result in an enjoyable and satisfying work
Introduction to I/O Psychology
environment.

Industrial/organizational psychology is
Personnel Psychology
a branch of psychology that applies the
 I/O psychologists and HRM professionals involved
principles of psychology to the workplace. The
in personnel psychology study and practice in
purpose of I/O psychology is “to enhance the
such areas as analyzing jobs, recruiting
dignity and performance of human beings, and
applicants, selecting employees, determining
the organizations they work in, by advancing
salary
the
evaluating employee performance.
science
and
knowledge
of
human
behavior”.

A
factor
that
helps
differentiate
I/O

employees,
and
Psychologists
involved
in
organizational
psychology from other fields of psychology is
psychology are concerned with the issues of
the reliance on the scientist-practitioner
leadership,
model. That is, I/O psychologists act as
motivation, organizational communication,
scientists when they conduct research and as
conflict management, organizational change,
practitioners when they work with actual
and group processes within an organization.

competencies needed to perform a job,
what employees
believe
are
an
Human Factors/Ergonomics

Psychologists in the area of human factors
concentrate on workplace design, human-
have those competencies, and increasing
machine interaction, ergonomics, and physical
those competencies through training.
I/O psychology) creates an organizational
employee
organization’s strengths and weaknesses.
staffing the organization with employees who
The organizational approach (the “O” in
satisfaction,
Organizational psychologists often conduct
about
The industrial approach (the “I” in I/O
psychology) focuses on determining the
job
surveys of employee attitudes to get ideas
Major Fields of I/O Psychology

training
Organizational Psychology
organizations.

levels,
fatigue and stress.

These psychologists frequently work with
engineers and other technical professionals to
structure and culture that will motivate
make the workplace safer and more efficient.
employees to perform well, give them with the
Sample activities in this subfield have included
necessary information to do their jobs, and
designing the optimal way to draw a map,
provide working conditions that are safe and
designing the most comfortable chair, and

investigating the optimal work schedule.
I/O psychologists, especially Henry Gantt, were
responsible for increasing the efficiency with
which cargo ships were built, repaired, and
Brief History of I/O Psychology

loaded.
Although various experts disagree about the

inventor Thomas A. Edison understood the
generally thought to have started either in
importance of selecting the right employees.
1903 when Walter Dill Scott wrote The Theory
In 1920, Edison created a 150-item knowledge
of Advertising, in which psychology was first
test that he administered to over 900
applied to business; in 1910 when Hugo
applicants. The test and passing score were so
Munsterberg wrote Psychology and Industrial
difficult that only 5% of the applicants passed!

Two of the most interesting figures in the early
in 1913; or in 1911 when Scott wrote the book
years of I/O psychology were the husband and
Increasing Human Efficiency in Business.
wife team of Frank Gilbreth and Lillian Moller
Regardless of the official starting date, I/O
psychology was born in the early 1900s.
Gilbreth. The Gilbreths were among the first, if
I/O psychology made its first big impact during
and reduce fatigue by studying the motions
World War I. Because of the large number of
used by workers.
soldiers who had to be assigned to various
not the first, scientists to improve productivity

psychologists were employed to test recruits
However, in the 1930s, when the findings from
the famous Hawthorne studies were
published,
and then place them in appropriate positions.
psychologists became more involved in the
The testing was accomplished mainly through
quality of the work environment, as well as the
the Army Alpha and Army Beta tests of mental
attitudes of employees.
ability. The Alpha test was used for recruits
 The Hawthorne studies, conducted at the
who could read and the Beta test for recruits
Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric
who could not read.
Company
Interestingly, John Watson, who is better
demonstrated that employee behavior
known as a pioneer in behaviorism, served as a
was complex and that the interpersonal
major in the U.S. Army in World War I and
interactions
developed perceptual and motor tests for
employees played a tremendous role in
potential pilots.
employee behavior.
units

Though certainly not an I/O psychologist,
precise beginning of I/O psychology, it is
Efficiency, which was first published in English


within
the
armed
forces,
I/O
in
the
between
Chicago
managers
area,
and
 The Hawthorne studies were initially

designed to investigate such issues as the
I/O psychologists who work in consulting
firms help a wide variety of organizations
effects of lighting levels, work schedules,
become more productive by helping them
wages, temperature, and rest breaks on
select a high quality and diverse workforce,
employee performance.
designing
 Much to the surprise of the researchers,
will
motivate
employees, and ensuring that organizations
productivity in the predicted manner. That
treat applicants and employees in a legal and
is, there were times when productivity
made worse, and times when productivity
that
employees while treating them fairly, training
the actual work conditions did not affect
improved after work conditions were
systems
ethical manner.

I/O psychologists who work in the private
sector work for a single company such as IBM,
decreased after work conditions were
Microsoft, and FedEx, whereas consultants
made better.
work with many companies.
 After interviewing employees and studying

realized that employees changed their
I/O psychologists in the public sector work
for a local or state government or for the
federal
behavior and became more productive
government.
the
matter
further, the
researchers
because they were being studied and
received attention from their managers, a
condition that is now commonly referred
to as the Hawthorne effect.

Though master’s and doctoral level graduates
can be found in all employment areas, Ph.D.s
are much more likely to be employed in an
academic setting; master’s level graduates are
more often employed as HR generalists, data
Employment of I/O Psychologists

I/O psychologists typically work in one of four
settings: colleges and universities, consulting
firms, the private sector, and the public sector.

analysts, trainers, and compensation analysts.
As one would expect, I/O psychologists who
work at colleges and universities typically
teach and conduct research, although some
work as administrators (e.g., deans, provosts,
vice presidents).
Educational Requirements and Types
of Programs
Types of Graduate Programs
 Schools with terminal master’s degree
programs do not have Ph.D. programs, and a
master’s degree is the highest that can be
earned at such schools.

Master’s Programs


In addition to coursework, many programs
comprehensive exams that are similar to, but
require a student to complete a thesis, which
more extensive than, the exams taken in a
is usually an original research work created and
master’s program.
conducted by the student. The thesis is
Research in I/O Psychology
completed in the second year of graduate

stay with the company longer because they
Most programs also allow the student to
were given an accurate picture of the job and
complete an internship or practicum with a
the company by the person telling them about
local
the job (realistic job preview theory).
organization.
These
internship

The personalities of applicants using employee
the university, students may work 10 hours per
referrals are different than the personalities of
week at an organization during their last
applicants using other methods to find jobs
semester of graduate school, or do their
(differential recruitment-source theory).
internships in the summer between their first

Friends have similar personalities; thus, if one
and second years, or take a semester off to
person has the type of personality that makes
work full time with an organization.
her want to stay with her current job, her friend
Finally, most programs require a student to
should also like the job in question (personality
pass a comprehensive oral and/or written
similarity theory).
examination before graduation. These exams

Employees who know someone in a workplace
usually are taken during the final semester and
are more quickly absorbed into the informal
cover material from all of the courses taken
system, receive coaching, and have their social
during the graduate program.
needs met (socialization theory).
Doctoral Programs

Applicants referred by a current employee will
school.
requirements vary by program. Depending on

Doctoral programs also involve a series of

The first two years of a doctoral program
researchers directly reporting the results of a
involve taking a wide variety of courses in
study. Journals can be difficult to read (and
psychology. In most programs, the student
boring) but are the best source of unbiased and
does not concentrate on I/O courses until the
third and fourth years. In addition to a thesis, a
student working toward a Ph.D. must complete
a dissertation.
Journals consist of articles written by
accurate information about a topic.

Bridge publications are designed to “bridge
the gap” between academia and the applied
world.
Articles in these publications are usually
experiment, a
written by professors about a topic of interest
investigation.
to practitioners, but they are not as formal or
statistically complex as articles in journals.

Trade magazines contain articles usually
written by professional writers who have
developed expertise in a given field. The main
audience for trade magazines is practitioners
in the field. Trade magazines present the
research on a topic in an easy-to-understand
format; however, the
articles in these
publications do not cover all the research on a
topic and can be somewhat biased.

You are already familiar with magazines such
as People, Time, and Cat Fancy. These
periodicals are designed to entertain as well as
inform. Magazines are good sources of ideas
but terrible sources to use in support of a
scientific hypothesis. Magazine articles are
often written by professional writers who do
not have training in the topic and thus little
expertise in what they are writing about. As a
result, the “scientific” information in magazines
is often wrong.

Two characteristics define an experiment: (1)
manipulation of one or more independent
variables and (2) random assignment of
subjects
to
experimental
and
control
conditions. If either of these characteristics is
missing, a research project cannot be called an
experiment; instead, it is called a quasi-
study, a
survey, or
an
Ethics in
Industrial/Organizational
Psychology
dilemmas,

In a Type A dilemma, there
dilemma. Usually, individuals
is a high level of uncertainty
know what is right but
as to what is right or wrong,
choose the solution that is
there appears to be no best
most
solution, and there are both
themselves.
positive
 For example, choosing not to
and
difference
between right and wrong is
much clearer than in a Type A
negative
advantageous
to
consequences to a decision.
tell a prospective buyer
 For example, many people
about any past damage that
would
say
that
drug
occurred with a car for sale
research that uses animals
would
to
advantages for the seller.
test
new
unethical,
drugs
because
is
it
is
morally wrong to hurt any
living
creature.
Others
would say that new drugs
could save millions of lives
have
the
most
Work and Careers
 Filipinos view work as one of life’s most
important activity  Work for the Filipino
serves many functions;
and that it would be morally
- Sees work as an arena to develop their
wrong not to make and test
talents, meeting one’s abilities, being a
drugs that could potentially
position of responsibility, having a
save human lives. As you can
respectful job, achieving something,
see, there seems to be no
doing something interesting
one best answer, as there
are
both
negative
and
positive consequences in
making this decision.

the
In a Type B dilemma, also
called
rationalizing
 Work also provides psychic reward
- Study found Filipino workers gain positive
outcomes from work such as challenging
abilities, learning & growth, career
advancement,
enjoyment,
making a
difference, earning money for support,
opportunity
friendship, funding lifestyle, status, etc.
significant role of money (more
•
promotion
&
materialistic/external/tangible
Meaning of Work
•
for
regarding
Work - a highly individualized experience with
status),
while
or
Intrinsic
influence from one's working environment,
orientation is the variety, work of your
social context, and even upbringing
interest,
match
between
job
requirements & individual's abilities
Work as a function has 3 domains:
and a lot of autonomy
o Work Centrality - how important work
is to an individual's life at any given
Sources of Meaning of Work
point in time; seen to develop over
•
Self - one's meaning of work is informed by the
time, work centrality increases from
values, motivations, and belief one has;
the time one enters work to after a
beliefs center around the role or function
year
work has in one's life;
o Societal Norms - different norms of
 Research on this area has looked at job
societies about work: entitlement &
involvement and work centrality, work
obligation;
orientation and callings;
entitlement
is
the
underlying rights of individuals and
Job involvement refers to how one
the work related responsibilities of
identifies
society
the
his/her job. The stronger one identifies
individual, while obligation refers to
with one's job, the more one finds it
members of the society's duty to work
meaningful
&
organization
to
his/her
self-concept
with
 Studies around work centrality found that
to contribute to the society
o Work Goals - relative importance of
the more ingrained work is in one's life,
various goals & values which are
the more one would find it meaningful.
sought or preferred by individuals in
 Work orientation is the lens by which
their working lives (e.g. expressive,
people look at their work. Researchers
instrumental, comfort, and learning);
proposes three lenses that people use to
further
differentiated
look at their work: job, career or calling
extrinsic
&
Extrinsic
intrinsic
orientation
between
orientation.
 Job orientation is focused on material
includes
outcomes of work, careers on rewards one

gains
•
from
progressing
through
an
work. This may include organizational mission,
organization or occupation, & calling
design of job tasks, financial circumstances,
focuses on the fulfillment the work
non-work domains and national culture
provides the individual
 Hackman and Oldham (1976) proposed
Others - social structure also influences one's
that job characteristics such as those with
meaning of work. Influential forces may be in
high level of autonomy, skill variety, task
the form of coworkers, leaders, groups and
identity and task significance contribute
communities and family
to one finding work meaningful.
 Coworkers may influence one's meaning of
 How one resonates with an organization's
work because meanings are socially
mission, vision, values and the like are
constructed
with
influences how one finds meaning at work.
coworkers significantly influence how we
 Financial circumstances impact meaning
make sense of the meaning of work Work
at work, if one is unemployed or has in-
is also a social arena and one's sense of
adequate incomes, the financial rewards
being connected to other people at work is
of
an anchor to one's meaning
However, if one is not necessarily suffering
and
bonds
made
becomes
more
important.
 Social networks such as work teams or
from economic distress, individuals have
professional networks are other sources of
the luxury to find meaning in the latent
one's identity at work and a sense of
value of work such as self-fulfillment
belonging. Therefore, one's meaning of
work is largely constructed by which
group and/or community one associates
with
 One's meaning of work may be anchored
on family especially when one's work
supports the family and is instrumental to
their wellbeing. The support a worker gets
from the family may also shape how they
view their work
•
work
Context - The context in which the work is done
also contributes to how one finds meaning at
The alignment of work and non-work
2.
domains such that they do not conflict
control or have autonomy at work, over- come
contribute to more meaningful work. Some
challenges and having positive impact.
even are able to integrate both in a sense
3.
that one's work feels more like play than
and receiving affirmation of their value at work
work.
increasing one's self-worth.
 Some national cultures value work more
than others and this is reflected in how
one attributes meaning at work. In Japan,
for example, work is seen as more central
to their way of life than in other cultures in
the world.
•
Spiritual life - Spirituality may also influence
one's search for meaning. Studies show that
the more spiritual one is, the more one sees
work in a spiritual light and finds a deeper
meaning to it.
 Another way spiritual life impacts meaning
of work is when one finds work
meaningful if it is attuned to one's
Self-Efficacy - stems from being able to
Self-Esteem - stems from achieving at work
4.
Purpose - if one finds his/her work being of
significance and one's values are aligned with the
work.
5.
Belongingness - work offers a social system
from which one anchors his/her identity and if this
experience
is
positive,
contributes
to
its
meaningfulness.
6.
Transcendence - refers to the work
contributing to something greater than one's self
such as a cause or a group.
7.
Cultural and Interpersonal Sensemaking -
adheres to social or cultural constructionism and
also interpersonal sensemaking in which we look to
others to make sense of our meaning at work.
The 5 C’s of the Meaning of Work
vocation or calling
Mechanisms of Meaning of Work: How
Does Work Become Meaningful?
•
Aside from the "what" and "who" makes work
meaningful, scholars have also studied "how"
work becomes meaningful. Work becomes
meaningful through the following:
1.
Authenticity - people find work meaningful
if they are able to live out their authentic self at
work.
A study by Franco (2008) suggests that Filipino's
meaning of work can be described in terms of
how they feel about their work (affect) and
what they get out of it (outcomes). Franco
(2008) suggests that workers' affect flows
from negative affect such as "unpleasant,
tiresome and monotonous" to positive such
as "pleasant, interesting and enjoyable." On
the other hand, outcomes can range from
intrinsic to extrinsic outcomes.

Calling is "an endeavor one engages in for
living or in exchange for other tangible
a lofty, nonmaterial goals, and feels highly
outcomes,
and
energizing and fulfilling” Those who
something
unpleasant,
identify their meaning of work as a calling
tedious and burdensome (Franco, 2008,
is driven by intrinsic outcomes such as
8)." Less than 4% in Franco's study related
being challenged, learning and making a
their meaning of work to Chore.
difference (Franco 2008). In her study, 50%
Coast is "work that is not of major
relate their meaning of work to calling.
significance
in
is
experienced
one's
as
nonengaging,
life."
Affect
 Cause is "work that is seen as an
associated with Coast are both positive
obligation or duty and is experienced as a
(challenging and interesting) and negative
heavy load and not always pleasant and
(tiresome and monoto- nous) (Franco
enjoyable."
is
2008). Outcomes also straddle between
negative (i.e. depressing) however the
intrinsic (i.e. venue for learning) and
outcomes
(i.e.
extrinsic (i.e. monetary) (Franco 2008).
satisfaction from helping others) (Franco
Only 9% of the respondents in Franco's
2008). Only 2% of respondents related
study related to Coast as their meaning of
their meaning of work to Cause.
work and interestingly most are in their
The
are
affect
more
primarily
positive
 Career is "work that one performs
20's suggesting that they are still in the
primarily to get something immediately
process of discovering the kind of work that
beneficial such as monetary rewards,
is central to them
personal advancement, prestige and
status, social network (Franco, 2008, 8).
Calling and Career are similar in affect
however Careers offer more extrinsic
outcomes such as monetary and career
advancement (Franco 2008). About 35% of
respondents in her study related their
meaning of work to Career (Franco 2008).
 Chore is "work that one feels constrained
to do for the sole purpose of earning a
Career Theories
concept
•
interactions of factors such as growth,
Understanding the meaning of work offers us
a big picture view of the world of work.
Beyond looking at work, however, it is also
important to understand the concept of
careers.
•
A career is defined as "the combination and
sequence of roles played by a person during
the course of a lifetime. These roles include
those of child, pupil or student, leisurite,
citizen, worker, spouse, homemaker, parent,
and pensioner, positions with associated
expectations that are occupied at some time
by most people”
•
Careers are seen through many lenses offered
by many theorists from Parsons in 1909 whose
study into career decision-making paved the
way for career theories to Super's Life-Span
Life-Space Approach and theories continually
evolve.
•
In this chapter, we focus on the fundamental
theories that are most relevant to the career
starter: Developmental Self-Concept Theory
(Super), Theory of Personality (Holland) and
Career Anchors (Schein).
 Developmental Self-Concept Theory of
Donald Super - According to Donald Super,
our career choices and development is
part of the process of developing our selfconcept (Leung 2008). Super sees self-
to
be
a
function of
the
experiences, environment and the like
(Leung 2008). We continuously develop
our self-concept as we encounter these
factors and go through our different life
stages. Super's theory suggests that we go
through life stages of growth, exploration,
establishment,
maintenance
(or
management) and disengagement.
- Each stage is connected with a chronological
age and for each stage has to manage a
vocational developmental task. Once the
career actor has achieved this, s/he has
achieved career maturity (Super 1990).
Another facet to Super's theory is that
within these stages, is a replication of
these stages as mini-cycles. For example,
in the growth stage, one may go through
mini- stages of growth, exploration,
establishment,
maintenance
(or
management) and disengagement (Leung
2008).

3. Artistic - those who like to use words,
art, music or drama to express
themselves, communicate or perform,
or those who like to create or design
things.
4. Social - those who like to work with
people to teach, train, inform, help,
treat, heal, cure, serve and greet or
those who are concerned with others'
well-being and welfare.
5. Enterprising - those who like meeting
people, leading, talking to, influencing
others, encouraging others and working
in business.

Holland’s Theory of Personality and
6. Conventional - those who prefer to
Careers - John Holland, on the other hand,
work indoors at tasks that involve
equated career interest
organizing
personality
and
suggests
with one's
that
and
being
accurate,
the
following procedures, working with
expression of one's personality is through
data or numbers, planning work and
one's career (Leung 2008). He suggests six
events.
(6) typologies:
1. Realistic - those who like to work with
their hands, making, fixing, assembling
or building things, using and operating
equipment and tools or machines and
like working outdoors.
2. Investigative - those who like to
discover and research ideas, observe,
investigate or experiment, ask and
solve questions.
These are arranged around a
 Career Anchors by Edgar Schein - Career
hexagon in the same order (RAISEC). This
Anchors was developed by Edgar Schein in
arrangement
the
the 1970's. He defines Career Anchors as a
personalities adjacent to each other have
person's self-concept that consists of the
a high degree of similarity, the further one
following:
personality is to another, the lesser their
1. Self-perceived talents and abilities
similarities are (Leung 2008).
2. Basic values
A person goes through an assessment to
3. The evolved sense of motives and needs
as they pertain to the career.
-
-
denotes
that
determine one's career interest (Leung
2008). A three-letter code is derived
-
where the first letter is the primary
evolve as one goes through life and
interest and would be the basis for choice
experiences the world of work (Schein
of career and satisfaction (Leung 2008).
1996). When a person's self-concept is
The second and third letters would
formed, it is more or less stable like an
influence
and
anchor, values and motives that guide
play a lesser role
choices and decision-making (Schein
the
satisfaction but
career
choice
1996).
compared to the first letter
-
Schein believes that Career Anchors
In relation to the personality typology,
-
He also says that we may not be aware of
career environments can also be classified
our anchors until we are confronted with
the same way and that career actors search
the need to make decisions about self-
for working environments that enable
development, family or career (Schein
them to be true to their vocational
1996). In Schein's study, people's anchors
personality (Leung 2008). If a person's
are around the following areas:
personality matches the environment

Technical/Functional
s/he is working in, Holland considers this
Competence - excited by the
as having high "congruence." If there is a
content of work itself; prefers
high congruence, the career actor would
advancement only in his/her
likely be satisfied and stable in his/her
technical or functional area of
career (Leung 2008).
competence; generally disdains
and fears general management as
too political.

General Managerial Competence
is entirely their own project;
-
the
easily bored and likes to move
opportunity to analyze and solve
from project to project; more
problems under conditions of
interested
incomplete
enterprises than in managing
primarily
uncertainty;
people

excited
by
information
likes
together
and
achieve

Service/Dedication to a Causeprimarily motivated to improve
than
the world in some fashion; wants
exhausted)
by
crisis
situations.
to align work activities with
Autonomy/Independence-
personal values about helping
primarily motivated to seek work
society; more concerned with
situations which are maximally
finding jobs which meet their
free of organizational constrains;
values than their skills.

Pure
Challenge-primarily
own pace of work; is willing to
motivated to overcome major
trade
obstacles,
off
promotion
opportunities
to
have
for
more
solve
almost
unsolvable problems, or win out
freedom.
over extremely tough opponents;
Security/Stability-primarily
define their careers in terms of
motivated by job security and
daily combat or competition in
long-term attachment to one
which winning is everything; very
organization; willing to conform
single- minded and intolerant of
and to be fully socialized into an
those
organization's values and norms;
aspirations.
tends

