PERSONALITY
Qualities within a person, characteristics of person’s behavior.
Gordon Allport – personality is the dynamic organisation within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment.
Walter Mischel – personality is a distinctive patterns of behavior (thougths and emotions) that
characterize each individuals adaptation to the situations of life.
concepts from trait theory
Surface traits and source traits are concepts from trait theory in psychology, specifically within the
realm of personality assessment and description. These terms are used to understand and categorize
various characteristics and behaviors that make up an individual's personality. Let's explore the
definitions and differences between these two concepts:
1. Surface Traits: Surface traits are specific observable behaviors or characteristics that are
evident in an individual's behavior. These traits are the readily apparent aspects of a person's
personality that can be easily identified and described. Surface traits often reflect the way a
person interacts with their environment and the impressions they leave on others. They are the
traits that people might notice in a person's behavior, actions, and communication.
For example, if someone is described as outgoing, talkative, and social, these are surface traits that are
easily observable by others.
2. Source Traits: Source traits, also known as central traits, are underlying, fundamental
dimensions or factors that give rise to the various surface traits observed in an individual's
behavior. These traits are more abstract and comprehensive compared to surface traits. Source
traits represent the underlying structures that influence a wide range of behaviors and
characteristics. They are the core elements that shape an individual's overall personality.
Source traits help explain why individuals exhibit certain patterns of behavior across various
situations. Traits such as extroversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, and conscientiousness are
examples of source traits. These traits are considered to be fundamental dimensions that contribute to
various surface traits.
TYPES OF PERSONALITY
The Hippocratic theory of personality types, often referred to as the Four Temperaments theory, is an
ancient concept that dates back to the Greek physician Hippocrates.
The four temperaments and their associated bodily humors are:
1. Sanguine: This temperament was associated with an excess of blood. Sanguine individuals
were thought to be cheerful, outgoing, and sociable. They were considered to have a lively
and optimistic disposition.
2. Choleric: Choleric temperament was linked to an excess of yellow bile. Choleric individuals
were seen as ambitious, assertive, and dominant. They were believed to be natural leaders
with high levels of energy.
3. Melancholic: Melancholic temperament was associated with an excess of black bile.
Melancholic individuals were thought to be introspective, sensitive, and prone to moodiness.
They were often considered to be deep thinkers and contemplative.
4. Phlegmatic: Phlegmatic temperament was related to an excess of phlegm. Phlegmatic
individuals were characterized as calm, easygoing, and reserved. They were believed to have
a stable and unflappable personality.
Kretschmer's classification includes three main body types or constitutions, each associated with
different personality traits:
1. Pyknic: The pyknic body type is characterized by a rounded, soft, and heavy physique.
Kretschmer believed that individuals with a pyknic build were more likely to have a jovial,
sociable, and outgoing personality. They were seen as cheerful and optimistic individuals.
2. Asthenic: The asthenic body type is characterized by a slender, delicate, and fragile physique.
Kretschmer associated this body type with introverted, sensitive, and introspective personality
traits. Asthenic individuals were believed to be artistic and contemplative.
3. Athletic: The athletic body type is characterized by a muscular and robust physique.
Kretschmer associated this body type with assertive, competitive, and dominant personality
traits. He believed that athletic individuals were more likely to be leaders and assertive in
their interactions.
Sheldon's somatotype classification includes three main body types or somatotypes:
1. Endomorph: Endomorphs are characterized by a higher percentage of body fat and a
rounder, softer physique. Sheldon associated endomorphs with personality traits such as
sociability, friendliness, and affection. He believed that they were more relaxed and
easygoing in their temperament.
2. Mesomorph: Mesomorphs are characterized by a muscular and athletic physique. Sheldon
associated mesomorphs with personality traits such as assertiveness, competitiveness, and
confidence. He believed that they were more energetic and dominant in their behavior.
3. Ectomorph: Ectomorphs are characterized by a lean, slender, and delicate physique. Sheldon
associated ectomorphs with personality traits such as introversion, shyness, and sensitivity.
He believed that they were more intellectual and introspective.
Carl G Jung’s classification :
Introverts, Extroverts, and Ambiverts
There are two seemingly opposite personality types known as extroverts and introverts. According to
Carl Gustav Jung, an extrovert seeks intensive contact with the outside world seeking action and
sensory input. An introvert instead focuses their energy internally, on reflection, dreaming and
understanding. If both characteristics are equally present, we can speak of someone who has an
ambivert personality.
Jung's classification includes eight psychological types, each characterized by a combination of
attitudes (introversion or extraversion) and functions (thinking, feeling, sensation, or intuition). These
types serve as a framework for understanding individual differences in personality. Here are the eight
psychological types according to Jung's classification:
1. Extraverted Thinking (Te): Individuals with this type prefer to focus on external, objective
information and use logical analysis to make decisions. They are often efficient, organized,
and goal-oriented.
