow it to reach and
cut fruit from branches that are too weak to support its
weight.
Hot Deserts:
Distribution:
Climate:
•Deserts are extremely dry (arid) places
•Have less than 250mm of rainfall per year
•Air is dry because:
• Most of the moisture has precipitated over equator
• Air travelling to desert travels over land, not the sea
•No moisture leads to very few clouds, exposing them to high levels
of incoming radiation from the sun
•Causes day-time temps. to be very high
•Lack of cloud cover allows outgoing radiation to escape
•Causes night-time temps to be low
•Annual temperature range is very low
•Daily temperature range is very high
Hot Desert Climate Characteristics
Hot desert climate distribution
haracteristics
Location
Hot Desert
•15°- 30°north and south of the equator (tropical and subtropical)
•North Africa - Sahara, Southern Africa - Kalahari and Namib,
Australia. Middle East
Annual Precipitation •Below 250mm
•Daytime temperatures can reach 50°C but average around
25°C
Temperature Range •Night-time temperatures below 0°C
•Diurnal range is large up to 45°C
•Annual range is around 15°C
Seasons
•Summer and winter
Humidity
Prevailing Winds
•Low often between 10-30%
•The winds are offshore blowing from the east across the
land, so they do not collect any moisture
Climate Graph for Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Factors influencing the hot desert climate
•High pressure all year which means the air is descending and warming so precipitation does
not occur because the air is not rising
•Prevailing winds are often from over land masses which means they contain little moisture
•Some deserts are in arain shadowso there is little rainfall
•Cold ocean currents on the west side of continents may reduce summer temperatures due to
the cooling effect of the ocean
Influence of pressure systems
•Hot deserts form between 15o- 30onorth and south of the equator as a result of the atmospheric
pressure systems
• Air rises at the equator and when it reaches the upper atmosphere it moves north and
south
• The air cools and starts to sink
• This creates a zone of high pressure at about 30onorth and south of the equator
• Due to the sinking air, warm air cannot rise, condense and form clouds. This results in
high aridity
Atmospheric Pressure Systems
Worked example
Explain how high atmospheric pressure
influences the climate of hot deserts.
[3]
•Answer:
• Air is descending[1]
• It heats up/does not cool[1]
• Condensation does not occur/clouds do not
form[1]
• Precipitation is low/does not occur/drier/only
has e.g. 250 mm per annum etc[1]
Answer 1
Sparse/scattered/dispersed/bare [1]
Trees [1]
Scrub/bushes [1]
Small leaves [1]
Some green [1]
Some without leaves [1]
Hills (almost) bare, (Fig. 4.1) [1]
Some vegetation in lines [1]
Small/short/low (trees or bushes) [1]
Remember the question is asking about the vegetation, this means any answers
referring to the buildings, weather or landscape would not be awarded marks
Marks would not be awarded for reference to roots either as these can not be seen in
the images
QUESTION:
Fig. 4.2 Shows a waste heap produced by mining of copper ore.
Suggest how this may pose a threat to the natural environment.
Answer 1
Examples including:
Loss of vegetation [1]
Loss of animal habitats [1]
Covers a large area [1]
Waste could be toxic/toxic leachate [1] Affecting
rivers/groundwater [Dev]
Visual pollution [1]
2.5.2 Ecosystem Characteristics
Tropical Rainforest Ecosystem Characteristics
•The Tropical rainforest (TRF) biome is mainly found in a band between 15o north and
15o south of the equator within the equatorial climate zone
•Covering only 6% of the Earth's surface the main areas of tropical rainforest
ecosystem are in the following countries;
• Amazon which is the largest remaining rainforest on Earth usually associated
with Brazil but covers parts of seven other countries
• Central America including parts of Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador,
Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama
• Central Africa including Cameroon, the Central African Republic, the Republic
of Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Equatorial Guinea and
Gabon
• Indo-Malaysia, including Malaysia, Indonesia and a number of other countries
in South-East Asia
Biodiversity
TRFs contain the highest biodiversity of plants and animals on Earth
Estimates range from over 50% to 80% of the world's plant and animal species
One 10km2 area can contain up to 1,500 flowering plants, 750 species of
trees, 400 species of birds and 150 species of butterflies
Nutrient cycle
The TRFs have a continual growing season with high rainfall and
temperatures all year round
The nutrient cycle is rapid
Trees and plants lose their leaves all year round
The high level of moisture and high temperatures leads to rapid
decomposition and recycling of nutrients
Plants grow quickly which leads to a rapid uptake of nutrients from the soil
The result of this rapid nutrient cycle is that the soil in
the TRF is not very fertile
Structure of the tropical
rainforest
The TRF has five distinct layers
Ground layer (0m)
Shrub layer (3-4m)
Under canopy (15m)
Canopy (30m)
Emergents (45-55m)
Tropical rainforest structure
Adaptations
•The plants and animals within the TRF are very well
adapted to the climate conditions
Plants
Waxy leaves with drip tips - these ensure
that rainwater runs off the leaf and does
not remain which would encourage mould
growth or break the leaf
Buttress roots - these large roots above the
ground which help to support the very tall
trees because the roots below the surface
are shallow
Lianas - vines which use the tall trees as
support to reach the sunlight
Epiphytes - these are plants which grow on
trunks and branches of trees getting
nutrients from air, rain or debris
accumulating around the plant
Straight, smooth trunks - to reduce the
number of epiphytes using the tree
Animals
Sloth - algae grow in the fur of the sloth
helping to camouflage it
Toucan - has a large bill to reach and cut
fruit from the branches of trees
Primates - have prehensile tails to help
them climb trees
Geckos - have large, flattened toe pads
with sticky scales which allow them to grip
the smooth tree trunks
Stick Insects - their stick and leave shapes
help them to be camouflaged
Exam Tip
You may be asked to describe the rainforest vegetation characteristics. As well as adaption features remember to
include information about the different layers and heights of each layer.
Tropical rainforest food web
Food web
As in all ecosystems the
TRF has a complex food
web which includes
Producers
Primary consumers
Secondary consumers
Tertiary consumers
Worked example
Study Fig 1, which is a diagram showing information about a tropical rainforest
ecosystem in an area of equatorial climate
Suggest reasons why some animals live in
the canopy but others live in the ground
cover in a tropical rainforest.
[3]
•You need to consider the adaptations and
diets of the animals which may lead them to
live in a specific layer
•Answer:
• Some are able to climb/fly whereas
others are not [1]
• Some need shelter/protection [1]
• Food supplies available (in canopy/at
ground level) [1]
• Different habitats/nesting areas etc [1]
Hot Desert Ecosystem Characteristics
•Hot desert biomes are mostly found in a band around the Tropic of Cancer and
Tropic of Capricorn
•Approximately 20% of the Earth's surface is covered by hot desert ecosystems
including in the following areas;
• North America - the Mojave and Sonoran Deserts of the USA and
Mexico
• South America - the Sechura Desert in Peru and the Atacama Desert in
Chile
• Africa - the Sahara, Kalahari, Namib and Somali Deserts
• Middle East - the Arabian Desert
• Asia - the Dasht-e Lut in Iran, the Gobi, Turkestan, Thar and
Taklamakan Deserts
• Oceania - the Australian Desert
Biodiversity
•Hot deserts have one of the lowest biodiversity of plants and animals on Earth
•The hot desert biome supports approximately 5000-6000 plant species, many
invertebrates and up to 20 species of bird
Nutrient cycle
The growth of plants is limited due to the extremes of
temperature and lack of water
The nutrient cycle is very slow
Most nutrients are stored in the soil
Due to a lack of organic matter the soils are coarse,
sandy and low in nutrients
Hot desert nutrient cycle
Adaptations
To be able to survive the extreme temperatures and lack of rainfall the plants and
animals are extremely well adapted
Plants
Low growing - this helps to avoid water loss
due to strong winds
Thick stems - used to store water
Shallow roots - these spread out near the
surface to catch whatever rain falls
Long roots - some plants have long tap roots
instead of shallow roots to reach water deep
underground
Small leaves or needles - the smaller surface
area reduces water loss
Animals
Camels have a range of adaptations including
two sets of eyelashes and nostrils which close
to keep sand out of their ears and noses.
They also store fat in their humps so they can
survive for long periods without food or
water
Fennec Fox - have large ears which help
them to lose heat
Burrowing - many animals burrow to avoid
the intense day time heat
Insects and reptiles have waterproof skin to
reduce water loss
Nocturnal - some animals hunt at night to
avoid the daytime heat
Hot desert food web
Food web
•As in all ecosystems hot deserts
have a complex food web which
includes
• Producers
• Primary consumers
• Secondary consumers
• Tertiary consumers
2.5.3 Deforestation of Tropical Rainforest
Deforestation of Tropical Rainforest in Malaysia
Deforestation is the felling and clearance of trees
Malaysia, Brazil, India and Indonesia are experiencing the highest levels of deforestation in the world
The Malayan government has in the past failed to provide the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) with figures for
forest loss
World Deforestation 2015
There are six main human causes of deforestation
Wildfires are a natural cause of deforestation:
The frequency and severity of wildfires have increased this is linked to human induced climate
change
Exam Tip
It is important to
remember that
deforestation is often the
result of a combination of
factors which are linked
together rather than any
one cause. For example,
the growth of settlements
also leads to more land
being cleared for
agriculture to support the
people in the settlements.
Human Causes of Deforestation
Environmental impacts of deforestation
Many of the impacts of deforestation are environmental including:
Areas that have been deforested are planted with monoculture which
reduces biodiversity
Interception and infiltration decrease which reduces evapotranspiration and
as a result precipitation decreases
This also increases overland flow which leads to soil erosion and
sedimentation of the rivers
Sediment builds up on riverbeds reducing their capacity and increasing the
flood risk
Lack of interception increases the leaching of nutrients
Fewer trees increase the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere adding to the
enhanced greenhouse effect
Impact on the nutrient cycle
The majority of nutrients in the tropical rainforest are held in the biomass
When trees and vegetation are cleared by deforestation the main store of
nutrients is removed
Environmental Impacts of Deforestation
Social impacts of deforestation
Indigenous communities have less land to sustain their traditional way of
life this means:
Land does not get the opportunity to recover
Less food available
Improved quality of life for some people due to increased income and jobs
Indigenous communities may give up their way of life leading to a loss of
culture and traditions
Increased risk of landslides which can destroy homes and block roads
Loss of potential medicines
Increased risk of flooding settlements
Economic impacts of deforestation
More jobs available in mining, forestry, agriculture and HEP
Increased income for the country through the export of goods from the
forest - minerals, timber, crops
Almost a quarter of Brazil's GDP comes from activities in the deforested
areas of the Amazon
Worked example
Explain why large amounts of deforestation have occurred in tropical
rainforests.
[5]
•In your answer you need to explain which means that you if you just state
road building for example you will not achieve the higher marks
•You need to explain that road building happens to access remote areas of
forest and requires large areas of trees to be felled and removed
•Answer:
• Economic development (for country)
• To earn money (individuals)/valuable wood
• Large area so difficult to monitor
• Corruption
• Logging/timber/furniture/paper
• Firewood/charcoal
• Cattle grazing/ranching/rearing livestock
• Cash crop farming/palm oil/plantations
• Settlement/urban growth/examples of buildings e.g. schools
• Road building/railways
• Mining/quarrying minerals or example e.g. gold
• HEP/dams etc.
Example Case Study: Malaysia
•Malaysia is located in Southeast Asia
Location of Malaysia
Almost 70% of the land is covered by tropical rainforest
Climate
•The climate of Malaysia is typical of tropical rainforest
climates with high rainfall and high temperatures all year
round
Climate Graph of Kuala
Lumbar, Malaysia
Malaysian Rainforest Food Web
•The Malaysian rainforest has high
biodiversity with over:
• 15,000 plant species,
including 5,500 flowering
plants and 2,600 tree species
• 750 bird species
• 250 mammal species
• 350 reptile species
• 190 amphibian species
• 350 fish species
• 1000 butterfly species
Adaptations
•There are many ways in which the animals and plants
have adapted to the rainforest climate including:
Plants
Pitcher plants - some of these
are epiphytes which grow on other structures
like trees and get their nutrients from capturing
insects in a funnel which contains a sticky acidic
liquid which dissolves the insect
Animals
Hornbill - the distinctive bill has multiple uses.
The bird uses it to help it climb trees, like a
trowel for digging
Orangutans - long and very strong arms which
Orchids - these are epiphytes which grow on
enable them to move easily through the trees.
other structures such as trees to reach the light Fingers and toes are long used for gripping tree
branches
Malayan Tapir - their colour pattern helps to
Lianas - these are vines which attach themselves
camouflage them, and they use their long nose to
or wrap themselves around trees to reach the
forage on the forest floor for leaves, fruit and
light
nuts
Kapur tree - grows up to a height of 60m to
Mulu Flying Frog - can change colour to
reach the light. It has a straight branchless trunk camouflage it and it uses flaps of skin on its legs
to deter epiphytes and lianas from growing on it to glide from tree to tree
Deforestation in Malaysia
•It is estimated that Malaysia has the fastest rate of deforestation in the world
•Since 2000 an average of over 140,000 hectares of forest has been felled and cleared each
year
Causes
•Logging
• Malaysia is the largest exporter of tropical hardwoods
• Although Malaysia has environmental protection policies there is still evidence of
illegal logging in areas of Borneo
• Selective logging is the dominant type of logging but this requires road construction
and settlements which result in deforestation
•Energy
• The construction of dams to provide Hydroelectric power result in flooding of large
areas of forest
• The Bakun Dam will result in 700km2 of land being underwater in Sarawak, Malaysia
•Mining
• Tin mines are widespread and require deforestation for the mine itself but also for
road construction
• An iron ore mine planned for the Som Forest Reserve will result in the deforestation
of over 60 hectares
• There is also drilling for oil and gas
•Commercial plantations
• Malaysia exports over 30% of the world's palm oil and is the second
largest producer
• Many palm oil processes now adopting a zero-deforestation
policy so that they do not buy palm oil from deforested areas.
However, Clear felling permits are sometimes used in Malaysia to
clear land and then sometime later another company will plant palm oil
•Settlements
• Up to 1980 people were encouraged to move to rural areas from the
cities to try and reduce the pressure on urban areas
• This led to the deforestation of approximately 15,000 hectares of
rainforest
•Subsistence farming
• This can sometimes involve slash and burn where areas are cleared
using fires - these can sometimes get out of control and destroy large
areas of rainforest
Effects of deforestation
•Soil erosion
• Without the tree roots to bind the soil, the soil is more easily eroded by wind and rain
• Exposed soil is more vulnerable to leaching of nutrients and the soil becomes less fertile
•Loss of biodiversity
• Habitats are destroyed and the ecosystem affected by deforestation so the variety of plants and animals
decreases
• Oil Palm plantations lead to a 35% reduction in species
• Orangutans, pygmy elephants, Sumatran Rhino and Malayan tigers are all endangered
•Local climate change
• Reduced transpiration and evaporation leads to a decrease in precipitation and an increase in temperatures
• Rainfall patterns become less reliable and more extreme
•Global climate change
• Felling of the trees leads to a decrease in the absorption of carbon dioxide
• Increases carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere and as this is a greenhouse gas this increases
human induced climate change
• Use of fire for clearance also increases carbon dioxide emissions
• Indigenous communities
• Indigenous communities such as the Orang Asli and Temiar have been forced off land
• Pollination of fruits has reduced due to a decrease in pollinating insects and animals such as bats
• This has reduced the available food sources
• In Kuala Koh village 2019 at least 15 indigenous Batek died after an outbreak of disease possibly transmitted
by loggers working near to the village
Example Case Study: Hot Desert, Namib Desert
•The Namib Desert is located mainly in Nambia on the west coast of Southern
Africa
Location of the Namib Desert
•Stretching for over 2,000km from Angola in the north to South Africa to the south
•The desert is 160km wide
Climate
•The highest day time temperatures can reach over 45oC
•Night time temperatures can be as low as 0oC
•The areas nearest to the coast are cooler due to the effect of a cold ocean current - the Benguela current
•The cooling effect of the ocean can also lead to the formation of fog which can affect coastal areas more than half
the year
•Annual precipitation varies between 2-200mm a year
Climate Graph of Swakopmund
•The Namib Desert has many species
which are endemic and has higher levels of
biodiversity than other hot desert areas
• There are approximately 3,500
plant species over 50% of which
are endemic
• 200 mammal species
• 268 reptile species
• Over 6000 insect species
Adaptations
•There are many ways in which plants and animals have
adapted to the Namib Desert's unique climate, including:
Plants
Welwitschia mirabilis - with just two leaves this
plant only grows when conditions are favourable.
The long leaves wrap around the bottom of the
plant to give shade to the roots and reduce water
loss. The colour of the leaves change turning red
when it is very hot to protect the plant from the sun
Nara plant - this plant has spikes instead of leaves
to reduce water loss and it absorbs the water
droplets from fog through its stems. The bottom of
the plant dies off as it is covered with sand, this
provides nutrients for the new growth
Quiver Tree - these are succulents, they can store
water in their trunks and branches due to the
spongy fibre. Their leaves also store water and have
a smooth waxy surface to reduce water loss. The
yellowish bark helps to reflect the sun's heat
Animals
Fog basking beetle - gathers water by standing on
its head in a morning whilst the fog condensates on
its back and trickles down to its mouth
Desert elephant - have smaller bodies, broader feet
and longer legs than other elephants. The broader
feet help to spread their weight on the sand and the
smaller body.