new
common goals; stimulated (rather
wants to set own schedule and

initiating
established ones.
harnessing
to
in
to
dislike
travel
and

without
comparable
Lifestyle-primarily motivated to
relocation.
balance career with lifestyle;
Entrepreneurial/Creativity-
highly concerned with such issues
primarily motivated by the need
such
to build or create something that
leaves, day-care options, etc.;
as
paternity/maternity
looks for organizations that have
strong pro-family values and
programs (Schein 1990). Career
Management
Organizations:
in
The
Philippine Scenario
•
The American Training and Development
Society Career Management clustered career
management interventions into 6 types:
•
Career Management Systems are important
because they shape worker attitudes. A study
suggests that development programs are
significantly & positively related to career
satisfaction; when employees are exposed to
interventions such as training, they feel more
•
satisfied in their organizations.
Table 3 describes the most commonly
practiced career management interventions
among Philippine organizations
•
Organizational
assessment
potential
processes was found to significantly &
positively relate to affective organizational
commitment
(the extent
to which an
employee is emotionally attached, identifies
with and is involved in the organization);
implies that when employees experience
interventions such as job assignments, they feel
they are offered & how much they are worth
more positively about the organization and is
in the market.
more committed to it.
•
Due to the fluid nature of careers, one's
The Changing Nature of Work
reputation is one's currency and a strong one
•
would translate to employability. This is
In as much as organizations make an effort to
important as one would never know when s/he
help employees manage their careers and offer
will be let go from his/her organization or when
diverse opportunities for career development,
a better opportunity would present him/herself
due to the changing nature of work, it may not
and s/he should be poised to achieve that
be enough to depend solely on one's
organization in managing one's career. Careers
protean driven career, Schein's Creativity
describes boundary-less careers with the
Career Anchor and Holland's career theories
following characteristics:
are relevant more than ever (Arthur 1994). One
different
3. Networks or information outside the
organization is key;
4. The demise of organizational hierarchies
and advancement principles;
5. Career opportunities are rejected for family
or personal reasons;
6. The person seeing a boundary-less future.
One driving factor is the volatile working
environment which lead to organizations
continually re-sizing often trimming down
organizational hierarchies.
Because of this volatility, workers do not solely
depend on their own employer for validation,
but
are
actively
exploring
may no longer anchor his/her security in the
career that one's organization provides, s/he
2. Validation is drawn from beyond the
present employer;
•
In this boundary-less work environment and a
nowadays are "boundary-less." Arthur (1994)
1. Fluidity of moving through
organizations or employers;
•
•
different
opportunities that come up & see what roles
should be ready to find alternative ways to
practice his/her career and pursue "distinctive,
personally-relevant opportunities”
Job Analysis and Evaluation
 Job Analysis—gathering, analyzing, and
structuring
information
components,
about
a
characteristics,
job’s
and
requirements.
 Again, it is difficult to see how employees can
be trained unless the requirements of the job
are known.
Job analyses yield lists of job activities that can be
systematically used to create training programs.
Personpower Planning
 One important but seldom employed use of
job analysis is to determine worker mobility
Importance of Job Analysis
within an organization.
Writing Job Descriptions
 Many organizations have a policy of
 One of the written products of a job analysis is
promoting the person who performs the best
a job description—a brief, two- to five-page
in the job immediately below the one in
summary of the tasks and job requirements
question. Although this approach has its
found in the job analysis.
advantages, it can result in the so-called
 In other words, the job analysis is the process
Peter Principle: promoting employees until
of determining the work activities and
they eventually reach their highest level of
requirements, and the job description is the
incompetence.
written result of the job analysis.
Performance Appraisal
Employee Selection
 Another important use of job analysis is the
 It is difficult to imagine how an employee can
be
selected
unless
there
is
a
construction of a performance appraisal
clear
instrument. As in employee selection, the
understanding of the tasks performed and the
evaluation of employee performance must be
competencies needed to perform those tasks.
job related.
 By identifying such requirements, it is possible
to select tests or develop interview questions
that will determine whether a particular
applicant possesses the necessary knowledge,
skills,
and
abilities
to
carry
requirements of the job. Training
out
the
Job Classification
 Job analysis enables a human resources
professional to classify jobs into groups based
on similarities in requirements and duties. Job
classification is useful for determining pay
levels, transfers, and promotions.
Job Evaluation
Organizational Analysis
 Job analysis information can also be used to
 During the course of their work, job analysts
determine the worth of a job. Job Design
often become aware of certain problems
 Job analysis information can be used to
within an organization. For example, during a
determine the optimal way in which a job
job analysis interview, an employee may
should be performed. That is, what would be
indicate that she does not know how she is
the best way for an employee to sit at her
evaluated or to whom she is supposed to
computer or what would be the best way for a
report. The discovery of such lapses in
warehouse person to lift boxes?
organizational communication can then be
 By analyzing a job, wasted and unsafe motions
can be eliminated, resulting in higher
used to correct problems and help an
organization function better.
productivity and reduced numbers of job
Writing a Good Job Description
injuries.
 The professionals worry that listing each
Compliance with Legal Guidelines
 As will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter
3, any employment decision must be based on
job-related
information.
One
legally
acceptable way to directly determine job
relatedness is by job analysis. No law
specifically requires a job analysis, but several
important guidelines and court cases mandate
job analysis for all practical purposes.
 First, the Uniform Guidelines on Employee
Selection
Procedures—the
HR
principles
designed to ensure compliance with federal
standards—contain several direct references
to the necessity of job analysis. Even though
the Uniform Guidelines are not law, courts
have granted them “great deference”.
activity will limit their ability to direct
employees to perform tasks not listed on the
job description. The concern is that an
employee, referring to the job description as
support, might respond, “It’s not my job.” This
fear, however, can be countered with two
arguments.
 Th e first is that duties can always be
added to a job description, which can, and
should, be updated on a regular basis.
 The second is that the phrase “and
performs other job-related duties as
assigned” should be included in the job
description.
 A
job description
should contain the
following eight sections: job title, brief
summary, work activities, tools and
equipment
used,
work
context,
foundry,” a woman can say that she is
a “welder” or a “machinist.”
 Job titles can also affect perceptions
of the status and worth of a job. For
example, job descriptions containing
performance standards, compensation
gender-neutral
information,
“administrative
personal
and
titles
such
assistant”
as
are
evaluated as being worth more
requirements.
money than ones containing titles
 Job Title
 An accurate title describes the nature
of the job.
 This change in title resulted in the
employee’s receiving a higher salary
with a female sex linkage such as
“executive secretary”.
 Jobs with higher-status titles were
evaluated as being worth more
as well as vindication that she was
money than jobs with lowerstatus
indeed “more than a secretary.
titles.
 An
accurate
title
also
aids
in
 Brief Summary
employee selection and recruitment.
 The summary need be only a paragraph
If the job title indicates the true
in length but should briefly describe the
nature of the job, potential applicants
nature and purpose of the job. This
for a position will be better able to
summary can be used in help-wanted
determine whether their skills and
advertisements, internal job postings,
experience match those required for
and company brochures.
the job.
 Work Activities
 When conducting a job analysis, it is
 The work-activities section lists the tasks
not unusual for an analyst to discover
and activities in which the worker is
that some workers do not have job
involved. These tasks and activities
titles. Job titles provide workers with
should be organized into meaningful
some form of identity. Instead of just
categories to make the job description
saying that she is a “worker at the
easy to read and understand. The category labels
are also convenient to use in the brief summary.
 Tools and Equipment Used
 Work Performance
 A section should be included that lists
 The job description should outline
all the tools and equipment used to
standards
perform the work activities in the
section contains a relatively brief
previous section. Even though tools
description of how an employee’s
and equipment may have been
performance is evaluated and what
mentioned in the activities section,
work standards are expected of the
placing them in a separate section
employee.
makes their identification simpler.
of
performance.
This
 Compensation Information
Information in this section is used
 Th is section of the job description
primarily for employee selection and
should contain information on the
training. That is, an applicant can be
salary grade, whether the position is
asked if she can operate an adding
exempt, and the compensable factors
machine, a computer, and a credit
used to determine salary. The
history machine.
employee’s actual salary or salary
range should not be listed on the job
 Job Context
 Th is section should describe the
environment in which the employee
works and should mention stress
level,
work
schedule,
physical
description.
 Job Competencies
 This
section
contains
what are
commonly called job specifications or
demands, level of responsibility,
competencies.
temperature, number of coworkers,
knowledge, skills, abilities, and other
degree of danger, and any other
characteristics
relevant
is
interest, personality, and training)
information is especially important in
that are necessary to be successful on
providing applicants with disabilities
the job.
information.
Th
These
(KSAOs)
are
the
(such
as
with information they can use to
 Job specifications are determined by
determine their ability to perform a
deciding what types of KSAOs are
job
needed
under
a
circumstances.
particular
set
of
to
perform
the
identified in the job analysis.
tasks
 The competencies section should be
I/O psychology programs tend to have job
divided into two subsections. The
analysis training and experience and can be
first contains KSAOs
employed for a relatively small cost.
that an
employee must have at the time
of hiring. The second subsection
contains the KSAOs that are an
important part of the job but
can be obtained after being
How Often Should a Job Description Be
Updated?
 This is a tough question, and the typical answer
is that a job description should be updated if a
job changes significantly.
 An interesting study by Vincent, Rainey,
hired.
Faulkner, Mascio, and Zinda compared the
The first set of KSAOs is used for
employee selection and the second
for training purposes.
stability of job descriptions at intervals of 1, 6,
10, 12, and 20 years. After one year, 92% of the
tasks listed in the old and updated job
Preparing for a Job Analysis
descriptions were the same, dropping to 54%
Who Will Conduct the Analysis?
after 10 years.
 Typically, a job analysis is conducted by a
 As one would expect, the stability of tasks
trained individual in the human resources
performed, the tools and equipment used,
department, but it can also be conducted by
and KSAOs needed to perform the job varied
job incumbents, supervisors, or outside
by the complexity of the job.
consultants.
 An interesting reason that job descriptions
 The Uniform Guidelines state that a job
change across time is job crafting – the
analysis must be “professionally conducted,”
informal changes that employees make in
and a job analyst certainly cannot be called a
their jobs. That is, it is common for employees
professional unless she has been trained. In
to quietly expand the scope of their jobs to
addition, research indicates that analysts who
add tasks they want to perform and to remove
have been trained produce slightly diff erent
tasks that they don’t want to perform.
results from those produced by untrained
analysts.
 An interesting alternative to consultants is the
use of college interns. Graduate students from
Which Employees Should Participate?
 For organizations with relatively few people in
each job, it is advisable to have all employees
participate in the job analysis. In organizations
in which many people perform the same job
(e.g., teachers at a university, assemblers in a
 Job Competence
 Sanchez, Prager, Wilson, and Viswesvaran
factory), every person need not participate.
and Mullins and Kimbrough found that
 If every incumbent is not going to participate,
high-performing employees generated
the question becomes, “How many people
different job analysis outcomes than did
need to be included in the job analysis?” This
low-performing employees.
is a difficult question, one that I normally
 Ansoorian and Shultz found moderate
answer by advising job analysts to keep
differences in physical effort made by
interviewing incumbents until they do not
employees
hear anything new. Anecdotally, this seems to
expertise
be after the third or fourth incumbent for a
with
varying
levels
of
 And both Landy and Vasey and Prien,
particular job.
Prien, andWooten found that more
 The answer to this question to some extent
experienced
depends on whether the job analysis will
differently
be committee based or field based. In a
employees.
employees
than
less
rated
tasks
experienced
committee-based job analysis, a
 However, Mailhot did not find any
group of subject matter experts (e.g.,
differences in job analysis ratings made
employees,
by employees of different performance
supervisors)
meet
to
generate the tasks performed, the
conditions
under
which
they
are
performed, and the KSAOs needed to
levels.
 Race
 Aamodt, Kimbrough, Keller, and Crawford,
perform them. In a field-based job
Schmitt and Cohen, Veres, Green, and
analysis, the job analyst individually
Boyles, and Landy and Vasey report small
interviews/observes
but significant differences in the ways in
a
number
of
incumbents out in the field.
 If every employee will not participate, the same
sampling rules used in research should be used
which white and African American
incumbents viewed their jobs.
 Gender
in job analysis. That is, participants should be
 Schmitt and Cohen found that male middle-
selected in as random a way as practical yet
level managers were more often involved in
still be representative.
budgetary or finance-related tasks than
were their female counterparts. Ansoorian
 Wagner conducted a job analysis of
and Schultz found no differences in the
dentists
physical-effort ratings assigned by male and
generated more incidents where patient–
female incumbents.  Education Level
dentist
relationship
was
whereas
dentists
reported
 Landy and Vasey found that police officers
with only a high school diploma were less
involved in court activities than were their
that
patients
critical,
more
technical-proficiency incidents. Likewise,
Fisher and Greenis and Andersson and
incidents
 Personality
 Extroverted incumbents rated such traits as
leadership
found
Nilsson found differences in the critical
more educated counterparts.
friendliness,
and
ability,
and
ambition as being important for the job
whereas conscientious incumbents rated
generated
by
managers,
incumbents, and customers.
What Types of Information Should Be
Obtained?
 An important decision concerns the level of
such traits as work ethic and attention to
specificity. That is, should the job analysis
detail as being important. Similarly, Ford,
break a job down into very minute, specific
Truxillo, Wang, & Bauer found that
behaviors (e.g., “tilts arm at a 90-degree
extroverts
in
angle” or “moves foot forward three inches”),
agreeableness were likely to inflate task
or should the job be analyzed at a more
and KSAO ratings.
general level (“makes fi nancial decisions,”
and
people
high
“speaks to clients”)? Although most jobs are
 Viewpoint
 It should be no surprise that people with
diff erent perspectives on the job (e.g.,
incumbent, supervisor, customer) produce
diff erent job analysis results. For example,
Mueller
and
Belcher
found
that
incumbents (fire captains) and their
supervisors (fire chief, deputy fire chiefs,
and division chiefs) produced different
task ratings during a job analysis of the
fire captain position.
analyzed at levels somewhere between these
two extremes, there are times when the level
of analysis will be closer to one end of the
spectrum than the other.
 In a window manufacturing plant, job analysis
determined that many more windows could be
mounted in frames by lifting the glass just six
inches and then sliding it into place, than by
lifting the glass higher and placing it in the
frame. In such a situation, the work obviously
must be performed in a specific manner for the
conditions under which the tasks are performed.
greatest fi nancial savings. Thus, the job
This information is usually gathered by obtaining
analysis is more effective at a more detailed
previous information on the job, interviewing job
level.
incumbents, observing performance, or actually
 A related decision addresses the issue of formal
versus
informal
requirements.
Formal
performing the job itself.  Gathering Existing
Information
requirements for a secretary might include
 Prior to interviewing incumbents, it is
typing letters or filing memos. Informal
always a good idea to gather information
requirements might involve making coffee
that has already been obtained. For
or picking up the boss’s children from school.
 Including informal requirements has the
advantages of identifying and eliminating
duties that may be illegal or unnecessary.
 If this task is in the job description, an
applicant will know about this duty in
advance and can decide at the time of hire
whether it is acceptable.
Conducting a Job Analysis
example, one might gather existing job
descriptions,
task
inventories,
and
training manuals. This information might
come from the organization with which
you are working, other organizations,
trade publications, and journal articles.
 Interviewing Subject Matter Experts
 The most common method of conducting
a job analysis is to interview subject matter
experts (SMEs). SMEs are people who are
 Although there are many ways to conduct a job
knowledgeable about the job and include
analysis, the goal of most job analyses is to
job incumbents, supervisors, customers,
identify the tasks performed in a job, the
and upper-level management.
conditions under which the tasks are
 Job analysis interviews differ greatly from
performed, and the KSAOs needed to perform
employment interviews in that the
the tasks under the conditions identified.
purpose of the job analysis interview is to
Step 1: Identify Tasks Performed
obtain information about the job itself
 The first step in conducting a job analysis is to
rather than about the person doing the
identify the major job dimensions and the tasks
job.
performed for each dimension, the tools and
 Job analysis interviews come in two main
equipment used to perform the tasks, and the
forms: individual and group. In the
individual interview, the job analyst
question such as this provides some
interviews only one employee at a time.
structure for the employee in recalling the
In
SME
various aspects of her job and also
of
provides the interviewer with many
the
group
conference,
interview,
a
larger
or
number
follow-up questions and areas that will
employees are interviewed together.
 Regardless of whether individual or group
provide additional information.
interviews are used, certain guidelines
 With a committee-based approach, a
should be followed that will make the
committee of SMEs meets to brainstorm
interview go more smoothly.
the major duties involved in a job. Once
1.
2.
3.
Prepare
for
the
interview
by
this has been done, the committee
announcing the job analysis to the
identifies
employees
by
activities) that must be completed for each
selecting a quiet and private interview
of the duties. Th e results are then
location.
summarized in job descriptions or a job
well
in
advance
Open the interview by establishing
the
tasks
(work-related
analysis report.
rapport, putting the worker at ease,
 An excellent job analysis interview
and explaining the purpose of the
technique was developed by Ammerman
interview.
and reported by Robinson. The basic steps
Conduct the interview by asking
for the Ammerman technique are:
open-ended questions, using easyto-
1.
Convene a panel of experts that
includes representatives from all
levels of the organization.
2.
Have the panel identify the objectives
and standards that are to be met by
the ideal incumbent.
3.
Have the panel list the specific
understand vocabulary, and allowing
sufficient time for the employee to
talk and answer questions. Avoid
being condescending and disagreeing
with the incumbent.
behaviors
 A good way to start the actual interview is
for
each
objective or standard to be attained.
by asking the employee to describe what
she does from the moment she first
necessary
4.
Have the panel identify which of the
enters the parking lot at work to the
behaviors from step 3 are “critical” to
moment she arrives back home. A
reaching the objective.
5.
Have the panel rank-order the
objectives on the basis of importance.
 Observing Incumbents
aspect of a job once you have done it
yourself.
 The technique is easily used when the
 Observations are useful job analysis
methods,
especially
when
used
analyst has previously performed the job.
in
An excellent example
would be a
conjunction with other methods such as
supervisor who has worked her way up
interviews.
through the ranks.
During
a
job
analysis
observation, the job analyst observes
incumbents performing their jobs in the
work setting.
 Once the tasks have been identified, the next
step is to write the task statements that will
 The advantage to this method is that it
lets the job analyst actually see the worker
do her job and thus obtain information
that the worker may have forgotten to
mention during the interview.
obtrusive:
Observing
be used in the task inventory and included in
the job description.
 At the minimum, a properly written task
statement must contain an action (what is
done) and an object (to which the action is
 The method’s disadvantage is that it is
very
Step 2: Write Task Statements
done). Often, task statements will also include
someone
such components as where the task is done,
without their knowing is difficult. There is
how it is done, why it is done, and when it is
seldom any place from which an analyst
done.
could observe without being seen by
employees. This is a problem because
once employees know they are being
watched, their behavior changes, which
keeps an analyst from obtaining an
accurate picture of the way jobs are done.
Job Participation
 Here are some characteristics of well-
written task statements:

One action should be done to one object.
If the statement includes the word “and,”
it may have more than one action or
object. For example, the statement “Types
correspondence to be sent to vendors” has
 One can analyze a job by actually
one action and one object. However,
performing it. This technique, called job
“Types, files, and sends correspondence to
participation,
vendors” contains three very different
is
especially
effective
because it is easier to understand every
actions (types, files, sends).

Task statements should be written at a
the frequency and the importance or
level that can be read and understood by
criticality of the task being performed.
a person with the same reading ability as


 Although many types of scales can be used,
the typical job incumbent.
research suggests that many of the scales tap
All task statements should be written in
the same tense.
similar types of information, thus, using the
The task statement should include the
tools and equipment used to complete
the task.
importance shown in Table 2.3 should be

Task statements should not be
competencies (e.g., “Be a good writer”).

Task statements should not be a policy
(e.g., “Treats people nicely”).

The statement should make sense by
two scales of frequency of occurrence and
sufficient.
itself. That is, “Makes photocopies” does
not provide as much detail as “Makes
photocopies of transactions for credit

union members,” which indicates what
 After a representative sample of SMEs rates
types of materials are photocopied and for
each task, the ratings are organized into a
whom they are copied.
format similar to that shown in Table 2.4. Tasks
For those activities that involve decision
will not be included in the job description if
making, the level of authority should be
their average frequency rating is 0.5 or below.
indicated. This level lets the incumbent
Tasks will not be included in the final task
know which decisions she is allowed to
inventory if they have either an average rating
make on her own and which she needs
of 0.5 or less on either the frequency (F) or
approval for from a higher level.
importance (I) scales, or an average combined
Step 3: Rate Task Statements
rating (CR) of less than 2. Using these criteria,
 Once the task statements have been written
tasks 1, 2, and 4 in Table 2.3 would be included
(usually including some 200 tasks), the next
step is to conduct a task analysis—using a
group of SMEs to rate each task statement on
in the job description, and tasks 2 and 4 would
be included in the final task inventory used in
the next step of the job analysis.
to tap the KSAOs needed at the time of
hire. Th ese methods will be used to
select new employees and include such
methods as interviews, work samples,
ability
tests,
reference
personality
checks,
integrity
tests,
tests,
biodata, and assessment centers.
Step 4: Determine Essential KSAOs
Using Other Job Analysis Methods
 A knowledge is a body of information
needed to perform a task.
 A skill is the proficiency to perform a learned
task.
Methods Providing General Information
About Worker Activities Position
Analysis Questionnaire
 The Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) is a
 An ability is a basic capacity for performing a
structured instrument developed at Purdue
wide range of different tasks, acquiring a
University by McCormick, Jeanneret, and
knowledge, or developing a skill.
Mecham, and is now available from PAQ
 Other characteristics include such personal
Services in Bellingham, Washington.
factors as personality, willingness, interest,
 Th e PAQ contains 194 items organized into six
and motivation and such tangible factors as
main dimensions: information input, mental
licenses, degrees, and years of experience.
processes, work output, relationships with
 Currently, KSAOs are commonly referred to as
other persons, job context, and other job-
competencies. In the old days, KSAOs were
related variables such as work schedule, pay,
called job specifications (job specs).
and responsibility.
an
 Th e PAQ offers many advantages. It is
organization’s strategic initiatives and plans
inexpensive and takes relatively little time to
rather than to specific tasks, the process is
use. It is one of the most standardized job
called competency modeling.
analysis methods, has acceptable levels of
 When
competencies
are
tied
to
Step 5: Selecting Tests to Tap KSAOs
 Once the important KSAOs have been identified,
the next step is to determine the best methods
reliability, and its results for a particular
position can be compared through computer
analysis with thousands of other positions.
 Although the PAQ has considerable support,
developed by Cornelius and Hakel. The JEI
research indicates its strengths are also the
contains 153 items and has a readability level
source of its weaknesses. Th e PAQ’s
appropriate for an employee with only a
instructions suggest that incumbents using the
tenth-grade education.
questionnaire have education levels between
 Research comparing the JEI with the PAQ
grades 10 and 12. Research has found,
indicates that the scores from each method are
however, that the PAQ questions and
very similar; thus, the JEI may be a better
directions are written at the college graduate
replacement for the difficult-to-read PAQ. But
level; thus, many workers may not be able to
as mentioned with the JSP, much more
understand the PAQ. This is one reason
research is needed before conclusions can be
developers of the PAQ recommend that
confidently drawn.
trained job analysts complete the PAQ rather
Functional Job Analysis
than the employees themselves.
 Functional Job Analysis (FJA) was designed by
Job Structure Profile
Fine as a quick method that could be used by
 A revised version of the PAQ was developed
the federal government to analyze and
by Patrick and Moore. The major changes in
compare thousands of jobs.
the revision, which is called the Job Structure
 Jobs analyzed by FJA are broken down into the
Profile (JSP), include item content and style,
percentage of time the incumbent spends on
new items to increase the discriminatory
three functions: data (information and ideas),
power of the intellectual and decision-making
people (clients, customers, and coworkers),
dimensions, and an emphasis on having a job
and things (machines, tools, and equipment).
analyst, rather than the incumbent, use the
JSP.
 An analyst is given 100 points to allot to the
three functions. The points are usually
 Research by JSP’s developers indicates that the
assigned in multiples of 5, with each function
instrument is reliable, but further research is
receiving a minimum of 5 points. Once the
needed before it is known whether the JSP is a
points have been assigned, the highest level at
legitimate improvement on the PAQ.
which the job incumbent functions is then
Job Elements Inventory
 Another instrument designed as an alternative
to the PAQ is the Job Elements Inventory (JEI),
chosen from the chart shown in Table 2.6.
Methods Providing Information About
the Work Environment AET
(Arbeitswissenschaftliches
Erhebungsverfahren zur
Tatigkeitsanalyse)
 To obtain information about the work
environment, a job analyst might use the AET,
an acronym for “Arbeitswissenschaftliches
Erhebungsverfahren zur Tatigkeitsanalyse” (try
saying this three times!), which means
Methods Providing Information About
Tools and Equipment Job Components
Inventory
 To take advantage of the PAQ’s strengths while
avoiding some of its problems, Banks, Jackson,
Staff ord, and Warr developed the Job
“ergonomic job analysis procedure.”
 By ergonomic, we mean that the instrument is
primarily concerned with the relationship
between the worker and work objects.
 Developed in Germany by Rohmert and
Landau, the AET is a 216-item.
Components Inventory (JCI) for use in England.
 The JCI consists of more than 400 questions
covering five major categories: tools and
equipment,
perceptual
and
physical
requirements, mathematical requirements,
communication requirements, and decision
making and responsibility. It is the only job
analysis method containing a detailed section
on tools and equipment.
Methods Providing Information About
Competencies Occupational
Information Network
 The
Occupational
Information
Network
(O*NET) is a national job analysis system
created by the federal government to replace
the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT)
which had been in use since the 1930s.
 O*NET
is
a
major
advancement
in
understanding the nature of work, in large
part because its developers understood that
jobs can be viewed at four levels: economic,
organizational, occupational, and individual.
 O*NET includes
information about
the
they are the easiest. A convenient way to
occupation (generalized work activities, work
word requests for critical incidents is by
context, organizational context) and the
asking incumbents to think of times they
worker characteristics (ability, work style,
saw workers perform in an especially
occupational values and interests, knowledge,
outstanding way and then to write down
skills, education) needed for success in the
exactly what occurred. Incumbents are
occupation.
then asked to do the same for times they
saw workers perform poorly. This process
 The O*NET also includes information about
is repeated as needed.
such economic factors as labor demand, labor
supply, salaries, and occupational trends.
2.
decide whether it is an example of
Critical Incident Technique
excellent or poor behavior. This step is
 The Critical Incident Technique (CIT) was
necessary because approximately 5% of
developed and first used by John Flanagan and
incidents initially cited as poor examples
his students at the University of Pittsburgh in
by employees are actually good examples
the late 1940s and early 1950s.
and vice versa. For example, in a recent
 The CIT is used to discover actual incidents of
job analysis of the position of university
job behavior that make the difference
instructor, a few students described their
between a job’s successful or unsuccessful
worst teachers as those who lectured from
performance.
material not included in their textbooks. A
 This technique can be conducted in many ways,
but the basic procedure is as follows.
1.
committee of faculty members and
students who reviewed the incidents
Job incumbents each generate between
determined that lecturing from nontext
one and five incidents of both excellent
material actually was excellent. Thus, the
and poor performance that they have
incidents were counted as examples of
seen on the job. These incidents can be
obtained in many ways—log books,
questionnaires, interviews, and so on;
research has shown that the method used
makes
Job experts examine each incident and
little
diff
erence,
although
questionnaires are usually used because
excellent rather than poor performance.
3.
The incidents generated in the first stage
are then given to three or four
incumbents to sort into an unspecified
number of categories. The incidents in
each category are then read by the job
4.
analyst, who combines, names, and
Job Components Inventory
defines the categories.
 In addition to information about tools and
To verify the judgments made by the job
equipment used on the job, which were
analyst in procedure 3, three other
discussed earlier, the JCI also provides
incumbents are given the incidents and
information about the perceptual, physical,
category names and are asked to sort the
mathematical,
incidents
making, and responsibility skills needed to
into
the
newly
created
categories. If two of the three incumbents
sort an incident into the same category,
the incident is considered part of that
category. Any incident that is not agreed
upon by two sorters is either thrown out
or placed in a new category.
5.
The numbers of both types of incidents
sorted into each category are then tallied
and used to create a table. The categories
provide the important dimensions of a job,
and the numbers provide the relative
importance of these dimensions.
 The CIT is an excellent addition to a job
analysis because the actual critical incidents
can be used for future activities such as
performance appraisal and training.
 The CIT’s greatest drawback is that its
emphasis on the difference between excellent
and poor performance ignores routine duties.
Thus, the CIT cannot be used as the sole
communication,
decision
perform the job.
Threshold Traits Analysis
 An approach similar to the JCI is the Threshold
Traits Analysis (TTA), which was developed by
Lopez, Kesselman, and Lopez. This method is
available only by hiring a particular consulting
firm, but its unique style makes it worthy of
mentioning.
 Th e TTA questionnaire’s 33 items identify the
traits that are necessary for the successful
performance of a job. The 33 items cover five
trait categories: physical, mental, learned,
motivational, and social.
 The TTA’s greatest advantages are that it is
short and reliable and can correctly identify
important
traits.
The
TTA’s
greatest
disadvantage is that it is not available
commercially. Because the TTA also focuses on
traits, its main uses are in the development of
an employee selection system or a career plan.
method of job analysis.
Fleishman Job Analysis Survey
 Based on more than 30 years of research, the
Fleishman Job Analysis Survey (F-JAS) requires
incumbents or job analysts to view a series of
abilities and to rate the level of ability needed
Personality-Related Position
Requirements Form (PPRF)
to perform the job. These ratings are
 The Personality-Related Position Requirements
performed for each of the 72 abilities and
Form (PPRF) was developed by Raymark,
knowledge. Th e F-JAS is easy to use by
Schmit, and Guion to identify the personality
incumbents or trained analysts, and is
types needed to perform job-related tasks.
supported by years of research. Its advantages
 Th e PPRF consists of 107 items tapping 12
over TTA are that it is more detailed and is
personality dimensions that fall under the
commercially available.
“Big 5” personality dimensions (openness to
Job Adaptability Inventory
experience, conscientiousness, extroversion,
 The Job Adaptability Inventory (JAI) is a 132-
agreeableness, and emotional stability). Th
item inventory developed by Pulakos, Arad,
ough more research is needed, the PPRF is
Donovan, and Plamondon that taps the extent
reliable and shows promise as a useful job
to which a job incumbent needs to adapt to
analysis
situations on the job.
personality traits necessary to perform a job.
 The JAI has eight dimensions:
instrument
for
identifying
the
Evaluation of Methods
1.
Handling emergencies or crisis situations
2.
3.
Handling work stress
Solving problems creatively
uses—worker-oriented methods, such as the
4.
Dealing with uncertain and unpredictable
work situations
selection and performance appraisal; job-
5.
Learning work tasks, technologies, and
procedures
best for work design and writing job
6.
Demonstrating interpersonal adaptability
7.
Demonstrating cultural adaptability
8.
Demonstrating
adaptability
physically
 Different methods are best for different
CIT, JCI, and TTA, are the best for employee
oriented
oriented methods, such as task analysis, are
descriptions. To get the most out of a job
analysis, several techniques should be used so
that information on each of the job description
sections can be obtained.
 From a legal perspective, courts have ruled
that job analysis is necessary and that
acceptable job analyses should (1) use several
up-to-date sources, (2) be conducted by
experts, (3) use a large number of job
accordingly. The difficulty in this process, of
incumbents, and (4) cover the entire range of
course, is determining the worth of each job.
worker activities and qualifications.
 The PAQ is seen as the most standardized
technique and the CIT the least standardized.
 The CIT takes the least amount of job analyst
training and task analysis the most.
 The PAQ is the least costly method and the CIT
the most.
 The PAQ takes the least amount of time to
complete and task analysis the most.
 Task analysis has the highest-quality results
and TTA the lowest.
 Task analysis reports are the longest and jobelements reports the shortest.
 The CIT has been rated the most useful and the
PAQ the least.
Task analysis gives the best overall job picture
and the PAQ the worst.
Step 1: Determining Compensable Job
Factors
 The first step in evaluating a job is to decide
what factors differentiate the relative worth
of jobs.
Possible compensable job factors include:
1.
Level of responsibility
2.
Physical demands
3.
Mental demands
4.
Education requirements
5.
Training and experience requirements
6.
Working conditions
 The philosophical perspectives of the job
evaluator can affect these factors. Some
evaluators argue that the most important
Job Evaluation
compensable factor is responsibility and that
 Once a job analysis has been completed and a
physical demands are unimportant. Others
thorough job description written, it is
argue that education is the most important.
important to determine how much employees
The choice of compensable factors thus is
in a position should be paid. This process of
often more philosophical than empirical.
determining a job’s worth is called job
evaluation. A job evaluation is typically done in
Step 2: Determining the Levels for Each
Compensable Factor
two stages: determining internal pay equity
 Once the compensable factors have been
and determining external pay equity.
Determining Internal Pay Equity
 Internal pay equity involves comparing jobs
within an organization to ensure that the
people in jobs worth the most money are paid
selected, the next step is to determine the
levels for each factor. For a factor such as
education, the levels are easy to determine
(e.g., high school diploma, associate’s degree,
bachelor’s degree). For factors such as
responsibility, a considerable amount of time
predicted by the number of job analysis
and discussion may be required to determine
points.
the levels.
 Jobs whose point values fall well below
the line are considered underpaid
Step 3: Determining the Factor Weights
Because some factors are more important
(“green
than others, weights must be assigned to each
immediately assigned higher salary
factor and to each level within a factor. Here
levels. Jobs with point values well
is the process for doing this:
above
1.
A job evaluation committee determines
overpaid (“red circled”) and the
the total number of points that will be
salary level is decreased once current
distributed among the factors. Usually,
jobholders leave.
2.
line
are
are
considered
Determining External Pay Equity
example, 100, 500, 1,000) and is based on
 With external equity, the worth of a job is
the number of compensable factors. The
determined by comparing the job to the
greater the number of factors, the greater
external
the number of points.
External equity is important if an organization
Each factor is weighted by assigning a
is to attract and retain employees.
the factor, the greater the number of
points that will be assigned.
The number of points assigned to a factor
is then divided into each of the levels. If
100 points had been assigned to the factor
of education, then 20 points (100 points/5
degrees) would be assigned to each level.
4.
the
and
the number is some multiple of 100 (for
number of points. The more important
3.
circled”)
The total number of points for a job is
market
(other
organizations).
 To determine external equity, organizations
use salary surveys. Sent to other
organizations, these
surveys ask how much an organization pays
its employees in various positions.
 On the basis of the survey results, an
organization can decide where it wants to be
in relation to the compensation policies of
other organizations (often called market
compared with the salary currently being
position).
paid for the job. Wage trend lines are
 That is, an organization might choose to
drawn based on the results of a
offer compensation at higher levels to
regression formula in which salary is
attract the best applicants as well as keep
current employees from going to other
organizations.
 Two types of audits should be conducted: one
that looks at pay rates of employees within
 Other organizations might choose to pay
positions with identical duties (equal pay
at the “going rate” so that they have a
for equal work) and a second that looks at
reasonable chance of competing for
pay rates of employees in jobs of similar
applicants, even though they will often
lose the best applicants to higher-paying
organizations.