2. Introverted Thinking (Ti): People with this type prefer to reflect internally on concepts and
ideas. They value precision and are inclined to analyze and understand complex systems.
3. Extraverted Feeling (Fe): Those with this type are attuned to the emotions and needs of
others. They seek harmony, often prioritizing social relationships and group dynamics.
4. Introverted Feeling (Fi): Individuals with this type are deeply in touch with their own
emotions and values. They prioritize authenticity and moral consistency.
5. Extraverted Sensation (Se): People with this type are highly attuned to sensory experiences
and seek stimulation from the external world. They often enjoy adventure and live in the
present moment.
6. Introverted Sensation (Si): This type focuses on personal sensory experiences and relies on
past experiences to make sense of the present. They often have a strong memory for details.
7. Extraverted Intuition (Ne): Individuals with this type are imaginative and curious,
exploring possibilities and connections between ideas. They are often open to new
experiences and insights.
8. Introverted Intuition (Ni): People with this type have a deep focus on abstract concepts and
patterns. They often anticipate future possibilities and seek underlying meanings.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCING PERSONALITY
Personality is a complex and multifaceted construct that is influenced by a wide range of factors, both
internal and external. These factors interact in intricate ways to shape an individual's unique
personality traits, behaviors, and characteristics. Here are some key factors that influence personality:
1. Genetics and Heredity: Genetic factors play a significant role in determining certain aspects
of personality. Traits like introversion-extroversion, impulsivity, and even some cognitive
abilities can have a genetic basis.
2. Biological Factors: Brain structure and functioning, neurotransmitter levels, and hormonal
influences can impact personality. For instance, differences in brain structure can contribute
to variations in emotional regulation and response.
3. Environment and Upbringing: Early life experiences, family environment, parenting styles,
and childhood interactions all contribute to the development of personality. The quality of
attachment with caregivers can influence emotional regulation and interpersonal behaviors.
4. Cultural and Societal Influences: Cultural norms, values, and societal expectations shape
how individuals express and perceive certain personality traits. Different cultures prioritize
and encourage specific traits and behaviors.
5. Socialization: The interactions and relationships an individual has throughout their life
influence personality development. Peers, friends, mentors, and social groups contribute to
the formation of attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.
6. Life Experiences: Significant life events, both positive and negative, can impact personality.
Traumatic experiences, achievements, losses, and major life transitions can shape coping
mechanisms, resilience, and worldview.
7. Learning and Conditioning: Learning processes, such as classical and operant conditioning,
influence personality traits and behaviors. People learn to associate certain behaviors with
rewards or punishments, affecting their tendencies.
8. Personal Choices and Behaviors: The actions individuals take based on their values,
preferences, and motivations can reinforce and shape personality traits over time. People
actively engage in behaviors that align with their self-concept.
9. Parental and Family Influences: Parenting styles, family dynamics, and roles within the
family unit can impact personality development. For example, authoritative parenting is
associated with positive outcomes in children's personality development.
10. Educational Experiences: Formal education and learning environments can influence
personality traits such as conscientiousness, openness to new experiences, and cognitive
abilities.
11. Media and Technology: Exposure to media, including television, movies, social media, and
online content, can shape attitudes, values, and behaviors by presenting role models and
societal norms.
12. Economic and Socioeconomic Factors: Economic status and socioeconomic factors can
impact personality development. Financial stability, access to resources, and opportunities for
personal growth can all influence personality traits.
13. Personal Traits and Temperament: Inborn temperament traits, such as level of emotional
reactivity, activity level, and adaptability, interact with external factors to shape personality.
14. Life Goals and Aspirations: Individual goals and aspirations influence personality
development as people make choices aligned with their values and ambitions.
15. Psychological Factors: Cognitive processes, such as perception, reasoning, and memory,
interact with other factors to shape personality. How individuals process information and
interpret experiences can impact their personality.
APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY
In psychology, there are several approaches to understanding and explaining personality, each
offering a different perspective on how personality traits and characteristics develop and influence
behavior. These approaches provide various frameworks for studying and analyzing the complexities
of human personality. Here are some of the major approaches to personality:
1. Psychodynamic Approach:
 Originator: Sigmund Freud and his followers (e.g., Carl Jung, Alfred Adler)
 Key Concepts: The psychodynamic approach emphasizes the role of unconscious
processes, childhood experiences, and the interplay of conflicting inner forces in
shaping personality. It includes concepts like the id, ego, superego, defense
mechanisms, and psychosexual stages of development.
2. Trait Approach:
 Originators: Gordon Allport, Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck, and others
 Key Concepts: The trait approach focuses on identifying and measuring specific
personality traits that describe individuals' consistent patterns of behavior, thoughts,
and feelings. Trait theories often use factor analysis to categorize traits and describe
individual differences.