Wheel spider - these are nocturnal and so hunt at
night when temperatures are cooler
Golden mole - with powerful digging claws, dense
Camel Thorn Tree - has a strong tap root which can
fur which repels dirt so they can almost swim
grow up to 60 meters allowing it to absorb water
through the sand. With very efficient kidneys they
from deep underground
do not need to drink much water all
Threats and impacts on the desert ecosystem
•Tourism
•
Increasing tourism to the Namib desert has led to more activities such as off-roading and sand boarding
• Estimates suggest that desert soil takes over 2000 years to recover from being driven over
• Vehicles destroy the small, but essential lichens and plants which are the foundation of the food web
•Mining
• Mining for diamonds, uranium, copper and zinc all occur in the Namib desert including the Rössing uranium
mine near Swakopmund
• Involves the removal of large areas of sand which then destroys plant and animal habitats
• Increased pressure on scarce water resources due to the amount of water used in processing
• Increase in air, soil and water pollution
• Toxic waste may leach into the ground (leachate) which affects water sources
•Agriculture
• Irrigation increases salt levels in the soil and reduces the plant life
• Increases the pressure on scarce water resources
• Over-grazing in increasingly limited areas reduces the number of plant species and has impacted on
the Golden Mole population
• Farmers shoot and kill the desert lion as they view it as a threat to their livestock. This lion is now on the
vulnerable species list
•Poaching
• Illegal poaching of animals such as the pangolin has impacted on the food web
• Black rhino numbers have also decreased significantly as a result of illegal poaching
Worked example
Study Fig 4.2, this shows a
waste heap produced by the
mining of copper ore. Suggest
how this may pose a threat to
the natural environment
[3]
•Answer:
• loss of vegetation [1]
• loss of animal habitats [1]
• covers a large area [1]
• waste could be toxic/toxic
leachate [1] affecting
rivers/groundwater
(dev.) [1]
• visual pollution [1]
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
3.1.1 Levels of Development
Levels of Development
•Development is the progress that a country makes to improve the quality of life for its population and make
the country more independent
•The quality of life includes subjective evaluations of life such as happiness
•These different components are not independent of each other but linked - for example health and
environment are dependent on income and they in turn may impact happiness:
• Physical - Water supply, housing, power and heat, climate, diet and nutrition etc
• Social - Family and friends, education, health etc.
• Psychological - Happiness, security, freedom etc.
• Economic - Income, job security, standard of living, mobility etc
•Development is not a smooth, continuous process
•Development can occur for a number of reasons:
• Investment in agriculture (tractors, fertilisers etc.) improves food supplies, which improves the health
of people
• Improvements in supplies of power to rural areas
• Improvements in access to education for females and overall literacy rates
•It can be slowed, halted and even reversed by:
• War/conflict
• Disease
• Disasters
• Economic recession
Cycle of wealth
•One of the key indicators of development is the cycle of wealth
•Economic development creates wealth and if a country has a stable and effective government this leads to the
development
•As the economy grows, more people work and are earning more money:
• The government can then collect more taxes and people have more disposable income to spend which
increases business profits
• The taxes collected and profits made by companies can then be invested in future growth as well as
infrastructure, education, healthcare etc...
The cycle of wealth
Measures of national income
•The traditional method of measuring wealth is through the country's GNP (gross national product), GDP (gross domestic product) and GNI (gross
national income)
•Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita is the total value of goods and services produced within a country in a year divided by the
population of the country
•
There can be huge differences in GDP depending on the size and population of a country
•
Dividing it by the population means that more meaningful comparisons can be made between countries
•GDP per capita is an average this means that the variation in wealth is hidden
•
It is possible that two countries can have the same average GDP per capita but that one has a few very wealthy people and lots of
people living in poverty whereas the other has a more equal distribution of the wealth
•There is no way of knowing what the GDP is spent on - for example, GDP increases after an earthquake due to the rebuilding which is needed
this does not mean that the country is more developed or that everyone's quality of life has improved
•As countries have different numbers of people (population), then GNP per capita (per person) is used
•
This allows comparison between countries where total population figures are different
•
GNP of the UK is lower than India, but the GNP per capita of the UK is higher than India (India has a higher population compared to
the UK)
•
However, GNP per capita does not take into account the cost-of-living in the country - $1 will go further in Bangladesh than in the USA
•To even this discrepancy, the GNP per capita at Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) is calculated
•Comparison between countries level of development is easy to see, but it fails to identify:
•
How wealth is distributed around a country - the wealth gap
•
Government investment in the country - Cuba has higher literacy rates, a lower infant mortality rate, and similar life expectancy than
America, despite Cuba's low GNP per capita but Cuba's government has long prioritised social investment
•Levels of development vary on a local, national and international scale
•There are differences between areas of the same city, the same country and between countries
•These include:
•
Literacy
•
Life expectancy
•
Infant mortality
•
Doctors per 1000 people
•
Energy consumption per capita
•
Internet access
•
Car ownership
Exam Tip
Remember increasing wealth is not equally distributed. In all countries some people will benefit more
from the cycle of wealth and economic development. Often as a country develops the gap between
the rich and poor increases.
Human development index
•The Human Development Index (HDI) was developed by the UN in 1990 and is
a measure of the disparities between countries
•The index takes into account four indicators of development:
• Life expectancy at birth
• Mean years of schooling for adults aged 25 years
• Expected years of schooling for children at school entering the age
• Gross National Income (GNI) per capita (PPP$)
•Countries can be divided into four groups using HDI
• Very High Human Development (VHHD)
• High Human Development (HHD)
• Medium Human Development (MHD)
• Low Human Development (LHD)
•HDI is scored from 0 to 1
•The higher the HDI the higher the level of development and quality of life
•Norway has the highest HDI at 0.957
•Niger has the lowest HDI at 0.394
Gini coefficient index
•GNP and HDI are unable to identify inequalities between countries
•The wealth gap in some countries is more significant than in others
•The Gini coefficient index is used to analyse the distribution of wealth and
identify countries where wealth distribution is the most unequal:
• Measured on a scale of 0 - 1.0 or as a percentage
• A low value means that the distribution of wealth is more equal - a
measurement of 0 would mean that wealth is distributed completely
equally
• A high value means the distribution of wealth is unequal - a
measurement of 1 would indicate maximum inequality
• The Gini coefficient index is usually between 0.24 and 0.63 or 24%63%
•The highest inequality is currently in South Africa, Central Africa, Namibia,
Zambia and Suriname
•The lowest inequality is in the Czech Republic and Croatia
Worked example
Identify the meaning of the term quality of life
A
A person's well-being in terms of environment,
security and health
B
A person's level of deprivation
C
A person's level of income
D
A person's type of job
•Answer:
• A - The other answers are subjective and do not
relate to the quality of life
Indices of political corruption
•Political corruption can have a devastating impact on both development and
human welfare
• It means money is often not invested in infrastructure, development and
human welfare but goes to wealthy individuals
• It leads to a lack of trust between local/national governments and the
population
•Transparency International scores 180 countries around the world out of 100
based on the levels of public sector corruption
•The higher the score the less corruption has been found
• Denmark, New Zealand, Finland and Singapore have the lowest levels of
public sector corruption scoring 85/100 or more
• Somalia, Syria and South Sudan have the highest levels of public sector
corruption scoring less than 15/100
Worked example
Suggest why GDP per capita is not necessarily a good indicator of
the quality of life.
[2]
•Answer - any two of the following
• GDP measures only economic production [1]
• Quality of life is not only about income [1]
• GDP is an average measure so many people may have incomes
below this [1]
• The wealth is not shared equally across the population [1]
• It depends on what the GDP is spent on - weapons do not improve
quality of life [1]
• It does not consider health or education [1]
3.1.2 Inequalities in Development
Inequalities in Development
Stages of development
•All countries move through the
different stages of development
•The UN identifies four main stages of
development
Stages of Development
Factors Affecting Development and Human Welfare
•Physical geography
• Landlocked countries find trade more difficult and so often develop more slowly
• Small countries develop more slowly due to have fewer human and natural resources
• Those countries with extreme climates develop more slowly
• The physical geography also impacts on the natural resources available
•The natural resources are those things provided by the physical environment
Natural resource
Uses
Water
Domestic use, energy
Forests
Timber, habitat, rubber, recreation, food, medicines
Fossil Fuels
Fuel, energy
Soil
Growing crops
Rocks
Construction
Minerals
Glass, jewellery, money
Animals
Food, skins
•Some countries are able to meet all their needs from the natural resources they have
•Many countries have to import some natural resources that are not available within their borders
•When countries have to import natural resources, this means they do not have security of supply as imports
could be affected by war or political issues
•Water, food and energy security are particularly important to support a country's development
•Demography
• The population structure of a country
• The birth and death rates, as well as immigration, affect the available workforce
• Those countries where birth rates have fallen the most, show the highest rates of growth
•Technology
• Can help to increase water, food and energy security
• Mechanisation of farming increases yields and improved land surveying may reveal more energy
sources
• Technology can also mean that existing resources are used more efficiently
•Social
• Levels of education affect the skills people have. The more educated a population is the more a country
will develop
• Healthcare affects how well people are which affects their ability to work
• Lack of equality can mean that the overall productivity of a country is affected
•Government policies
• The stability and effectiveness of government can have a significant impact on development and
human welfare
• Development and human welfare are greatest where there is a democratically elected government
• Corrupt governments do not invest in the country's development or in improving the quality of life for
the population
• A government's economic policy affect development and human welfare through:
• Open economy - where foreign investment is encouraged, which generates faster development
• Higher rates of saving and lower spending compared to GDP, results in further development
Differences within countries
•As well as differences between countries there are also differences in
development within countries:
• This can be seen in all countries whether they are developed, emerging
or developing
• Often development is focused on particular regions
•Inequalities within countries are due to several factors
•Cumulative causation theory is one explanation for regional differences:
• Growth in the core region attracts skilled labour and capital
• Areas in the periphery suffer as skilled labour leaves and investment is
focused on the core
• The gap between the core and the periphery grows
• Eventually the growth of the core region may stimulate growth in the
periphery due to the demand for raw materials
Cumulative Causation
•There are three stages of regional inequality:
• Pre-industrial stage - regional differences are
at their lowest
• Period of rapid economic growth - increasing
regional differences
• Regional economic convergence - where
wealth from the core spreads to other parts
of the country
Causes of regional inequalities
•Residence - Urban areas generally attract greater levels of
investment leading to increased business and incomes:
• There may also be inequality within the urban area
•Ethnicity - Discrimination can result in ethnic groups having
income levels significantly below the dominant groups within a
country. This reduces the opportunities open to these groups
•Employment - The split between formal and informal employment
impacts incomes. Formal jobs usually have higher incomes and
greater benefits, such as holidays and sick pay
•Education - Those with higher levels of education usually gain
higher paying employment
•Land ownership -Inequalities in land ownership are strongly linked
to inequalities in income
Worked example
Study the figure below which shows GDP per capita in
South America along with the percentage change in
GDP
State one piece of evidence that there is
a development gap in South America
[2]
•As this is for two marks, it is important that
you use evidence from the source for the
second mark
•
There is a difference in GDP per
capita between countries [1] French
Guiana has a GDP per capita of
less than US$4000 whereas
Suriname has a GDP per capita of
over US$13,000 [1]
•
There is a difference in the
percentage increase of GDP per
capita [1] Guyana's increase in
GDP per capita is only 1.4%
whereas Chile's is 3.7% [1]
OR
Exam Tip
•Remember where an exam question asks for one piece of evidence do not give more
than that.
•In the case of the worked example, the one piece of evidence is the comparison
between two countries.
3.1.3 Economic Sectors
Economic Sectors
•An economic activity is the production, purchase or selling of
goods and services
•Economic activities can be grouped into four sectors:
• Primary - mining, fishing, farming etc.
• Secondary - factory workers, clothing, steel production
etc.
• Tertiary - nurses, lawyers, teachers, shop assistants,
chefs
• Quaternary - hi-tech scientists, research and
Worked development
example
Identify what is meant by an economic sector
A. The chain of production in manufacturing
B. An economic shift in employment
C. A classification of types of employment
D. A classification of employment structures
Exam Tip
Remember the economic sectors
can also be used to group
employment types. For example,
a farmer is employed in the
primary sector whereas a
teacher is employed in the
tertiary sector.
•Answer:
• C [1] - a classification system for
types of employment
• The other answers are not related to
employment sectors which are the
four groups - primary, secondary,
tertiary and quaternary
3.1.4 Employment Sectors
Employment in Economic Sectors
•Economic sectors are an indicator of a country's economic
development using either:
• The amount each sector contributes to the Gross Domestic
Product (GDP)
• The percentage of the population they employ
•The proportions of each economic sector GDP and employment changes
over time:
• In the pre-industrial period, the primary sector dominates with
steady increases in the secondary and tertiary sectors
• As countries develop the reliance on the primary sector for GDP and
employment rapidly decreases
• During the industrial period the amount of GDP and employment in
the secondary sector increases to become dominant and then
decreases. The primary sector continues to decrease and tertiary
sector increases
• In the post-industrial phase, the tertiary and quaternary sectors
increase whilst the secondary and primary sectors decrease.
• The tertiary sector dominates employment and GDP in the postindustrial period
Clark-Fisher Sector Model
•As countries develop the numbers of people employed in
each economic sector changes
•This can be seen in the Clark Fisher Sector
Model above and in the examples below:
Exam Tip
You should be able to look at a pie chart or graph of the economic sectors and
work out the stage of development of a country. A developing country will be
dominated by primary economic activities, a newly industrialised country is
likely to have fairly equal amounts of each type of economic sector
employment and finally a developed country will be dominated by tertiary
economic activities.
Causes of changes over time
•There are a number of reasons for the change in percentages employed in
each sector:
• Increasing mechanisation in agriculture led to a decrease in the jobs
available
• People moved to urban areas to find jobs in secondary and tertiary
sectors
• Increasing mechanisation and global changes led to a decrease in
secondary employment in some countries
• Technological improvements have led to an increase in tertiary and
quaternary employment
•There is a clear link between employment structure and indicators of
development
3.1.5 Globalisation
Globalisation
•Globalisation is where the world has become more interconnected through
the processes of economics, culture, politics, trade and tourism
•Environmental globalisation can also be considered part of the interconnection
as can be seen with the impacts of global warming
•Globalisation is nothing new; trade between people, business and countries
has always existed
•Whereas trade would have taken weeks, month or even years in the past,
modern transport and communications has made trading and interaction
almost instantaneous - time-space compression
•Globalisation has effectively removed the political borders of countries which
makes countries more interdependent on each other, with the more powerful
countries and business empires affecting decisions in other parts of the world
•This has seen the rise in global inequality
•These improvements and developments in communication and transport have
made globalisation what it is today - a shrinking world
•Overall, connections around the globe
are:
• Faster - faster speeds for talking,
travel, money exchange etc
• Deeper - connecting lives with
faraway places
• Longer - connecting links between
places are further apart
Time-Space Compression
•These connections are considered
as network flows to places and
populations through four significant
developments:Appearance of large
transnational corporations (TNCs)
•Growth of regional economics
and trading blocs
•Development of modern transport
networks
•Advances in IT and communications,
particularly the WWW and the intern
Production chain
•These developments have led to the global economy
•Almost every country in the world has 'networked' in one way or another
•There are five different network flows:
• Trade - import and export of raw materials, food goods and services through the reduction of trade
barriers
• Aid - most aid is economic either through receiving or donating, allowing developing countries to
invest in education, health, infrastructure and trade
• Foreign investment - either directly or indirectly through business opportunities e.g. Shell oil
investing in Niger
• Labour - important to the working of the global economy and labour migration fuels this market either
with a specialist or cheap labour
• Information - fast data transfer and communication are vital to the global economy
•The global production, supply or commodity chain pulls these flows together to produce goods
or commodity
•At each stage of the flow, value is added to the emerging product
•Despite the miles involved and the number of countries involved; the product is still cheaper to produce in
various stages
•This is known as the Economies of Scale - the cost per item reduces when operated on a large scale
•Transport improvements through large container ships mean that costs are reduced and moved further
quicker
•Labour costs are cheaper in emerging and developing countries and there are usually reduced legal
restrictions
Global investment
•Investment is not just monetary (economic), although this is a large part of it
•Investment can be in people, research or products
•Foreign investment is where individuals or firms from abroad invest in another country:
• Call centres can be located anywhere e.g. India
• Investment is made in the country through building the call centre, paying taxes etc.
• Local people are employed and trained
• Service is provided to the donor country - the UK
•Moving manufacturing from developed to developing or emerging countries
• China is the main area for manufacturing goods from around the world
• Investment is made in China to produce goods
• Completed goods are shipped back to the original country e.g. Germany
•Investment in people either for cheap labour or for their expertise
• Specialist surgeon from the USA to Australia
• Investment in developments that attracts cheap labour - construction of Dubai attracts many
Indian migrants
• Research and development investment - motor car industry to build more fuel-efficient motoring Elon Musk's Tesla electric cars
•Investment can be from aid for rebuilding after a disaster - Ukraine will need aid after the war with
Russia ends
• Aid can be funds sent to the government to use as necessary, although this can often lead to
corruption and funds not going where they should
• Aid can be in form of goods and services directed to the affected area - refugee camps or after a
natural hazard such as a tropical storm or earthquake
Transnational corporations (TNCs)
•Transnational Corporations (TNCs) operate in foreign countries individually
and not through a centralised management system
•TNCs and countries are the two main elements of the global economy
•Governments and global institutions set the rules for the global economy, but the
main investment is through TNCs
•TNCs involve themselves in all economic sectors and impact the global economy with
the largest TNCs representing the biggest percentage of total global production
•TNCs directly invest in one country and later expand to other nations (usually
developing countries) to take advantage of lower labour costs and incentives
•They may not be loyal to the operating country's values and will only look to
the expansion of their business as they have no connection to the country they operate
in
•It is the process of moving manufacturing around the globe that has resulted in the
development of emerging countries such as China, India and Brazil
Exam Tip
•Remember that Transnational Corporations (TNCs) are not the same as Multinational Corporations (MNCs)
•The biggest difference is that an MNC has a home country that makes decisions and passes them around the global
companies, whereas TNCs operate independently
•An example of an MNC is Apple, where R&D and major decisions are made in California and passed along the
operating chain
•Cadbury's chocolate is a TNC as they have to make decisions to vary the recipe to local tastes and conditions - e.g. the
chocolate is sweeter in China
Worked example
Identify the meaning of the term TNC
A
Translocal Corporation
B
Transnational Corporation
C
Transnational Country
D
Transporting National Corporation
•Answer:
• B [1] - as none of the other terms exist.