It
may
seem
surprising
that
competing organizations would supply salary
information to each other, but because every
organization needs salary data from other
organizations, compensation analysts tend to
cooperate well with one another.
 We have earlier discussed the amount of
money a job is worth: this amount is called
direct compensation.
ways, such as pay for time not worked (e.g.,
holidays, vacation, sick days), deferred income
(e.g., Social Security and pension plans), health
protection such as medical and dental
insurance, and perquisites (“perks”) such as a
company car.
Determining a Sex and Race Equity
 In addition to analyses of internal and external
equity, pay audits should also be conducted to
that
employees
and
responsibility
(comparable
worth).
 Comparable worth is an issue very much
related to the discussion of job evaluation.
Comparable worth is often in the news
because some groups claim that female
workers are paid less than male workers.
 Interestingly, all but 6.2% of the gap between
men and women can be explained by such
factors as men being in the workforce longer,
having a higher percentage of full-time jobs,
and working more hours in a year.
 Employees are also compensated in other
ensure
worth
are
not
paid
differently on the basis of gender or race.
Employee Selection:
Recruiting and Interviewing

The first decision is whether to promote
someone from within the organization
(internal recruitment) or to hire someone
from outside the organization (external
Job Analysis

recruitment).
As discussed in Chapter 2, job analysis is the
cornerstone
of
personnel

enhance
employee
morale
and
selection.
motivation, it is often good to give current
Remember, unless a complete and accurate
employees an advantage in obtaining new
picture of a job is obtained, it is virtually
internal positions.
impossible to select excellent employees.

Internal promotions can be a great source of
Thus, during the job analysis process, in
motivation, but if an organization always
addition to identifying the important tasks and
promotes employees from within, it runs the
duties, it is essential to identify the
risk of having a stale workforce that is devoid
knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to
of the many ideas that new employees bring
perform the job.

To
with them from their previous employment
Therefore, the methods used to select
employees should tie in directly with the
settings.

results of the job analysis. In other words,
Heavy reliance on internal sources is thought
to perpetuate the racial, gender, and age
every essential knowledge, skill, and ability
composition of the workforce. Thus, a
identified in the job analysis that is needed on
balance
between
promoting
current
the first day of the job should be tested, and
employees and hiring outside applicants is
every test must somehow relate to the job
needed.
analysis.
Media Advertisements
Recruitment

Newspaper Ads

Running ads in periodicals such as local
An important step in selecting employees is
newspapers or professional journals is a
recruitment: attracting people with the right
common method of recruiting employees.
qualifications (as determined in the job
Although many organizations use newspaper
analysis) to apply for the job.
ads, especially for local positions, in
2007 recruiters considered print advertising
as one of the least effective recruitment
methods.

Newspaper advertisements typically ask the
applicant to respond in one of four ways:
calling, applying in person, sending a résumé
directly to the organization, or sending a
résumé to a blind box.


 First, the organization doesn’t want
its name in public. This might be the
case when a wellknown company
such as AT&T or IBM has a very
specific job opening and is concerned
that rumors will spread that there are
many openings for a variety of
by calling when an organization wants to
positions. This could result in an
either quickly screen applicants or hear
avalanche of résumés, many from
an applicant’s phone voice (e.g., for
unqualified applicants.
 Second, the company might fear that
Apply-in-person ads. Organizations
people wouldn’t apply if they knew
use apply-in-person ads when they don’t
the name of the company. For
want their phones tied up by applicants
example, an ad for sales positions
calling (e.g., a travel agency or pizza
would probably not draw a large
delivery restaurant), want the applicants
response if applicants were asked to
to fill out a specific job application, or
send their résumés to a funeral
want to get a physical look at the
home (even though selling burial
applicant.
plots can be a lucrative job).
Send-résumé ads. Applicants are
asked to send a résumé directly to the
company (send-résumé ads) when the
organization expects a large response
and does not have the resources to speak
with thousands of applicants.

three main reasons.
Calling. Applicants are asked to respond
telemarketing or receptionist positions).

box. Organizations use blind boxes for
Blind box. The fourth type of ad directs
applicants to send a résumé to a blind
 Third, on rare occasions, a company
needs to terminate an employee but
wants first to find a replacement. As
you can imagine, running an ad
containing the name of the company
would not be smart if the current
employee were not aware that he or
she was about to be fired.

Writing Recruitment Ads
 Ads displaying the company emblem and
media for recruitment is that 95% of
using creative illustrations attract the
Americans listen to the radio at least weekly,
greatest number of applicants, but ads
and the average person spends four hours a
that include the salary range and a
day listening to the radio compared with 45
company phone number attract the
minutes reading the newspaper.
highestquality applicants.
Situation-Wanted Ads
 Ads containing realistic information

Situation-wanted ads are placed by the
about the job, rather than information
applicant rather than by organizations. Some
that is “too good to be true” increase
list extensive qualifications, some give
applicant attraction to the organization.
applicants’ names, and some are generally
 Ads containing detailed descriptions of
the
job
and
organization
provide
more creative than others.

applicants with an idea of how well they
don’t cost an organization any money, they
in positive thoughts about it.
may be a beneficial method of recruitment.
 Ads containing information about the
selection process affect the probability
that applicants will apply for a job. For
Point-of-Purchase Methods

purchase) advertising principles used to
interview will be used to select employees
market products to consumers.
result in applicants being more likely to
apply for a job than ads indicating that

In employee recruitment, job vacancy notices
are posted in places where customers or
grade point average (GPA) will be a factor.
current employees are likely to see them:
Electronic Media
96%
The point-of-purchase method of recruitment
is based on the same “POP” (point-of-
example, ads stating that an in-person
Whereas
Situation-wanted ads appear to be a useful
way of looking for a job, and given that they
would fit into an organization and result

The potential advantage to using electronic
store windows, bulletin boards, restaurant
of
organizations
run
recruitment advertisements in newspapers,
only 26% use television and radio to
advertise job openings.
placemats, and the sides of trucks.

The advantages to this method are that it is
inexpensive and it is targeted toward people
who frequent the business. The disadvantage
is that only a limited number of people are
employment agencies are operated by state
exposed to the sign.
and local public agencies and are strictly
nonprofit.
Recruiters
Campus Recruiters

Many organizations send recruiters to college
campuses

to
answer
questions
about
Employment Agencies and Search
Firms
themselves and interview students for
Employment Agencies
available positions. Not surprisingly, the

Employment agencies operate in one of two
behavior and attitude of recruiters can
ways. They charge either the company or the
greatly influence applicants’ decisions to
applicant when the applicant takes the job.
accept jobs that are offered.
The amount charged usually ranges from 10%
Due to cost considerations, many employers
to 30% of the applicant’s first-year salary.
have cut back on the use of on-campus

From an organization’s perspective, there are
recruiting. As a result, an increasing number of
few risks in using an employment agency that
colleges are organizing virtual job fairs, in
charges the applicant for its services. That is, if
which their students and alumni can use the
the employment agency cannot find an
Web to “visit” with recruiters from hundreds
appropriate candidate, the organization has
of organizations at one time. In a virtual job
not wasted money. But if the employment
fair, applicants can talk to or instant-message
agency is successful, the organization gets a
a recruiter, learn more about the company,
qualified employee at no cost.
and submit résumés.

Employment agencies are especially useful if
Outside Recruiters
an HR department is overloaded with work or
 More than 75% of organizations use such
if an organization does not have an individual
outside
recruiting
sources
as
with the skills and experience needed to
private
select employees properly.
employment agencies, public employment
agencies, and executive search firms. Private

The disadvantage of employment agencies is
employment agencies and executive search
that a company loses some control over its
firms are designed to make a profit from
recruitment process and may end up with
recruitment
undesirable applicants.
activities,
whereas
public

Executive Search Firms

From the organization’s perspective, public
Executive search firms, better known as
employment agencies can be of great value in
“head hunters,” differ from employment
filling bluecollar and clerical positions.
agencies in several ways. First, the jobs they

Many public employment agencies have made
represent tend to be higher-paying, non–
finding jobs easier by placing kiosks in
entry-level positions such as executives,
locations such as shopping malls and public
engineers, and computer programmers.
buildings. Applicants can use the kiosks to
Second, reputable executive search firms
search for local job openings and get
always charge their fees to organizations
information on how they can apply for the
rather than to applicants. Third, fees charged
jobs.
by executive search firms tend to be about

30% of the applicant’s first-year salary.
Employee Referrals
A word of caution about both employment

agencies and executive search firms: Because
referral,
they make their money on the number of
in
which
current
employees
recommend family members and friends for
applicants they place, they tend to exert
tremendous pressure on applicants to take
Another way to recruit is by employee
specific job openings.

jobs that are offered. But applicants are not
In a survey of 450 HR professionals, employee
referrals were rated as the most effective
obligated to take jobs and should not be
recruitment method. Some organizations are
intimidated about turning down a position
so convinced of the attractiveness of this
that appears to be a poor match.
method that they provide financial incentives
Public Employment Agencies
to employees who recommend applicants

who are hired.
The third type of outside recruitment
organization is state and local employment
agencies. These public employment agencies
are
designed
primarily
to
help
the
unemployed find work, but they often offer
services such as career advisement and
résumé preparation.

Although employee referrals are an effective
means of recruiting employees, care must be
taken when developing a referral program to
ensure
that
the
referral
pool
is
representative of the ethnic and racial makeup of the qualified workforce. Thus, if most of

an organization’s employees are white, so will
résumés electronically. Internet recruiting
be most of the employee referrals.
efforts usually take one of two forms:
Although the idea of employee referrals
sounds good, not all referrals are the same.
Aamodt and Carr and
employer-based websites and Internet
Rupert compared the success of employees who
had been referred by current successful
recruiting sites.
Employer-Based Websites

With
employer-based
websites,
an
andunsuccessful employees and found that
organization lists available job openings and
employees referred by successful employees
provides information about itself and the
had longer tenure than did employees who had
minimum requirements needed to apply to a
been referred by unsuccessful employees. Thus,
particular
job.
Though
the
level
of
only those referrals made by successful
sophistication varies across organization
employees should be considered.
websites, on most, applicants can download
their résumés, answer questions designed to
Direct Mail
screen out unqualified applicants, and then

actually take employment tests. On many
Because direct mail has been successful in
sites, the tests are instantly scored, and if the
product advertising, several organizations
applicant is deemed qualified, interviews are
have used it to recruit applicants, especially
scheduled electronically.
those who are not actively job hunting. With
direct-mail

recruitment,
an
employer

Recently, a major change in employer-based
typically obtains a mailing list and sends help-
websites has been the use of the .jobs
wanted letters or brochures to people
domain. Previously, an applicant interested in
through the mail.
a job at a company such as Allstate Insurance
Direct-mail recruiting is especially useful for
positions involving specialized skills.
would need to go to the Allstate website and
then find the link to the jobs section. As of
2008, most major employers have added the
Internet
 The Internet continues to be a fast-growing
source of recruitment; in 2004, hiring
managers said that they received 56% of their
.jobs domain to make this process easier; a
person interested in a job at Allstate or
Raytheon, for example, could directly access
jobs at that company by typing the URL
2.
www.allstate.jobs or www.raytheon.jobs.
organizations in the same field in
Internet Recruiters
one
 An Internet recruiter is a private company
location.
For
example,
a
technology job fair in New York City in
whose website lists job openings for
2000 had 83 companies represented and
hundreds of organizations and résumés for
attracted more than 5,000 potential
thousands of applicants. The largest Internet
programmers.
recruiter, Monster.com, had more than 26
3.
million unique visitors per month in 2008.
The third approach to a job fair is for an
organization to hold its own.
Job Fairs

The second type of job fair has many
Although this approach is certainly more
Job fairs are used by 70% of organizations and
expensive, it has the advantage of
are designed to provide information in a
focusing the attention of the applicants
personal fashion to as many applicants as
on only one company.
possible.

Job fairs are typically conducted in one of
three ways.
1.
In the first, many types of organizations
have booths at the same location.
Incentives

When
unemployment
rates
are
low,
organizations have to take extra measures to
 Your college probably has one or two
recruit employees. One of these measures is
of these job fairs each year, in which
to offer incentives for employees to accept
dozens
send
jobs with an organization. Though these
discuss
incentives often come in the form of a
with
financial signing bonus, other types of
students and to collect résumés. In
incentives are increasing in popularity. For
addition,
usually
example, such organizations as Sears and
hand out company literature and
Starwood Hotels offer employee discounts on
souvenirs such as T-shirts, yardsticks,
company products and services, and 6% of
and cups.
organizations offer mortgage assistance to
of
organizations
representatives
employment
to
opportunities
representatives
lure employees.
 Cub Foods in Illinois hires people with
Nontraditional Populations
intellectual disabilities to serve as
 When traditional recruitment methods are
baggers in their grocery stores.
unsuccessful, many organizations look for
 To solve the driver-shortage problem,
potential applicants from nontraditional
populations.
many trucking companies are trying to
 Xerox, J. P. Morgan, and American
hire married couples to be team drivers.
Express developed recruitment strategies
and
such
gay-friendly
benefits
as
domestic partner benefits to recruit and
Recruiting “Passive” Applicants

retain gay and lesbian employees.
approach, and at times, the use of executive
 Due to low wage-and-benefit costs,
Jostens
Incorporated
and
With the exception of the direct-mail
recruiters, most of the recruiting methods
Escod
previously discussed in this chapter deal with
Industries are using prison inmates to
applicants who are actively seeking work.
perform work. In additional to the
Because “the best” employees are already
financial savings to the employer and the
employed, recruiters try to find ways to
work skills learned by the inmates, 20
identify this hidden talent and then convince
cents of every dollar earned by inmates is
the person to apply for a job with their
used to pay the cost of incarceration, and
company.
another 10 cents goes for victim
compensation
and
support
of
the
inmate’s family.
Correctional
One such approach is for recruiters to build
relationships with professional associations
for each of the fields in which they recruit. For
 Denny’s and Sheboygan Upholstery have
been successful in recruiting ex-cons. In
fact, the Kettle
Moraine

Institution
in
example, SIOP would be the professional
association for I/O psychologists, the Society
for Human Resource Management (SHRM) for
Wisconsin held a job fair for 180 soon-to-
HR
professionals,
and
the
American
be-released convicts. The job fair was
Compensation Association for compensation
attended by 15 employers.
professionals. Recruiters would then attend
the association’s conferences, read their
newsletters and magazines, and scan the

association’s website to identify the “cream of
dividing the number of applicants by the
the crop” and then approach those people
amount spent for each strategy.
about applying for a job.
 Continuing with the previous example,
An increasingly common method to find these
suppose our newspaper ad cost $200 and
passive applicants is to surf the Web,
yielded 10 applicants and our in-store
especially blogs and social networking sites
sign cost $5 and yielded 2 applicants. The
such as FaceBook and MySpace. As will be
cost per applicant for the newspaper ad
discussed in Chapter 5, many employers
would be $20, whereas the cost per
examine social networking sites to gather
applicant for the in-store sign would be
information about applicants, but because
just
people put so much information about their
evaluation, the in-store sign would be
lives and careers, recruiters also examine
best as long as it generated the number
these sites to see if there are people they want
of
to contact about applying for jobs.
organization. But if the organization
$2.50. Using this method of
applicants
needed
by
the
needs to hire 10 new employees and
there are only 2 applicants for jobs, this
Evaluating the Effectiveness of
Recruitment Strategies

recruitment strategy by itself is not
One method is to examine the number of
applicants each recruitment source

effective.

Although the cost-per-applicant evaluation
method is an improvement on the applicant-
yields. That is, if a newspaper ad results in
yield method, it too has a serious drawback.
100 applicants and an in-store sign results in
An organization might receive a large number
20 applicants, newspaper ads could be
of applicants at a relatively low cost per
considered the better method.
applicant, but none may be qualified for the
But looking only at the number of applicants
job. Therefore, the third and fourth strategies
does not take into account the cost of the
would be to look at either the number of
recruitment
campaign. Thus,
a
second
method for evaluating the success of a
recruitment campaign is to consider the
cost per applicant, which is determined by
qualified applicants or the cost per
qualified applicant.

Another
method
for
evaluating
the
strategies. This theory, cited earlier in the
effectiveness of various recruitment sources,
discussion
and perhaps the best one, looks at the
programs, has its roots in the literature on
number
interpersonal attraction, which indicates
of
generated
successful
by
each
employees
on
employee
referral
that people tend to be attracted to those
recruitment
who are similar to themselves.
source.
 A final method for evaluating recruitment source
effectiveness is to look at the number of
Realistic Job Previews

Realistic job preview (RJP) involves giving an
applicant an honest assessment of a job. For
minorities and women that applied for
example, instead of telling the applicant how
the job and were hired.
much fun she will have working on the
 Employees recruited through inside sources
assembly line, the recruiter honestly tells her
stayed with the organization longer (higher
that although the pay is well above average,
tenure)
the work is often boring and there is little
and
performed
better
than
employees recruited through outside sources.
Several theories might explain the superiority
chance for advancement.

The logic behind RJPs is that even though
of inside sources.
telling the truth scares away many applicants,
 The first theory suggests that rehires or
especially the most qualified ones, the ones
applicants who are referred by other
who stay will not be surprised about the job.
employees
accurate
Because they know what to expect, informed
information about the job than do
applicants will tend to stay on the job longer
employees recruited by other methods.
than applicants who did not understand the
receive
more
 The second theory postulates that
differences
in
recruitment-source
nature of the job.

In a meta-analysis of 40 RJP studies, Phillips
effectiveness are the result of different
found that although RJPs result in lower
recruitment sources reaching and being
turnover, higher job satisfaction, and better
used by different types of applicants.
performance, the size of the effect is rather
 A third theory might better explain the
small. The meta-analysis also suggested that
finding that employee referrals result in
RJPs will be most effective if they are given in
greater tenure than do other recruitment
an oral rather than a written format, and if
they are given to the applicant at the time of
the job offer rather than earlier in the
Effective Employee Selection
Techniques
recruitment process or after the job offer has

been accepted.
Effective employee selection systems share
three characteristics: They are valid, reduce
Expectation-Lowering Procedure
the chance of a legal challenge, and are cost-

effective.
A variation of the RJP is a technique called an
expectation-lowering procedure (ELP). Unlike


an RJP, which focuses on a particular job, an
on a job analysis (content validity), predicts
ELP lowers an applicant’s expectations about
work-related behavior (criterion validity),
work and expectations in general.
and measures the construct it purports to
RJP might include a statement such as, “this
measure (construct validity).
job is performed in a very small space, in high

levels of heat, with few opportunities for
As you will recall from Chapters 2 and 3,
selection tests will reduce the chance of a
social interaction”, whereas

A valid selection test is one that is based
legal challenge if their content appears to
ELP might include a statement such as: “We
be job related (face validity), the questions
often start a new job with high expectations,
don’t invade an applicant’s privacy, and
thinking the job will be perfect. As you will
adverse impact is minimized.
discover, no job is perfect and there will be

supervisor or your coworkers. Prior to
Ideal selection tests are also cost-effective
in terms of the costs to purchase or create, to
administer,
accepting this job, be sure to give some
and to score.
times when you become frustrated by your
thought regarding whether this job and our
organization will meet the expectations that
you have. Also, give some thought to
whether your expectations about work are
realistic”.
Employment Interviews

Undoubtedly, the most commonly used
method
to
employment
Interviews
select
employees
is
the
interview.Types
of

Perhaps a good place to start a discussion on

Serial interviews involve a series of single
interviews is to define the various types.
interviews. For example, the HR manager
Interviews vary on three main factors:
might interview an applicant at 9:00 a.m., the
structure, style, and medium.
department
supervisor
interviews
the
Structure
applicant at 10:00 a.m., and the vicepresident

interviews the applicant at 11:00 a.m.
The structure of an interview is determined by
the source of the questions, the extent to


which all applicants are asked the same
interviews with the difference being a passing
questions, and the structure of the system
of time between the first and subsequent
used to score the answers.
interview. For example, an applicant might be
A structured interview is one in which (1)
interviewed by the HR manager and then
brought back a week later to interview with
the source of the questions is a job analysis
the vice-president.
(job-related questions), (2) all applicants are
asked the same questions, and (3) there is a

standardized scoring key to evaluate each
answer.

Return interviews are similar to serial
An unstructured interview is one in which
interviewers are free to ask anything they
want (e.g.,
Where do you want to be in five years? What
was the last book you read?), are not required
to have consistency in what they ask of each
applicant, and may assign numbers of points
at their own discretion.
Panel
interviews
have
multiple
interviewers asking questions and evaluating
answers of the same
applicant at the same time.

Group interviews have multiple applicants
answering questions
interview.
during
the
same
Medium

Interviews also differ in the extent to which
they are done in person.

In face-to-face interviews, both the
interviewer and the applicant are in the same
Style


The style of an interview is determined by the
number of interviewees and number of
interviewers.
One-on-one interviews involve one
interviewer interviewing one applicant.
room. Faceto-face interviews provide a
personal setting and allow the participants to
use both visual and vocal cues to evaluate
information.

Telephone interviews are often used to
 Two, structured interviews result in
screen applicants but do not allow the use of
visual cues
substantially lower adverse impact than
do unstructured interviews.
(not always a bad thing).