3. Behavioral Approach:
 Originators: B.F. Skinner, John B. Watson, Albert Bandura
 Key Concepts: The behavioral approach emphasizes the influence of observable
behaviors and environmental factors on personality development. It focuses on how
conditioning, reinforcement, and learning experiences shape personality and
behavior.
4. Humanistic Approach:
 Originators: Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers
 Key Concepts: The humanistic approach emphasizes the inherent drive for selfactualization and personal growth. It highlights the importance of individual
subjective experiences, self-concept, and the need for positive regard and acceptance.

Eysenck’s hierarchical theory : Based on biological factors that effects ability to learn and
adapt to environment.
Technique used was factor analysis in which behavior represents in two dimensions –
Introversion / Extroversion (E), Neurotism / stability (N)
Vertical dimension shows people high in neuroticism at upper end and people high in stability


at lower end
Horizantal dimension shows people high in introversion at extreme left and people high in
extraversion at extreme right.
Extraversion-Introversion (E): This dimension reflects an individual's level of
outgoingness, sociability, and desire for external stimulation. Extraverts are outgoing and
seek social interaction, while introverts are more reserved and prefer solitary activities.
Neuroticism-Emotional Stability (N): This dimension concerns an individual's emotional
stability and susceptibility to negative emotions such as anxiety and moodiness. Neurotics
experience higher levels of negative affect, while emotionally stable individuals are more
resilient to stress.
Psychoticism (P): This dimension reflects traits related to antisocial behavior, impulsivity,
and tough-mindedness. High levels of psychoticism are associated with traits like aggression,
low empathy, and unconventional thinking.
TRAIT THEORIES
Allport's theory contributed to the development of trait theories and laid the foundation for the study
of personality psychology.
1. Cardinal Traits: Cardinal traits are traits that dominate and shape an individual's behavior to
such a significant extent that they become the defining feature of that person's personality.
These traits are relatively rare and can encompass a person's entire life, often becoming the
central organizing principle of their identity.
2. Central Traits: Central traits are the core characteristics that contribute to an individual's
overall personality and play a major role in shaping their behavior across various situations.
These traits are more common and provide a foundation for understanding an individual's
general disposition.
3. Secondary Traits: Secondary traits are more specific and situational traits that are less
consistently displayed by an individual. They are less predictive of overall behavior and have
a narrower influence on personality.
Raymond B Cattell’s trait classification –
1. Surface Traits: Surface traits are the observable and visible aspects of behavior that people
exhibit. These traits are the surface manifestations of underlying personality characteristics.
Cattell identified a large number of surface traits, such as "outgoing," "friendly," and
"conscientious," which describe specific behaviors or tendencies.
2. Source Traits: Source traits are the fundamental underlying traits or dimensions that give
rise to the various surface traits. Cattell believed that a smaller number of source traits could
explain the diversity of surface traits. He used factor analysis to identify and categorize these
source traits, which represent the basic building blocks of personality.
Five factors most important :
Openness – Imaginative/ Practical
Independent/ Conforming
Conscientiousness – Organized/Disorganised
Careful/Careless
Extraversion – Sociable/Retiring
Fun loving/ Sober
Agreeable – Softhearted/Ruthless
Trusting/Suspicious
Emotional stability – Calm/Anxious
Secure/Insecure
BEHAVIORISTIC APPROACH –
Behavior theory suggests that personality is a result of interaction between individual and
environment.
Skinner’s theory of behavior : based on operant conditioning.
Reinforcement increases behavior and punishment decreases it.
He states that personality develops over life span and people’s responses change as they encounter
new situations.
Ex : car driving.
Bandura and Walters approach
Albert Bandura and Richard Walters proposed the social learning theory, which expanded upon
traditional behaviorism by emphasizing the role of cognitive processes, observational learning, and
the interaction between an individual's behavior, environment, and internal thoughts. This theory, also
known as social cognitive theory, recognizes that people learn not only through direct experiences but
also by observing the behaviors of others and their consequences. Here are the key components of
Bandura and Walters' social learning theory:
1. Observational Learning (Modeling): Bandura and Walters emphasized the significance of
observational learning, wherein individuals acquire new behaviors and information by
observing the actions, behaviors, and outcomes of others. They proposed that people can learn
without directly experiencing a situation themselves.
2. Modeling and Imitation: Observational learning often involves the process of modeling,
where individuals imitate the behavior of role models or other people they observe. People are
more likely to imitate behaviors they perceive as rewarded or successful.