Impacts of globalisation on people
•Globalisation has generated benefits and costs for many people but at
different levels
•Some have benefitted more than others with the poorest tending to be
the losers
•However, it can be argued that without globalisation the poorest would
be worse off than they are now, as they job opportunities and income
from inward investment from TNCs
•Countries such as China, Brazil and India have transformed
themselves from developing to emerging economies which has directly
benefitted their population
•Gender gap within individual countries is generally lower in more
globalised countries
•Skilled workers are in demand and benefit from globalisation more than
unskilled workers
Benefits and Cost of Globalisation to People at a Variety of
Levels
Benefit
Local Level
National Level
International Level
Cost
Cheaper products available for people
Greater choice of goods
Bigger export market for domestic manufacturers
Integration of cultures - multi-culture
Education and skills are improved
More freedom of movement
Spread of technology and innovation
A higher standard of living
Availability of housing, sanitation, food and water is better
Gender equality and gender pay gap closing in developed
countries
Small local businesses cannot compete with global
companies
Labour drain - skilled workers migrate elsewhere
leaving unskilled or no workers behind
Dependence on single TNC employment
Worker exploitation/cheap labour
Closure of TNC leaves high unemployment rates
Cultural dilution or loss of cultural identity
Environmental cost of increased production, trade and
growth
Pollution impacts the health of people
Daily living costs increased
Increased levels of disparity between places - some
towns and cities will benefit more from government
Higher levels of incoming revenue from tourism, exports and policies
imports
Social mobility is limited to urban areas, people in
Growth of improved health care, infrastructure, social care rural areas need to migrate
and education
TNCs control a large labour force and can 'black list'
Social mobility is greater - access to higher education and
workers, effectively preventing people from working
senior leadership roles
elsewhere
TNC offer apprenticeships and incentives for progression
Industrial growth impacts the environment - burning
fossil fuels adds to global warming and pollution
Growth of urban slums
Movement of people, transport ownership and loss of
biodiversity increases globally
The impact is greater on developing countries,
Skilled workers are in demand and can move relatively easily particularly remote rural areas, increasing the
between countries
development gap
Higher levels of income and quality of life
Decisions made elsewhere do not consider local or
Access to wide levels of skills and research
national identities
International trade routes and foreign investment improves
The movement of skilled workers and researchers
opportunities
leaves an imbalance in developing and emerging
countries, reducing the potential for further
development unless they pay higher wages, leading to
higher global costs
Impacts of globalisation on countries
•TNCs are key in globalisation
•They link raw materials with manufacturers, research and development opportunities and products with global markets
•Global marketing establishes TNCs as 'the brand' to have
•However, TNCs answer to shareholders and need to maximise their profits, usually at the cost of their workers
•TNCs therefore, can impact positively or negatively on countries
Benefits
Costs
TNCs pay low wages and expect long hours and
TNCs bring skills, opportunities, money and
are generally exploitive, particularly of female
technology to developing and emerging countries
workers
TNCs are powerful and are not loyal to a host
Inward investment to host countries increase the
country's government - investment can disappear
level development
as quickly as it came
Host country's infrastructure is improved by TNC TNCs can leave a country if global or local
or for TNC - access, communications, energy
economies change or somewhere else becomes
supplies etc.
more profitable
TNCs create jobs, allowing people to buy more
and pay more tax
Foreign currency is earned through exports
TNCs have a multiplier effect through
encouraging other industries to grow up around
them
Profits 'leak' out of the host country either to
open up new business elsewhere or are paid in
bonuses and dividends to share holders
TNCs often ignore the environmental and social
costs of their investment
TNC jobs are often boring, repetitive and don't
develop skills - effectively trapping their
workers in the company
Case Study - Nike
•Make sure you know your case study of the global operation of a TNC
•You need to be able to identify the costs and benefits to the host country as well as to the
TNCs own country of origin
•For example, you could produce something along these lines on the USA based company
Nike
Country
Vietnam
USA
Cost
Benefit
Exploitation of workers
Poor working conditions
Child labour
Substantial employment
Pays higher wages than local
firms
Status of brand encourages other
TNCs to invest
Indirect loss of jobs as
manufacturing is outsourced
Balance of profit to cost isn't
passed onto the customer
Company image damaged due to
outsourcing
Bigger profits made as
manufacturing costs are lower
High level skills in design, R&D in
demand
•Remember to keep it simple and use facts and figures to
keep it 'real' and not a generic case study
3.2 food production
3.2.1 Agricultural Systems
Agricultural Systems
•To obtain food humans use and
modify the ecosystems through
farming
•There are four groupings
commonly used to categorise
farming:
• Arable and pastoral
• Commercial and subsi
stence
• Extensive and intensiv
e
• Nomadic and sedentar
y
•A farm that has both livestock
and grows crops is a mixed
farm
Factors influencing the type of agriculture
Physical Factors
Temperature - all crops have a minimum
temperature below which they will not grow or
will not produce a good yield - wheat grows best
between 21-24oC
Growing season - the length of the growing
season affects the type of crop grown - barley
needs about 90 days from sowing to harvest
whereas rice takes about 120 days
Precipitation - both the average annual rainfall
and the distribution over the year affect the
types of crops grown
Relief and slope aspect - the altitude of land
affects temperature and the steepness affects
the suitability for crops. in local areas different
crops may be grown on south facing slopes which
get more sunshine and are warmer
Human Factors
Tradition - many farms simply grow the crops or
raise the livestock that have been on the farm
for generations
Subsidies - farmers may change crop or livestock
dependent on the money available from the
government
Transport - the cost of transporting the product
may affect what is produced. Livestock transport
is more expensive than grain transport
Farm size - due to economies of scale larger
farms are able to afford more in terms of feed,
fertiliser and machinery, this may affect what is
produced
Market demand - the changing demand for
produce. There has been an increase in demand
for meat such as buffalo and ostrich which may
affect the choice of what is produced
Capital - the amount of money a farmer has to
Drainage - for most crops to grow the land needs
invest will affect the machines and artificial
to be well drained so that roots do not get
inputs (irrigation, pesticides, fertilisers) they can
waterlogged
afford
Soil type and fertility - in areas with thin,
infertile soils grazing is likely to dominate as
crops need deeper, more fertile soil
Farming systems
•All farms are systems, they have inputs, processes and
outputs
A Farming System
Impacts of farming systems
•All farming systems impact the ecosystem in which they are
located
•Some have more impact than others, such as:
• Monocultures which reduce diversity because the
animals have no access to a wide range of foods
• When nutrient cycling is often dependent on fertilisers
added to the soil, this may be natural (manure) or
artificial fertilisers
• When the ecosystem is modified with inputs of seed,
fertiliser, pesticides, herbicides and the use of machines
• Where food webs are reduced
• Reducing the amount of biomass
Exam Tip
Remember farms do fit into more than one category. For example, a sheep
farm in Cumbria. UK would be categorised as arable, commercial,
extensive and sedentary.
Worked example
Insert the following words into the table below to
show examples of inputs, processes and outputs of a
mixed farm.
[3]
Choose from the words below
milk
wheat
harvesting
ploughing
water
pesticides
Inputs
Processes
Outputs
Inputs
Processes
Outputs
water
harvesting
wheat
pesticides
ploughing
milk
•Answer:
Case Study: Sheep Farming
•The relief of the land in Cumbria limits the type of farming
•Lowland areas are used for cattle grazing and limited amounts of crops
•Sheep farming dominates, with approximately 3 million sheep farmed
in the area
•An example of extensive, commercial, pastoral and sedentary farming
Characteristics
•Sheep farms usually have three land use zones:
• The fell - these are the hills over 300m and is used for grazing
• The intake - the lower slopes which are divided into fields
• The inbye - land close to the farm buildings used to bring the
sheep in for lambing and shearing. Some crops may also be
grown here for animal feed (turnips/hay)
Inputs
•Inputs can be divided into physical and human
Physical
Human
Climate - Short growing season means
the area is unsuitable for most crops as Machinery, fuel and buildings - quad
well as high rainfall. In many areas
bikes and sheds for lambing
over 1500mm
Soils - in the upland areas' soils are
thin and acidic
Labour - low labour requirements.
Farms often worked by one person
with additional help when needed
Relief - many steep slopes with large
areas of upland
Subsidies - without subsidies many
farmers would make a loss
Feed - needed for winter months when
uplands are snow covered and grass
doesn't provide the nutrients needed
Challenges
Processes
•There are not large numbers of
processes on a hill sheep farm,
but they do include:
• Monitoring the sheep
• Lambing
• Dipping - to reduce
parasites and maggots
• Shearing
Outputs
•Lambs are bred for meat and
sent for slaughter before they are
1 year (usually 6-8 months)
•Wool from shearing (this often
costs more than the farmer gets
for the fleece)
•Mutton - this is meat from sheep
over 1 year
•Hill sheep farming is often not profitable, and farmers rely
upon subsidies or diversification
•Disease - foot and mouth outbreaks. In 2001 nearly
500,000 sheep had to be killed to prevent further spread of
the disease
•Fuel, machinery and feed costs have all increased
•Lamb prices fluctuate depending on the market and this
affects income
•Wool prices average about 32p for a kilo this is less than
the cost of shearing the sheep so shearing costs the farmer
money
•Fewer people want to become sheep farmers
•Since leaving the EU, the UK is intending to phase out
subsidies and replace them with payments for environmental
work
Impacts
•Many sheep farmers are diversifying into areas such as
campsites and holiday cottages
•Conversion to organic such as Low Sizergh Farm in South
Cumbria can increase profits as people pay more for organic
meat and wool
•Farmers taking on additional jobs and farming part time
•Changing of breeds to those that shed their fleece and don't
3.2.2 Food Shortages
Causes & Effects of Food Shortages
•In 2015 world leaders committed to ending world hunger by 2030
•The UN estimates that the number of people in 'hunger emergencies' has
increased from 135 million in 2019 to 345 million in 2022
•Global food prices are rising - 23% higher than in 2021
•World grain reserves are lower than they have been for 14 years
•Women and girls account for 70% of the people suffering hunger
Causes of food shortages
•The causes of food shortages can be divided into natural and human factors
•It is important to remember that natural causes can often be made worse by
human activity
• An example would be floods which result from heavy and prolonged
rainfall but may be made worse by:
• Urbanisation
• Deforestation
• Climate change leading to increased snow and ice melt, sea level
rise and changing weather patterns
Natural
Human
War and conflict - people are unable to farm
Flooding - crops cannot cope with being
due to the conflict. War also disrupts supply
waterlogged also causes the death of livestock
and movement of food supplies
Drought and unreliable rainfall - this can
Rising food prices - people cannot afford the
reduce crop yields significantly
food that they need
Human induced global warming - leads to
Disease - these reduce yields and can result in
changing weather patterns, increased
livestock deaths/culling e.g. swine flu
temperatures and rising sea levels
Lack of investment - many LEDCs have poor
transport systems which means that
Pests - locusts can wipe out entire fields of
transporting food and livestock is difficult.
crops in a matter of hours
They also do not have the funds to invest in
agriculture
Tropical cyclones - bring heavy rainfall and
Corruption - investment in rural areas and
strong winds which can destroy large areas of agriculture does not happen as a result of
crops
corrupt politicians taking the money
Rapid population increase - the food
available has to be shared between more
people, decreasing the amount that people
have
Soil erosion and desertification - overgrazing
and overcultivation lead to a loss of soil
fertility so plants won't grow, or yields
decrease
Effects of food shortages
•The impact of food shortages ranges from undernutrition to wasting
• Undernutrition - people do not consume enough calories, this is linked
to 45% of all child deaths
• Malnutrition - people's diet lacks the correct nutrients to keep them
healthy
• Wasting - when people have low weight in relation to their height affects 45 million children under the age of 5
•Rising food prices
• When there is increased demand and reduced supply the prices
increase
•Underdevelopment - loss of productivity
• If a country's workforce is suffering from food shortages, they will be less
productive, and development will slow or even reverse
•Soil erosion and desertification
• Farmers may over cultivate and overgraze the land in an attempt to
increase the amount of food available
•Social unrest
• Food shortage may lead people to riot and loot
•Migration
• People migrate to other countries or to urban areas where the food
supply is better. This can impact those areas with the development of
illegal settlements
Worked example
Describe the natural problems which cause food shortages.
[3]
•Answer:
• Drought causes crop failure [1]
• Floods destroy crops [1]
• Tropical storms destroy crops/cause flooding [1]
• Pests eat crops [1]
• Disease destroys the crop [1]
Possible solution
Food aid
How it works
Advantages
This can be short (after a disaster or in a crisis) or
long term (often given to the LEDC government to
distribute).
The aid is given by MEDCs often through
•Saves lives during in a crisis
organisations such as the World Food Programme
(WFP) as well as by Non-Governmental
Organisations (NGOs) such as Oxfam and Save The
Children.
Disadvantages
•Can increase dependence of LEDCs
on food aid
•Reduces the sales of crops grown by
local farmers
•Expensive to transport
•Loss of water through evaporation
•Increased salinity of the soil affects
•Increases crop production/yields in
Irrigation
crop growth
areas with low rainfall
•Increases pressure on water
resources
Genetically
When the genetic material of a crop is altered to •Increases the yield of crops as they
•Concerns about the impacts on the
Modified
make them disease/pest resistant, have higher
are not as susceptible to
environment
(GM) crops
yield or be drought resistant
pests/disease
•Needed high inputs of
Involved in the development of high yield
Green Revolution and
•Increased yields
fertilisers/pesticides
varieties of main food crops including wheat,
High Yield Varieties
•Larger farm incomes increased
•Increased mechanisation leads to
maize and rice
fewer jobs
•Low cost
Education for farmers about sustainable farming
Education of farmers
•Increases farming knowledge
methods
•Increases yields
•Increases yields as more land can
•Reduces jobs in agriculture
Use of tractors and other machines to complete be cultivated
Mechanisation
•Machines can be expensive to buy
farming tasks
•More time efficient
and maintain
•Less labour needed
Fertilisers are added to increase yields through
•Damage to the environment e.g.
Fertilisers/
adding nitrogen
•Increases the yield
eutrophication
Pesticides
Pesticides are used to kill or deter pests from
•Reduces losses from pests
•Concerns about the impact on
eating crops
human health
•Increases yield as water
Includes methods such as Contour
Appropriate technology
infiltration improves and soil
ploughing or intercropping
erosion decreases
The artificial watering of crops - the success of
this is dependent on the type of irrigation.
Surface irrigation or drip irrigation
Case Study: Yemen
•Located on the south-east of the Arabian Peninsula
•Yemen has a mainly hot desert climate with a temperate
climate in the western mountains
•In summer months temperatures reach 40oC and there is
little rainfall
•Winter months are cooler between 25-35oC but with little
rainfall
Agriculture
•There is increasing agricultural activity in Yemen with
crops including:
• Millet
• Corn
• Wheat
• Barley
• Sorghum
•Other crops include coffee, cotton and fruit which were
grown for export
•Over 73% of the population relies on agriculture as their
main source of income
Causes of food shortages
•Conflict
• In 2015 after years of internal conflict, civil war broke out
• Continued conflicts have led over 4 million Yemenis to be displaced
• Food aid supplies have been affected by blockades at the ports intended to stop weapons entering the country
• Internal infrastructure (roads, airports and communication) has also been affected by the conflict which stops the
movement of food around the country
•Drought
• In recent years drought has further affected supplies
• The main crop growing areas have received only one third to a half of the usual precipitation
•Pests
• In 2019 swarms of locust hit Yemen destroying many of the crops
• The conflict had affected the control and monitoring program
• Lack of pesticides meant that the Yemeni struggled to control the insects
•Corruption
• Food aid is taken by those involved in the fighting and those in power
• It often does not reach those who need it most
•Population increase
• The population has increased to almost 30 million from 26.5 million in 2015
• This increases the demand for food
Effects of food shortages
•The Yemeni economy has declined
•These issues have mostly happened in the crop growing areas in the south-west
•In 2016 it is estimated that farm produce losses totalled $964.5million
•Yemen became dependent on imports for 90% of its grain supplies - much of this was from Ukraine, the supply of which has been
affected by the Russian invasion
•More than 80% of the population live below the poverty line
•50% of the population working in agriculture have lost their jobs
•Food prices have increased between 30-70% meaning people cannot afford a healthy diet
Food basket price in Yemen
•The UN estimates more than 226,000 Yemeni
have died due to food shortages and lack of health
services
•Acute malnutrition now threatens over 50% of
children under 5
•The total number of food insecure population is
expected to reach 19 million by the end of 2022
Solutions
•Since the start of the conflict billions in aid has
been sent to Yemen through organisations such as:
• UNICEF
• Red Cross
• World Food Program
• Oxfam
•Getting aid to the people who need it is challenging
for the reasons outlined in 'causes' above
•The World Food Program provides 13 million
people with food assistance through:
• Rations
• Vouchers
• Cash transfers
•Until the end of the conflict the food shortages are
likely to continue and may even get worse
INDUSTRY
3.3.1 Industrial Systems
Industrial Systems
•Industrial systems have inputs, processes and outputs
• Inputs - basic items needed to begin the process
• Raw materials, labour, energy, capital, land and buildings etc.
• Processes - activities that take place to make a finished product (goods)
• Cutting, sewing, welding, brewing, painting, steel moulding etc.
• Outputs - finished products, by-products, products for continued manufacturing elsewhere
and waste
• Finished products such as cars, clothing, beer, shoes etc.
• By-product such as Marmite from beer brewing
• Continued manufacturing (part manufacturing) such as cleaning wool or cotton,
weaving wool or cotton for material, material made into clothes for a finished product
etc.
• Waste is produced with all manufacturing; it has no value but creates a cost for
disposal
•Manufacturing can be classified as:
• Heavy - iron and steel manufacturing is heavy industry as it uses large, bulky raw
materials on a huge scale producing big items
• Light - computer manufacturing, smart phone assembly, clothing, micro-brewing etc.