Videoconference
interviews
are
structured
interviews
are
considered superior to unstructured ones,
conducted at remote sites. The applicant and
applicants perceive structured interviews to
the interviewer can hear and see each other,
be more difficult. Furthermore, because the
but the setting is not as personal, nor is the

Although
interview is so structured, applicants may feel
image and vocal quality of the interview as
that they did not have the chance to tell the
sharp as in face-to-face interviews.
interviewer everything they wanted to.
Written interviews involve the applicant
answering a series of written questions and
Problems with Unstructured
Interviews
then sending the answers back through
Poor Intuitive Ability
regular mail or through email.
 Interviewers often base their hiring decisions
on “gut reactions,” or intuition. However,
Advantages of Structured Interviews
people are not good at using intuition to

predict behavior: research indicates that
Though some HR professionals think they are
human
using a structured interview because they ask
and
judgment
are
the same questions of everyone, it is the job
inaccurate predictors of a variety of factors
relatedness and standardized scoring that
ranging from future employee success to the
most distinguish the structured from the
detection of deception.
Lack of Job Relatedness
unstructured interview.

intuition
From
a
legal
standpoint,
structured

Research has shown which answers personnel
interviews are viewed more favorably by the
managers prefer, but preference for an
courts than are unstructured interviews
answer does not imply that it will actually
 There are two probable reasons for this.
One, structured interviews are based on
a job analysis.
predict future performance on the job. As
discussed earlier in this and preceding
chapters, information that is used to select
employees must be job related if it is to have

any chance of predicting future employee
take at least five minutes to make their
performance.
decisions.
In addition to not being job related, many

To
reduce
potential
primacy
effects,
questions asked by interviewers are illegal
interviewers are advised to make repeated
(e.g., “Are you married?” or “Do you have any
judgments throughout the interview rather
health
most
than one overall judgment at the end of the
interviewers who ask illegal questions know
interview. That is, the interviewer might rate
that they are illegal.
the applicant’s response after each question
problems?”).
Interestingly,
Primacy Effects
or series of questions rather than waiting until

The research on the importance of primacy
the end of the interview to make a single
effects or “first impressions” in the interview
rating or judgment.


is mixed. Some research indicates that
Contrast Effects
information presented prior to the interview

With the contrast effect, the interview
or early in the interview carries more weight
performance of one applicant may affect the
than does information presented later in the
interview
interview.
applicant.
Furthermore, it has been suggested that

score
given
to
the
next
If a terrible applicant precedes an average
interviewers decide about a candidate within
applicant, the interview score for the average
the first few minutes of an interview. In fact,
applicant will be higher than if no applicant or
of a group of personnel professionals, 74%
a very qualified applicant preceded her. In
said they can make a decision within the first
other words, an applicant’s performance is
five minutes of an interview and two studies
judged in relation to the performance of
found a high correlation between interviewer
previous interviewees. Thus, it may be
ratings made after a few minutes of rapport
advantageous
building and the final interview rating.
immediately after someone who has done
However, more recent research found that
poorly.
to
be
only 5% of interviewers made up their mind
Negative-Information Bias
in the first minute and only 31% within the

first five minutes. Thus, most interviewers
interviewed
Negative information apparently weighs
more heavily than positive information.


Negative-information bias seems to occur
contact. Howard and Ferris found a significant
only when interviewers aren’t aware of job
relationship between use of appropriate
requirements. It seems to support the
nonverbal
observation that most job applicants are
perceptions of interviewee competence.
afraid of being honest in interviews for fear
Meta-analysis results also indicate that the
that one negative response will cost them
appropriate use of such verbal cues as tone,
their job opportunities.
pitch, speech rate, and pauses is also related
One
might
increase
the
accuracy
behaviors
and
interviewer
to higher interview scores.
of
information obtained in the interview by
reducing social pressure and using written or
computerized interviews.
Creating a Structured Interview
Interviewer-Interviewee Similarity
Determining the KSAOs to Tap in the
Interview


In general, research suggests that an
The first step in creating a structured
interviewee will receive a higher score if he or
interview is to conduct a thorough job
she is similar to the interviewer in terms of
analysis
personality, attitude, gender, or race.
description.
and
write
a
detailed
job
 As discussed in Chapter 2, the job analysis
Interviewee Appearance
should identify the tasks performed, the
 Meta-analyses indicate that, in general,
physically attractive applicants have an
conditions
advantage in interviews over less attractive
performed, and the knowledge, skills,
applicants
abilities,
and
professionally
scores
than
applicants
receive
do
more
who
higher
dress
dressed
and
which
other
they
are
characteristics
(KSAOs) needed to perform the tasks.
interview
poorly
under

The second step is to determine the best way
applicants. This attractiveness bias occurred
to measure an applicant’s ability to perform
for men and women and for traditionally
each of the tasks identified in the job
masculine and feminine job types.
analysis.
Nonverbal Cues
 Some of the KSAOs can be appropriately
 Appropriate nonverbal cues include such things
measured in an interview; others will
as smiling and making appropriate eye
need to be tapped through such methods
as psychological tests, job samples,
might want to ask her a few questions in
assessment
Spanish.
centers,
references,
background checks, and training and
Future-focused questions
experience ratings.

Future-focused
questions,
also
called
Creating Interview Questions
situational questions, ask an applicant what
Clarifier
she would do in a particular situation. As

Clarifiers allow the interviewer to clarify
shown in Table 4.1, the first step in creating
information in the résumé, cover letter, and
situational questions is to collect critical
application, fill in gaps, and obtain other
incidents, a technique you learned in Chapter
necessary information.
2. These incidents are then rewritten into
Because each applicant’s résumé and cover
questions that will be used during the
letter are unique, specific clarifiers are not
interview.

standard across applicants.
Disqualifiers
 Disqualifiers are questions that must be
answered a particular way or the applicant is
disqualified. For example, if a job requires
that employees work on weekends, a
disqualifier might be, “Are you available to
work on weekends?” If the answer is no, the
applicant will not get the job.
Skill-level determiners
 Skill-level determiners tap an interviewee’s
level of expertise. For example, if an applicant
says she is proficient in Microsoft Word, an
interviewer might ask some questions about
the word processing program. If an applicant
claims to be fluent in Spanish, the interviewer

It is important that these questions can be
answered
with
the
applicant’s
current
knowledge. That is, asking police applicants
situational questions in which they would need
knowledge of police procedureswould not
be appropriate because they won’t learn this
information until they graduate from the police
academy. After creating the questions, the
next step is to create a scoring key.
Past-focused questions
 Past-focused questions, sometimes referred to
as patterned behavior description interviews
(PBDIs), differ from situational interview
questions by focusing on previous behavior
rather than future intended behavior. That is,
applicants are asked to provide specific
examples
of
how
they
demonstrated
jobrelated skills in previous jobs.
 For example, consider the question “As a
Organizational-fit questions


future
server, can you give a glass of wine to a
performance, organizational-fit questions tap
16-year-old if his parents are present and
the extent to which an applicant will fit into
give permission?” If the interviewee
the culture of an organization or with the
answers no, she would get a point for a
leadership style of a particular supervisor.
correct answer. If she answers yes, she
Rather
than
trying
to
predict
would not get a point.
The idea behind organizational-fit questions is
 If the question type being asked was a
to make sure that the applicant’s personality
disqualifier
and goals are consistent with those of the
(e.g.,
Can
you
work
weekends?), the wrong answer would
organization.
actually disqualify the individual from
further consideration rather than merely
Creating a Scoring Key for Interview
Answers

There are three main methods of scoring most
answers:
right/wrong,
result in no points being awarded.
Typical-Answer Approach

typical-answer
is to create a list of all possible answers to
approach, andkey-issues approach.

The idea behind the typical-answer approach
each question, have subject-matter experts
When scoring interviews, it is appropriate to
(SMEs) rate the favorableness of each
have a system to evaluate an applicant’s
answer, and then use these ratings to serve
nonverbal cues, especially when the job
as benchmarks for each point on a five-point
involves interpersonal skills. Such scoring is
supported by research demonstrating that an
applicant’s nonverbal cues in interviews can
predict job performance.
scale.

Though some scoring keys have only one
benchmark answer for each point on the
scale, research by Buchner indicates that
Right/Wrong Approach
increasing
 Some interview questions, especially skill-level
answers will greatly increase the scoring
determiners, can be scored simply on the
reliability. Because the number of possible
basis of whether the answer given was correct
answers to any question is probably finite, it
or incorrect.
might be a good idea at this stage to
the
number
of
benchmark
brainstorm all possible answers to a question
and then benchmark each of the answers.
important step, as it results in the applicant
This approach would result in ten or so
feeling more positive about the interview.
benchmarked answers per question rather

agenda for the interview by explaining
the process.
than the traditional five.
Key-Issues Approach
Most applicants have not been through a
 A problem with the typical-answer approach is
structured interview, so it is important to
that there are many possible answers to a
explain the types of questions that will be
question, and applicants often provide
asked and point out that each interviewer
answers that could fit parts of several
different
benchmarks.
To
correct
will be taking notes and scoring the answers
this
immediately after the interviewee has
problem, the key-issues approach can be
responded.
used. In this approach, SMEs create a list of
key issues they think should be included in

the interview questions. You may want to
included, the interviewee gets a point. The key
have only one person ask all of the questions
issues can also be weighted so that the most
or have each panel member ask some
important issues get more points than the less
questions. It is important to score each
important issues.
answer after it has been given.
Though it is common to use a panel interview,
Such information might include salary and
research suggests that interviews will best
benefits, the job duties, opportunities for
predict performance when one trained
advancement, a history of the organization,
interviewer is used for all applicants.
The first step in conducting the interview is to
build rapport; do not begin asking
questions until applicants have had time to
“settle their nerves.” Building rapport is an
Once the questions have been asked,
provide information about the job and
the organization.
Conducting the Structured Interview

After the agenda has been established, ask
the perfect answer. For each key issue that is


Once an applicant feels at ease, set the
and so on.

Then,
answer
any
questions
the
applicant might have. It is a good idea at
this point to say something like, “We have
asked you a lot of questions but may not have
asked you about things you want to tell us. Is

there any information you would like to tell us
however, is when applicants arrive for the
that we did not ask about?”.
interview. If they arrive late, the score will be
End the interview on a pleasant note
drastically lower. In fact, in a study I
by complimenting the interviewee (“It was a
conducted, no applicant who arrived late was
pleasure meeting you”) and letting her know
hired. No differences, however, have been
when you will be contacting the applicant
found in interview scores based on whether
about job offers. At the conclusion of the
an applicant arrives on time or five or ten
interview, the scores from the questions are
minutes early. Therefore, the interview can be
summed and the resulting figure is the
scheduled for any time of the day or week, but
applicant’s interview score.
the applicant must not be late!
Before the Interview

Job Search Skills
one
Successfully Surviving the Interview
Process
the
most
commonly
asked
you know about our company?”) is used to
determine the applicant’s knowledge of the
obtain training on how to interview.
organization. Not only does this advice make
Research by Maurer and his colleagues has
sense, but research has found that an
shown that such training can increase an
applicant’s
applicant’s score on structured interviews.
that
interviewing skills are good ways to reduce
a negative correlation between interviewee
anxiety and interview performance.
Scheduling the Interview
 Contrary to advice given in popular magazines,
neither day of week nor time of day affect
interview scores. What will affect the score,
significantly
interview
preparation
significantly
correlates with being asked back for a second
is
important, as research indicates that there is
knowledge
correlates (.32) with the interview rating and
Receiving interview training and practicing
anxiety. Reducing anxiety
of
unstructured interview questions (“What do
 One of the most important of these steps is to
interview
Learn about the company. Recall from that
interview.

Organizations are especially impressed if an
applicant knows its products and services,
future needs, major problems faced, and
philosophy or mission. Statistics such as
market share and sales volume are not as
valuable.

On the day of the interview, dress neatly and
previous interview advice still holds for
professionally, and adjust your style as
videoconference interviews, some additional
necessary to fit the situation. Avoid wearing
advice includes speaking loudly, keeping
accessories such as flashy large earrings and
hand and arm movements to a minimum,
brightly colored ties. Hair should be worn
looking directly at the camera, and dressing
conservatively—avoid “big hair” and colors
in conservative, solid colors.
such as purple and green (impersonating a
After the Interview
member of MTV’s Osbourne family is not a
 Immediately following the interview, write a
good interview strategy).
brief letter thanking the interviewer for her
During the Interview
time. Although research evidence supports all

Nonverbal behaviors should include a firm
of the suggestions offered in this section, no
handshake, eye contact, smiling, and head-
research has been done on the effects of
nodding. Desired verbal behaviors include
thank-you letters.
asking questions, subtly pointing out how
Writing Cover Letters
you are similar to the interviewer, not asking

Avoid sounding desperate and don’t beg (I
really need a job bad! Please please please
hire me!).

Avoid
about the salary, not speaking slowly, and
not hesitating before answering questions.

Keep in mind that first impressions are the
an employer will be concerned about the
an interviewer’s office are often related to
quality of your regular work.
her personality and interests.
organizations interview applicants through a
videoconference in which an applicant goes to
a local Kinko’s (or similar location) and is
interviewed by employers hundreds or
thousands of miles away. Although the
errors.
produce. If your cover letter contains errors,
Kopitzke and Miller found that the contents of
associated with face-to-face interviews, many
spelling
examples of the best work applicants can
to the interviewer, look around the office.
As a method of saving travel expenses
and
Employers view cover letters and résumés as
most important. If you want to appear similar

grammar

Avoid officious words or phrases. Don’t use a
25-cent word when a nickel word will do. Not
only will employers be unimpressed by a large
vocabulary, but applicants using “big words”
often misuse them. As an example, one
applicant
tried
to
describe
his
work
productivity by saying that his writings were
“voluptuous,” rather than “voluminous,” as
(unless the company is a “house of ill repute”) or
“To Whom It May Concern” (it doesn’t concern
me).
we think he meant to say.

Don’t discuss personal circumstances such as
“I find myself looking for a job because I am
recently divorced.” Employers are interested
Paragraphs

sentences long and communicate three
in only your qualifications.

pieces of information: the fact that your
Cover letters tell an employer that you are
résumé is enclosed, the name of the job you
enclosing your résumé and would like to
are applying for, and how you know about
apply for a job. Cover letters should never be
the job opening (such as a newspaper ad or
longer than one page. Cover letters contain a
salutation, four basic paragraphs, and a
The opening paragraph should be one or two
from a friend).

closing signature.
The second paragraph states that you are
qualified for the job and provides about three
Salutation
reasons why. This paragraph should be only

If possible, get the name of the person to
four or five sentences in length and should
whom you want to direct the letter. If you
not rehash the content of your résumé.
aren’t sure of the person’s name, call the

company and simply ask for the name of the
interested in the particular company to which
person (have it spelled) to whom you should
send your résumé.

If the first name leaves doubt about the
person’s gender (e.g., Kim, Robin, Paige), ask
if the person is male or female so that you can
properly address the letter to Mr. Smith or Ms.
Smith.

Do not refer to the person by his or her first
name (e.g., Dear Sarah). If you can’t get the
person’s name, a safe salutation is “Dear
Human Resource Director.” Avoid phrases
such as “Dear Sir or Madam”
The third paragraph explains why you are
you are applying.

The final paragraphcloses your letter and
provides information on how you can best be
reached. Though your phone number will be
on your résumé, this paragraph is a good place
to tell the employer the best days and times
to reach you.
Signature
 Above your signature, use words such as
“cordially” or “sincerely.” “Yours truly” is not
advised, and words such as “Love,” “Peace,”
or “Hugs
and snuggles”
are
strongly
discouraged. Personally sign each cover
marital status, and personal health. Résumés
letter; and type your name, address, and
written as an advertisement of skills tend to
phone number below your signature.
be shorter and contain only information that
is both positive and relevant to a job seeker’s
desired career. This latter view of résumés is
Writing a Résumé

the most commonly held today.
Résumés are summaries of an applicant’s
professional and educational background.
Although résumés are commonly requested
Characteristics of Effective Résumés
1.
read. To achieve this, try to leave at least a 1-
by employers, little is known about their
inch margin on all sides, and allow plenty of
value in predicting employee performance.
white space; that is, do not “pack”
Some studies have found that when an
interviewer
reads
a
résumé
information into the résumé. White is
before
probably the best paper color, as it scans,
interviewing an applicant, the validity of the
copies, and faxes more clearly than other
employment interview may actually be
colors.
reduced.

Contrary to popular belief, there is no one
2.
make any careless mistakes!
have such different backgrounds, a format
for another. Therefore, this section will
provide only general advice about writing a
résumé; the rest is up to you.
Views of Résumés
 Résumés can be viewed in one of two ways: as
a history of your life or as an
advertisement of your skills. Résumés
written as a history of one’s life tend to be
long and to list every job ever worked, as well
as personal information such as hobbies,
The résumé cannot contain typing, spelling,
grammatical, or factual mistakes. Do not
best way to write a résumé. Because people
that works for one individual may not work
The résumé must be attractive and easy to
3.
The résumé should make the applicant look
as qualified as possible—without lying. This is
an important rule in determining what
information should be included. If including
hobbies, summer jobs, and lists of courses will
make you look more qualified for this
particular job, then by all means, include
them.
for what is to come), primacy (early
Types of Résumé
impressions are most important), and short-
Chronological résumés
term memory limits (the list should not be
 Chronological résumés list previous jobs in
longer than seven items).
order from the most to the least recent. This
type of résumé is useful for applicants whose

contain information about either your
previous jobs were related to their future
education or your experience—whichever is
plans and whose work histories do not
strongest for you.
contain gaps.

Functional résumé
sections,
applicants who are either changing careers or
rules
have gaps in their work histories. The

three
should
impression-management
be
used:
relevance,
If information is relevant to your desired
comprehend than the other résumé types—
career, it probably should be included. For
this problem makes functional résumés the
example, you might mention that you have
least popular with employers.
two children if you are applying for a position
in day care or elementary school teaching, but
Psychological résumé

organizational
unusualness, and positivity.
problem with this type of résumé is that it
read and
an
which information to put into these two
Functional résumés are especially useful for
to
provide
reader to remember the contents. In deciding
than the order in which they were worked.
longer
to
framework that will make it easier for the
the skills required to perform them rather
employers
The design of the education section is
intended
 The functional résumé organizes jobs based on
takes
The next section of the résumé should
not if you are applying for a job involving a lot
The psychological résumé is the style I prefer,
of travel.
as it contains the strengths of both the
chronological and functional styles and is
based on sound psychological theory and
research. The résumé should begin with a
short summary of your strengths. This section
takes advantage of the impression-formation
principles of priming (preparing the reader

Unusual information should be included
when possible, as people pay more attention
to it than to typical information. A problem for
college seniors is that their résumés look
identical to those of their classmates. That is,
most business majors take the same classes,
belong to the same clubs, and have had similar

A reference is the expression of an opinion,
part-time jobs. To stand out from other
either orally or through a written checklist,
graduates, an applicant needs something
regarding an applicant’s ability, previous
unusual, such as an internship, an interesting
performance, work habits, character, or
hobby, or an unusual life experience.
potential for future success.
 Though it is advisable to have unusual

A letter of recommendation is a letter
information, the information must also
expressing
be positive. It probably would not be a
applicant’s ability, previous performance,
good idea to list unusual information such
work habits, character, or potential for future
as “I’ve been arrested more times than
success.
an
opinion
regarding
an
anyone in my class” or “I enjoy bungee
jumping without cords.”

Of
the
many
positive
activities
and
accomplishments that you could list, list only
Reasons for Using References and
Recommendations

Confirming Details on a Résumé
your best. Do not list everything you have
 It is not uncommon for applicants to
done; research by Spock and Stevens found
engage in résumé fraud—lying on their
that it is better to list a few great things, rather
résumés about what experience or
than a few great things and many good things.
education they actually have. Thus, one
This finding is based on Anderson’s
reason to check references or ask for
averaging versus adding model of
letters of recommendation is simply to
impression formation, which implies that
confirm the truthfulness of information
activity quality is more important than
provided by the applicant.
quantity. It is neither necessary nor desirable
to list all of your coursework.
Employee Selection: References
and Testing

Checking for Discipline Problems

A second reason to check references
or obtain letters of recommendation is to
determine whether the applicant has a
history of such discipline problems as

A reference check is the process of confirming
the accuracy of information provided by an
applicant.
poor attendance, sexual harassment,
and violence.
 Such a history is important for an
try to get consensus from several
organization to discover to avoid future
problems as well as to protect itself from
a potential charge of negligent hiring.
 If an organization hires an applicant
without checking his references and
references.

Predicting Future Performance
 In psychology, a common belief is that the
best predictor of future performance is
past performance.
background and he later commits a
 Even though references are commonly
crime while in the employ of the
used to screen and select employees,
organization, the organization may
they have not been successful in
be found liable for negligent hiring if
predicting future employee success.
the
employee
has
a
criminal
 This low validity is largely due to four
background that would have been
main problems with references and
detected had a background check
letters of recommendation: leniency,
been conducted.
knowledge
of
reliability,
and
 In determining negligent hiring,
the
applicant,
extraneous
low
factors
courts look at the nature of the job.
involved in writing and reading such
Organizations involved with the
letters.  Leniency
safety of the public, such as police
 Research is clear that most letters of
departments and day-care centers,
recommendation are positive. But
must
keep in mind that applicants choose
conduct
more
thorough
background and reference checks
their own references!
than organizations like retail stores.
 But if we require work-related
 Discovering New Information
references, they probably, but not
About the Applicant
necessarily,
 Former employers and professors can
would
be
negative
because research has shown that
provide information about an applicant’s
coworkers
work habits, character, personality, and
negative things about unsatisfactory
skills.
employees.
 Reference
checkers
should
always
obtain specific behavioral examples and
are
willing
to
say
 Although coworkers are willing to
say
negative
things
“This employee is a jerk,” you might
about
say “He was warned three times
employees,
about yelling at other employees and
confidentially concerns can hold
four employees requested that they
them back. By law, people have the
not have to work with him.”
unsatisfactory
 These
right to see their reference letters.
“reference
detectives”
 People providing references tend to
contact the former employer under
be less lenient when an applicant
the guise of being a company
waives his right to see a reference
considering
letter.
employee. The reference information
hiring
the
former
 A third cause of leniency stems from
is then passed on to the client, who
the fear of legal ramifications. A
has the option of filing a defamation
person providing references can be
suit if he or she doesn’t like what is
charged
being said.
with
defamation
of
character (slander if the reference is
 Because an employer can be guilty of
oral, libel if written) if the content of
negligent hiring for not contacting
the reference is both untrue and
references, a former employer also
made with malicious intent.
can be guilty of negligent reference
providing
if it does not provide relevant
references are granted what is called
information to an organization that
a conditional privilege, which means
requests it.  Knowledge of the
that they have the right to express
Applicant
 However,
people
their opinion provided they believe
 A second problem with letters of
what they say is true and have
recommendation is that the person
reasonable grounds for this belief.
writing the letter often does not
 One
way
to
avoid
losing
a
know the applicant well, has not
defamation suit is to provide only
observed
behavioral
applicant’s behavior, or both.
information
in
a
reference. That is, rather than saying
 Reliability
all
aspects
of
an
 The third problem with references
and
letters
of
 Without understanding the exact
recommendation
nature
of
the
referee–referent
involves the lack of agreement
relationship,
making
judgments
between two people who provide
about the content of a reference can
references for the same person.
be difficult.
 Second, be honest in providing details.
 Letters of recommendation may say
more about the person writing the
 A referee has both an ethical and a
letter than about the person for
legal obligation to provide relevant

information about an applicant. A
whom
it
is being
written.
good rule of thumb is to ask, “If I were
Extraneous Factors
in the reference seeker’s shoes, what
 Research has indicated that the
would I need to know?”
method used by the letter writer is
often more important than the
 Finally, let the applicant see your
actual content. For example, letters
reference before sending it, and give him
that contained specific examples
the chance to decline to use it.
were rated higher than letters that
 Such a procedure is fair to the
applicant and reduces the referee’s
contained generalities.
liability for any defamation charge.
 Letters written by references who
like applicants are longer than those
written by references who do not.
 The longer the recommendation
letter, the more positively the letter
was perceived.
Predicting Performance Using Applicant
Training and Education

A meta-analysis by Hunter and Hunter found
that the validity of education was only .10
and that it did not add any predictive power
(incremental validity) over the use of cognitive
ability tests.
Ethical Issues
 Three ethical guidelines that reference
providers should follow
 First, explicitly state your relationship
with the person you are recommending.

However, a meta-analysis of the relationship
between education and police performance
found
thateducation
was
a
valid

predictor of performance in the police
the time of hire. Instead, new employees will
academy and performance on the job.
be taught the necessary job skills and
Meta-analyses indicate that a student’s GPA
knowledge. Cognitive Ability
can
predict
job
performance,
performance,
promotions,
training
salary,
and
 Cognitive
ability
includes
such
dimensions as oral and written
comprehension, oral and written
graduate school performance.
expression,
numerical
facility,
Predicting Performance Using Applicant
Knowledge
originality, memorization, reasoning

Used primarily in the public sector, especially
inductive), and general learning.
for promotions, job knowledge tests are
 Cognitive ability is important for

deductive,
designed tomeasure how much a person
professional,
knows about a job.
supervisory jobs, including such
Standardized
job knowledge tests
are
commonly used by state licensing boards for
such

(mathematical,
occupations
as
lawyers
and
occupations
clerical,
as
and
supervisor,
accountant, and secretary.
 Cognitive ability tests are commonly
psychologists.
used because they are excellent
Job knowledge tests have excellent content
predictors
and criterion validity, and because of their
performance in the United States
high face validity, they are positively accepted
and in the European Community, are
by applicants.
easy
to
of
administer,
employee
and
are
relatively inexpensive.
Predicting Performance Using Applicant
Ability
 Ability tests tap the extent to which an
applicant can learn or perform a job-related
skill. Ability tests are used primarily for
occupations in which applicants are not
expected to know how to perform the job at
 Perhaps the most crucial of these is
that they result in high levels of
adverse impact and often lack face
validity.
 Another drawback to cognitive ability
tests is the difficulty of setting a
passing score.
 One of the most widely used
recognition),
and
hearing
auditory
attention,
cognitive ability tests in industry is
(sensitivity,
the Wonderlic Personnel Test. The
sound localization).
short amount of time (10 minutes)
 Abilities from this dimension are
necessary to take the test, as well as
useful for such occupations as
the fact that it can be administered in
machinist, cabinet maker, die setter,
a group setting, makes it popular.
and
 Other popular cognitive tests are the
Miller Analogies Test, the Quick Test,
tool
and
die
maker.