3. Vicarious Reinforcement and Punishment: Bandura introduced the concept of vicarious
reinforcement and punishment. Vicarious reinforcement occurs when individuals observe
others being rewarded for a behavior, making them more likely to perform that behavior
themselves. Vicarious punishment, on the other hand, occurs when individuals observe others
facing negative consequences for a behavior, leading to a decreased likelihood of performing
that behavior.
4. Self-Efficacy: Bandura placed a significant focus on self-efficacy, which is an individual's
belief in their ability to perform specific tasks or behaviors successfully. High self-efficacy
leads to increased motivation and persistence in attempting challenging tasks, while low selfefficacy can lead to avoidance and lower effort.
5. Reciprocal Determinism: Bandura introduced the concept of reciprocal determinism, which
emphasizes the bidirectional interaction between an individual's behavior, environment, and
personal factors. This concept recognizes that people shape their environments just as
environments influence people's behaviors and cognitive processes.
6. Cognitive Processes: Bandura's social learning theory emphasized the role of cognitive
processes, such as attention, memory, and reasoning, in learning. He believed that individuals
actively process information from their observations and make decisions based on their
cognitive assessments.
7. Self-Regulation: Bandura highlighted the importance of self-regulation, which involves
setting goals, monitoring one's behavior, and adjusting actions to achieve desired outcomes.
Self-regulation also involves self-control and the ability to delay gratification.
PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH
The psychoanalytic approach is a psychological perspective developed by Sigmund Freud that focuses
on the role of unconscious thoughts, feelings, and motivations in shaping human behavior and
personality. Freud's psychoanalytic theory is one of the most influential and well-known theories in
psychology, and it has had a significant impact on our understanding of the human mind and
behavior.
Key concepts and principles of the psychoanalytic approach include:
1. Unconscious Mind: Freud proposed that a large portion of an individual's thoughts, feelings,
and memories are stored in the unconscious mind, which is inaccessible to conscious
awareness. These unconscious processes can influence behavior and shape personality traits.
2. Three Levels of Consciousness:
 Conscious Mind: The thoughts and feelings that we are currently aware of.
 Preconscious Mind: Thoughts and feelings that are not currently in our awareness
but can be easily brought into consciousness.
 Unconscious Mind: Thoughts, memories, and desires that are hidden from our
conscious awareness but still influence behavior.
3. Structural Model of the Mind:
 Id: The id is the primitive and instinctual part of the mind that seeks immediate
gratification of basic needs and desires. It operates on the pleasure principle.
 Ego: The ego is the rational and reality-oriented part of the mind that mediates
between the demands of the id, superego, and external reality. It operates on the
reality principle.
 Superego: The superego represents the internalized moral standards and values of
society. It serves as the conscience and strives for moral perfection.
PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
Psychosexual development is a concept introduced by Sigmund Freud in his psychoanalytic theory. It
refers to a series of stages that individuals go through during childhood, each characterized by a focus
on a specific erogenous zone and associated developmental challenges. According to Freud, the
successful resolution of conflicts at each stage contributes to the development of a healthy personality.
The psychosexual stages of development are as follows:
1. Oral Stage (Birth to 18 Months): The oral stage is the first stage of psychosexual
development, and it centers on the mouth as the primary erogenous zone. Infants derive
pleasure and satisfaction from oral activities such as sucking, biting, and chewing. The main
developmental challenge is weaning from breastfeeding or bottle-feeding. If the conflict is not
resolved successfully, it can lead to fixations related to oral behaviors, such as overeating or
smoking.
2. Anal Stage (18 Months to 3 Years): The anal stage is characterized by the focus on the anus
as the erogenous zone. During this stage, children experience pleasure and conflict related to
bowel movements and toilet training. Successful toilet training contributes to a sense of
control over bodily functions. An unresolved anal fixation can result in traits like anal
retentiveness (rigidity) or anal expulsiveness (messiness).
3. Phallic Stage (3 to 6 Years): The phallic stage is marked by the development of the genital
area as the primary erogenous zone. Children experience the Oedipus complex (boys) or
Electra complex (girls), which involve feelings of attraction to the opposite-sex parent and
rivalry with the same-sex parent. The resolution of these conflicts is important for the
development of gender identity and the superego.
4. Latency Stage (6 Years to Puberty): The latency stage is a period of relative calm in
psychosexual development. Sexual feelings are repressed, and children focus on developing
social, cognitive, and academic skills. Freud believed that the energy invested in sexual drives
is redirected toward these other areas.
5. Genital Stage (Puberty to Adulthood): The genital stage is the final stage of psychosexual
development, occurring during adolescence and adulthood. It marks the reawakening of
sexual feelings and the establishment of mature sexual relationships. Freud considered
successful navigation of earlier stages as crucial for the healthy development of adult sexual
relationships.
PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY
Psychosocial theory, developed by Erik Erikson, is a comprehensive framework that
describes the psychological and social development of individuals across their entire
lifespan.