•Some industries need a lot of processes or processing,
and this can lead to heavy pollution
Industry
Input
Specialised
steel
production
alloys such as
chromium, cobalt
Iron
production
Processes
electric arc
furnace, oxygen
furnace, rolling,
cutting
iron ore, coke,
blast furnace to
limestone to
melt iron ore,
separate iron from
coke oven,
impurities, water,
rolling into
recycled scrap
sheets, cutting
iron,
into lengths
Output
steel slabs,
ingots, sheets,
waste, slag,
gases
cast iron, pig
iron, slag,
sulphur dioxide,
carbon dioxide,
hydrogen
sulphide, water,
heat
Impact
noise, dust, air
pollution, smell,
water pollution
large building,
noise, air
pollution, smell,
water pollution,
contaminated
cooling water,
scrubber waste,
risk of fire and
explosions
•The sectors of industry are interrelated, and an individual industry will
often use more than one sector to produce products
High-tech industry
•Fastest growing industry in the world
•Most MEDCs and NICs have at least
one hub of high-tech industry
•The industry has a high degree of
research and development to maintain a
competitive edge
•Manufacturing is mostly computer
automated
•Outputs include precision
instrumentation, pharmaceuticals,
biotechnology, mobile phones, vaccines
etc.
Worked example
In which sector would the following people who are
employed in a factory, work?
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Quaternary
1.Workers who carry out research and use it to design
new machines
2.Drivers of lorries transporting products from a factory
3.People operating machines in a factory
•Answers:
• Quaternary
• Tertiary
• Secondary
3.3.2 Distribution of Industrial Zones
Distribution & Location of Factories & Industrial Zones
•Every day companies make decisions about where to locate their industries
•Different industries require different inputs,
•But they also require them to be readily and cheaply available
•Most companies look for the least cost
but highest profit location
•Manufacturers need to find
the optimum location that will produce
maximum profit
•This depends on a number of factors physical, human and economic
Physical factors
•Raw materials - industries that need heavy
or bulky materials, will locate as near as
possible to these materials
•Site - availability and cost of land is
important. Large factories need flat, welldrained land with or without the potential for
expansion later on
•Climate - industries such as aerospace and
film benefit from sunnier climates. Good
climate also reduces energy bills and a better
quality of life
•Energy - energy demanding industries may
relocate to countries/areas with readily
available or cheaper energy
•Natural routeways - harbours, motorways,
airports and railways provide good locations
for ports and industrial complexes, which
create good access points for inputs but also
outputs
•Water supplies - some industries (paper
and cotton processing etc.) require a lot of
water in their manufacturing and so need to
Human and economic factors
•Capital - some areas naturally attract inward
investment as the returns will be higher
•Markets - location and size of the potential market is a
major influence for some industries
•Government influence - incentives, grants and
policies can make areas attractive for industries to
invest in
•Transport - cost of transport is expensive and
accessibility for easy access helps to reduce those
costs. Central to motorways, railways, ports and
airports can influence where industry locates
•Communications - being able to communicate
effectively and quickly with customers and suppliers is
vital to successful manufacturing
•Labour force - quality and cost of labour is central to
effective manufacturing, having a reliable workforce is
necessary, but also mobility, turnover and reputation is
also a factor
•Quality of life - highly skilled workers will prefer areas
where the work/life balance is good
Exam Tip
Remember there is no one factor decides the location of an industry but a
combination of them and most companies look for the least cost with the highest
profit location.ust but a combination of them and most companies look for the least
cost with the highest profit location.
High-tech industry
•High-tech companies are involved in research and development,
aerospace technology, weapons guidance systems, medical robotics,
software, computer hardware, and other technically advanced products
•High-tech industries are usually group together in science parks
•Usually close to the university or a research centre with good security
systems
•Purpose built to encourage research and development (R&D), high-tech
industries and other quaternary activities
•Close to transport networks (including airports) to allow for knowledge
transfer
•Further away from housing estates and retail parks to reduce sound, air
and visual pollution
Worked example
Give an example of a science park and its location
•Example Southampton Science Park
•In a prime location close to the London M3 motorway, the 17-hectare park provides high-quality office and
laboratory space in attractive landscaped surroundings. Over 60 companies, dealing in high tech research
fields, sit side by side resulting is a thriving community of young and old sharing ideas and knowledge. All
are attracted by the park’s strategic location, quality of the environment and access to some of the UK’s
leading scientific expertise at the University of Southampton.
Changes to manufacturing and location over time
•Raw Materials = sources of raw materials often run outManufactures will move in response
•Infrastructure means business not tied to energy centres –coalfields etc.
•Rising costs = wage levels / laws etc, means costs go up in MICs so work moves elsewhere (e.g.
manufacturing)
•Transport = commuting & migrating easier because there are now fewer barriers to travel
•Competition = fewer people are needed to complete work now, e.g. banking uses ICT
•Technology = advances in ICT means more work from home, air travel, etc.
•Outsourcing = saves money, work sent elsewhere to save costs (e.g. call centres)
•As an economy advances, the proportion of people employed in each sector changes
•Places like the UK and the USA are ‘post-industrial societies’, where most work in the tertiary or
quaternary sectors
•Places such as China and India are ‘industrial societies’, where many people work in the secondary sector
•Bolivia and Mozambique are ‘pre-industrial societies’, where most people work in the primary sector
Worked example
Study the photograph and suggest three reasons why
the location was chosen for the retail park.
•Answer:
• Any three of the
following:
• Close to a main road
for accessibility [1]
• Flat land [1]
• Houses nearby for
workers/customers [
1]
• Space for car
parking [1]
• Room for
expansion [1]
A Retail Park
Case Study - Manufacturing Industry: Pakistan’s Iron &
Steel Industry
Location
Input
Processes
Output
Impact
Pipri, near Gharo Creek, Flat, cheap land near Port Qasim, which has a natural harbour to
import raw materials and export steel
Close to market: steel-using industries in Karachi, such as tool making
Along a railway: Karachi-Pipri-Kotri and metalled road
Iron ore
Coke
Limestone
Scrap iron
Water required for making steel brought from Lake Haleji
Economic assistance from Russia: technical expertise and capital
Availability of cheap labour from Karachi
Energy source from Pipri thermal power station and Karachi nuclear power station
Heating of ore to separate iron
Burning coke
Rolling into sheets and cutting into lengths
Cast iron and pig iron
Slag
Gases: sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, hydrogen sulphide
Noise pollution from machinery
Visual pollution due to large, ugly factory buildings
Air pollution from burning iron ore
Water pollution from contaminated cooling water, scrubber effluent and ships supplying raw
materials
Depleted fresh water supplies
Risk of fire and explosions
3.4.1 Growth of Tourism
Growth of Tourism
•A leisure activity is something done for enjoyment in your free time
•Tourism is when a person travels to another destination for more than 24 hrs but less than one year
•Tourism can be split into:
•
Domestic - own country
•
International - another country
•Tourism can be considered a form of circular migration, as there is no intention of a permanent move, but can be for work, medical,
educational or pleasure reasons
•
Seasonal workers are circular migrants who work in one place and return home after a short contract
•
Students at university return at the end of the term to their normal place of residence
•
Medical treatment encourages people to move to countries temporarily
•
Sport - many sports have gone global, through international competitions either as players or spectators
•Over the last 50 years mass tourism has expanded into a major global industry, which is still growing
•An estimated 900 million people become international tourists every year (pre pandemic)
•Europe remains the regions with the greatest number of tourist arrivals, with France being the No.1 destination
•53% of inbound tourism is for leisure (holiday), the second reason is for visiting friends and relatives
•The main reasons for the rise in tourism can be linked to:
•
Improved pay and leave allowances - most workers now work less than 40 hours a week and have paid annual leave
•
Improved disposable incomes - normally both partners work and this increases incoming money to the household
•
It is easier than ever to cross borders with agreements between countries
•
Transport is faster and cheaper than in the past
•
Communication - internet, social media etc. bring awareness of foreign destinations, booking of last-minute holidays etc.
•
Increase in 'built attractions' such as theme and water parks
•
Attractions such as music festivals, sporting events etc
•
Many governments have invested heavily to encourage tourism or backed international events - Olympics
•Travel and tourism is the largest employer across the globe and represents 7% of the world's exports in goods and services
•It is the growing awareness of the attraction of the physical and human landscapes, along with rising living standards, have allowed
greater numbers of people to experience more places domestically and abroad
Worked example
Study Fig. 6.2, which is an advert for a tourist resort in
the Silvassa Forest region in India (an LEDC).
(i) State three different types of job which are likely to have been
created by tourism in the Silvassa Forest region.
1
................................................................................................................
........................
2
................................................................................................................
........................
3
................................................................................................................
..................
[3]
•Answers such as:
• Working in a hotel as chambermaid/receptionist/porter etc.
• Working in a restaurant as a cook/waitress etc.
• Taxi/bus driver
• Working in a water park/spa or other tourist attraction e.g.
lifeguard, masseur
• Airport worker
• Shop worker
• Builder Etc.
3.4.2 Impacts of Tourism
Impacts of Tourism
Social impacts
•Tourism can be classified into positive and negative impacts on people, the
economy and the environment
Social Impacts of Global Tourism
Positive Impacts
Negative Impacts
Can help revive local skills and handicrafts
Loss of locally owned land
Cultural tourism values people's heritage
Tourist's behaviour can offend local people (drinking
etc.)
Brings people together from all over the world
Tourist centres encourage crime, prostitution etc.
Can spread the range of social facilities for local
people
Major international events (Olympics) can have a
positive effect locally and nationally - improved
infrastructure etc.
Develops foreign language skills
Displacement of people
Abuse of human rights
Can erode local language and traditional values
Ancient sites are brought to global attention helping
Loss of access to local sites - beaches, forests etc
to appreciate historical legacies
Might encourage migration to major touristgenerating countries
Visitor congestion at key locations
•Tourism has a large economic impact on a country - multiplier effect
•Tourism is a service industry which indirectly impacts all other industries
• Primary - agriculture and providing food or mining of materials to build
hotels
• Secondary - for manufacturing of goods - chairs, beds, towels, gifts etc.
• Quaternary - research and development to improve facilities for tourists
or management etc.
• Tertiary - staff for hotels, planes, buses, restaurants, lifeguards etc.
Economic Impacts of Tourism
Positive
Negative
Brings money into the country's economy
Money often goes to big businesses and
not locally
Creates jobs for local people
Often low paid, menial, seasonal work
Brings new infrastructure to the region
Mass tourism causes congestion,
pollution affecting local businesses
Provides tax revenues
Economic leakages are high
Provides employment to poorer rural
areas
Money borrowed to invest in tourism can
increase national debt
Can create openings for small business
and support jobs in the informal sector
Large holiday resorts encourage tourists
to spend most of their money in the
hotel complexes, excluding the wider
community
Exam Tip
•Make sure you don't just focus on the negative aspects of tourism, particularly on the environmental or
cultural aspects
•You need to balance your discussion, or you won't gain full marks
Worked example
Study Fig. 6.2, which is an advert for a tourist resort in
the Silvassa Forest region in India (an LEDC).
Explain how the local natural environment may be at risk
from tourist resorts such as the one shown in Fig. 6.2.
[5]
•Ideas such as:
• Deforestation
• Loss of habitat
• Animals scared by noise
• Water pollution
• Death of marine life
• Disruption to food chains
• Lowering of water table
• Air pollution from vehicle exhausts/flights etc.
3.4.3 Management of Tourism
Management of Tourism
•Tourism has become so large-scale in so many parts of the world that it needs to be managed
•Key tourist destinations are looking to sustainability to protect their incomes but also their
environments
•Some areas of sustainable tourism have been more successful than others, and it's important
to remember that not all schemes work
Sustainable tourism
•Organised so that environmental, social and economic levels can be maintained in the future
without compromising the present areas
•Tourism operates in a world of finite resources where its impact is becoming an issue
•People and environmental groups are becoming more aware of the destination footprint and
urge people to:
• Fly less and stay longer
• Consider slow travel
• Stay locally
• Avoid international chain hotels and inclusive holidays
• Carbon-offset their flight
Ecotourism
•The most easily recognised of sustainable tourism
•This is a specialised form of tourism in which small numbers of people experience unusual or
niche environments such as coral reefs, tropical rainforests, remote mountain areas, Antarctica,
and other conservation areas
•Community based tourism are becoming more popular in fragile environments of LEDCs,
bringing larger benefits to the local community and employment
Ecotourism in Bhutan
•Ecotourism is all about visitors leaving as small a carbon footprint as possible to the benefit of the
community and environment
•As one of the poorest developing nations, Bhutan can claim to have one of the most sustainable
tourist industries in the world
•Bhutan's tourist sector is one of the most exclusive travel destinations in the world with a
reputation for a spectacular natural environment, authenticity, remoteness and a well-protected
cultural heritage
•Ecotourism is usually run by private enterprises; however, Bhutan's government has adopted a
different approach of 'high value but low volume' tourism creating a sense of exclusivity
•After 300 years of self-isolation, Bhutan opened its borders to tourists in 1974
•Due in part to the realisation that hotels built for the King's coronation could be used to
accommodate paying guests so boosting foreign exchange and providing much-needed revenue for
the country's development
•Initially only 2500 foreign visits were allowed, today that number has doubled reinforcing the
exclusivity
•All tourists are escorted in groups to specific locations and must travel on officially approved tour
operators
•All are expected to pay a 'Sustainable Development Fee' or surcharge of $200 (£167) per day
•The surcharge goes towards offsetting tourist's carbon footprint and upskilling workers along with
protecting Bhutan's unique heritage and spectacular mountain scenery
•However, some argue that all it does is attract wealthier visitors and promote Bhutan as a niche
Protected areas
•This involves protecting vast areas from development
•National Parks - Yellowstone was the first to be established in 1872 and now there are
more than 4000 worldwide
•Many countries have National Forests, Country Parks, Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty,
World Heritage Sites and other areas considered important to protect
Tourist hubs
•Concentratin of tourism into one particular area of a country or region
•Impacts are seen to be kept to one place
•However, it is difficult to keep tourism within boundaries and overspill occurs
•Any benefits are kept within that area and not spread throughout the community
•Creates division within the area
Quotas
•Number of tourists would not be allowed to exceed a sustainable level
•Based on a lottery system of so many places being available
•Can be difficult to administer and causes tension
•Conservation areas have permits allowing visitors to see unique areas or animals - coral
reefs, mountain gorillas, Galapagos Islands etc
Exam Tip
It is important that you don't confuse conservation with preservation
Preservation is about keeping something exactly as is, with no option of development
Whereas conservation allows development to occur, providing it doesn't detract from the character of the area
Case Study - Importance of Tourism to Cyprus
•Tourism is important to Cyprus as it provides thousands of jobs and
contributes an average of 20% to the country's GDP
•Cyprus island is partitioned into the Turkish Northern Cyprus and
the Greek Cypriot Republic of Cyprus
•This case study will be focusing on the southern Greek part of the
island
•Cyprus has a Mediterranean climate with hot, dry summers (average
28°C) and rainy winters (average 10°C)
•Due to a series of water shortages, annual demand now outstrips
supply and Cyprus is classified as 'water poor'
•There is an increasing reliance on desalinisation plants which
increases energy consumption but only provides 45% of the
increased demand and is harmful to the environment
•In 2006 the Cyprus Sustainable Tourism Initiative (CSTI) was
launched to develop a sustainable approach to tourism in Cyprus
through:
• Improve the quality of life in poorer communities
disadvantaged by tourism
• Promote the preservation, conservation and protection of
Cyprus's environment, whilst sustainably using its natural
resources
• Reduce its carbon footprint due to tourism
• Promote research and education in sustainability
•Some of the projects undertaken are:
•Managing water, energy and water • Gardens and landscaping account for up to 22% of a
hotel's water consumption
• Limit the use of grass and exotic vegetation which
require frequent watering
• Encourage hotels to use native plants as they naturally
adapt to less rainfall and are representative of Cyprus
• Reduce the number of swimming pools
• Increase the use of renewable energy - solar power is
a major source of energy for Cyprus
• Use of energy saving devices in hotels and public
spaces
• Reduce the use of plastic and plastic waste
•Improve conditions on beaches through organised beach
cleaning events
•Working with the tourism sector to reduce demand and
consumption of single use plastics in tourist hotspots such as
Ayia Napa
•Organise turtle watches during hatching time to ensure the
hatchlings get to the sea and not into hotel resorts
•Encourage rural tourism to spread the benefits among poorer
communities through art and history projects, accommodation
and local events
•The reduction of Cyprus's carbon footprint in a significant
manner is difficult as most tourists arrive by air and tour the
ENERGY
3.5.1 Non-Renewable Fossil Fuels
Importance of Non-Renewable Fossil Fuels
•The demand for energy across the globe is rising
•Population growth and development are the two
main causes of the increase in energy demand:
• The higher demand for food leads to
more intensive farming which requires
more energy for machines, light and heat
• Increasing industry requires energy for
heating, lighting and machinery
• There is more transport all of which
requires energy in the form of petrol,
diesel or electricity
• Urbanisation increases with development
increasing domestic appliances, heating,
lighting
• Increased wealth means people buy
more appliances and technology which
require energy
World Energy Mix
•Over 80% of the world's energy is
provided by fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas)
• 33% oil
• 27% coal
• 24% gas
•Fossil fuels are fuels formed from the
remains of living organisms
(plants/animals)
•These are non-renewable as they cannot
be replaced at a speed which keeps up
with consumption
•It is estimated that based on current use
and availability, gas and oil will run out by
2080
•The use of nuclear and renewable energy is
growing but non-renewables fossil fuels still
dominate energy production
•It is predicted that the use of gas and oil will
continue to increase over the next 30 years and
these fossil fuels are expected to still provide over
75% of the world's energy by 2040
Energy
Source
Advantages
Disadvantages
•Non-renewable - it will run out
•Releases carbon dioxide (greenhouse gas) and
sulphur dioxide (causes acid rain) when burnt
•Heavy and bulky to transport
•World reserves estimated to be 120 years
•Most accessible coal has been used and so the cost
•Reliable and easy to produce energy from
Coal
of production has increased as coal reserves are
•Technology has enabled coal to be
more difficult to access
obtained more easily
•Risk of accidents due to mine collapse and gas
release
•Opencast mining damages large areas of the
environment
•World reserves estimated to be between 50-60
years
•Reliable and easy to produce energy from •Non-renewable - they will run out
•Efficient - it has a high energy density so •The gases released when they are burnt are
Oil and produces a lot of energy per kilogram
greenhouse gases
gas
•Not as harmful to the environment as coal •Oil spills damage the environment and wildlife
(gas is the least harmful)
over large areas
•Easy to transport via pipeline
•Prices fluctuate rapidly
•Supplies can be affected by conflict and political
disagreements e.g. the war in Ukraine
Energy Use per Person in kwh
Energy use
•MEDCs use more energy than LEDCs
•Countries with the highest energy
consumption per person tend to be MEDCs
and include Canada, Norway and Saudi
Arabia
•Countries with the lowest energy
consumption per person are LEDCs which
are all in Africa and include Niger, Chad
and Tanzania
•The greatest growth in energy use in
LEDCs and newly emerging economies
such as China and India
•Development means more use of energy
in
• Businesses and factories
• In homes as people buy more
appliances and technology
• Transport
Energy security
•An energy gap is when a country cannot meet the demand for energy using
its own resources
•When countries have an energy gap, they have to import energy to meet the
demand
•Having an energy gap means that a country is not energy secure
•To be energy secure a country needs an:
• Uninterrupted supply of energy
• Affordable supply
• Accessible supply
•The UK has a widening energy gap and is not energy secure because:
• Renewable energy is not as efficient and so cannot replace full energy
from fossil fuels
• It is cheaper to import fossil fuels than it is to exploit the resources in
the UK
•The commitment of many countries to tackling climate change and reducing
the use of fossil fuels has increased energy insecurity in many countries
•Energy security can also be affected by:
• Energy sources running out
• War/conflict
• Natural hazards
• Political disputes
Energy mix
•The energy mix in countries varies dependent on the level of development
•The most economically developed have a wider use of renewables and nuclear
energy
•The newly emerging countries are
more dependent on fossil fuels
•The least economically developed countries are
dominated by biofuels which is mostly fuel
wood used for heating and cooking particularly in
rural areas
Worked example
Table 1 shows energy consumption in the USA in 2007
and 2016
Table 1
Describe the changes in non- renewable
energy consumption shown in Table 1.