Psychomotor Ability
 Psychomotor ability includes finger
and Raven Progressive Matrices.
dexterity, manual dexterity, control
 A potential breakthrough in cognitive
precision, multilimb coordination,
ability tests is the Siena Reasoning
response control, reaction time,
Test (SRT). The developers of this test
arm-hand steadiness, wrist-finger
theorized
speed,
that
the
large
race
differences in scores on traditional
cognitive ability tests were due to
the
knowledge
needed
and
speed-of-limb
movement.
 Psychomotor abilities are useful for
to
such jobs as carpenter, police
understand the questions rather
officer, sewing-machine operator,
than the actual ability to learn or
post office clerk, and truck driver. 
process information (intelligence).
Physical Ability
 A type of test related to cognitive
 Physical ability tests are often used
ability is the situational judgment
for
test. In this test, applicants are given
strength and stamina, such as police
a series of situations and asked how
officer, firefighter, and lifeguard.
they would handle each one. 
Perceptual Ability
 Perceptual ability consists of vision
(near, far, night, peripheral), color
discrimination, depth perception,
glare sensitivity, speech (clarity,
jobs
that
require
physical
 Physical ability is measured in one of
two ways: job simulations and
physical agility tests.
 With a job simulation, applicants
actually demonstrate job-related
physical behaviors.
 Job analyses consistently indicate
questioning the necessity of
that the physical requirements of
physical agility: current out-
police officers can be divided into
of-shape
two
technological alternatives.
categories:
athletic
and
defensive.
2.
→ Athletic requirements are easy to
and
Passing Scores
→ A second problem with
simulate because they involve
physical
such
determining passing scores;
behaviors
as
running,
crawling, and pulling.
→
cops
Defensive
ability
tests
is
that is, how fast must an
requirements,
applicant run or how much
however, are difficult to safely
weight must be lifted to
and accurately simulate because
pass a physical ability test?
they involve such behaviors as
Passing scores for physical
applying
ability tests are set based on
kicking,
restraining
and
holds,
fending
off
one
of
two
standards:
attackers.
→ Tests commonly used to measure
the abilities needed to perform
defensive
behaviors
push-ups,
sit-ups,
include
and
grip
strength.
 Because physical ability tests have
tremendous adverse impact against
types
relative
of
or
absolute.
→ Relative standards indicate
how well an individual
scores
compared
with
others in a group such as
women, police applicants, or
current police officers.
women, they have been criticized on
→ The advantage to using
three major points: job relatedness,
relative standards is that
passing scores, and the time at
adverse impact is eliminated
which they should be required.
because men are compared
1.
Job Relatedness
→ Critics of physical agility
testing cite two reasons for
with men and women with
women.
→ The problem with relative
scales, however, is that a
female applicant might be
Predicting Performance Using Applicant Skill

strong compared with other
knowledge or potential to perform a job
women, yet not strong
(ability), some selection techniques measure
enough to perform the job.
the extent to which an applicant already has
→ In contrast, absolute passing
scores
are
set
at
the
Rather than measuring an applicant’s current
a job-related skill.

perform a job. For example,
The two most common methods for doing
this are the work sample and the assessment
center.
if a police officer needs to be
1.
minimum level needed to
 With a work sample, the applicant
performs actual job-related tasks.
able to drag a 170-pound
person from a burning car,
 Work samples are excellent selection
170 pounds becomes the
tools for several reasons. First,
passing score.
because they are directly related to
3. When the Ability Must Be Present
job tasks, they have excellent
→ Most police departments
content validity. Second, scores from
require applicants to pass
work samples tend to predict actual
physical ability tests on the
work performance and thus have
same day other tests are
excellent criterion validity. Third,
being completed. However,
because job applicants are able to
the applicant doesn’t need
see the connection between the job
the strength
sample and the work performed on
or speed until he is actually
the job, the samples have excellent
in the academy or on the
face validity and thus are challenged
job. Furthermore, applicants
less often in civil service appeals or in
going through an academy
court cases.
show significant increases in
physical ability and fitness
by the end of the academy.
Work Samples
2.
Assessment Centers
 An assessment center is a selection
combination
of
information
technique characterized by the use of
from the multiple assessors and
multiple assessment methods that
multiple techniques.
allow multiple assessors to actually
observe
applicants
perform
simulated job tasks.
 Its
major
advantages
and
multiple
are
that
trained
assessors help to guard against
many (but not all) types of selection
bias.
 For a selection technique to be
considered an assessment center, it
must
meet
the
applicant cannot be made until
all assessment center tasks have
assessment methods are all job
related
 The overall evaluation of an
following
requirements
 The assessment center activities
must be based on the results of
a thorough job analysis.
 Multiple assessment techniques
must be used, at least one of
which must be a simulation.
 Multiple trained assessors must
be used.
been completed.
 The first step in creating an
assessment center is, of course, to do
a job analysis.
 From this analysis, exercises are
developed that measure different
aspects
of
exercises
the
job.
Common
include
the
in-basket
technique,
simulations,
samples,
leaderless
work
group
discussions, structured interviews,
personality and ability tests, and
business games.
 The typical assessment center has
four or five exercises, takes two to
three days to complete, and costs
about $2,000 per applicant.
 Behavioral observations must
 Once the exercises have been
be documented at the time the
developed, assessors are chosen to
applicant behavior is observed.
rate the applicants going through the
 Assessors must prepare a report
of their observations.
assessment center. These assessors
 The overall judgment of an
higher than the assessees and spend
applicant must be based on a
typically hold positions two levels
one day being trained.
decision, the manner in which the
Exercises in Assessment Centers
decision was carried out, and the order in

which
The In-Basket Technique
 Simulation
simulate the types of daily information
appear
on
a
manager’s
applicant
handled
the
paperwork.  Simulations
 The in-basket technique is designed to
that
the
exercises
are
the
real
backbone of the assessment center
or
because they enable assessors to see an
employee’s desk. The technique takes its
applicant “in action.”
name from the wire baskets typically seen
on office desks. Usually these baskets
 Simulations, which can include such
have two levels: the “in” level, which
diverse activities as role plays and work
holds paperwork that must be handled,
samples, place an applicant in a situation
and the “out” level, which contains
that is as similar as possible to one that
completed paperwork.
will be encountered on the job.
 During the assessment center, examples
 A good example of a role-playing
of job-related paperwork are placed in a
simulation is an assessment center used
basket, and the job applicant is asked to
by a large city to select emergency
go through the basket and respond to
telephone operators.
 Organizations using video simulations
the paperwork as if he were actually on
administer them to a group of applicants,
the job.
 Examples of such paperwork might
who view the situations in the tape and
include a phone message from an
then write down what they would do in
employee who cannot get his car started
each situation.
and does not know how to get to work or

Work Samples
accounting
 Usually, when a simulation does not
department stating that an expense
involve a situational exercise, it is called
voucher is missing.
a work sample.  Leaderless Group
a
memo
from
the
 The applicant is observed by a group of
Discussions
assessors, who score him on several
 In this exercise, applicants meet in small
dimensions, such as the quality of the
groups and are given a job-related
problem to solve or a job-related issue to
 No leader is appointed, hence the term
leaderless group discussion.
 As the applicants discuss the problem or
issue, they are individually rated on such
as
cooperativeness,
information,
 Experience Ratings
 The basis for experience ratings is the
idea that past experience will predict
future experience.
 In giving credit for experience, one
must
leadership, and analytical skills.

application/résumé
biodata, reference checks, and interviews.
discuss.
dimensions
of
consider the amount
of
experience, the level of performance
Business Games
 Business games are exercises that allow
the applicant to demonstrate such
attributes as creativity, decision making,
demonstrated during the previous
experience, and how related the
experience is to the current job.
 Biodata
and ability to work with others.
 A business game in one assessment
center used a series of Tinker Toy
models. Four individuals joined a group
and were told that they were part of a
 Biodata is a selection method that
considers an applicant’s life, school,
military, community, and work
experience.
company that manufactured goods. The
 Meta-analyses have shown that
goods ranged from Tinker Toy tables to
biodata is a good predictor of job
Tinker Toy scuba divers, and the group’s
performance, as well as the best
task was to buy the parts, manufacture
predictor
the products, and then sell the products
tenure.
at the highest profit in an environment in
 A
biodata
of
future
instrument
employee
is
an
application blank or questionnaire
which prices constantly changed.
containing questions that research
Predicting
Experience
Performance
Using
Prior
 Applicant experience is typically measured in
one of four ways: experience ratings
has shown measure the difference
between
successful
and
unsuccessful performers on a job.
 Each question receives a weight that
 The second criticism is that some
indicates how well it differentiates
biodata items may not meet the
poor from good performers.
legal requirements stated in the
 Research has shown that they can
federal Uniform Guidelines, which
predict work behavior in many jobs,
establish fair hiring methods. Of
including
management,
greatest concern is that certain
clerical, mental health counseling,
biodata items might lead to racial or
hourly work in processing plants,
sexual discrimination.
sales,
grocery clerking, fast-food work, and
supervising.
 To make biodata instruments less
disagreeable to critics, Gandy and
 They have been able to predict
Dye developed four standards to
criteria as varied as supervisor
consider for each potential item:
ratings,
accidents,
 The item must deal with events
employee theft, loan defaults, sales,
under a person’s control (e.g., a
and tenure.
person would have no control
absenteeism,
 Biodata instruments result in higher
organizational profit and growth.
over birth order but would have
 Biodata instruments are easy to use,
speeding tickets she received).
quickly administered, inexpensive,
 The item must be job related.
and not as subject to individual bias
 The answer to the item must be
as
interviews,
references,
and
résumé evaluation.
control over the number of
verifiable (e.g., a question about
how many jobs an applicant has
 The first criticism is that the validity
had is verifiable, but a question
of biodata may not be stable—that
about the applicant’s favorite
is, its ability to predict employee
type of book is not).
behavior
decreases
with
time.
 The item must not invade an
Declines in validity found in earlier
applicant’s privacy (asking why
studies may have resulted from small
an applicant quit a job is
samples in the initial development
permissible; asking about an
of the biodata instrument.
applicant’s sex life is usually not).
 When including bogus
 The third criticism is that
biodata can be faked, a
items
charge that has been
instrument,
made
every
important that the items
selection method except
be carefully researched
work samples and ability
to ensure that they don’t
tests. Research indicates
represent activities that
that applicants do in fact
might actually exist.
against
respond to items in
items—items
that
include an experience
that does not actually
exist (e.g., Conducted a
Feldspar
analysis
to
analyze data)—attempts
to fake biodata can be
detected.
is
bright
often as applicants lower
in cognitive ability. But
when they do choose to
fake, they are better at
doing it.
 using objective,
verifiable items
bogus
it
fake biodata items as
 warning
applicants of the
presence of a lie
scale
including
biodata
applicants tend not to
 To reduce faking, several
steps can be taken
including:
 By
a
 Interestingly,
socially desirable ways.
 asking applicants
to elaborate on
their answers or
to
provide
examples
in
Predicting Performance Using
Personality, Interest, and Character
 Personality Inventories
 Personality inventories fall into one of
two categories based on their intended
purpose:
measurement
personality
of
or
psychopathology
types
of
normal
measurement
of
(abnormal
personality).
 Tests of normal personality measure the
traits exhibited by normal individuals in
everyday life. Examples of such traits are
extraversion, shyness, assertiveness, and
friendliness.
 Tests of psychopathology (abnormal
behavior) determine whether individuals
 Determination of the number and type of
have serious psychological problems
personality dimensions measured by an
such as depression, bipolar disorder, and
inventory can usually be (1) based on a
schizophrenia.
theory, (2) statistically based, or (3)
 Tests of psychopathology are
generally scored in one of two ways:
objectively or projectively.
empirically based.
 Examples of common measures of
normal personality used in employee
selection include the
Hogan
Personality
Inventory,
 Projective
tests
provide
the
respondent with unstructured tasks
the
such as describing ink blots and
California Psychological Inventory, the
drawing pictures. Because projective
NEO-PI
Extraversion
tests are of questionable reliability
Openness Personality Inventory), and the
and validity and are time-consuming
16 PF.
and expensive, they are rarely used in
(Neuroticism
 A meta-analysis of predictors of police
employee selection. Common tests in
performance found that openness was
this
the
Rorschach Ink Blot Test and the
best
personality
academy
predictor
of
performance;
category
also
include
the
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
conscientiousness was the best predictor
 Objective tests are structured so that
of supervisor ratings of performance;
the respondent is limited to a few
and emotional stability was the best
answers that will be scored by
predictor of disciplinary problems.
standardized keys. By far the most
 Though personality inventories aren’t
popular and heavily studied test of
employee
this type is the MMPI-2. Other tests
performance, they are useful in training
in this category are the Millon
and development programs in which
Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI-
employees and managers attempt to get
III) and the Personality Assessment
insight into the ways in which they have
Inventory (PAI).
the
best
predictors
related to others.
of
 Interest Inventories
 Integrity Tests
 As the name implies, these tests are
designed to tap vocational interests.
 The most commonly used interest
inventory
is
the
Strong
Interest
Inventory (SII), which asks individuals to
indicate whether they like or dislike 325
items such as bargaining, repairing
electrical
wiring,
and
taking
responsibility.
 Employees
 Integrity tests (also called honesty tests)
tell an employer the probability that an
applicant
would
steal
money
or
merchandise.
 Prior to the 1990s, employers used both
electronic and paper-and-pencil integrity
tests to screen applicants. In 1988,
however, the U.S. Congress passed the
Employee Polygraph Protection Act
whose
interests
are
making general use of electronic integrity
congruent with those of the job are more
tests, such as the polygraph and the
satisfied and perform at higher levels
voice stress analyzer, illegal except in a
than employees whose interests are not
few situations involving law enforcement
congruent with the job.
agencies and national security.
 Other popular interest
include the Minnesota
Interest Inventory, the
inventories
Vocational
 The law did, however, allow the use of
paper-and-pencil integrity tests, which
are either (1) overt or
Occupational Preference Inventory, the
(2) personality based.
Kuder Occupational Interest Survey, the
 Overt integrity tests are based on the
Kuder Preference Record, and the
California
Occupational
Preference
System.
 Interest
premise that a person’s attitudes
about theft as well as his previous
theft
inventories
are
useful
in
vocational counseling (helping people
find the careers for which they are best
suited). Conducted properly, vocational
counseling uses a battery of tests that, at
a minimum, should include an interest
inventory and a series of ability tests.
behavior
will
accurately
predict his future honesty. They
measure attitudes by asking the testtaker to estimate the frequency of
theft in society, how harsh penalties
against thieves should be, how easy
it is to steal, how often he has
personally been tempted to steal,
how often his friends have stolen,
 Conditional reasoning tests provide test
and how often he personally has
takers with a series of statements and
stolen.
then ask the respondent to select the
 Personality-based integrity tests are
reason that best justifies or explains
more general in that they tap a
each of the statements. The type of
variety of personality traits thought
reason selected by the individual is
to be related to a wide range of
thought to indicate his or her aggressive
counterproductive behavior such as
biases or beliefs.
 Aggressive individuals tend to believe:
theft, absenteeism, and violence.
 Overt tests are more reliable and
1.
most people have harmful intentions
behind their behavior (hostile
attribution bias)
2.
it is important to show strength or
dominance in social interactions
(potency bias)
3.
it is important to retaliate when
valid in predicting theft and other
counterproductive behaviors than
are personality-based tests.
 Validity of integrity tests has been
determined by comparing test scores
with:
1.
polygraph test results,
2.
self-admissions of theft,
3.
shrinkage (the amount of goods lost
by a store),
4.
known groups (e.g., priests vs.
convicts), and
5.
future theft.
wronged rather than try to maintain
a relationship (retribution bias)
4.
powerful people will victimize less
powerful individuals (victimization
bias)
5.
evil people deserve to have bad
things happen to them (derogation
of target bias)
social customs restrict free will and
should be ignored (social discounting
bias).
6.
 Conditional Reasoning Tests
 Conditional reasoning tests were initially
developed by James to reduce the
inaccurate responses and get a more
 Graphology
 An
interesting
method
to
select
accurate picture of a person’s tendency
employees is handwriting analysis, or
to
graphology. The idea behind handwriting
engage
in
aggressive
counterproductive behavior.
or
analysis is that the way people write
reveals their personality, which in turn
in the past month and HR professionals
should indicate work performance.
believe not only that illegal drug use is
 To analyze a person’s handwriting, a
dangerous but also that many employees are
under the influence of drugs at work.
graphologist looks at the size, slant,
width, regularity, and pressure of a

Their beliefs are supported by research
writing sample. From these writing
indicating that compared with non–drug-
characteristics,
about
users, illegal drug users are more likely to
temperament and mental, social, work,
miss work, are 16 times as likely to use health
and moral traits is obtained.
care benefits, are more likely to be fired and
information
quit their jobs, and have 3.6 times as many
 Most importantly, the small body of
accidents on the job.
scientific literature on the topic concludes
that graphology is not a useful technique
Psychological Exams
in

employee
selection.
Graphology
In jobs involving public safety (e.g., law
predicts best when the writing sample is
enforcement, nuclear power, transportation),
autobiographical (the writer writes an
it is common for employers to give
essay about himself), which means that
psychological exams to applicants after a
graphologists
their
conditional offer of hire has been made. If the
predictions more on the content of the
applicant fails the exam, the offer is
writing than on the quality of the
rescinded.
are
making
handwriting.

Psychological exams usually consist of an
interview by a clinical psychologist, an
Predicting Performance Limitations
Due to Medical and Psychological
Problems
examination of the applicant’s life history,
Drug Testing
chapter. It is important to keep in mind that

psychological exams are not designed to
Drug testing certainly is one of the most
and the administration of one or more of the
psychological tests discussed earlier in this
controversial testing methods used by HR
predict employee performance. Therefore,
professionals. The reason for its high usage is
they should only be used to determine if a
that 8.2% of employees admit to using drugs
potential employee is a danger to himself or
others.
Medical Exams
legal challenge when they result in adverse
 In jobs requiring physical exertion, many
impact, invade an applicant’s privacy, and do
employers require that a medical exam be
not appear to be job related
taken after a conditional offer of hire has been
(lack face validity).
made. In these exams, the physician is given a

Cognitive ability and GPA will result in the
copy of the job description and asked to
highest levels of adverse impact, whereas
determine
integrity tests, references, and personality
if
there
are
any
medical
inventories will result in the lowest levels.
conditions that will keep the employee from
safely performing the job.
Rejecting Applicants

Comparison of Techniques
Once a decision has been made regarding
Validity
which applicants will be hired, those who will

not be hired must be notified.
Unstructured interview, education, interest
inventories, and some personality traits are

Rejected applicants should be treated well
not good predictors of future employee
because they are potential customers and
performance for most jobs.
potential applicants for other positions that
Ability,
work
samples,
biodata,
might become available in the organization.
and
structured interviews do a fairly good job of



What is the best way to reject an applicant?
predicting future employee performance.
The most interesting rejection letter I have
Even though some selection techniques are
seen came from Circuit City about 20 years
better than others, all are potentially useful
ago. At the bottom of the letter was a
methods for selecting employees. In fact, a
sentence stating that you could take the
properly
battery
rejection letter to any Circuit City store
usually contains a variety of tests that tap
within the next 30 days and get a 10%
different dimensions of a job.
discount. Imagine theclerk calling for
constructed
selection
assistance over the store intercom; “We have
Legal Issues

As you might recall from Chapter 3, methods
used to select employees are most prone to
a rejected applicant on Register 4, could a
manager please come and approve the
discount?”.

I remember getting a rejection letter from a
applicants feeling negatively toward an
graduate school back in 1978 stating that they
organization.
had 400 people apply and that my application

send
the
rejection
letter
lacked the quality to get past the department
immediately. The surprising results of a
clerk! They were kind enough to wish me
study by Waung and Brice suggest that
success in my career.
applicants react more positively if there
Clearly the above two examples are not best
is a delay in receiving the letter. Though
practices. So, what is? Aamodt and Peggans
these findings seems to go against the
found thatrejection letters differ to the
thought that applicants can better
extent that they contain the following types
manage their job searches if they know
of responses:
they have been rejected, it may be that
1. A personally addressed and signed letter
too quick of a rejection makes applicants
2. The company’s appreciation to the
applicant for applying for a position with
the company
feel as if they are such a loser that the
3. A compliment about the applicant’s
qualifications
4. A comment about the high qualifications
possessed by the other applicants

2. Don’t
organization quickly discarded them
(e.g., the graduate school whose clerk
rejected my application).
3. Be as personable and as specific as
possible in the letter. With the use of
5. Information about the individual who
was actually hired
automated applicant tracking systems, it
6. A wish of good luck in future endeavors
letter,
7. A promise to keep the applicant’s
resume on file
appreciation for applying, and perhaps
Though research has not clearly identified the
best way to write a rejection letter, the
following guidelines are probably a good place
to start.
1. Send rejection letters to applicants.
Though most organizations do not do
this, failure to send a letter results in
is fairly easy to individually address each
express
the
company’s
explain who was hired and what their
qualifications were. In general, “friendly”
letters
result
in
better
applicant
attitudes.
4. Including
a
statement
about
the
individual who received the job can
increase applicant satisfaction with both
the
selection
process
and
the
organization.
5. Do not include the name of a contact
person. Surprisingly, research has shown
that including such a contact decreases
the probability that a person will reapply
for future jobs or use the company’s
products.
6. Perhaps the most important thing to
consider when writing a letter of rejection
is to be honest. Do not tell applicants that
their resumes will be kept on file if the
files for each job opening will not be used.
that the person has not changed
Evaluating Selection
Techniques and Decisions
significantly.
Characteristics of Effective Selection
Techniques
interval,
Reliability is the extent to which a score from
a selection measure is stable and free from
error. If a score from a measure is not stable
or error-free, it is not useful.

administrations range from 3 days to 3
months. Usually, the longer the time
Reliability

 Typical time intervals between test
Test reliability is determined in four ways:
test-retest
reliability,
alternate-forms
reliability, internal reliability, and scorer
reliability.
the
lower
the
reliability
coefficient.
 The typical test-retest reliability
coefficient for tests used in industry is
.86.
 Alternate-Forms Reliability
 With the alternate-forms reliability
method, two forms of the same test are
constructed.
 A sample of 100 people are administered
 Test-Retest Reliability
both forms of the test; half of the sample
 With the test-retest reliability method,
each one of several people take the same
test twice. The scores from the first
administration of the test are correlated
first receive Form A and the other half
Form B. This counterbalancing of testtaking order is designed to eliminate
to
any effects that taking one form of the
test first may have on scores on the
second form.
 If they are, the test is said to have
 The scores on the two forms are then
with
scores
from
the
second
determine whether they are similar.
temporal stability: The test scores are
stable across time and not highly
susceptible
to
such
random
daily
conditions as illness, fatigue, stress, or
uncomfortable testing conditions.
 The time interval should be long enough
so that the specific test answers have not
been memorized, but short enough so
correlated to determine whether they
are similar. If they are, the test is said to
have form stability. Why would anyone
use this method? If there is a high
probability that people will take a test
more than once, two forms of the test are
needed
to
reduce
the
potential
advantage to individuals who take the
The more homogeneous the items, the
test a second time.
higher the internal consistency.
 Recall that with test-retest reliability, the
 The split-half method is the easiest to
time interval between administrations
use, as items on a test are split into two
usually ranges from 3 days to 3 months.
groups. Usually, all of the odd-numbered
With
reliability,
items are in one group and all the even-
however, the time interval should be as
numbered items are in the other group.
short as possible.
The scores on the two groups of items are
alternate-forms
 The average correlation between
alternate forms of tests used in industry
is .89.
then correlated. Because the number of
 In addition to being correlated, two forms
researchers have to use a formula called
of a test should also have the same mean
and standard deviation.
 Internal Reliability
items in the test has been reduced,
Spearman-Brown prophecy to adjust the
correlation.
 K-R 20 is used for tests containing
 A third way to determine the reliability of
dichotomous items (e.g., yes/no, true/
a test or inventory is to look at the
false), whereas the coefficient alpha
consistency with which an applicant
can be used not only for dichotomous
responds to items measuring a similar
items but for tests containing interval
dimension or construct (e.g., personality
and ratio items such as five-point rating
trait, ability, area of knowledge). The
scales.
extent to which similar items are
 Scorer reliability is an issue in projective
answered in similar ways is
or subjective tests in which there is no
referred to as internal consistency and
measures item stability.
one correct answer, but even tests
 Another factor that can affect the internal
reliability of a test is item
homogeneity. That is, do all
of the items measure the same thing, or
do they measure different constructs?
scored with the use of keys suffer from
scorer mistakes.
 Concurrent Validity
Validity


Validity is the degree to which inferences
 With a concurrent validity design, a
from scores on tests or assessments are
test is given to a group of employees
justified by the evidence.
who are already on the job. The
As with reliability, a test must be valid to be
scores
useful. But just because a test is reliable does
correlated with a measure of the
not mean it is valid.
employees’ current performance.
on
the
test
are
then
 Predictive Validity
 Content Validity
 One way to determine a test’s validity is
 With a predictive validity design, the
to look at its degree of content validity—
test is administered to a group of job
the extent to which test items sample
applicants who are going to be
the content that they are supposed to
hired. The test scores are then
measure.
compared with a future measure of
 In industry, the appropriate content for a
test or test battery is determined by the
job analysis.
 Criterion Validity
job performance.
 Why is a concurrent design weaker than
a predictive design? The answer lies in
the homogeneity of performance scores.
 Another measure of validity is criterion
In a given employment situation, very few
validity, which refers to the extent to
employees are at the extremes of a
which a test score is related to some
performance
measure of job performance called a
would be at the bottom of the
criterion.
performance scale either were never
 Commonly
who
hired or have since been terminated.
performance,
Employees who would be at the upper
actual measures of performance (e.g.,
end of the performance scale often get
sales, number of complaints, number of
promoted. Thus, the restricted range of
arrests made), attendance (tardiness,
performance scores makes obtaining a
absenteeism),
significant
performance
criteria
Employees
include
supervisor
used
scale.
ratings
of
tenure,
(e.g.,
police
training
academy
grades), and discipline problems.
difficult.
validity coefficient more
 A major issue concerning the criterion
 Another method of measuring construct
validity of tests focuses on a concept
validity is known-group validity. This
known as validity generalization, or
method is not common and should be
VG—the extent to which a test found
used only when other methods for
valid for a job in one location is valid for
measuring construct validity are not
the same job in a different location. It
practical. With known-group validity, a
was previously thought that the job of
test is given to two groups of people who
typist in one company was not the same
are “known” to be different on the trait
as that in another company, the job of
in question.
police officer in one small town was not
 For example, suppose we wanted to
the same as that in another small town,
determine the validity of our new honesty test.
and the job of retail store supervisor was
The best approach might be a criterion validity
not the same as that of supervisor in a
study in which we would correlate our
fast-food restaurant.
employees’ test scores with their dishonest
 Construct Validity
 Construct validity is the most theoretical
of the validity types. Basically, it is
defined as the extent to which a test
actually measures the construct that it
purports to measure.
 Construct validity is concerned with
inferences about test scores, in contrast
to content validity, which is concerned
with inferences about test construction.
 Construct validity is usually determined
by correlating scores on a test with
scores from other tests. Some of the
other tests measure the same construct,
whereas others do not.
behavior, such as stealing or lying. The problem
is, how would we know who stole or who lied?
We could ask them, but would dishonest people
tell the truth? Probably not. Instead, we decide to
validate our test by administering it to a group
known as honest (priests) and to another group
known as dishonest (criminals).
 Face Validity
 Although face validity is not one of the
three major methods of determining test
validity cited in the federal Uniform
Guidelines
on
Employee
Selection
Procedures, it is still important. Face
validity is the extent to which a test
appears to be job related.
 Chan, Schmitt, DeShon, Clause, and
Delbridge found that face-valid tests
resulted in high levels of test-taking
motivation, which in turn resulted in
Cost-efficiency
higher levels of test performance.