The theory consists of eight stages, each associated with a psychosocial crisis that individuals must
navigate to achieve healthy personality development. These stages highlight the balance between
personal needs and societal demands. Here are the key elements of Erikson's psychosocial theory:
1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy, 0-1 Year): The central challenge of infancy is developing a
sense of trust in caregivers and the environment. When caregivers consistently meet the
infant's needs, the infant learns to trust, forming a foundation for future relationships. Failure
to develop trust can lead to feelings of mistrust and insecurity.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddlerhood, 1-3 Years): Toddlers develop a sense of
autonomy and independence as they explore their environment. Encouragement and support
from caregivers foster a sense of self-control. If caregivers are overly restrictive or critical,
children may develop shame and doubt about their abilities.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 3-6 Years): In this stage, children begin to take on roles and
responsibilities and develop a sense of initiative in their actions. Encouragement from
caregivers fosters a sense of purpose and self-initiative. However, excessive criticism or
suppression can lead to feelings of guilt and self-doubt.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (Elementary School, 6-12 Years): During this stage, children are
exposed to formal education and develop skills. Success in school and other activities
contributes to a sense of competence and industry. Failure to meet societal and personal
expectations can lead to feelings of inferiority.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 12-18 Years): Adolescents seek to establish a
clear sense of identity, including their values, beliefs, and life goals. Exploring different roles
and experiences helps them develop a coherent self-identity. Failure to do so can result in
identity confusion and a lack of direction.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood, 18-40 Years): Young adults seek to form
meaningful, intimate relationships with others. Establishing successful relationships requires a
balance between maintaining personal identity and forming deep connections. Isolation can
result from fear of intimacy or unsuccessful relationship experiences.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, 40-65 Years): Middle-aged adults focus
on contributing to society and future generations through work, family, and community
involvement. Engaging in meaningful activities and nurturing relationships leads to a sense of
generativity. A lack of engagement can lead to feelings of stagnation.
8. Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood, 65+ Years): In late adulthood, individuals reflect on
their lives and achievements. Those who feel a sense of accomplishment and satisfaction
experience integrity and a sense of fulfillment. Conversely, individuals who feel unfulfilled or
regretful may experience despair.
Erikson's psychosocial theory emphasizes the importance of individual growth and development
within a social and cultural context. It highlights the dynamic interplay between personal development
and the challenges posed by societal expectations at different life stages.
HUMANISTIC APPROACH
The humanistic approach is a psychological perspective that emphasizes the inherent
value and potential of each individual, focusing on their capacity for personal growth,
self-actualization, and fulfillment.
The humanistic approach seeks to explore and understand human experiences in their entirety,
considering the individual's subjective perceptions, emotions, and consciousness.
Key concepts and principles of the humanistic approach include:
1. Self-Actualization: Self-actualization refers to the innate drive in individuals to reach their
highest potential and fulfill their unique talents and capacities. It involves striving for
personal growth, creativity, and the realization of one's aspirations.
2. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchy of human needs,
ranging from basic physiological needs (like food and shelter) to higher-level needs such as
self-esteem, belongingness, and self-actualization. According to Maslow, individuals must
satisfy lower-level needs before progressing to higher levels.
3. Carl Rogers' Person-Centered Theory: Carl Rogers emphasized the importance of creating
a supportive and nonjudgmental environment for individuals to explore their feelings and
experiences. He believed that people possess an innate drive toward self-improvement and
growth.
PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT
Personality assessment refers to the process of measuring and evaluating various aspects of an
individual's personality, including their traits, behaviors, attitudes, and psychological characteristics.
Personality assessments are used for a variety of purposes, including research, clinical diagnosis,
counseling, and personal development. There are several methods and tools used for personality
assessment, each with its own strengths, limitations, and applications. Here are some common
methods of personality assessment:
1. Self-Report Questionnaires: These are structured questionnaires that individuals fill out to
assess their own personality traits, preferences, and attitudes. Examples include the Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), NEO Personality Inventory, and Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator (MBTI).
2. Projective Tests: Projective tests involve presenting individuals with ambiguous stimuli,
such as pictures or words, and asking them to interpret or respond to the stimuli. The idea is
that individuals will project their unconscious thoughts and feelings onto the stimuli.
Examples include the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
3. Behavioral Observation: Behavioral observation involves directly observing an individual's
behavior in different situations. This can provide insights into their patterns of behavior,
reactions, and interactions with others.
4. Interviews: Interviews involve face-to-face interactions between an assessor and an
individual. Structured interviews have predefined questions, while unstructured interviews
allow for open-ended discussions. Clinical interviews are commonly used in therapeutic
settings to gather information about an individual's history, experiences, and concerns.