[3]
•Answer:
• Coal has decreased from 22.9% to
14.6% [1]
• Gas has increased from 23.3% to
29.2% [1]
• Oil has decreased slightly from 37.5%
to 36.9% [1]
• Uranium has decreased slightly by
0.1% [1]
3.5.2 Renewable Energy
Importance of Renewable Energy Sources
•Renewable energy are energy sources which are infinite and will not run out. They include:
• Hydroelectric
• Wave/tidal
• Wind
• Solar
• Geothermal
• Biomass/waste
•Once in place with the exception of biomass/waste they do not produce any greenhouse gas emissions
•Greenhouse gases may be emitted in the production, construction and transport of the equipment
Increase in renewable energy
•Renewable energy is increasingly important in the global energy mix
•This is due to:
• Non-renewable fossil fuels will at some point run out and so they need to be replaced with another energy
source
• The use of non-renewable fuels is damaging to the environment.
• Fossil fuels when burnt release greenhouse gases and the sulphur dioxide released causes acid rain
• Mining and drilling for fossil fuels can destroy habitats and damage the surrounding environment
• Increasing awareness of the impact of using fossil fuels has resulted in international pressure to reduce
their use
• Exam
Countries
wanting to reduce their reliance on imports of energy sources and improve their energy security
Tip
Remember reducing fossil fuel use is not as easy as simply switching to renewable energies. Although the
costs are coming down renewable energy is often still more expensive than using fossil fuels and they are
generally not as efficient. This means you need far more to produce the same amount of electricity.
Advantages and disadvantages
•All renewable energy sources have advantages and disadvantages
Energy Source
Hydroelectric
Wave/Tidal
Wind
Solar
Geothermal
Biomass/Waste
Advantages
Disadvantages
•No greenhouse gas emissions
•Controls flooding downstream
•Often in sparsely populated areas
•May provide water storage for irrigation and domestic use
•Large areas of land are flooded behind the dam
•Dam traps sediment which can affect ecosystems downstream
•Visual pollution
•Can prevent fish movement upstream
•People and settlements may have to be relocated
•Expensive to build and maintain
•No greenhouse gas emissions
•No air pollution
•Has the potential to produce large amounts of energy
•Reliable
•Expensive to build and maintain
•Can affect marine ecosystems
•Few suitable sites
•No greenhouse gas emissions
•No air pollution
•Can be small or large scale
•Cheap to run
•Can be on land or offshore
•Not reliable only works when the wind is strong enough but not
too strong
•Visual pollution
•Noise pollution
•Many turbines (233) are needed to produce the same energy as an
average coal fired power station
•May affect bird migration patterns or kill birds who fly into the
moving blades
•No greenhouse gas emissions
•No air pollution
•Can be small or large scale
•Can be used in most locations
•Can be incorporated into building design
•Technology is improving and reducing cost
•No CO2 gases
•Lots of potential sites
•Reliable
•Can produce large amounts of energy
•Uses waste or biofuels which regrow
•Available in most locations
•Expensive to install
•Not reliable, only works when it is sunny
•Large numbers needed to produce energy
•Uses large areas of land
•Expensive
•Emits sulphuric gases
•High temperatures cause maintenance issues
•Air pollution
•Produces greenhouse gases
•Expensive
3.5.3 Nuclear Energy & Fuelwood
Nuclear Energy & Fuelwood
Nuclear energy
•Nuclear fuel has the potential to provide large amounts of energy
•It is often used countries who do not have their own supplies of fossil fuels such as France
Share of Electricity Production from
Nuclear
•In 2019 approximately 4% of the global
primary energy supply was from nuclear
power
•There are 439 active nuclear reactors
across the world. Most of these are in just
five countries:
• USA (92)
• France (56)
• China (54)
• Russia (37)
• Japan (33)
Controversy
•Nuclear energy is controversial due to the issues surrounding waste disposal and nuclear
accidents
•Three Mile Island in the USA in 1979
• Partial meltdown of the nuclear reactor
• Slight increase in cancer rates in the area affected by the release of radioactive
contamination
•Chernobyl (now in Ukraine at the time part of the USSR) was the site of a reactor explosion
in 1986
• 50 direct deaths (UN estimate)
• Estimated 4000 people have or will die as a result of exposure to radioactive materials
• Radioactive fallout entered the atmosphere and fell over a large area including
Scandinavia and the UK
•Fukushima nuclear reactor failed in Japan in 2011
• The tsunami which resulted from the 2011 earthquake flooded parts of the power
station causing loss of power which meant they lost the ability to cool the reactor. This
led to explosions, meltdown of the reactor and the release of radioactive contamination
• 154,000 people evacuated
• There has been an increase in thyroid cancers in the area since 2011 but this may be
that more are being detected due to the screening program established after the event
Advantages and disadvantages of nuclear energy
Energy
Source
Advantage
•No greenhouse gas emissions
•Efficient
•Small amounts of uranium needed, and
Nuclear large reserves are available
•It is not bulky so is easy to transport
•Reduces reliance on fossil fuels
•Increases energy security
Disadvantage
•Nuclear waste is radioactive and expensive to
dispose of
•Power stations are expensive
•Risk of nuclear accidents
•Possible health impacts in the areas around nuclear
power stations
•Cost of decommissioning (shutting down) is very high
•Risk of use of nuclear fuel by terrorists or rogue
states
Worked example
Describe the advantages of using nuclear power to
generate electricity.
[3]
•Answer:
• Only small amounts of uranium/fuel needed (to
generate large amounts of power) it is efficient [1]
• Uranium will not run out in the foreseeable
future [1]
• Does not produce greenhouse gases/acid rain [1]
• Improved regulation and safety record [1]
• Reduces reliance on fossil fuels [1]
• Increases energy security [1]
Exam Tip
Remember nuclear fuel is a non-renewable because
uranium cannot be replaced at the speed it is being used.
It is not a fossil fuel because it uses uranium rather than a
fuel formed from the remains of living organisms.
Fuelwood
•It is estimated that more than between 2 and 3 billion people across the world rely on fuelwood for
heating and cooking usually because they do not have access to other forms of energy
• Approximately 13% of the world's population does not have access to electricity
• This is mostly an issue in LEDCs within Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia
•Fuelwood is often included as a biofuel but the wood is not usually grown specifically for use in
heating and cooking
• The trees felled are not replaced which would make them sustainable
•The reasons for this include;
• It is free
• Does not require technology
• Can be renewable if the trees are replaced
• No high technology equipment is needed to use the fuel
•There are disadvantages of this reliance on fuelwood:
• The use contributes to deforestation, soil erosion and desertification in many countries
• The amount of wood cut each year is greater than the rate of replanting and regrowth
• In many areas there is little wood left, and people have to walk further and further to
collect it
• Indoor pollution leads to health issues from exposure to smoke. It estimated that it is
responsible for 1.5 million deaths each year in LEDCs
Worked example
Explain the importance of fuelwood to people in many countries.
[3]
•Answer:
• Important in LEDCs [1]
• Important in rural areas [1]
• May be free to the user [1]
• Does not require high technology equipment [1]
• Fuels for heating/cooking [1]
• Can be renewable/sustainable [1]
• In some areas there is little wood left [1]
• Can be sold by the roadside as a cash crop [1]
Case Study: Nepal
Energy use
•Nepal is a developing country located between China and India
•The landscape is mountainous and includes much of the Himalayas
•The population is rural with only 16% of the population living in towns and cities
•Energy demand is very low but growing as the country develops
Energy use per person in Nepal and UK
Energy mix
•The main source of energy for 82% of the rural population is fuelwood
•In urban areas the use of fuelwood is 36%
•Nepal has no suitable coal, oil or gas reserves so these have to be imported
•98% of all electricity in Nepal is generated through hydropower
Energy Mix in Nepal
Sustainable future
•Access to electricity has increased rapidly over the past 15 years:
• 88% of the population now have access to electricity
•Support from the World Bank has led to more investment in hydropower
•There are now over 3000 micro-hydro plants in Nepal
Ruma Khola micro-hydro
•Completed in 2009
•Provides electricity for the town of Darbang and five neighbouring villages
•It supplies energy for 22 industries including:
• metal workshops, furniture manufacturers, cement block
manufacturers, a noodle factory, poultry farms and dairy farms
•Built and operated by the community the micro-hydro plant was funded using
grants from the government with support from the World Bank
•The loans are paid back using money that the community pay for the electricity
supply
•It has improved the standard of living in the communities
•Reliance on kerosene and fuelwood has reduced and emissions have fallen
•Deforestation has decreased
3.6 WATER
3.6.1 Water Supply and Use
Global Water Supplies
Global water supply
•Only 2.5% of the water on Earth is freshwater
•68.7% of freshwater is stored in glaciers and ice sheets and 30% is groundwater
•The remaining 1.3% of freshwater is in rivers, soil moisture, lakes and the atmosphere
• This is not evenly distributed across the globe - Canada contains more lakes than the rest
of the world combined
Sources of Water
Water supply
•The supply of water humans use comes from three main sources:
• Lakes and rivers
• Aquifers
• Reservoirs
•Other sources of water supply include:
• Desalinisation
• Rainwater harvesting - collecting water that falls as precipitation
•Global water use by sector is:
• 70% agriculture - irrigation of
crops and water for livestock
• 20% industry - producing goods
and generating energy
• 10% domestic - toilets, cooking,
cleaning, washing
•The use by sector varies across
countries depending on whether they
are MEDCs or LEDCs
Source of water
supply
Information
Water stored underground
that has filtered through
soil and rocks. It is
obtained by drilling
boreholes or digging wells.
Groundwater/Aquifer
When all the rock is fully
saturated with water it is
an aquifer. Groundwater
may also come to the
surface as a spring
Issues
Overuse or over abstraction of
water in some areas means that
aquifers do not have time to
recharge through precipitation
Pollution from industry,
agriculture and domestic waste
can leach into the groundwater
Pollution from industry,
agriculture and domestic waste
can enter the water system
through surface run off
Dams are used to store water in
reservoirs, but the construction of
dams has slowed due to lack of
suitable sites and concerns
regarding the environmental
impact
Surface water
Water which is stored in
the lakes, reservoirs and
rivers.
Desalinisation
The removal of salt from
sea water to mean that it
Expensive to set up and run - they
can be used for domestic,
use a lot of energy
agricultural and industrial
purposes
Water demand
•The global demand for water is increasing
•Between 1934 and 2014 demand increased from 1 trillion
m3 to 4 trillion m3
Water use in MEDCs
•11% Domestic
•30% Agriculture
•59% Industry
Water demand in MEDCs
•Water demand is higher in MEDCs than LEDCs as a
result of:
• Improving living standards - people have
more appliances/sanitation which use water
• Increased use of water in leisure and
tourism - water parks, golf courses
• Increased urbanisation
• Increasing industry - water is needed for
the production of goods and energy
production
• Increasing use in agriculture - more water
is needed for livestock
•The largest use of water in MEDCs tends to be
industry
Water use in LEDCs
Water demand in LEDCs
•Unlike MEDCs the water use in LEDCs is
mostly used for agriculture
•Many people are still dependent on
agriculture
•There is far less industry in many LEDCs
so the demand for water for industrial
processes is low
•Many people in LEDCs do not have access
to piped water and as a result are more
cautious with water use
Worked example
Study Fig 1, which is a map showing information
about the percentage of the population in each
country with access to clean drinking water
Fig 1
Describe the distribution of countries
where 75% or less of the population
have access to clean drinking water
[3]
•Answer:
• Mainly/most in Africa [1]
• Except Egypt and South
Africa/except in North and South [1]
• A few/some in Asia [1]
• Near/on equator/mainly in
tropics/between Tropics of Cancer
and Capricorn/Central Africa/subSaharan Africa [1]
• Uneven/clustered [1]
Exam Tip
When describing the distribution from a map ask
yourself the following questions;
•What is the general pattern?
•Does the pattern relate to anything else for example
the location of LEDCs and MEDCs?
•Are they near the equator or further away?
•Is the pattern uneven or clustered?
Use map features to help with your description - place
names (countries and continents) compass rose,
latitude and longitude, the equator and the tropics
3.6.2 Water Shortages
Water Shortages and Management
Water shortages (deficit)
•Many areas of the world have water shortages (deficits)
•Water deficit can be due to:
• Low supply - lack of precipitation, high levels of evaporation, poor water
management, drought, pollution
• High demand - increasing population, industry and agriculture
• A combination of low supply and high demand
•Areas with the greatest water deficit include:
• Australia
• North, East and South Africa
• Middle East
• South- west USA
• East Brazil, parts of Argentina and Chile
• India
•They tend to be areas around the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn
Water Surplus and Deficit
•There are different levels of water shortage - these are water stress and water scarcity:
• Water stress occurs when the supply of water is below 1700m3 a year per person
• Water scarcity is when the supply is below 1000m3 a year per person
•There are two types of water scarcity:
• When physical access to water is limited due to the climate conditions of the area. This
is physical water scarcity
• When a population does not have the money to utilise the available water resources. This
is economic water scarcity
•The UN Millennium Development Goals included goal 7 ' Halve by 2015, the proportion of the
population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation'
• This goal was not met but access to clean water has improved
• In 2020 74% of the world population now have access to clean water supplies
•In some areas there may be water supply, but this is not potable
• UNICEF estimates 2.2 billion people do not have access to potable (clean drinking)
water
• Around 4.2 billion people do not have access to safely managed sanitation services
•Water scarcity is expected to increase across the world due to:
• Increasing population
• Development increases demand
• Climate change increasing aridity
• Pollution
Causes of water shortage
•Many of these areas have a deficit due to low precipitation throughout the year or
drought
•Demand is greater than supply in some countries due to increasing population,
industry and agriculture
•In some areas rivers flow through many countries and this leads to issues with
water abstraction and other activities. The upstream country may
• Take large amounts of water from the river for agriculture, industry or domestic
use leaving less for the country further downstream
• Build dams or alter river flow which impacts on discharge downstream
• Reduce water quality by introducing pollution to the river
•Higher temperatures may lead to increased evaporation and transpiration reducing the
amount of water available
•The type of land use - agriculture leads to increased water consumption
•In some countries there is disparity in water supply between areas - China has severe
water shortages in the north but water is more available in the south
•Conflict - many of the LEDCs who have struggled to meet the MDG are experiencing
conflict
Impacts of water shortage
•There are many impacts of water shortages including:
• Death and illness due to water-borne diseases such as
cholera and dysentery
• Potential for conflicts over water supply particularly where
countries share a river basin
• Children in rural areas in LEDCs often miss out on school as
they are responsible for collecting water (may have to walk
miles to the nearest water source)
• Lack of food due to:
• Crops cannot be irrigated and so yields are lower
• Livestock dies due to a lack of water
• Damaged ecosystems and loss of habitats
• Affects economic development as water is not available for
industry
Managing water supply
•There are many ways in which water supply can be
managed but this is easier in MEDCs where the money to
implement these schemes is available
•In LEDCs water management is more difficult
due to lack of funding
•The involvement of Non-Governmental
Organisations (NGOs) such as Water Aid helps to
fund projects
•Appropriate technology is essential to manage
water in LEDCs, they include:
• Wells
• Gravity fed systems where water is piped
from a spring or river higher up a valley
• Boreholes use a hand pump to bring
water to the surface
• Rainwater collection from roofs
• Drip irrigation
• Drought resistant crops
Water Use
Management to Reduce use
Industry
Most water in MEDCs is used for industry. Some of
this water could be recycled and used again
within the process to reduce consumption
Agriculture
Drip irrigation which delivers water to the roots
of plants. Irrigation leads to 40% of the water
used being lost to evaporation and poor
management. Drip irrigation reduces this loss
significantly
Domestic
Water efficient appliances
Rainwater collection
Use of grey water for washing cars and watering
plants
Low flush toilets and water saving shower heads
Water companies fixing leaks and improving
efficiency
Exam Tip
Remember when interpreting maps you need to pay close attention to the key and title.