If two or more tests have similar validities,
 Face-valid tests that are accepted by
then cost should be considered. For example,
applicants decrease the chance of
in selecting police officers, it is common to
lawsuits,
of
use a test of cognitive ability such as the
the
Wonderlic Personnel Test or the Wechsler
employment process, and increase the
Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). Both tests
chance that an applicant will accept a job
have similar reliabilities and validities, yet the
offer.
Wonderlic costs only a few dollars per
applicants
reduce
the
dropping
number
out
of
applicant and can be administered to groups
 Barnum statements—statements so
of people in only 12 minutes.
general that they can be true of almost
everyone. For example, if I described you

testing costs, decrease feedback time, and
as “sometimes being sad, sometimes
yield results in which the test-takers can have
being successful, and at times not getting
great confidence, many public and private
along with your best friend,” I would
employers are switching to this method.
probably be very accurate. However,
these
statements
describe
almost
Because computer-assisted testing can lower

An increasingly common use of computer
anyone. So, face validity by itself is not
testing is computer-adaptive testing (CAT).
enough.
The logic behind CAT is that if a test-taker
can’t answer easy questions (e.g., addition
and subtraction), it doesn’t make sense to
ask questions about algebra and geometry.
Finding Reliability and Validity Information
 Perhaps the most common source of test information is the Seventeenth Mental Measurement
Yearbook (MMY), whichcontains information about thousands of different psychological tests as wel
as reviews by test experts
.
The advantages to CAT is that fewer test
2.
items are required, tests take less time to
complete, finer distinctions in applicant
The second piece of information that
must be obtained is the selection ratio,
which is simply the
percentage of people an organization
must hire. The ratio is determined by the
formula,
ability can be made, test-takers can receive
immediate feedback, and test scores can be
interpreted not only on the number of
questions answered correctly, but on which
 The lower the selection ratio, the
greater the potential usefulness of
the test.
questions were correctly answered.
3.
Establishing the Usefulness of a
Selection Device
the
of
current
percentage
of
considered successful.

be successful on the job if an organization
After the validity, selection ratio, and base
rate figures have been obtained, the Taylor-
uses a particular test.

rate
employees currently on the job who are
Taylor-Russell tables are designed to estimate
the percentage of future employees who will
base
performance—the
Taylor-Russell Tables

The final piece of information needed is
Russell tables are consulted.
To use the Taylor-Russell tables, three pieces
of information must be obtained.
1.
The first information needed is the test’s
criterion validity coefficient. There
Proportion of Correct Decisions

the
The best would be to actually conduct a
proportion
Taylor-Russell
information
criterion validity study with test scores
of
correct
needed
tables.
to
The
determine
only
the
proportion of correct decisions is employee
correlated with some measure of job
 The higher the validity coefficient,
the greater the possibility the test
will be useful.
the
decisions is easier to do but less accurate than
are two ways to obtain this coefficient.
performance.
Determining
test scores and the scores on the criterion.

The two scores from each employee are
graphed on a chart similar to that in Figure 6.1
Lines are drawn from the point on the y-axis
(criterion score) that represents a successful
applicant, and from the point on the x-axis
represent “predictive failures.” That is, in
that represents the lowest test score of a
quadrants I and III no correspondence is
hired applicant.
seen between test scores and criterion
scores.

To estimate the test’s effectiveness, the
number of points in each quadrant is totaled,
and the following formula is used:
Points in quadrants II and IV ÷ Total points in
all quadrants
 The resulting number represents the
percentage of time that we expect to be
accurate in making a selection decision
in the future.

As you can see, these lines divide the scores
into four quadrants. The points located in

To determine whether this is an improvement,
we use the following formula:
quadrant I represent employees who scored
Points in quadrants I and II ÷ Total points in all
quadrants
poorly on the test but performed well on the
 If the percentage from the first formula is
job. Points located in quadrant II represent
higher than that from the second, our
employees who scored well on the test and
proposed test should increase selection
were successful on the job. Points in quadrant
accuracy. If not, it is probably better to
III represent employees who scored high on
stick with the selection method currently
the test, yet did poorly on the job, and points
used.
in quadrant IV represent employees who
scored low on the test and did poorly on the
job.
Lawshe Tables

The Taylor-Russell tables were designed to
determine the overall impact of a testing
procedure.

But we often need to know the probability
 If a test is a good predictor of
performance, there should be more
points in quadrants II and IV because the
points in the other two quadrants
that a particular applicant will be successful.

The Lawshe tables were created to do just
White than the African American culture, the
that.
test might be considered biased.
To use these tables, three pieces of
information

are
needed.
The

The term fairness can include bias, but also
validity
includes political and social issues. Typically,
coefficient and the base rate are found in the
a test is considered fair if people of equal
same way as for the Taylor-Russell tables. The
probability of success on a job have an equal
third piece of information needed is the
chance of being hired. Though some people
applicant’s test score.
argue that a test is unfair if members of a
More specifically, did the person score in the
protected class score lower than the majority
top 20%, the next 20%, the middle 20%, the
(e.g., Whites, men), most I/O psychologists
next lowest 20%, or the bottom 20%?
agree that a test is fair if it can predict
performance equally well for all races,
genders, and national origins.
Brogden-Cronbach-Gleser Utility Formula
 Another way to determine the value of a test in
a given situation is by computing the amount
Adverse Impact
of money an organization would save if it

used
the
test
to
select
The first step in determining a test’s potential
employees.
bias is finding out whether it will result in
Fortunately, I/O psychologists have devised a
adverse impact. There are two basic ways to
fairly simple utility formula to estimate the
determine this: looking at test results or
monetary savings to an organization.
anticipating adverse impact prior to the test.
Determining the Fairness of a Test
As mentioned in Chapter 3, adverse impact

occurs if the selection rate for any group is
The term bias or unbiased refers to technical
less than 80% of the highest scoring group
aspects of a test. A test is considered biased if
(practical significance) and the difference is
there are group differences (e.g., sex, race, or
statistically significant
age) in test scores that are unrelated to the
(statistical significance).
construct being measured. For example, if
race differences on a test of logic are due to
vocabulary words found more often in the

If a person applying for a job does not meet
the minimum qualifications, he is not
considered as an applicant in adverse impact
calculations. For example, if a plumber applies

for a job as a brain surgeon, he clearly lacks
correlations are significant, the test does not
the minimum qualifications for the job—a
exhibit single-group validity and itpasses
medical degree.
this fairness hurdle. If, however, only one of
Remember that a legal defense for adverse
the correlations is significant, the test is
impact is job relatedness and that a valid test
considered fair for only that one group.
is a job-related test. Thus, even if the test has
adverse
impact,
it
probably
will
be
considered a legal test.
Differential Validity

The last test of fairness that can be conducted
 But even though the test might be
involves differential validity. With differential
considered valid, an organization still
validity, a test is valid for two groups but
might not want to use it. If a test results
more valid for one than for the other. Single-
in adverse impact, the organization may
group validity and differential validity are
have to go to court to defend itself. Even
easily confused, but there is a big difference
though a valid test will probably allow the
between the two. Remember, with single-
organization to win the case, going to
group validity, the test is valid only for one
court is expensive.
group. With differential validity, the test is
valid for both groups, but it is more valid for
one than for the other.
Single-Group Validity

In addition to adverse impact, an organization
might also determine whether a test has singlegroup validity, meaning that the test will
significantly predict performance for one
group and not others.
 For example, a test of reading ability might
predict performance of White clerks but
not of African American clerks.

To test for single-group validity, separate
correlations are computed between the test
and the criterion for each group. If both

If a test does not lead to adverse impact, does
not have single-group validity, and does not
have differential validity, it is considered to
be fair. If the test fails to pass one of these
three fairness hurdles, it may or may not be
fair, depending on which model of fairness is
followed. But to be used with complete
confidence, a test must be valid, have utility,
and be fair.
Making the Hiring Decision


The disadvantages are that this approach can
After valid and fair selection tests have been
result in high levels of adverse impact and it
administered to a group of applicants, a final
reduces an organization’s flexibility to use
decision must be made as to which applicant
nontest factors such as references or
or applicants to hire. At first, this may seem to
organizational fit.
be an easy decision—hire the applicants with



In a compensatory approach to top-down
the highest test scores. But the decision
selection, the assumption is that if multiple
becomes more complicated as both the
test scores are used, the relationship between
number and variety of tests increase.
a low score on one test can be compensated
If more than one criterion-valid test is used,
for by a high score on another.
the scores on the tests must be combined.
 For example, a student applying to
Usually, this is done by a statistical procedure
graduate school might have a low GRE
known as multiple regression, with each
score but have a high undergraduate
test score weighted according to how well it
grade point average (GPA). If the GPA is
predicts the criterion.
high enough, it would compensate for
the low GRE score. To determine
Linear approaches to hiring usually take one
whether a score on one test can
of four forms: unadjusted top-down
compensate for a score on another,
selection, rules of three, passing scores, or
multiple regression is used in which each
banding.
test score is weighted according to how
well it predicts the criterion.
Unadjusted Top-Down Selection


With top-down selection, applicants are rank-
Rule of Three
ordered on the basis of their test scores.

A technique often used in the public sector is
Selection is then made by starting with the
the rule of three (or rule of five), in which the
highest score and moving down until all
names of the top three scorers are given to
openings have been filled.
the person making the hiring decision (e.g.,
The advantage to top-down selection is that
police chief, HR director). This person can then
by hiring the top scorers on a valid test, an
organization willgain the most utility.

choose any of the three based on the
out of four tests, he will not be hired, but the
immediate needs of the employer.
organization has paid for the applicant to
This method ensures that the person hired
take all four tests.
will be well qualified but provides more

choice than does top-down selection.
To
reduce
the
costs
associated with
applicants failing one or more tests,
multiple-hurdle approaches are often
Passing Scores
used. With a multiple-hurdle approach, the

Passing scores are a means for reducing
applicant is administered one test at a time,
adverse impact and increasing flexibility.
usually beginning with the least expensive.
With this system, an organization determines
Applicants who fail a test are eliminated from
the lowest score on a test that is associated
furtherconsideration and take no more
with acceptable performance on the job.
tests. Applicants who pass all of the tests are

then administered the linearly related tests;
Notice the distinct difference between top-
the applicants with the top scores on these
down selection and passing scores. With top-
tests are hired.
down selection, the question is, “Who will
perform the best in the future?” With passing

scores, the question becomes, “Who will be
Banding
able to perform at an acceptable level in the

future?”
down hiring is that the process results in the
If there is more than one test for which we
highest levels of adverse impact. On the other
have passing scores, a decision must be made
hand, use of passing scores decreases
regarding the use of a multiple-cutoff or a
adverse impact but reduces utility.
multiple-hurdle
approach.
Both

As a compromise between top-down hiring
approaches are used when one score can’t
and passing scores, banding attempts to hire
compensate for another or when the
the top test scorers while still allowing some
relationship between the selection test and
flexibility for affirmative action.
performance is not linear.

As mentioned previously, a problem with top-
One problem with a multiple-cutoff approach
is the cost. If an applicant passes only three
Making Promotion Decisions
Evaluating Employee
Performance

Another reason for evaluating performance is
to determine which employees will be
promoted.

The best employee at one level is not always
Step 1: Determine the Reason for
Evaluating Employee Performance
the best at the next level. Promoting the best
or most senior employee often results in the
Providing Employee Training and Feedback
so-called Peter Principle—the promotion of

employees until they reach their highest level
By
far,
the
most
important
use
of
performance evaluation is to improve
employee

performance
by
providing
of incompetence.

Another use of performance appraisal data is
feedback about what employees are doing
in training-needs analysis. If many employees
right and wrong.
score poorly on a performance appraisal
Even though employee training should be an
dimension, an increase or change in training
ongoing
is probably necessary for all employees.
process,
the
semiannual
performance appraisal review is an excellent
Making Termination Decisions
time to meet with employees to discuss their
 Unfortunately, providing feedback, counseling,
strengths
and
weaknesses.
But
more
and training to employees does not always
important, it is the time to determine how
increase performance or reduce discipline
weaknesses can be corrected.
problems. When performance management
Determining Salary Increases
techniques are not successful, the results of a
 One important reason for evaluating employee
performance review might suggest that the
performance is to provide a fair basis on
best course of action is to terminate the
which to determine an employee’s salary
employee.
increase. If performance appraisal results are
Conducting Personnel Research
to be used to determine salary increases, a
 A final reason for evaluating employees is for
numerical rather than narrative format is
personnel research. As discussed in previous
probably needed.
chapters,
employment
tests
must
be
validated, and one way this can be done is by
correlating test scores with some measure of
job performance. To do this, however, an
performance are 360-degree feedback and
accurate and reliable
multiple-source feedback.
measure of job
 Sources of relevant information about
performance must be available.
Step 2: Identify Environmental and
Cultural Limitations
employee

customers, and self-appraisal.
supervisors,
The second step in the performance appraisal
peers,
include
subordinates,
process is to identify the environmental and
Supervisors
cultural factors that could affect the

By far the most common type of performance
appraisal is the supervisor rating.

Though supervisors may not see every minute
system.

performance
For example, if supervisors are highly
of an employee’s behavior, they do see the
overworked, an elaborate, time-consuming
end result.Peers
performance appraisal system will not be
successful. In an environment in which there

Whereas supervisors see the results of an
employee’s efforts, peers often see the actual
behavior.

Research has shown that peer ratings are
is no money available for merit pay,
developing a numerically complex system will
become frustrating, and the results of the
fairly reliable only when the peers who make
evaluation may not be taken seriously. In an
the ratings are similar to and well acquainted
environment in which employees are very
cohesive, the use of peer ratings might
reduce the cohesiveness.
with the employees being rated.
Subordinates

Subordinate feedback (also called upward
feedback) is an important component of 360degree feedback, as subordinates can provide
Step 3: Determine Who Will Evaluate
Performance

Traditionally, employee performance has
been evaluated solely by supervisors.

Consequently, to obtain an accurate view of
the teller’s performance, these other sources
should provide feedback. The buzzwords for
using
multiple
sources
to
appraise
a very different view about a supervisor’s
behavior.

Subordinate ratings can be difficult to obtain
because employees fear a backlash if they
unfavorably rate their supervisor, especially
when a supervisor has only one or two
subordinates.
 Subordinates’ feedback can be encouraged
if supervisors appear open to employee
Self-Appraisal

comments; if the ratings are made
behavior and performance is a technique
anonymously; if the ratings are used for
used by only a small percentage of
developmental purposes; and if the
organizations.
employee feels competent to make the

Research on self-appraisal, however, has
rating, feels there will be no retaliation
found what we might expect to find:
for making honest ratings, and will
Employee self-appraisals tend to suffer from
somehow benefit by providing honest
leniency and correlate only moderately (.29)
ratings.
with actual performance and poorly with
Customers

Allowing an employee to evaluate her own
subordinate and management ratings.
Although it would be unlikely that an
organization would ask customers to fill out a
performance appraisal instrument on an
employee, organizations do value customer
feedback. Informally, customers provide
Step 4: Select the Best Appraisal
Methods to Accomplish Your Goals

feedback on employee performance by filing
process is to select the performance criteria
complaints or complimenting a manager
and appraisal methods that will best
about one of her employees. Formally,
accomplish your goals for the system.
customers provide feedback by completing
Criteria are ways of describing employee
evaluation cards.

success. For example, it might be decided that
Organizations also seek customer feedback in
the
form
of
secret
attendance, quality of work, and safety are
shoppers—current
the three most important criteria for a
customers who have been enlisted by a
company to periodically evaluate the service
they receive. In exchange for their ratings,
secret shoppers get a few dollars and a free
meal.
The next step in the performance appraisal
successful employee.

Now the methods for measuring the criteria
must be chosen and created. That is, how can
we measure the criteria (attendance,
quality, and safety)? Prior to developing the
actual performance appraisal instrument, two
important decisions must be made: the
advice is not specific enough for the
focus of the performance appraisal
employee to change her behavior.
dimensions and whether to use rankings
or ratings.
Competency-Focused Performance
Dimensions
 Rather than concentrating on an employee’s
traits,
competency-focused
dimensions
Decision 1: Focus of the Appraisal
Dimensions
concentrate on the employee’s knowledge,
 The appraisal dimensions can focus on traits,
competencies, task types, or goals.

skills, and abilities.
For
example,
competency-focused
Trait-Focused Performance Dimensions
dimensions might include writing skills,
 A trait-focused system concentrates on such
oral presentation skills, and driving
dependability,
skills. The advantage to organizing
honesty, and courtesy. Though commonly
dimensions by competencies is that it is
used, trait-focused performance appraisal
easy to provide feedback and suggest
instruments are not a good idea because they
the
provide poor feedback and thus will not
deficiencies.
employee
result
in
attributes
employee
as
development
and
growth.
 The supervisor tells an employee that she
steps
necessary
to
correct
Task-Focused Performance Dimensions
 Task-focused dimensions are organized by the
similarity of tasks that are performed.
and friendliness. Because traits are
 For a police officer, such dimensions
might include following radio procedures
or court testimony.
personal, the employee is likely to
 Note that a task-focused dimension
become defensive. Furthermore, the
usually includes several competencies.
employee will want specific examples
For example, to receive a high rating on
the supervisor may not have available.
the dimension of court testimony, the
The only developmental advice the
officer would need the competencies of
supervisor can offer would be to “be
public
more responsible and friendly.” Such
knowledge of the law.
received low ratings on responsibility
speaking,
organization,
and
 The advantage of this approach is that
the technical aspects of performing a job. In
because supervisors are concentrating
recent years, psychologists have begun to
on tasks that occur together and can thus
study contextual performance, that is, the
visualize an employee’s performance, it
effort an employee makes to get along with
is often easier to evaluate performance
peers,
than with the other dimensions. The
perform tasks that are needed but are not
disadvantage is that it is more difficult to
necessarily an official part of the employee’s
offer suggestions for how to correct the
job description.
deficiency if an employee scores low on

improve
the
organization,
and
Many organizations include rating scales
addressing the technical aspects of the job as
a dimension.
Goal-Focused Performance Dimensions
well as the contextual aspects. That is, they
 The fourth type of performance dimension is to
want employees who will be not only
organize the appraisal on the basis of goals to
effective performers but good organizational
be accomplished by the employee.
citizens as well.
 Sticking with our police officer example,
from occurring, finishing the shift
Decision 2: Should Dimensions Be
Weighted?
without personal injury, and minimizing

goals might include preventing crimes
determined, the next decision is whether the
the number of citizen complaints.
 The
advantage
of
a
dimensions should be weighted so that some
goal-focused
are more important than others.
approach is that it makes it easier for an
employee to understand why certain

Weighting
dimensions
makes
good
behaviors are expected. Expectations
philosophical sense, as some dimensions
were listed under the goal of staying
might be more important to an organization
alive, it would be clearer that they are
than others. For example, the dimension of
there for an important purpose.
patient care would be more important for a
Contextual Performance

Once the type of dimension has been
In the above discussion, the four ways to focus
performance dimensions all concentrated on
nurse than would be keeping a professional
appearance. Though both are important parts
of the job, providing poor patient care has
more of an impact for the organization than
employees and choosing which one of
not wearing the proper clothing.
each pair is the better employee.

The final type of employee comparison system
Decision 3: Use of Employee
Comparisons, Objective Measures, or
Ratings
is called forced distribution. With this
 Once the types of dimensions have been
categories shown in Table 7.4.
method, apredetermined percentage of
employees are placed in each of the five
considered, the next decision is whether to
evaluate
performance
by
comparing
employees with one another (ranking), using
objective measures such as attendance and
number of units sold, or having supervisors
rate how well the employee has performed on
each of the dimensions.
Objective Measures
Employee Comparisons

To reduce leniency, employees can be
compared with one another instead of being
rated individually on a scale.

The easiest and most common of these
Common types of objective measures include
quantity of work, quality of work, attendance, and
safety.
methods is the rank order. In this approach,
Quantity of Work
employees areranked in order by their
 Evaluation of a worker’s performance in terms
judged

 A second way to evaluate performance is to use
what are commonly called objective, or hard,
criteria.
performance
for
each
relevant
of quantity is obtained by simply counting the
dimension.
number of relevant job behaviors that take
Rank orders are easily used when there are only
place.
a few employees to rank, but they become

For
example,
we
might
judge
a
difficult to use with larger numbers.
salesperson’s
 To make this process easier, paired
number of units she sells, an assembly
worker’s
performance
performance
by
by
the
comparisons can be used. This method
line
the
involves comparing each possible pair of
number of bumpers she welds, or a
police officer’s performance by the
Safety
number of arrests she makes.
 Another method used to evaluate the success of
Quality of Work
an employee is safety. Obviously, employees

Another method to evaluate performance is
who follow safety rules and who have no
by measuring the quality of the work that is
occupational accidents do not cost an
done. Quality is usually measured in terms of
organization as much money as those who
errors, which are defined as deviations from a
break rules, equipment, and possibly their
standard. Thus, to obtain a measure of
own bodies.
quality, there must be a standard against

which to compare an employee’s work.
Ratings of Performance
Note that the definition of an error is any
 The most commonly used option in evaluating
deviation from a standard. Thus, errors can
performance is to have supervisors rate how
even be work quality that is higher than a
well the employee performed on each
standard.
dimension. Though there are many variations
 If an employee sews a shirt with 15 stitches
of how these rating scales can be created, the
per inch instead of the standard 10, the
two most common are the graphic rating
company will lose money because of
scale and the behavioral checklist.
higher quality!
Graphic Rating Scale
Attendance

The most common rating scale is the graphic
 A common method for objectively measuring one
rating scale. An example is shown in Table 7.5.
aspect of an employee’s performance is by
As you can see, such scales are fairly simple,
looking at attendance. Attendance can be
with 5 to 10 dimensions accompanied by
separated
words such as “excellent” and “poor”
into
three
distinct
criteria:
absenteeism, tardiness, and tenure. Both
absenteeism and tardiness have obvious
implications for the performance appraisal
process.
anchoring the ends of the scale.

The obvious advantage of graphic rating scales
customer after each transaction.” The
is their ease of construction and use, but they
obvious advantage to a behavior-focused
have beencriticized because of their
system is the increased amount of
susceptibility to such rating errors as halo and
specific feedback that can be given to
leniency.
each employee.
 Result-focused
Behavioral Checklists


Behavioral checklists consist of a list of
concentrate on what an employee
behaviors, expectations, or results for each
accomplished as a result of what she did.
dimension. This list isused to force the
For example, “Distributed at least 25 Visa
supervisor to concentrate on the relevant
applications
behaviors that fall under a dimension.
drawer was not short at the end of the
Behavioral checklists are constructed by
day,” and “Completed annual report on
taking the task statements from a detailed
time.”
job
tempting
description
(e.g.,
“Types
each
month,”
Result-focused
because
“Teller
systems
they
are
evaluate
correspondence”) and converting them into
employees on their contribution to the
behavioral
statements
bottom line: Did their behavior on the job
representing the level at which the behavior is
result in a tangible outcome for the
expected
organization?
performance
to
be
performed
(e.g.,
“Correspondence is typed accurately and does
not

statements
contain
spelling
or
grammatical

A
problem with result-focused
statements is that an employee can
errors”).
do everything asked of her by an
When creating the statements for each
organization and still not get the
dimension, one should carefully consider
desired results due to factors
whether to write the statements in the form
outside of her control. These factors
of behaviors or in the form of results.
are referred to as contamination. In
 Examples
banking, a teller might not be
of
behavior-based
statements for a bank teller might
include “Properly greets each customer,”
“Knows customers’ names,” and “Thanks
successful in getting customers to
sign up for Visa cards because the
bank’s
interest
rate
is
not
competitive. In law enforcement, a

police officer might not write many
being worse than other employees. 
traffic citations because she patrols
Frequency of Desired Behaviors
an area in which there are few cars.
 Behaviors can be rated based on the
In retail, a salesperson has poor sales
frequency with which they occur. For
because of her geographic location.
example, we expect our production
After considering the behaviors in the
workers to follow safety guidelines. As
checklist, a supervisor provides an overall
part of our performance appraisal
rating of the employee’s performance on
system, supervisors are asked to decide
each dimension. Employees can be rated in
whether their employees “always,”
three ways: how they compared with other
“almost always,” “often,” “seldom,” or
employees, the frequency with which they
“never” follow the rules. As you can
performed certain behaviors, and the extent
imagine, it is often difficult for a
to which the behaviors met the expectations
supervisor to distinguish between
of the employer. Comparison with
levels such as “almost always” and
Other Employees
“often.”
 Supervisors can rate performance on a
dimension
by
comparing
the
employee’s level of performance with
that
of
other
employees.
It
is

Extent to Which Organizational
Expectations Are Met
 Perhaps the best approach is to rate
employees on the extent to which
important to note that when such scale
their
anchors
“
expectations of the organization.
average,” and “above average” are
Such an approach allows for high
used, the evaluation involves rating
levels of feedback and can be applied
employee performance in comparison
to most types of employee behavior.
with other employees. Though this
Some behaviors, however, are not
approach will reduce such problems as
suitable for such a scale. Take, for
overly lenient or overly strict ratings, it
example, the expectation that a
potentially forces a supervisor to rate
police officer always wear her seat
employees who are performing well as
belt. If she wears it all the time, she
as
“below
average,”
behavior
meets
the
has met expectations (a rating of 3):
There is no way to get a higher rating
by experts as well as the rationale behind
because one cannot wear a seat belt
those expert ratings.
more often than always and thus
 The goal of frame-of reference training is
cannot ever exceed expectations.
to
communicate the
organization’s
definition of effective performance and
to then get raters to consider only
Step 5: Train Raters

relevant employee behaviors when
Although training supervisors to evaluate
making performance evaluations.
performance is essential to a sound and legal
performance
appraisal
system,
few

Though training raters is certainly important,
it
organizations spend the time and resources
is
also
important
to
explain
the
performance appraisal system to employees.
necessary to do this properly. This lack of
Not surprisingly, the better that employees
training is surprising given that research has
indicated that training supervisors to become
understand
the
performance
appraisal
aware of the various rating errors and how to
system, the greater is their satisfaction with
avoid them often increases accuracy and
the system.
reduces rating errors, increases the validity of
tests validated against the ratings, and

increases employee satisfaction with the
Step 6: Observe and Document
Performance
ratings.