5. Objective Personality Tests: These tests include a set of standardized questions with clear
response options (e.g., true/false or multiple-choice). They aim to measure specific
personality traits and provide quantifiable scores. Examples include the Big Five Inventory
(BFI) and the 16 Personality Factor (16PF) questionnaire.
6. Biological Measures: Some personality assessments involve the measurement of
physiological and biological indicators, such as heart rate variability, brain activity (EEG),
and hormonal levels. These measures can provide insights into aspects of personality related
to stress response and emotional regulation.
7. Personality Inventories: Personality inventories are comprehensive tools that assess a wide
range of personality traits, behaviors, and preferences. They provide a detailed profile of an
individual's personality and are often used in research and clinical settings.
Advantages:
1. Insight into Personality: Personality assessments can provide valuable insights into an
individual's traits, preferences, and behavioral tendencies. This information can help
individuals understand themselves better and make informed decisions about their lives.
2. Clinical Applications: In clinical settings, personality assessments can aid in diagnosing and
treating psychological disorders. They help mental health professionals understand clients'
symptoms, behaviors, and underlying issues.
3. Research and Study: Personality assessments are essential tools for psychological research.
They enable researchers to study the relationships between personality traits, behaviors, and
various outcomes.
4. Comparisons: Personality assessments allow for comparisons across different individuals or
groups, providing insights into individual differences and potential patterns.
5. Personal Development: Personality assessments can be used for personal development and
growth. Individuals can identify areas for improvement, capitalize on strengths, and work on
self-awareness.
6. Predictive Value: Certain personality traits can predict future behaviors and outcomes. For
example, traits like conscientiousness and openness can predict job performance and success
in various fields.
7. Treatment Planning: In therapy, personality assessments can guide treatment planning by
helping therapists understand clients' strengths and challenges.
Disadvantages:
1. Subjectivity: Personality assessments can be influenced by an individual's current mood,
context, and social desirability bias. People may not always provide accurate or truthful
responses.
2. Validity Concerns: The validity of some personality assessments is questioned due to
limited scientific evidence supporting their accuracy in measuring personality traits.
3. Cultural Bias: Many personality assessments were developed in specific cultural contexts
and may not accurately capture the experiences and behaviors of individuals from different
cultural backgrounds.
4. Complexity: Personality is complex and multi-dimensional, making it challenging to capture
its entirety through a single assessment.
5. Over-Simplification: Some personality assessments may oversimplify personality traits and
fail to capture the nuances and intricacies of an individual's character.
6. Limited Predictive Power: While certain traits may predict behavior to some extent,
personality assessments cannot predict all aspects of an individual's life choices and actions.
7. Privacy Concerns: Depending on the context, individuals may be concerned about their
privacy and the potential misuse of their personality assessment results.
8. Lack of Long-Term Accuracy: Personality can change over time due to life experiences,
personal growth, and developmental changes. Thus, assessments taken at one point in time
may not accurately reflect an individual's
personality in the future.
Observational methods
Observational methods of personality assessment involve directly observing an individual's behavior
in various situations to gain insights into their personality traits, tendencies, and patterns of
interaction. These methods are particularly useful for capturing natural behaviors and responses in
real-life settings. Observational methods can provide valuable information that complements selfreport questionnaires and other assessment techniques. Here are some common observational methods
used in personality assessment:
1. Naturalistic Observation: This method involves observing an individual's behavior in their
natural environment without any manipulation or intervention. Researchers or observers may
blend in with the environment to minimize disruption and gather authentic data. Naturalistic
observation can provide a more accurate picture of how an individual behaves in real-life
situations.
2. Structured Observation: In structured observation, researchers create specific scenarios or
situations in a controlled setting and observe how individuals respond. This approach allows
for consistent comparisons across different participants. It's often used to study specific
behaviors or reactions under controlled conditions.
3. Participant Observation: In participant observation, the observer actively participates in the
social context they are observing. This method allows the observer to gain deeper insights
into the dynamics and interactions within a group or setting. However, it may also introduce
biases due to the observer's participation.
4. Case Studies: Case studies involve in-depth observation and analysis of a single individual or
a small group over an extended period. Case studies provide rich qualitative data that can
offer insights into complex personalities and behaviors.
Some methods reveal covert aspects of personality like unconsious motives and conflicts.
Rating scale
Interviews
Behavioral tests/ situational tests
Rating scale : Rating scales are means of quantifying observations and are easy to use.
In this, various personality traits may be rated like cooperativeness, honesty, leadership
dependability etc., may be self rating or rating of particular trait.
Examples :
3 point scale - Punctuality
5 point scale – Co-operativeness
7 point scale - Leadership
Advantages : Rater clearly define limits of personality.
Scale of rating is prepared. -3 point scale, 5 point scale, 7 point scale.
Judges asked to put cross on lines for each individual.
Comparitive assesments can be done
Many personality traits can be measured.