In the above example the map shows both surplus and deficit of water supply on a sliding scale.
Areas of greatest water surplus are dark blue and areas of greatest water deficit are dark orange.
Case Study: Spain
•The average precipitation in south-east Spain is approximately 365mm a year
•Most precipitation occurs in winter
•The area is one of the driest in Europe
•Agriculture uses 80% of the water available
• 147,000 hectares of land require irrigation
•Regular droughts mean the supply of water is further reduced
•There is a water deficit as demand exceeds supply
•Tourism increases the problem:
• Water parks and golf courses use significant quantities of water
• An average tourist uses between 450-800 litres per day
• An average Spaniard uses 127 litres per day
Tagus-Segura Project
•Completed in 1978
•60% of the water flowing into the Tagus is transferred
•A 286km pipeline which connects for Spanish river basins Tagus, Jucar, Segura and Guadiana
•The aim was to supply Alicante, Murcia and Cartagena in the south-east to reduce the water deficit
Tagus-Segura Project
Issues
•Much of the water transferred went to the
tourist and leisure users not to small scale
farmers
•Water consumption in the south-east increased
due to an increase in supply
•It is estimated that 15% of the transferred water
is being illegally used by leisure users such as
golf courses
•Large commercial farms are benefitting more
than small scale farmers
Ebro project
•A second water transfer project was proposed
in 2001 to transfer water from the River Ebro
•This project was abandoned due to:
• The failure and issues with the TagusSegura project
• The cost
• The threat to the Ebro delta as the
scheme would have disrupted sediment
flow to the delta
•Spain has now moved to utilising desalinisation
ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS OF ECONOMY
3.7.1 Soil Erosion & Desertification
Soil Erosion & Desertification
Soil Erosion
•Soil erosion is the wearing away of the topsoil by the action of wind or water
•It is a natural process which is made worse by human activities which leave the soil exposed to
wind and water
Cause
How it leads to soil erosion
Deforestation
•Removes the trees reducing interception so the soil is more exposed to the rainfall.
•Reduces the amount of roots which reduces infiltration and increases surface run off
•The bare soil is more exposed to the wind which would have been reduced by tree
cover
Overgrazing
Overcultivation
•Removes vegetation cover which acts to protect the soil from both wind and water
•More animals trampling the land leads to compaction and increased surface run off
•This happens more in LEDCs where farmers have less and less land to graze
•Land is not left to rest (fallow) between crops and so the fertility of the soil is
reduced
•More people increase the settlement sizes reducing the areas which can be farmed Population Increase increasing overcultivation and overgrazing
•Increases the demand for food which leads to overcultivation and overgrazing
Over abstraction of •Leads to the soil moisture content decreasing. This leads to drier soil which is more
groundwater
easily eroded by wind or water
Human induced
climate change
•Changes in climate patterns, increasing floods and increasing droughts all lead to an
increase in soil erosion
•Salinisation is also an increasing issue in many semi-arid areas
• Occurs when high rates of evaporation lead to groundwater being drawn to the
surface
• When the groundwater evaporates salts are left in or on the topsoil
• These salts make the land toxic to many crops and so the land can no longer be
used
Desertification
•Soil erosion may
over time
lead natural
to desertification
•Desertification
is caused
by both
factors and human activities
•Many of the natural causes may be made worse by climate change
Natural causes
Human causes
Soil erosion leads to the loss of nutrients. Plants are unable to
establish and grow
Overgrazing means the vegetation has all gone due to the
numbers of animals or the land does not have chance to recover
Rainfall patterns have become less predictable leading to drought Over-cultivation leads to all the nutrients being taken up by crops
and any vegetation dying due to lack of water
leaving none for future vegetation to grow
Reduced vegetation means that nutrients are not added to the
soil through the decomposition of dead organic matter
Deforestation removes shade for the soil and means there are no
roots which bind the soil together. This increases soil erosion,
whilst decreasing infiltration and interception
Any rain that does fall is often in short, intense bursts, leading to
increased surface run off and soil erosion
Population growth puts increased pressure on the land as people
raise more animals and grow more crops
Causes of Desertification
Worked example
Fig 1 gives information about annual rainfall in one of
the areas at risk of desertification in Africa. It shows
the years which have been wetter than average and
drier than average between 1950 and 2016.
Using Fig 1, explain how rainfall could be one
factor which could lead to desertification.
[2]
•Although the question suggests rainfall could cause
desertification - what the examiners are looking for is
an answer which explains how lack of rainfall could
cause desertification
•Answer:
• Droughts/rainfall below the average over a
prolonged period/dry years (this is a
compulsory point and must be mentioned to
gain marks) [1]
• Vegetation dies [1]
• Overgrazing due to lack of vegetation [1]
• Leads to soil erosion [1]
Exam Tip
Remember desertification is not the expansion of the deserts which already exist. It is when semi-arid ecosystems
become desert like as a result of human activity and unsustainable land use.
Sustainable Management of Soil Erosion and Desertification
•Halting and reversing soil erosion and desertification means tackling the causes
•There are a variety of political and social responses
Education
•Education including:
• Sustainable farming methods including agroforestry and crop rotation, which help to keep the soil healthy
• Family planning to reduce population growth
Agroforestry
•This combines agriculture with forestry, which means some trees remain, which:
• Decreases deforestation
• Provides shade as well as increasing infiltration and interception, which reduces soil erosion
• Provides organic matter from the trees and adds nutrients to the soil
Afforestation
•Tree planting, such as the Great Green Wall across the Sahel, helps to reverse desertification in several ways:
• The roots help to bind the soil together reducing soil erosion
• The canopy offers shade helping to prevent the soil from drying out and also reducing soil erosion from
rainfall landing directly on the soil
• Nutrients in the soil are replaced by falling leaves and branches
• The trees increase animal and insect activity which helps improve soil quality
Contour Stones and Terraces
•These help to reduce soil erosion by:
• Preventing the soil from being blown or washed away
• Increasing infiltration of water and reducing overland flow
• Ensuring that dead organic matter stays in one place and can decompose adding nutrients to the soil
Worked example
State two methods which people in rural areas of LEDCs could use to reduce
desertification.
For each of your chosen methods, explain why you think it will be successful.
[4]
•For this question you need to give two methods and then explain each one and why it works to
gain the full four marks. Just giving two methods will only gain you two marks
•You also need to ensure they are things that people can do rather than things people should not
do. For example, do not overgraze would not gain any marks
•Answer:
• Limit size of herds/rotate grazing land [1] which leads to less overgrazing [1]
• Plant trees/shelter belts/afforestation [1] so the roots help to bind the soil [1]
• Contour ploughing/ploughing across slope [1] which reduces surface run off [1]
• Education about agricultural technique [1] leading to less
deforestation/overgrazing/overcultivation
• Crop rotation [1] improves soil fertility [1]
• Terracing [1] which reduces surface run off [1]
• Maintain soil cover/plant drought resistant plants [1] which reduces surface run
off/improves soil fertility [1]
• Mulching [1] which reduces surface run off/improves soil fertility [1]
• Micro HEP project/small scale cookers [1] reduces deforestation [1]
3.7.2 Global Warming
Global Warming
Changes in the global climate
•The global climate conditions of the Earth range over time leading to colder and
warmer periods
•The last 2.6 million years are the Quaternary period when there have been 60
cold periods and warmer interglacial periods
•The last ice age ended approximately 25,000 years ago
•The evidence for these changes comes from:
• Ice cores which trap ash, air bubbles and microbes
• Preserved pollen
• Historical sources such as diaries and art
• Tree rings
Causes of Natural Climate Change
Cause
Impact
Milankovitch Cycles
•Long term changes to the Earth's orbit and position. This changes how
much solar radiation the Earth receives
•The Earth's orbit changes every 100,000 years a more circular orbit leads
to cooler periods and an elliptical orbit leads to warmer periods
•The Earth's tilt varies every 40,000 years and the greater the tilt the
hotter summers are and colder the winters are
•Every 24,000 years the Earth wobbles on its axis and this can affect the
seasonal temperatures
Volcanic eruptions
•Large scale eruptions lead to vast quantities of ash being ejected into the
atmosphere
•Ash in the atmosphere blocks solar radiation leading to a decrease in
temperatures
Sunspot activity
Atmospheric dust
•Increased sunspot activity is linked to higher average temperatures
•Asteroids and meteors entering the Earth's atmosphere may increase the
amount of dust which decreases temperatures
The greenhouse effect
•The greenhouse effect is essential to the survival of life on Earth:
• Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere allow short-wave
radiation from the sun through to the Earth's surface
• The greenhouse gases absorb some of the long-wave radiation
(heat) and stop it radiating out into space
• This maintains the Earth's average temperature
• Without the greenhouse effect the average temperature would be 18oC
Greenhouse gases from natural sources
•Water vapour - evaporation from the oceans/seas and plants
•Carbon dioxide - volcanic eruptions, wildfires and respiration
•Methane - emitted from oceans and soils as part of decomposition, termites
also emit methane
•Nitrous oxide - soils and oceans
Human Sources of Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse Gas
Sources from Human Activity
Carbon Dioxide
(CO2)
•Burning of fossil fuels - power stations, vehicles
•Burning of wood
•Deforestation - trees utilise CO2 in photosynthesis.
The fewer trees there are the less CO2 is removed
from the atmosphere
Methane (CH4)
•Decay of organic matter - manure, waste in landfill,
crops
Nitrous Oxide
(N2O)
•Artificial fertilisers
•Burning fossil fuels
•Aerosols
Chlorofluorocarb
•Refrigeration units
ons (CFCs)
•Air conditioning
Worked example
Study Fig 1, which shows information about human
influence on the greenhouse effect
Using Fig 1 only, explain how humans are
influencing the natural greenhouse effect.
[3]
•Remember when a question states 'Using Fig 1
only' you will only be awarded marks for information
that you have taken from the figure and not for
information you have from elsewhere.
•Answer:
• Greater/more/build up of greenhouse gases [1]
• Named examples of greenhouse gases that
have increased [1]
• More heat is trapped [1]
• Less heat escapes [1]
Exam Tip
Remember not all scientists agree about the causes of climate change. There are a few scientists who
argue that global warming is the result of the Earth's natural climate pattern and not the result of human
activities.
Impacts of the enhanced greenhouse effect
Health
•Increased temperatures and lack of precipitation may lead to the spread of diseases:
• Italy has experienced cases of malaria since 2017 when it was previously a malaria free area
• An additional 280 million people may be affected by malaria
• Water-borne diseases are more likely to spread
•Heat waves may become more frequent
•Heat stroke, dehydration and sunburn increase during heat waves
•Stagnant air during heat waves increases air pollution levels:
• Respiratory diseases increase and those suffering from respiratory illnesses such as asthma may
be more affected
•Increased temperatures negatively affect people with cardiopulmonary diseases
•Diets may be restricted by food shortages leading to malnutrition and famine
Homes and settlements
•Increased flooding due to sea level rise and increased frequency and severity of storms will lead
to displacement of large numbers of people
•Settlements in low-lying areas may have to be abandoned or need additional defences against sea level
rise:
• Moving settlements or improving flood defences will be costly
Agriculture
•Farmers may need to change the crop they grow if climate conditions
become unsuitable
•Coastal flooding may lead to salt intrusion
•Reduced availability of water will mean that irrigation is limited or
impossible
•Food shortages will lead to malnutrition and famine
Employment
•Job opportunities may change or decrease because:
• Tourism may decline in some areas for example ski resorts may
close due to the lack of reliable snow
• Coastal resorts may be at risk of flooding leading to the closure
• Farmers may have to change the crop they grow or livestock they
raise or leave farming
• In some areas agriculture may decline due to rising temperatures or
changing rainfall patterns
Sea level rise
•Warmer temperatures cause the water in seas and oceans to expand, increasing the sea level
•Melting ice is adding to the increasing volume of water:
• Average sea levels have risen 23cm since 1880
• Sea levels are forecast to increase a further 30cm by 2050
•Low-lying coastal areas and islands are at higher risk of flooding:
• The Maldives may be uninhabitable by 2050
•Beach erosion will increase leading to greater coastal erosion
•Coastal ecosystems including coral reefs and mangrove swamps will be affected
•Saltwater is contaminating freshwater supplies and affecting coastal agriculture
Ecosystem change
•The location of biomes may shift to the north (Northern Hemisphere) and south (Southern
Hemisphere) as they rely on specific climate conditions:
• Polar and tundra biomes are at risk of becoming extinct as they cannot shift any further
north/south
•Increasing sea temperatures and ocean acidification have resulted in coral bleaching
•Migration and behaviour patterns of animals affected by changing temperatures:
• Fish species are moving north and south of their usual habitats to seek cooler water
• Reduced hibernation due to warmer winters
•Melting of ice caps/glaciers leading changing ocean currents
•Mangrove swamps and coral reefs are threatened by rising sea levels
•Loss of habitats through flooding, drought and wildfires
•Food webs breaking as species numbers are reduced and food sources are decreased
•Loss of plants and vegetation
Natural hazards
•Changes in climate patterns are likely to increase the frequency and severity
of storms:
• The 2020 Atlantic hurricane seas were the first most active on record
and 2021 was the third most active
•The frequency and length of droughts are increasing
•Dry conditions lead to the increased risk of wildfires:
• In 2021 Australia, Greece, South Africa, Brazil and USA were just some
of the places to experience severe wildfires
• In September 2021 the USA National Fire Centre reported 44.647
wildfires which had burned 5.6 million acres
•Rising sea levels together with increased storms lead to increased
flooding risk
Responses to climate change
•Global warming and climate change require an international response because
it affects the entire globe
•Responses can involve either adaptation or mitigation
•In 1988 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was set up to
assess the 'risks of human-induced climate change
•This was followed by several international agreements
Earth Summit, Rio 1992
•Set out aims to stabilise greenhouse gas levels
Kyoto Protocol 1997
•Delegates from 150 countries agreed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
•It stated that industrialised countries would reduce emissions to below the levels in 1990
•Developing countries including China and India were exempt from the agreement
•The USA did not sign up for the treaty
•Canada withdrew in 2011 stating that without China and USA the treaty would not work
Paris Agreement 2015
•Global agreement to limit global warming to 2oC (preferably 1.5oC) above pre-industrial levels
•Agreement also includes reducing CO2 emissions by at least 60% by 2050
•Signed by 196 countries including the USA and China (the USA withdrew in 2020 and rejoined in 2021)
Conference of the Parties (COP)
•The United Nations (UN) holds an annual (every year) meeting to discuss climate change.
•COP26 was held in Glasgow in 2021
•All nations agreed to take actions to further reduce greenhouse gas emissions
Reducing emissions
•Emissions can be reduced in a number of ways including;
• Reducing deforestation
• Increasing afforestation
• Improving energy efficiency in industry and domestic appliances
• Reducing emissions from industry
• Improving public transport
• Electric vehicles
• Use of renewable energy and nuclear power
Worked example
Explain why global warming is a threat to the natural environment.
[4]
•Remember on this question that it is asking about the natural environment so you should
not include impacts on humans
•Answer:
• Melting of ice caps/glaciers [1]
• Loss of natural habitat [1]
• Rising sea/water levels [1]
• Flooding of low lying islands/countries leading to habitat loss [1]
• Loss of food sources for wildlife [1]
• Loss of species/extinction/animals die (or example) [1]
• Breaking of food chains/threats to predators [1]
• Diversion of cold ocean currents [1]
• Warming of sea water can destroy/bleach coral [1]
• Increasing aridity/drought/desertification [1]
• Forest fires [1]
• Vegetation loss/trees die etc. [1]
3.7.4 Resource Conservation
Resource Conservation
•Conservation is the protection and rational use of the environment and natural resources to ensure they are
there for future generations
•This involves measures which use resources efficiently to extend their existence for as long as possible
•Conservation measures include;
• Recycling and reuse of resources such as clothing or glass and plastics
• Using energy efficient appliances - these use less energy to power them and less water
• Stewardship of protected areas - National Parks, Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB)
• Greater use of, and investment in renewable energies
• Quotas on resources used - rising quotas to ensure the fish population is not overfished
• Protection of particular ecosystems - Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) and
the Antarctica Treaty which includes agreements about the exploitation of Antarctica
• Reducing deforestation
• Laws to protect resources and areas
• Fines for people/organisatiions/companies that damage the environment
• Reducing use of or rationing of resources
•There are many non-governmental organisations (NGOs) which aim to conserve and protect the
environment and natural resources;
• World Wildlife Fund
• Greenpeace
• Friends of the Earth
• Woodland Trust
Government Actions
Individual Actions
Congestion charges within cities
Use public transport
Investment in renewable energy
Walk or cycle
Grants for solar panels
Reduce, reuse and recycle
Gas emission limits for vehicles
Buy energy efficient appliances
Charging points for electric vehicles
Invest in double glazing and insulation
Increase tax on petrol and diesel
Wash clothes less often and at lower
temperatures
Invest in public transport
Compost food and garden waste
Fines for businesses and industries which
pollute
Worked example
Study Fig 1, which shows advice about conservation
of natural resources.
Explain how following the advice given in Fig 1 can help to conserve natural resources.
[3]
•Answer:
• Uses fewer resources/less demand for resources or example/there are fewer resources wasted [1]
• Saves resources for the future [1]
• Can use resources again/make more use [1]
• Resources last longer [1]
• Saves energy [1]
• Waste products become useful [1]
Explain the importance of conserving natural resources and the natural environment.