The effectiveness of rater training also is a
process is for supervisors to
function of training format. Raters who
employee behavior and document critical
receive frame-ofreference training make
incidents as they occur. Critical incidents are
fewer rating errors and recall more training
receiving information about only job-related
behaviors
Frame-of-reference
training
provides
observe
examples of excellent and poor employee
information than do untrained raters or raters

The next step in the performance appraisal
performance.

Documentation is important for four
reasons.
1.
First, documentation forces a supervisor
raters with job-related information, practice
to focus on employee behaviors rather
in rating, andexamples of ratings made
than traits and provides behavioral
examples
2.
to
use
when
reviewing
 Recent behaviors. In addition to
performance ratings with employees.
first impressions, supervisors tend to
Second,
helps
recall the most recent behavior that
supervisors recall behaviors when they
occurred during the evaluation
are evaluating performance. Without
period.
documentation
documentation, instead of recalling all of
 Unusual or extreme behaviors.
an employee’s behavior or at least a
Supervisors
representative
behavior,
unusual behaviors more than they
supervisors tend to recall only a small
remember common behaviors. For
percentage of an employee’s actual
example, if an average-performing
sample
of
behavior. Supervisors tend to remember
the following:
tend
to
remember
police officer captures an important
criminal, the officer’s performance
 First impressions. Research from
evaluations
are
likely
to
be
many areas of psychology indicates
inappropriately high. Likewise, a
that
good officer who makes a terrible
we
remember
our
first
impression of someone (primacy
mistake
effect) more than we remember
inappropriately low ratings.
later
behaviors.
Consequently,
supervisors recall behaviors that are
consistent with their first impression
of an employee, even though those
first behaviors may not have been
representative of the employee’s
typical performance. Being aware of
first
impressions
because
is
performance
important
can
be
dynamic, meaning that a person who
is the top performer one year may
not be the top performer during
another year.
is
likely
to
receive
 Behavior consistent with the
supervisor’s opinion. Once we
form an opinion of someone,
we tend to look for behaviors that
confirm that opinion. If a supervisor
likes an employee, she will probably
recall only behaviors consistent with
that opinion. The opposite would be
true for a supervisor who disliked an
employee.
Once
you
get
on
someone’s bad side, it is hard to get
off of it.
3.
Third, documentation provides examples
of a two-color form. Half of the sheet is used
to use when reviewing performance
to record examples of good behaviors, and
ratings with employees. Instead of telling
the other half to record examples of poor
an employee that she is constantly
behaviors. On each side, there are columns
getting into arguments with customers, a
for each of the relevant performance
supervisor can use documented critical
dimensions. Supervisors have a separate
incidents to show the employee the
record for each employee and at the end of
specific incidents and behaviors that are
the day can record the observed behaviors.
problematic.
4.
Fourth,
documentation
helps
an
organization defend against legal actions
taken against it by an employee who was
terminated or denied a
raise or
Step 7: Evaluate Performance
Obtaining and Reviewing Objective Data

When it is time to appraise an employee’s
performance, a supervisor should first obtain
promotion.
and review the objective data relevant to the

To use critical incidents to document
performance, a supervisor maintains a log of
all the critical behaviors she observes her
employees performing. These behaviors are
then used during the performance appraisal
review process to assign a rating for each
employee. The log refreshes the supervisor’s
memory of her employees’ performance and
also
provides
justification
for
each
performance rating.

employee’s behavior.

When reviewing objective data, it is essential
that potential sources of contamination (e.g.,
shift,
equipment,
training,
coworkers,
geographic area) be considered.
Reading Critical-Incident Logs
 After obtaining objective data, the supervisor
should go back and read all of the critical
incidents written for an employee. Reading
these incidents should reduce errors of
A more formal method for using critical
incidents in evaluating performance was
primacy, recency, and attention to unusual
information.
developed by Flanagan and Burns for use by
General Motors. Called the Employee
Performance Record, this method consists
Completing the Rating Form
 Once critical-incident logs have been read and
objective data reviewed, the supervisor is
ready to assign performance appraisal
the low end of the scale. For example, on
ratings. While making these ratings, the
our five-point scale, our supervisor rates
supervisor must be careful not to make
everyone a 1 or 2.
common rating errors involving distribution,
halo, proximity, and contrast.
Distribution Errors
 A common type of error in evaluating


 A halo error occurs when a rater allows
either a single attribute or an overall
impression of an individual to affect the
employee performance involves the
ratings that she makes on each relevant
distribution of ratings on a rating scale;
job dimension.
such errors are known as distribution

Halo Errors
 Halo effects occur especially when the
errors.
rater has little knowledge of the job and
Leniency error. One kind of distribution
is less familiar with the person being
error is called leniency error, because
rated. Halo error is also more common in
certain raters tend to rate every
peer ratings than in supervisor ratings of
employee at the upper end of the scale
subordinates.
regardless of the actual performance of
Proximity Errors
the employee. For example, on our five-
 Proximity errors occur when a rating
point scale, the supervisor rates everyone
made on one dimension affects the
a 4 or 5. Leniency error can in part be
rating made on the dimension that
explained by the discomfort felt by
immediately follows it on the rating
supervisors about giving low ratings.
scale.
Central tendency error. A related error
 The difference between this error and
is central tendency error, which results in
halo error is in the cause of the error and
a supervisor rating every employee in the
the number of dimensions affected. With
middle of the scale. For example, in our
halo error, all dimensions are affected by
five-point scale, the supervisor rates
an overall impression of the employee.
everyone a 3.
With
Strictness error. Still another error,
dimensions physically located nearest a
strictness error, rates every employee at
particular dimension on the rating scale
proximity
error,
only
the
are affected; the reason for the effect, in
2.
Second, raters often have very different
standards and ideas about the ideal
employee.
3.
Third, as mentioned earlier in the
fact, is the close physical proximity of the
dimension
rather
than
an
overall
impression.
chapter, two different raters may
Contrast Errors
actually see very different behaviors by
 The performance rating one person
receives can be influenced by the
sergeant may see more administrative
performance of a previously evaluated
and paperwork behaviors, whereas a
person.
field sergeant may see more law
 If a new supervisor reads that an
employee’s previous evaluations were
excellent
but
she
observes
poor
performance by the employee, she will

enforcement
behaviors.
Sampling
Problems
Recency Effect
probably continue to give excellent
 Research has demonstrated, however, that
ratings—even though the employee’s
recent behaviors are given more weight
performance deteriorated. Smither and
in the performance evaluation than
his colleagues call this rating error
behaviors that occurred during the first
assimilation.
few months of the evaluation period.
Low Reliability across Raters

the same employee. For example, a desk
Two people rating the same employee
seldom agree with each other.
There are three major reasons for this lack of
reliability.
1. First, raters often commit the rating
errors previously discussed (e.g., halo,
leniency). Thus, if one rater engages in
halo error and another in contrast error,
it is not surprising that their ratings of the
same employee are different.
Such an effect penalizes workers who
performed well during most of the
period but tailed off toward the end, and
it rewards workers who saved their best
work until just before the evaluation.
Infrequent Observation
 Another
problem
that
affects
performance appraisals is that many
managers or supervisors do not have the
opportunity to observe a representative
sample of employee behavior.
 Infrequent observation occurs for two
the probability that rating errors will
reasons. First, managers are often so
busy with their own work that they have
no time to “walk the floor” and observe
occur.
Emotional State
 The amount of stress under which a
their employees’ behavior.
supervisor operates also affects her
 Employees often act differently around a
performance
ratings.
Srinivas
and
supervisor than around other workers,
Motowidlo found that raters who were
which is the second reason managers
placed in a stressful situation produced
usually
accurate
ratings with more errors than did raters
observations. When the supervisor is
who were not under stress. This finding
absent, an employee may break rules,
is
show up late, or work slowly. But when
evaluations
the boss is around, the employee
hurriedly,
becomes a model worker. In the eyes of
employee performance so they can
the supervisor, the employee is doing an
return to their “real” work.
excellent
do
job;
not
the
make
other
workers,
however, know better.
important
because
are
as
performance
often
conducted
supervisors
evaluate
Bias
 Raters who like the employees being rated
Cognitive Processing of Observed
Behavior
may be more lenient and less accurate in
Observation of Behavior
neither like nor dislike their employees.
their ratings than would raters who
 Just because an employee’s behavior is
But this does not mean that a person
observed does not guarantee that it will
who is liked will always receive higher
be properly remembered or recalled
ratings than someone who is disliked. The
during
appraisal
rater may overcompensate in an effort
review. In fact, research indicates that
to be “fair.” The rater’s feelings, or affect,
raters recall those behaviors that are
toward an employee may interfere with
consistent with their general impression
the
of an employee, and the greater the time
performance information.
the
performance
interval between the actual behavior
and the performance rating, the greater
cognitive
processing
of
actual
Step 8: Communicate Appraisal
Results to Employees
interview. Both should be allowed at

As was stated in the beginning of this chapter,
interview and at least an hour for the
perhaps
interview itself.
the
most
important
use
least an hour to prepare before an
of
performanceevaluation data is to provide

feedback to the employee and assess her
 The interview location should be in a
strengths and weaknesses so that further
neutral place that ensures privacy and
training can be implemented.
allows the supervisor and the employee
Normally, in most organizations a supervisor
to face one another without a desk
spends a few minutes with employees every
between them as a communication
6 months to tell them about the scores they
barrier.
received during the most recent evaluation
 Performance appraisal review interviews
period. This process is probably the norm
should be scheduled at least once every
because most managers do not like to judge
6 months for most employees and more
others; because of this dislike, they try to
often for new employees.
complete the evaluation process as quickly as
possible.

Furthermore,
 Review
interviews
are
commonly
scheduled 6 months after an employee
seldom
does
evaluating
employees benefit the supervisor. The best
scenario is to hear no complaints, and the
worst scenario is a lawsuit.

Scheduling the Interview
begins working for the organization. If
this date comes at a bad time (such as
during the Christmas season, a busy time
for retail stores), the interview should be
Research suggests that certain techniques
scheduled for a more convenient time.
can be used to make the performance
Preparing for the Interview
appraisal interview more effective: time,
scheduling, and preparation.
 While preparing for the interview, the
supervisor should review the ratings she
Prior to the Interview
has assigned to the employee and the
Allocating Time
reasons for those ratings. This step is
 Both the supervisor and the employee
must have time to prepare for the review
important
because
the
quality
of
feedback given to employees will affect
their
satisfaction
with
the
entire
ratings and her justification for them.
Research indicates that employees who are
performance appraisal process.
 Meanwhile, the employee should rate
actively involved in the interview from the
her own performance using the same
start will be more satisfied with the
format as the supervisor. The employee
results.
also should write down specific reasons

and examples that support the ratings
and the reasons for them. The supervisor
she gives herself, as well as ideas for
should
personal development.
statements about behavior and performance
with their reviews and don’t develop negative
attitudes toward management.
Once the employee and supervisor are feeling
as comfortable as they are going to get, the
communicate
the
following: (1) the role of performance
appraisal—that making decisions about
salary increases and terminations is not its
only purpose; (2) how the performance
appraisal was conducted; (3) how the

But few employees are perfect, and some
negative feedback is inevitable. Because of
this, positive feedback generally should be
given first, followed by the negative
feedback, and finishing with more positive
feedback.
 This process is often referred to as the
evaluation process was accomplished; (4) the
“feedback sandwich,” in which the
expectation that the appraisal interview will
negative
be
of
between positive feedback. Liberal use
improving
of positive feedback not only helps
interactive;
understanding

to
because employees then are more satisfied
some small talk until the jitters go away.
should
communication
would be nice to avoid negative feedback
good idea tobegin the interview with
supervisor
this
possessed by the employee. Of course, it
Because employees and supervisors are often
anxious about performance reviews, it is a

limit
rather than traits that are or are not
During the Interview

The supervisor then communicates her ratings
and
(5)
and
the
goal
feedback
sandwiched
performance.
employees
The review process is probably best begun
feedback, but also helps supervisors who
with the employee communicating her own
tend
to
accept
is
avoid
the
providing
negative
negative

feedback in an effort to reduce the
employment-at-will doctrine in most states
chance of interpersonal conflict.
allows employers freedom to fire an
The supervisor’s acknowledgement that
employee without a reason—at will. In the
there may be external reasons for an
public sector, an employee can be fired only
employee’s poor performance can increase
for cause.
the employee’s satisfaction with the review

The idea behind employment at will is that
and enable her to perceive the feedback and
because employees are free to quit their jobs
evaluation as accurate and helpful.
at will, so too are organizations free to
Once the problems have been identified, the
terminate an employee at will.

solutions. What can the supervisor do to help?
limitations to
employment-at-will doctrine:
What can the organization do? What can the
1.
next and most difficult task is to find
There
are
some
the
State law. States such as California,
employee do? The idea here is that solutions
Montana, and New York have laws that
to the problems result from joint effort. Too
an employee can be fired only for
often we attribute poor performance solely to
cause—e.g.,
the fault of the employee, when, in fact,
demonstrating an inability to perform.
performance is affected by many factors.


2.
breaking
a
rule,
Provisions of federal or state law.
At the conclusion of the interview, goals
Employees cannot be fired for reasons
should
future
protected by federal or state law. For
both
example, an employer cannot fire an
be
performance
mutually
and
set
behavior,
for
and
supervisor and employee should understand
employee
how these goals will be met.
pregnant, nonwhite, or over the age of
because
she
is
female,
40.
Step 9: Terminate Employees
Employment-at-Will Doctrine

In the United States, there is a big difference
between terminating an employee in the
public sector and terminating an employee in
the private sector. In the private sector, the
3.
Public
policy/interest.
Employers
cannot terminate an employee for
exercising a legal duty such as jury duty
or refusing to violate the law or
professional ethics.
4.
Contracts. Obviously, if an individual
fact that courts consider employment
employee has a signed employment
decisions to be a form of a contract.
contract stipulating a particular period of

To protect their right to use a policy of
employment, an organization cannot fire
employment-at-will,
most
organizations
the employee without cause. Likewise,
include employmentat-will statements,
unions enter into collective bargaining
such as that shown in Figure 7.16, in their job
agreements (contracts) with employers
applications and employee handbooks. These
that also limit or negate employment-at-
statements usually hold up in court.
will.
5.
Implied contracts. Employment-at-will
is nullified if an employer implies that an
employee “has a job for life” or can be
fired only for certain reasons. For
example, if an interviewer tells an
applicant, “At this company, all you have
6.
Legal Reasons for Terminating
Employees
to do is keep your nose clean to keep your
 In situations not covered by employment-at-
job,” the employer will not be able to
will, there are only four reasons that an
terminate the employee for minor rules
employee
infractions or for poor performance.
probationary
Covenants of good faith and fair
company rules, inability to perform, and
dealing. Though employers are generally
an economically caused reduction in force
free to hire and fire at will, the courts
(layoffs).
have ruled that employers must still act
in good faith and deal fairly with an
can
be
legally
period,
terminated:
violation
Probationary Period
 In many jobs, employees are given a
employee. These rulings have been based
probationary period in which to prove
on an item in the Uniform Commercial
that they can perform well. Though
Code stating, “Every contract . . . imposes
most probationary periods last 3 to 6
an obligation of good faith in its
months, those for police officers are
performance or enforcement,” and the
usually a year, and the probationary
period for professors is 6 years!
of
Employees can be terminated more
knew a rule, organizations require
easily during the probationary period
employees to sign statements that they
than at any other time.
received information about the rule,
read the rule, and understand the rule.
Violation of Company Rules
 Courts consider five factors in determining
3.
the legality of a decision to terminate an
employee for violating company rules.
1.
The first factor is that a rule against a
particular behavior must actually exist.
Though
this
may
seem
Proof is accomplished through such means as
witnesses, video recordings, and job samples.
4.
The fourth factor considered by the
obvious,
courts is the extent to which the rule has
organizations often have “unwritten”
been equally enforced. That is, if other
rules governing employee behavior.
employees violated the rule but were
These unwritten rules, however, will not
not
hold up in court. For example, a
employee for a particular rule violation
manufacturer fired an employee for
may not be legal.
wearing a gun under his jacket at work.
5.
terminated,
terminating
an
The fifth and final factor is the extent to
The employee successfully appealed on
which the punishment fits the crime.
the grounds that even though “common
Employees in their probationary period
sense” would say that guns should not
(usually their first 6 months) can be
be brought to work, the company did not
have a written rule against it.
2.
The third factor is the ability of the
employer to prove that an employee
actually violated the rule.
immediately fired for a rule infraction.
For more tenured employees, however,
If a rule exists, a company must prove
the
that the employee knew the rule. Rules
reasonable attempt to change the
can be communicated orally during
person’s behavior through progressive
employee orientation and staff meetings
discipline.
and
 The longer an employee has been
in
newsletters,
writing
bulletin
in
handbooks,
boards,
organization
must
make
a
and
with an organization, the greater the
paycheck stuffers. Rules communicated
number of steps that must be taken
in handbooks are the most legally
to correct her behavior. Discipline
defensible. To prove that an employee
can begin with something simple
samples (e.g., poorly typed letters for a
such as counseling or an oral
secretary, improperly hemmed pants for
warning, move on to a written
a tailor).
warning or probation, and end with
steps such as reduction in pay,
demotion, or termination.
 For
violations
of
some
rules,
Reduction in Force (Layoff )
 Employees can be terminated if it is in the
best economic interests of an organization
to do so.
Reductions in force, more commonly
progressive discipline is not always
called layoffs, have been used by the vast
necessary. It is probably safe to say
majority of Fortune 500 companies in the
that an employer can terminate an
past few decades.
employee who steals money or
 In cases of large layoffs or plant closings, the
shoots someone at work.
Worker
Inability to Perform
and
Retraining
Notification Act (WARN) requires that
 Employees can also be terminated for an
organizations provide workers with at least
inability to perform the job. To do so,
60 days’ notice. Though layoffs are designed
though, an organization will need to
to save money, research indicates not only
prove that the employee could not
that force reductions have a devastating
perform the job and that progressive
discipline was
Adjustment
effect on employees, but that they often do
taken to give the
not result in the desired financial savings.
employee an opportunity to improve.
 For an employer to survive a court
challenge
to
terminating
a
poor-
The Termination Meeting
performing employee, it must first
Prior to the Meeting
demonstrate that a reasonable standard

The first step is to ensure that the legal
of performance was communicated to
process has been followed. For example, if an
the employee. The organization must
organization is about to terminate an
next demonstrate that there was a
employee for a rule violation, it must be sure
documented
standard.
meet
the
that a rule actually existed, that the
documentation
can
employee
failure
Such
to
include critical-incident logs and work
knew
the
rule,
that
the
organization has proof that the rule was

violated, that progressive discipline was
of the story to other employees, while the
used, and that the rule was applied equally to
organization must wait until Monday to
all employees. An important responsibility for
refute the gossip.
human resources professionals is to ensure
During the Meeting
that

a
termination
decision
is
legally
defensible.
to the point about terminating the employee.
The next step is to determine how much help,
Theemployee usually knows why she
if any, the organization wants to offer the
has been called in, and there is no reason to
employee. Forms of help can include
prolong the agony.
references,
severance
pay,
and

outplacement assistance. Usually, greater
for the employee’s efforts (if sincere), and
agreements not to sue the organization.
offer whatever assistance the organization
The final step is to schedule an appropriate
place and time for the meeting to occur. The
intends to provide.

meeting should be held in a neutral, private
location. To avoid potential damage caused by
Administrative duties such as obtaining
copies of keys and completing paperwork are
then performed.
Finally, the employee is asked to gather
personal belongings and is escorted out the
door.
a hostile reaction to the termination decision,
the meeting should not be held in a

The supervisor should rationally state the
reasons for the decision, express gratitude
levels of help are given to employees who sign

During the meeting, the supervisor should get
supervisor’s office.
After the Meeting
Rather than late on Friday afternoon, as is

traditional, the meeting should take place on
a Monday or Tuesday so that the employee
has an opportunity to seek advice and the
organization has a chance to talk to its
employees. When a termination is made on a
Friday afternoon, the employee is unable to
contact sources of help over the weekend.
Likewise, the terminated employee has all
weekend to get on the phone to tell her side
Once the meeting is over, the natural
reaction of the supervisor is to feel guilty. To
relieve some of this guilt, a supervisor should
review the facts—she gave the employee
every chance to improve, but the employee
chose not to. A human resources professional
for Valleydale Foods tells employees this:
“Through your behavior, you fired yourself.
I’m just completing the paperwork.”

When an employee is fired, other employees
Creating BARS
will be tense. Consequently, it is important to
Generation of Job Dimensions
be honest with the other employees about
 In the first step in BARS construction, the
number and nature of job-related dimensions are
determined.
what happened; at the same time, negative
statements
about
the
terminated
If a job analysis has already been conducted, the
employee’s character must be avoided.
Additional Types of Rating Scales
dimensions can be obtained from the job
analysisreport. If for some reason a job analysis
Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales
has not been conducted, a panel of some 20 job
experts—the employees—is formed.
Generation of Critical Incidents
 Once the relevant job dimensions have been
identified, employees are asked to generate
examples of good, average, and bad behavior
that they have seen for each dimension.
Thus, if five dimensions have been identified,
each employee is asked to generate 15
critical incidents - a good, an average, and a
bad incident for each of the five dimensions.
If the organization is fairly small, employees
may need to generate more than one example
of the three types of behavior for each
 To reduce the rating problems associated with
graphic rating scales, Smith and Kendall
developed behaviorally anchored rating
scales (BARS). BARS use critical incidents
(samples of behavior) to formally provide
meaning to the numbers on a rating scale.
dimension.
Sorting Incidents

To make sure that the incidents written for
each job dimension are actually examples of
behavior for that dimension, three job
experts independently sort the incidents into
each of the job dimensions.

The dimension into which each incident has
exactly on one of the scale points, they are
been sorted by each of the three sorters then
often placed between the points, thus serving
is examined. If at least two sorters placed an
as anchors for future raters.
incident in the same dimension, the
incident
becomes
part
of
that
dimension. But if each sorter has
placed the incident in a different
category, the incident is considered to
be ambiguous and thus is discarded.
Rating Incidents
 Another group of job experts is given the
Forced-Choice Rating Scales

One problem with BARS is that supervisors
incidents and asked to rate each one on a
often do not use the anchors when rating
scale that can have from five to nine points
employees. Instead, they choose a point on
as to the level of job performance that it
the scale and then quickly glance to see
represents. The ratings from each rater for all
which anchor is associated with the number.
of the incidents are then used to determine
Because of this tendency, BARS do not often
the mean rating and standard deviation for
reduce leniency in ratings.
each incident (typically by computer).

To overcome this problem, forced-choice
Choosing Incidents
rating scales have been developed. These
 The goal of this step is to find one incident to
scales use critical incidents and relevant job
represent each of the points on the scale for
behaviors, as do BARS, but the scale points
each dimension. To do so, the incidents
are hidden.
whose mean ratings come closest to each of
the scale points and whose standard
deviations are small are kept.

The development of a forced-choice rating
scale is a long and complicated process,
which partly explains why it is not commonly
Creating the Scale
used. However, this method of evaluation
 The incidents chosen in the previous step are
does have its advantages. For example,
then placed on a vertical scale. Because the
because
mean for each incident is unlikely to fall
behaviors
the
supervisor
without
must
knowing
“the
choose
key,”
common rating errors such as leniency and
4.
The next step in creating the items is to
Consequently,
pick good, bad, and neutral behaviors
performance evaluations should be more
that have similar desirability ratings.
accurate.
Thus, each rating item has three
halo
are
less
likely.
Creating a Forced-Choice Scale
1.
2.
3.
To create a forced-choice scale, the first
behaviors:
One
indicates
good
performance,
step is similar to that for BARS: Critical
one indicates poor performance, and one
incidents and relevant job behaviors are
indicates
generated. These incidents, of course, are
performance. Furthermore, all of the
available only when a job analysis has
behaviors for an item have the same level
been conducted.
of desirability.
neither
good
nor
bad
the behaviors on the extent to which
 The disadvantages of the forced-choice scale
probably outweigh its advantages.
excellent employees perform them.
 First, evaluations on forced-choice scales
After an approximately 1-month interval,
can be “faked.” A supervisor who wants
the employees again rate the items. This
to give an employee a high rating need
time, however, they rate the extent to
only think about a good employee when
which bad employees perform the
evaluating the employee in question.
behaviors. Finally, after another month,
 Second, supervisors often object to
the employees again rate the behaviors,
forced-choice scales because the scoring
this time for their desirability.
key is kept secret. Not only does this
In the third step, the actual items for the
secrecy deprive a supervisor of any
rating scale are created. Behaviors with
control over the rating process, but it can
high positive values are considered to
be seen by supervisors as a lack of trust in
discriminate good from bad employees,
their
items with high negative values are
employees.
In the second step, employees rate all of
abilities
to
evaluate
their
considered to discriminate bad from
 Most important, however, because the
good employees, and behaviors with
key must be kept secret, forced-choice
values near zero are considered neutral.
scales make feedback almost impossible.
Thus they should be used only when the
major goal of the performance appraisal
same as the behavior listed, or a minus ( − ) if
system is accurate employee evaluation
the employee’s behavior is usually worse
for purposes such as promotion and
than the behavior listed.
salary increases.
Behavioral Observation Scales
Mixed-Standard Scales

To overcome some of the problems of forced-
Behavioral
observation
scales
(BOS),
choice scales, Blanz and Ghiselli developed
developed by Latham and Wexley, are a
mixedstandard scales, an example of which is
more sophisticated method for measuring the
shown in Figure 7.11. Mixed-standard scales
frequency of desired behaviors. Even though
are developed by having employees rate job
BOS have no psychometric advantages over
behaviors and critical incidents on the extent
BARS, they are simpler to construct and
to which they represent various levels of job
easier to use.
performance. For each job dimension, a
behavior


or
incident
is
chosen

BOS also provide high levels of feedback and
that
are better than simple rating scales at
represents excellent performance, average
motivating employees to change their
performance, and poor performance.
behavior.
To evaluate an employee, a supervisor reads

The development of a BOS is relatively
each behavior and places a plus ( + ) next to it
straightforward. The first few steps are the
when a particular employee’s behavior is
same as with a BARS: Critical incidents and
usually better than the behavior listed, a zero
behaviors are obtained from employees, the
( 0 ) if the employee’s behavior is about the
incidents are placed into categories, and each

incident is rated as to the level of job
ultimate purpose of employee training is
performance it represents.
to increase an organization’s profits.
As shown in Table 7.8, the behaviors are then
listed. Supervisors read each behavior on the
list and use the following scale to find the
frequency for an employee performing that
Determining Training Needs

Conducting a needs analysis is the first
step in developing an employee training
specific behavior:
system. The purpose of needs analysis is to

The greatest advantage to BOS is that a
determine the types of training, if any, that are
supervisor can show employees the specific
needed in an organization, as well as the
behaviors that they currently do correctly and
extent to which training is a practical means of
the specific behaviors that they should do to
achieving an organization’s goals.
receive higher performance evaluations.

conducted: organizational analysis, task
Designing and Evaluating
Training Systems
 Training is the “systematic acquisition of
skills, rules, concepts, or attitudes that result in
improved
analysis, and
person analysis.
Organizational Analysis

The purpose of organizational analysis is to
determine those organizational factors that
performance”.
either
 Training compensates for the inability to
select desired applicants.
 Employees might have the necessary
Three types of needs analysis are typically
facilitate
or
inhibit
training
effectiveness.