Disadvantages : Generosity error – high rating
Stringency error – low rating
Halo effect – previous achievement affect present rating
Error of central tendency – rating at average level
Logical error – rater misunderstandings.
Interview : Elicting information directly face to face with individual. Opportunity to exchange
views and ideas.
2 types :Unstructured interview : Open type. Any question related to situation with no time
limit and limitation to questions.
Structured interview : Definite about personality trait he has to assess and plans accordingly.
Psychologists seeks answers to prepared list of questions. Tone, speed and order of
presentation is predetermined.
Limitations : Expensive in time, labour and money.
Lack of competent interviewers
Suffers from subjective bias.
Stress interview : Used in selection of army personnel.
Held to discover subject’s capacity to tolerate emotional and intellectual strain.
Also called situational technique in which interviewer purposefully tries to induce anxiety to
discover how subject behaves under stress.
Behavioral tests/ situational tests : Direct way to predict an individual’s behavior in a natural
situation.
Here how group starts it’s work, how leader emerges from group, capacity of team work,
cooperation among them, appreciation of directions given, manners for playing other’s role
are studied and observed.
These tests don’t assess personality structure, but indicate traits of candidate like leadership,
initiative and energy level which are necessary for individual to shape like successful leader.
Personality inventories : Personality inventories or questionnaires measure not only overt
manifestations but also covert behavior.
Very easy to administer and collect data from individuals at a time.
Also called pencil and paper tests in which individual has to choose from two answers which
suits him most.
Personality inventories are comprehensive assessment tools designed to measure a wide range
of personality traits, characteristics, and behaviors. These inventories use standardized
questions and response formats to gather information about an individual's personality profile.
They aim to provide a detailed and structured assessment of various dimensions of
personality. Here are some key features and examples of personality inventories: This reveals
anger, jealous, feelings, frustrations, conflicts etc.,
Some tests are :
Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI) : Developed by JC Mc Kinley and SR
Hathway.
Tendency towards abnormality.
Used for clinical diagnosis.
Consists of 556 statements and subjects has to classify into True, False, cannot say.
It measures : Hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, psychopathic deviate, masculinity,
femininity, paranoia, psychesthenia, schizophrenia, hypomania, social introversion.
The MMPI is primarily used for clinical assessment and diagnosis. It assesses various
psychological disorders, personality traits, and psychopathology.
Eysenck’s personality inventory : This has 57 questions with Yes and No.
Questions divided into scales –
24 questions – Extroversion & introversion dimension
24 questions – Neurotic dimension
9 questions – Lie scale
The EPQ measures three primary personality dimensions: Extraversion, Neuroticism, and
Psychoticism. It assesses traits related to emotional stability, social behavior, and impulsivity.
H.M.Bell’s adjustment inventory : This inventory has 140 questions.
There are 3 choices Yes, No, ?
There are different areas of adjustments –
35 questions – Home adjustment
35 questions – Health adjustment
35 questions – Social adjustment
35 questions –Emotional adjustment
Advantages: Personality assessment assists counsellors in :
Understanding the behavior of particular individual.
Helps counselor come to a conclusion about possible future course of action.
Helps counselor make predictions about a person’s unique behavior.
To adequately diagnose the presence and nature of psychological problem in a person.
Disadvantages : Questionnaire taps only consious and surface levels of mental functions.
Subjects does not give a true picture of himself.
As there are only 2 alternate answers subject is forced to accept one.
Problem of validation – no proper acceptable criterion to personality subject may be ignorant
of certain traits or qualities which he may posses.
Difficult to get response to all questions.
Projective techniques - methods in which we provide subject with relatively indefinite and
unstructured material and then allow with to structure the material in any way he likes.
Subject projects his attitudes, feelings, hatred, jealousy, suspicion, unconscious thoughts and
desires, etc.,
Projective tests are techniques to measure personality through disguised testing procedures.
Projective tests provide us an insight into personality of individual.
They are designed to assess covert aspects of personality.
These tests are individualistic tests.
These tests catch subject off guard.
Projective tests are of 2 types:
Interpretive type : tests based upon how subject perceives the stimulus provided by test.
Expressive type : subject has to express himself with or without materials through an activity.
Rorschach ink blot test : Developed by Hermann Rorschach.
This test consists of 10 symmetrical ink blots.
5 blots of varying black and grey, 2 blots of some kind of red, 3 blots are of different colors.
Each card is given to subject and ask him to explain whatever he has seen.
This test helps to distingush between normal and persons need psychiatric treatment.
It also helps to show potential intelligence of individual.
Responses and reaction time is noted.
In the Rorschach test, individuals are shown a series of inkblot images and asked to describe
what they see in each image. Their responses are analyzed to reveal underlying thought
processes, emotions, and personality traits. The test assesses factors such as perception,
cognition, and emotional responses.