[5]
•Answer:
• Many are non-renewable/will run out/are finite [1]
• Life in future would not be possible without clean water [1]
• Life in future would not be possible without clean air [1]
• Life in future would not be possible without land for cultivation [1]
• To protect habitats [1]
• Conserving the natural environment will ensure ecosystems remain in balance [1]
• Species do not become extinct/animals do not die [1]
• To prevent global warming/acid rain/desertification etc. [1]
• Creates conflict/civil rest [1]
• Forests act as carbon sinks [1]
Example Case Study: Pearl River Delta, China
•Located in South-East China, the Pearl River is China's third longest river
•The Pearl River enters the South China Sea to the south-east of Guangzhou
•The area surrounding where the river enters the sea is the Pearl River Delta
•The area is China's largest economic hub,
creating over 9% of China's total GDP
•It is the largest urban area or megacity in the
world
•Over 60 million people live in the region
Pollution sources
•Air pollution from power plants - there are both
gas and coal fired power stations in the region
which emit sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide and
nitrogen oxides
• Emissions lead to smog, acid rain and add
to enhanced greenhouse effect
•Toxic waste from factories and sewage from
large population released into the rivers
Impacts of pollution
•The Pearl River Delta has the highest level of acid rain in China
• Leads to acidified groundwater
• Increases heavy metals found in crops and drinking water
• Linked to increased rates of stomach cancer
•Increase in heavy metals in river water and river sediments
including lead, zinc, chromium, copper, arsenic and mercury
• All harmful to humans and wildlife when in absorbed
sufficient quantities
• Heavy metals pass through the food chain
• Rice cultivated in the area has been shown to be
contaminated with arsenic and this poses a health risk to the
people who consume it
•Pesticides affect wildlife and accumulate in the food chain
impacting human health
•Fertilisers lead to eutrophication
4. GEOGRAPHICAL SKILLS
4.1.1 Maps
Maps
•Questions in the exam will be based on topographical maps
• The maps can be from anywhere in the world
• Maps will have a key, scale, northings and eastings
• These all need to be used to answer the questions
Grid references
•4-figure are used to locate specific grid squares within the map
• The first two figures are the eastings which indicate how far east or west a
grid is across the map
• The second two figures are the northings which indicate how far north or
south a grid is on the map
•6-figure grid references are used to locate exact points within grid squares
• The first three figures are the eastings
• The second three figures are the northings
•To find a 4 and 6 figure grid reference
• First, find the four-figure grid reference by giving the number from the
bottom of the map first and then the number from the side of the map.
•In image above the 4-figure grid reference would be 17,
51
•To give the 6-figure grid reference you need to image that
the grid square is divided into 100 smaller squares
Worked example
Figure 1.1 shows some of the features around the
main settlement at Misterblanco in the north east of
the map extract.
What is the six-figure grid
reference of the junction at point
G in Fig 1.1?
[1]
•Answer:
• 994 879
Exam Tip
The paper 2 exam will always contain a map. You will be
expected to be able to give and use grid references to
locate specific places on the map extract.
Scale
•Maps in the exam will either be scale 1:25,000 where 1cm on the map = 25,000cm
(250m) in real life or 1:50,000 where 1cm =50,000cm (500m) in real life
•When the distance is straight or almost straight it can either be measured using a ruler or
the edge of a straight piece of paper.
•Using the scale at the bottom of the map mark distances are marked on a piece of
paper.
•This can then be laid from the first point to the second point to calculate the distance.
Using scale to measure a straight line
•A distance along a curved route can be divided, the paper rotated and marked in stages to
calculate the full distance
•To measure from A to B following the road on the map below the route can be divided into a
series of straight sections using crosses.
•The plain piece of paper can then be used to measure from A to the first cross. It should then
be rotated, pivoting at the cross to mark the second cross.
Measuring a Curved Route
Bearings
•Directions on a map should always be given using
compass points
•There are 16 compass points
•A grid bearing is measured from grid north at
0o, East is 90o, South is 180o and West is 270o
•Grid bearings are given using a protractor
• The 0o should be pointing north and the
centre of the protractor on the place the
bearing is been given from
• The compass direction and grid bearing
from the crossroads at A to the location
at B
•On the map below B is South West of A
•The bearing is 280o
Height
•Height can be shown in three main ways;
• Spot height
• Contour lines
• Trigonometrical stations
•Spot heights show the height at a specific point with the height measurement
written next to it
•Contour lines are isolines. They join points of equal height and are usually at 5
or 10 meter intervals (distance between the contour line)
• This means that the height of the land increases by 5 or 10 meters
between the lines
•Trigonometrical station is marked by a small black triangle with a height
measurement written next to it
Topography
•The contour lines can also indicate the shape and slope of the land or
topography
•Contour lines close together indicates steep land
•Contour lines very far apart indicates gently sloping or flat land dependent on
the distance apart
•V-shaped valleys have a v-shaped set of contours
•A hill is shown by a set of circular contour lines
Contour lines
Worked example
Study the map extract and Fig 1 for Stoumont, Belgium. The scale is 1:50000
Using the map extract, identify the following features shown in fig 1
The height above sea level of the contour at C
.................... metres
[1]
•Answer:
•
250 metres
Cross-sections
•A cross-section is a slice through the landscape
•They are represented on a map by a line which is often
labelled A at one end and B at the other
•They use the contour lines to determine the height of the
land
Cross-section on a map
•A piece of paper is then laid along the line and points A and B are marked on
•The contour lines are then marked on each time they cross the paper
Marking on the contour lines
•These figures can then be used to create the cross-section
Exam Tip
In the exam you may be asked to finish a cross-section or interpret a crosssection. When interpreting cross-sections you should include;
•The highest and lowest points
•Comparison of slopes
•Anamolies
Key
•Maps can be used to identify a range of landscape features
•These may be physical and human features
•Each map has a key to show what the symbols mean
Example of a Map Key
4.1.2 Graphs & Diagrams
Key terminology
Term
Definition
Continuous data
Numerical data that can take any value within a given
range, e.g. heights and weights
Discrete data
Numerical data that can only take certain values, e.g.
shoe size
Quantitative
data
Results that can be expressed using numerical values
Qualitative data
Results that can’t be expressed as numbers, e.g.
opinions
Line graph
•One of the simplest ways to display continuous data
•Both axes are numerical and continuous
•Used to show changes over time and space
Strengths
Limitations
Shows trends and patterns
clearly
Does not show causes or effects
Quicker and easier to construct
than a bar graph
Can be misleading if the scales
on the axis are altered
Easy to interpret
If there are multiple lines on a
graph it can be confusing
Anomalies are easy to identify
Often requires additional
information to be useful
•A river cross-section is a particular form of line graph because it is not
continuous data, but the plots can be joined to show the shape of the river
channel
Bar chart
•A bar chart is the simplest form of displaying data
•Each bar is the same width, but can have varying lengths
•Each bar is drawn an equal distant apart (equidistant)
•The data is discrete data
•Bar graphs are useful for:
• Comparing classes or groups of data
• Changes over time
Strengths
Limitations
Summarises a large set of data
Requires additional information
Easy to interpret and construct
Does not show causes, effects or
patterns, can be too simplistic
Shows trends clearly
Can only be used with discrete
data
Histograms
•Histograms show continuous data
•Always use a ruler to draw the bars
•All bars should be the same width
•The top of the bar should reach the number on the side of the graph that is being represented
•There should be no gaps, all bars should be touching
•Ensure all axes are labelled and that the graph has a title
Strengths
Large data sets can be graphed
easily
You can compare data
Limitations
They can only be used for
numerical data
Can be difficult to pinpoint
exact data values
Compound or divided bar chart
•The bars are subdivided to show the information with all
bars totalling 100%
•Divided bar charts show a variety of categories
•They can show percentages and frequencies
Strengths
Limitations
A divided bar chart can be
A large amount of data can
difficult to read if there
be shown on one graph
are multiple segments
Percentages and
frequencies can be
Can be difficult to
displayed on divided bar
compare sometimes
char
Population pyramid
•A type of histogram
•Used to show the age-sex of a population
•Can be used to show the structure of an area/country
•Patterns are easy to identify
Strengths
Easy to compare age and sex
data
Easy to read and annotate
Limitations
Can take a long time to
construct
Detail can be lost in the data
(figures just show a cohort);
additional annotations may
be necessary
Pie chart
•Used to show proportions, the area of the circle segment represents the proportion
•A pie chart can also be drawn as a proportional circle
•Pie charts can be located on maps to show variations at different sample sites
•Percentage of pie chart must add to 100%
•To calculate degrees of the pie chart (which totals 360°) divide the percentage by 100 and then multiply by
360
•Each segment should be a different colour
Strengths
Limitations
Clearly shows the proportion of the
whole
Does not show changes over time, hard
to compare two sets of data
Easy to compare different components
Difficult to understand without clear
labelling
Easy to label
Calculating the size of each section can
be difficult
Information can be highlighted by
separating segments
Can only use for a small number of
categories otherwise lots of segments
become confusing
Pie Chart Showing Energy Sources in an Area
Exam Tip
To work out the percentage increase/decrease, work out the difference
between the two numbers, divide the difference by the first number, then
multiply this number by 100.
For example, the difference between 37 and 43 is 6. Then 6 / 37 x 100 =
16.21.
The percentage increase is therefore 16.21%.
Rose diagram
•Use multidirectional axes to plot data with bars
•Compass points are used for the axis's direction
•Can be used for data such as wind direction, noise or
light levels
Wind Direction Shown
on a Rose Diagram
Triangular graph
•Have axes on three sides all of which go from 0-100
•Used to display data which can be divided into three
•The data must be in percentages
•Can be used to plot data such as soil content, employment in economic activities
•Read each side carefully so you are aware which direction the data should go in
Scatter graph
•Points should not be connected
•The best fit line can be added to show the relations
•Used to show the relationship between two variables
• In a river study, they are used to show the relationship between different river characteristics
such as the relationship between the width and depth of the river channel
Strengths
Clearly shows data
correlation
Shows the spread of data
Makes it easy to identify
anomalies and outliers
Limitations
Data points cannot be
labelled
Too many data points can
make it difficult to read
Can only show the
relationship between two
sets of data
Types of correlation
•Positive correlation
• As one variable increases, so too does the other
• The line of best fit goes from bottom left to top right of the graph
•Negative correlation
• As one variable increases the other decreases
• The line of best fit goes from the top left to the bottom right of the graph
•No correlation
• Data points will have a scattered distribution
• There is no relationship between the variables
Worked example
Making predictions from a set of data
•You may be asked to make a prediction for the next step in given data (either table or graph form) in your
exam
•Study the data carefully
•Look at the direction in which the data is going
• Are the numbers increasing or decreasing?
• Is there a clear pattern forming?
• E.g. does the data point value change by 3, 4, 6 etc. each time
•Study the scatter graph below, which shows the cost against distance travelled
•Predict what the cost at would be at 1.75km
•Answer:
• To predict the cost at 1.75 km, look at
the cost at 1.5 km and 2.0 km
• Then follow the line of best fit to
predict the value at 1.75 km
• Cost would be £1.3
Exam Tip
In the exam, you will not be asked to draw an entire graph. However, it is
common to be asked to complete an unfinished graph using the data
provided. You may also be asked to identify anomalous results or to
draw the best fit line on a scatter graph.
•Take your time to ensure that you have marked the data on the graph
accurately
•Use the same style as the data which has already been put on the
graph
• Bars on a bar graph should be the same width
• If the dots on a graph are connected by a line you should do the
same
Choropleth map
•Maps which are shaded according to a pre-arranged key
•Each shade represents a range of values
•It is common for one colour in different shades to be used
•Can be used for a range of data such as annual precipitation, population density,
income levels, etc...
Strengths
The clear visual impression of
the changes over space
Shows a large amount of data
Groupings are flexible
Limitations
Makes it seem as if there is
an abrupt change in the
boundary
Distinguishing between
shades can be difficult
Variations within the value
set are not visible
Proportional symbols map
•The symbols on the map are drawn in proportion to the variable represented
•Usually, a circle or square is used but it could be an image
•Can be used to show a range of data, for example, population, wind farms and electricity
they generate, traffic or pedestrian flows
Strengths
Limitations
Illustrates the differences
between many places
Not easy to calculate the actual
value
Easy to read
Time-consuming to construct
Data is specific to particular
locations
Positioning on a map may be
difficult, particularly with larger
symbols
Proportional Circles Map Showing GDP (Billion US$)
across Europe
Pictograms
•These are a way of displaying data using symbols or diagrams drawn to scale
•Useful way of showing data if accuracy is not too important and data is discrete
•Years do not need to be continuous
•Symbols do not need to be whole but can represent a proportion
•A key is needed to show if the total number of objects or events that image represents exceeds one
How to read a pictogram
•Step 1: Read the problem carefully and identify the specific information requested from the pictograph
•Step 2: Count the symbols corresponding to the desired information and report the count
•In the pictogram, you
can see that 4
shoppers walked to the
supermarket, but only
one used a taxi
•The majority of
shoppers used a car to
travel to the
supermarket
4.1.3 Written Material
Written Material
•Many resources used in geography depend on the printed word
•Understanding of any written material presented must be shown
•This material can be from any secondary sources and include:
• Books
• Leaflets
• Posters
• Newspapers
• Journals
• Periodicals etc.
•Interpretation of the material at a range of scales is needed
•Consider and select a possible options in relation to the issue(s)
•Justify any decision made, using information from the material to support the
answer
Worked example
Increasing food supply can be done by increasing the area of cultivation or by
making agriculture more intensive. Fig. 6.1 below describes some of these
methods.
In some countries the area of irrigated agriculture has increased. There have been increased
inputs of fertiliser. Deforestation has occurred and marsh has been drained. Some steep
mountain slopes have been terraced. Agriculture has become more mechanised. Areas of
unused bushland and other natural vegetation have been brought into cultivation. Improved crop
varieties have been introduced and the methods of cultivation and harvesting have been
Fig. 6.1
improved.
•Using information from
Fig. 6.1 only, describe:
•The key word here is 'describe', not state
•This means briefly stating how each idea has
increased cultivation or how agriculture has been
intensified etc.
•
Mechanisation has intensified agriculture
through cutting down time spent on jobs
such as ploughing, sowing or harvesting
•
Increasing the amount of fertiliser
increases crop yields, and can shorten
growing time, increasing opportunities to
grow two crops in one season
(i) Two ways of increasing the
area cultivated [2]
(ii) Two ways of making
agriculture more intensive [2]
Any two ideas, such as:
•Irrigation
•Deforestation
•Drainage
•Terracing
•Using areas of bush or
natural vegetation
Any two ideas, such as:
•Using more fertiliser
•Improving crop varieties
•Improving methods of
cultivation and/or harvesting
•Mechanisation once under
either heading
Worked example
Suggest one reason for the shift in manufacturing
production shown.
[3]
•1 mark for an idea from the resources, and up to a further
2 marks through explaining why this might be
• Countries like China can offer car manufacturers
new markets, which increases sales of vehicles
locally and this increases company profits
• By-passing Mexico is due to costs of production.
China has a larger work force but also a cheaper
one as well. This cuts the cost of manufacturing
and Ford is taking a decision to move to an area
with one of the lowest costs to maximum profits
• Advances in technology allows relocation of
manufacturing to overseas countries, this
stimulates growth of new jobs, but also maintains
the quality of the finished product
•Suggest how government policies and other factors may have reduced
Vietnam's birth rate. [4]
•Suggest means using overall knowledge and understanding to present a
likely reason why
•Identify four possible ideas for the four marks available
•Any four from ideas such as:
• Government restricted family size/restricted number of children by
the use of two-child limit
• People fined/had land taken off them/lost income if they did not
follow the policy
• Contraception/abortions made available or made cheaper
• Campaigns for people to use contraception/abortions
• People concentrating on careers
• Education of women
• Education about family planning
• Later marriages
• Improvement of infant healthcare/lower IMR (infant mortality rate)
• Pensions
• Mechanisation of farms/less agricultural work/more emphasis on
secondary and tertiary sector etc.
4.1.4 Photographs & Pictorial Material
Photographs & Pictorial Material
•The command word for photographs is usually describe
•This is about observational skills and understanding what is being viewed
•When describing look for:
Observation
Description
Physical features
Vegetation, climate, relief, drainage, distinct features (cliff, river, desert, landslide
etc) rocky outcrops etc.
Human features
Grouping of buildings - offices, homes, factories etc. Urban or rural or fringe
settlements. Industry and transport developed or developing areas and general
condition of features. Busy, quiet, modern, old etc.
Relief
Height and shape of ground surface, named features, overall appearance
Agriculture
Animals - type and spread, vegetation type - grass, barren, sparse etc. Land type arable or pasture, ploughed or fallow, crops or harvested etc. Types of farm
buildings and machinery and condition
Settlements
Rural or urban, features of buildings, types of buildings, use of settlements and
buildings, spacing between or among buildings - linear, dispersed nucleated
Housing
Size and storey - bungalow, large, multi-storey, skyscraper etc. number of windows,
are there building plots or vacant sites, on the urban fringe or new build etc.
Exam Tip
•The command word for photographs is usually describe
•This means 'say what you can actually see', not 'what you think'
•The 'what and why' usually comes in a later question
•You will not gain extra marks for explaining, but lose out on precious time
•I am looking at a photograph of a black cat and describe it as having:
• Long tail, pointed ears, long whiskers, four paws and black fur
•Now I look at a photograph of my pet cat and describe her:
• Jess has black fur with a little bit of white on her tummy. Her fur is soft,
and she has long whiskers and a stubby tail. Jess has sharp claws and
purrs a lot, even though she has lost a tooth, she can still bite when she is
annoyed.
•Note the difference? The first describes a cat, the second one describes a cat I
know, but the photo wouldn't tell me that the cat has long claws, lost a tooth,
bites, purrs or has soft fur.