A properly conducted organizational analysis
knowledge and skills one year, but have
will focus on the goals the organization wants
deficiencies by the next. Finally, no
to achieve, the extent to which training will
employee has the “complete package”—
help achieve those goals, the organization’s
that is, every technical and interpersonal
ability to conduct training (e.g., finances,
knowledge and skill perfected; there is
physical space, time), and the extent to which
always room for improvement. The
employees are willing and able to be trained
(e.g.,

ability,
commitment,
motivation,
the tasks at the time they are hired.
stress).
Some tasks might be so simple that they
An organizational analysis should also include
can be performed without the need of
a survey of employee readiness for training.
previous experience or future training.
Training will be effective only if the
For other tasks, we might have formal
organization is willing to provide a supportive
training programs to teach employees
climate for training, it can afford an effective
the necessary competencies needed to
program, employees want to learn, and the
perform them.
goals of a program are consistent with those
Person Analysis
of the organization.

The third and final step in the needs analysis
Task Analysis
process is determining which employees need

If the results of the organizational analysis
training and in which areas. Person analysis is
indicate that a positive organizational climate
based on the recognition that not every
for training exists, the next step is to conduct
employee needs further training for every task
a task analysis. The purpose of a task analysis
performed.
is to use the job analysis methods to identify

To determine the individual training needs for
the tasks performed by each employee, the
each
conditions under which these tasks are
performance appraisal scores, surveys,
performed,
interviews,skill
and
the
competencies
(knowledge, skills, abilities) needed to
employee,
person
and
analysis
knowledge
uses
tests,
and/or critical incidents.
perform the tasks under the identified
conditions.

Once the tasks and competencies for a job
have been identified, the next step is to
determine how employees learn to perform
each task or obtain each competency.
 For example, due to a rigorous employee
selection process, we might expect
employees to be able to perform many of
Performance Appraisal Scores
 Perhaps the easiest method of needs
analysis
is
performance
to
use
appraisal
employees’
scores.
Low
ratings on a particular dimension for
most employees may indicate that
additional training in that dimension is
needed. Conversely, if most employees
score high on a particular dimension,
the type of information needed to
relatively little training time is needed.
conduct a training needs analysis.
 Although using performance appraisal
scores appears fairly easy as a method of
needs assessment, three problems can
Surveys
 Another common approach to determine
interfere with their use.
training needs is to design and administer
1.
First, as discussed in the previous
a survey that asks employees what
chapter, several types of rating errors
knowledge and skills they believe should
can
be included in future training.
reduce
the
accuracy
of
performance appraisal scores. The
2.
most relevant here are leniency
they
errors and strictness errors.
performance rating errors, which were
The second problem is that rarely are
discussed previously. Second, employees
there
all
often know their own strengths and
employees score either high or low
weaknesses best. Thus, to determine
on a dimension. Instead, it is more
what employees need, ask them. Finally,
common for only a few employees to
training needs can be determined with
score poorly. In
surveys even when the organization has
this case, a person examining the
not previously made an effort to design
average
an effective performance appraisal
situations
in
which
performance
appraisal
scores might conclude that training
eliminate
the
problems
of
system or adequate job descriptions.
is
 The main disadvantages of surveys are
correct
that employees may not be honest and
interpretation is that training should
the organization may not be able to
be conducted for the few employees
afford the training suggested by the
who scored low for that dimension.
employees.
in
a
particular
unnecessary.
3.
 Surveys offer several advantages. First,
Third,
the
dimension
The
current
performance
appraisal system may not provide
poorly, they are singled out for individual
Interviews
training.
 The third method of needs analysis is the
 The greatest problem with using testing
interview, which is usually done with a
employees.
as a method to determine training needs
Interviews are not used as extensively as
is that relatively few tests are available
surveys, but they can yield even more in-
for this purpose.
selected
number
of
depth answers to questions about
Critical Incidents
training needs.

To
use
this
technique
for
needs
 The main advantage of interviews is that
assessment, the critical incidents are
employee feelings and attitudes are
sorted into dimensions and separated
revealed more clearly than with the
into examples of good and poor
survey approach. The main disadvantage
performance. Dimensions with many
of interviews is that interview data are
examples of poor performance are
often difficult to quantify and analyze.
considered to be areas in which many
employees are performing poorly and in
Skill and Knowledge Tests
which additional training is indicated.
 The fourth way to determine training
needs is with a skill test or a knowledge
test. Some examples of areas that could
be tested to determine training needs
include knowledge of lending laws for
Developing a Training Program
Establishing Goals and Objectives

the first step in developing a training program
loan officers, knowledge of company
is to establish the goals and objectives for the
policy for new employees, free-throw
training. It is important that these goals and
shooting for basketball players, and the
objectives be obtainable given the time and
dreaded midterm exam for this course.
resources allocated to the training.
 If all employees score poorly on these
tests, training across the organization is
indicated. If only a few employees score
Once training needs have been determined,

Training goals and objectives should
concretely state the following:
 What learners are expected to do
 The conditions under which they are
expected to do it
 The level at which they are expected to
do it

In other words, vague objectives such as “to
be a better salesperson” should be replaced
with specific objectives such as increasing
customer contacts by 10% and increasing
new accounts by 5%.
 Make the training interesting. Employees
are more likely to attend when they
know they will have a good time as well
as learn something useful.
 Increase
employee
buy-in.
When
employees play a role in choosing and
planning the types of training offered,
they are more likely to attend. Baldwin,
Magjuka,
and
Loher
found
that
employees given a choice about training
Motivating Employees
programs were more motivated than
Motivating Employees to Attend Training
employees

The most obvious way to “motivate”
Employees given a choice, but then not
employees to attend training is to require
given the program they chose, were the
them to attend training “on the clock.”
least motivated.

not
given
a
choice.
 Provide incentives. Common incentives
Here are some strategies to motivate
employees to attend training:
for attending training include certificates,
 Relate the training to an employee’s
immediate job. Employees are more
money, promotion opportunities, and
college credit.
likely to attend when the material
 Provide food. Medeco Security Locks in
covered in training will directly affect
Salem, Virginia, has optional monthly
their immediate job performance. For
training sessions in which a topic is
example, employees would be more
presented while the employees eat lunch
motivated to attend a training session on
provided by the company. Consultants
a
the
Bobbie Raynes and Ge Ge Beall both have
organization will begin using in two weeks
used free pizza as incentives to get
than a training session on “Future Trends
employees to attend short training
in Office Automation.” Thus, training
sessions during lunch or dinner.
computer
program
that
should be provided “just in time” rather
than “just in case.”
 Reduce the stress associated with
attending. Frequently, employees want
to attend training but don’t because they
can’t afford to take time away from their
scheduled
employees
duties.
to
To
attend
encourage
training,
organizations should provide workload
reductions or staffing assistance.
Motivating Employees to Perform Well in
Training  Providing Incentives for Learning
 This motivation to learn is often related
to the perception that there is an
incentive (e.g., a pay raise or job
advancement) to learning.
 Types of incentives that can be used to
motivate learning include money, job
security,
selfimprovement,
advancement, fun (an interesting training
program), and opportunity to enter a
new career.
 A common financial incentive method is
skill-based pay, which is used by 16% of
2. Horizontal skill plans focus on skills
used across multiple jobs
3. Depth skill plans reward employees
for learning specialized skills
4. Basic skill plans focus on such basic
skills as math and English
 Interest
 Employees will be more motivated to
learn when the training program is
interesting. As a result, trainers who are
not effective presenters do not last long.
Some
training
topics
are
naturally
interesting and a trainer doesn’t need to
do much to spice up the material.
 A topic can be made interesting by
making it relevant to the employees’
lives, having activities, using a variety of
training techniques, using humor, and
maximizing audience participation.
 Feedback
pay, an employee participates in a
 Another essential aspect of motivating
employees to learn is to provide
feedback.
training program that is designed to
 With some tasks, feedback occurs
increase a particular skill an employee
naturally. For example, in baseball, a
needs either to be promoted or to
batter receives feedback on his swing by
receive a pay raise.
seeing how hard and far the ball travels.
major U.S. organizations. With skill-based
 There are four common skill-based pay
plans.
 For other tasks, however, judging the
1. Vertical skill plans pay for skill in a
single job
feedback is difficult. For example, if you
correctness of a behavior without
write a term paper for this class and get a
C, your next term paper will probably not

Another important factor in motivating
improve unless you have been provided
employees is the extent to which they are
feedback about what was right and
given the opportunity to apply their skills.
wrong with the previous paper.
Employees
who
were
promoted
after
 The employee will not learn if too little
receiving a graduate degree (given the chance
feedback is given. However, too much or
to use their new knowledge) were less likely
overly
to turn over than employees who completed
detailed
feedback
causes
their degrees but were not promoted.
frustration, and the employee will not

learn at an optimal level.
One other method for getting employees to
 Praise provides an incentive to continue
correct behavior.
apply what they have learned in training is to
 Probably, even though negative feedback
at the same time. One advantage of doing this
is more
complicated
than
positive
feedback. Negative feedback should
train all the employees in a work area (team)
is because all employees have been trained,
they can help and encourage each other.
probably also be accompanied by
specific
suggestions
for
how
the
employee can improve performance.
Motivating Employees to Use Their Training
on the Job

 Once goals and objectives have been established,
the next step in developing a training program is
tochoose the training method that will
Once employees have gathered knowledge
best accomplish those goals and objectives. For
and skills from a training program, it is
example, if the
essential
that
they
apply
their
new
knowledge and skills on the job itself.

Choosing the Best Training Method
goal is for employees to learn an actual skill,
some type of hands-on training will be
Perhaps the factor that plays the biggest role
necessary (e.g., role plays, simulations).
in employee motivation to apply training is
Because
the atmosphere set by management. That is,
multiple goals and objectives, the best
employees are most likely to apply their new
training programs often use a variety of
knowledge and skills if supervisors encourage
methods so that employees will understand
and reward them to do so.
the reasons for doing a certain task, how it
most
training
programs
have
should be done, and in what situations it
expertise on a particular topic or when
should be done.
the cost of internally developing a
training program exceeds the cost of
Conducting Classroom Training
 Classroom instruction—commonly called a
seminar, lecture, or workshop—is still the
most common training method. With this
approach, either a member of the training
staff or an outside consultant provides
training, often in the form of a lecture, to a
few or many employees at one time.
contracting with an external trainer.
 Rather than using actual trainers, many
organizations use videotapes as part of
their training programs. Videos have a
clear economic advantage over live
lecture when the training session is to be
repeated many times.
 Many organizations are beginning to use
local colleges and universities to
handle
Initial Decisions
their
advantages
Who Will Conduct the Training?
training
needs.
The
using
colleges
and
of
universities are lower costs, access to
 Training seminars can be conducted by a
excellent training facilities, access to
variety of sources including in-house
well-known faculty, and the potential for
trainers who are employees of the
employees to receive college credit for
organization, outside trainers who
completing the training.
contract
with
the
organization,
videotapes, and local universities.
 In-house trainers are used when a
training program will be presented too
Where Will the Training Be Held?
 Training can be offered on-site or at an
off-site location such as a hotel,
university, or conference center.
frequently to justify the cost of an
 The obvious advantage of conducting
outside trainer or when the training topic
training on-site is that it is less expensive.
is so specific to the organization that
However,
finding outside trainers would be difficult.
neither the space nor the equipment
 External trainers are used when the
trainers in an organization lack the
many
organizations
needed for on-site training.
have
 Holding
training
off-site
has
the
Creating Handouts
advantage of getting the employees
 An important part of any training
away from the work site and allowing
presentation is the handouts to the
them to concentrate on their training.
audience. The purpose of handouts is to
How Long Should the Training Be?
 For the highest level of learning, training
material should be presented in small,
easily remembered chunks distributed
over a period of time (distributed
learning) rather than learned all at once
provide material that the trainees can
take back to their jobs.
 Providing comprehensive notes is
important because people forget about
half the training content
once they leave the room and then forget
another 25% within 48 hours.
(massed learning).
Delivering the Training Program
Preparing for Classroom Training
Adjusting for the Audience
 The characteristics of the audience play an
important role in developing a training
program. A trainer must consider the
size, demographics, and ability of the
audience.
Developing the Training Curriculum
 Putting together a training program can
take a great deal of time. The trainer must
research a topic, develop a training
outline, create visuals (e.g., PowerPoint
slides), create handouts, and obtain or
create supporting materials such as
videos and role play exercises.
Introducing the Trainer and the Training
Session
 Training sessions usually begin with the
introduction of the trainer. This can be
done by the trainer introducing himself or
by
another
person
doing
the
introduction. The introduction should be
short
and
should
establish
the
credentials of the trainer. The length of
the introduction depends on the time
allocated for the training and the extent
to which the audience already knows the
trainer.
 After the introduction of the trainer, the
objectives of the training seminar, the
training schedule (e.g., starting times,
break times, meal times, quitting times),
and seminar rules (e.g., turning off cell
phones, not smoking, not criticizing
training session will last an entire
audience members) are covered. When
week, time should be spent on
possible, it is a good idea
introductions and “group bonding”
for the schedule to include a 10-minute
activities.
break at the end of each hour and one
3.
and a half hours for lunch.
Nature of the Audience. Certain
types of icebreakers work better
Using Icebreakers and Energizers
with some audiences than they do
 Following the introduction of the trainer,
with others. For example, having a
most training programs start with some
group
of
trainees
introduce
sort of icebreaker or energizer.
themselves by saying their name and
in
a trait starting with the first letter of
choosing an icebreaker: the goal of the
their name (e.g., Friendly Fred, Timid
icebreaker, the length of the training
Temea, Zany Zach) is not likely to go
 There
are
three
considerations
over as well with a group of police
session, and the nature of the audience.
1.
officers as it might with a group of
Goal. For an icebreaker to be
successful, it must accomplish
Makinth Presentati
g
e on
a goal. The most common
goals for icebreakers are to
get people to know one
another, to get them talking,
to wake them up, and to get
them thinking about the
topic. Having an icebreaker
for the sake of having an icebreaker
is not a good idea.
2.
social workers.
Using Case Studies to Apply Knowledge
Length of the Training Session.
 Once employees have received the
If the training session will last only a
information they need through lecture, it
few hours, the icebreaker should be
is important that they be able to apply
short—if one is even used. If the
what they have learned. One way to do
this is through the case study. Case
physically and psychologically simulates
studies are similar to leaderless group
actual
discussions and situational interview
Interpersonal Skills through Role
problems, and are considered to be good
sources
for
developing
analysis,
synthesis, and evaluation skills.
 With this method, the members of a
small group each read a case, which is
either a real or hypothetical situation
typical of those encountered on the job.
The group then discusses the case,
identifies possible solutions, evaluates
the advantages and disadvantages of
each solution, and arrives at what it
thinks is the best solution to the
problem. Using Simulation Exercises
to Practice New Skills
knowledge
problem-solving
conditions.
Practicing
Play
 Whereas simulations are effective for
learning how to use new equipment or
software programs, role play allows the
trainee
to
interpersonal
perform
skills
by
necessary
acting
out
simulated roles.
 Though role plays allow employees to
practice what is being taught, they are
not for everyone. Many employees feel
uneasy and embarrassed about being
required to “act”. This reluctance can be
reduced to some extent by using warmup exercises and praising employees
 Whereas case studies are effective in
applying
job
and
skills,
learning
simulation
exercises allow the trainee to practice
newly learned skills.
after they participate.
Increasing Interpersonal Skills through
Behavior Modeling
 One of the most successful training
methods has been behavior modeling.
 Simulations offer the advantage of
Behavior modeling is similar to role play
allowing the trainee to work with
except that trainees role-play ideal
equipment
behavior rather than the behavior they
under
actual
working
conditions without the consequences of
mistakes.
might normally perform.
 Of course, for behavior modeling to be
 Whatever the method used, a simulation
successful, the videos must represent
exercise can be effective only if it
commonly encountered problems and
situations—thus
demonstrating
the
importance of a thorough job analysis.
With CBT and e-learning, employees can
choose from a variety of training
Providing Individual Training through
Distance Learning
programs offered on-site, through the

intranet, and complete the training
Most distance learning training takes
advantage of the concept of programmed
instruction.
programs at their own pace.
 A common method of CBT and e-learning
Programmed instruction, whether offered
through books or through e-learning, is
effective because it takes advantage of
several important learning principles.

Internet, or through an organization’s
is interactive video. With interactive
video, employees see a videotaped
situation on a television, computer
screen, or iPod. At the end of each
Finally, programmed instruction presents
information in small units or chunks, because
learning smaller amounts of material is easier
than learning larger amounts.
situation,
employees
choose
their
response to the situation and the
computer selects a video that shows
what would happen based on the
Programmed Instruction Using Books,
Videos, or Interactive Video
employee’s response.
 With this method, employees are provided
with media materials for learning the
content, as well as with a series of exams
that measure what they have learned
 Fast-growing sources of e-learning are
teleconferences,
webinars,
and
webcasts. Webinars (short for Webbased seminar) and webcasts are training
programs transmitted over the Web. The
from them.
difference between the two is that a
Computer-Based or Web-Based
Programmed Instruction
webinar is interactive whereas a webcast
 Rather than using books and traditional
videos for distance learning, many
organizations are using computer-based
training
(CBT)
and
e-learning.
The
difference between the two is that elearning is Web-based and CBT is not.
involves one-way communication from
the trainer. With a teleconference,
trainees
are
sent
a
PowerPoint
presentation that they view on their
computer while the trainer conducts the
audio portion of the training over the
phone.
As
with
webinars,
 Characteristics of the Model
teleconferences can be interactive in
 Of course, we do not model everyone
nature.
else’s behavior. Instead, we tend to
 Another fast-growing source of elearning
is
interactive,
model behavior of people who are
online
similar to us, who are successful, and
communities of learning such as blogs,
who have status.  Characteristics of
wikis, and listserves. With each of these
the Observer
methods, rather than waiting for an
 For an employee to model another’s
annual conference or scheduled training
behavior, three conditions are necessary.
program, employees can ask questions,
First, the employee must pay attention to
get immediate answers, post opinions,
the behavior of other employees. All the
and share information with others in
role models in the world will be unable to
similar fields.
effect a behavior change in an employee
Conducting On-the-Job Training
if the employee pays no attention to the
 Though there is some disagreement about what
role model.
 Second, the employee must be able to
retain the information that is being
modeled.
constitutes OJT, a good definition is that OJT
is informal training by experienced peers and
supervisors that occurs on the job and during
 Finally, the employee must have the
ability or skill to reproduce the behavior
that is seen.
job tasks. OJT works best for teaching skills
that require supervision to learn, are best
learned through repetition, and benefit from
Learning through Job Rotation
role modeling.

Learning by Modeling Others
Another excellent on-the-job training method
 Also called social learning, modeling is a vitally
is job rotation, in which an employee
important method of learning for training in
performs several different jobs within an
organizations.
implies,
organization. Job rotation is especially
employees learn by watching how other
popular for managerial training because it
employees perform, or model, a behavior.
allows a manager trainee to experience and
As
the
name
understand most, if not all, of the jobs within
the organization that his subordinates will

perform.
Learning through Coaching and
Mentoring
Job rotation is also commonly used to train
Coaching
nonmanagerial
 Coaching is another popular method of training
new employees and typically takes one of two
forms:
employees.
Aside
from
increasing employee awareness, the main
advantage of job rotation is that it allows for
both lateral transfers within an organization
and greater flexibility in replacing absent
workers.
Learning through Apprentice Training

Apprentice training is used by more than
50,000 people annually and is typically found
in crafts and trades such as carpentry and
plumbing. With apprentice training, an
individual usually takes 144 hours of formal
class work each year and works with an
expert for several (usually four) years to learn
a particular trade and perhaps become
eligible to join a trade union.

experienced employees working with new
employees and professional coaches who
work with all employees.
Experienced Employees as Coaches
 In this form of coaching, a new employee
is assigned to an experienced employee,
who is told to “show the kid the ropes.”
Coaching can be highly effective, allowing
the new employee the chance to learn
from a job expert.
 Coaching,
however,
has
its
own
problems. First, good workers are not
necessarily good trainers, and good
trainers
are
not
necessarily
good
Apprenticeships are good for both the
workers.
apprentice and the expert. The apprentice
 One solution has been to establish
learns a valuable trade, and the expert or the
“train-the-trainer”
organization gets inexpensive labor—usually
which future trainers or coaches are
one half the cost of expert labor.
programs,
in
taught the skills they will need to
train other employees.
 A second problem with coaching is that it
diminishes the expert’s productivity .
That is, while the expert shows the new
employee how to do the job, his own
also to advance in the organization. Typically,
production declines.
mentors are older and at least one level or
 One solution to this problem is for
position
above
the
employee
being
mentored.
the organization to reward workers
who do well in training new
employees.
Performance Appraisal
 Many organizations, such as Pitney-
 One excellent method of on-the-job training is
Bowes, have also adopted pass-through
to have a supervisor meet with an employee
programs,
experienced
to discuss his strengths and weaknesses on
workers are temporarily assigned to the
the job. Once the weaknesses have been
training department. These workers are
identified, the supervisor and employee can
taught training techniques and then
determine what training methods would
spend several months training new
best help the employee to improve his job
employees before resuming their old
knowledge or skill.
in
which
jobs.
Professional Coaches
Ensuring Transfer of Training
 To overcome the problems mentioned

Research in learning has indicated that the
here, many organizations are using
more similar the training situation is to the
“corporate coaches.” Corporate coaches
actual job situation, the more effective
are similar to consultants, yet rather
training will be. In other words, the transfer
than working with the organization as a
of training will be greater.
whole, they are hired to coach a
particular
employee—usually
a
manager.

If a firefighter is learning to perform CPR, he
must overlearn the task through constant
practice. This overlearning is essential
because it may be months before the
Mentoring
firefighter will practice what he has learned.
 A mentor is a veteran in the organization who
 The term overlearning does not have the
takes a special interest in a new employee and
same meaning in training that it has on
helps him not only to adjust to the job but
most college campuses. In training,
overlearning means practicing a task
 Pretest/Posttest Control Group Design
even after it has been successfully
 The big advantage this second design has is
learned. Many students, however, think
that it allows a researcher to look at the
of
training effect after controlling for
overlearning
as
the
negative
consequence of “studying too hard.”
outside factors.
Evaluation of Training Results
Research Designs for Evaluation
 Pretest-Postest Design
 The most simple and practical of
research designs implements a training
program and then determines whether
significant change is seen in performance
of job knowledge.
 To use this method, performance or job
knowledge must be measured twice. The
first measurement, a pretest, is taken
before the implementation of training.
The second measurement, a posttest, is
taken after the training program is
complete.
 Although this method is fairly simple, its
findings are difficult to interpret because
there is no control group against which
the results can be compared.
 Solomon Four-Groups Design
 With this design, one group will undergo
training but will not take the pretest, a
second group will undergo training but
will take the pretest, a third group will
not undergo training but will take the
pretest, and a fourth group will neither
undergo training nor take the pretest.
The diagram for this design is as follows:
Evaluation Criteria
measured. That is, if a training program is
 There are six levels at which training
designed to increase employee knowledge of
communication techniques, then creating a
effectiveness can be measured: content
validity,
employee
test to determine whether an employee
reactions,
employee learning, application of
training, business impact, and return on
investment.
actually learned is possible.
Application of Training

Another
criterion
for
evaluating
the
effectiveness of training is the degree of
Content Validity
application of training, or the extent to which
 At times, the only way that training can be
employees
actually
can
use
the
learned
evaluated is by comparing training content
material.Business Impact
with the knowledge, skills, and abilities

The fifth criterion that can be used to
evaluate a training program’s effectiveness is
business impact.
required to perform a job. In other words, the
content validity of the training can be
examined.
Employee Reactions
 Employee reactions involve asking employees if
they enjoyed the training and learned from
Business impact is determined by evaluating
whether the goals for training were met.
Return on Investment
 The sixth criterion for evaluating the success of
a training program is return on investment
the training. These ratings tend to be most
(ROI). That is, after accounting for the cost of
influenced by the trainer’s style and the
the training, did the organization actually
degree of interaction in the training program,
save money?
but are also influenced by the motivation of
the trainee prior to training as well as
perceptions of organizational support for the
training.
Employee Learning
 Instead of using employee reactions as the
criterion in evaluating training performance,
actual employee learning can usually be