Thematic appreciation test (TAT) : Developed by Henry Murray.
This is a method of revealing dominant drives, emotions, sentiments, complexes and conflicts
of personality.
TAT uses 20 sketches about which person is asked to make up a story.
Pictures are shown to subject which identifies himself with some picture.
Based on Principle of compelling influence of one’s own unconsious while making a story.
Subject leaves the test happily is rule.
The TAT involves presenting individuals with a series of pictures, often depicting ambiguous
social situations, and asking them to create a story about each picture. The stories are thought
to reflect the individual's unconscious thoughts, feelings, and conflicts related to the images.
Children’s apperception test (CAT) : Devised by Leopold Bellak and Sonya Sorel Bellak to
study 3-10 years children.
Designed to trace various problems of children like feeding problems, sibling rivalry, toilet
training, etc.,
CAT has 10 picture cards and pictures are of animals.
Child must be instructed to tell a story about picture.
Dr Uma Choudary has modified CAT to suit Indian conditions.
Drawing test : Some projective tests require subject to engage himself in some kind of activity
which is interpreted as an expression of his personality.
Draw a person test developed by Florence Goodenough.
This test involves drawing of various figures like man, animal, etc.,
This requires paper and pencil to draw figure, sometimes colors.
Rationale behind this is subject projects into picture, how he percieves his body, his attitude,
towards his body etc.,
All distortions, omissions he has made, disturbances in lines, overwriting, erasers are
carefully noted for the purpose of analysis.
These tests are useful in clinical diagnosis for detection of conflicts and complexes.
The repressed anger, hatred, jealousy etc., against persons especially within family circle may
be expressed in and through the drawing.
Sentence Completion Tests: In sentence completion tests, individuals are given incomplete
sentences and asked to complete them with their own thoughts or feelings. The completions
are analyzed to gain insight into the individual's attitudes, motives, and psychological
concerns.
Word Association Test: In this test, individuals are presented with a list of words and asked
to respond with the first word that comes to mind. The idea is that the immediate response
reflects underlying associations and unconscious processes.
Disadvantages : They are very subjective
They requires lot of training in their administration.
Time consuming, difficult to intrepret.
NEED OF ASSESSMENT OF PERSONALITY :
To identify personality traits
To identify mental disorders
To classify individual introvert / extrovert
To assess adjustment levels of problems
To assess levels of anxiety
To find out person suitable for job
To find out person’s administrative levels
To assess selection for military forces
1. Understanding Individuals: Personality assessment helps us understand the unique
characteristics, traits, and behaviors that make each individual distinct. It provides insights
into how people think, feel, and interact with the world around them.
2. Research and Study: Personality assessment is crucial for conducting research on human
behavior and psychology. Researchers use personality measures to study relationships
between personality traits, behaviors, and various outcomes, such as job performance, mental
health, and life satisfaction.
3. Clinical Diagnosis and Treatment: In clinical psychology, personality assessment is used
for diagnosing psychological disorders and mental health conditions. Identifying an
individual's personality traits and psychological patterns helps clinicians tailor treatment plans
and interventions to their specific needs.
4. Counseling and Therapy: Personality assessment informs the therapeutic process by
providing therapists with a deeper understanding of clients' strengths, challenges, and
underlying issues. This understanding guides the development of effective counseling
strategies.
5. Career Counseling: Personality assessment plays a role in career counseling and guidance.
By identifying an individual's personality traits, interests, and values, counselors can help
clients make informed career choices that align with their strengths and preferences.
6. Educational Settings: In educational settings, personality assessment can aid in
understanding students' learning styles, motivation, and interpersonal dynamics. Teachers and
educators can adapt their teaching methods to accommodate different personality traits.
7. Personal Growth and Development: For individuals seeking personal growth and selfawareness, personality assessment provides valuable insights into their strengths, weaknesses,
and areas for improvement. It can facilitate self-discovery and the pursuit of personal goals.
8. Relationship Dynamics: Personality assessment can help individuals understand their
compatibility with others in personal and professional relationships. This knowledge can lead
to healthier interactions and effective communication.
9. Selection and Recruitment: Personality assessment is used by organizations in employee
selection and recruitment processes. Certain personality traits are associated with job
performance and suitability for specific roles.
10. Forensic Psychology: In forensic settings, personality assessment can inform legal and
criminal proceedings by providing insights into an individual's mental state, risk factors, and
potential for recidivism.
11. Health and Well-Being: Certain personality traits are associated with health behaviors and
outcomes. Understanding an individual's personality can contribute to interventions aimed at
promoting healthier lifestyles and well-being.
12. Personalized Interventions: The insights gained from personality assessment allow
professionals to develop personalized interventions that target specific aspects of an
individual's personality, behaviors, or emotional concerns.