•Always remember to say what you can see in the photograph ONLY
Field Sketches
•Should include location/site number, title and compass direction
•Includes the key features at a site
Strengths
Limitations
Things can be left out of the sketch if
they are not relevant to the enquiry
The scale in the sketch may be
inaccurate
Smaller important areas can be more
detailed
Important details may be missed
Gives a broad overview of the features
The sketch may contain inaccuracies
which affect the analysis for example
more litter than there actually was at
the site
Helps recall of key features
•In the exam, sketching and labelling key features from a
photographs is sometimes asked
•Total accuracy or artistic prowess is not assessed, however,
important features such as rivers, coastlines, hills, etc. must be
identified
•Follow the geographical rules for sketching:
• Draw a box to frame the sketch
• Always draw in pencil
• Use colour to highlight a feature
• Use a ruler for straight lines and arrows
• Arrow goes to the feature not the label
• Never cross arrow lines
• Write horizontally to the arrow in pen
Worked example
The photograph below shows a feature of a river in its
upper course.
1.Identify the landform in the
photograph [1]
2.Sketch and label the key
features of this landform [4]
1.Waterfall and gorge
5 Fieldwork
5.1.1 Aims & Hypothesis
Aims & Hypothesis
Aims/Hypothesis
•Fieldwork is based around an enquiry into a 'real life' issue
• This is linked to the content in the specification and then related to a placespecific context
•All fieldwork begins with the aims and hypothesis
•The aim explains what the enquiry is attempting to achieve
• An investigation into changes in beach profiles along Mappleton Beach
• An investigation into the impact of building a wind farm in rural Lincolnshire
•The hypothesis needs to be clear, directional and measurable, it is a statement which
can be tested
• River discharge increases with distance from the source of the River Dove
• Environmental quality increases with distance from the new housing estate
in Swanland, East Yorkshire
•Aims and hypothesis may be based on what is already known about the topic. For
example, Bradshaw's model in rivers
Exam Tip
When answering Hypotheses questions that ask whether you
agree or not, always give your opinion at the start of your
answer before any supporting evidence. This will usually be
Yes, No or Partially True /True to some extent.
Do not just copy out the Hypothesis if you agree with it. It is
important to make a decision and state it as well as provide
the evidence for your choice. Be clear in your decision –
expressions such as ‘might be true’, ‘could be false’, ‘true and
false’ are too vague.
5.1.2 Data Collection
Data Collection
Health and safety in the field
•Carry out a risk assessment on the area you have chosen
•Identify any hazards and ways they can be dealt with
•Dress appropriately to keep warm and dry. If sun is forecast, bring and wear sun screen and a hat
•Contact details - always have a contact/meeting point, an emergency contact number and your school's telephone
number
•Check weather forecast for the area
•Make sure all mobile phones are fully charged with emergency numbers already uploaded and on speed dial if possible
•Have designated rendezvous points and emergency contacts
•River work
• Do not push people or otherwise mess about in water
• Take extreme care near river banks, especially where the ground is steep or wet
• Wear suitable footwear at all times
• Do not swim in the water
•Coastal fieldwork
• Check high and low tide times
• Use dedicated footpaths to access the beach
• Don’t climb on groynes or sea defence structures
• Do not handle beach litter, wear gloves when picking up pebbles
• Stay at least one metre away from the tide line and keep an eye on the waves
• Do not enter the sea under any circumstances
• Stay in pairs/threes and in visual contact with a member of staff at all times
•Town centre
• Ensure that you have the contact numbers for staff and that they have your mobile phone
number too
• Ensure your mobile phone is charged and in credit
• Use the map in your pack to familiarise yourself with the area
• Stay with your group at all times – no one should be on their own at any time
• Keep valuables concealed – digital cameras are brought at your own risk
• Only question people you are comfortable talking to and who are happy to help you
• Avoid asking the same person as another group working in the same area
• Use the pedestrian crossing where possible
•Equipment
• Check all equipment is working and that you have enough for each student/group and some
spares
• Make sure you know how to use specific equipment and/or any recording sheets provided
• Ensure you practice using the equipment in a safe environment before taking it out in the field
• Where laptops and smartphones are to be used and internet access is needed, check out that
this is possible
• If apps are to be used, make sure these are downloaded onto each piece of equipment
Data collection
•Data collected by the student within their fieldwork is primary data.
•Examples of primary data can include:
• Questionnaire data
• River data - width, depth etc...
• Video/audio recordings
• Photographs
• Interview information
•Data collected by someone else but used by the student in their enquiry is
secondary data
•Examples of secondary data can include:
• Census results
• Weather data
• Old photographs
• Maps
• Newspaper articles
• Websites
Strengths
•Know that the data is reliable
and valid
•The data is specific to the
enquiry
Primary Data •As much data as needed can be
collected
•The method of the collection is
known
•It is up to date
Secondary
Data
•Easy to access
•Low cost or free
•Can be accessed quickly
•A large amount of data sources
are available
Limitations
•Time-consuming
•May need specialist
equipment/resources
•The sample size needs to be large
to be accurate
•It is not specific to the enquiry
•No control over the data quality
•Data may be biased
•Data may be out of date
•Data which records quantities is quantitative data
•Examples of quantitative data are:
• Numerical data collected in questionnaires
• Traffic counts
• Environmental quality surveys
• River data - velocity, discharge
• Weather data
•Data which records descriptive information is qualitative data
•Examples of qualitative data:
• Field sketches and photographs
• Non-numeric questionnaire data
• Interview answers
Questionnaires and interviews
•When collecting data via questionnaires or interviews a number of questioning types can be
used:
• Closed questions where answers are limited to single words, numbers or a list of options
• Statements which use a scale to gauge people's views. For example, strongly
agree/agree
• Open questions where the respondent can give any answer
•Questionnaires can be used to gather a large sample of data
•Interviews are more in-depth and tend to be used to gather a smaller data sample
Environmental quality surveys
•These are used to collect data about the environmental quality of different sites
•They use the judgement of the person conducting the survey to assess environmental
quality against a range of indicators
• Using a sliding scale (1 -5) or bipolar scale (-3 to 3)
• Usually, the lower the score the more negative the assessment of the
environmental quality
•They are subjective because they are based on the opinion of the person completing
them
•This can be reduced by:
• Completing in small groups to reach a consensus regarding the score
• Using the mode of EQS completed by a number of students
•They produce quantitative data
Strengths
•Possible to have a larger
sample size
•Information can often be
collected quickly
Quantitative •Data collection can be
Data
duplicated
•More objective than
qualitative data
•More reliable than
qualitative data
•More in-depth than
Qualitative quantitative data
Data
•More valid than quantitative
data
Limitations
•The meaning behind the results
is not clear
•Human error or equipment error
can lead to mistakes in
measurement
•Often a small sample size
•Enquiries are not easy to
duplicate
•Difficult to make comparisons
•Low reliability
•Time-consuming
5.1.3 Data Presentation
Data Presentation
Data presentation
•There are different types of data
• Quantitative and qualitative
• Continuous and discrete
•There are many ways in which data can be presented
• Graphs
• Annotated photographs
• Field sketches
• Maps
• Diagrams
•The types of data presentation used will depend on the
data collected
Graphical skills
•Much of the data collected will be presented in the form of
graphs of some form
• Each type of graph is suitable for particular data
sets
• The graphs also may have advantages and
disadvantages
Bar graphs
•One of the simplest methods to display discrete data
•Bar graphs are useful for:
• Comparing classes or groups of data
• Changes over time
Strengths
Limitations
Summarises a large set of
data
Requires additional
information
Easy to interpret and
construct
Does not show causes,
effects or patterns
Shows trends clearly
Can only be used with
discrete data
Compound or divided bar chart
•The bars are subdivided to show the information with all bars totalling 100%
•The main use of a divided bar chart is to compare numeric values between levels
of a variable such as time
Population pyramid
•A type of histogram
•Used to show the age-sex of a population
•Can be used to show the structure of an area/country
•Patterns are easy to identify
Line graphs
•One of the simplest ways to display continuous data
•Both axes are numerical and continuous
•Used to show changes over time or space
Strengths
Limitations
Shows trends and patterns
clearly
Does not show causes or
effects
Quicker and easier to construct Can be misleading if the scales
than a bar graph
on the axis are altered
Easy to interpret
Requires little written
explanation
If there are multiple lines on a
graph it can be confusing
•A river cross-section is a particular form of line graph
because it is not continuous data but the plots can be
joined to show the shape of the river channel
Pie chart
•Used to show proportions, the area of the circle segment
represents the proportion
•A pie chart can also be drawn as a proportional circle
•Pie charts can be located on maps to show variations at
different sample sites
Strengths
Limitations
Clearly shows the proportion of the
whole
Do not show changes over time
Easy to compare different
components
Difficult to understand without clear
labelling
Easy to label
Hard to compare two sets of data
Information can be highlighted by
separating segments
Can only use for a small number of
categories otherwise lots of
segments become confusing
Pie Chart Showing Energy Sources in an Area
Rose diagrams
•Use multidirectional axes to plot data with bars
•Compass points are used for the axis direction
•Can be used for data such as wind direction, noise or
light levels
Triangular graphs
•Have axes on three sides all of which go from 0-100
•Used to display data which can be divided into three
•The data must be in percentages
•Can be used to plot data such as soil content,
employment in economic activities
Scatter graph
•Points should not be connected
•The best fit line can be added to show the relations
•Used to show the relationship between two variables
• In a river study, they are used to show the relationship between different river
characteristics such as the relationship between the width and depth of the river
channel
Strengths
Clearly shows data
correlation
Shows the spread of data
Makes it easy to identify
anomalies and outliers
Limitations
Data points cannot be
labeled
Too many data points can
make it difficult to read
Can only show the
relationship between two
sets of data
Exam Tip
In the exam, you will not be asked to draw an entire graph.
However, it is common to be asked to complete an
unfinished graph using the data provided. You may also be
asked to identify anomalous results or to draw the best fit
line on a scattergraph.
•Take your time to ensure that you have marked the data
on the graph accurately
•Use the same style as the data which has already been
put on the graph
• Bars on a bar graph should be the same width
• If the dots on a graph are connected by a line you
should do the same
Choropleth map
•Maps which are shaded according to a pre-arranged key
•Each shade represents a range of values
•It is common for one colour in different shades to be used
•Can be used for a range of data such as annual
precipitation, population density, income levels, etc...
Strengths
Limitations
The clear visual impression of
the changes over space
Makes it seem as if there is an
abrupt change in the boundary
Shows a large amount of data
Distinguishing between shades
can be difficult
Groupings are flexible
Variations within the value set
are not visible
Proportional symbols map
•The symbols on the map are drawn in proportion to the
variable represented
•Usually, a circle or square is used but it could be an
image
•Can be used to show a range of data, for example,
population, wind farms and electricity they generate, traffic
or pedestrian flows
Strengths
Limitations
Illustrates the differences
between many places
Easy to read
Not easy to calculate the
actual value
Time-consuming to construct
Positioning on a map may be
difficult, particularly with
larger symbols
Data is specific to particular
locations
Proportional Circles Map Showing GDP (Billion US$)
across Europe
Exam Tip
In the exam, you may be asked why a particular graphical technique is appropriate. You should
ensure that you know the advantages and disadvantages of the different data presentation
methods.
Photographs
•Photographs can be taken to show different aspects of sample sites
•These can be annotated as part of the fieldwork analysis
Strengths
Limitations
An accurate record at the time
Not all photographs are relevant
Can represent things more clearly than
numerical data
Can be subjective and biased as
student selects what is photographed
Can be used to show data collection
techniques
Photographs sometimes contain too
much information
Can be used next to historical
photographs to show changes over time
They are two dimensional so judging
depth is difficult
Helps recall key features
Field sketches
•Should include location/site number, title and compass
direction
•Includes the key features at a site
Strengths
Limitations
Things can be left out of the
sketch if they are not relevant to
the enquiry
The scale in the sketch may be
inaccurate
Smaller important areas can be
more detailed
Important details may be missed
Gives a broad overview of the
features
The sketch may contain
inaccuracies which affect the
analysis for example more litter
than there actually was at the site
Helps recall of key features
Maps
•An essential part of any fieldwork enquiry is to show the
location of features and sample sites
•Maps can also be used to show relevant features such as
amenities around the sample sites
Strengths
Limitations
Size and scale of features/site can
be accurately measured
The map may be out of date
Key to show features around the
sample sites
Maps cannot show changes over
time
Allows distribution of features to
be shown accurately
Bias may be introduced by
highlighting certain features
5.1.4 Analysis & Conclusions
Analysis & Conclusion
Analysis
•Once data has been collected and presented it needs to be analysed
•Analysis is the process which makes sense of the data collected
• It identifies patterns, trends, significance, connections and/or meaning in the data
•Analysis involves a number of stages
• Describe the data shown in the graphs/photographs/maps
• Identification of the highest and lowest results
• Identification of any patterns and trends
• Identification of any relationships between data
•Methods of analysis depend upon the data collected
•Quantitative data is analysed using numerical and statistical methods
Numerical and statistical skills
•Statistical methods can be used to help explore and explain the results gathered during data collection
Mean, median and mode
•These are measures of central tendency
•The mean (average) is calculated by adding up all of the values in the data set and then dividing by the total number
of values in the data set
•The median is the middle value of a set of data. The numbers are arranged in rank order and then the middle value
selected
•The mode is the value which occurs most frequently in a set of data
Range
•A measure of dispersion - the spread of data around the average
•Range is the distance between the highest and lowest value
•Interquartile range is the part of the range that covers the middle 50% of
the data
Anomalies
•These are results which do not fit the pattern or trend
•They need to be described and explained
Analysing photographs and field sketches
•Annotation of photographs and field sketches is part of analysis
•The use of photographs and field sketches is a qualitative analysis
•Analysis in annotation gives meaning to the features shown in the
photograph/field sketch
Conclusion
•The fieldwork conclusion should:
• Return to the hypothesis and aim
• Identify any evidence that supports the hypothesis
• Outline any evidence that contradicts the hypothesis
• Describe and explain any links to geographical theories
• Acknowledge any unusual results
• State whether the hypothesis is supported or not
•A key focus in the fieldwork questions in the exam is the evaluation of data collection
•Enquiry evaluation should:
• Identify any problems with, and limitations of, data collection methods
• Suggest other data which would have been useful in the study or improvements which could be made
• Evaluate how reliable the conclusions were
• Suggesting how the scope of the study could be extended
Data collection - problems and limitations
•There are always issues and limitations associated with data collection they may include:
• Accessibility of sample sites - could all sample sites be accessed?
• Size of sample - was the sample size large enough?
• Duration of the data collection - was the enquiry time long enough to collect the data needed?
• Methods - were the questions on questionnaires appropriate to meet the aim and test the hypothesis?
• Equipment - were there any issues with the equipment?
• Human error - were there any mistakes in recording data or reading the equipment?
• Time of the data collection - did the weather or time impact the results collected?
• Unforeseen issues - were there any problems on the day such as road works, and river flow which affected the
results?
Other data and improvements
•There are always improvements which could be made to data collection
these may include:
• Increasing the sample size
• Taking more measurements
• Looking at a wider range of secondary sources
• Could other equipment have been used - a flow meter would be more
accurate for measuring river velocity than a float
Evaluating the conclusions
•To evaluate the conclusion students should examine whether:
• The conclusions reflect the aims and hypothesis set out at the start of
the enquiry
• The aim and hypothesis were appropriate - could the hypothesis be
easily assessed
• The location was appropriate
• The accuracy of results could be improved if the data collection were
to be repeated
EXTENDED RESPONSE QUESTIONS
6.1.1 How to Answer a 7 Mark Question
Extended Response Questions
7 mark questions
•Levelled response questions are the part of the final exams that many
students find the most challenging
•The mark you achieve is based on the quality of your response to the
question rather than marks being awarded for specific points
•Remember the examiners just want to see that you can apply your
knowledge and understanding of a case study to a specific question
•The following guide will help you to express your knowledge and
understanding in ways which will enable you to achieve the highest marks
•The 7 mark questions are in paper 1 at the end of each section
•You are required to complete three 7 mark questions in total
•There are 3 levels which can be awarded in a levelled response question.
These are outlined below:
Level
1
2
3
Marks
Response
1-3
Answer gives limited detail
•1 simple statement (1 mark)
•2 simple statements (2 marks)
•3 simple statements (3 marks)
4-6
Answer includes a named example and includes developed statements
(If no named example is given or the example given is inappropriate the highest mark which can be
awarded is a 5)
•1 developed statement (4 marks)
•2 developed statements (5 marks)
•3 or more developed statements with e.g. (6 marks)
7
Answer includes a named example. Comprehensive and accurate statements are included in the answer
and it includes place specific details
•3 or more developed statements + named example with at least one piece of place specific detail
Answering the 7 Mark Question
•Regardless of the topic, the type of question that you will need to answer will be broadly the same. You
will be asked to describe and/or explain
‘For a named country you have studied, explain why the natural population growth rate is low.’
Or
‘For a named urban area you have studied, describe the problems which are caused by urban sprawl ’
Step 1
•Read the question carefully and underline the command word. Are you being asked to describe or
explain or both?
‘For an area you have studied, describe how coastal erosion is being managed’
•Describe - give details about, outline the characteristics
•Explain - why something is the way it is or how it happens
Step 2
•Underline the key words.
‘For an area you have studied, describe how coastal erosion is being managed’
•In this example it is important that you focus on the management of coastal erosion rather than on
coastal erosion itself
•You can mention erosion rates in the context of why coastal management is needed but it should be no
more than a sentence and should not detract from the main focus of the question
Step 3
•Plan the information you are going to include. This can be a short list of bullet points. For example;
•Brief definition of erosion and management
•Describe the area you are writing about e.g. the Holderness coast
• Where is it?
• What is the rate of erosion?
• Why is the rate of erosion so rapid?
•Describe how the coastal erosion is being managed
• Hard engineering - sea wall at Bridlington, groynes at Hornsea
• Soft engineering - beach replenishment at Withernsea
Step 4
•Write your answer
• To achieve 7 marks you need to write at least 3 detailed statements with a named example and place
specific detail
• Do not make general statements
• Be specific for example:
‘The sea wall at Bridlington is almost 5km long and extends along the town’s sea front. It is an example of
hard engineering….’
• Ensure that you include place specific details
•Place specific detail is information which is specific to that particular area in this case writing about the
defences in named places along the Holderness coast is place specific detail or accurate information about the
rate of coastal erosion